LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. r>T:TII» STATES OF AXTEICA. ?^ George Washington. ELEMENTS UNIVERSAL HISTORY HIGHER INSTITUTES IN REPUBLICS AND FOR SELF-INSTRUCTION. BY Prof. H. M.COTTINGER, S.M,, Author of " Organization of Kindergaerten," " Zwingli's Vote against Cloisters and Convents,' "Rosa, the Educating Mother," "Method of Teaching in High Schools of Switzer- land," "Mediaeval Plays of Jacob RuefF, with Explanatory Notes," "Guide for Sunday Schools of Free German Congregations," etc., etc. Motto: — Historia, vitae magistra. (History teaches how to live.) — Cicero. f Idec r mCil BOSTON, MASS.: \f/;-t. '^''^ 6>S « ^C; • CHARLES H. WHITING, ^*^- ^WASH^^ 32 Bromfield Street. MILWAUKEE, WIS.: SAN FRANCISCO: FREIDENKER PUBLISHING CO., CUNNINGHAM, WELCH & CO., 470 East Water Street. Sansom Street. 1884. J[\ esi- Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by Prof. H. M. COTTINGER, A. M., In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, THE WARD OF THE PUBLIC LIBERTY, THE PROMOTOR OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND PUBLIC EDUCATION, And the PROTECTOR OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. WHAT is the use of your preface ? Who reads prefaces ?" You are right, dear reader, but I shall be brief, and therefore beg your indulgence. In writing this book I had two aims in view, \iz., to communicate to scholars those events which every well-educated man of our age ought to know, and to aid, with the concurrence of historical facts, in forming their moral character and sense of right. The States and events in which the ideas of right appear most perfectly realized are, therefore, chiefly considered. Both the ancient and modern repub- lics belong to those States. Their history was also taken into particular account for the reason that I wrote for pupils growing up in republics. The family wars and domestic feuds of princes, on the contrary, are only briefly touched upon. I hope that the narration more at large, of modern history and the events of the latest times, will be approved.' I also trust that the history of civilization, which is joined in every period to the political history, and which is generally omitted in similar historical works, will be welcome. The division of the contents into periods, it seemed to me, considering the vast extent of the historical material, was very necessary in order to get a clear insight of the latter. If general history is written ethnographically, it hardly deserves its name, because the connection in which the actions and adventures of the nations (particularly since the migration of nations) are put to each other, is completely severed. He who would think my work to be only a superficial compilation, will judge incorrectly; it is the result of my efforts during many years. The most accom- plished and most recent historical writings were carefully consulted, viz., those of Rotteck, Schlosser, Becker, G. Weber, Heeren, Kriegk, Boettiger, Wachsmuth, etc. True, these are German historiographers ; but I took also into account French, English and American authors, viz., RoUin (Histoire du monde ancien), R. Mackenzie (the 19th century), Alison, Fredet, H, Willson, Worcester, W. Swinton, Bancroft, Bryant, etc. Nevertheless, I am aware that my composition is still defective in many parts, but I appeal to the forbearance of the reader for in- dulgence in that respect. The exercises added at the end of every period will enable the scholar the better to work up the contents of the history, to grasp more rapidly the events, and to remember more easily the chronological dates. The exercises ought to be done by writing. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the kind assistance of the ladies and gentle- men who reviewed and corrected the single sections of the book, namely, of Walter S. Thorne, M. D.; E. A. Clark, M. D.; Rev. N. F. Ravlin, Pastor of the Baptist Church ; Mrs. N. A. Simonds ; Mrs. F. W. Hill ; Miss Jessie B. Thompson, teacher Normal School ; C. O. W. Childs, Professor of History, Nor- mal School, and Mrs. Nellie Eyster, teacher and authoress ; to.all of them I offer my most sincere and cordial thanks. San Jose, Cal., December, 1883. p i^: m- ri3 CONTENTS. FIRST SECTION— ANCIENT HISTORY. Page. § I. Definition of Universal History. Its uses and division i FIRST PERIOD. From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to the Greco- Persian Wars. Despotism of Priestly and Military Government in the Orient. To 500 B. C. I 2 I 3 § 4 \ 5 I 6 I 7 \ 8 I 9 § 10 FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. Most ancient States. India. China. Egypt. — Sesostris 2 Assyria. Babylonia.— 7Semiramis. Media 4 Palestine. Moses 5 Persia. Cyrus 6 Greece. Description of the country. Colonies 8 Most ancient history of the land. Heroic age. Hercules 9 Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts 11 Sparta. Lycurgus , , , 12 Athens. Solon 14 Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus 15- SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. § 12. Legislation. Constitutions of Lycurgus and Solon. Constitution of Rome under the kings l8 § 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Cong-fu-Tse. Grecian and Roman religions 22 § 14. Arts and Sciences. Buildings of the Egyptians and Greeks. Homer. 26 I 15. Commerce. Phoenicians. Invention of glass 29_ Exercises 30 SECOND PERIOD. From the Greco-Persian Wars to Emperor Augustus. The Glorious Age "of Greece. Macedonia's Universal Monarchy. Roman Republic. 500-30 B. C. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. GREECE. 1. ITS GLORIOUS AGE. 500-430 B. C. §16. Persian wars. Battle at Marathon. Miltiades 31 I 17. Continued. Battle at Thermopylae. Leonidas 34 X. Pas'- § i8. Continued. Battle at Salamis. Themistocles 36 I 19. Concluded. Battle at Platsese. Pausanias. Aristides. Cimon 38 2. PROGRESSIVE DECAY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 430-146 B. C. \ 20. Peloponnesian war. Pericles. Alcibiades 41 § 21. Socrates 44 I 22. Theban war. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Battles at Leuctra and Mantinea 48 ^23. Greece subdued by Macedonia and Rome. Confederacy of Achaia... 52 I 24. Syracuse. Timoleon '. 54 I 25. Macedonia. Philip II. Alexander the Great, founder of an universal monarchy. Battles at Granicus, Issus and Arbela 56 ROMAN REPUBLIC. 510-30 B. C. 1. COMBATS AGAINST FOREIGN ENEMIES AND THE PATRICIANS. 510 TILL ABOUT 343 B. C. §26. War against the Tarquinians. Porsenna. Horatius Codes. Mu- cins Scsevoia 59 \ 27. Domestic feuds between the patricians and plebeians. Appointment of tribunes 61 \ 28. Coriolanus. Quinctius Cincinnatus. The XII tables and the de- cemvirs. Incursion of the Gauls 63 2. CONTESTS FOR THE DOMINION IN ITALY. 343-267 B. C. \ 29. War against the Samnites and Latins. A Roman army passes under the yoke in the Caudine Mountains 65 §30. Tarentine war. Fabricius 67 3. CONTESTS FOR THE WORLD'S DOMINION. 264-133 B. C. §31. Carthage. First Punic war. Regulus 69 I 32. Second Punic war. Hannibal. Battle at Cannse 71 \ 33. Concluded. Scipio Africanus. Battle at Zama 74 I 34. Subjugation of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. Death of Hannibal. Third Punic war. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Scipio, junior 76 4. DOMESTIC STRUGGLES AND DOWNFALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 133-30 B. C. \ 35. The two Gracchi. War with the Cimbri. War against the confed- erates. First civil war. Marius and Sulla. War against the slaves and pirates ; against Mithridates. Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero 78 \ 36. First triumvirate. Csesar, Pompey and Crassus. Second civil war. Battle at Pharsalia 80 § 37. Second triumvirate. Antonius, Octavius and Lepidus. Third civil war. Battle at Actium •. 83 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY .OF CIVILIZATION. § 38. Constitution, morals, social and military condition of the Roman State 84 § 39. Arts and sciences. Julian calendar. Schools. Public games. Com- merce 85 Exercises 89 XI. THIRD PERIOD. From Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of Nations. Roman Empire and its Decay. Victory of Christianity. 30 B. C. to 375 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. ROMAN EMPIRE. 30 B. C. TO 375 A. D. Page. \ 40. Augustus and the emperors from his descent 90 § 41. Rome ruled by good emperors. Decay of the empire 91 I 42. Germany. Arminius (Herman) j. ..'.'.'.'.'.' 93 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. \ 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and customs of the ancient Germans. 95 I 44. Religion of the ancient Germans. Christian religion 96 I 45. Arts and sciences ..y.^. 98 Exercises 90 SECOND SECTION— HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FOURTH PERIOD. From the Migration of the Nations to the Decay of the Dominion of the Franks, i. Migration of Nations. 2, Mohammedan Empire. 3. Carlo- vingian Monarchy. 375-900 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS. 375-568 A. D. §46. Summary of the migration. Huns. Attila loi \ 47. Visigoths. Alaric. Downfall of the Western Roman empire. Os- trogoths. Theodoric. Justinian. Belisarius 103 2. MOHAMMEDAN UNIVERSAL EMPIRE. 632-900 A. D. \ 48. Arabia. Mohammed. The Caliphate 105 3. CARLOVINGIAN MONARCHY. 771-900 A. D. \ 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. Partition of his realm joy I 50. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great "!!'.".*.'.'.".".".'.*.'.'.'.'.".*.'.*. no SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 51. State of Constitutions. Roman laws. Propagation and degeneracy of Christianity. Monachism. Mohammedan religion m ; 52. Arts and sciences. Arabian culture. Commerce '.., 113 Exercises ."."."! iic XII. FIFTH PERIOD. From the Decay of the Empire of the Franks to the End of THE Crusades, i. The German Empire in its Prime. 2. Universal Dominion of the Popes. 3. Crusades. 900-1300 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. PRIME OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 900-1024 A. D. Page. §53. Germany. Saxon emperors. Henry I. Otto 1 115 2. UNIVERSAL DOMINION OF THE POPES. 1024-1300 A. D. ^54. Continued. Franconian emperors. Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 117 I 55. Continued. Emperors of the family Hohenstauffen. Frederic Bar- barossa. Arnold of Brescia. First contest of the Lombard cit- ies for liberty II9 ^ 56. Concluded. Frederic II. Second contest of the Lombards for free- dom. Conradin. Sicilian vespers 121 § 57. France and England. Hugh Capet. William the Conqueror. Wars between England and Scotland. The Albigenses 123 § 58. Northern States of Europe. Normans. Russia. Mongols 126 3. THE CRUSADES. 1096-1300 A. D. § 59. First crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon. Taking of Jerusalem 128 I 60. The other crusades. Emir Saladin. Latin empire 130 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. I 61. Constitutions. Feudal government. Feudal servitude. Magna Charta of England. Ordeals. Chivalry 134 § 62. The Church. Anathema. Interdict. Inquisitional Tribunal. Canon Law. Celibacy. Popes. Gregory VII. Innocent III 136 ^ 63. Arts and sciences. Troubadours and minnesingers. Commerce 140 Exercises 142 SIXTH PERIOD. From the End of the Crusades to the Discovery of America. Downfall of the Imperial Power, of the Papacy and the Church. 1300-1492 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. § 64. Germany. Rudolph of Hapsburg. The House of Luxemburg. War of the Hussites. Maximilian 1 142 I 65. Switzerland. Contests of the confederates for liberty. Battles at Sempach, Granson and Murten. Arnold Winkelried 145 § 66. France and England. Philip the Fair. Abolition of the Order of the Templars. French-English national war. Joan of Arc. War of the Two Roses 148 ^ 67. The Turks in Europe. Capture of Constantinople 151 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. § 68. State of right. Laws. Secret court of criminal justice 152 I 69. Church. Wycliffe. Huss. Popes. Schism of the Church. Synod of Constance 153 Page. \ 70. Arts and sciences. Invention of the printing press. Gutenberg. Commerce. Hanseatic union 155 Exercises ^57 THIRD SECTION— MODERN HISTORY. SEVENTH PERIOD. From the Discovery of America to the Westphalian Peace. Voyages of Discovery. Reformation of the Christian Church. Wars of Religion. 1492-1648 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 1420-1530 A. D. \ 71. Vasco de Gama. Columbus I59 § 72. Ferdinand Cortez. Pizzaro. Magellan. First settlements in the territory of the United States. The Pilgrim Fathers 163 2. REFORMATION OF THE CHURCH AND RELIGIOUS WARS. 1517-1648 A. D. \ 73. Germany. Causes of the Reformation. Martin Luther. Diet in Worms 166 \ 74. Continued. Insurrection of the peasants. Confession of Augsburg. Smalcaldian war. Religious peace of Augsburg 1 70 \ 75. Continued. Thirty years' war. Insurrection of the Bohemians. Ferdinand II. Restitution edict 172 §76. Continued. Gustavus Adolphus. Battles at Leipsic and Liitzen 173 \ 77. Concluded. Battle "at Nordlingen. Bernard of Weimar. Tors- tensohn. Westphalian peace 176 \ 78. Switzerland. Zwingli. Calvin. Unitarians 177 I 79. Spain. Philip II. Secession of the Netherlands. William of Orange • 179 \ 80. France. War against the Huguenots. St. Bartholomew. Henry IV. Edict of Nantes i8i I 81. England and Scotland. Henry VIII. Elizabeth. Mary Stuart. Charles 1 184 I 82. Northern States. Sweden. Gustavus Vasa. Prussia 189 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. \ 83. Protestants. The Catholic Church. Synod of Trent. Order of the Jesuits 19° \ 84. Sciences and arts. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cervantes. Nicholas Copernicus. Galileo. Correction of the calendar 193 Exercises ^95 EIGHTH PERIOD. From the Westphalian Peace to the French Revolution. Unlimited Monarchy and European Equilibrium. 1647-1789 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. §85. Austria. Sobieski. Maria Theresa. War of Succession. Joseph II... 196 \ 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven years' war. Battles at Rossbach and Lissa 198 XIV. Page. g 87. France. Louis XIV.'s predominance in Europe. His wars. Span- ish succession war. Battle at Blenheim. Persecution of Protest- ants. Louis XV 200 § 88. England. Cromwell. War against Holland. Admirals Blake, Van Tromp and Ruyter. Charles II. Whigs and Tories. Dethrone- ment of James II. William HI. Accession of the House of Hanover. The Pretenders 203 § 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. Battles at Narva and Pultowa. First dismemberment of Poland 206 ^90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company 209 3 91. United States of North America. Their colonies. The French wars 210 § 92. Continued. War of the colonies for independence. The Stamp Act. Battle at Bunker Hill. Declaration of Independence. George Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine 215 § 93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Lafayette. Sur- render of Burgoyne and Cornwallis. French alliance. Treaty of Paris. Constitution. Washington, first president 219 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. ^ 94. Political condition. Constitution of the United States 224 I 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J. J. Rousseau. Abolition of the Order of Jesuits 225 3 96. Arts and sciences. Inventions. Cook's voyages of discovery 227 Exercises 230 NINTH PERIOD. From the French Revolution to the Second Peace of Paris. Revolution and Political Reforms in France. Wars Caused by it. 1789-1815 A. D. A. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. POLITICAL REFORMS IN FRANCE. 1789-1792 A. D. § 97. Causes and effects of the French revolution 231 § 98. National Assembly. The third estate. Mirabeau 232 § 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of feudal servitude 234 I 100. Louis conducted to Paris 236 2, REVOLUTIONARY WARS. §101. Flight of the king. The constitution finished 238 I 102. Legislative assembly. War of Austria and Prussia. Suspension of the king. The Jacobins 239 § 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. First coalition war. Civil war. Reign of Terror 242 § 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial government. The coalition war continued. Napoleon Bonaparte 245 § 105. Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Second coalition war. Battle at the Pyramids. Naval combat at Abukir. Consular government. 247 § 106. French empire. Third coalition war. Prusso-Russian war. Bat- tles at Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The Continental system ,. 249 g 107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian wars. Burning of Moscow 251 I 108. Fourth coalition war. Battle at Leipsic. Restoration of the Bour- bons. Congress of Vienna. German Confederation. Battle at Waterloo. Napoleon banished to Elba, and captive in St. Hel- ena. The Holy Alliance 254 XV. Page. B. PARTICULAR HISTORY OF SOME STATES. § 109. Switzerland. Austria. England „ 257 I no. Poland. Second and third partition. Kosciusko 258 I III. United States of North America. War against England. Battle at New Orleans. Republic of Hayti. Toussaint Louverture 260 Exercises.. 263 TENTH PERIOD. From the Second Parisian Treaty to the Present Time. Res- ■ TORATioN. Limitation of the Monarchies. Last Revolutions. 1815-1883 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. TIME OF RESTORATION. 1815-1830 A. D. §112. France. Germany 264 I 113. Spain and Portugal 266 I 114. Italy. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont 268 I 115. Greece. Contest against the Poi-te. Ypsilanti. Bozzaris. Fall of Missolonghi. Naval battle at Navarino. Mehemed Ali 269 \ 116. America. United States. Missouri Compromise. Monroe doc- trine. Protective tarifit. Contests of the Spanish colonies for independence. Bolivar. Brazil 273 2. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 1880-1848 A. D. § II 7. France. Revolution of July. Dethronement of Charles X. The family of Orleans 276 \ 118. Belgium. Separation from Holland. Germany 279 I 119. Switzerland. Political reforms. Secession war. Amendment of the constitution 281 \ 120. Poland and Russia. Revolution in Poland. Battle of Ostrolenka. Caucasian war. Shamyl 283 § 121. Great Britain. Emancipation of the Catholics. Reform of the par- liament. Emancipation of the slaves. The Corn laws relaxed. O'Connell. Lord Russell. Dominion in the East Indies. War against China 285 \ 122. United States of North America. Indian wars. War with Mexico. Generals Taylor and Scott. Battles at Buena Vista and Chapul- tepec. Capture of Vera Cruz and of the City of Mexico 287 3. THE REVOLUTIONS IN 1848. \ 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Establishment of a re- public and of an empire. Louis Napoleon HI, Franco-German war. Battle at Sedan. Restoration of the republic 290 \ 124. Germany. Insurrection in Berlin and in the Grand dukedom of Baden. German National Assembly. Schleswig and Holstein. Prusso-Austrian war. Battle at Sadowa 294 \ 125. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Reforms of the government. War in Hungary. Kossuth. Goi'gey surrenders at Villages 298 \ 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. War of Austria against Sardinia and France. Battles at Magenta and Solferino. United kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi 301 §127. Russia. Crimean war. Siege of Sebastopol. Russo-Turkish war. Surrender of the Turks at Shipka Pass 304 \ 128. America. Secession war in the United States. Abraham Lincoln.. 306 XVI. Page. 129. Continued. Emancipation of the slaves. Battle at Gettysburg. Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson 312 130. Concluded. Sherman's march to the Sea. Surrender of Richmond and of the confederate army. Lincoln assassinated. Amendment of the Constitution. Free Homestead Bill 315 131. Japan 320 SECOND CHAPTER. HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION DURING THE NINTH AND TENTH PERIODS. 132. Constitutions. Political and social tendencies. Position of woman. Military condition. Church 321. 133. Arts and sciences. Public schools 324 •134. Inventions. Steamboats. Railroads. Telegraphs. Cable. Tele- phones. Photography. Cotton-gin. Exhibitions of arts and industry 328 Exercises 330 FIRST SECTION. ANCIENT HISTORY. I 1. Definition of Universal History. Its Uses and Division. Universal History is the representation of generally remark- able facts, both of entire nations and of individuals. Its uses are manifold. It teaches us to know our nature, to respect it, as well as ourselves. It offers us the treasures of the experience of all cen- turies. It teaches us to form a just opinion of the most impor- tant events of public and private life. It explains the present by the past, and sharpens the sight of the future. It disposes the mind to toleration in religious matters, to genuine piety, to patriot- ism, and to benevolence towards the whole of mankind. It leads us to abhor folhes, vices and crimes, encourages to virtue, and in- spires a love for right and liberty. How often has not the example of a Leonidas, of an Arminius, of a Washington, incited to imita- tion ? It teaches us, besides, to believe in the ruling of eternal laws of the universe, and in a sure retribution. Finally, it shows how man is himself, for the most part, the creator of his own happiness and misery. Universal History is commonly divided into three parts, viz : ancient, mediaeval and modern time. Ancient history extends from the beginning of historical certanity to the great migration of nations, A. D. 375 ; mediaeval history to the discovery of America in 1492 ; and from that date also begins the history of modern times. Universal History may be also divided into several periods or epochs, which, in this book, are marked as follows : I, From the beginning of historical certainty to the Greco- Persian wars, /. e. to 500 B. C. II. From the Greco-Persian wars to the Emperor Augustus, 500 B. C. to 30 B. C. \ I. What is Universal History ? Describe its vises. What are its principal divisions ? Give their limits of time. 2 III. From Augustus to the great migration of nations, 30 B. C. to 375 A. D. IV. From the migration of nations to the decay of the realm of the Franks, 375-900 A. D. V. From the decay of the realm of the Franks to the end of the Crusades, 900-1300 A. D. VI. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America, 1300-1492 A. D. VII. From the discovery of America to the Westphalian peace, 1492-1648 A. D. VIII. From the Westphalian peace to the French revolution, 1648-1789 A. D. IX. From the French revolution to the second peace of Paris, 1789-1815 A. D. X. From the second peace of Paris to the present time, 18 15- 1883 A. D. FIRST PERIOD. From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to tine Greco- Persian Wars, Despotism of Priestly and Military Government in the Orient, To 500 B, C. riEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOKT. §2. The Most Ancient States — India, China, Egypt; Sesostris. Ancient History properly begins at that period where events commence to be certain ; but their certainty does not reach beyond 600 years before Christ. The most ancient States were probably in India and China. The relics of old monuments, which still exist there, plead for the high antiquity of the Indian States. From India the ancient nations brought their cultivation, and the Egyp- I 2. How many periods are set down in this book? Marie tlie limits of time of each period. What is the earliest date of historical certainty ? What States are probably the most ancient ? What reasons speak for their antiquity ? tians and Greeks, in all probability, their religious ceremonies, too. The States in Nubia (Ethiopia) and Egypt may next be mentioned. The first inhabitants of Nubia were partly troglodytes, or cave- dwellers. Later, the theocratical State of Meroe originated there, and the temples, pyramids and other splendid remains of archi- tecture of it may still be found. First herdsmen passed through Egypt; then it was probably settled from the State of Meroe by colonies of priests, who sub- dued these herdsmen and introduced agriculture. Such a colony was Thebais, with the city of Thebes, in Upper Egypt. The first known king (Pharaoh) was Menes, probably the founder of Mem- phis, about 2000 years B. C. A large part of Egypt was conquered by the pastoral kings (Hyksos), who arrived from Arabia. At last the Egyptians took courage and expelled the foreigners (probably about 1700 B. C.) Not long after the whole country was united into one State, of which Thebes became the capital ; and thencefor- ward the Egyptian realm flourished for 1000 years. Thebes became the principal seat of human civilization. Moeris is said to have constructed the lake bearing the same name. Sesostris, his successor (about 1500 B. C), built magnificent temples, many canals and public roads, and was a good law-giver. He is also reported to have divided the country into twelve temple districts, and to have designated three capitals, namely : Thebes for Upper Egypt, Memphis for Middle Egypt, and Heliopolis for Lower Egypt. His vessels navigated as far as India. Besides, he was a powerful conqueror, and raised Egypt to her highest lustre. The Nubians conquered the country in the eighth century, but re- mained in possession of it only a short time. About 670 B. C. it was divided among twelve sovereigns, who are said to have con- structed the Labyrinth on Lake Mceris. One of them, Psammeti- chus, sovereign of Sais, aided by mercenaries, vanquished the others and conquered the whole land. From the period of his reign the obscurity of Egyptian history becomes more clear. He opened the harbors of the country to foreigners, and the nation now entered into commercial relations with the Greeks. His son Neko (Necho) is said to have had Africa circumnavigated by Phoenicians. Camby- ses, king of Persia, conquered Egypt (530 B. C.), and from that What of the State of Meroe ? Who is the first known king of Egypt ? Who conquered a large part of Egypt ? What city became the capital of the united States of Egypt ? What of Moeris ? Of Sesostris ? Who constructed the Laby- rinth ? Who conquered the whole of Egypt ? time it remained almost continuously tributary to Persia, until Alex- ander the Great overturned the throne of Cyrus (333 B. C), and also conquered this country. After Alexander's death it fell under the dominion of the Ptolemies. § 3. Assyria. Babylonia. — Semiramis. Media. The Assyrian empire, which comprised Babylonia, Media and Bactria, was (about 2000 B. C.) founded by Ninus, the builder of Nineveh, a city which was said to extend a three days' journey on the Tigris, because it also embraced fields and pasture grounds. His wife was Semiramis, who is reported to have excited admiration by her heroic exploits. Ninus left her the crown. She built or embellished Babylon, and undertook expeditions of conquest with immense hosts, but succumbed in a war against India, the riches of which nation had allured her greediness. Her son Ninias was only a mock king. From his time down to the reveller Sardanapalus, history presents nothing memorable of the sovereigns of Assyria. Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, revolted against the latter about 600 B. C, and aided by Cyaxares, the king of Media, deprived him of the government. Sardanapalus burned himself with his wives and treasures ; the victors destroyed Nineveh, and shared the empire among themselves. After the destruction of Nineveh the Babylo- nians or Chaldseans were the most important people in these coun- tries. They were nomadic mountaineers, who had come down from the north to the plains of Babylonia, entered into the service of the Assyrian kings, and received Babylonia for their habitation. Nabo- polassar himself belonged to this tribe. His son, Nebuchadnezzar, conquered Egypt and Judea, demolished Jerusalem, and removed the wealthy portion of its inhabitants to Babylonia, He is reported to have also conquered the great commercial cities Sidon and Tyre — the latter not until after thirteen years of valiant resistance. Then Tyre (as they say) was founded anew on a neighboring island. Cyrus destroyed the Chaldaean-Babylonian realm in 539 B. C. The Medians, Bactrians and Persians occupied the country be- tween the Tigris and Indus as far as the Indian Ocean, and at first formed but one nation. From their language, the Zend, they are also called the Zend nation. When the Medians had thrown off the As- What foreign sovereigns conquered Egypt in later times ? | 3. Wiio founded tlie Assyrian empire ? Wiio was the wife of Ninus ? What of her ? What of Ninus ? Who deprived Sardanapalus of the government ? What kind of a people were the Chaldreans ? What of Nebuchadnezzar? Syrian yoke, they lived for a time in anarchy, and experienced all its terrors ; then they elected Deioces umpire, who, by good laws, put an end to the confusion. They built Ecbatana as a residence for him, which then remained the capital of the land. King Cyaxares was his grandson. Cyrus dethroned Astyages, son of Cyaxares, and changed Media into a province of the Persian empire. § 4. Palestine. Moses. Abraham (Abram), a pastoral sovereign in Mesopotamia (be- tween the Euphrates and Tigris) emigrated to Palestine about 2000 B. C. His descendants are designated after him, whom the natives of the country named Eber (that is, the comer from yonder), as Hebrews ; after his grandson Jacob, who bore the surname Israel, as Israelites, and after Judah, son of Jacob, as Jews. The Jews, in later times, migrated to Egypt, where the Hyksos severely oppressed them. Moses there became their liberator. According to common report, he had received an excellent educa- tion at the royal court. He was especially initiated into the religious mysteries of the priests. Once, seeing an Egyptian treat a com- patriot cruelly, he grew enraged, killed the aggressor, and fled, hid- ing in the Arabian desert. Here the great idea ripened in his mind to liberate his compatriots. He returned, prepared them for his bold plan, and led them, in spite of the resistance of Egypt's sov- ereign, into the northern free, though barren, part of Arabia (about 1500 B. C.) He conquered the country situated east of the Jordan ; hi& successor, Joshua, subdued Palestine proper. The Jews were subjected to the sway of the priests ; but the insolence and crimes of the sons of the high priests, Heli and Samuel, rendered their rule so hateful to them that they finally demanded a king. Samuel gave them one in the person of Saul (1095 B. C), but as the latter would not be a mere tool of the priests, Samuel, soon after, chose David in order to oppose Saul ; then civil war broke out. In the contest with the Philistines, the most formidable enemies of the Jews, Saul lost the decisive battle, and, seeing his sons fall, inflicted death upon himself. David, at last, was universally acknowledged king, but the rebellion of his sons disturbed . his quiet occupation of the throne. He liked war, and is said to have enlarged his dominion What is said of Deioces? Who made an end to the Median reign? I 4. What is said of Abraham ? What are his descendants called ? Who oppressed the Jews in Egypt ? Who became their liberator ? Relate his biog- raphy. What kinds of government had the Jews ? What of Saul and David ? 6 as far as Egypt and to the Euphrates. His son Solomon (1014 B. C.) did not at all fulfill the expectations the nation entertained of his wisdom. He oppressed it by taxes and socage, cruelly per- secuted his adversaries, introduced oriental pomp at his court, and disgraced himself by voluptuousness and idolatry. The people be- came dissatisfied, the priests nourished the ill feelings of the public mind, and roused against him an antagonistic king in the person of Jeroboam; Solomon, nevertheless, maintained the throne. But when his son and successor, Rehabeam, afflicted the people still more cruelly, they revolted again (975 B. C), and ten tribes chose Jeroboam their king. Only two tribes remained faithful ; they con- stituted the Judaic, the other ten the Israelitic kingdom. At first the capital of the latter was Sichem, afterwards Samaria. Both kingdoms weakened themselves more and more by discord, reUgious quarrels and viciousness. The prophets (teachers of the people, who influenced the nation and the kings by their songs and speeches) in vain predicted the ruin of the people; in vain they exhorted to reform, concord, piety ; their voice was not listened to. At last both States became the prey of foreign conquerors ; the Israehtes were removed by Salmonassar to Media (722 B. C), and the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (600 B. C.) New in- habitants emigrated from the provinces of the conquerors to Pales- tine. They intermixed with those who had remained, and received the name of Samaritans. Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to their country (about 535 B. C), where they rebuilt the temple and the capital, but remained subject to the Persians. § S. Persia. Cyrus. Cyrus (Kyros), a Persian nobleman and grandson of King Astyages, at the head of his discontented fellow-citizens, dethroned his grandfather, who (as some report) had intended to kill Cyrus immediately after his birth. He conquered Media, Armenia and Cappadocia, thereby becoming the neighbor of the powerful Croe- sus, king of Lydia. The latter, whose riches became proverbial, made war on Cyrus, being brother-in-law of Astyages, but his capi- tal; Sardes, was captured after a short siege, and he himself taken prisoner (548 B. C.) It was decreed that he be put to death. He How did Solomon govern the Jews ? Who was his successor ? Into what kingdoms was Palestine separated under Rehabeam ? Who conquered them ? What does the name "Samaritans" mean? §5. From whom did Cyrus descend ? What countries did he conquer ? was fettered, and sat on the burning funeral pile, when he called three times the name of Solon, Asked for the reason of his calling, he answered that the wise Solon had once directed his attention to the mutability of his fortune, and that he now experienced how truth- fully the former had spoken. Cyrus, greatly afifected, granted the unhappy man life, and even his friendship. After this the latter continued his course of conquests. One of his generals subdued the Asiatic Greeks; Cyrus himself marched against Babylon and vanquished that city (538 B. C), notwithstanding its high walls and deep ditches, entering by stratagem (it is reported) through a branch of the Euphrates which he had turned off, into the city, where the people, after a riotous festival, were in a drunken stupor. He ob- tained with the capital also possession of the Babylonian realm and its dependencies, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, after which he attempted to subjugate the' Massagetse beyond the Caspian Sea, but he and his whole army were annihilated. Tomyris, their queen, put Cyrus' head in a leather bag filled with blood, crying : " Drink now your fill of blood, because you were always thirsty for it." Others report not only the death, but the whole biography of Cyrus in a different way. His son and successor, Cambyses, conquered Egypt, He wanted also to subjugate the Nubians ; but the desert through which he had to march soon compelled him to return. Another army which he sent against the Ammonians in the Lybian desert, met its destruc- tion there. It is said that the despot killed his own sister, and that he also, prompted by mere suspicion, caused his brother Smerdes to be killed. At last a conspiracy was planned, headed by the Magi, who averred that the brother of a Magus, pretending to be Smerdis, ought to be the sovereign. Cambyses marched against him, but wounded himself so dangerously with his sword, which, as he mounted his horse, happened to pass into his hips, that he died. The Persians paid homage to the false Smerdis ; but seven noblemen soon conspired against him, killed him, and, by lot, elected Darius, son of the Governor Hystaspes, to succeed him. The latter also subjugated several countries, e. g. Thracia and Macedonia. The Greeks in Asia Minor, who bore the Persian yoke with indignation, attempted to liberate themselves. They rose against Darius, Aris- tagoras, governor of Milet, being at the head of the revolt, expelled What is said of Cyrus ? How was Babylon captured by Cyrus ? By whom was he killed ? What is said of Tomyris ? What of Cambyses ? How did he lose his life ? Who succeeded the false Smerdis ? Narrate the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks against Darius. their tyrants, and gave all cities republican forms of government. But it seemed to them to be necessary, in their dangerous under- taking, to ally themselves also with the European Greeks. Arista- goras first applied to the Spartans for assistance, but it was refused. The Athenians, on the contrary, already provoked by Darius be- cause he commanded them to reinstate the expelled Hippias (see § lo), granted them assistance. As soon as their fleet in Asia arrived all the lonians rose, and attacked Darius in his own territory (503 B. C.) They succeeded, indeed, in burning Sardes, the resi- dence of the Persian governor (Satrap); but they were vanquished at Ephesus. Upon this the Athenians, returning home, left them alone. The lonians continued to struggle, but were once more beaten (498 B. C), and had again to submit. The opulent city of Milet was destroyed, and Histiseus, father-in-law of Aristagoras, who had first encouraged the lonians to rebel, fastened to the cross. Then Darius endeavored to subdue also the European Greeks, but this undertaking was an entire failure (see §16). The Persian power had, under his rule, attained its summit ; the wars waged against the Greeks by himself and by his successor, Xerxes, shook it already to its foundation. The bloody quarrels between his successors for the throne, the wars of Satraps and a slack government weak- ened the empire still more ; the conquered lands fell off; and Gre- cian mercenaries were the last prop of the tottering throne. Finally, the destruction of the rotten monarchy by Alexander the Great followed under Darius Codomannus, last scion of. the royal family (330 B. C.) GREECE.* g 6. Description of the Country. Colonies. South of the Balkans, a peninsula of the Mediterranean is situ- ated, the northern half of which contains Thracia, Macedonia and a part of Illyria, but the southern one Greece proper. The latter was divided into Northern Greece, Hellas and Peloponnesus. In Northern Greece, at the west, was Epirus ; at the east Thessalia, with Mount Olympus. From Thessalia the rocky pass Thermopylse What was tlie fate of Histiseus ? What were the causes of the downfall of the Persian monarchy ? ^6. Define the situation of the Grecian States ? Of Macedonia? Hellas? Peloponnesus? Thessalia? *This country occupies but a speck on the map of the earth, but its history is more important than that of the mightiest empires that have overshadowed the earth. Its inhabitants excelled all ancient nations for genius, learning, attainments in sciences and arts, republican institutions and heroic exploits, and they have been the teachers of all succeeding ages. Hence their history is related more in detail. 9 led to Hellas, into the territories of Locris, Doris and Phokis. In Phokis, at Delphi, on Mount Parnassus, stood the celebrated temple of Apollo. West of these small States ^tolia and Acarnania were situated — the latter with the promontory Actium ; east, Boeotia with the city of Thebes. Boeotia was bordered on the south by Attica and the capital Athens, and by the small land of Megaris, from which the Strait of Corinth led to the Peloponnesus. In the northeast were Argolis and the cities of Argos and Mikense, and in the north, Achaia and the magnificent cities of Corinth and Sicyon. The western coast was occupied by Elis, with the town of Olympia. Southwest was Messenia, and southeast Laconia, with the capital, Sparta. In the central part of Peloponnesus, Arcadia, the Grecian Switzerland, and for a long time the seat of high simplicity of morals, was situated. The largest of the Grecian islands were Eubsa, Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus. All flourished, and became powerful by their com- merce. Among the smaller ones Salamis and Delos grew famous — the former by the great Persian sea-fight, and the latter by the temple of Apollo. The Greeks had many colonies, and although the latter were entirely independent from the mother States, still they lived in friendly relations with them. The most renowned in Asia were Smyrna, Mytilyne, on the island of Lesbos, Miletus, Ephesus and Phocoea. When Cyrus overrun Asia Minor, the inhabitants of the last named city left their native country in quest of freedom and founded Marseilles, in France, where they imported the grapevine and the olive tree. In Europe, the coasts of the Azov, Black and ^gean seas were settled by the Greeks, whose colonies flourished at Theodosia (Caffa), Tanais (Azov) and Byzantium (Constantino- ple). They also peopled Lower Italy (Great Greece) and Sicily. Messana and Syracuse prospered in the latter country ; and Cuma (Naples), Tarentum, the luxurious Sybaris and Croton, in the former. Greece also had many other colonies in Illyria, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, Lybia and Egypt. I 7. Ancient History of the Land. Heroic Age. Hercules. The Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most renowned among the ancient nations of Greece. The former immigrated from Thracia ; Define the situation of Boeotia ? Attica ? Argolis ? Laconia ? What were the principal cities in Bceotia, Attica, Argolis and Laconia ? Which of the Gre- cian islands is the largest ? Give the names of some renowned Grecian colonies. 10 from the latter the central part of Greece obtained its name. The common name " Greeks " is said to have been derived from Grsecos, one of the Pelasgian chiefs. Cecrops, an Egyptian (according to common narrative) went with a colony from Sais to Attica (1582 B. C), founded a state there, and built the citadel Cecropia, around which the city of Athens afterwards sprang up, which derived its name from its tutelar goddess Athena (Minerva). He also estab- lished the Areopagus, a criminal tribunal, which, in course of time, became renowned. Some ages after Cecrops, the Phoenician Cad- mos settled in Boeotia (about 1500 B. C.), erected the citadel of Thebes and taught the inhabitants the letters of the alphabet, vine culture, and the art of preparing metals. At the same time (about 1500 B. C.), the Peloponnesus received higher culture by the Egyptian Danaus, and 200 years later by the Phrygian Pelops. From the latter it derived its name, as he and his descendants occupied the most important districts there. The atrocious misdeeds and unhappy fate of the Pelopida became the principal subject of the Grecian tragedies. Soon after Cecrops, Amphictyon established (as reported) an aUiance of different Hell- enic towns, called the court of the Amphictyons, the members of which managed the affairs of the Delphian temple, arranged the Olympian games, and, in later times, also settled the differences of the league. In the Heroic Age Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, and other heroes delivered their country from dangerous beasts and men, for which deeds they were greatly celebrated, and even idolized. Their ex- ploits are themes of different poetical fictions. Thus : Perseus killed Medusa, and seized her petrifying head ; the winged horse, Pegasus, carried him on great exploits. Hercules, in the cradle, crushed two serpents, and in the service of his kinsman, king Eurystheus, performed the twelve achievements celebrated by many songs, viz. : He killed the Nemean lion ; cut off the many heads of the Lernsean serpent ; caught a huge boar in Arcadia, bound him, and carried him on his shoulders to the king ; he overtook a swift stag ; fought with the Amazons — fabulous, warlike women in Asia Minor — for the shoulder-belt of their queen; cleaned the stable of Augias, etc. He even descended twice to the Tartarus, ^ 7. Give the derivation of the name " Greeks ? " Who was the tutelar goddess of Athens ? Who taught the Boeotians the letters of the alphabet ? By v^fhom did the Peloponnesus receive a higher culture ? What of Amphictyon ? What exploits does tradition narrate of Hercules ? 11 and caught the Cerberus, that three-headed dog who watched its entrance. § 8. Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts. Wars of Thebes and Troja. In this period also occurred the expedition of the Argonauts and the wars of Thebes and Troja. The Argonauts sailed to Colchis, in Asia Minor, in the Argo, in quest of the golden fleece. They were induced, by commercial interests, probably, to undertake this perilous voyage. Theseus, Hercules and Orpheus — the latter, by his won- derful songs, is said to have tamed even wild beasts — were among them; Jason was their leader. After a long, hazardous errant voy- age the heroes returned to Greece. The Theban war (about 1230 B. C.) was caused by Eteocles and Polynices, sons of CEdipus, whose traditional fate was also a principal subject of the Grecian stage. Eteocles, contrary to a stipulated agreement, desired to govern alone in Thebes. Seven sovereigns in vain jointly opposed him, in order to procure his brother's rights ; they did not prevail. The hostile brothers, after having thoroughly drenched the native soil with blood, killed each other in a duel, and all the chiefs but one fell in the combat ; ten years later, however, their sons renewed the war against Thebes. At last the son of Polynices obtained the government. Not many years after this war Paris, son of Priamus, who was king of Troja in Asia Minor, carried off Helena, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. To revenge this outrage, almost all the Greek sovereigns united and declared war against Priamus (about 1200 B. C.) Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, became their leader. Con- trary winds, for a long time, hindered their departure. The priests interpreted this circumstance to be a sign of the displeasure of the gods. In order to propitiate them, Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter, was to be sacrificed, but Minerva (according to tradi- tion) withdrew the unhappy virgin from death by a cloud. In the contest which ensued, besides Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Ajaces excelled by their valor ; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, by prudence and cunning; the old Nestor, king of Messenia, by wisdom ; and most of all, Achilles, chief of the Thessalians, by his heroic feats. Patro- ^ 8. Give an account of the expedition of the Argonauts ? Who were its leaders ? How did the Theban war originate ? Narrate its principal circum- stances. Give the details of the Trojan war. How did it originate ? Who were the principal parties on both sides ? 12 clus, the faithful friend of Achilles,' was his companion. The chief- tains of the Trojans were the courageous Hector, son of Priamus, ^neas, and "others. As many sovereigns of Asia aided Priamus, the war was a protracted one, and lasted (as the Greek poets say), ten years. Hector fell under the sword of Achilles, and the latter was slain by an arrow of Paris. The city at last was taken by a strata- gem. Several Greeks hid in a wooden horse, which the Greeks had dedicated to Minerva. The superstitious Trojans pulled this horse into the city, and during the night the hidden Greeks, who had thus gained an entrance into the city, opened the town-gates to the Gre- cian army. Priamus, his remaining sons, and most of the inhabitants were killed, the city reduced to a mass of ruins, and the queen, her daughters, and the most distinguished ladies were carried away as slaves. Tempests rendered the return of the Greeks to their country difficult ; Menelaus was carried away to far distant regions, and Ulysses strayed about for ten years before he again saw Ithaca ; Agamemnon, after his return, was murdered by his wife. The long absence of the Greeks from home caused sad disorders in Greece. About one hundred years later, still greater calamities befell the Peloponnesus, namely, Hercules was (as tradition reports) excluded from the dominion of Peloponnesus, part of which belonged to him, and Eurystheus compelled his descendants, the Heraclid^e, to for- sake their native country. They returned however, after some years, and, aided by the Doriens, conquered almost the whole of Peloponnesus. A large number of the vanquished left the country and founded colonies on the coasts of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, many of which became famous. Repeated revolutions finally changed the political form of Greece. Irritated by tyra,nnic oppression, some people cast off their yoke, others followed /heir example, and on the ruins of the monarchies young republics arose, among which Sparta and Athens became most renowndd. I 9. Sparta. Lyeurgus. When the Heraclid^e, Eurystenes and Procles, conquered Sparta, (see § 8), both brothers became kings, and thereafter always two of their descendants were governing together. This division of the What was the duration of the Trojan war? By what stratagem was the city captured ? What adversities did Menelaus, Agamemnon and Ulysses experience on their return ? What cause induced the Greeks to change their monarchies into republics ? Which among the latter became most renowned ? 13 highest power was a lasting source of discord in the small State until Lycurgus appeared. His brother's widow offered Lycur- gus her hand and the throne; she declared herself ready even to kill her son, but he repudiated the shameful proposal, saved the life of the boy, and governed as his tutor. When Lycurgus saw that his generosity even did not shield him against the suspicion of ambition, he left his country and went to Creta, where king Minos, by his laws, had become renowned ; from thence he went to Asia Minor and Egypt, in order to get acquainted with the laws and customs of those countries. Sparta, becoming still more agitated by lawlessness, longed for the absent Lycurgus, who returned and became the legislator of his country (about 880 B. C.) He first communicated his design to the friends of the fatherland and of order, and then consulted the oracle of Delphi as to its feasibility, which declared the contem- plated legislation to be the best. To be still surer of success, Lycur- gus bade the most distinguished of his confidants, provided with arms, to make their appearance at the moment of the mtroduction of the laws. The common people received them with approba- tion, but the wealthy ones, who lost their riches by equal division of the pubhc domain, grew hostile to him and caused a sedition. A young fellow struck him in the eye with a stick; the furious people seized the offender and delivered him to Lycurgus to punish him as he pleased. He received the fellow into his house, but in- stead of chastising, he treated him so kindly that he soon became his heartiest eulogist. It is said that Lycurgus, in order to render his laws inviolable, went on a journey to Delphi, and made the Spar- tans take an oath that until his return they would inviolably main- tain them ; that the oracle confirmed them, declaring that as long as Sparta observed them, she would be the most glorious city in the world; and that Lycurgus then, in order to prevent the Spartans from breaking their oath at any time, voluntarily starved himself to death. The rest of Sparta's history, in this period, presents little of in- terest. She waged two more wars against the Messenians (743 and 685 B. C), the second of which ended with the demolition of the principal place of this people, and with the loss of their liberty. As Sparta's power was foremost in the peninsula, most of Give a biography of Lycurgus. What circumstances occurred at the introduc- tion of the laws of Lycurgus ? How did he behave against his offender ? In what way did he try to render his laws inviolable ? 14 the other States conferred on her also the right of supreme leader- ship (hegemonia). § lO. Athens. Solon. For a long time Attica was divided into several independent dis- tricts. Theseus united them (about 1250 B. C.) into one body politic and formed a kind of republic, the head of which was Athena. His successors, however, retained the royal name down to Codrus. This saved Athens, which was attacked by the Herachdse through his voluntary death (about 1068 B. C) An oracle had predicted to the Athenians that the party whose chief would be killed by the enemy should gain the victory. Both parties, therefore, were on their guard not to kill the generals, but Codrus, determined to pro- cure the victory for the Athenians, went into the camp of the enemy in the disguise of a peasant, designedly began a quarrel, and was, in the eagerness of dispute, slain by his enemies. Upon learning whom they had killed the enemy became discouraged and retreated. The Athenians now aboHshed the royal office and put the oldest son of Codrus, with the title of " Archon," at the head of the govern- ment. His tenure was for life ai>d hereditary ; the archons, how- ever, were required to give an account of their administration. This form of government lasted 300 years. The office of the archons, bearing too strong a resemblance to royal power, was afterward re- duced from life to a period of ten years. At last it became annual, and to this end was divided among several archons. Athens, up to this time, had no written laws. Draco gave a code to the State (624 B. C.) However, as they were too severe, and, as the ancients said, written in blood, they were enforced only a short time. Unrestricted licentiousness then succeeded the utmost constraint. Solon Only was able to put an end to this chaotic con- dition, for he was prominent by birth and enlightened by studies and travels ; moreover, he was so disinterested that he refused the royalty. Solon had made himself famous by several meritorious achievements, and possessed the universal confidence of the peo- ple. He became archon (594 B. C), and the people now de- manded new legislation of him. The poorer and indebted portion of them desired Solon, as Lycurgus had done, to distribute all of the land into equal parts, but Solon chose another expedient, that How did Codrus sacrifice his life for his country ? What did the title of "Archon" mean in Athens? What was the spirit of the laws of Draco ? Who was lawgiver after him ? By what means did Solon try to improve the condition of the poor in Athens ? 15 of reducing the rate of interest and raising the value of coin. All living in bondage, probably on account of indebtedness, were set free. These measures, however, satisfied neither the rich nor the poor. Solon, in his constitution, also took the middle course. After having finished it, he determined to leave Athens, which he did, and remained absent for ten years. He obliged the people to take an oath not to change his laws during his absence ; that they should first satisfy themselves by experience of their propriety. He traveled over Egypt, Asia Minor and other countries. In Lydia, Croesus received him honorably. When Lycurgus returned to Athens, he found the peace of the State disturbed by ambitious men. Pisistratus, his relative, had ensnared the people. Once he de- signedly wounded himself, and, covered with blood, appeared before the people and called for their help, as he pretended, against their common enemies, who had attempted to murder him. Then one of his confidants demanded a body-guard for the excellent citizen. Pisistratus got it, and with its assistance took possession of the castle. Solon tried in vain to rekindle the love of liberty in the minds of the citizens ; he did not succeed. Pisistratus continued to be unlim- ited ruler. Soon after the wise man died (559 B. C.) Hipparchus and Hippias, sons of Pisistratus, governed jointly. Their abuse of power caused a conspiracy against them. Hippar- chus was killed, while Hippias was blocked up in his castle, and his children were taken prisoners. This accident forced him to resign and to leave Athens (510 B. C.) He fled to Darius, king of Persia, who demanded that the tyrant should be reinstated; but the Athenians did not comply. Afterward Hippias was killed in the battle of Marathon while fighting against his country. § 11. Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus. In the northern part of Italy (Gallia cisalpina) primitively the Galli lived; in the southern (Great Greece) Greek colonists; in the middle, the Hetrurii, Latini, Samnitae and other people. The Hetrurii, (Etruski, Tuski) diffused themselves over modern Tus- cany, and were early distinguished by their culture. Their alpha- What is said of Solon's travels ? How did Pisistratus ensnare the people? What did one of his confidants demand for him ? Of what did he take posses- sion ? What did Solon try to rekindle ? Did he succeed ? How did Hippar- chus and Hippias govern in Athens ? What was their fate ? 1 11. Who were the inhabitants of northern and middle Italy ? 16 bet is the foundation of all sorts of European letters,, and the Tus- can order of columns is older than the Dorian. In the south, Latium bordered on Hetruria. An Arcadian colony settled on the Tiber (about 1240 B. C.) The people in that vicinity are said to have received the name of Latini from King Latinus. .-Eneas who, after the destruction of Troja, arrived there with a troop of fuoitive Trojans, is reported to have married his daughter and in- herited his realm. Alba Longa becajiie the capital of Latium. Ac- cording to tradition, Xumitor, king of Alba Longa, was deprived of the throne by his brother AmuHus. His daughter had two sons, Romulus and Remus, whom Amulius caused to be thrown into the Tiber, because he was afraid that they would deprive him again of the government. The boys were saved through the pity of a shepherd, and brought up by his wife. "When it was discovered that they were Xumitor's grandsons, they caused a sedition against Amu- lius, who was killed, and their grandfather again became king. Nu- mitor permitted his enterprising grandsons to lay the foundation of a new settlement, and they built Rome on the Palatine hill (753 B. C.) A band of their compatriots, who were still rude shepherds, assisted them in this undertaking. In order to rapidly augment the num- ber of citizens, Romulus, according to tradition, opened an asylum for fugitive criminals, exiles and runaway slaves. As the neighbor- ino- people refused to give their daughters as wives to his colonists, he allured them by games and abducted them. The Sabines avenged this outrage with their arms, a battle ensued, but the newly married wives prostrated themselves suppHantly between the combatants and mediated peace. The Sabini (Quirites) then settled in Rome, and Titus Tatius, their commander, became regent with Romulus, each communitv retaining its own senate. Romulus governed jointly with the senate and the people, but his ambition caused him to en- large his power more and more. He killed not only his colleague Tatius, but also his brother, and at last he was himself dispatched by the senators. After the reign of Romulus six kings are said k) have governed Rome for 245 years. Numa Pompilius gave Rome its State religion, built temples, and regulated the divine service. He always kept peace with the neigh- boring people, and promoted agriculture. Servius TuUius, the son of What colony settled on the Tiber? From whom did the Latini receive their name ? What of ^neas ? What town was the capital of Latium ? What is said of Romulus and Remus? Of the first settlers in Rome ? How did they obtain wives ? How were the Sabini reconciled ? Why was Romulus killed ? By whom ? What of Numa Pompilius ? Of Servius Tullius ? 17 a female slave, ameliorated the hard condition of the slaves, provided for a more convenient classification of the citizens, and is reported to have entertained the idea of aboHshing royalty. He was murdered in a conspiracy which was headed by his son-in-law, Tarquinius, and his own daughter Tullia, wife of Tarquinius (533 B. C.) The unnatural daughter drove over the corpse of her father. The street in which this crime was committed received the name of the "nefarious." Tarquin, called the Proud, was very cruel while he was king. He put his adversaries to death ; he did not even spare the life of his brother-in-law. Junius Brutus, the son of the murdered man, could only protect himself against the rage of his uncle by feigning to be insane. Liberty was also greatly oppressed by the king. He gov- erned without the senate and community, and forbade popular meetings, the last remedy of the people against his willfulness. A numerous body-guard of strangers had to watch for the safety of the tyrant. The Romans, for a long time, bore this despotism in silence ; but when a son of Tarquinius did violence to Lucretia, a virtuous, highly-esteemed Roman lady, and she, unable to bear her dishonor, plunged a dagger into her bosom, the patricians, who bitterly hated the unlimited dominion of the king, made use of this favorable opportunity to break the chains which enslaved the country. They instantly locked the city gates. Brutus showed the people the bloody corpse of Lucretia, represented the crimes of the king and his family, and reminded the people of all the wrong and disgrace they had suffered. His eloquence roused the cour- age of the senators, and the people awoke from their torpid con- dition. A sentence of perpetual banishment was pronounced against Tarquinius (who happened. to be absent from Rome), and against his family. Every one who would do or speak anything for the king's advantage, was to be adjudged guilty of death, and Rome was de- clared a republic, at the head of which two consuls were to govern (509 B. C.) As Tarquinius, informed of this event, hastened to Rome, he found the gates locked. Meanwhile Brutus, in the Roman camp, urged the army to revolt against the king, and when Tar- quinius returned, he found the soldiers also hostile to him. He went to his son, who was reigning in Gabii. The first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus, Lucretia's husband. What is said of Tarquinius and liis wife? How did Tarquinius govern the Romans ? What of Brutus ? Narrate the death of Lucretia ? What conse- quences did it cause for Tarquinius and his family ? How did Brutus behave at this event ? WTio were the first consuls of Rome ? (2) 18 SECOND OHAPTER-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION. ^12. Legislation. Constitutions of Lyeurgus and Solon. Constitution of Rome under the Kings. The Egyptians, probably, had the most ancient among all known constitutions. They were divided into four or six castes (immutable, hereditary classes). Every one had to stay in the caste in which he was born, and to carry on the trade of his father. The most re- spectable was the caste of priests, and the most despised that of herds- men. The priests dictated to the kings how they should act, and judged them after their death. They administered the highest offices, educated the youth, wrote the history of their country, and were at the same time judges, physicians, architects ; in short, the possessors of all scientific knowledge. The priests and the soldiers were the owners of all, or at least most of the land. A similar system of castes was also established in many oriental regions, e. g., in Media, Persia, Bactria, and especially in India, where, even in ancient times, the Brahmins, that is, those who had issued from the head of the god Brahma, enjoyed almost divine honor. History is silent concerning the oldest constitution of China, but considering the constant uniformity of the culture of the Chinese we can assume, nearly with certainty, that it was more or less similar to the present one — a constitution, according to which the emperor is held to be God's vicegerent on earth, is high-priest and family-head of the empire, and requires servile obedience from the inhabitants of the realm. The constitution of the ancient Hebrews was also very similar to the Egyptian. The priests governed them, though in Jehovah's name, and their preponderating influence was felt even under the kings. They took; besides other revenues, the tithe of all the products of the soil. The least trespass against civil law, and the smallest profanation of the Sabbath, were punished by death. Every seventh year (sabbatical year) the people were compelled to leave their fields unplowed, and everything that grew spontaneously belonged to the poor and the stranger ; the native slaves were manu- §12. Give tlae outlines of the constitution of tlie ancient Egyptians ? Wliat of their castes ? Of their kings, soldiers, priests ? Wliat form of constitutions had the oriental regions, especially India and China ? Describe the constitution of the ancient Hebrews ? What of sabbatical years ? 19 initted and all debts remitted. Every fiftieth year was a jubilee, in which every family recovered its real property. The two most celebrated constitutions of antiquity were the Spartan and the Athenian. Lycurgus, to quicken the warlike spirit of the people, re-established the ancient Dorian statutes of his native town. The legislative power was held only by Spartans proper (the descendants of the victorious Dores). The Lacedsemonii (the de- scendants of the vanquished Achaei), had no share in the public government, but otherwise they lived unrestrained. The senate (council of the aged) prepared the transactions. The two kings were the executors of the laws, presiding members of the religion, and generals of the army. Five ephori administered the high offices, presided in the senate and at the meetings of the community, and were the judges of the kings, etc. The principal source of disorder in the Spartan state was the disproportionate distribution of property among the citizens. Lycur- gus, • therefore, divided the lands into equal parts, and forbade the proprietors from selling their estates. The Helots (descendants of the town of Helos, which the Spartans had conquered, and other vanquished people), were obliged to cultivate the estates of the Dorii, and to deliver to the latter a certain proportion of wheat, wine, etc., etc. They also attended to the handiwork. The money was made of iron, in order not to tempt the people to greediness. The dwellings and clothing were of the simplest nature, and the meals of the men were taken in common. The black broth, a national dish of the Spartans, was notorious abroad. A king, who had heard a great deal of talk about it, once engaged a Spartan cook to prepare it for him, but found the dish unsavory. " I can easily believe it," remarked the cook ; " our soup tastes well only to those who have bathed in the Eurotas." Sparta had no walls, as the valor of the in- habitants was relied on to defend the city. Bravery was rewarded with honor, and cowardliness punished by scoff and exclusion from offices of honor. The children were educated for the State ; sickly ones, immediately after birth, were thrown into an abyss of Mount Taygetus by special What is said of the Jubilee ? Which were the two most celebrated constitu- tions of antiquity? Delineate the constitution of Sparta. Functions of the senate ? Of the kings ? Of the ephori ? What of the division of lands ? Who cultivated them ? What was money made of? What about dwellings and clothing? Meals? How was bravery rewarded and cowardliness punished? How were the boys and girls educated ? What was the fate of sickly infants ? 20 officers. From the commencement of the seventh year the educa- tion was public. All the boys of the city, divided into certain classes, lived under the control of particular inspectors, who were appointed by the State. The young boys were obliged to sleep on rushes, and were instructed in the arts of running, wrestling, throwing, fencing and swimming. The girls, too, were trained in such exercises, as they Avould tend to develop them into healthy, strong women. At table, all received only moderate portions. In order to harden the boys against pain, they were sometimes flogged until bloody, and even to death, at the altar of Diana. Some, in order to show their con- stancy, permitted themselves to be flogged until they dropped dead, without even uttering a word of complaint ; they were also taught to give short and pertinent answers (laconic sayings became pro- verbial), and to respect old age. The arts and sciences were despised by the Spartans ; they were even forbidden to cultivate them. They only learned penmanship, so far as it was necessary, and sacred and warlike airs, which were sung at festivals and before battles. Under such a constitution the Spartans became a valiant, powerful and liberty -loving people ; but they were, nevertheless, also superstitious, rude, and very often cruel. The milder, and in general the best legislation of the ancient world, was that of Solon. In Athens, the citizens collectively wielded the supreme power. They confirmed all laws, resolved on war or peace, and voted for the offices. The senate took care of current affairs, presided over the meetings of the community, and reported their bills to them. The areopagus was not only the judge of capital crimes, but also superintended the religion of the State, the education of the youth, and the laws and public morals. Its judiciary sessions were held at night, and in darkness. Solon com- pared these two courts with two anchors — as they firmly controlled the agitated and turbulent State. The meetings of the people were to be checked by them." He prescribed also the duties of married people, parents and children. The children of the warriors who were killed in the military service were educated at the expense of the State. Whoever offended a slave could be sued at law, and no one Avas permitted to strike a slave. For that reason it was proverbially said that the slaves in Athens were more independent than free men What about the flogging of boys ? What is the meaning of a " laconic answer"? What were the effects of the laws of Lycurgus? What rights had the citizens in Athens .'' The senate ? The areopagus? Who provided for the children of the warriors ? How were slaves treated ? 21 in many other States. Solon's penalties were moderate. He pun- ished idleness, the principal source of impoverishment, and of all the vices in the State, severely, considering it a great offence. He desired that his laws should not be valid longer than loo years Later, the law of expulsion (ostracism) was introduced, by which any citizen who by his power, authority or even by his public merits, seemed to be dangerous to the political equality, could be banished for ten years. The ground- work of the Roman constitution under the kings was this : Under Romulus, the citizens of Rome were formed into two tribes (tribus, communities), the Latine and the Sabinian. Later still, a third tribe of the Tuscan race was added to these. Each tribe was divided into ten curiae, and represented by loo senators, who were distinguished by age and intelHgence. The senate possessed the greatest part of the governmental power ; but, in important mat- ters, the curice (comitia curiata), that is, all members of the three tribes, decided what was best to be done. The legislative power, es- pecially, was vested in them. The executive power and the command in war was left to the king. The members of the three tribes were called patricians (noblemen). At first the patricians alone pos- sessed, not only the political power, but also the conquered lands. They had clients, that is, hereditary tenants, to whom they left the usufruct of land, and gave assistance if they went to law ; therefore they were called their patrons. Foreigners who had obtained the rights of .citizenship were called plebeians. These were partly immi- grants of a later time, and partly inhabitants of the conquered ter- ritory, and embraced not only common people, but also the noble- men of the conquered cities. Among them were farmers,. husband- men, rich men and poor men. They were otherwise free, but were deprived of the right of suffrage. Tarquinius Priscus added to every tribe of patricians a tribe of plebeians, which he formed from the richest and most distinguished plebeians. Servius TuUius, for the sake of taking a census, divided all citizens into six classes and 193 centuriae. To the first class belonged the richest ; to the two last classes, the poorest citizens (proletarians). The former numbered ninety-eight centurige, the last only one. When they voted in cen- What were Solon's penalties ? What vice did he punish severely ? Why ? What is the meaning of "ostracism"? Why was ostracism introduced? What was the ground-work of the Roman constitution ? What was the power of the senate; of the kings; of the curise? Explain the terms "patricians," "plebeians," "patrons" and "clients "? Into what classes did Servius Tullius, divide all citizens ? Which got the advantage by this division ? Why ? 22 turi^e (comitia centuriata), the plebeians could, according to this division, be easily outvoted by the patricians. The lowest class was exempt from military service, and, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Servius, besides, divided the plebeians, according to their residence, into four municipal and twenty-six rural wards, which also were called tribus. § 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Kong-fut-se. Grecian and Roman Religions. The oldest form of religion probably was fetichism, which was the worship of natural objects. It was expected by the worshipers that these objects would keep pain and suffering from them, and bring them fortune and happiness. There were two kinds of fetich- ism, viz., the worship of animals, e. g., in Egypt; and the wor- ship of stars, e. g., in Arabia. Men also, particularly in Greece and Rome, were often idolized, either by gratitude or by base flattery. The deity was humanized in all religions, by attributing to it both the good qualities and the frailties, often even vices of men. The priests conserved and enlarged the religious knowledge of the nations; but they also propagated and fostered superstition, enthralled the conscience, indulged in the desire of domineering, and usurped the civil authority. They interpreted the future, espe- cially in Greece and in the Roman empire, by observing the intes- tines of sacrificed animals, and the flight of birds, and by oracles. For money, they permitted the oracles to answer according to the wishes of the questioners. The greater part of the answers of the oracles were equivocal. These practices, however, contributed to soften the habits and manners of the people, and sometimes pre- vented bloody wars. Sacrifices of fruits, animals and men were established almost everywhere. The better educated portion of civil society, indeed, had a purer religion, but, from fear of the populace, it was practiced and propagated only in secret, especially in the mysteries (secret meetings), where a higher religious doctrine was reserved and com- municated to the initiated members. The two principal deities of the Egyptians were Osiris and Isis ; From what was the lowest class exempted ? § 13. Which is the oldest form of religion ? Give examples of fetichism. In what countries were men often idolized? What is said of priests ? Especially in Rome and Greece ? What of oracles ? Of sacrifices ? Of mysteries ? What were the principal deities of the Egyptians ? 23 the former probably meant the sun; the latter, the moon, or nature in general. Isis presided over agriculture. The Egyptians also worshiped many animals, among them the useful bull, especially the Aphis, in the city of Memphis, the stork-like bird ibis, which destroys serpents, the dangerous crocodile, cats, etc. The Egyp- tians believed in the transmigration of the soul. This superstition probably was the reason why they embalmed their dead, which, with fillets tied around them, were carefully preserved in subter- ranean apartments. There these mummies (as they are called), remained undisturbed for thousands of years. There also were oracles in Egypt. The most ancient existed in Meroe. Particular priestesses were appointed for the oracles in the temples of Osiris and Isis, where they slept, and in their dreams learned the will of the deity. Even the sacred bull in Memphis promulgated oracles. — The religion of the Chaldeans and Babylo- nians was similar to the Egyptians. Among the Arians and Bactrians (in Media and Persia), the maga Zoroaster was prominent as a legislator and religious reformer. In later times, when these were subjugated by the Persians, the latter also accepted his doctrine. His followers believed him to be the author of the Zend-Avesta (" the living word,") which is writ- ten in the Zend language. According to the doctrine contained in this book, the eternal, uncreated universe is the primitive fountain of all things. It created two other divine beings, a good and a bad one, or the god of light and the god of darkness, Ormuzd and Arihman. The priests were called magi. The sacred books of the Hindoos, the Vedas (" knowledge,") are written in the ancient Sanscrit language, which is now dead. According to these books, Bram (primitively self-existent), is the foun- dation of all existence, from whom emanated three gods: Brah- ma (the sun), Vishnu (the air and water), and Sivah (the fire). Brah- ma is the creator, Vishnu the conservator, and Sivah the de- stroyer of the world. Vishnu is said to have often descended to the world to set it right. Several sects emanated from the adora- tion of one of the three divinities, which at various times combated each other. Besides, the Vedas command was to worship the gods What of their worship of animals ? Of their belief in transmigration of the soul ? Why did they embalm their dead ? What are mummies ? What of the oracles of the Egyptians ? Who was legislator and religious reformer of the Arians and Bactrians? Give some of Zoroastei-'s doctrines. What is the mean- ing of the word " Zend-Avesta" ? What are the sacred books of the Hindoos called ? In what language are they written ? 24 by sacrifices and alms, to bathe, to atone for sins, to mortify ourselves, to fast, and to go on pilgrimages. There were also, in olden times, a class of monks (Fakirs) who endeavored to sanctify themselves by cruel mortification. The horrible custom of the wives of the Brahmins, to burn themselves after the death of their husbands, is also very old and not yet entirely abolished. Yet another religion, Buddhism (Lamaism), was instituted in India (about 500 B. C.) Its founder received the surname of Bud- dah (the wise) and Gautamas (the saint), from its confessors. They believed that the high-priest (Delai-Lama) is his representative, in whom his soul is incarnate. Their priests (bonzes) five together in convents. Gautamas himself ordered his followers to lead a moral hfe. The religion of the Chinese Avas reformed by Kong-fu- tse, (about 600 B. C.) His religion, of which the well educated Chinese are adherents, proclaims many excellent maxims, viz. : " First rule yourself, then you are fit to rule a family, then a coun- try." " Wise is the man who has a profound knowledge of things, submits to reason and follows the path of virtue and justice. He is his own impeacher, witness and judge." "Do to another what you would he should do unto you ; and do not unto another what you would not be done vuito. This law is the foundation and prin- ciple of all the rest." The ten commandments, familiar to all, is the ground- work of the Mosaic (Jewish) religion. According to these, God is the supreme Be- ing, who created and arranged the universe in six days, and who must not be represented by any image. His name is Jehovah, that is, the Being which has been, is, and will be. He is the national god of the Jews, and their Lord — a god of vengeance, who punishes the sins of the fathers even to the fifth generation, and to whom man ought to sacrifice everything, even his children, as Abraham, resignedly, was about to do. The doctrine of the immortality of the human spirit was unknown to the Hebrews before the Babylonian captivity. They learned it then. The Jewish religion has a great number of ceremonies and holydays. The weekly holyday was the Sabbath. There were three other and longer holy periods, of which the Easter festival was the most important, and it lasted seven days. By the Give the outline of their contents. What did the Vedas command ? What of the Fakirs and of the custom observed by the widows of the Brahmins ? What other religion was instituted in India ? Who reformed the religion of the Chinese ? Quote some of its ma:xims. What is the groundwork of the Mosaic religion ? What of its ceremonies and festivals ? 25 moral law, the Israelites were forbidden to commit thett, murder, perjury, etc. Moses also established sanitary laws, viz., ablutions of the body, and abstinence from the use of pork. The first aimed at cleanliness ; as to pork, that was, perhaps, unwholesome in that hot country. In later times, this rehgion was enlarged by many addi- tions, such as the doctrine of a devil, of angels, etc. It resembles, in many respects, that of the Egyptians. The Greeks idolized all the forces of nature. Jupiter, to them, was the god of air and hght, and also of life ;' therefore they called him" father of the gods and men. Apollo was the god of music and poetry ; Minerva, the goddess of wisdom ; Venus, the goddess of beauty and love; Mars, the god of war; Juno, Jupiter's spouse, presided over wedlock ; Vulcan, over fire ; Neptune, over the ocean ; Pluto ruled in Tartarus. Besides these there were many lesser gods and semi-gods. Pan was the god of shepherds ; Pomona, the god- dess of fruit ; Ceres, the goddess of grains ; Flora, the goddess of flowers. Every fountain and tree was protected by a deity, the nymphs and the dryads. The Muses presided over song and other arts ; and the Graces dispensed charms. But all gods, even Jupi- ter, were subjected to immutable Fate. The shadows of the dead descended into the nether world (Orcus), where they were judged. The good were happy in the Elysian fields, but the wicked suffered different torments in Tartarus, Mythology was further developed by the poets, who ingeniously applied it to their works. The Roman religion resembled that of the Greeks, and was established by King Numa Pompilius, who called it a revelation of the nymph Egeria, The Romans also idolized abstract ideas and moral qualities of man, viz., they had a goddess of liberty, of honor, of victory, of chastity, of patriotism, etc. They also con- sidered reUgion as a fulcrum of the State, and therefore it was freely used as the handmaid of poUtics, in order to lead the superstitious people. The sacerdotal offices were State ofiices. Particular priests watched the flight of birds, the lightning, and the intestines of ani- mals. The State affairs were conducted according to their interpre- tation. The virgins of Vesta watched the eternal fire ; they were not allowed to marry during the term of their service. Human What sanitary laws did Moses establish ? How was this religion enlarged in later times ? Name the principal Grecian deities ? What do the terms "Orcus," "Elysian fields" and " Tai-tarus " signify? Who established the Roman religion ? How did it influence politics ? What office had the virgins of Vesta ? What of human sacrifices in Rome ? 26 sacrifices were also sometimes offered. After the disastrous battle at Cannge (216 B. C), several persons were burned alive in Rome. In general, both the Romans and the Greeks were very super- stitious. If a public meetirig took place, and during its session a weasel ran over the road, the meeting was adjourned. Particular soothsayers were appointed by the authorities, in order to call the dead from Orcus. The crime of sacrilege was punished with death ; this penalty was inflicted even for pulling up a shrub in a sacred grove. Philosophy was often at war with religion ; philosophers who doubted the existence of the gods were put to death. Thus perished Socrates; Anaxagoras had to flee from Athens; so had Diagoras, for whose head a prize was offered. ^14. Arts and Sciences. Buildings of the Egyptians and Greeks. Pyramids. Homer. The ar.ts and sciences were first cultivated in the Orient, but owing to the political and priestly despotism which oppressed the nations, they never attained a high degree of perfection there. The most, ancient writing was a kind of painting. Later, the hiero- glyphs (sacred signs) were invented, by painting or drawing only a part instead of the whole, and representing abstract objects in a sen- sual manner. In this way an eye stood for sight ; an open hand, for benevolence ; a scaling-ladder, for the siege of a town. Other hier- oglyphs designated single sounds, and represented letters. The hieroglyphs proper were used by the Egyptian priests. From the hieroglyphs writing by words originated. This kind of writing was used by the Chinese. Finally, writing by letters was also in- vented, which, with few signs, represents the principal sounds, and joins them into words. The inventors of letters were probably the Phoenicians; it is, at least, certain that they brought them to Europe. The ancients used to write on linen, parchment, tablets which were covered with wax, on Egyptian paper, etc. The last was prepared from the root of a plant called Papyrus, which grew in abundance by the river Nile. In Egypt, high pyramids and obelisks and majestic temples and palaces were built. The pyramids, about forty of which still stand in What of the superstition of the Greeks and Romans ? Examples. Fate of Socrates and other philosophers. ^ 14. In what countries were the sciences and arts first cultivated ? What was the most ancient form of writing ? What are hieroglyphs ? Who probably invented the letters ? On what materials did the ancients write ? Describe the pyramids of Egypt, and the pyramid of Cheops. For what purpose were they constructed ? 27 central Egypt, were quadrilateral, getting narrower towards the top, built on hills, without doors, furnished with secret passages, vaults and chambers. The stones were laid over one another, without mortar, and were held together by their weight. One of the extant pyramids (the pyramid of Cheops) is 468 feet high, and stands on a hill 200 feet in height. It can be mounted by graduated steps. With the material used in this pyramid a wall could be built around the whole kingdom of Spain. One hundred thousand men are said to have been employed in its construction for twenty years. These gigantic edifices were probably designed to be the tombs of the kings, but others think that they were only built by them for show. The obelisks were fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, and consisted of a single stone of the hardest granite, which was finely polished. Some were transported by the Roman emperors to Rome, where they yet stand, and one (Cleopatra's needle) was removed to New York to decorate Central Park (1883). It is said that the immense Labyrinth at the Lake of Moeris consisted of twelve covered yards, and contained 1500 apartments above, and as many under the earth. This artificial lake was destined to receive the waters of the Nile, and to regulate its useful inundations. In the middle of it two pyramids rose. King Mceris either ordered it dug or had the flood-gates built which connected it with the Nile. It was of the highest importance to Egypt. The structures in Upper Egypt were still grander ; the remains still found there are older than 3,000 years. Those of Thebes most excel among them. The plain where this enormous city of one hundred gates was situated, is covered with its ruins — temples, palaces, colonnades, obelisks, colossi, sphinxes and subterranean tombs. There are sev- eral alleys, decorated with from two hundred to six hundred colos- sal sphinxes. One of the palaces is of almost immeasurable mag- nitude. A large portico forms the vestibule of a covered hallj the roof of which is supported by 1 34 columns ; every column of the two middle rows is sixty-five feet high and thirty feet wide. More- over, there are the royal tombs (as they are called), built under ground, more than three miles long, with many labyrinths, chambers and halls. The walls, along which mummies are piled up, are adorned with relieves and paintings in fresco, preserved with won- derful freshness, which represent, in part, rural occupations, chases, What of the obelisks? Of Cleopatra's needle? What of the Labyrinth? Of the Lake of Mceris ? Of the monuments of Thebes ? Of the royal tombs ? 28 navigation, festivals ; in part, animals, tools, etc.; in part land and sea fights. All these monuments of sculpture and painting, how- ever, were far behind the Grecian works of art in accomplishment. The Indian monuments of art, constructed in very ancient time, are also remarkable. These consist of temples, grottos and pyra- mids, partly under ground, partly above it, cut in rocks. The grottos of Ellora (in the central part of Hindostan) occupy over two miles in the inside of a mountain. In the pagod (temple) of Cha- lambron, there is a sanctuary with a portico three hundred and sixty feet in length, and two hundred and sixty in width. Nearly one thousand columns, each thirty feet high, support the level roof. The city of Babylon was renowned for its hundred gates and enormous walls, for the bridge leading over the Euphrat, for the sus- pended gardens (/. e., planted on terrasses which were supported by high arches), for the temple of Belus, and other wonders of ar- chitecture. Either Semiramis or Nebuchadnezzar are reported to have built them. In China, Tshing-wang (247-210 B. C.) is said to have con- nected and finished the walls which different princes had erected against the incursions of the northern enemies. This was the ori- gin of the great Chinese wall of one thousand five hundred miles in length, and which is fortified by towers. In Rome, Tarquinius Priscus and his successors built the gigan- tic sinks (subterranean canals), which carried off the filthy water from the lower parts of the city ; the citadel, called capitol, with the . threefold temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, and the Circus Maximus, designed for prize-fighting. Poesy, too, first flourished in the Orient. The Indian poetry attracts by a peculiar tenderness of feeling, and by elegance. It possesses great epic and dramatic poems, which are written in Sans- crit. ^ Among the Hebrews, David and Isaiah became famous by the sublimity of their poems. In Greece, Orpheus wrote poetry, as also did Hesiod, father of the didactic poem, the poetess Sappho, and Homer (about 933 B. C), the greatest poet in ancient times. The latter was born in Give a description of the Indian monuments ; of the grottos of Ellora ; of the pagod of Chalambron ; of the wonders of architecture in Babylon ; of the great Chinese wall ; of the large public buildings in Rome. What was the Circus Maximus destined for? What is the character of Indian and Hebrew poetry ? Who among the latter excelled in poetry ? Who in Greece ? Who was the greatest Greek poet ? 29 Ionia. He is said to have been poor and blind. The subject of his "IHad" is the Trojan war; of the Odyssea Ulysses (Odysseus). It is said that Lycurgus brought his poems to Greece, where they were sung publicly by rhapsodists. It is probable that to both poems several portions were added by later poets. The fabuHst, ^sop, a native from Phrygia, also deserves to be mentioned in this connection. In Egypt and Babylonia, the priests also practiced astronomy, and computed the solar and lunar years. In the former country they also practiced medicine; but anatomy they could carry on only in secret, on account of the superstition of the Egyptians. There were particular physicians for every disease. In Greece, too, many priests were also physicians. As time-keepers, water-clocks (clepsydrae), and sand-glasses were used. The invention of our fig- ures, according to the testimony of the Arabs, is to be ascribed to the Indians. Philosophy could not prosper in the despotic Orient, but it made much better progress among the free Greeks, among whom, even in this period, during the time of Solon, the seven wise men, as they are usually called, appeared. Their doctrines referred to moral and political topics, viz : "A State prospers best if the citi- zens obey the magistrates, and these the laws." — (Solon). "Avarice is the center of all mischief." — (Bias). " Know thyself. "-^(Chilon). "Pardon is more beautiful than vengeance ; the former is human, the latter is brutish." — (Pittacus). Thales was also a celebrated astronomer and mathematician. Bias excelled by his eloquence, which he employed in the defense of the poor and innocent. Pit- tacus freed his country from tyranny and anarchy, and, having restored order, freely resigned the supreme power intrusted to him. ^ IS. Commerce. Phoenieians. Invention of Glass. All commerce was at first carried on by exchange ; it, however, became more perfect by the invention of money and navigation. Money was originally weighed to the seller. As the ancients did not understand the use of the compasses, they carried on shipping What is the subject of his two great poems ? What sciences did the priests cultivate in Egypt and Babylonia ? What kind of time-keepers did the ancients have ? Who invented our figures ? Where did philosophy best prosper ? Name some of the seven wise men of Greece. § 15. How was commerce carried on in ancient times ? By what inventions was it improved ? 30 only along the coasts of the ocean. The large ships had fifty rud- ders or more, arranged in two, three or four rows, either above one another, or together. The greatest trading people of the first period were the Phoeni- cians. The situation of their country on the sea coast invited them to engage in commerce and navigation, and the sterility of their land compelled them thereto. They had colonies on Cyprus and Rhodus, in Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and Africa. They boldly passed the straits of Gibraltar, and advanced as far as England and the coast of Prussia, Cadiz (Gadir) became their trading-place. The articles of commerce consisted of glass and purple, two domes- tic products which they are said to have invented ; cotton, from Egypt; ivory, spices, gold and jewels, from Arabia and India; silver, from Spain ; tin, from England, and amber, which, on ac- count of its scarcity, was then as valuable as gold, from the coasts of the Baltic Sea. Glass was used by the ancients only for the embel- lishment of the ceilings and walls of rooms, and, as an article of trade, to deceive rude people therewith, and to exchange it for pre- cious goods. Houses had no glass windows, but instead thereof curtains or lattices. For drinking purposes, the ancients had earthen pitchers, or goblets made of metal. The mirrors, too, were of metal. Besides the Phoenicians, the Greeks and Babylonians also carried on an extensive commerce. EXERCISES. Which States are believed to be the most ancient, and for what reasons ? What persons of the earliest time in the history of Egypt, Babylonia, Palestine and Greece are called the most remarkable ? At what time are they said to have lived ? What are the names of the greatest conquerors in Egypt, Babylonia, Palestine and Persia ? The most famous heroes of Greece ? What is the name of the greatest Grecian poet ? What foreigners essentially advanced civilization in Greece, and in what way ? ' By what event was Sparta raised to the highest power in the Pelo- ponnesus? What two States became republics almost at the same time, and in what years ? Why is it not probable that Rome has had only seven kings ? Who con- tributed most to the deliverance of Rome ? In what parts do the constitutions of the Egyptians and Indians resemble each other ? In what points does the legis- lation of Solon and Lycurgus ? In what particular is the former superior ? Where did commerce niost flourish ? Of what material were the mirrors made ? Pitchers and goblets ? What other nations carried on commerce ? 81 SECOND PERIOD. From tl^e Greco-Persiar| Wars to Err|peror Augustus. Glorious Age of Greece, Macedoqia's Univer- . sal Moqarcl^Lj, Romarj Republic, From 500 to 30 B, C. riEST CHAPTER-POLITICAL HISTORY. GREECE. 1. ITS GLORIOUS AQE-500 TO 430 B. Oi § 16. Persian Wars. Battle at Marathon. Darius Hystaspes, after having conquered Macedonia, longed for the possession also of beautiful Greece. He soon found pretexts for war. Darius ordered the Athenians to reinstate the expelled tyrant, Hippias; they refused to do so, and demanded that he should be delivered up to them instead. Besides, as the Greeks in Asia Minor had revolted against Darius, they assisted them (see § 5). Hippias, too, excited the king to take vengeance. Consequently Darius was the more determined to wage war against Athens, and even against the whole of Greece. He began war by sea and by land (492 B, C), but his fleet was wrecked in a storm in doubUng the promontory of Athos (Capo Santo), and his land forces also were beaten by the Thracians in small fights. Darius, nevertheless, did not give up his purpose of war, but armed again ; at the same time he dispatched heralds to the different Grecian States demanding earth and water as an acknowledgment of their submission. Sev- eral States sent him this tribute ; but the Athenians threw the her- alds into ditches and wells, saying: " Get your earth and water there ! " Nor did they fare any better at Sparta. I 16. Under what pretext did Darius Hystaspes wage war against the Greeks ? What success did he have in the first campaign ? How did the Athenians and Spartans treat his heralds ? 32 This violation of the international law enraged Darius. He sent a still greater army (500,000 men, as some report), and a fleet of six hundred ships. Hippias was also with the Persian troops. They carried chains and a huge marble block — the former to be used in taking the Athenians in fetters to the king, the latter to be erected as a trophy in the conquered land. The fleet sailed first to the island of Euboea, where was the hated town of Eretria, which, in the sedition of the Asiatic Greeks, had conspired with the Athe- nians. It was taken by storm, pillaged, and burned down, and the • inhabitants were carried off" as slaves to the interior of the Persian empire. The enemy overrun Attica. Athens called on the Grecian States for help, but the Spartans Hngered because superstition did not allow them to set out before full-moon, and the other States refused aid entirely. Platasse, only, sent one thousand men. Athens armed nine thousand citizens and the slaves. According to the advice of Miltiades it was resolved to attack the enemy in open battle. The other nine generals also offered him their right of command, in which they succeeded each other in regular rotation day by day. One of these generals was Aristides. The Athenians were encamped on the plain of Marathon, opposite the enemies. Though much inferior to them in numbers, they were well drilled in arms, and led by excellent chiefs. They were inspired with love of their country and of liberty, and glowing with hate against the ser- vants of the despot. On the other hand, the Persians were forced to fight in a foreign country, without courage and experience in war. Miltiades put his army at the foot of the mountains in battle array ; he distributed his main forces on both wings, and the slaves in the center. Then he gave the signal for the attack (490 B. C.) The Greeks, according to his order, rapidly ran towards the enemy. Their impetuosity terrified the latter ; they broke through the two wings of the Persians, and then attacked the main corps, which had already compelled the slaves to yield, and put the enemy to flight. The retreating Persians were pursued and harassed until they reached their ships, seven of which were burned. Among the killed was Plippias ; his hope to see Athens in the fetters of bond- age was now frustrated. The whole Persian camp, with all its treas- What forces did he muster in the second campaign ? What was the fate of Eretria ? Why did the Spartans not support the Athenians ? Who alone sup- ported Athens? Who was their general? Describe the battle at Marathon. How did Miltiades distribute his forces ? What of the slaves ? 33 ures, became the spoil of the victors. Never was the joy over a victory greater. While the victorious army pursued the Persians, a courier, covered with blood and dust, hurried to Athens, crying to the citizens, " Rejoice, we have gained the victory ! " and fell down lifeless. The Persians then endeavored to surprise Athens, but Mil- tiades got the start of them, and already stood in arms before the city when they approached it. Frightened, they hastened back to Asia in their ships. The day after the battle the Spartans arrived, looked over the .battle-field, the conquered spoils, and returned, ashamed, to their homes. The Athenians buried their dead fellow- citizens in the most solemn manner, and erected beautiful monuments over their graves. They especially honored Miltiades, the hero of the day. The whole people received their savior with shouts of joy, and his glory was rendered immortal in a large, skillfully- wrought painting, which, in several divisions, represented the course of the battle. For a long time the Athenians celebrated the glorious day with solemn processions and sacrifices. Later, they engaged Phi- dias to sculpture, from that marble block of the enemies, a statue of the goddess Nemesis, the avenger of human insolence, and raised it on the field of battle. Soon after the battle, Miltiades learned of the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens. He had asked a fleet to chastise the islands which had betrayed the common cause. His attack on the island of Paros failed. He returned wounded, and was accused of having been bribed by Darius. His brother defended him at court, where, though acquitted from the capital charge, he was condemned to pay the expenses the armament of the fleet had caused. As he was un- able to immediately pay the necessary sum, he was thrown into prison, where he, as some report, died of the wounds he had re- ceived at Paros. Aristides, who had materially contributed to the victory of Mar- athon, was also rewarded with ingratitude. By his stern integrity in judicial decisions, he had acquired high authority, and the sur- name of the "Just." The young Themistocles, jealous of his pub- lic power, opposed him, and succeeded, by ostracism, in having him banished for ten years. During the voting (as they say), an igno- What of the courier who carried the news of the victory to Athens ? How did the Persians succeed when they attempted to surprise Athens ? When did the Spartans arrive ? How did the Athenians honor their fallen citizens and Miltiades ? What of Phidias ? How did the Athenians treat Miltiades, when his attack on the island of Paros failed ? (3) 34 rant man who did not know how to write, brought his shell to Aris- tides, whom he did not know, requesting that he would write the name of Aristides upon it. " Why, what harm has Aristides ever done you?" said he. "No harm at all," answered the citizen; "but I cannot bear to hear him continually called the 'Just.'" Aristides smiled, and taking the shell, wrote his name on it. He submitted calmly to the unjust decree of the people, saying ; " I pray the gods not to permit that the Athenians ever have reason to remember me." His love of justice, among numerous instances, may be illustrated by the following : Once, in a lawsuit, the plaint- iff reminded him of the injury Aristides himself had suffered from the adversary; but Aristides replied: "Tell me only what wrong your adversary has done to yon, for now I am not iny, but your judge." \ 17. Continued. Battle at Thermopylae. Leonidas. Darius could not forget the ignominy he suffered. He com- menced new, immense armaments, and after his death his son, Xerxes, continued them. He declared that all nations of his great monarchy must take part in the war against Greece. Thus it hap- pened that the retinue of sutlers, slaves, women and children in- cluded, about two miUions of people, took the field. But among them were only 10,000 of choice troops. The fleet consisted of 1,200 galleys of war, besides 3,000 transports and smaller vessels. The Grecian States saw the approaching tempest ; nevertheless, they were at variance among themselves. Athens and Sparta de- sired a general aUiance ; but some held aloof by a warning of the oracle ; others, through a fear of the king of the Persians ; some even already paid him homage. At this crisis, Themistocles saved Greece. While yet a boy, he showed such rare faculties that his teachers said that he was destined to become either the blessing or the curse of his native town. Instead of being fond of playing, like other boys, he delivered extempore speeches, in which he im- peached or defended his playmates. Nothing in instruction inter- ested him so much as matters which concerned the State. While in a merry company at one time he was taunted because he did not Why was Aristides called "the Just?" How did he behave towards a citizen who wanted him to write his name on a shell ? Give an illustration of his justice. ^17. What did Darius recommence? Who continued the arma- ments? How large was the army of Xerxes? Who saved Greece? What was the occupation of Themistocles in his youth ? 35 know how to play the lyre. " Well," replied he, proudly, " I do not know how t© sing and play ; still I think I know the art of ren- dering a State famous and great." The glory of Miltiades excited his ambition so that he admitted to his friends that the trophy of that hero did not let him sleep. This man foresaw the war with the Persian kings; therefore he had induced the Athenians to build betimes a large fleet. Now he reconciled the discordant States, and, in the congress of the Greeks, at Corinth, he inspired them for vigorous resistance. Meanwhile the masses of the hostile army arrived at the Helles- pont, with Xerxes himself at their head. A bridge of boats was built over the straits by his order, and as a storm destroyed it, a new one was constructed. A passage was then effected, which is said to have lasted seven days and seven nights. The fleet followed the land forces. The enemies were scattered over Thracia and Thes- salia, as far as the narrow mountain pass of Thermopylae, the key of Greece. Here, where mountains and morasses only permitted a narrow passage, Leonidas, king of Sparta, had encamped with eight thousand Greeks (for Sparta at that time still had the leader- ship of the Grecian states, 480 B. C.) The Grecian fleet was cruis- ing in the neighboring ocean. The Spartans adorned themselves, as they were accustomed to do before a battle, braided their long hair, and performed sportive combats. The Persian king, to whom a scout reported the news of this occupation, was much astonished. He commanded Leonidas to deliver up his arms, who sent him this answer : " Come and take them." Xerxes waited four days more in the hope of seeing the Greeks retreat of their own accord; finally, on the fifth he com- menced an attack. All captured Greeks were to be brought alive in- to his presence. The Greeks, in close rows, and covered with great shields, stretched their long pikes towards the Persians. All attacks failed ; the enemies fought till evening, but finally withdrew with great loss. The corps of the ten thousands, called the immortals, marched on to their place ; but after a murderous contest, they also were forced to yield. The next day there was a new combat, and the same result. The hirelings refused to fight longer ; they were driven with lashes into the narrows. Xerxes already despaired of Who reconciled the discordant Greeks ? What accident destroyed the bridge which Xerxes had built over the Hellespont ? Who opposed his march ? And where ? What was the pastime of the Spartans before the battle ? Describe the battle. 36 the possibility of gaining the victory, when a wretch, whose name was Ephialtes, betrayed to him the by-path which led over the mountains. Forthwith he dispatched the corps of the immortals. These found but a feeble resistance on their march, and assailed Leonidas in the rear. The latter sent the army of the allies back, retaining only his three hundred Spartans ; with these he resolved to die. One thousand Thespians and Thebans remained, by their own choice, with him. All adorned and armed themselves, and cheerfully took their last meal. " The next repast," said Leonidas, " we shall take in the nether world." The next morning he ad- vanced to the wider part of the valley. His small troop fights with the courage of lions. They make dreadful havoc among their enemies. Two brothers of Xerxes were slain. After the spears of the heroes were shivered to pieces, they still fight with swords. Leonidas at their head, is one of the first to fall. A furious combat takes place over his corpse. The Persians, who desire to secure it, are four times repelled ; at last the Greeks get possession of the dear treasure, and hold it till the troop which Ephialtes guides, assails them from the rear. The faithless Thebans, too, desert to the ene- mies; but the Spartans and Thespians retreat, fighting, to a hill where they still defend themselves, till the last man falls. Later, the place where the heroes had died for their country was marked by the simple epitaph : "Go, passenger, and tell Lacedsemon that we died here in obedience to her laws." A lion of stone pointed out the spot in the defile where Leonidas had expired. Ephialtes did not escape his deserved reward. The Amphictyons offered a prize for his head, and when he took to flight he was killed. § 18. Continued. Battle at Salanais. Themistoeles. The battle at Thermopylae had caused Xerxes the loss of 20,000 men; it was small for him, but it raised the enthusiasm of the Greeks so much higher. His troops poured down upon Hellas and laid it waste by fire and sword. The people of the Pelopon- nesus abandoned Athens and the other Greeks to their fate, and intrenched themselves behind the isthmus of Corinth. In this for- lorn condition the Athenians consulted the oracle of Delphi ; they Who betrayed them ? In what manner ? How did Leonidas then dispose of his troops ? Give an account of the last contest. What epitaph marked the place of the battle ? How did Ephialtes perish? f iS. How did the States of Peloponnesus endeavor to save themselves? What answer did the oracle of Delphi give to the Atheiiians ? 37 received the ambiguous answer that Athens must seek shelter behind wooden walls. Themistocles, who had caused the priestess to dictate this reply of the oracle, persuaded his fellow-citizens that by the wooden walls their ships were understood. At his advice, therefore, they left the city, and gave it up with their goods to the enemies. All men who were able to bear arms, betook themselves to the ships ; the old men, women and children took refuge in the neighboring islands. Xerxes pillaged and burned the empty town. The Grecian fleet, which meanwhile had gloriously fought at Artemisium (on the northern end of Euboea), and then had sailed to the straits of Salamis (opposite Athens), desired to depart from this place now in order to defend the Peloponnesus, Themis- tocles explained how unwise this plan was, and advised the Greeks to remain. In the heat of the dispute which ensued between the commanders, Eurybiades, commander-in-chief, lifted his cane against him ; but Themistocles cried : " No matter, strike ; but hear me! " When he threatened that the Athenians, whose ships com- posed nearly half the fleet, would leave it, and expose the allies to destruction, his advice finally was accepted. But, as they under- stood that the Persian fleet was approaching, this resolution would have been disregarded if he had not used a stratagem, viz., he dis- closed to Xerxes the design of the Greeks to leave the bay, and advised him to surround them in the night, because he could in this manner easily vanquish them. The king, consenting, was thus en- snared. Xerxes enclosed the bay and immediately made the neces- sary preparations for the battle. Aristides, who lived exiled in ^gina, first observed the movement of the enemies. He forgot all of his personal enmity, and, at the risk of his life, hastened through the hostile ships to Themistocles, reported to him what he had seen, and offered to serve under his orders. The proposal was readily accepted. At daybreak, Xerxes gave the signal for the battle; it began. Themistocles made a courageous attack with the fleet of the Athe- nians. Only a few of the clumsy Persian ships could fight together in the narrow bay. The wind, which had risen during the night, dashed them against one another, or drove them against rocks and cliffs, where they foundered. The Grecian ships entered between What was the result of it ? Where did the Persian fleet sail to ? What was the desire of the allies now ? By what means did Themistocles compel them to remain and to engage in battle ? What of Aristides ? Give an account of the battle at Salamis. Why was the Persian fleet defeated ? 38 them from all sides, and sank them or made them useless for com- bat. Confusion and disorder spread among the enemies, and in the midst of the combat the Asiatic Greeks, too, deserted to their brothers. The Grecian fleet, though only composed of 380 sails, gained a complete victory (480 B. C.) Xerxes, confounded by the defeat of his fleet, ordered it to set out immediately for the Helles- pont, and followed it with the larger portion of the land forces, which, on their retreat, were still more reduced by disease and want of provisions. Only Mardonius, with 300,000 men, remained in Thessalia. Greece acknowledged that it owed its safety chiefly to Themis- tocles. For that reason the Spartans carried him in triumph into their capital, adorned him with an olive-branch, presented to him the finest chariot they possessed, and sent the royal body-guard to escort him as far as their boundaries. As the Olympian games were celebrated soon after, all who were present rose before him, and he was the subject of such general admiration, on account of his dignified appearance, that the people entirely forgot the com- bats. Themistocles declared this day to have been the most grate- ful of his life. § 19. Concluded. Battle at Plataeae. Pausanias. Aris- tides. Cimon. The returning spring of 479 B. C. called the Greeks to the last combat against the Persians. First, Mardonius endeavored to in- duce the Athenians to desert the allies, promising, in the .name of his king, to enlarge their territory considerably, if they would enter into a confederation with him. But all artifices of Mardonius were baffled by the faithfulness of Aristides, who, after his glorious con- duct at Salamis, had been recalled, and, at that time, was first Archon. The Athenians, upon his advice, answered that they would fight the Persian king as long as the sun moved in its accus- tomed course. They promulgated the direst imprecations against whoever should make a proposition to unite with the Persians. When Mardonius saw that his proposals were rejected, he in- vaded the territory of the Athenians and laid it waste. Shamefully forsaken by the Spartans, they were obhged again to flee from their native city. Hoping that they had become less obstinate by their What of the Asiatic Greeks ? How was Themistocles recompensed ? ^ 19. Who baffled the artifices of Mardonius ? How did Mardonius endeavor to make the Athenians less obstinate ? 39 distress, Mardonius again offered them the same conditions of peace, but they were refused with the same stern resolution as be- fore. A senator who moved to accept them was stoned by the furious people. Meanwhile the Spartans built a rampart on the isthmus of Corinth. At last they became persuaded of the folly of this enterprise, and sent auxiliary troops. The aUies, mustering 100,000 men, now marched to Boeotia, in the environs of Platse^. Pausanias had the chief command ; Aristides was at the head of the Athenians. Much time, however, passed away before the attack actually took place. At length, as the Greeks, from want of pro- visions, left their encampment, and marched towards Plataeae, Mar- donius, taking their retreat for flight, set out and pursued them at the head of his cavalry; the remainder of the army followed in disorder, glad to have a chance to vanquish their enemies without striking a blow. A terrible conflict, however, soon ensued. As the Persians were three times as numerous as the Greeks, and fought valiantly, it was for a long time a drawn battle. Bvit when Mardo- nius fell, struck by the spear of a Spartan, his corps gave way in fright ; the rest soon also broke in the confusion, and the flight became general. The Persians retreated to their fortified encamp- ment, but the victors also attacked them there, scaled the wooden walls, and cut down almost all enemies. They captured an immense amount of spoils. On the same day of the victory of Platsese, the Greeks engaged and burned the Persian fleet at the promontory of Mycale, near Ephesus ; after this, the lonians declared themselves free, and joined the aUiance of the European Greeks. Athens was reconstructed and made more beautiful than it was before, and the city and har- bor, under the direction of Themistocles, enclosed within a strong wall. The Spartans in vain opposed its construction, pretending that, in case of a new attack, the Persians would be provided with a new stronghold. The Athenians, afraid of the resistance of their rivals, had recourse to an artifice^ upon the advice of Themistocles ; namely, they promised soon to send embassadors to Sparta, who would impart full information concerning this affair. Meantime all, even women, children and slaves, continued building the walls, and Themistocles went himself to Sparta, but there retarded the desired Who were the Grecian commanders in the battle at Platseae ? Give a de- scription of it. What of Mardonius ? Of the Persian camp ? What other action took place at Mycale on the same day? Who opposed the construction of the walls of Athens ? By what artifice did Themistocles outwit the Spartans ? 40 explanation, under the pretext that he must wait for the arrival of his colleagues. As the Spartans complained that the construction of the walls was not discontinued, he denied the fact, and requested them to send embassadors to Athens to ascertain. They did so ; but, according to the directions of Themistocles, the Athenians detained the deputies until the walls were finished ; then he declared to the Spartans that his townsmen had enclosed their city with walls, because it certainly was their right to do so, and because it was both to their own advantage and for the welfare of all alHes. As the Spartans saw that they were outwitted, they liberated the embassadors of Athens, whereupon the latter also permitted the Spartan embassadors to return home. The Grecians continued the war against the Persians, in order to also liberate their colonies from their dominion. Pausanias con- ducted himself with such revolting haughtiness towards the other allies that they would no longer serve under his command, and elected Aristides their commander-in-chief, because he was honest and commanded universal respect (447 B.' C.) In this manner Sparta lost the prerogative of the chief command in war, which now passed to the Athenians. After the death of Aristides the brave Cimon, son of Miltiades, became general-in-chief ot the federal troops. He vanquished the Persians several times. Pausanias and Themistocles, in later time, stained the glory they had gained in the Persian war. The former, in a secret letter to Xerxes, promised to effect the subjugation of Greece, on condition of his receiving his daughter in marriage ; besides, he lived in such a pompous manner that it caused the suspicion of treason, which was soon proved. The ephori recalled the traitor from the army, and attempted to seize him ; but he succeeded in escaping to the Tem- ple of Minerva, which was regarded as a sacred asylum, the entrance of which they closed up, and he was left to perish by hunger. It is said that even his aged mother assisted in carrying stones for this purpose. Themistocles also was accused of being an accomplice of Pausanias. He at that time Hved in Argos, whither the Athe- nians, influenced by his personal enemies and the Spartans, had banished him. They sent officers there to arrest him, but he escaped, amidst many dangers, to Asia, where he was graciously received by the king of the Persians. He promised to aid him in subjugating Who became commander-in-chief instead of Pausanias ? Who after Aris- tides ? How did Pausanias stain the glory he had gained ? What was his end ? What of his mether ? How did Themistocles behave in later time ? 41 Greece. The king made him many presents, and, for his support, assigned him the revenues of three cities. It is also reported that Themistocles, perceiving that it was impossible to fulfill the given promise, finally committed suicide. Aristides enjoyed the confidence of his fellow-citizens and even of all confederates, to the end of his Hfe. Knowing his strict hon- esty, which had been oftentimes tried, they committed to him the superintendence of the federal treasury, which he administered with the greatest faithfulness, and in so doing, remained poor himself. One of his relatives, the richest citizen in Athens, being reproached for allowing Aristides and his family to pine in poverty, vindicated himself by asserting that he often, but in vain, offered him large sums of money, and appealed to the testimony of Aristides himself. Aristides died in honorable poverty, not leaving enough to even pay the expenses of his burial. The State paid them, and provided also for his family. Cimon, like the other powerful Athenians, was also banished, because his fellow-citizens were afraid of his great authority ; but after the fifth year he was permitted to return. He gained the admiration and affection of the Athenians, not only in war, but also in peace. He put the harbor into closer connection with the city by the magnificent long walls, which were constructed at his sugges- tion. He allowed everyone to eat of the fruits of his gardens, which were left without guardians or enclosures. If he went out, he was always followed by servants, in order to be able to give to the needy. He often offered his upper garment to the poorly clothed and indigent. He assisted every needy person with his wealth and oifered them protection ; he enriched many, and buried others at his expense. His demise was generally mourned. 2, PKOGEESSIVE DECAY OF THE GEECIAN STlTES-430-146 B, C. § 20. Peloponnesian War. Pericles. Alcibiades. Soon after the Persian wars, the domestic quarrels of the Grecian States began,.in which they inflicted upon each other deeper wounds than the Persians had ever done. Sparta and Athens, especially, hated each other bitterly. Athens, by its merits, had become the What did the confederates commit to Aristides on account of his honesty ? Illustrate, by an example, how he bore poverty. Who provided for his burial and his family? Give an account of Cimon' s character, especially of his munifi- cence. § 20. What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war ? 42 . head of the confederation. In addition to this Pericles had trans- formed it, not only by making it the principal seat of all the arts and sciences, but also by making it more powerful than it ever was before, by subjecting to it many cities and islands. In a word, he had elevated it to the principal State of Greece. Athens now in- sisted upon ruling the allies, severely punished their revolts, and declared that the stronger had a right to govern the weaker; in other words, that 20,000 Athenians (for that was the number of citizens of Athens, out of its 180,000 inhabitants) had the right to govern fifteen millions of Greeks. Its sway over the smaller States was especially oppressive. This was the reason why the Pelopon- nesian war finally broke out, which devastated Greece for twenty- seven years .,(437-404 B. C.) The two rivals led the contending parties, and summoned all their allies to the combat. At the same time it was a struggle of the constitutions ; most of the aristocratic States joined the Spartans and most of the democratic the Athenians. The Athenians, having assisted the inhabitants of Corcyra against the Corinthians, were accused by the latter of having thereby vio- lated the treaty of the confederated States of Peloponnesus, and an appeal to arms was immediately resolved on. Pericles commanded the Athenians and their allies. In the first years of the war both parties mutually ravaged their territories. Attica was visited by a dreadful plague (430 B. C.), which depopulated the town and country. The Athenians accused Pericles, who had persuaded them to wage war, to be the originator of all their misfortunes, removed him from the command, and inflicted a fine upon him ; they soon reinstated him, however, into all his offices, but shortly afterwards he fell a victim to the plague. The terrors of civil war continued raging. The inhabitants of Potidaea, in Thracia, bravely maintained the siege of the Athenians, and at last preferred to eat human flesh rather than surrender. Sparta was so debased that it had recourse, for the sake of ven- geance, to the friendship of the Persian king, and solicited his suc- cor. In order to obstruct all methods of reconciliation, both repub- lics caused their embassadors to be mutually intercepted on the way, and killed. The Athenians killed 1,000 captives of Mytilene What States were at the head of the two contending parties ? Which was the leader of the democratic States ? Which of the aristocratic ? How many years did the war last ? Who was the commander of the Athenians ? What calamity befell Attica? What of Potidsea? From whom did the Spartans solicit succor? 43 (in Lesbos). The Spartans destroyed Platseae, killed the men, and enslaved the women and children. They enticed 2,000 Helots to Sparta under the pretense of making them free, and then, being afraid of their power, murdered them. After some years, the con- tending parties concluded a treaty of peace (421 B. C), called the peace of Nicias ; but it did not last long. As some of the cities of Sicily implored the aid of Athens against Syracuse, Alcibiades, the most talented and wealthiest, but also the most inconsiderate and luxurious citizen of Athens, persuaded the credulous people to fit out a large fleet, stimulating them with the hope that they certainly would conquer not only Syracuse and Sicily, but also lower Italy, Carthage, and finally the Peloponnesus. Scarcely had he landed in Sicily (415 B. C), when he was ordered to return to defend himself against the accusation of irreligious pro- fanation, brought about as follows : Not long before his departure he had, at night, with certain wanton companions, upset and muti- lated the statues of Mercury, called Hermes. This, at least, was the accusation brought against him by his enemies. He did not answer in law, but left the army secretly, and learning that the sen- tence of death had beeii passed upon him, went over to the Spar- tans. The revellef, with admirable facility, submitted to their severe way of living, and soon gained such a power over their minds that he could move them to support the Syracusans against Athens. The army of the Athenians perished miserably in Sicily. As Alcibiades offended one of the Spartan kings, the government ordered him to be killed. He was warned, and fled to the Persians. The Athenians, depressed by the disasters which had befallen them since the condemnation of Alcibiades, longed for the absent one ; he was recalled, and again obtained the chief command. He vanquished the Spartans, and returned triumphantly to Athens ; the whole country hailed him -v^ith exultation. He fought against the Spartans during some years with the greatest success (410-408 B. C.) ; but while he forcibly levied auxiliaries in Ionia, his substi- tute, though positively forbidden to do so, engaged in a battle, and lost it. The Athenians now dismissed him, whom they just had idolized, the second time, electing ten generals instead. He went What city did they destroy ? What atrocious action did the Athenians com- mit in Mytilene ? How did the Spartans treat the Helots ? What pernicious advice did Alcibiades give to the Athenians ? Why did he leave Sicily and go to Sparta ? Why did the Athenians recall him ? And why again dismiss him ? What battle did they lose? 44 to Thracia, bought some ships, conquered a small territory for him- self, and lived under Persian protection. To ^gos-Potamos (river of the goat) all the troops of the Athenians also moved. Alci- biades_ warned the careless commanders against the enemies in vain. They scornfully rejected his counsel. One evening, as their troops were ashore, straggling and dispersed, Lysander, aided by the Per- sians, surprised them, and completely vanquished both the fleet and the land forces. Two hundred ships were captured and three thousand men taken prisoners, and a large number killed. He then besieged Athens (404 B. C), compelled the city to surrender, demolished, to the sound of flutes and national music, its magnifi- cent walls and fortifications, and burned all their galleys, except twelve. In the future, Athens was only to keep twelve galleys, and follow Sparta in every war. The democratic constitution was abolished, and an aristocratic government established. As a senate of thirty members was instituted in Sparta, thirty citizens, siding with the Spartans, also obtained the highest power in Athens. The government of these men, notorious under the name of the thirty tyrants, was terrible. Banishments, rapine and executions were the order of the day. Alcibiades, also, was condemned to die. Those who were sent to kill him, not daring to enter his house, surrounded it and set it on fire. Alcibiades having quitted it, went headlong through their arms and the flames, sword in hand ; the cowards fled, and killed him at a distance, showering their arrows upon him. At last, Thrasybulus, secretly supported by Thebes, undertook the deliverance of his country (403 B. C.) Strengthened by many fugitives, he invaded Attica, took the harbor (Piraeus) by force, and beat the army of tyrants. They Avere compelled to leave the city, and, as they endeavored to maintain their power, they were cap- tured and killed. The people gave to its liberator a crown of honor, wreathed with two olive-twigs, ^nd the modest hero was sat- isfied with the small reward. The free constitution was re-estab- lished, and later the walls of the city were rebuilt by Conon. But Athens nevermore attained its former splendor and glory. § 21. Socrates. Soon after the overthrow of the tyrants, followed the execution of the noble-minded Socrates, in Athens. He was first a sculptor, What ruinous effects did their defeat have ? Who then governed in Athens ? How did the thirty tyrants govern in Athens ? What of Thrasybulus ? How did Alcibiades end his life ? 45 but later left this art and became a teacher of the people, in the broadest and noblest signification of the word. He devoted him- self to the vocation of encouraging both citizens and strangers to do good; of recommending the practice of virtue and justice, and of vigorously opposing the moral corruption then prevaiHng in Athens. He neglected his own interests for the sake of this calhng, being always poor ; he was even determined to die for it, for he believed that by so doing he could be most useful to his fellow- citizens. Therefore, as the thirty tyrants forbade him to instruct the youth, he did not obey them, declaring to his judges that»he would rather die than live longer on the condition that he should not teach. There was then in Athens a numerous class of scholars who principally professed rhetoric, but who, for money, taught the defense of every cause, even the meanest one, and declared the principles of morality and justice to be merely superstition. These men were called sophists. He attacked them openly, often puzzled them by perplexing questions, and, by the use of irony, made them ashamed of themselves. But the occupation he liked best was to teach and educate tal- ented young men. The culture of their minds was the chief object to him. He once met the young Xenophon in a narrow thor- oughfare. He stopped him with his staff, asking : " Tell me, if you please, where flour is sold." The youth answered: "In the market." "And oil ? " " Also there." " But in what place do men learn virtue ? " The young man was silent. Socrates cried : " Follow me, and I will show you." And Xenophon became his pupil. Socrates taught strict obedience to parents and the laws ; he disclaimed against the principle of retaliation, as evil for evil, etc. He called it foolish to pray for riches. He said : " First take care of virtue; for real happiness issues from it of itself." His method of teaching was peculiar, in this, that he endeav- ored to excite reflection, and to spread enlightenment by proper questions. He neither took pay nor presents from his scholars. He saved the life of two of them (Xenophon and Alcibiades), in battle. He himself was released by the latter, while in danger of his own hfe, from the throng of enemies who had surrounded him. §21. What vocation did Socrates follow firstj what did he follow later ? What did he teach his fellow-citizens ? Was he selfish in teaching ? What did he de- clare to the thirty tyrants ? How did he deal with the sophists ? Mention his conversation with Xenophon ? What was his method of teaching ? Whose lives did he save ? Who saved him ?' 46 His instruction was zealously sought for. Euclides sometimes trav- eled twenty miles, from Megara, to enjoy it at least one day ; and when the Megarians, during the war, were forbidden to set foot into Attica upon pain of death, he, nevertheless, in the disguise of a woman, risked it and went to him. Socrates confirmed his doctrines by his own example ; in fact, he believed that this was the main point in virtue. He lived in a very plain and unostentatious manner. To his moderation in living he owed it that he Avas always in good health, even while the plague ' was raging in Athens. He could pass, without any ill effects, a sleepless night, and be able the next day to Avrestle as vigorously, to teach as ingeniously, and entertain, as at other times. He was always cheerful and in good humor, and patiently bore offenses. He was free-spoken against the thirty tyrants. When they com- manded him to bring a man to them whom they wanted to kill, he did not obey them. Thus he wrought great benefit in his vocation during forty years. The most illustrious men of Greece proceeded from his school. He could not help, by his method of teaching, of making a number of people his enemies. The sophists and some ambitious politicians hated him bitterly. His adversaries at first attempted to ridicule him publicly, but as he did not care for that, they engaged Melitus, a wretched poet, to appear as plaintiff before the people. He represented Socrates to be an enemy of hberty, who daily in- veighed against the democratic form of government, and especially thought that it was nonsense to bestow the highest offices by lot. He added that Alcibiades was an enemy of the repubhc, and Critias and Theramenes (both also pupils of Socrates), had been at the head of the thirty tyrants, and concluded that it thereby was proved that Socrates corrupted the youth. Besides, he accused him of introducing new divinities. To be sure, Socrates had de- clared himself several times against superstitious customs ; the phil- osophers generally were reproached for not believing in the divin- ities of the country. Both offenses — corruption of youth, and introduction of new gods — were capital crimes. Other plaintiffs pleaded in the same way as Melitus. What of the zeal of Euclides to hear him? Why did he enjoy good health ? What was his humor ? When did he disobey the tyrants of Athens ? How long was he teaching ? Had he eminent scholars ? How did his adversaries try to ruin him ? What of Melitus ? 47 Socrates defended himself courageously and calmly, proving his innocence. The fathers and older brothers of his scholars also tes- tified in his favor ; nevertheless, he was declared guilty. He was allowed to choose one of three penalties — fine, imprisonment or banishment. He protested against all, declaring that he thought he merited the same as other men who had deserved well of the coun- try : to be maintained for the rest of his life at the expense of the repubhc, in the Prytaneum. This liberal sentiment provoked his judges so that, at the second voting, they passed the sentence of death upon him (399 B. C.) He said to them : " I am going to suffer death by your order, to which nature condemned me from the first moment of my birth ; but my accusers will soon suffer from infamy by the decrees of truth." By chance he was obliged to remain in prison thirty days, till his execution. His scholars and friends desired to liberate him by brib- ing the jailor. All preparations for his flight were made; but he rejected the offer, for such an action seemed to him to be against the laws, and beneath his honor. In prison he conversed every day with them on the hoHest truths of philosophy. The last day they came early in the morning; his wife also arrived; she was sobbing and setting up great cries. Socrates desired them to take her away. One of his friends expressed his grief at his having to die innocent. " What ! " replied he, with a smile, " would you have me rather die guilty ? " Towards evening the jailor entered to inform him that the time for drinking the hemlock was come ; he was so affected with sorrow that he turned his back and began to weep. The fatal cup was brought. Socrates asked what was necessary for him to do. " Nothing more," replied the servant, " than, as soon as you • have drank it, to walk about till you find your legs grow weary, and afterwards lie down upon your bed." He took up the cup with serenity, without any emotion or change in his color or coun- tenance, and drank the whole draught. Till then his friends re- frained from tears ; but after he had drank the potion, they could Of what two crimes did he accuse him ? "Who defended him ? What was the verdict of his judges ? What reply did he make to them ? What was their final sentence ? What did he answer then ? Who attempted to liberate him ? Why did he reject the oflfer ? On what topics did he converse with his scholars in prison ? What of his wife ? Relate the particulars of his death. What directions did the jailor give him ? 48 • • ■ no longer master themselves, but began to cry aloud, wringing their hands. He consoled them, saying : " Be at ease ; it was to escape this, I sent away the women." In the meantime, he kept on walk- ing to and fro ; and when he found his legs grow weary, he laid down upon his bed, as he had been directed to do, and covered his face. The poison then operated more and more. When he found it began to gain upon his heart, he uncovered his face, and, soon after, breathed his last. Such was the end of Socrates, according to the declaration of the oracle of Delphi, the wisest man of the Greeks, and, in Xenophon's opinion, the most virtuous and hap- piest of men. § 22. Theban War. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Battles at Leuctrae and Mantinea. After the conquest of Athens, Sparta was again at the head of the Grecian government; but the citizens were no more animated by the principles of Lycurgus. To the severity and rudeness of the ancient Spartans, they added greediness and bribery, and severely oppressed the other States. By uniting the pillaged and extorted treasures, they became luxurious and immoral. The other Grecians, however, obeyed them with servile submission, and even erected al- tars to the tyrant Lysander. At last they again took courage, and made an alliance against Sparta, not only among themselves, but also with the Persians. The second civil war commenced. The allies, assisted by the Persian fleet, which the Athenian, Conon, com-' manded (394 B. C.), were victorious at sea ; but the Spartans, led by their king, Agesilaus, prevailed on land. After that, Artaxerxes dictated to free Greece the peace, by virtue of which the Asiatic Grecians again had to submit to the Persian yoke. The war was soon recommenced, because Sparta ruled with more tyrannical sway than ever before. A Spartan army set out on its march to Macedonia (382 B. C.) When passing through Boeo- tia, it came close to Thebes. As a party contest was just prevailing here, some malcontent noblemen suggested to the Spartan general Describe his last moments. What did the oracle and Xenophon declare him to be? §22. What was the character of the Spartans after the conquest of Athens? Mention some particulars of the second civil war. How was the citadel of Thebes captured by the Spartans ? 49 the scheme of takmg possession of the citadel, in order that they and their partisans could, under Sp.artan protection, act much more as they pleased. The proposal was accepted, and the Spartans occupied the citadel during the prevalence of peace. Four hun- dred Thebans escaped to Athens. The people endured the oppres- sion of the Spartans and of their Theban partisans for four years ; then several fugitives, encouraged by Pelopidas, resolved to put an end to it. The time determined upon to execute the enterprise, was at a festival. The majority of the exiles should stop at the frontier, but some were to hasten before to Thebes, in order to first dispatch the tyrants. The Thebans, disguised as peasants, and bringing hounds and hunting apparel with them, went to the house of a conspirator, where they met several associates. Meanwhile the tyrants revelled thoughtlessly at a nocturnal banquet. A messenger from Athens delivered to one of them a letter which contained a detailed account of the whole conspiracy, and asked him to read the letter immediately, because it concerned very serious affairs. " Serious affairs to-morrow ! " repHed the drunken despot, and put the letter under his pillow. Soon after Pelopidas and the conspira- tors arrived in the disguise of dancing-girls, drew their poniards, and killed them all. Next morning the rest of the exiles arrived from Attica, joined them, and the people, encouraged by Epamin- ondas, besieged the citadel. The Spartan garrison was obliged to surrender before relief came from Sparta. Agesilaus now led a great army, supported by all the confederates, -against the Thebans, but did not gain a decisive advantage over their commander, Pelop- idas. Athens aided Thebes with its naval forces, and vanquished the combined fleet of the enemies (376 B. C.) A general congress met soon thereafter to make peace. The principal condition was, that all States should become entirely independent and sovereign. Peace was again restored by Persian intervention. Thebes alone was excluded, because it would not accord freedom to the Boeotian townships unless Sparta also restored the Messenians to liberty. Sparta, supported by the other Greeks, assaulted the forsaken foe with renewed fury ; at Leuctra, in Boeotia, the Spartans fought with 25,090 men against 6,000 Thebans (371 B. C.) Epaminondas was the How long a time did their government last? Who then delivered the Thebans? In which way? In what disguise did the conspirators introduce themselves ? What were the effects of the surprise ? What of Agesilaus and the general congress ? What did they resolve upon ? Give an account of the battle at Leuctra. . (4) 50 commander of his fellow-citizens ; Pelopidas fought at the head of the Sacred Battalion, which was ^composed of three hundred brave young men, who had pledged, under oath, to defend each other to the last drop of blood. Proud Sparta suffered a complete defeat, the heaviest she had ever endured. Epaminondas, whose strategic art had conduced most to this victory, declared the joy his parents felt over his victory to be his best reward. He then invaded Laco- nia, where, according to a Spartan adage, till then a woman never had seen the smoke of a hostile camp, alarmed the capital, and delivered the Messenians from the dominion of Sparta. Those who were dispersed in different regions then returned, and under his protection built a new city for themselves. Satisfied to have humil- iated Sparta, he returned home. Here the victor was about to be punished with death, for the following reason : He, Pelopidas, and the other generals, were summoned to answer as criminals for having retained their com- mand some months beyond the appointed term. He desired to be alone held responsible for the crime, and declared himself to be prepared to die if the Thebans, in their verdict, would state that they executed him because he compelled them to vanquish the Lacedaemonians, and thereby saved both themselves and all Greece, ■ and also delivered the Messenians. He was immediately acquitted, amid universal approbation. A quarrel between Mantinea and Tegea, in Arcadia, caused the war to recommence.- Thebes declared in favor of the Tegeans; Sparta took part with their adversaries, and Athens, being jealous of Thebes, joined her. Epaminondas again mvaded Lacedgemonia and penetrated into Sparta as far as the public place; there Agesilaus saved the city. Epaminondas retired before the superior force of the allies ; they followed him, and at Mantinea the decisive battle was fought (362 B. C.) Epaminondas was victorious, by his excel- lent plan of battle and by his personal valor overpowering, at the head of a selected troop, every resistance. But as he advanced too boldly, the enemies singled him out as an object of their attack, and did not cease till they saw him sink down, hit by a javelin. The wounded commander had to be carried off from the field of battle. When the physician informed him that he would die as What did Epaminondas declare to be his best reward for the victory ? What people did he deliver ? How did he defend liis illegal conduct ? Give an ac- count of the battle at Mantinea. 51 soon as the head of the dart was drawn out of the wound, he de- sired that it remain there until he was told that the Thebans were victorious; then he cried out: "Well, then, I have lived lono- enough." Then he permitted the iron to be drawn out of the wound, and expired. Thus died Epaminondas, the great general and statesman, whom Cicero declared to be the first among all the Greeks. He excelled also in the arts and sciences, and was very well informed in music. He was, moreover, so devoted to philosophy that, when he was young, he preferred the company of his teacher, a serious old man, to all other comrades. When he was in society where they dis- cussed. State affairs he never left till the conversation was finished. He was also a distinguished orator, and it is said he loved truth so well that he never told a lie, not even by way of jest. He cheer- fully endured poverty, nor did he enrich himself by public offices. He did not lay claim to the wealth of his friends for his benefit, but in order to support others. A manager of Artaxerxes once attempted to bribe him, but Epaminondas said: " It is of no use to offer me money; for if that which the king desires is beneficial to the Thebans, I will do it for nothing; if not, he has not gold and silver enough, for I would not take all the treasures of the world in exchange for the love of my country." The embassador was obliged to quit Thebes quickly, and to a friend of his who had been bribed by the same man, he gave an order to immediately return the sum received, threatening, in case he failed to do so, to inform the magistrate. He likewise dismissed his shield-bearer who had given a captive his liberty for money, saying to him : " Since money polluted your hands, you can no more be my com- . panion in dangers." A Thessalian prince desired to engage him in an unjust alliance, offering him 2,000 pieces of gold. He refused the present, although he was then obfiged to borrow from a friend the sum necessary to purchase his armorial implements. He never sought a place of honor, but if he was entrusted with one he man- aged it faithfully, no matter how low it was. When his fellow-citi- zens, through envy, did not elect him general, but an ignorant man obtained the chief command, by whose incapacity the misfortune befell the troops of being surrounded by the enemies, he forgot the When did he cause the javelin to be drawn out of the wound ? Who was vic- tor ? What does Cicero say of Epaminondas ? In what arts and sciences did he excel ? Did he love truth ? How did he endure poverty ? Give examples. Why did he dismiss his shield-bearer ? Demonstrate that he was not ambitious. 52 injury he had suffered, dehvered the army, and returned it in safe condition. He acted thus several times. Pelopidas, also victorious, had fallen in a battle two years before Epaminondas. Both were faithful friends. After the death of the two heroes, Thebes quickly fell back into her former obscurity. I 23. Greece Subdued by Macedonia and Rome. Con- federacy of Aehaia. The domestic weakness of the Grecian States was increasing more and more ; they were no longer able to sustain the laws and public order among their own citizens. The love of country, liberty and glory was waning; sensuality, egotism, and party, strife succeeded them. Under these circumstances, Philip of Macedonia was enabled to subjugate Greece. In order to attain his purpose he created a powerful army, bribed tlie national orators of the Greeks, and kept alive the flame of their internal dissensions. Finally, actual war again broke out, and thus access to their land was opened to him. The Phocians had cultivated some fields consecrated to Apollo, in Delphi, and therefore the tribunal of the Amphictyons decreed their chastisement (356 B. C.) The Phocians were irritated by this decree and pillaged the temple ; the Amphictyons rendered their de- cision more severe, and compelled Thebes to execute it. The Phocians recruited great armies with the stolen treasures ; Sparta and Athens aided them ; the war was much protracted, arid waged with great violence. It had raged ten years, when the exhausted Thebans applied for help to watchful Philip ; he entered Greece through the defile of Thermopylae, forced the Phocians to lay down their arms, and received their vote in the council of the Amphictyons. He kept possession of this important pass. For some years Demos- thenes and Phocian hindered him in the accomplishment of his objects — the former by fulminating his orations ; the latter by his victories in the Cherronesus (Crimea), where Philip wished to make conquests. Then, as the Locri also occupied some fields of the temple-district and were outlawed, the Amphictyons, misled by some bribed orators, called upon Philip to execute the proscription. He came (339 B. C.), occupied Elatea, in Phocis, (the pass to Who was his friend? §23. What was the condition of the morals of the Greeks after the Theban war ? How did Philip gain an entrance into Greece? Narrate the war against the Phocians. Against the Locri. What two men re- tarded him ? 53 Thebes and Athens), and remained in this land during the winter-. He had now unmasked himself, and terror-stricken, the Greeks per- ceived his design. Demosthenes called the Athenians and Thebans to arms, but to no purpose. Philip vanquished them entirely, though fighting bravely, at Chaeronea; i,ooo Athenians were killed on the battle-field (338 B. C.) He then compelled the Greeks to appoint him commander-in-chief against the Persians. His son, Alexander, accomplished what death hindered Philip from doing. The hberty of the Greeks was lost ! After Philip's death the Greeks, without delay, again took up arms, but Alexander subdued them without any combat. When he was, after that, occupied in another war, and rumor reported his death, they revolted again. Alexander quickly arrived and conquered and destroyed Thebes ; many inhabitants were slain ; 30,000, who remained, were sold into slavery; only Pindar's descendants obtained a pardon, and his house alone was spared. While Alexander was waging war against the Persians, Sparta, which alone had not surrendered, invited the Peloponnesians to rebel ; but Antipater, Alexander's governor^ suppressed the insurrection in a battle (330 B. C.) After the death of Alexander 'the Greeks, en- couraged by Demosthenes, rose once more. Antipater vanquished them again (322 B. C.), compelled Athens to pay the expenses of the war, and demanded the delivery of Demosthenes. The latter made his escape, but was pursued and overtaken by Macedonian horsemen. As he had no other alternative than either to become the prisoner of his vindictive enemy or to take his own life, he chose the latter, sucking poison from his pen, and died cherishing the same freedom for which he had fought during his whole life. About seventy years later the love of liberty again awoke in Peloponnesus ; some of the cities in Achaia expelled their tyrants and renewed their old alliance. Aratus became its leader (246 B. C.) Athens, Corinth, Sicyon, and most of the other cities in Pelop- onnesus took part in it. This excited the jealousy of the Spartans, who stood aloof from it. A bloody war ensued between them, and the aUies, who were too weak to resist them, solicited the assistance of the Macedonians (225 B. C.) Thus the confederation suc- cumbed to the Macedonian government. Where did Philip vanquish the Greeks ? How did Alexander punish them when they revolted again ? What of Pindar's descendants ? How did Demos- thenes die ? What cities formed the Achaian confederacy ? Why did it suc- cumb ? 54 Although the Romans, after havuig subjugated Macedonia, de- clared Greece a free and independent country (197 B. C), their intentions were not honest. They secretly disseminated discord among the Greeks, and thus prepared their ruin. One thousand patriotic Achsei, accused of being devoted to Macedonian domin- ion, were enticed to Rome, where they were forcibly detained. Most of them died in captivity. The three hundred who survived were not permitted to return to their country for seventeen years (151 B. C.) When Rome demanded that Sparta and other cities should be separated from the union of Achaia, the later waged war against the Spartans; but the Romans succored them, and van- quished the Achsei, even boys, old men and slaves, fearless of death, perishing for liberty. Consul Mummius conquered Corinth and burned the rich city, whereby many splendid works of art were destroyed. Such inhabitants as were capable of bearing arms were slain, and the women and children sold. The doom of Thebes and other cities was the same. The democratic constitutions were abolished, and Greece, with the name Achaia, declared a Roman province. Only Athens, which was partial to the Romans, was per- mitted to keep its constitution. I 24. Syracuse. Timoleon. While Greece lost her liberty by civil wars, party conflicts also raged in Sicily, which the Carthaginians made use of to subjugate several cities in this island. The Syracusans, in order to protect themselves against their attacks, committed the unrestricted com- mand to Dionysius, their fellow-citizen ; but he abused the power conferred on him, and turned out a tyrant, concluding peace with the Carthaginians. He ruled the Syracusans by terror ; but fear and suspicion continually tormented him. He seldom showed such meekness as towards the two friends, Damon and Pythias (Phyntias), Avhom he first sentenced to death, but afterwards par- doned for their uncommon faithfulness. His son, the younger Dionysius, who attained the government after him, resembled his father in character. The Syracusans, therefore, applied for help to Corinth, their native town. There one of the most prominent citi- By what means did the Romans prepare the ruin of Greece ? Give an account of the struggle of the Achaian league against the Romans. What was the doom of Corinth ? Of Thebes ? What city was permitted to keep its constitution ? I 24. Did Dionysius the elder protect the Syracusans ? How did his son govern them ? What was liis success ? 55 zens had usurped the sovereignty, with the assistance of the popu- lace ; but his own brother, Timoleon, rose against him. The latter repaired with two friends to the tyrant, whose life he had saved in battle, and remonstrating with him, asked him to resign the govern- ment. When he saw that his advice had no effect, he covered his face, and the two companions killed his brother. This was the man whom the Corinthians sent with some troops to assist their colony (345 B. C.) Timoleon vanquished the four- fold stronger enemy, compelled the Carthaginians, who, meanwhile, had also entered by force into Syracuse, to evacuate the city, and obliged Dionysius to abdicate. The tyrant went to Corinth, spent his riches in drinking, and finally was compelled to make a Hving by begging. He is also said to have given singing-lessons. Timo- leon gave to the city a democratic constitution, caused the fort of the tyrant to be destroyed, and induced colonists to setde in the depopulated city, to whom he distributed lands. He also expelled the despots from other cities of Sicily. When the Carthaginians, with 70,000 men, again landed and endeavored to recover the lost territory, he met them valiantly and totally defeated them (340 B. C.) They made another attempt one year after, but did not suc- ceed better; they had to make peace. In this manner, through Tmioleon, the Syracusans and all Sicily, after a few years, became free and happy. , Soon after, Timoleon gave up his authority of his own accord, and passed the rest of his life as a private person, with his wife and children, on an estate the Syracusans had given to him. He was generally honored, and the Syracusans always called him to their assistance if they had any important affair to deliberate upon. When, near the end of his life, he lost his sight, they paid him visits, and expressed their gratitude to him for his noble services. He complained to nobody of his misfortune, but continued, never- theless, to participate in the public deliberations. When he was praised with regard to his exploits, he said modestly that he gave thanks to the gods for having chosen him tTie instrument for the deliverance of Sicily. With tears the Syracusans followed his bier What vocation did he follow in Corinth ? How did Timoleon deliver the Corinthians from their tyrant ? Where did they send him to ? What enemy did he vanquish in Sicily ? What constitution did he give to the Syracusans ? Whom did he defeat again ? In what condition did he live for the rest of his life ? In what manner did he assist the Syracusans ? How did he bear blind- ness ? To whom did he give credit for his exploits ? 56 to the grave. They erected a magnificent monument m honor of the deceased, and commemorated his memory by annual games. His tomb was adorned with colonnades, and was destined to be a gymnasium for the youth. Timoleon, in antiquity, passed for the highest model of an eminent republican. § 2S. Macedonia. Philip. Alexander the Great, Founder of an Universal Monarchy. Battles at Issus, Granicus and Arbela. Ancient Macedonia, situated north of Greece, had Grecian inhabitants, language and customs. To the time of Philip its history was of no importance. This prince, in consequence of a domestic contest for the throne, which Pelopidas settled, came as a hostage to Thebes, where he was educated; he escaped from there, and was declared king of Macedonia (361 B. C.) Besides Greece, he subdued all the countries from the Danube (Isther) to the Adriatic and Black Seas. The rich goldmines he possessed, and the phalanx he had trained, made his conquests much easier. He used to say : " No fortress is invincible if a mule laden with gold can enter it." The phalanx was a square body of soldiers, formed in ranks and files close a'nd deep, armed with pikes twenty-one feet long; the single files opposed their pikes, like our soldiers their bayonets, to the enemy. By dint of it, Philip vanquished the Greeks at Chseronea. At last he prepared to attack also the Grecian empire, but his wife conspired to have him killed (336 B. C). His son, Alexander, called the Great, on account of his conquests, early showed his ambition, once exclaiming with tears : " Friends, my father will take all, and leave nothing for us to do ! " He undertook a war against the Persians when he was only twenty-two years old. Then Darius Codomanus, an imbecile king, ruled them. With only 34,000 men Alexander crossed the Granicus, a coast -river in Asia Minor, in sight of the hostile army, and put it to flight (334 B. C.) He was in danger of his life in this battle, as two Persian generals attacked him ; one split his helmet, and the other raised his arm to strike his bare head, when his friend Clitus hurriedly came to his rescue and with a heavy blow struck the arm and sword of the Persian to the ground ; meanwhile, Alexander How did the Syracusans honor his death and his memory? §25. Where was Philip educated ? By what means were his conquests facilitated ? How was the phalanx composed? How did Alexander early show his ambition? How many soldiers followed him to Asia ? Where did he gain the first victory ? Who saved his life ? 57 had pierced the other. He conquered Asia Minor. The Asiatic Greeks deserted to him ; he gave them democratic constitutions. The next year he a second time vanquished Darius, whose army- amounted to about 600,000 men, at Issus (in the defiles of CiHcia),. (333 B. C.) The loss of the Persians was estimated to amount to 100,000 men. Their rich encampment became the prey of the victor. The mother and wife and daughters of Darius were also taken prisoners. Alexander treated them all with clemency. -Darius complained, by writing, of his unjust attack, and offered him his friendship. Alexander replied that he considered himself to be the sovereign of Asia, and demanded unconditional submission of the king. He then passed victoriously through Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt. All these lands submitted ; Tyrus alone made resist- ance. It defended itself most valiantly during seven months. As the king at first did not have any ships, he raised a dam in the sea in order to get to the city on the island. The besieged exhausted all means that courage and despair suggested to them, in order to save themselves ; they killed the hostile workmen, burned both the towers built for their protection, and the machines of war ; divers,, under the water, cut the cables by which the rafts and boats were fast- ened ; they erected a new wall around the city behind the old, etc. Finally, Alexander himself thought that it was impossible to conquer the city, still he tried a last assault. He succeeded, and the fortress was taken (332 B. C.) The fate of the inhabitants was horrible ; 8jOoo men were killed, 30,000 sold as slaves, and the city burned. In Egypt, the victor founded the city of Alexandria, which soon became the center of universal commerce; in later time, also the principal seat of scientific culture. From here he proceeded to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the oasis Siwah, in order to be declared the son of the god, and the priest declared him so. Darius made new preparations for the combat, but lost the decis- ive battle at Arbela, not far frorh Nineveh; almost the fifth part of his army, composed of more than half a million of men, perished by the swords of the victors. Alexander conquered Babylon, Susa Where and when did he again vanquish Darius ? What was the loss of the Persians ? Who was captured ? How did Alexander treat the royal prisoners ? What did he demand of the king ? What other lands did he conquer ? What city resisted him? How long? By what means did the city defend itself? What was its fate, when taken ? What city did Alexander found in Egypt ? What of Jupiter Ammon ? Where did Darius lose the last battle ? How large was his loss ? What cities did Alexander capture ? 58 and Persepolis, the capitals of the Persian empire. Darius retired into the northern provinces, but the former also followed him there. The satrap Bessus killed the fugitive and assumed the royal title, but Alexander vanquished him, and ordered his execution. After this he also conquered the northern and eastern provinces. Flushed with the success of his enterprises, he began to domi- neer like a despot. He established the barbarous punishments of the Persian kings (mutilations, spearing, kiUing by sunstrokes, etc.) At one of the usual carousals, where riot ran high, his flatterers praised his exploits and extolled them over those of Hercules. Clitus contradicted them, and reminded the king that he had saved his life, etc., etc. Incensed, the latter called for arms. Clitus was forced out of the hall. He returned, however, and again poured invectives against Alexander. Furious, the king snatched a javelin from the hand of a bystander and struck Clitus, who fell dead at his feet. He also ordered the execution of Parmenio, his best general and most faithful servant, and his son — the latter, because he was ac- cessory to a conspiracy ; the former, because Alexander was afraid of paternal vengeance. Alexander surrounded himself with a showy retinue, and demanded divine veneration. He imprisoned CalHs- thenes, a philosopher, because he refused to adore him, and permitted him to perish miserably. He fell out also with his teacher, Aristoteles. Not yet satisfied at having conquered so many lands, he marched to India (327 B. C), and advanced victoriously as far as the waters of the Indus and the Ganges. Nay, he wanted to march to tjie end of the earth, but his soldiers refusing to follow him further, he consented to return. He sent the fleet back on the Indian ocean, and led the land forces himself through the Persian deserts, where they suftered indescribable fatigues (325 B. C.) The soldiers sank into the hot sand, and the sun's rays burned them so severely that blood was forced from their eyes and mouth. Many became insane through pain. They were also in want of water. The march lasted sixty days. Most of the soldiers perished miserably. When he had returned to Babylon, he endeavored to check the disturbances which had spread during his absence. He dispensed rigorous justice to the despotic, squandering governors, and quelled Who killed Darius ? What changes took place in the behavior of Alexander after his success ? How did he treat Clitus, Parmenio and his son, and Callis- thenes ? How far did he march into India ? Why not farther ? Give an ac- count of his return to Babylon, and how he endeavored to civilize the conquered lands. 59 the revolts of the troops. He organized the government in the conquered lands, and tried to accustom the subdued nations to assume Grecian culture and manners. He also considered the im- portance of commerce, and provided all means which could advance it. He caused colonies to be founded, roads to be built, etc., etc. After some years of rest, he contemplated new conquests, but he suddenly died (323 B. C.) He tenderly loved his faithful friend, Hephsestion, and after his death erected a splendid monument in his honor. Immediately after Alexander's death such a fierce war com- menced among his generals, who contended for the possession of his realm, that even the burial of his corpse was forgotten. All the members of his family were killed. The bloody contest was decided at Ipsus, in Phvygia (301 B. C), and several kingdoms were now established, the three most important of which were Macedonia, with Greece ; Syria, with most of the Persian lands ; and Egypt. ROMAN REPUBLIC-510-30 B. C. 1. CONTESTS WITH POREIGN ENEMIES AND WITH- THE PATRICIANS- 510 TO ABOUT 343 B. C. § 26. War Against the Tarquinians. Porsenna. Hora- tius Codes. Mueius Scaevola. Tarquinius attempted, by cunning and force, to recover the lost dominion. First his deputies arrived in Rome, reclaiming his domains, but in secret they entered into a plot, in which many noble young men and even the sons of Brutus, took part. A slave, who secretly watched their deliberations, informed the con- suls of them. The criminals were seized and executed. Brutus, being consul, was himself the judge of his sons. The two youths, in his presence, were tied to a stake, undressed by the lictors (ser- vants of the tribunal), flogged with rods, and beheaded. During the execution all the bystanders looked at the unhappy father ; he was deeply aff"ected ; still he beheld, unmoved, the blood of the Who was his friend ? How did he honor him ? How did his generals act after his death? Where was their contest decided? Which were the most im- portant kingdoms then established? § 26. How long did the contests of the Romans against foreign enemies and the patricians last ? How did Tarquinius first attempt to recover his lost domains ? How did Brutus behave at the execu'- tion of his sons ? 60 youths flowing. Tarquinius did not regain his domains, but they were distributed among the poor citizens. The slave who had dis- covered the plot received his hberty as a reward. Porsenna, seeing his ruse baffled, attempted to attain his purpose by arms. He found allies in Hetruria. The first battle was obsti- nate and remained drawn. Brutus, bravely fighting, met a son of Tarquinius, and both stabbed each other. Then Porsenna, the most powerful prince in Hetruria, arrived with a strong army at the doors of Rome, and gained a victory on the banks of the Tiber. He nearly entered the city with the fugitives. But (as some report) Horatius Codes, with two fellow-combatants, defended the wooden bridge till a part was pulled down ; then the two withdrew and he alone remained, defending himself boldly, till it was wholly demolished. Thereupon he plunged into the Tiber, and swam unhurt to his fellow-citizens. Porsenna then besieged the city. A famine was raging in Rome. The king expected the surrender every day. Now Mucius, later called Scsevola (the left-handed), formed a plan to kill the king. Armed with a poniard, which was hidden under his garments, he went into the camp of the enemy. The pay was just being dis- tributed among the soldiers, and there was much crowding. The king was seated near his secretary. Mucius, being afraid to ask which of the two was the king, drew his dagger and struck the latter, whom he thought to be the king, owing to his gorgeous vestments, and killed him. Too late he perceived his mistake. He was seized, and the king threatened him with death by fire ; but ScEevola, wishing to prove how little he cared for this punish- ment, deliberately put his arm into the flames of the altar near by and suff"ered it to be slowly burned. The king, dumb-founded by admiration, gave him liberty; but Scsevola, seemingly through gratitude, made the unfounded statement to him that three hun- dred Romans, including himself, had sworn to kill him. Fright- ened by this communication, Porsenna made peace. He took as security for the fulfillment of its conditions, ten youths and ten maidens as hostages. Cloelia, their companion, persuaded the other girls to flee. Under the pretext of wanting to bathe they escaped and swam, amid a shower of hostile arrows, over the How did he lose his life ? What success did Porsenna experience ? What is reported of Horatius Codes? What of Mucius Scsevola ? How did he punish himself? Why did Porsenna make peace ? What of Clcelia and the other hostages ? 61 Tiber. The Romans sent the bold maidens back at once. Por- senna, admiring their courage, gave Uberty to Cloeha and permitted her to ask the release of some of her playmates. She selected the youngest, and returned joyfully to her parents. According to other reports, Porsenna took possession of the city, and compelled the Romans to pay a high price for peace. Many Latin cities still took up arms for the expelled Tarqumms. The people, who suffered much from the wars, refused to take the field. The patricians granted a respite to the poor citizens, who were oppressed by debts, and a dictator was appointed, with unlim- ited power. The Romans, fighting with the ardor of patriotism, vanquished these enemies also (496 B. C.) ; two sons of the king were among the killed. A reconciliation afterwards took place between the Latins and the Romans, and Tarquinius, being a very aged man, and having lost all his sons, did not again attempt to reascend the throne, ^ 27. Domestic Feuds Between the Patricians and Plebeians. Appointment of Tribunes. Liberty was now firmly secured against its enemies abroad, but at home it was diminished by the patricians. These possessed the niost riches, and alone made use of the pubhc lands. During the frequent campaigns the poor plebeian had to leave his small field uncultivated, or had to sell it in order to be able to defray the ex- penses of the campaign, as every one was obliged to provide his own arms and provisions. After the war he found his field wild, and thus with his family fell into oppressive poverty. He was then obliged to take recourse to the rich patricians, pay high interest for the money they loaned him, and if he could not discharge these debts he was imprisoned and forced to sell his land, or even him- self and his children, to the creditor. These tyrannical acts of the aristocrats caused many disturb- ances in the city. As the city again was warring with the neigh- boring nations, an old man made his appearance in the market- place, dressed in rags, pale and starving, with unkempt beard and hair. Crowds of people assembled around him and recognized him to be a gallant captain. He related that he had to neglect his Give an account of the war of the Romans against the Latins. ? 27. How were the plebeians used by the patricians ? Give an example of their ill-will. Who made his appearance in the market-place ? What did he relate and show to the people ? 62 field for the sake of the campaign, and that the enemies had burned and plundered all his property. In this way he had run in debt and passed into servitude, where he was treated cruelly. Thus speaking, he bared his back, which showed traces of the cruel treat- ment he had undergone. Then a revolt broke out and raged through the city, and the people refused to do military service until relief had been obtained. The next year the same spectacle occur- red again. The patricians, though promising to the people to lessen their burdens, refused, after the war, to fulfill their promise. At last, being tired of this tyranny, the people set out to the sacred moun- tain, near Rome, intrenched a camp, and elected their own com- mander (494 B. C.) Here they also intended to found their own town, and forever separate from the haughty patricians. This action on the part of the plebeians changed the minds of the patri- cians, and they now became milder. They remitted to their debt- ors all they owed, released the indebted servants, and granted to the people tribunes, whom they were to select from among them- selves, in order that their rights might be taken care of. Since then the people carried on a regular contest with the patricians for the equality of all rights. The tribunes were the indefatigable champions of the people in this struggle, leading them from victory to victory. First, they brought it about that they were permitted to choose also one of the consuls (though only from the patricians), (482 B. C.) Then they effected the abolition of the law which prohibited the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians (445 B. C.) One year after, the first time military tribunes, with consular power, were elected, who could also be taken from the plebeians. A long time afterwards {2,66 B. C), they obtained, by a continuous struggle, the right that the consuls might also be chosen from the plebeians. Finally, they wrenched the last privilege from the patricians, viz., the exclusive occupation of the priesthood (300 B. C.) One of the tribunes, Licinius Stolo, carried the agrarian law, as it is termed (366 B. C.) According to this law, no citizen could possess more than 500 acres of the public lands, and the patricians who had more had to. return the excess, which was divided among the ple- beians. Public lands generally, in the future, were likewise to be held by the latter. What was the effect of this scene ? Give a narrative of the secession of the plebeians. What officers did the patricians then grant to them ? To wrhat other offices were the plebeians admitted later? Define the agrarian law. Which tribune carried it ? 63 ^ 28. Coriolanus. Quinctius Cineinnatus. The XII Tables and the Decemvirs. Incursion of the Gauls. During the last, just mentioned sedition, the people had neg- lected the tillage of the fields, and now want of victuals followed ; finally, a great quantity of grain arrived from Sicily. Some senators would have it distributed to the people for nothing, or at least sold at a low price; but Coriolanus, a young patrician, opposed this, motioning to again deprive the people, on this occasion, of the tribuneship, and of the other already granted rights. The people became enraged when they heard the news of this motion, and de- manded that Coriolanus should be punished for high treason. The tribunes appointed the day of the trial. Coriolanus, foreseeing his condemnation, left Rome of his own accord, without waiting for the sentence, but vowing terrible revenge on the people. He went over to the Volsci, instigated them to wage war against Rome, and led their army there. He laid waste the lands of the plebeians, but spared the estates of the patricians. The city was panic-stricken. An embassy of the senate, who left it to him to return to his coun- try, and a solemn procession of priests went into the camp of Coriolanus, but had no success. Finally, his wife with his sons and his mother, Veturia, with other venerable matrons, made their appearance before him. The sight of his family brought tears to his eyes. But when Veturia reproached him for his ingratitude to- wards his country, and, together with his wife and children, knelt and embraced his knees, he cried out, agitated : "Helas, mother, what have you done ! You have gained a victory which is happy for the country, but pernicious for me. Vanquished by you alone, I withdraw." He then led the enemies away from Rome, and probably was a sacrifice of their vengeance. According to another report, he killed himself. The Volsci were vanquished, the same as the Aeqjii. In the war with the latter, Quinctius Cineinnatus became re- nowned. As they had beaten the 'Romans, he was chosen dictator. The deputies of the senate, who informed him of his election, found him following the plow in his fittle field. He hastened to Rome, and from there against the enemies, whom he vanquished. § 28. Why did Coriolanus banish himself ? Where did he go to ? How did he deal with the plebeians ? With the senate ? With the priests ? With his wife and mother ? What answer did he give to the latter ? What was his end ? How did Quinctius Cineinnatus become renowned ? 64 After sixteen days he returned to his field and resumed his agricul- tural labors. In order to check the arbitrary proceedings of the patricians, -who alone administered justice, the Roman people demanded Avrit- ten laws. Three senators were therefore sent to Greece, in order to collect the laws in existence there. Upon their return ten men, styled decemvirs, were appointed to select and digest suitable laws, and for the term of their work were invested with absolute power (452 B. C.) This was the origin of the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of the celebrated code of Roman laws, composed in later times. But the decemvirs, after having finished their work, refused to resign their power, and began to play the part of tyrants. The people became dissatisfied, and a sad event caused a speedy termination of their offices. Appius Claudius, the leading member of their body, would part Virgmia, the daughter of Captain Virgin- ius, a brave plebeian, from her father, pretending that she was the fugitive slave of his client, who reclaimed her in court. Her be- trothed, and her father, who had hastened from the camp to the city, in vain defended her at the tribunal of the tyrant. Appius adjudges the virgin to his client, and orders that the grumbling peo- ple be forcibly repelled from the tribunal. Virginius then seizes a butcher-knife, taken from a neighboring shamble, and plunges it into the breast of his daughter, whom he can no longer protect, and summons the people and the army to take vengeance on the tyrants (449 B. C), who were obliged to resign. Appius was dragged into prison, where he is said to have killed himself, and the others, of their own accord, left the country. Fifty years after this foreign enemies, the Gauls, again threatened Rome with entire ruin. They had long before this opened a passage through the Alps, and had settled themselves in the northern part of Italy. They ad- vanced more and more to the south, and demanded permanent dwelling places from the Clusians, in Hetruria. The Clusians asked the assistance of the Romans, who sent embassadors to make peace between both parties. The embassadors, however, assisted the in- habitants, fighting against the Gauls. These demanded from the What people did he vanquish ? How long did his campaign last ? Where- fore were decemvirs appointed ? What laws did they compose ? By what event -were their offices terminated ? Who was Appius Claudius ? Virginius ? What insult did the former plan against the latter ? How did Virginius prevent it ? What of the decemvirs ? Of Appius Claudius ? What was the cause of the war of the Gauls against Rome ? 65 Roman senate that they deliver up the embassadors, and this being refused, marched, led by Brennus, against the Romans, vanquished them near the rivulet AUia (390 B. C), and entered empty Rome. According to the report, they found there only eighty senators at the forum, where they were seated in their curule chairs (chairs of office), keeping a solemn silence. They anticipated nothing but death, and received it. Brennus burned the city to ashes, and be- sieged the capitoi, into which the warlike troops of the Romans had retired. The Gauls were about to take this also, for several had, in the night, gained the summit, but the cackhng of the geese of the Juno is said to have awakened the slumbering Romans and called them to arms. Manlius now first hurries up to the walls, kills a Gaul who stands already upon the top, and throws another head- long down the precipice. Meanwhile more Romans approach, and repel the Gauls. The siege was protracted; famine and disease gained ground, but the brave Camillus saved his country. He lived then in Ardea, not far from Rome, unjustly banished. Appointed dictator, he hastily approached to the relief of the besieged compa- triots. These were about to surrender to the enemies. Brennus ex- acted one thousand pounds' weight of gold. The sum is brought. The Romans complain that he is weighing with false weights. Without answering, he throws his sword into the balance. At this moment Camillus appears at the head of an army, and declares the contract null and void, adding that "Rome must be ransomed by steel, and not by gold." He immediately attacked the Gauls, and completely routed them. According to another, more credible re- port, the Gauls came to an agreement with the Romans, and left Rome unimpeded, because an invasion of the Veneti urged them to return home. Rome soon began to rise again from its ashes. Manlius, who had saved the capitoi, at length aiming at sovereign power, was thrown headlong from the same rocks. 2. OONTESTS FOR THE DOMINION IN ITALT-343-267 B. 0, § 29. "War Against the Samnites and Latins. A Roman Army Passes Under the Yoke in the Caudine Mountains. Until the Gaulic war, the territory of the Romans was limited to some miles around the city. After that they subdued the greater Who was their leader ? What fort did Brennus besiege ? In what manner is it reported to have been saved ? What of Manlius ? How did Brennus plunder the Romans ? Who prevented their surrender ? How was Manlius at last pun- ished ? (5) 66 part of middle Italy, then lower Italy. There the Samnites, during fifty years, made the most valiant resistance. They lived in the mountainous country of the Apennines, were brave, and loved lib- erty. Capua, in Campania, occasioned the war in this wise : The Samnites, extending their conquests, attacked Capua. This city sought aid from Rome. As the Romans were confederated with the Samnites, they first admonished them in a friendly manner to do no harm to Capua. But the Samnites, paying no heed to that, desolated Campania. The Romans then declared war against them, vanquished and compelled them to sue for peace (340 B. C.) Meanwhile, the Latins demanded from the Romans that they be allowed to take part in the highest offices of Rome; they wanted to unite and become one nation with them. As the Romans refused to accede to their demand, they took up arms. The former were commanded by Titus Manlius Torquatus and Decius Mus. Manlius issued orders that death should be inflicted upon any one who should leave the ranks. The Latin commander challenged to single combat any Roman knight. Titus Manlius, son of the consul, accepted the challenge, and slew his adversary. His father caused him to be crowned for this exploit, but afterwards to be beheaded on account of his disobedience. In the decisive battle (338 B. C), the wing of Decius gave way. He caused the priests to consecrate him for death, rushed, on his war-horse, into the midst of the enemies, and was slain. These gave way and the Romans gained a complete victory. The Latins were beaten once more; then they submitted again. Rome granted citizenship to some of their cities. The Romans endeavored to extend their dominion more and more. In the midst of peace they founded a colony in the terri- tory of the Samnites. As they would not abohsh it, the Samnites again took up arms (326 B. C.) The Romans advanced victori- ously, haughtily rejecting all offers of peace. Fortune now for- sook their arms, as they were surrounded in the Caudinse Furculas (321 B. C.) Pontius, the brave commander of the Samnites, had occupied all the mountain roads, and there was nowhere a way to § 29. What differences caused the first war between the Romans and the Samnites ? What city did the Samnites attack ? Were they successful ? Why did the Latins take up arms against the Romans ? What fate did Titus Man- lius experience ? What was the fate of Consul Decius Mus ? What was the result of the war ? How did tlie second war against the Samnites originate ? What adversity happened to the Romans in Caudinoe Furculs ? 67 pass out. The Samnites then dismissed the Roman army, upon the solemn promise of the consuls that the peace and former alliance should be re-enacted ; but it had to pass under the yoke formed by two spears set upright and a third bound across them. This shame- ful doom was submitted to by between 40,000 to 50,000 Romans. The Roman senate annulled the agreement, and sent the generals who had arranged it back in fetters to the Samnites. These, how- ever, justly provoked m consequence of such perfidy, did not receive the deUvered officers, but demanded that the whole Roman, army should be returned to captivity. This was not done ; the same army, rather, marched against them once more. The war was carried on with much more hatred. The Samnites underwent n,iany bloody defeats. One district, one place, one plantation, one vine- yard after another were ruined. At last they sued for peace; they obtained it, but they were obliged to acknowledge Rome's sover- eignty (304 B. C.) . After several years the Samnites recommenced war for the third- time ; they fought more bravely than ever, and menaced even Rome. The Gauls, the Hetrurians, and other nations of Italy were their allies. Nevertheless, they were again defeated several times, and their country was terribly desolated. In the decisive battle (295 B. C), in which the Gallic cars, furnished with scythes, were horribly mowing down the soldiers. Consul Decius, the son, caused himself also to be consecrated for death, and perished. The Romans gained the victory. The Samnites armed three armies more, but they were all vanquished. Pontius himself was taken prisoner ; and, with his hands tied to his back, conveyed in triumph to Rome. The Romans, far from honoring his valor, ordered him to be beheaded. Finally, the Samnites demanded peace; they obtained it, but on grievous conditions (290 B. C.) Their allies, too, were at last subjected. § SO. Tarentine War. Fabrieius. After the Samnites, it was the turn of lower Italy to be con- quered. Here the Tarentines themselves gave to Rome an oppor- tunity of war. The Roman fleet made its appearance, contrary to an old treaty, in their gulf. The Tarentines attacked it, sank sev- Who was the leader of the Samnites ? Who annulled the agreement ? What misfortune and final fate befell the Samnites ? Who gained the victory in the third war? Who sacrificed his life? What of Pontius? §30. State the origin of the Tarentine war. 68 eral ships, and put the others to flight. When the Romans de- manded satisfaction, a petulant crowd insuked their embassadors. The Romans then sent an army against the Tarentines. The latter called on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for help. He came with a con- siderable army and twenty elephants. The Samnites also were their allies. In the first battle (280 B. C), the king, skilled in military tac- tics, gained the victory, chiefly, as they say, by the aid of the elephants, whose unusual aspect frightened their horses and threw the Romans into confusion. Fifteen thousand dead Romans cov- ered the battle-field. Pyrrhus also suffered a great loss. Then he marched to Latium and approached Rome, but was greatly fright- ened - as another Roman army suddenly advanced against him. On seeing himself threatened in front and in the rear, he retired quickly to Tarent, where he passed the winter. He desired to make peace with the valorous enemy, and there- fore sent embassadors to Rome, who spoke with such eloquence that the senate hesitated whether or not to accept the conditions offered. Now, the bHnd Appius Claudius caused himself to be carried into the assembly, and spoke with such energy against the advice of the embassadors, that the unanimous answer was given to them that the conclusion of peace would be out of the question as long as the king had not quitted Italy. One of the members of the embassy which should treat with Pyrrhus about the exchange of the captives, was Caius Fabricius. He lived contentedly, and though having administered the highest offices, yet he was very poor. All his plate consisted of one little goblet. The king offered him a rich present in order to show how highly he respected him ; but he refused it. It is also reported that Pyrrhus, to test his celebrated presence of mind, ordered his largest elephant to be hidden behind a curtain. When the conference had been finished, the curtain, at a given signal, was withdrawn, and the elephant stretched his trunk over the head of the Roman. Pyrrhus carefully watched his countenance; but Fabricius, smihng, said: " Your elephant frightens me as Uttle to-day as your money enticed me yesterday." • In another battle, lasting two days, Pyrrhus was again victorious, Who was the ally of the Tarentines ? By whose aid did Pyrrhus gain the first battle ? How many Romans were killed ? Where did Pyrrhus then march to ? Why did he retire ? How were his embassadors received in Rome ? Delineate the character of Caius Fabricius. Relate an example of his frugality; of his intrepidity and honesty. 69 but he lost so many soldiers that he exclaimed : "■ One more vic- tory like this and I am lost ! " As, the next year, Fabricius marched against him with a new army, the physician of the king (according to common report) sent him a letter, the import of which was that for a proper reward he would poison the king. Fabricius, indignant at so base a proposal, gave immediate information of it to Pyrrhus, who, astonished, exclaimed : " It is easier to turn the sun from his course, than Fabricius from the path of honor." The king is said to have, through gratitude, released all his Roman prisoners with- out ransom. He offered again to make peace, but received the same answer as the first time. For the prisoners whom he released an equal number of captured Samnites and Tarentines were returned to him. Pyrrhus then withdrew his army from Italy, in order to assist the Sicilians against the Carthaginians; but he was not successful in Sicily, and when he returned, in obedience to the entreaties of the Tarentines and Samnites, Curius Dentatus defeated him totally. Dejected, he left Italy for ever, and returned to Greece. He was killed there at a siege by a woman, who threw a stone at him. Tarentum had to submit to the Romans. 3. CONTESTS FOR THE WORLD'S DOMINION-264-133 B. 0. I 31. Carthage. First Punic War. Regulus. Imperious Rome, after having accomplished the subjection of the Apennine peninsula, contrived to make also conquests abroad. First it waged war against Carthage. This city became a colony of the Phoenicians in this way : As Pygmalion, king of Tyrus, had killed Dido, the husband of his sister, in order to get possession of his riches, she escaped with them, and founded (about 888 B. C.) the above mentioned city on the northern coast of Africa. Carthage soon rose, by its many colonies and extensive commerce, over the native town. The larger part of the northern coast of Africa, besides Sardinia, Corsica and a great portion of Sicily and Spain, were sub- ject to her. By means of her riches, acquired through commerce, she could maintain numerous armies and a powerful navy. The Carthaginians (Punians), only devoted to commerce, despised all a*rts What was the result of the second and third battles ? How did Pyrrhus meet his death? ^31. Narrate the circumstances of founding Carthage. Who was Pygmalion .■" Dido ? What progress did the city make ? What countries did it conquer ? 70 and sciences through which they could not directly acquire gold and treasures. They were deceitful and faithless; henCe the Roman proverb : " Punica fides, nulla fides " (Punic faith, no faith). They were also cruel and superstitious. They offered human sacrifices to Saturnus, and mothers caused their own children to be slaughtered for this idol. The contest between the Carthaginians and Romans was first brought on in Sicily. Mercenary troops of Campania there had murdered all citizens in Messina (Messana), where they were engaged in service, and taken possession of the city. They were ransacking the whole country. They also invaded the territory of Syracuse and plundered it. Hiero, king of Syracuse, defeated them, and formed an alliance with the Carthaginians. The mercenaries asked the assistance of the Romans who, long eager to possess Sicily, granted it to the freebooters. In this way the first Punic war was brought on (264 B. C.) Hiero was quickly vanquished, and allied himself, in order to save his lands, with the Romans. The latter defeated the Carthaginians several times. As they did not, as yet, possess any navy, they built in a short time 120 ships, using as a model for construction (as it is reported), a hostile ship which had been wrecked on their coast. Consul Duilius invented grap- nels, and a kind of draw-bridge which could be lowered on the ships of the enemies. Under his command the Romans gained their first naval victory. Regulus even went to Africa. Meanwhile the State took care of his family and his little ield. He advanced victoriously up to the doors of Carthage. "The city was inclined to make peace, but re- duced to the utmost by the severe conditions of the Roman general, it committed the command of the army to the Spartan Xantippus, who had come there at the head of Greek mercenary troops. He defeated and captured Regulus (255 B. C.) The Romans fought some years with ill success ; nevertheless, they rejected all offers of peace. The Carthaginians (so it is usually reported) sent Regulus and others to Rome, in order to negotiate the exchange of their prisoners. Before departing, however, he had ■ What is related of the faithlessness, cruelty and superstition of the Punians ? Where was the contest between them and the Romans brought on ? In what manner ? Who allied with the latter ? What success had they in the contest with the Carthaginians ? What incident gave them an opportunity to build a fleet? How did Regulus get along in Africa? Who defeated and captured him ? 71 to swear to return if he should fail in bringing it about. He dis- suaded his fellow-citizens from the exchange, because being disad- vantageous ; but faithful to his promise, he returned to Carthage, unmoved by the prayers of his compatriots, and by the tears of his wife and children. There he was put to death with the most cruel tortures. In order to take vengeance, the Romans dehvered up to his family the most distinguished captives, who were treated not less cruelly than the Carthaginians. Meantime the war continued to rage. When the forces of the combatants were exhausted and their fleets destroyed, Carthage seized the pubHc treasure, and in Rome the patricians contributed voluntary taxes ; in this manner large new fleets were built. Fmally, the Romans gained the decisive battle (242 B. C.) and Carthage was compeUed to accept humihating terms of peace. It lost its part of Sicily with all the small adjacent islands. This was the end of the first Punic war ; it lasted twenty-two years (264-242 B. C.) As three years later the Carthaginian mercenaries in Sardinia mutinied, the Romans sent troops there and compelled the Cartha- ginians to give up the island, and to pay the war expenses besides. . Thereafter they also made a conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. § 82. Second Punic War. Hannibal. Battle at Cannae. The Carthaginians sought to compensate themselves for the loss they suffered in the silver-mines of Spain. Hamilcar conquered a great portion of this country, and sent big treasures to Carthage. Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, continued the conquests, and laid the foundation of New Carthage (Carthagena), in the vicinity of which rich silver-mines were located. Rome feeling uneasy on account of the increasing power and greatness of its enemy, threatened war, and Carthage had to promise that it would not pass over the Ebro, the northern hmit of its possessions. After the murder of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, Hamilcar's son, Rome's most formidable and most implacable enemy, took the command (221 B. C.) It is reported that, being nine years old, he caressingly asked his father to take him along on his expedition to Spain, and Why was he sent to Rome ? How did he discharge his commission ? How did the Carthaginians deal with him after his return ? Who gained the decisive battle ? On what condition did the Carthaginians obtain peace ? I 32- Wheie did Hamilcar and Hasdrubal make new conquests ? Who was the son of the former ? 72 that he, leading the boy to an altar, made him solemnly swear per- petual enmity to the Romans. And Hannibal kept his oath. In spite of the remonstrance of the Roman embassadors, he besieged Saguntum, which, in fact, was situated beyond the Ebro, but was allied with the Romans. He conquered the city after a siege of seven months (219 B. C.) The desperate inhabitants burned their most valuable property, set fire to the houses, and per- ished in the flames. The Roman embassador, Fabius, therefore • demanded the delivery of Hannibal. As the senate of the Cartha- ginians acted evasively, he folded his toga, saying : " Here is war or peace; choose!" A senator replied: "Give us what you please ! " " Be it war, then ! " cried the Roman, and let the gar- ment fall. The most fervent desire of Hannibal was fulfilled. Without delay he set out from New Carthage (218 B. C), and hastened over the Pyrenees. In the southern part of France he was obliged partly to purchase his passage and partly to enforce it by arms. He then crossed the Rhone and began to ascend the Alps with infantry, cavalry and elephants. As the passage took place in win- ter time, he had to overcome the greatest difficulties. The beasts had to be led over precipices, snow and masses of ice, as there were no beaten paths. He also had to fight with the savage moun- taineers. After nine days the army arrived on the summit of the mountains (probably the Little St. Bernard). Here, in the snow- fields, Hannibal let his army rest for two days, pointing out, in order to console the soldiers, the green plains of Italy. The difficulties of the descent were not less. The men and beasts, unable to obtain a foothold, slid on the steep, slippery paths, and many tumbled head- long into the precipices, or sunk into the snow, unable to extricate themselves. At last they arrived in the valleys of Piedmont. The whole passage over the Alps had lasted fifteen days. Of 60,000 men with whom Hannibal had set out, not even one-half were left. He met the consul Scipio on the banks of the Tessin, attacked him immediately and vanquished him, especially through the support of his excellent Numidian cavalry (218 B. C.) The Gauls, who had What did Hannibal promise, by an oath, to his father? What city in Spain did he besiege and capture ? What was the fate of its inhabitants ? How did Fabius bring on the second Punic war ? Describe Hannibal's march from Spain through France over the Alps. How many days did it require for him to ascend the Alps ? How long did the army rest on the summit ? How many men did Hannibal lose on the march ? Whom did he first defeat in Italy ? 73 enlisted m the Roman army, after the battle, without delay, deserted to Hannibal. Soon after, the other consul (Scipio still being sick from wounds), ventured a second batde. Hannibal chose such a position for his army that a cold wind drove the sleet and snow into the faces of the Romans, and vanquished them completely. All the Gauls in the upper Gallia joined him. In the next campaign he advanced to Hetruria. The Arno had flooded the land, and the soldiers had to march in the -water, which reached up to their knees, for three days and nights ; the beasts of burden were stuck in the mud ; Hannibal himself lost one eye from exertion and an inflammation caused by the exhalation of the marshes. Scarce stand- ing again on dry land, he aUured the consul Flaminius, by simulat- ing flight, into a valley surrounded by mountains, near the lake Thrasymenus. Fifteen thousand Romans, surrounded on all sides, here met their death. Flaminius, in despair, killed himself. The field of battle to this day is called the "bloody field." The Romans, in their extremity, appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus, ironically called the " Loiterer," as dictator. He saved them by his circumspection, carefully avoiding a decisive battle. The Romans, becoming dissatisfied with the manner in which Fabius waged war, conferred an equal portion of the chief com- mand upon Minucius, general of the calvary, who immediately attacked Hannibal, but fell into an ambuscade. Many Romans were already cut down as Fabius hurried on to support him, and still saved him. The next year the foolhardy Varro engaged in combat against Hannibal, and lost the great battle at Cannge, in ApuHa (216 B. C.) Fifty thousand Romans, among them eighty senators, three thousand knights, and one consul (^mihus PauUus), lost their lives. This was the greatest defeat that the Romans ever suffered. Hannibal is said to have sent three bushels of gold rings to Carthage, which the knights had worn on their hands. Grief and terror struck Rome when the news of the awful calamity arrived there. There was hardly a family in the city which did not mourn the death of a dear relation. The citizens were so much afraid of the victor that they wanted to abandon the city; and, in order to hinder their flight, the doors had to be locked. Most of the allies then seceded ; in upper Italy the Gauls destroyed a Roman army, Whom in the second battle ? Whom in the next campaign at Lake Thra- symenus ? How many Romans met their death there ? Who was appointed dictator then ? Who engaged in the third campaign against Hannibal at Cannae ? What success had Hannibal, and what was the effect of his defeat in Rome ? 74 and Philip II., king of Macedonia, was about to conclude an alli- ance with Hannibal. The public treasury was empty. However, Rome again took courage. She rapidly collected all the forces still left to her ; all the gold and silver was carried to the public treas- ury, and the young men, the slaves and the allies who still contin- ued to be loyal, were armed. Another army was soon in the field. The equipment of the new fleet was maintained by the rich citizens. I 33. Concluded. Seipio Afrieanus. Battle at Zama. The Romans were afraid that Hannibal would attack their capi- tal. He felt, probably, that his troops were not strong enough to undertake the siege of the city, and desired first to get the people of lower Italy to join him. They all willingly took part with him. Then he went into winterquarters at Capua, expecting reinforce- ments from home. But the luxury of that city enervated his army, and Carthage did not send the support demanded, because the domineering aristocratic party there hated him. He was ordered to demand peace from Rome, but there his embassadors not even got an audience. The slaves defeated a Carthaginian army, and as a reward for their valor they were liberated; and Hannibal himself was vanquished the first time by Marcellus, at Nola (215 B. C.) The Romans incited so many enemies against his ally, Philip of Macedonia, that he had trouble enough to defend himself in his own land. After that Marcellus went to Sicily and besieged the city of Syracuse, which had declared itself against Rome. It defended itself two years with the assistance of Archimedes, the greatest geometer of his age. Wondrous things are related of his machines; e. g., by their aid he hurled huge stone blocks into the ships of the enemy and submersed them, together with their crews, in the sea. At last, in the night, while the inhabitants, after a merry festival, were carelessly sleeping, the Romans, with the help of a traitor, scaled the walls and took the city by storm. Most of the inhabi- tants perished by the sword. Archimedes also was killed by a sol- dier who did not know him. Marcellus ordered him to be buried with great honor. What efforts did the Romans make in their calamity ? ^ 33. Where did Hannibal go into winterquarters ? What bad effect did this arrangement cause in the discipline of his soldiers ? Why did Carthage not send him any support ? Who vanquished him first ? How did Syracuse defend itself against the Romans ? Who was Archimedes ? How was the city taken ? How did Archi- medes perish ? 75 In Spain, where the Romans had for a long time fought with ill success, Publius Cornelius Scipio finally rendered their arms victo- rious. This young hero, being hardly twenty-four years of age, took New Carthage with immense spoils (210 B. C), vanquished the Carthaginians, and expelled them from all their possessions (210-206 B. C.) In the meantime Hannibal, wanting more forces, was in Italy Hmited to a defensive war. At last his brother Hasdrubal conveyed to him' the long desired reinforcements. He had aheady safely passed the Alps ; but, arriving in Italy, he was totally beaten and slain (207 B. C.) The Roman general ordered his head to be thrown into Hannibal's camp. The latter, painfully struck by the sight of the dear head, exclaimed : "Now I perceive the doom of Carthage!" A new army sent by Carthage was not more success- ful, and at last Scipio sailed into Africa, where he threatened even Carthage (204 B. C.) A messenger was sent to Hannibal to direct him to return immediately in order to save the capital. He de- parted with a sad heart from the scene of his triumphs. He had kept his ground in a hostile country during sixteen years with an army which, composed from the most heterogeneous nations, served only for pay and spoils. Not the least mutiny had ever arisen in his camp. At Zama the two greatest generals of their age were to decide on the field of battle which of the two most potent nations should rule. Hannibal foreboded the approaching calamity of Carthage. He had an interview with Scipio, in which he offered all the foreign possessions of Carthage as the price of peace ; but Scipio refused the proposal, and took up the sword. He easily vanquished the mercenaries of Carthage. Hannibal's veterans alone resisted bravely. The latter lost 40,000 men, and, accompanied by a few horsemen, could hardly save himself by flight (202 B. C.) The Carthaginians then made peace. They had to give up all their pos- sessions, except the old territory in Africa; to deliver almost all men-of-war, together with all their tame elephants ; to give a hun- dred hostages; to pay 10,000 talents (about $7,770,000) ; to restore to Masinissa, king of Numidia and ally of the Romans, all the land Who rendered the Romans victorious in Spain ? What failure did Hasdrubal experience ? What did his brother say when he saw his head ? Why was he obliged to quit Italy? Where was the fate of the two rival nations decided? And when ? Mention some circumstances of the battle at Zama. On what con- ditions did the Carthaginians obtain peace ? What was the effect of the second Punic war on the cultivation of Italy ? 76 they had taken from him or his ancestors ; finally, to promise to make no more war without permission of the Romans. Scipio's re- turn to Rome resembled a triumphal procession. The most magni- cent triumph that Rome had ever seen was decreed to him, and the surname of Africanus bestowed upon him. To be sure, Carthage was now overthrown, but Italy also was laid waste, and nevermore rose to the flourishmg condition in which it had been before the second Punic war. §34. Subjugation of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. Death of Hannibal. Third Punic War. Destruc- tion of Carthage and Corinth. Scipio, Junior. Immediately after having vanquished the Carthaginians, the Romans also declared war against Philip II., king of Macedonia, and compelled him to pay tribute (197 B. C.) His son, Perseus, renewed the combat (168 B. C), but lost his lands, which then be- came Roman provinces. Antiochus, king of Syria, incited by Hannibal to 'wage war against Rome, was also vanquished, and had to purchase peace with a great loss of land (189 B. C.) Hannibal, at the court of this king no longer safe against the vengeance of the Romans, fled to Prusias, king of Bythinia, in Asia Minor. But their hatred also followed him there, and embassadors arrived there demanding his deH very (183 B. C.) The king did not dare to oppose them. He ordered his soldiers to surround the house in which Hannibal was living. The latter, noticing them, sent a servant to see if all the doors were guarded, who quickly re- turned, reporting that all outlets were seized. Then Hannibal took poison, which he had carried a longtime with him, saying, "Let us free the Romans from their disquiet, since they have not patience to wait for an old man's death." Scipio also died in the same year, far from Rome, which he, grieved at the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens, had left. Meanwhile Carthage recovered from her prostration, and again became flourishing and powerful by commerce and industry. The Romans perceived it with envy and uneasiness ; therefore they re- solved upon the entire ruin of the rival. Masinissa furnished the opportunity to execute their purpose. Since the Carthaginians had renounced the right of waging war, this king dispossessed them by § 34. Which was the next war of the Romans ? What was the doom of Macedonia and Syria ? How did Hannibal end his life ? What king furnished the opportunity for the third Punic war ? 77 decrees of many lands. Finally, after repeated requests Roman deputies arrived, and decided against them. Oxie of them was Cato on account of the austerity of his morals called the " Censor. He had himself seen Carthage regaining her former power and Brosoerity. He represented in the senate the danger which threat- Led Rome from that city. He was so exasperated agamst it that (according to report) he concluded every speech in the senate with the words, "Finally, I vote that Carthage ought to be destroyed." When Carthage, at last, by the- right of self-defense, took up arms against Masinissa, again the Roman embassadors arrived, pre end- ing to mediate peace ; but as soon as Masinissa had vanquished the Carthaginians, they unmasked and declared war against them in the name of the Roman senate. Terrified, tl^ former declared tha they gave themselves up entirely to the will and pleasure of the RoLn people. Now the senate wanted 300 children of then- noblest families as hostages. The Carthaginians gave them Nevertheless, the consuls went with an army to Africa (150 B^ C ) and demanded the surrender of their ships and arms. They obeyed again Their fleet was burned in their presence. Finally, they were ordered to quit their city, and to remove into another part of their domimon, distant twelve miles from the sea. The last condition struck them with despair. Unanimously they refused to fulfill it, and prepared for the last conflict. There was a want of arms. They worked both day and night in order to make new ones from gold, silver and every metal. Bow-strings were twisted from the hair of the women. The gables of the houses were pulled down and ships built with them, the temples changed into arsenals , and the children, slaves and criminals armed. The Romans attacked the city by sea and land, but it oftered brave resistance, defendmg itself for two years. When the Romans saw that their arms were pow- erless, they committed the command to Scipio Junior. He first cu off all connection of the Carthaginians with the land (147 B.C.) Then he attempted also to stop up the mouth of the harbor by a niole^butjhej^dug^^ With whom did the Roman deputies side ? What were the feelings of Cato the censor, against Carthage? When did the Romans ^^-^-f ^^^ . J^^^J^^ demands did the Carthaginians submit? What was the last o^de o *e Romans? Did the former obey it ? How did they provide for the wants of the LTe. For arms? Bowstrings? Ships? How long d.d they defend them- selfes'? To whom did the Romans then commit the command? In what man- ner did Scipio conduct the siege ? 78 Two walls are already battered down ; provisions are giving out ; still they defy both hunger and the sword. At last Scipio takes the harbor by storm (146 B. C), and enters during the night the lower city ; the upper and the citadel do not yet surrender. The storm- ing lasts six days and six nights. On the seventh day 50,000 in- habitants beg for life. Their request is complied with. Nine hun- dred go on fighting, and finally meet their death in the flames. The wife of Hasdrubal, the general of the Carthaginians, who cowardly had begged for life, kills her children and then rushes into the flames. Scipio destroyed the remainder of the city by fire. The conflagration lasted seventeen days. In this way Rome's rival was utterly ruined ! In the same year Corinth was also destroyed, and Greece reduced to a Roman province (see § 2^.) 4. DOMESTIC STRUGGLES AND DOWNFALL OF THE REPTJBLIC-133-30 B. C I 8S. The Two Gracchi. War with the Cimbri. War w^itli the Confederates. First Civil War. Ma- rias and Sulla. War Against the Slaves and Pirates. Against Mithridates. Con- spiracy of Catiline. Cicero. The Romans, after having subjugated so many nations, turned their arms against themselves. The epoch of the civil wars began. The prelude to them were the tumults raised against the two Gracchi. These brothers felt sincere pity for the poor people, and as the patricians had again appropriated the greatest portion of the State land to themselves, they re-established, when being tribunes, the agrarian law. But the former caused commotions against them, and both were slain with their followers (the one 138 B. C. ; the other 121 B. C.) Their memory was highly honored by the people. About that time the Cimbri and Teutones, probably German tribes, left their settlements in northern Germany and moved to Gaul and Noricum (Styria). They demanded new dwelling-places from the Romans. As their request was not complied with, they took up arms and vanquished several consuls. In Helvetia the What parts of the city did he take at last ? How long- did the storming last ? How many inhabitants surrendered ? How did the remainder, together with Hasdrubal's wife, die ? How long did the conflagration last ? What other city was destroyed the same year? ^35. Give an account of the two Gracchi; of Cimbri and Teutones. Who defeated them ? Where did they come from? 79 Tigurini, who had joined them, and were led by Dmco, defeated consul Cassius at the lake Geneva, and made the captives pass under the yoke. The Teutones advanced from Gaul, the Cimbri from Tyrol to Italy. Rome was panic-stricken by the immense number of the giant-like enemies, and by their horrible forms. Finally, Manus saved the city. He defeated the Teutones at Aix, m Provence (102 B. C.), and the Cimbri at Verona (loi B. C.) Soon after, Rome was endangered by its alhes in Italy. They unanimously claimed citizenship, and as it was refused them, re- solved to obtain it by fighting ; the whole of Italy ought to become one repubhc, and Rome no longer be the capital. The war com- menced (90 B. C.) and was waged with the greatest vigor for two years The best generals of Rome were vanquished; 300,000 war- riors, on both sides, lost their lives. Finally, the humbled city accorded to the alUes the rights of free citizens (88 B. C.) One year later the first civil war commenced. Sulla, leader of the patricians, had been chosen commander against Mithridates, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor; but the people annulled the election, and Marius, their favorite, obtained the desired command. Sulla, with his army, came into the town, proscribed Marius and his partisans, and then marched against Mithridates. The former returned from Africa, whither he had escaped, and joined the consul Cmna, who was attached to the same party. Both vanquished the followers of Sulla in a bloody battle. Thousands more were killed in the city. Marius soon after died from the effects of drunkenness, and Cinna was slain. When Sulla returned from Asia (83 B. C.) civil war was recom- menced; hundreds of thousands fought against him, but he defeated them in all places and entered Rome victorious (82 B. C.) Now such scenes of murder commenced here as were rarely ever seen on earth. In the streets, the houses and the temples, the blood of the citizens was running. Six thousand captives were at once killed, though .the savage had promised to spare their lives. The rich citizens were aU proscribed, the inhabitants of entire cities killed or sold, and their estates divided among his legions. He was for some What did they demand? From what country did the Teutones advance? From which the Cimbri ? What did the Roman allies of Italy claim ? How did they succeed by war ? Who waged the first civil war? Give some particulars of it. W^hat revenge did Sulla take after his return from Asia ? In Rome ? In ^ the country ? 80 years dictator, then he retired to private life, and died miserably from the consequences of his luxury. Soon after the civil war Rome was twice disgraced by being compelled to wage war — first against slaves, then against pirates. In Capua several gladiators broke forth from a fencing-school ; their number soon increased to 120,000 men. They routed several armies, and endangered even Rome. At last they were subdued (71 B. C.) Besides, many pirates invested every sea, and brought Rome in danger of a famine. In order to get rid of them, unlimited power of all the land and naval forces had to be be conferred upon one man, Cayus Pompeius. He cleared all seas from these dangerous enemies (67 B. C), and also completed the subjection of Mithridates (64 B. C), excepting I^nnibal, Rome's most formidable enemy, who for twenty-six years had pertinaciously contended with the rulers of the world. In conclusion, Catiline, a talented but villainous patri- cian, then conceived the scheme to set Rome on fire and to pillage it, to massacre the senate and to render himself ruler of Italy. Many distinguished Romans (Crassus and Jufius Csesar, probably, too) par- took in the conspiracy. Consul Marcus Tullius Cicero discovered the complot ; the ring-leaders were seized and executed, and Cati- line with his partisans killed in a murderous battle (62 B. C.) Cicero received the glorious surname, " Father of the Fatherland." § 36. First Triumvirate. Cassar, Pompey and Crassus. Second Civil War. Battle at Pharsalia. As Pompey had returned from Asia, he, Julius C^sar and Mar- cus Crassus united for the purpose of dividing the supreme power of the State among themselves, and to maintain it against every adversary. As Cato Junior (the Uticenis), learned the news of their alliance (triumvirate), he exclaimed, lamentingly : " The republic is undone; she has got masters!" Forthwith Csesar, against the law, contrived to be appointed for five years pro-consul of Gallia. The term of his office was afterwards prolonged to ten years. Pompey became, also contrary to law, solely consul, and at the same time pro-consul of Spain, which he committed to a dep- What was the cause of his death ? Relate some circumstances of the war against slaves and pirates. Who was commander-in-cliief against the latter ? Give an account of tlie conspiracy of Catiline. Who discovered it ? Wliat was the purpose of the conspirators ? What was their doom ? How did Catiline perish ? ^ 36. Who formed the first triumvirate ? What country did Julius Csesar con- quer ? 81 uty, while he himself remained in Rome. Crassus, desiring to increase his wealth, ventured war against the Parthians, in Asia, in which he was slain. Csesar completely conquered Gallia beyond the Alps (France), and Belgium as far as the lower Rhine. He killed one million, which was about the third part of the inhabitants. By the battle of Autun, he compelled the Helvetians, who were looking there for finer settlements, to return home (58 B. C.) He also vanquished ■ the German races who, commanded by Ariovistus, crossed the Rhine, and repelled them into Germany. When his term had expired, he again soHcited the consulship. The senate ordered him to first disband his army, and as he did not obey, declared him a public enemy, and commissioned Pompey to defend the republic. Now Caesar marched his legions to Italy, passing the Rubicon, an act deemed equivalent to an open declara- tion of war against his country (49 B. C.) Pompey and the senate fled into Greece. Caesar conquered Italy without any resistance, plundered the public treasure in Rome, subdued Spain, and then followed Pompey. In the first battle he was repulsed, but at Phar- salia, in Thessaly, he gained, with the aid of his German troops, a complete victory (48 B. C.) Pompey fled to Egypt, where the king of that country ordered him to be stabbed. Caesar speedily followed there. The king died fighting for his throne. Cleopatra, his sister, became queen of Egypt, and Caesar jnarched against Pharnaces, king of Pontus, and son of Mithridates, whose domin- ions he reduced with such rapidity that he announced the result to the Roman senate in the well-known words : Veni, vidi, vici, "■ I came, I saw, I conquered." After his return to Rome, he granted a general amnesty to the followers of Pompey, and by his clemency gained a strong hold on the affections of the people. Still there jvas a large and powerful party in Africa and Spain opposed to him. Passing over to Africa, he vanquished the friends of liberty. Cato, who commanded the garrison in Utica, seeing that the repubfic was passing away, admonished his friends to flee, or to implore Caesar's clemency. He himself had resolved not to survive the loss of liberty. After Where was Crassus slain ? What did the senate order Ceesar to do when he solicited the consulship ? Where did he march then with his legions ? De- scribe his public actions in Italy, Spain and Greece. Where did he vanquish Pompey ? How did the latter die .'' How did Ccesar succeed against Pharnaces ? In Africa ? Delineate the death of Cato Uticenis. (6) 82 having conversed with them on philosophical topics, he retired to his bed-chamber, read Plato's book on the immortality of the soul, and then killed himself by running against his sword. Caesar, after his return, lavished rich presents on the army and citizens of Rome. Every soldier received about seven hundred dollars ; every citizen, fifteen dollars, and every inmate the rent for one year. Besides, all the people were boarded at 22,000 tables. He vanquished also his last enemies, the sons of Pompey (45 B. C), and celebrated a solemn triumph over his overwhelmed fellow- citizens. He had sacrificed 200,000 human lives in order to found a monarchy. The venal senate made him dictator for life, gave his name to the month m which he was born, declared his person to be sacred, and erected his statue in the capitol, where it was to be ven- erated like those of the gods. Afterwards, Caesar assumed the air of absolute king and ruler, though he tried to promote the prosperity of the State by many useful institutions. He distributed the offices and honors among his flatterers as he pleased, and treated the most eminent men with con- tempt. He endeavored even to obtain the royal crown, and there- by committed a crime which, by the Roman law, was punished with death. Thf day was already fixed on which the senate was to offer him the diadem.; but this day happened to be his day of death. More than sixty men, among them the most eminent citi- zens, had formed a conspiracy for his assassination. They were headed by Brutus and Cassius. Publicly, in the presence of the full senate, he was to die. As soon as he appeared there (the 15th of March, 44 B. C), the conspirators surrounded his golden chair, and one of them requested him to pardon his banished brother ; the others seconded the request. As Csesar refused to comply with the demand, the former forcibly pulled his toga from his shoulder, and another, whose name was Casca, stabbed him with his dagger. This was the signal for a general attack. He first defended himself, but when he saw Brutus, to whom he always had been kind, draw- ing his dagger also, he gave up further resistance ; he covered his face and fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey 's statue. Describe Ceesar's munificence towards the army and the citizens in Rome. What adversaries did he last vanquish ? What honors did the senate confer upon him ? By what actions did he betray his design to become king ? Give an account of the conspiracy against him. What two men were at its liead ? Who stabbed liim first ? When did he give up further resistance ? 83 § 87. Second Triunavirate. Antonius. Oetavius and Lepidus. Third Civil War. Battle at Aetium. The servile people received the news of their deliverance indif- ferently. When Caesar's funeral was celebrated, the cunning An- tony lifted up his bloody robe before the assembled people and pointed out the wounds of the corpse. At the same time he deHv- ered a fervent eulogy to the memory of Caesar, and read to the audience his will, by which a sum of money was provided for every citizen. By such artifices he provoked the populace so that they seized fire-brands from the burning funeral-pile in order to set also the houses of the conspirators on fire. These were obliged to has- tily leave Rome. Then Oetavius, Caesar's adopted son, eighteen years old, made his appearance to take possession of the great heri- tage his foster-father had left to him. As Antony withheld it from him, he declared war against him. The senate and people sided with him, and Antony was vanquished in battle at Mutina (Modena). But as the senate refused the consulate to Oetavius, the two adver- saries were reconciled, and formed an alliance with Lepidus, in order to annihilate the republican party. First they killed thousands in Rome, among them Cicero, and grasped their treasures. Cicero was betrayed to the assassins sent to dispatch him by one of his own domestics ; but, tired of life, he forbade his servants to defend him, and yielded himself to his fate without a struggle. Antony and Oetavius then set out to meet Brutus and Cassius, who, by this time, had assembled a great army, and vanquished them at Phihppi in two battles (42 B. C.) Both generals destroyed themselves. They were called the two last Romans. The victors now divided the Roman empire like booty. Antony received the Orient, Oetavius the western provinces, and Lepidus, Africa. The latter was afterwards deprived of his share. Antony passed over into Egypt, and, at the court of Cleopatra indulged in luxury. When he gave away even Roman provinces to her and her children, the senate decreed (as Octa\ius had desired long ago) his removal, and declared war against Cleopatra. Antony was vanquished at Aetium, in the Ionian Sea (31 B. C.) Cleopatra, § 37. How did the people receive the news of their deliverance ? Describe the devices practiced by Marc Antony at the funeral. What of the conspirators ? Of Oetavius? What men united for the second triumvirate? Why? Give some proofs of their cruelty. How did Cicero die ? Where did they vanquish Brutus and Cassius ? How did they divide the booty ? Where did Antony pass his time? Against whom did the senate declare war? Why? 84 who had accompanied Antony, overcome with anxiety, departed from the scene of action, and the infatuated Antony, as soon as he saw that the queen had fled, hastily followed her. His land forces, some days later, surrendered to the victor, who pursued the fugi- tives to Egypt, where Antony put an end to his own life. When Cleopatra, who had shut up herself in her palace, found that Octa- vius designed to spare her only to adorn his triumph, she caused a poisonous viper to be applied to her arm, and thus followed Antony in death. Octavius was now left sole master of the Roman world. Rome ceased forever to be a republic. SEOOUD OflAPTER-HISTOET OF GIVILIZATION. ^ 38. Constitution, Moral, Social and Military Condi- tion of the Roman State. Since the expulsion of the kings two consuls in Rome were at the head of the government. They were the commanders in war ; the term of their office was limited to one year. In critical times dictators, with unhmited power, were elected. The prators admin- istered the judicial power. The censors kept the lists of property of the people, and superintended the public morals. The tribunes were the representatives of the people ; they could annul the de- crees of the senate by their veto. There were also ?}iilitary trib- unes. The proco7isicls and proprcetors were the governors of the conquered provinces. The senate, especially, had control of the foreign affairs of the State. Until the institution of tribunes (493 B. C.) the people voted, in matters of importance, either in comitia curiata, or centuriata ; but they effected voting in comitia tributa, in which the citizens singly voted. In this way the aristocratic constitution of Rome became democratic. First the plebeians were excluded from high public offices ; later, they obtained, by their efforts, also access to these. (See § 27.) In the earlier times of the republic, the Romans excelled by frugality, industry, parsimony and strict morality. Since the for- eign wars they grew worse and worse. All the wealth of the con- Give a description of the battle at Actium. How did Antony and Cleo- patra end their lives? Who became then lord of the Roman world? § 38. Give the names of the officers in the Roman republic ? What of voting in comitia curiata, centuriata and tributa ? Which of these were most democratic ? How were the morals of the Romans in the early times of the republic ? • How in later times ? 85 quered countries flowed into Rome, whereby the morals were cor- rupted. The largest part of the people, through these causes, re- mained so poor that it was necessary every week to distribute bread among them. Wealthy private individuals also amused them by games and theatrical representations. The care of agriculture was left to the slaves. Laws were, amid combats, given and repealed ; offices were sold ; injustice prevailed in the courts. The number of Roman slaves was exceedingly great. Out of one hundred and twenty milUons of inhabitants of the Roman dominion, almost half belonged to his unhappy class of men. Many Romans owned over ten thousand. Many physicians and actors, and even most of the teachers and tutors, were slaves. The doom of the Roman subjects was also severe. They had to bear the public burdens, and were frequently plundered by the governors of the provinces, who imposed upon them all kinds of heavy taxes. The military constitutions of the Romans were excellent. Their legions, which numbered from ten thousand to twelve thousand men, were composed of infantry and a corps of cavalry. Their military signs represented eagles, which were carried upon poles. The miUtary disciphne was very severe ; they punished not .only with drubs, but even with death. Entire legions were sometimes decimated, every tenth man being punished with death. Rewards, however, brought about greater effects in the Roman soldier than punishments. He who saved a citizen was rewarded with a crown of oak leaves. The generals obtained magnificent triumphs. The vanquished enemies were, as a general rule in ancient time, reduced to slavery. § 39. Arts and Sciences. Julian Calendar. Schools. Public Games. Commerce. In Greece, the arts and sciences celebrated their golden era under Perjcles. He patronized them, adorned Athens with master- pieces of architecture, sculpture and paintmg, celebrated splendid games and pastimes, and his administration formed an era of great internal splendor and magnificence. With the loss of fiberty, the Who took care of agriculture ? How was justice administered? Were there many Roman slaves? What was the condition of the Roman subjects? Give an account of the military institutions of Rome, of the legions, military signs, discipline, punishments, rewards and triumphs. § 39. Under whose govern- ment did the arts and sciences most flourish in Greece ? When did their lustre decrease ? 86 arts and sciences also began to decline. During the combat for the conquests which Alexander had left, the first Ptolemies opened for them a quiet asylum. The public buildings of the Greeks, such as temples, theaters, and gymnasia, were magnificent. The temple of Apollo at Delphi, of Jupiter in Olympia, of Diana in Ephesus, and of Minerva in Athens, were renowned. To the latter splendid porticos led which formed a marble gate, with five lofty thoroughfares and side build- ings, which were reached by a grand flight of stairs. The Romans were incomparable in the construction of aqueducts, high-roads and bridges. The greatest, thus far not excelled statuaries of the Greeks were Praxiteles and Phidias. The latter created the colossal statues of Jupiter in Olympia, and of Minerva in Athens. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Apelles belonged to the most celebrated painters. Alexander of Macedonia permitted only the latter .to paint him. Poesy, too, pre- eminently flourished in Greece. Pindar, of Thebes, composed the most sublime hymns and odes; Anacreon, the sweetest social songs; ^schylos, Sophocles and Euripides, wrote the best tragedies ; Aris- tophanes, the wittiest comedies. The theatrical representations, to which artistical dances and music were always joined, made an un- speakable impression on the spectators, of whom frequently 30,000 were present. But they also caused enormous expenses, and were therefore managed by the States. They were only performed on occasion of national festivals. Eloquence, in free Greece, attained the highest degree of per- fection; it flourished especially in Athens. Themis-tocles, Alcibi- ades, Isocrates, ^Eschines, and at the head of all, Pericles and Demos- thenes, were the great orators of this city. With regard to Pericles, the Athenians said that he bore thunder and lightning upon his tongue. Once he dehvered a consolatory oration to the parents whose sons had fallen in a battle. All the auditors wgre deeply affected. At the end of the delivery, the mothers, with joyful im- petuosity, hastened to the orator and tendered him wreaths. Demos- thenes trained himself with the greatest zeal for the vocation of a public orator. His breath was short, and his voice feeble, and he could not distinctly pronounce the letter r. In order to correct How were the public buildings? Give examples. Statuaries? What statues did Phidias form ? Painters ? Writers of hymns, tragedies and come- dies ? Delineate the theatrical representations of the Greeks. Orators ? Give particulars of Pericles and Demosthenes. Roman orators ? Greek historians ? 87 these faults, he proceeded to the beach of the ocean, and endeav- ored to outcry the roaring billows ; he took pebbles into his mouth and tried, in spite of this impediment, to speak distinctly; he went up precipitous mountains, reciting, with strong voice, long speeches. He occupied an underground room, where he placed himself before a large mirror and exercised in mimics and pantomime. In this way he became the first orator of antiquity. The best Roman ora- tors were Hortensius, called the king of the forum, and Cicero, who was contending with Demosthenes for the palm of superiority. Among the many Greek historians, Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon occupy the highest place. The first described the Per- sian wars, the second the greater part of the Peloponnesian war, and Xenophon the continuation of the Grecian history, commencing at the latter war. Among the Romans, Julius Csesat wrote the history of the Gallic and second civil war; Sallustius, that of the conspiracy of Catiline. In philosophy, too, the preference, among the ancient nations, belongs to the Greeks. Among the olden philosophers Pythagoras became remarkable by establishing a league of virtue in lower Italy. Its members performed in secret a peculiar divine worship, studied mathematics and other sciences, and attempted to improve the public governments. Their endeavors succeeded for some time, but the blind multitude rose in tumult against them, and they were partly killed and partly expelled. Socrates surpassed all his predecessors in practical wisdom (see § 2i). His scholar, Plato, was the most renowned philosopher of antiquity ; Aristoteles, a pupil of the latter, excelled by the variety of his knowledge. He earned, especially in the natural sciences, a high desert. The Stoics, so called from s^oa, a porch in Athens, where Zeno, the founder of their school, taught, declared virtue to be the supreme, nay, the only real good. The Epicureans, on the contrary, believed that mental and physical welfare is the highest good. The Cynics despised sensual pleasure, riches, and prerogatives of birth. They gave frequent offense to the good manners of society. Among them What did Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon write ? Wliat Julius Csesar and Sallustius ? Describe the school of Pythagoras. What sciences did his disciples study ? What did they attempt to improve ? Did they succeed ? What philosopher surpassed all in practical wisdom ? Who was his most re- nowned pupil ? How did Aristoteles excel ? Mention the first principle of the Stoics; of the Epicureans ? What of the Cynics ? Diogenes of Sinope was, by his ingenious and witty remarks, most known. Even Alexander the Great paid him a visit, and admired him so much that he exclaimed : " If I were not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes." One day, as he came from Sparta to Athens, somebody asked him where he came from. " From the dwellings of men into the apartments of the women," was his reply. Among the Romans, Cicero deserved best of philosophy. In his main work he discusses human duties. All the Grecian philosophers also applied themselves to mathe- matics. EucHdes and Archimedes excelled in these sciences. Thales and Pythagoras were also astronomers. A mathematician of Alex- andria (Sosigenes) commissioned by Julius C^sar, computed the solar year more accurately. He fixed its duration at 365 days ; every fourth year one day should be interpolated. The greatest Grecian physician was Hippocrates, who made his appearence in Athens dur- ing the great pleague. The Grecian schools were in ancient times the best. The works of the best poets formed the ground-work of the national culture of the Greeks. In the gymnasia, bodily exercises prevailed; still, lan- guage, eloquence, and philosophy were also taught. They con- tained large court-yards with porticos, careers, bathiiig-rooms, etc. Books, in ancient times, were very scarce and very dear. There were nevertheless many public libraries ; the two largest existed in Alex- andria. Public games were, in Greece, generally customary. At Olympia, Delphi, Nem^ea, and on the isthmus of Corinth, national games were celebrated. Every Greek freeman was admitted to them. They drew together an immense concourse from all parts of Greece, and numbers even from foreign countries. During their celebration every feud was suspended ; even the most bitter enemies met there fraternally. The exercises practiced were leaping, running, throw- ing, boxmg and wrestling ; also horse and chariot races. The benches upon which the spectators were sitting, rose like terraces. The victors received wreaths, crowns, triumphal processions, and other rewards of honor. Poets, musicians, orators and philosophers also Who among them was most known ? Mathematicians ? How did Sosigenes compute the solar year ? Who excelled most among the Roman philosophers ? What was the name of the greatest Grecian physician ? What instruction was imparted in the Grecian schools? How were they constructed? What of books ? Delineate the public games of the Greeks. What exercises were prac- ticed there ? 89 made their appearance at the games, and gained applause and prizes of honor by their performances. The most renowned ' games were the Olympian ; they lasted five days. The Greeks also com- puted their time by them— an Olympiade signifying a period of four years. In regard to commerce, Carthage, especially, was renowned at the beginning of this period. The estabUshment of Alexandria opened to it a new career. This city, under the first Ptolemies, was the center of universal commerce. The Arabian Sea was connected with it by the Nile, to which a canal and a highway led, so that the merchandise of India came over the Persian Gulf to the Mediter- ranean Sea, and from there to the European countries. This commer- cial way continued to be used until the passage to the East Indies by sea was discovered. In the next period Constantinople also became an important commercial place. EXERCISES. Describe the life of the following men, according to the points of view here given : l. Themistocles— (a) as youth, {b) as hero and statesman, (/) as enemy of his country. 2. Aristides— (a) in the battle of Marathon, {b) in the battles at Salamis and Platsere, {c) after the Persian wars, {d) proofs of his love of jus- tice and contentment. 3. Hannibal's achievements and actions — («) in Spain, {b) in Italy, {c) in Africa, {d) in Asia. 4. Comparative representation of the actions of the two Brutus ; the elder Brutus— («) as Rome's deliverer, {b) as father, {c) as commander; the junior— («) as Rome's deliverer, {b) as general. 5. A similar comparison of the two Scipios. 6. Gather the scattered traits of the life of Pelopidas. By what exploits and incidents in life did Aristides and Camillus resemble each other ? What countries did the Romans possess at the end of this period ? Which conqueror rose with them at the same time, about 343 B. C. ? Which two cities did they destroy in the same year? Which two celebrated heroes died in the same year; and when? Which internal causes brought about the loss of liberty of the Greeks and Romans ? When did the sciences and arts celebrate their golden era in Greece ? Who was the greatest orator among the Greeks ? Who among the Romans ? Where were the most renowned games ? What rewards did the victors re- ceive ? What two cities were most renowned for commerce ? How was the Arabian Sea connected with the Mediterranean ? What city in the next period also became an important commercial place ? ■ 90 THIRD PERIOD. Frorr] Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of Nations, The Romaq Empire aqd its Decay, Victory of Christianity, From 30 B, C, to 375 A, D, FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. ROMAN EMPIRE. I 40. Augustus and the Emperors from his Descent. Rome had subjected itself to the government of Octavius, and he knew how to slyly maintain it. He pretended to his two most intimate friends, Agrippa and Maecenas, to have resolved to resign the government. Agrippa, a sincere, upright warrior, praised him for that, and advised him to do so; but Msecenas held another opinion. In the senate Octavius uttered the same declaration; Maecenas urged him to stay ten years longer at the helm of govern- ment. This political legerdemain Octavius repeated several times. He did not touch the forms of republic, but kept the most impor- tant offices, especially the supreme command of all armies, and sur- rounded himself with a strong life-guard. He was to be called prince and augustus (the divine). The mainstays of his dominion were Maecenas and Agrippa. He ruled at least mildly. During his government, Tyrol, Styria and parts of Bavaria, Austria and Hun- garia were conquered. In Germany his legions were defeated (see § 42). Though ruler of the Roman world, he was not free and happy at home. His third wife, Livia, governed him at pleas- ure. By poison she dispatched the next heirs of the throne, and compelled him to accept Tiberius, her favorite son, as his successor. Finally, he died (14 A. D.), probably himself a sacrifice of her I 40. Who were the two most intimate friends of Augustus ? "What did they advise him concerning the government ? Whose advice did he follow ? By what means did he maintain the supreme power ? Was his private life happy ? Who governed him at home ? 91 secret malignity. Before he died he is reported to have said to his friends : " Clap hands, for I have played well my part." After his death, temples and festivals were dedicated to him. In a similar manner most, even the worst emperors, were idolized. Sad was the fate of the Roman empire under the emperors of the family of Augustus. They vied with each other in cruelty, luxury and follies. It will suffice to enumerate their names, which were : Tiberius, CaHgula, Claudius and Nero. The latter sur- passed all his predecessors in cruelty and foolishness. By his order even his brother, his mother and wife, and his'teacher, Seneca, were killed. He set fire to Rome himself, laid the blame of the action upon the Galileeans, a Jewish or Christian sect, and caused them to be put to a cruel death. He went so far in his foolishness that he publicly passed through Italy and Greece as an actor and singer. At last the senate passed the sentence of death upon the monster. The coward, not having the courage to take his own life, caused a poniard to be thrust into his throat as he was to be seized. (^6S B. C.) § 41. Rome Ruled by Good Emperors. Downfall of the Empire. After a cruel civil war, in which three emperors were killed, good rulers reigned for one hundred years. The first was Vespa- sian. He was economical in the administration of the finances, and kept the troops in obedience. He instituted public schools, was the first who paid teachers, and rewarded artists and scholars. During his reign Jerusalem was destroyed by his son Titus (70 A, D.), who, by the Romans called " the dehght of the human race," passed his short reign (79-81 A. D.) in conferring benefits. Nobody left him without receiving comfort. One day, as he did not dispense any benefit, he exclaimed, sorrowfully: "Friends, I have lost a day." During his reign three calamities disturbed its prosperity — a conflagration consumed a large portion of Rome ; a pestilence desolated Italy, and an eruption of Mount Vesuvius covered (23d of August, 79) the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabise with ashes, entirely destroying them. In the last century the two former What is lie reported to have said to his friends when he died ? Whom had he to accept as his successor ? What was the character of the emperors of his family ? What crimes did Nero commit ? What foolish acts ? How did he perish ? | 41. Give an account of Vespasian. What city was destroyed during his reign ? What did the Romans call Titus ? W^hy ? What calamities befell Rome during his reign? 92 cities were again discovered and pardy excavated, disclosing the city walls, streets, temples, theaters, the forum, baths, monuments, private buildings, domestic utensils, etc. The pictures covering the walls are still in a well-preserved condition. Several skeletons were also found. The skeleton of a woman held a child upon her arm ; at her side the bones of two children were lying, who held each other in tight embrace. Domitian, a brother of Titus, was a tyrant and was killed. Trajan, said to be the best of the Roman sover- eigns, took care of the orphans, and augmented the number of the public schools in Itkly. The arts and sciences flourished again. He constructed the gigantic high-road which runs from the Black Sea as far as Gallia. He was also fond of waging war. He con- quered Transylvania, Assyria, etc. Adrian preferred peace to con- quests, lessened the taxes of the people, and restrained the soldiers. He traveled through the greatest part of the provinces of the realm, mostly on foot, and arranged good institutions in many places. Towards the end of his reign he became cruel. Anto- nmus, surnamed Pius, did not rule like a monarch, but as the first citizen of the State. His principle was, to protect rather the life of one citizen than to sacrifice it for a thousand enemies.- Marcus Aurelius, for his philosophical writings surnamed the Sage, con- cludes the series of the good emperors (178 A. D.) His son, Com- modus, was a rude, blood-thirsty monster. In general, from this time forward, the Roman State seldom had a good emperor, and if one took possession of the throne he was soon killed by the licentious soldiers. The civil wars increased ; the morals grew worse and worse ; all bonds of public order were dissolved. The change of the regents became more frequent. Sev- eral times three or more emperors were ruling at the same time. In a period of fifty years (235-285 A. D.) altogether fifty ruled. Under such circumstances, the boundaries of the vast empire could not be protected against the invasions of its enemies, especially of the German nations. It visibly hastened towards its dissolution. Among the last emperors of this period Constantine I., by flat- terers called the Great, is remarkable (306-337 A. D.) Induced by policy, he was converted to the Christian religion, and aided What relics were found in the excavated cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ? Give an account of Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus Pius ? What principle con- fessed the latter ? Why v^as Marcus Aurelius surnamed the Sage ? What was, after his death, the political condition of the Roman empire ? How many emperors reigned in the space of 50 years from 235-285 A. D. ? 93 its propagation. He also reorganized the administration of the State, and estabHshed Byzantium (afterwards called Constantinople) as the capital of the empire. As to the rest, he also was a cruel despot, who drowned his wife, put his son to death, and murdered the husbands of his two sisters, his father-in-law, and his nephew, a boy of twelve years of age. Under the emperors Valentinian and Valens, who ruled together, enemies assaulted almost all the bound- aries of the realm. The Huns arrived in Europe (375 A. D.), and caused the commencement of the great migration of the Teutonic nations. § 42. Germany. Arminius. In the time of the Romans, a great part of Germany still con- sisted of forests, marshes and sterile land. The climate was rough. Only barley and oats were cultivated. The wealth of the inhabitants consisted in cattle and horses. The culture of the soil was first im- proved by the Romans. The origin and the first habitations of the Germans are uncertain. The Romans called them Germani. They had blue eyes, light hair, and were of gigantic size. They were divided into many tribes, among which the Suevi, Goths, Franks, Cheruski, Saxons and Marcomans were the most powerful. The Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards and Alemanni belonged also to the German tribes. The imperious Romans tried to conquer Germany, and for this purpose Julius Caesar crossed the Rhine. He could not, however, hold his ground beyond the river. During the reign of Augustus 'they again advanced as far as the Weser, pitched strengthened camps there, -and built forts. Governor Quintihus Varus, a covet- ous man, demanded from the freemen taxes which, in their country, only slaves used to pay, punished them with axe and rods, and en- deavored to introduce Roman laws and language. Outraged by this despotic treatment they resolved to throw off the disgraceful ' yoke. Arminius (Herman), the young chief of the Cheruski, who were living at the middle Weser, came to the front as their leader. He had commanded German federal troops in Rome, and thereby acquired military science. Though rewarded there with citizen- What emperor was converted to the Christian religion ? What crimes stained his character? What nation arrived in Europe under Valens and Valentinian? What migration began then ? § 42. How was the climate in ancient Germany ? What were the products of the soil ? What was the general appearance of the inhabitants ? How were they governed by Quintilius Varus ? What did they re- solve to do ? Who was the leader of their confederation ? 94 ship and knighthood, he still remained true to his country. He secretly enlisted friends for his project. Some chieftains, on purpose, began hostilities at a distance. Varus set out with 40,000 men, and allowed himself to be allured into the Hercynian forest, where Anninius and the other chieftains awaited him with their warriors. There were nowhere beaten roads; everywhere only woods and wilderness. Violent showers of rain made the way slippery. The Germans attacked with impet- uousity ; but Varus was still so infatuated that he even forbade his legions to defend themselves. With pains he led them to an open place where he burned the wagons and unnecessary baggage. Next day he had to continue the march. The Germans attacked him more eagerly. The Romans, too, were now fighting, but with- out success. When night came on, they would entrench them- selves, but the enemies and the incessantly stormy weather pre- vented them doing so. The third day they are assailed most forci- bly. The slaughter becomes general; now even the bravest lose their courage. Some, like Varus, run on their own swords ; but most are killed ; few only escape by flight. Some of the captives were hanged on trees, others sacrificed to the gods ; the remainder had to do the most menial work of slavery. The captured lawyers suffered the worst doom. In this manner one of the best Roman armies was annihilated, and German liberty saved. When the news of the defeat of Varus reached Rome, terror became general. The people were afraid of another German invasion of Italy. Augustus, at the first onset of grief, tore his robe, locked himself up, and in- despair, dashed himself against the wall, exclaiming : "Varus, re- store me my legions!" All the German mercenaries were removed from Italy, and new troops sent to the Rhine, but they did not find the enemies. The Germans were contented to have vindicated their independence. Augustus endeavored to subject them in the following years, but in vain. But Arminius was, in later time, vanquished, his wife Thusnelda taken prisoner, and led in triumph through Rome. In the war which the Germans after that waged among themselves, he himself lost his life by treachery (21 A. D.) How did they allure Varus into the Hercynian forest ? Give an account of the battle. What was its result ? How did the victors deal with the captives ? How did Augustus brook the news of the defeat? What effect did it cause in Rome ? What events occurred later in the life of Arminius and his wife ? 95 SECOND CHAPTEK-HISTORY OF OIVILIZATIOlf. § 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and Customs of the Ancient Germans. The first emperors still preserved the republican forms ; there were yet consuls, tribunes, etc., elected, but they were only so in name. In later times, this practice also was stopped. The army proclaimed the emperors, not caring longer to obtain the confirma- tion of the senate, and the captain of the body-guard (praefectus praetorio) was, next to the emperor, the highest dignitary of the empire. Diocletian (285-305 A. D.) estabUshed the pomp of the Oriental courts, and the emperors henceforth assumed the title, dominus (master). The last vestige of liberty vanished. The taxes became more and more oppressive and the armies more numerous. Finally, as the citizens refused to fight longer in the wars of the des- potic sovereigns, many barbarians were enrolled in the armies. Constantine I. divided the whole realm into four prefectures, every prefecture into several dioceses, and these into provinces. The ancient Germans lived entirely free. Their public aifairs were deliberated in general meetings. The lands, too, belonged to the commons, and were annually divided among the individuals, according to their needs. It was considered a disgrace to survive the chief in battle. He who lost his shield became infamous. The bards, a kind of poets, encouraged their combatants by their songs ; the women, by their speeches. Next to war, the men liked hunting best ; house and field must be taken care of by the women and ser- vants. Hospitality, faithfulness to a given promise, love of country and of liberty were the praiseworthy qualities of the ancient Ger- mans ; on the other hand, a propensity for idleness and robbery and a passion for gambling and drinking were their national faults. They did not think it wrong to go abroad, beyond their district, for booty. If everything they had was lost by gambling, liberty even was wagered, and the loser willingly became the slave of the other. The carousals often lasted for whole days and nights, and yet the most important deliberations also were conducted at them. The ^ 43. What did the Roman emperors still preserve of the old constitution ? What title did they at last assume ? What of taxes and armies ? Why did they enroll barbarians in the armies ? Give a description of the customs and manners of the ancient Germans. Where did they deliberate general affairs ? How v/ere the lands divided? Who encouraged them in battles ? Mention their good and bad qualities. 96 favorite beverage of the Germans was beer, which they drank out of the horns taken from killed game. ^ 44. Religion of the Ancient Germans. Christian Religion. According to the report, tlie ancient Germans worshiped Wodin (Odin), also called Alfader (father of all), as the supreme Being; his son, Thor, as the god of thunder; his spouse, Freyja, as the goddess of love and wedlock ; Hertha, the goddess of the earth ; the Wal- kyres, goddesses of the battles, etc. They believed in a heaven (Walhalla), where they would drink beer and mead out of the skulls of their killed enemies; and in a hell (Hela). They had sacred groves, sacrifices, oracles, priests and priestesses. In those groves they kept white horses, according to the neighing of which they interpreted the future. They also oflered human sacrifices. They highly valued forebodings ; e. g.^ whether at the time of a meeting the moon was full or new. Before engaging in important enter- prises they asked the advice of the priests. To the women, also, they gave credit for being able to cast a prophetic look into the future. The Greek and Roman refigions declined in this period ; they had lost their authority ; the more culture and enlightenment in- creased, the greater was the contempt into which they sank. The Jews, too, did not adhere so closely to the Mosaic creed. Secta- rianism had gained ground among them, and empty ceremonies had taken the place of true religion. At such a time, during the gov- ernment of Augustus, Jesus of Nazareth made his appearance in Palestine, constructing a new and better religion on the foundation of the old Judasim. His conduct was strictly moral and pure, in general, and even his enemies could not find any fault with him. As he attacked the ruling abuses of the religious government, and severely censured the vices of the priests and Pharisees, who formed a powerful sect, he became the object of their hatred, and perished by the violent death of crucifixion. After his death his doctrines were collected and written down ; he himself has left nothing in writing. His religion had spread, after some centuries, over the \ 44. Who was Wodin, Thor, Freyja, Hertha ? What animals did the Ger- mans keep in their sacred groves ? Wherefore ? Whose advice did they ask in important enterprises ? Why did Christianity gain the ascendency over the Mosaic, Greek and Roman religions ? Give some particulars of the life of Jesus. When were his doctrines written down? 97 whole Roman world, and since Constantine I. had declared it the religion of the State, it became predominant in his realm. Its con- fessors were called Christians, because its author, Jesus, was called Christ (the anointed, the king). The causes of the rapid propagation of Christianity were both internal and external; and aiiiong those causes the excellence of the doctrine deserves to be mentioned, viz., Jesus represented God .as the father of all men, recommended his spiritual veneration, insisted upon a pure, moral life (as the foundation of the kingdom of God), and commanded love and charity towards everyone, even our enemies. He taught that all men are equal in the presence of God, and members of one family. Therefore his religion gained a great many proselytes among the poor, humble and the slaves, who felt themselves elevated by such principles. Besides, these people were aided by collections from the Christians, destined for the comfort of the distressed. Other external causes were : the dis- persion of the Jews, whose religion is the foundation of Chris- tianity, and the persecution of the Christians, by which their moral force was nerved. The blood of the martyrs became the seed of new confessors. Sometimes, however, the Christians themselves were to be blamed if they incurred persecutions, either by disturb- ing the established religious rites, or by being disobedient to the laws of the country, or by pressing to the tribunals of their enemies, in order to be victims of their creed. Most severely were they per- secuted for some time by the Emperor Galerius, imperial colleague of Diocletian; still later, he was reconciled with them. The Christians themselves soon began to quarrel about obscure dogmas of their religion. They did so especially in their ecclesiastic councils (synods). From words they went, sometimes, to bloody affrays, and even to wars. Since Constantine had conceded to the Christian Church the same rights as pertained to the old State relig- ion, the persecuted began persecuting; /, e., Arius, a priest of Alexandria, taught that Jesus had not existed from eternity, and was less than God. For this he was expelled in the council of Nice What emperor declared Christianity the religion of the State? Mention rsome internal and external causes of its rapid propagation. Why did it gain many proselytes among the poor and slaves ? For whom were the collections of the Christians destined ? What effect had the death of the martyrs ? In what way were the Christians themselves at fault for their persecution ? About what did the Christians begin to quarrel ? Give an example. (7) 98 from communion with the church, and exiled, and his writings were burned. His followers were also punished. The clergymen obtained great privileges and riches, and soon formed a special class (the priesthood), separating from the people (the laity). They discontinued civil busmess, took salaries and appointments for life ; only the right of confirmation was left to the communities. Many degrees of rank were established. The high- est priests were styled patriarchs. These took up their residences in the most important cities of the empire, and usurped the prerog- ative of superintending the bishops. § 4S. The Arts and Sciences. The arts and sciences truly flourished thus far during the reign of the Emperor Augustus, for he himself and Maecenas were their protectors and friends; but, poesy excepted, their most beautiful time was already past. The loss of political liberty effected their decay, and the rage of destruction, in which Christians and barbar- ians vied with each other, hastened their ruin. In this way, under Constantine, crowds of priests and monks passed through Greece, burned the temples, ruined their works of art, and destroyed the most ingenious writings. Among the Roman poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid occupy the first place. The first, who was most accomplished in language and form, wrote idyls, depicted agriculture in a didactic poem, and related, in the ^Eneid, the wanderings of ^neas and his settling in Latium. The satires of Horace abound in delicate irony; his poet- ical epistles contain a treasure of practical wisdom. Ovid, the most productive of the Roman poets, wrote elegies from Bulgaria (Pontus), his place of exile, love-letters, metamorphoses (a collection of myths), etc. Among the Grecian historians the most celebrated were Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, author of renowned biographies ; among the Romans, besides Sallustius and Cornelius Nepos, especially Titus Livy and Tacitus. The former wrote the Roman history in 142 books, of which the greater part is lost; the latter, the lives of the Augustan emperors. The astronomer, Ptole- mseus, supposed the earth to be the center of the universe. His opinion prevailed till the time of Copernicus. The elder Plinius wrote What of the clergymen ? | 45. Under what emperor did sciences and arts flourish ? Who destroyed their productions ? Name some Roman poets ; Gre- cian and Roman historians ; a renowned astronomer ; an encyclopedist ; some Roman philosophers. 99 a kind of encyclopaedia, which comprised most of sciences. He lost his life by the eruption of Vesuvius, which he would observe close by. Among the philosophers, the best followed the doctrine of the Stoics ; e.g., Seneca, Emperor Mark Aurel and Epictetus. The latter, in the bonds of slavery also behaVed Hke a philosopher, and was Aurel's friend. Lucianus wrote sharp satires, EXERCISES. Biography of Augustus, according to these main points : i, Augustus, the youth; 2, the triumvir; 3, the rival of Antonius; 4, the emperor; 5, as private person. Give the names of the best and of the worst Roman emperors. Which conquests were added, in this period, to the bulk of the Roman lands ? With which emperor began the rapid decay of the Roman empire ? How long were the Augustan emperors reigning ? How many years elapsed between Nero's death and the destruction of Jerusalem ? How many centuries comprises the third period ? From whom does Constantinople derive its name ? What causes effected the rapid propagation of Christianity ? What emperors encouraged the improvement of instruction and education? What emperor patronized the sciences and arts ? <^. SECOND SECTION. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FOURTH PERIOD. Fronqthe Migratioq of Nations to the Decay of the Dominioq of the Franks; I, Migratioq of Nations, 2, Mo- hammedaq Empire. 3, Carlovingian IVlon. archy, Frorrj 375 to 900 A, D, FIEST OHAPTEE-PGLITIOAL HISTORY. 1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS-375 TO 568 A. D. § 46. Summary of the Migration. Huns. Attila. The Huns, a nomadic nation of the deserts of Central Asia, spread terror in Mongolia (Tartary) during several centuries. They were ugly and deformed, resembling half-molded blocks ; of yellow- complexion, beardless, with small, hollow eyes. They used to eat raw meat, after having it softened on horse-back, under the saddle. They performed every work on their horses, upon which they sped along like arrows. They possessed wonderful skill in shooting arrows. They were finally subdued by the Chinese (30 A. D.) A great por- tion of them emigrated, for unknown reasons, to the west, crossed the Volga, and attacked the nations which had setded beyond this river. And now the great migration of nations began (375 A. D.) g 46. Describe the Huns; their shape and customs. "What nation gave the shock for the great migration of nations ? What river did the Huns cross in Russia ? 101 102 Beyond the Volga, the Alani, who belonged to a similar race, were settled, and behind them, from the Black Sea to the north, the Ostra- goths and Visigoths. The Huns attacked the Alani, dispersed them, and settled between the Don and Volga. But soon desiring new conquests, they crossed the Don, killed a part of the Alani, forcing the rest to unite with them, and chased the Ostrogoths over the Dnieper. The Visigoths endeavored to resist, but had also to give in ; part of them retired into the mountains, others passed the Danube and obtained homes in Thracia. In later time they went to Italy. The shock of the Huns also exerted its influence upon the Ger- man nations living on the Baltic Sea. The Suevi, Vandals, etc., com- manded by Radagaisus, poured forth over the Danube and the Alps, and overrun Italy (405 A. D.) Beaten by the Romans here, they turned to Gallia, laid this country waste, and continued their passage over the Pyrenees to Spain, which they divided by lot. The Vandals, after some time, set sail for Africa, there founding a new realm. The Burgundians, forced along by these nations, settled between the Rhine and the Rhone, and in course of time spread as far as the Mediterranean Sea. The Franks extended their dominion in Gallia more and more. For a short time Attila, the terrible ruler of the Huns, and as he called himself, " the scourge of God," overpowered the lately founded realms. In Hungaria was the center of his empire, which extended from the Volga as far as the interior of Germany, and his residence. This consisted of a number of wooden houses, above which his palace, also built of wood, towered. The generals and officers of his court had sumptuous carpets, baths, gorgeous apart- ments, silver-plate, Greek cookery, etc. He himself held to the old customs of his nation, eating and drinking from wooden cups, and satisfied with the plainest food. The eastern portion of the Roman empire was already compelled to pay him tribute ; but he wanted also to subdue the western part, and therefore started out with 700,000 warriors. Ten thousand Bur- gundians, who marched against him, perished heroically in the uneven What nations did they first attack ? What of Radagaisus, leader of the Suevi and Vandals? Where did they at last settle? Where did the Burgundians settle ? Franks ? Who shook the new realms for a time ? Where was Attila's residence ? How did he live ? How his generals ? Delineate his contest with the western countries of the Roman empire. Who was fighting against him ? 103 combat. The Franks, too, tried in vain to resist him. Now the Romans, Visigoths and Alani combined their forces against him. Aetius, the last hero of the waning empire, led the Romans ; Theo- doric the Visigoths, and Meroveus the Franks. At Chalons, on the Marne, the Occident was fighting Attila (45 r A. D.) At that remote time Germans were already fighting against Germans ; they decided also the battle, the greatest ever fought in the western countries. Theodoric was killed, but his son, Thorismundus, gained the nearly lost victory; 100,000, according to other reports, even 300,000 warriors lay slain on the battle-field. The next year the Huns, pouring like a torrent upon Italy, de- stroyed the city of Aquileia after a siege of three months. The inhabitants took refuge in the neighboring islands, thereby laying the foundation of Venice. Attila then marched to Rome. Pope - Leo I. came to meet him at the head of the clergy, amid solemn songs. His representations, supported by the offer of a high ran- som, were effective, and the barbarian spared the city, granting peace. Attila departed from Italy, and soon after from the world. The Huns returned to their country. After Attila's death there was again a thronging for homes in Italy. The Ostrogoths subjected it (492 A. D.) ; the Lombards concluded the migrations (568 A. D.) About the year 600 A. D. we find the following nations in Europe : In Italy, the Lombards ; in Spain, the Visigoths ; in Gallia, the Franks ; in England, the Brit- ons, Angles and Saxons; in Germany, the Saxons, Thuringians, €tc. ; to the north of them, Normans and Fins; to the east, the Slavonians ; in Hungary, the Avarians, who had immigrated from Asia ; and southeast from them the Greeks. I 47. Visigoths. Alarie. Downfall of the Western Ro- man Empire. Ostrogoths. Theodoric. Justinian. Belisarius. When the Visigoths were attacked by the Huns, most of them passed over the Danube, and were admitted into Thracia by Emperor Valens, on promise to do military service, and to confess Who was the leader of the Romans ? Of the Visigoths ? Of the Franks ? How many were killed in the battle ? Where did Attila march to from France ? How was Venice founded? How was Attila reconciled with Rome? Where, about the year 600 A. D., were the Lombards settled? Where the Visigoths? The Franks ? The Britons ? The Thuringians ? The Normans ? The Slavo- nians and Avarians ? The Greeks ? 101 Christianity. But being treated deceitfully and cruelly, they took up arms, vanquished the emperor, advanced as far as Constantino- ple, and desolated the country. Theodosius I. finished the war, and made a new contract of service with them. He divided the empire among his sons Arcadius and Honorius (395 A, D.) The former obtained the Orient, the latter the western provinces. After his death, Alaric conducted the Visigoths to Italy, and extorted tribute from both the emperors. As Honorius refused longer to pay it, Alaric appointed another emperor, and as neither the latter an- swered his expectations, he took Rome by storm (410 A. D.) He, however, behaved humanely, sparing the lives of the inhabitants. He even conducted the defenseless himself into a church for safety. Soon after he died. His warriors interred him, with his attire and armor, in the midst of the rivulet Busento. The Visigoths then went to Gallia, which they conquered as far as the Loire. From there they moved to Spain, and also conquered this country. After the departure of the Visigoths, other German troops dis- posed of Italy at will, until finally one of their commanders, Odoacer, deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and was proclaimed king. From him Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, again seized the dominion and made an offer to the Grecian em- peror to go with his entire people to Italy, and to expel Odoacer, The emperor, having accepted the offer, Theodoric led the Goths to Italy. Odoacer defended himself three years in Ravenna, Finally he surrendered the city upon condition that he should gov- ern in common with Theodoric, but was murdered during the cele- bration of peace, and the latter proclaimed by his people king of Italy (992 A. D.) He enlarged his dominion as far as Dalmatia, and administered also the government of Spain in the name of his grandson. Still in the prime of life, he nevertheless put aside the sword, and promoted agriculture, commerce and the arts. After his death, the Emperor Justinian ordered his eminent gen- eral, Belisarius, who had already subjected the Vandals in Africa, to reconquer also Italy. This general had acquired much glory by defending Rome with a small army for one year against the twenty times larger forces of the enemies (537 A. D.) Finally, they sur- ^ 47. How did Theodosius I. divide the Roman empire ? Who led the Visi- goths to Italy ? What was his success ? To what countries did the Visigoths move after Alaric's death ? Who deposed the last emperor ? Who became king of Italy after Odoacer ? What exploit is reported of Belisarius ? 105 rendered to him their capital, Ravenna. Justinian, jealous of the glory of his general, deprived him of the command, whereupon the- Goths again fought successfully. At last Narses subdued them en- tirely (553 A. D.) He became governor of Italy. Also requited by the emperor with ingratitude, and recalled^ Narses, to avenge himself, invited the Lombards to come to Italy. Led by Alboin, they pourfed into the country and conquered Lom- bardy, which received its name from them ; they also conquered the larger part of upper Italy (568 A. D.) Pavia became the capi- tal of the new kingdom. 2. MOHAMMEDAN UNIVEESAL EMPIRE-632-900 A. D. g 48. Arabia. Mohammed. The Caliphate. Mohammed was born (571 A. D.) of poor parents, in Mecca, a town of Arabia. He Avas a member of the noble tribe Koreish, and of the family Hashim, which formerly protected the prin- cipal temple (the Kaaba). He lost his parents early. When sl youth, he devoted himself to poetry ; then entered the mercantile service of a rich widow, whose hand he obtained by his ability and' faithfulness. At a later time he retired into solitude, intending to establish a new religion, which should unite the three religious par- ties of his country — Jews, Christians and heathens. He first communicated his idea to his friends, and soon gained their approbation. He then appeared publicly as a prophet, but the multitude paid little attention to him. The inhabitants of Mecca, earning great profits from the pilgrimage of the Arabs, de- clared against him. But the Koreishites, the associates of his tribe, most decidedly opposed him, because being the priests of the Kaaba, they were fearful of losing their authority and revenues. They conspired against his life. The family Omejjah, since olden times fostering adverse feelings towards his relatives, headed them. They resolved that on an appointed night one member of every family should thrust his sword into Mohammed's breast. His ene- mies surrounded his house; but AH, his relation, rescued him from How did Justinian requite liim and Narses? Wliat German nation then subdued Italy ? 2 48. Where was Mohammed born ? To what noble tribe and family did he belong ? To what art did he devote himself in his youth ?' What did he become later? What was his object when he lived in solitude? By whom was his idea first approved ? What tribe opposed him ? Why ? What did the family Omejjah resolve upon ? Wlio saved his life ? 106 their hands. He fled to Medina, where he had already secured several followers (i6th of July, 622 A. D.) From the day of his iiight the Mohammedan nations count their years. Now he resolved to propagate his doctrine by force of arms. According to Arabian usage, he began to fight his tribe, the Korei- shites, issuing the command to make war upon all infidels. Sup- ported by the inhabitants of Medina, he gave battle to the members of his tribe and to their allies, the inhabitants of Mecca, in which he was victorious, and secured a rich booty. Finally, they agreed to conclude peace with him. He continued his conquests, and after some years he became so redoubtable that he dared to summon the Grecian emperor and other powerful princes, to embrace his religion. As then the inhabitants of Mecca had violated the terms of peace, he marched against them and captured the town (630 A. D.) But he treated the vanquished mildly. He purified the Kaaba of idols. Mecca acknowledged him as prophet and sover- eign. In the following years he subdued almost the whole of Arabia. His manners of life were very simple. He lived on barley-bread and dates. His couch was a carpet on the bare ground. He re- quired no marks of honor ; he did not even permit his associates to rise in his presence when he came to see them. He would say : " I am a servant of God, Hke you ; I eat and drink Hke you, and I get seated like every other man." Both he and his first successors often preached at the head of the armies. When he felt that death approached him, he Hberated his slaves. He died, probably from poison (632 A. D.) His first successors (caliphs) were : Abu Bekr, his father-in-law ; •Omar, conqueror of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Persia ; Othman, <:ompiler of the Koran, and Ali. They all died violent deaths. After Ah, the Omejjades were ruling (since 656 A. D.) They con- tinued the conquests in Africa. Taric, one of their generals, went to Spain (711 A. D.), founded Gibraltar (Gebel-al-Taric — rock of Taric), and also subdued the Visigoths. Their capital was Damas- cus. They were dispossessed of their territory by the Abbasides, Where did he flee to ? From what day do the Mohammedan nations count their years ? By what means did he then propagate his faith ? Who were his allies in his war against Mecca ? What country did he finally conquer ? What was his manner of living? What kind action did he perform before he died.^ What of his first successors ? What general founded Gibraltar and subdued the Visigoths ? 107 ■descendants of- Abbas, Mohammed's uncle (750 A. D.) Of the latter, Harun-al-Rashid, a contemporary of Charlemagne, attained the highest glory. Their capital was the magnificent Bagdad, close to ancient Babylon. Towards the end of this period the power of the caliphs was decreasing. In order to be protected against the ■enemies which were threatening them abroad and at home, they kept a body-guard of Turkish slaves, which soon became formidable to themselves. More and more governors made themselves inde- pendent and founded particular dynasties; e. g., Seljook, com- mander of Turkish warriors, and Ortok, a Seljookian vassal. Finally, the empire was overthrown by the Mongols (1258 A. D.) 3. 0AKL07INGIAN MONAEOHT-771-900 A. D. I 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. Partition of his Realm. The Franks (about 450 A. D.), were ruled by Merovccus, foun- der of the Merovingian dynasty. His grandson, Clovis (Louis), extended his dominion over southern France, Burgundy, Franconia, Thuringia, etc., so that it reached from the Atlantic ocean and the Pyrenees as far as the river Unstrut, in Bavaria (about 500 A. D.) His successors were mere mock kings, in whose names their major- domos (stewards of their private estates), governed. One of them, Charles Martell (the hammer), at Tours, shattered the forces of the Saracens by a complete victory (732 A. D.) His son, Pepin, favored by a decree of the pope, dethroned Childeric IH., and caused him- self to be elected king. Through gratitude, he assisted the popes against the Lombards, seized their possessions and presented, or (according to other reports,) invested the former with them. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, first governed jointly with his brother Carloman (768 A. D.), but after his death he stripped his widow and children of their inheritance and took possession of the whole ■empire (771 A. D.) He immediately began war against the Saxons, pretending that he must guard the kingdom and propagate Chris- What caliph attained the highest glory ? What was the capital of the ca- liphs ? § 49. Who was the founder of the Merovingian dynasty ? What was the extent of the donainion of Clovis? What were the major-domos of the Merovingian kings ? What exploit did Charles Martell perform ? By whom was Childeric III. dethroned ? Who succeeded to the throne after him ? How did he use his sisterin-law ? How the Saxons ? On what pretext did he attack them ? 108 tianily — a war which, including some interruptions — lasted thirty -two years. In the first campaign he destroyed pagan idols highly ven- erated by the Saxons. Having scarcely vanquished a part of them, he sent them a large number of missionaries, who, incited by blind fanaticism, wanted to introduce Christianity forcibly. He built castles in order to check them in their own country, and compelled the Saxons to aid him in their construction. Finally, after several catnpaigns, they swore allegiance to him (777 A. D.), and consented to give tribute and tithes, and to get baptized. But Witikind, their most respected commander, would not acknowledge the sovereignty of Charlemagne, and again waged war. The latter marched against him, and the Saxons submitted again. But as Charlemagne desired, with their assistance, to subjugate the Slavonians, they surprised the Franks on the way and cut down most of them. Charlemagne took cruel vengeance (782 A. D.) He caused all who refused baptism to be killed. Thousands were driven to the rivers and either christened or drowned. About 5,000 who had come of their own accord, he ordered to be cut down. Blood, corpses and flames marked his march. Then all Saxons rose — also those tribes who thus far had remained peaceful — and fought three years with the courage of despair. Charlemagne contended against them with fire and sword. At last he succeeded in reconciling the heroic Witikind, by the power of persuasion, and he consented to be baptized (785 A. D.) The Saxons again yielded, and remained quiet several years. In fact, they threw off the yoke several times more, but always in vain. Charlemagne secured his conquests by appointing bishops, palsgraves and itinerant judges. During his wars with the Saxons, many others also occurred. Through ambition he deprived his father-in-law, Desiderius, of Lombardy, and his ally Thassilo of the dukedom of Bavaria, and put both into convents. Moreover, he waged war against the Nor- mans, the Slavonians and the Avares, who often invaded Germany, plundering and robbing; also against the caliph of Cordova, etc. By all these wars he extended his empire up to the Ebro, Tiber, Raab and Eyder. When, in the year 800 A. D., he was in Rome, and celebrated Christmas at church, the pope placed upon his head How long did his wai- against them last ? Who would not acknowledge his sovereignty ? How did he deal with the Saxons who refused to be baptized ? What did the Saxons then do ? By whose conversion wei'e they appeased ? How did he secure his conquests ? What further wars did he wage ? How far did his empire extend ? Where and when was he proclaimed Roman emperor ? 109 the Roman imperial crown, and the people proclaimed him em- peror. Charlemange also endeavored to administer justice in his vast realm, as far as the many wars gave him time to do so. He appointed palsgraves in the different provinces in order to do justice, and annually sent out officers who had to report to him concerning the execution of the laws. He provided for the extension of agricul- ture, his own estates being its models. Owing to the want of good highways, he tried to promote commerce by inland navigation. He liked civilization, and endeavored to retrieve by private studies what had been Jieglected in his juvenile instruction. He endeavored also to disseminate culture throughout his great empire. He at- tempted first to cultivate the minds of the clergymen and through them the people. He established schools in connection with cathedrals and convents, and advanced the culture of the native language by collecting German heroic songs. He founded also a society for the cultivation of sciences. He honored and rewarded well-deserving scholars, such as Alkuin and Eginhard. He died after having reigned 46 years (814 A. D.), in Aix-la-Chapelle. His son and successor, Louis, called the Pious, being munificent towards the clergy, divided the empire among his three sons, and by so doing caused great adversities to himself and to the State. As after that one more son, Charles, was born to him, he made a new partition, with which the others were quite dissatisfied. They declared war against their father and took him prisoner. He was, in fact, soon Hberated, but after some years the war recommenced ; the emperor delivered himself to the sons ; Lothaire put him into a con- vent, and induced him to do penance in church (833 A. D.) Though he was obliged to set him free, Louis did not get wiser. New parti- tions of the empire caused new revolts of his son Louis. After the death of the father, Louis and Charles marched against Lothaire, who wanted the whole realm alone, and vanquished him in a great battle, in which 100,000 Franks lost their lives for their ambitious rulers. Then the empire was divided into three portions : Charles obtained France; Louis, Germany; Lothaire, Ita ly and Lorraine. How did he endeavor to administer justice? To promote commerce ? To improve the culture of his mind ? By what means did he try to disseminate cul- ture? By what action did Louis, the Pious, render the country and himself unhappy ? Give an account of his wars with his sons. Why did his sons Louis and Charles wage war against their brother Lothaire ? How did they divide the empire ? 110 ^ so. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great. The ancient Britons, in order to protect their country against the incursions of their northern neighbors, the Picts and Scots, sought the assistance of the Angles and Saxons in Germany: They, in fact, arrived under command of Hengist and Horst (449 A. D.), but took possession of the country for themselves. The greater part of the- inhabitants crossed over to France, and settled in the province called, by their name, Bretagne. Among the Anglo-Saxon kings, Alfred the Great acquired the highest glory (891-900 A. D.) On his accession the rapacious Danes (Norsemen) often devastated the country. He fought in vain against their numerous bands, and desparing of success, would have rushed into their swords to end his life, had not the hope of being vic- torious m the future induced him to conserve it. He retired to the marshes of Somersetshire, built a castle, and with his few loyal com- panions made successful sallies upon the Danes ; but they suffered much from destitution. Tradition reports that, under the disguise of a harper, he boldly visited the camp of his enemies, observing their position and learning their number. Encouraged by his excursions, the inhabitants gathered in increasing numbers, and soon he felt so strong that he dared to attack the Danes (878 A. D.) He surrounded. them from all sides, and forced from them the promise of allegiance to him ; he, however, permitted them to establish themselves in the land. In order to secure England against new incursions by these pirates, he built strong forts at their usual places of descent, kept many ships in readiness there, and divided the population into two- classes, which had to alternate in doing military service. Several, invasions of the enemies nevertheless occurred, and at last they landed with two formidable fleets (893 A. D.) ; the Danes who had settled in England joined them, but Alfred defeated them, and drove the larger part back to France where they had come from. They did not venture another incursion during his life-time. By wise laws he restored order and security in the land, so that it was proverbially said of his government: "The traveler who lost his purse on the highway found it the next morning untouched § 50. How did England become a possession of the Angles and Saxons? Who was the best of their kings ? Give an account of Alfred's wars against the Norsemen. How did he secure the land against their incursions ? Show how he restored security and promoted civilization in England. Ill at the same place." He made a collection of the Saxon laws, and' being the most learned man in his kingdom, he composed writings,- heroical poems, and geographical works. He founded schools, e. g., at Oxford, the germ of the celebrated university of that name. He set aside a considerable portion of his revenues for the payment of the salaries of teachers, and invited foreign scholars, mechanics and colonists to the land. In this way he civilized his people. He was himself, by his generous and noble mind and simple ways of life,^ their brightest example. His last will was, " Englishmen shall be as free as their thoughts." He attained, deservedly, the appellatioa of Alfred the Great. SECOND OHAPTEK-HISTOET OP CIVILIZATION. 1 51. State of Constitutions. Roman Law. Propaga- tion and Degeneracy of Christianity. Mona- ehism. Mohammedan Religion. In the Byzantine empire the government was growing more despotic and the people more servile. The taxes were oppressive. Since the accession of Justinian, even taxes were levied on bread and water. The public offices were venal. Justinian caused the decisions of the ancient teachers of law, and the laws of the Roman emperors, to be collected, adding thereto his own decrees. This collection, called the Roman law, was recognized as the legal authority in most of the European countries, which it partly yet maintains. Hunger, sterile soil, laziness and want of land, impelled the Ger- man nations to conquer the flourishing Roman countries. They then divided the lands among themselves, or let them out. In this way the feudal system started which, in the following period, was further organized. (See § 6i.) Most of the German nations embraced the Christian religion. In Germany it was propagated by Winfried (called Boniface) ; in Switzerland, by Gallus, Columban and others; in Ireland, by St, Patrick; in Saxony, Charlemagne established it by force of arms (see § 49). It, however, degenerated mor^ and more from its orig- I 51. What was the political state of the Byzantine empire? How did the Roman law come into existence ? What parts does it contain ? What reasons caused the migration of the Teutonic nations ? Who propagated the Christian religion in Germany, Switzerland and Ireland ? How did it degenerate ? 112 inal purity and simplicity. Many ceremonies and holidays were established, pious persons idolized, images adored, miraculous stories slyly invented and stupidly believed. The ecclesiastical laws be- ,came despotic ; true piety and moral conduct were little valued. The disputes of the clergy increased, and ended often in warfare. The worship of images also caused bloody hatred, because some •jejected them entirely, while others even adored them. The property of the clergy was exempt from taxation, their per- sons were not amenable to civil jurisdiction, and their residences and ,the churches were turned into asylums for criminals ; sometimes, too, for the innocent. In this way they established a State within the State. The popes soon acquired the superiority over the other bishops, because the capital of the empire (Rome) was their resi- dence. After the empire was separated into the eastern and western part, a vehement quarrel about rank began, which ended in a vic- tory of the popes over the patriarchs of Constantinople. The institution of convents and monasteries must also be men- tioned. Since olden times fantastic hermits lived in Egypt and Hindostan. In Palestine the Essenes had led a solitary life. Among the Christians, Antonius and Paul are said to have been the J&rst anachorets. Both lived in Egypt in the second century. From Egypt and Syria they went to Italy, where Athanasius intro- duced them. Some settled in the vicinity of Rome ; others moved -farther, even as far as the Black Sea and Palestine. Among them were also rich ladies. The first hermits lived frugally. They fed on fruits and bread, and drank only water. They indulged in an indolent, contempla- tive life, and passed most of their time in prayers. Sa«ie braided mats and baskets. They despised matrimony, and the greater part of them were visionaries. When monasteries were built by the funds received from pious bequests, the anachorets retired into them and became monks. They ceased to work almost entirely. A few copied the manu- scripts of classical Greek and Roman literature. Monastic life soan grew exuberant. Benedict of Narsia, however, reformed (529 A. D-) the degenerated convents in Italy, by obliging the lazy monks. What of ceremonies, holidays, idols, miracles and quarrels of the clergy? What privileges did the clergy acquire ? Why did the popes become the supe- riors of the bishops ? In what countries did the ancient hermits live ? To what country in Europe did they go? How did they live first? What was their occupation ? What were the monks doing ? Who reformed them ? 113 l)esides praying, to cultivate the fields, and to instruct the youth ; but they soon again became corrupt. They fostered the beUef in miracles, devised an infinite number of legends, advanced the traffic in relics, stupefied the multitude, and often indulged in luxury and debauches. In the following periods the monks frequently preached sermons urging the people to revolt against civil power, opposed the light of sciences diffused by intelligent instruction, and were blind tools of the popes. Mohammed's doctrine, called Islam (creed, faith), is contained in the Koran, the book of religion of his followers, who call them- selves Mussulmen or Moslems (the faithful ones). The contents of the Koran are said to have been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, and were collected soon after his death. In it he recom- mends faith in God (Allah) and Mohammed, his prophet ; prayers, abstinence from wine, fasting, charity, cleanliness and ablutions of the body, pilgrimages, and above all virtues, justice. Each person ought to spend the tenth part of his fortune for alms ; also to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, if possible, at least once in his life. The Friday of every week is set aside for public worship, which consists in prayers and sermons. The Koran also calls Moses and Jesus prophets, and promises to the elect superabundant joys in the future life, which are of the most sensual kind. Mohammed allowed his followers to practice polygamy, and endeavored to make them indifferent to all dangers of death by the belief in an immutable fate. Therefore they fought for thejr creed with the utmost contempt of death. One of the principal precepts of the Koran is to propagate its doctrine everywhere with fire and sword, and to destroy the mfidels. Among the Mohammedans also differ- ent sects arose, which made terrible reUgious wars against each other. § S2. The Arts and Sciences. Arabian Culture.— Com- merce. The arts and sciences could not be nursed during the din of arms which shook the Occident. The barbarians, both Christians and Arabians, destroyed the most beautiful works of human skill In what manner ? What were often their doings ? Mention some points of the- Mohammedan religion. What book contains it ? What virtues are recom- mended in the Koran ? What day is the holiday of the Mohammedans ? Why did they despise death ? What is a principal precept of the Koran ? What of Mohammedan sects ? § 52. What sovereigns favored the arts and sciences ? (8) 114 Schools were closed, libraries burned, and the reading of pagan authors severely punished. Towards the end of the period, civili- zation found a protecting asylum at the courts of Charlemagne (see § 49) and Alfred of England (see § 50), but particularly among the Arabs. Several of their caliphs favored them in a high degree; some of them were themselves artists and scholars. At the time of their rule in Spain, there were in Andalusia alone seventy public libraries. The Arabs acquired great merit for geography, mathe- matics, astronomy, chemistry — the latter science was invented by them — and for medicine. They translated the mathematical, med- ical and philosophical works of the Greeks. In mathematics they excelled their teachers. Their astronomical writings have become the foundation of modern astronomy. In most of the cities of their dominion there were observatories, and institutes for mathe- matics and astronomy. The Gothic architecture was also invented by them. In poetry they produced pecuhar tales (vith strong walls. When the enemies, after the expiration of the truce, demanded their annual tribute, he refused to pay it. They then invaded Saxony, but Henry went to meet them, and inflicted upon them, at Merseburg, such a bloody defeat (934 A. D.) that they did not venture another incursion into Saxony. He protected the realm in the north against the Danes, and in the east against the Slavonians. He elevated Ger- many to the first rank of power in Europe. There is no vestige of injustice or rigor apparent during his long government. A short time before he died he assembled the grandees of the empire, in order to designate his successor. He had several sons ; yet neither the eldest, nor another in whose favor the queen was prepossessed, seemed to him to deserve the succession, but he proposed Otto to the assembly, who was elected after Henry's death (936 A. D.) Otto I. was valiant, but also warlike and ambitious. Berenger was then ruler in Italy, and wished to force Adelheid, wife of the deceased king, to marry his son. He took her prisoner, and shut her up in a solitary tower. But she escaped by the help of a faithful servant, and applied to Otto for assistance, offering him her hand and the crown of Italy. Otto accepted the offer, went to Italy (951 A. D.), compelled Berenger to do homage, and married Adelheid. When the Hungarians again invaded Germany, he encountered them courageously, and gave them battle at Augsburg (955 A. D.) The enemies first assailed the rear lines of his army, routed them, and plundered the baggage. Twice the issue of the combat was uncer- tain; finally the Germans gained the victory. The Hungarians underwent a terrible defeat ; most of them were cut down, and two of their commanders hanged. After that day they ventured no more incursions into Germany. Meanwhile Italy had become discontented over the administra- tion of Berenger; Otto marched against him once more (961 A. D.), deposed him, and caused himself to be elected king of Italy and Roman emperor. Soon after, as Pope John XII. himself joined Ber- enger, being besides accused of the most shameful deeds, Otto ordered him to be deposed, and a new pope to be elected. The How did Heni-y protect it against their incursions ? Where did he defeat them ? In what virtue did he excel? Whom did he designate as his successor? What of Otto I. and Berenger? In what battle did Otto defeat the Hungarians ? Why did he depose Berenger ? 117 followers of John ventured to attack Otto, but he overpowered them in the streets of Rome ; they expelled the new pope ; he led him back, and as the last one had died, gave them another one. When they also expelled the latter, he blocked up the city so closely that the greatest distress soon set in. The Romans were compelled to surrender and acknowledge the new pope. The troublesome Ber- enger was brought to Germany, where he died. Otto protected the empire also against the predatory expeditions of the Danes and Slavonians, and subjected the latter as far as the Oder. After having reigned a long time, he died generally honored and feared. 2, UNIVEESAL DOMINION OF THE POPES-1024-1300 A. D. § S4. Germany (Continued). Franconian Emperors. Henry IV. and Gregory VII. Among the emperors of the Franconian House Henry IV. be- came known chiefly through his conflict with Pope Gregory VII. Being already the German king when only six years old, ambitious priests snatched him from his mother and gave him a poor educa- tion. The archbishop of Bremen, especially, fostered the propensity for pleasure in the boy, and allowed him to have intercourse with immoral lads ; he also instilled into his mind a hatred against the Saxons, whereby Henry made himself and Germany unhappy. De- clared of age when only sixteen years old, he treated the Saxons rudely. As they revolted, he defeated them, but promised to treat them mildly, if they would lay down their arms. They did so, and delivered themselves into his hands, when he imprisoned them. Badly deceived, they applied to Pope Gregory VII. for redress. The pope, menacing him with anathema, summoned him to come to Rome, as if he were his judge. In return, Henry convoked some German bishops, whom he caused to pronounce sentence against the pope, and to declare him deposed. The pope promulgated his anathema against the bishops and also against Henry, declared him to have forfeited his royal dignity, and absolved the Germans from the oath of allegiance due to Henry. Most of the German princes then declared to the king that, as long as he remained excommuni- What was the end of Berenger ? How did Otto handle the popes ? g 54- For what struggles is Henry IV. known in history ? How was he educated ? How did he treat the Saxons ? How did they revenge themselves for his treach- ery ? Where did Gregory summon him to go ? Was he right to summon him ? Did Henry obey ? 118 cated, they would not acknowledge him as their king, and that if he were not absolved from the anathema within a year, they would pro- ceed to elect another. In this critical situation Henry at last resolved to go to Rome. Nobody but his faithful wife, whom he had often grieved, his little son, and one servant accompanied him. As his enemies had ob- structed all passes through the Alps, he had to travel on detours, in the winter season, over the mountains, which were covered with snow and ice. He accomplished the journey amid many dangers. When he arrived in Italy many bishops and princes forthwith gath- ered around him, offering him their assistance ; but Henry had become so dejected that he dared not accept their proposals. Gregory, who had already started for Germany, in order to man- age Henry's trial there, learning of his arrival, quickly looked for a shelter, and went into the castle of Conossa, belonging to his friend Matilda, countess of Tuscane. Here Henry had to stay (1077 A. D.), between the second and third walls of the castle, in peniten- tials, and barefooted, from morning until evening during three days, not allowed to take the least food ; and he was obliged to beseech Gregory to dispense with the anathema. Finally the pope, through the intercession of Matilda and other powerful friends, consented to do so, but on the condition that Henry should abstain from the gov- ernment until the German sovereigns would decide that he could continue to be their king. But the people did not forsake Henry ; the citizens of the towns and the peasants flocked around him, and now he went again to Italy, not as a penitent, but at the head of an army, in order to chastise his enemy. He besieged Rome, and appointed an anti- pope. In the spring of the next year he conquered the city, and was anointed as emperor by the latter. Gregory still defended him- self in the Angels' citadel. The duke of Puglia, though, released him, and conducted him safely to Salerno ; but here, in a foreign place, he keenly felt that he was forsaken and precipitated from the summit of his power. Before his death he again excommunicated Henry. One of his successors repeated the anathema. The em- peror had to struggle against other adversaries, whom even his sons joined. At last the helpless man died (i 106 A. D.) But the implacable Describe his journey. Who offered him assistance in Italy ? Did Henry accept it ? Into what castle had he to go ? To whom did the castle belong ? How did the pope treat him there ? Who did not forsake Henry ? How did he chastise the pope ? What of the end of Gregory ? 119 priests begrudged rest even to his dead body; twice he was buried, and twice pulled out of the grave, because the curse of anathema rested upon him. The pope finally revoked it; then Henry s son buried the corpse once more. ? BB Continued. Emperors of the Family Hohen- stauffen. Frederic Barbarossa. Arnold of Brescia. First Contest of the Lom- bard Cities for Liberty. The family of the Hohenstauffen (Suabian) emperors, who, m honor of their ancestors' casde, were also called Waibhngers, ruled Ire than one hundred years (XX38-X.54 A. D.) Their adversaries were the powerful Welfs, descendants of the Margrave Welf. The combat of the followers of the two houses was continued, especially •n Italy where they were called Ghibellines and Guelfs, till the fall of the Hohenstauffen. The Guelfs were partisans of the popes._ At that time an Itahan priest, Arnold of Brescia, an ingenious and high-principled man, conceived the idea of estabhshmg the primitive simphcity of the church, accordmg to which the clergy ou.ht not to possess civil power, but ought to apply themselves to their spiritual vocation only. He also wanted the secular power of the popes to be abolished; besides, he desired to deliver Italy from the government of the German emperors. His gigantic design ehcited enthusiasm in the whole country, except from the clergy; the popes excommunicated him. Arnold fled to the quiet valleys of Switzerland, where he obtained a safe asylum. Meantime the Romans held a meeting, at which they renounced allegiance to the pope and declared themselves free. Arnold returned to Rome f iiA A D.), accompamed by large bands he had engaged m Switz- erland The Romans expelled the pope, and, imitating ancient Rome, elected a senate, consuls and tribunes of the people. But the Emperor Frederic L, surnamed Barbarossa (Redbeard), came to Italy with an army, subdued the revolted towns, forcedan entrance into Rome, and vanquished the inhabitants of the city. Arnold had again taken to flight, and kept himself hidden. The pope summoned the emperor to have the heretic delivered to him. Fred^ eric obeyed the pope with alacrity, because he hated Arnold^ and Welfs called by Italians? Give a sketch of the hfe of Arnold of B^sc a What was the aim of his efforts? What in regard to pnests and popes ? Where Idhefindanasylum? What reforms did the Romans make ? Who opposed them ? 120 was a friend of the people. His spies soon ferreted him out. In a. dark night Arnold was dragged to Rome and immediately burned (1155 A. D.) His memory was highly venerated by the Romans. Frederic, desiring to restore the power of the ancient Roman emperors in Italy, perceived that the liberty of the Lombard cities must be destroyed ; therefore he continued to combat them. They resisted him valiantly during twenty-five years (1158-11S3 A. D.) The popes were their faithful allies. Frederic dealt cruelly with the cities. During the second siege of Milan (1162 A. D.), he caused the captives to be hung, and the right hands of the carriers who conveyed provisions to the city to be cut off. The inhabitants were compelled to come into his presence with ropes around their necks, and to implore his pardon. The walls and main buildings of their city were razed, and the people dispersed into open boroughs. The other cities experienced a similar fate. The imperial governors added scoff to the already heavy oppression. Every trace of nationality was to disappear. The Lombards thus far had lived in disharmony. Schooled by their adversity, they re-established har- mony and made a treaty of alliance, in which the- pope also took part. Now Frederic was defeated everywhere, and a contagious disease in Rome destroyed a great portion of his army. Under- going great difficulties, he was obliged to retreat over the Alps (1108 A. D.) He narrowly escaped with his life; nay, in Susa he would have been slain in bed, if a faithful knight had not taken his place, pretending to be the emperor. After several years he returned, but met with no better success in fighting than before. The Milanese, whose city had been re- built, obstructed the route of his army. He tried to enforce a pas- sage, and attacked the Lombards at Legnano (i 176 A. D.) Victory first inclined towards his side, and only a band of Milanese, defend- ing their main banner, still kept the ground ; but now the troops of Brescia broke forth from an ambuscade and renewed the battle. The Germans were totally defeated. The emperor lost his flag and shield, and his life was endangered. He was compelled again to take to flight, and to make peace (11S3 A. D.) The cities recov- What was the final fate of Arnold ? Who honored his memory ? Against what cities did Frederic I. wage war? Why? How did he deal with them? With Milan ? What good effect did the fate of Milan produce in the Lombards ? What was the result of the re-establishment of harmony ? Who was defeated everywhere ? Where was Frederic vanquished after his return ? Give an ac- count of the battle. 121 ered their ancient rights and privileges. He lost his life, after some years, in a crusade (1190 A. D.) (See § 60.) § 56. Concluded. Frederic II. Second Contest of the Lombards for Freedoni. Conradin. Sicilian Vespers. Frederic II., deferring a crusade he had promised when he was crowned, was excommunicated by Gregory IX., and the excommuni- cation was repeated when he, being outlawed, started on the crusade. While he was in Palestine fighting the infidels, the pope desolated his Italian possessions. Therefore Frederic, having returned from that country, turned his arms against him (1230 A. D.), routed his soldiers, and forced him to withdraw the promulgated anathema. Like his grandfather, he also undertook the combat against the Lombards (1236 A. D.), which was most obstinate, for the purpose of depriving them of their maintained immunities. The common danger rapidly reunited the discordant cities. They also found con- federates. First they alhed with the son of the emperor, Henry, who had risen against his father in Germany. Henry was van- quished, and expired in a prison. Frederic came to Italy and joined the governor Ezzelino, called the Ferocious — a demon in human form. This man took 11,000 citizens of Padua prisoners (1256 A. D.), cut off the arms and legs of those who tried to es- cape, and used all so cruelly that only 200 survived. Aided by this monster, the emperor succeeded in dispersing the army of the cit- ies. But forthwith another enemy, the duke of Austria, rose against him. He utterly defeated the imperial army, and the emperor had hard work to vanquish him. Frederic then, with a vast army, hastened again to Italy ; even 10,000 Mohammedans enhsted in it. The cities were entirely defeated (1237 A. D.), and most of them taken. Their ruin was imminent, bul Frederic's severity pushed them to the utmost resistance. Milan ought again to surrender at discretion, but the inhabitants, foreboding the terrible doom which threatened them, preferred to die, and defended themselves with the boldness of Hons. Their example rekindled the courage of the other cities, and soon they gained as new, powerful allies, the What was the result of his defeat ? ? 56. Why was Frederic II. twice ex- communicated ? Who desolated his Italian possessions ? What revenge did he take on the pope ? Against what cities did he also fight ? What allies did the Lombards have ? How did Ezzelino deal with the prisoners of Padua ? What of the duke of Austria ? Of Mohammedan soldiers ? Of Milan ? 122 Genoese, Venetians and Gregory who, like all the popes, hated the imperial dominion in Italy. Pope Gregory, after haA^ng in vain admonished Frederic to treat the Lombards mildly, hurled a three-fold anathema against him. The emperor invaded the papal dominions, and conquered almost all of them. To such heavy blows the pope, who was almost a cen- tenarian, succumbed (1241 A. D.) But soon another quite as formidable a combatant. Innocent IV., took his place. The pope, not being safe in Rome, fled to Lyons, held a synod there, reiterated the excommunication, absolved Frederic's subjects from the oath of allegiance, declared all his dominions forfeited, and summoned the Germans to elect another king. Immediately two pretenders rose against Frederic. They engaged his arms in Germany, while the IvOmbards continued the combat in Italy with great acti\dty. Their fate was decided before Parma. Frederic beleaguered this city, building in front of it, for this purpose, another town which, as a password of his victory, he called Vittoria. But one day while he was hunting, and his careless soldiers took their ease, the be- sieged inhabitants hazarded a sally, defeated his army, and destroyed Vittoria (1248 A. D.) His sons were beaten on all posts. He himself was sick. Soon after he died (1250 A. D.) Finally, the Lombards became entirely independent (1259 A. D.) When the pretenders had also perished, the clerical electors sold the royal seat of Germany to two foreign princes. The wildest anarchy followed ; might took the place of right. All waged war against each other. This deplorable condition of things lasted fifteen years (1257-12 72 A. D.) The house of Hohenstaufifen terminated in a pitiful manner. Charles of Anjou, brother of the French king, Louis IX., took Naples and Sicily in fee from. Pope Urban IV. Conradin, Freder- ic's grandson, desiring to seize his patrimony from Charles, sold his dominions, levied an army, and ventured a campaign against him. He lost the decisive battle at Naples (1268 A. D.), was taken pris- oner and executed. But a just retaliation overtook the royal murderer. He afflicted What allies did they gain ? In what manner did the Popes Gregory and In- nocent fight Frederic? Before what city was the fate of the cities decided? What of Vittoria ? Of the sally of the besieged ? What was the final result of the contest ? How long did the anarchy in Germany last ? What was the doom of the last descendant of the Hohenstauffen ? How did Charles of Anjou govern the Sicilians ? 123 the Sicilians so cruelly that a conspiracy was secretly planned against him, which was suddenly put into execution in Palermo, on Easter Monday, as people were going to vespers. The signal for it was an insult which a Frenchman offered to a young lad}'. He was so impudent as to assault her in the street, asserting that she must have a dagger hidden in her clothes. In a moment a thou- sand daggers were bared. The insulter was stabbed, and thousands of his countrymen fell with him. From Palermo the insurrection spread over the whole island; everywhere the Frenchmen were doomed. They call this event '•' Sicilian vespers." The inhabitants then, in accordance with Conradin's last will, called Peter of Arra- gonia to the throne. I S7. France and England. Hugh Capet. "William the Conqueror. Wars Between England and Scotland. The Albigenses. One hundred and fifty years after the empire of the Carlovin- gians had been divided at Verdun (see § 49), Hugh Capet, the powerful count of Paris, put an end to it, and founded a new dynasty (9S7 A. D.) In England, on the death of Edward the Confessor, Harold, son of the earl of Godwin, took possession of the throne; but William, duke of Normandy, to whom the late king had either bequeathed or purposed the succession, at the head of 60,000 men, went over to Eng- land, fought the bloody battle at Hastings with Harold, and gained the victory (1066 A. D.) Harold was killed in battle; the English army was nearly destroyed, and a fourth part of the Nor- mans slain. The victory gave to William the title of the Conquerer. He divided the land into 60,000 fiefs, of which he reserved a great share for himself, so that he was the richest man of his age ; the rest was divided among his soldiers. The inhabitants were dispos- sessed and became serfs. In the schools the French dialect of Normandy was introduced, from which the modern English lan- guage originated. The inhabitants heartily hated the tyrant, and seditions were rife during his government.. After every insurrection What was tlie consequence of his misrule ? Give a report of the Sicilian vespers. 157- What count founded a new dynasty in France? When? What duke waged war against king Harold in England? In what battle did the rivals meet ? ^Mio was victorious ? What name was bestowed upon William in consequence ? How did he divide the country ? How did he use the inhabit- ants ? \Vhat language was introduced in the schools ? 124 he became more cruel. The news of his death (1087 A. D.) eHcited great exultation. Henry II., son of his granddaughter, besides Eng- land, possessed the third part of France. His eldest son, Richard, surnamed the Lion-hearted, after plundering his subjects of an im- mense sum of money, embarked on a crusade to Palestine (see § 60). He was succeeded by his profligate brother, John, surnamed Lackland (1199 A. D.) He seized the children of his vassals as hostages, in order to be assured of their loyalty. He caused also his nephew to be killed, because he had a nearer claim to the throne than himself. Philip Augustus, of France, took advantage of this crime, and dispossessed John, who was his feudal tenant, of the greatest part of the French lands (1204 A. D.) John soon in- curred even a worse conflict with Innocent III. This pope had incompetently caused the election of an archbishop of Canterbury, and as the king rejected the election, he promulgated an interdict against England, and the anathema against John, absolved the sub- jects from the oath of allegiance, and summoned Philip Augustus to conquer the land. John, however, yielded to a cowardly submis- sion, swore allegiance to the pope, and agreed to hold his kingdom tributary to the Holy See. Induced by such a gain, the pope re- voked the interdict and anathema, and desired Philip to make peace. But the latter, dissatisfied at having to arm his soldiers for nothing, marched against John, and utterly defeated him, visiting upon him complete destruction (12 14 A. D.) The barons, provoked by the tyranny of their king, beheld the well-timed moment, took up arms against him, seized London, and compelled him, in conjunction with the clergy, to sign the celebrated Magna Ckaria, or great charter of rights and liberties, through which the permanent foun- dation of British freedom was laid. As soon as John felt free again, he declared the document null and void, and commenced war against his vassals, but to the joy of all Englishmen, one year there- after he died. The English kings attempted also to subjugate Scot- land, to which country they laid claim by the rights of fealty and succession ; but the Scotch kings refused to do them homage. As What of Henry II.? Of Richard, the Lion-hearted? Of John Lackland? What crime did he commit against his nephew? Who despoiled him of his French possessions ? What was the cause of his struggle with Pope Innocent III.? Who was the champion of the pope ? On what terms did the latter make peace ? Who defeated John ? What document was he compelled to grant to the barons ? What about his resistance ? By what right did the English kings claim the dominion of Scotland ? Who opposed them ? 125 John Baliol and Robert Bruce were competitors for the Scotch crown, they submitted their claims to the decision of Edward I., king of England. The latter decided in favor of Baliol, on condi- tion of his becoming a vassal of the English king. Baliol could not brook the humiliating acts of vassalage required of him. War be- tween England and Scotland followed, and Baliol, being defeated in the great battle of Dunbar, was forced to submit to Edward. Scarcely, however, had the latter crossed the frontiers, when the Scots reasserted their independence, under the brave Sir William Wallace, defeated the English, and recovered the whole of Scotland as rapidly as it had been lost. The war went on, and they were again vahquished and subdued (1305 A. D.) The cause of their freedom was revived by Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce men- tioned before this. Edward II. marched against him at the head of more than 100,000 men, but being met by Bruce at the head of little more than a third of that number, he experienced a total defeat in the battle at Bannockburn, which established the independence of Scotland (1314 A. D.) In France, during this period, the Albigenses were cruelly perse- cuted. They were a harmless sect, deriving their name from Alby, a town in southern France. Their leader being named Peter Wald, they were also called Waldenses. They rejected baptism, the Catholic doctrine of the Lord's supper, the popes, bishops, indul- gences and purgatory; they censured the vices of the clergy, and led a peaceable, charitable life. Pope Innocent III. established an Inquisitional tribunal, and commanded that a crusade be preached against them, because one of the inquisitors was murdered (1207 A. D.) The count of Toulouse, who was suspected of having insti- gated the foul deed, was forced to participate in the crusade, and to fight his own subjects. Whole towns and villages were destroyed, and their inhabitants extirpated by fire, sword and rope. In the town of Beziers alone 20,000 persons, without any regard to age or sex, were killed, and 7,000 of them burned in a church. The cruel war was continued till the son of the unhappy count had lost his best land, which was taken by the French kings. Was Baliol successful ? Did the Scots submit ? Who was their brave leader? Who rescued them again? In what battle? What religious tenets did the Albigenses hold ? What pope persecuted them ? Give an account of the crusade against them. What happened in the town of Beziers ? What of the count of Toulouse ? 126 § 68. Northern States of Europe. Normans. Russia. Mongols. I. The inhabitants of the three countries, Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which, in common, bore the name of Scandinavia, be- longed to the family of the German nations, and were formerly called Normans (Norsemen). They were bold mariners, who furnished Iceland with settlers, and also discovered Greenland and some parts of North America (985 A. D.) But they frequently undertook also piratical expeditions to Germany, England, France and even to Spain and Italy, secretly landed on the coasts of these countries, desolated and pillaged them, and carried the inhabitants away as slaves. They also made conquests. In France, they occupied Nor- mandy and Brittany (Bretagne). From the Greeks they seized lower Italy, and from the Saracens, Sicily. In Denmark, Knut the Great (10 15-1036 A. D.) and Margaret, were powerful. The formed was also ruler over Norway and Eng- land. He embraced Christianity and promoted agriculture. Mar- garet, called also " the Semiramis of the North," ruled over Den- mark, Sweden and Norway, 'and united the three kingdoms, by the treaty of Calmar, into one monarchy (1397 A. D.) In the next period Sweden separated from Denmark, choosing to be ruled by State governors. Norway remained united with Denmark till the present century (1814 A. D.) II. In i?z/5-i'2« and /??/(2;/^ the numerous Slavonian tribes were settled, who in the sixth and seventh centuries moved forward as far as and beyond the Elbe. They founded several States : their most important towns were Kief and Novgorod. One of their chieftains, Rurik (about 900 A. D.), possessed a territory extending from Kief to Novgorod. His widow, Olga, was converted to the Greek Church, which, under Vladimir I., became the established church of the State. He divided (987 A. D.) the realm among his twelve sons. In this way several principalities sprung up. One of their sovereigns was called grand-duke. First the State of Kief, and later that of Moscow, was the grand-duchy. In the thirteenth century Russia became a Mongolian province, \ 58. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Sweden, Norway and Denmarlc ? What lands did the Normans discover ? What of their expeditions ? What conquests did they make? What queen united the three kingdoms? By what treaty ? What tribes were settled in Russia and Poland ? Which were their most important towns ? To what church were they converted ? How did Vladimir I. divide his realm ? When did Russia become a Mongolian province ? 127 and remained so during 240 years (123 7-147 7 A. D.) At last, Ivan (John III.), delivered the land from the foreign dominion, but he also deprived the towns of their liberty. He subjected all the other principalities, and other countries besides. III. Genghis Khan (Temudshin), the son of a petty Mongol prince, had elevated hmiself to the dignity of lord of all the pasto- ral nations throughout the vast plains of Tartary. He entered China over the long wall, and took its capital (12 10 A. D.) In the north he also advanced into Siberia as far as the borders of Europe, and in the west he conquered the lands as far as the Indus. Hundreds of thousands were indifferently killed, whole nations destroyed, and the largest and most prosperous cities ruined ; neither were the treasures of sciences and arts, institutes and libraries spared. The sons of Genghis Khan also invaded Russia and defeated a large army, but then retired. At last, destruction was also visited upon Europe. Octai, one of his sons, sent his nephew, Batu, with an immense army to Russia. All Russian armies were defeated. The Mongols, like a raging torrent, advanced unchecked, devastated the land with sword and fire, and destroyed Moscow and Kief. The Russians fled from them as they would from grim beasts of prey. Four divisions of the barbarians now invaded Poland, Silesia and Hungary. The Hungarians imprudently ventured to fight them in a heath, where they were surrounded from all sides and slaught- ered like sheep. The Mongolian mothers gave to their children the cudgels with which the captive children of the Hungarians were slain. The enemies gave heed neither to the embassy nor to the public prayers of the pope. The duke of Austria and the German knights offered them some resistance. In the battle at Liegnitz (1241 A. D.), the Mongols, in fact, obtained the victory, but their loss was so great that they had to abandon their purpose of going to Germany. France, England, Italy and Germany were on the point of arming in the common defense of Christendom, when Batu and 500,000 warriors, who still accompanied him, were recalled to Asia by the death of their sovereign (1245 A. D.) His realm was the largest which at any time existed ; it reached from the peninsula of Corea to the Oder and the Adriatic Sea. The Mongols also put How long did its subjection last? Wlio delivered it? What of Genghis Khan ? Give proofs of his cruelty. What of his sons ; especially of Octai ? What countries did they invade ? How did they deal with the Russians ? Who offered them some resistance ? What battle did they gain ? Why did they re- treat from Europe ? How far did their dominion extend ? 128 an end to the caliphate, and destroyed Bagdad. It is reported that the slaughter in this city continued forty days, and that 800,000 inhabitants lost their lives. At last they also completed the con- quest of China (1280 A. D.) But this empire again became inde- pendent from their dominion (1368 A. D.), and finally the Chinese conquered even their own country. In the next period, Tamerlane (Timur-lenk, "lame Timur,") a remote descendant of Genghis Khan, subdued Siberia, Russia, India and other countries, maintained his cruel sway during thirty-four years, and threw Asia back into the benighted condition of barbar- ity. The capital of his domuiions was Samarcand, in the Tartary (about 1370 A. D.) 3. THE CRUSAI)ES-1096-1300 A. D. ? B9. First Crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon. Capture of Jerusalem. Since the time of Emperor Constantine, many Christians made pilgrimages to the grave of Jesus, and to the graves and monu- ments of the apostles and other saints, imagining that, on account of the great hardships they had to suffer during the long journey, as well as by the merits of those saints, they could more easily obtain the grant of their prayers, and especially the pardon of their sins. As long as Palestine was a dominion of the Arabs, the pil- grims there could perform the acts of their devotion unmolested, but when the Seljooks (a Turkish tribe), was in possession of that country, they were often robbed, ill-treated, and even killed. These persecutions first suggested to the mind of Gregory VII. the idea of conquering Palestine, and he would have executed the project had he lived long enough. But this work was reserved for Urban II. He found an excellent tool for this purpose in Peter of Amiens. This fanatic hermit, who had long lived in Palestine, delivered to the pope a letter from the patriarch of Jerusalem, in which the dis- tress of the Christians was vividly presented, and the Occident implored for help. Bare-footed, riding an ass, and with a crucifix in his hand, he passed through Italy, France and Germany, sum- monmg the Christians, in the name of Jesus, who, as he asserted. What of the caliphate ? How did the inhabitants of Bagdad fare ? What of Tamerlane ? § 59. Where, since Constantine I., would the Christian pilgrims travel ? Why ? By which Mohammedan tribe were they molested ? Which pope wanted to conquer Palestine ? 129 had appeared to him in the vestibule of. the temple, to deliver the holy countries from the infidels. The pope himself, in the councils at Piacenza and Clermont, most impressively discussed the merit of helping the Oriental Christians. It was resolved to make war upon the enemies of their creed, the cry being: " God wills it! " The assembled crowds fastened a red cross on their shoulders, through which they got the name " Crusaders." First, Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, a poor knight, started with several hundred thousands, and murdering and pillag- ing, passed through Germany, where they especially killed the Jews, and moved through Hungary to Greece. The most of them were dispatched during their march by the inhabitants of these countries, and the rest quickly shipped by the Greek emperor to Asia Minor, where they also perished miserably. Only Peter saved himself with a small troop, and fled back to Constantinople. Then the well-organized main army, numbering 600,000 men, began its march, led by the valiant Godfrey of Bouillon. They reached Asia safely, but here want, danger and combat also began for them. The crusaders were in an unknown country, and had to deal with warlike, courageous enemies ; nay, the Greeks themselves, by whom they were hated, because confessors of popery, became treacherous, often leading them astray on purpose. The siege of the towns was protracted ; hunger and disease destroyed thousands. Thus it happened that the crusaders did not arrive in Syria for two years. Here they besieged Antioch for nine months. Famine was raging; many, among them Peter himself, took flight ; but the latter was overtaken and brought back to the camp. Finally the army reached Jerusalem, but it had dwindled down to 60,000 men. There it had to struggle again with hunger ; be- sides, water was very scarce, for the enemies had destroyed all foun- tains far and near. Moreover, the country being destitute of woods, blockading machines were wanting, and the Seldjooks de- fended the city with the courage of despair. Nevertheless, after five weeks, it was taken by treachery (14th of July, 1099 A. D.) Which hermit promoted his design ? Report the doings of the latter. What was resolved upon at the councils of Piaceuza and Clermont ? Why were the pilgrims called Crusaders ? What leaders conducted the first expedition ? How did it get along ? How many men were in the second army ? Who was the leader? Where did they encounter dangers? What were the dangers? How long did the siege of Antioch last ? What of Peter ? How large was the army when it reached Jerusalem ? What difficulties did it experience there ? (9) 130 Godfrey was among the first who scaled the walls. The victors committed a horrible slaughter of the enemies. Crying again, " God wills it !" they massacred every one ; not even the babes were spared. Down the stairs of the mosque drizzled the blood of 10,000 butchered Saracens. The Jews had to share the same fate ; they were driven into the synagogue and there burned. With the fury of cannibals, the bellies of many were cut open in order to see whether they had not devoured any coin. In this way 40,000, according to other reports, 70,000 persons were killed in one day. The crusaders then passed through the blood-stained streets to the sepulchre of Jesus, who had enjoined meekness upon his followers, and entuned anthems of praise to his honor. They elected God- frey king of Jerusalem, but he refused to accept this honor in a place where the founder of his religion had walked in humihty; he called himself modestly the protector of the holy sepulchre. I 60. The Other Crusades. Kmir Saladin. Latin Empire. The war against the Mohammedans was continued. Several important crusades were yet waged against them. Emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII., king of France, were the leaders in the sec- ond. Saint Bernard had incited them to undertake it, predicting a glorious success; but of 200,000 crusaders almost all perished. Bernard was smart enough to attribute the failure of their enterprise to the sins of the crusaders. — The third crusade was caused by Rainold, a knight of Antioch, in this way : A Mohammedan cara- van went on a pilgrimage to Mecca; with it was also the mother of the celebrated Saladin, Emir of Egypt, who ruled this country, and had also conquered Tripolis, Tunis and Syria. Rainold surprised the pilgrims, plundered them and killed the companions of Saladin's mother. The emir demanded satisfaction for that hostile deed from Guido, king of Jerusalem ; as it was refused, he waged war against him, totally defeated his army at Tiberias (1187 A. D.), and took him prisoner, together with many other noblemen. But he generously released the king from captivity, when he had promised by oath not to take up arms against him ; only Rainold received the death-blow. How did the victors of the city act ? How many captives did they kill ? Give particulars of the massacre. Who was elected king of Jerusalem ? Who undertook the second crusade ? Was it a success ? What of St. Bernard ? What caused the third crusade ? What did Saladin demand from Guido ? Where did he defeat him ? 131 Jerusalem was besieged and surrendered ; Saladin did not stain his victory by wanton cruelty. Nobody was killed; the captives were permitted, for a ransom, to go free with their property ; and those who were unable to raise it were dismissed without paying. Finally, he distributed almost the whole sum of money thus collected by ■ransom among those who had no money to pay their fare. Saladin's generosity did not touch the feelings of the Christian sovereigns ; the most powerful of them made preparations for a new campaign. First, Emperor Frederic I. set out with 100,000 war- riors (i 189 A. D.) He vanquished the Seldjooks at Iconium, in Asia Minor, in a bloody battle, but as he was crossing the river Saleph on horseback, he was drowned. His army, too, perished miserably by disease. One year later, Richard the Lion-hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, Philip August, king of France, and Leopold, duke of Austria, set out on their march. But national hatred disunited them. Their sole joint exploit was the conquest of Acre (Ptolemais), in Syria. Richard ordered Leopold's flag to be torn from the house he had taken possession of, and to be trampled in the mire. Provoked by this insolence, Leopold and Phihp left the army of the crusaders and returned home. The besieged had capitulated by promising a ransom. When Saladin did not pay it at the appointed time, Richard commanded the prisoners to be cruelly slaughtered. • Neither was he able to conquer Jerusalem ; he obtained for the Christians only the right to visit the city unop- posed. Then he, too, started on his return. Owing to his great personal valor, he was given the surname, " Lion-hearted." On his return, he was unfortunate enough to be taken prisoner by Duke Leopold, who delivered him to the emperor. He was compelled to suffer a long time in a dungeon, and to redeem his liberty with an enormous sum of money. Soon after Richard's departure, the noble-minded Saladin died {1193 A. D.) Before his death he distributed alms among the How did he act concerning the prisoners ? What city did he capture ? How did he treat the captives ? How did he dispose of the ransom collected ? Did his generosity touch the Christian sovereigns ? Who first took up arms against him ? What was his fate ? Who followed then ? Why did the sover- eigns not succeed? What insult did Richard inflict on Leopold of Austria? How did he treat Saladin's soldiers who had capitulated ? What right did he obtain for the pilgrims ? Why was he called " Lion-hearted ? " What misfort- une befell him on his return ? What noble act was the last one of Saladin ? 132 Christians and the Musselmans, without any distinction as to their rehgion. He was so poor when he died that the expenses of his funeral had to be paid with a borrowed sum of money. The next important crusade was undertaken by Emperor Fred- eric II. He had vowed it when he was crowned. His troops, to this end, were assembled in Italy, but most of them succumbed to an epidemic disease, which also attacked the emperor, and he was therefore obliged to defer the promised crusade. However, he was excommunicated by Gregory IX., and the anathema was re- peated when he really set out after one year (1228 A. D.), without having been absolved from it. Scarcely had he landed in Syria when the priests got ashore and here also published the papal curse. Dissensions arose thereby which divided the army. Frederic there- fore concluded a truce with Sultan Kamel (1229 A. D.), by virtue of which the latter ceded Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and the tract which leads to these towns from the sea. Now the em- peror entered Jerusalem joyfully, and himself put the crown upon his head, as no priest dared to do it for him. Immediately the patriarch here also promulgated the interdict. Frederic had the priests, who sided with the patriarch, whipped and driven away. Then he returned to Europe, in order to chastise the pope also (see § 56). Fifteen years after this Jerusalem was again lost. Louis IX., king of France, on account of his piety surnamed the Saint, still endeavored to support the tottering cause of the Chris- tians. He, together with the foremost noblemen of France, and many thousand soldiers, marched to Egypt. First he was favore'd by fortune. He conquered the fortified town of Damiette, but as he advanced further, he was so hemmed in by the many canals and branches of the Nile that he was obliged to surrender his whole army (1248 A. D.), to give up Damiette and to pay a ransom of 800,- 000 pieces in gold for the prisoners. He returned home, and found that during his absence his dominion had been- laid waste by internal enemies. Notwithstanding the unfortunate termination of his cru- sade, he undertook a second one against Tunis (1270 A. D.), in Was he rich when he died ? Why did Frederic II. postpone the crusade he had vowed ? How did the pope act against him ? Why did he conclude a truce with the Sultan ? On what conditions ? Who promulgated the interdict against him in Jerusalem ? How did he punish the priests ? Who undertook the next crusade ? Who marched with him ? What fortress did he capture ? What was the final event of the campaign ? Against what city did he direct his second crusade ? Did he succeed ? 133 order to fight the Saracens from that side ; but he lost his hfe and his army by pestilence. Twenty years later, also Ptolemais (Acre), the only place the Christians yet possessed in the Orient, was torn from their dominion. Between these greater crusades many smaller ones happened. Even women and children undertook several of them. One was ventured by 30,000 boys (12 13 A. D.) Priests were their leaders. They had flattered the children by the illusion that God would work a miracle, in order to help them over the Mediterranean Sea ; that he would separate its waters, and lead them with dry feet through it, as he once had led the Israelites through the Red Sea. Most of the children perished miserably during the march ; the rest were sold in Egypt into bondage. During a certain crusade, it also happened that French crusaders founded the so-called new Latin empire. The Grecian emperor called on them for aid against his enemies; they came and took Constantinople together with the country (1204 A. D.), but retained the conquest, and imposed upon the inhabitants the twofold yoke of vassalage and popery. Michael PalcRoIogiis, Grecian emperor of Nicsea, delivered them again from the tyranny of the foreigners (1261 A. D.) Europe lost about seven millions of men by the crusades, and Palestine was nevertheless gone. Most of the Christians engaged in the crusades through fanaticism, excited by the priests, especially by the popes. Many others were allured by other vile motives, as the popes promised to the crusaders the release of their debts, and the indulgence of all, even the vilest sins and crimes. However, these wars also had good effects. Through them the Arabian culture was diffused throughout Europe, the knowledge of nations and countries augmented, the power of the hierarchy shaken, the chain of feudalism broken in many places, and the sense of freedom awakened. Many serfs received liberty, as their lords took up the cross, either alone or accompanied by them. Com- merce was especially advanced by the crusades. Entire fleets sailed When was the last place in the Orient lost ? What of the crusade of children ? How were they deluded by the priests ? What fate did they experience ? Who founded the Latin empire ? In what manner ? Who abolished it ? How many inhabitants did Europe lose by the crusades ? For what reasons mainly were they undertaken ? What good effects did they produce ? What culture was dif- fused ? What power shaken ? What service broken ? How was commerce ad- vanced ? 134 from Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and other maritime, towns of Italy, to those distant countries, carrying armies, arms and provisions there, and on their return brought the merchandise of Persia and Hin- dostan to Europe. By such commerce they acquired great riches and power. Besides, the crusades diminished the number of the noble families, because many noblemen incurred death through them. SECOND OHAPTER-HISTORT OP OIVILIZATION. ^ 61. Constitutions. Feudal Government. Feudal Ser- vitude. Magna Charta of England. Ordeals. Chivalry. In the preceding, but still more so in this and the following period, Europe presents a sad view of servitude. The Teutonic nations usually seized from the inhabitants of the conquered lands half or more of their landed property, and divided it by lot. The portions were called " allodia," and were heritable. The sovereigns conferred part of the lands which fell to them as their share upon their loyal vassals. Such parts were called " feods " (feuds, fees, iiefs). In this manner the feudal system and the feudal law sprung up. The vassals were obHged to perform either military service, when called upon, or contribute certain rents and payments. " The inhabitants of the countries were partly noblemen, partly serfs. To the former belonged the landlords, the vassals, the high ministerial ofificers, and the patricians in the cities. The rest (consequently the majority of the people) were serfs (villains). The fate of the bondmen was horrible. They were compelled to cultivate the estates of their landlords ; their earnings, their body and life, their children, everything belonged to the latter. They might be killed by them with impunity. Their marriages were not consecrated. The slave garment and the shaved head distinguished them from the freeman. Nobody was allowed to grant entrance to the fugitives. England iirst broke the fetters of the feudal system. The I 6i. Give the view of the feudal system. Define the vi'ords "allodia" and " feods." What were the obligations of the vassals ? What classes of the inhab- itants belonged to the noblemen? What was the doom of their majority? What was the fate of the bondmen ? With regard to their landlords ? To their chil- dren and marriages ? How was their exterior appearance distinguished ? What country first broke the fetters of this system ? 135 Magna Charta, which King John was compelled to sign (see § 57), granted (though almost alone to the nobility and the clergy) the most precious rights. By virtue of that document no freeman was allowed to be taken prisoner without a lawful decree. In trials, the sentence must be pronounced by particular judges, inde- pendent from the king. The latter could not impose taxes without the permission of the parliament, etc. As John infringed the char- ter, guardians were appointed to watch over its proper execution, and it was decreed that it should be confirmed by oath by every king at his accession, and promulgated to the people twice every year. Though it is true that still several kings dared to infringe the charter, yet this only conduced to enlarge liberty. In this manner Edward I. had to extend the right to allow taxes to the knights and citizens of towns. Since his time, the delegates of the counties and towns also used to be called to the sessions of the parUament. Thus, by degrees, the lower house was created, in which the commons first were truly represented. In Italy, the constitutions of the Lombard cities, after the con- tests against Frederick I. and II., secured freedom to its subjects ; Venice, first a democracy, had in later time a doge (691 A. D.), then an aristocratic government (11 72 A. D.) the offices of which finally became hereditary (1297 A. D.) In this and the next period the club-law ruled almost every- where in Europe. The noblemen were frequendy highway robbers, and their castles dens of thieves, where they would feast and carouse. The laws were rude and inefficacious. The ordeals (judg- ments of God), such as duels, the ordeal of boiling water, the fire- and-water ordeal, etc., settled all questions of right or wrong, the de- fendant being obliged to take something out of a boihng kettle, or carry a red-hot piece of iron in his hands for some distance, or he was flung into a river or pond ; if he sank, he was acquitted, etc.; even the judges had to submit to duels. Religious disputes were also decided by arms. In the midst of such depravity, chivalry was for a long time a blessing. It was designed to afford help to the distressed, espe- What rights were granted by the Magna Charta to the nobility and clergy ? What was decreed when John infringed it ? What was Edward I. obliged to grant to the knights and citizens ? What constitutions in Italy were liberal ? What of the government of Venice ? Give an account of the club law ; of the ordeals of boiling water ; of fire and water ordeals. For what end was chivalry designed ? 136 cially to women, orphans and pilgrims. The duties attached to the squireship prepared for it; tournaments, in which noble- minded ladies distributed the meed of praise, invigorated it. In an age of darkness and degradation, chivalry developed the character of woman, and causing her virtues to be appreciated and honored, made her the equal companion of man, and the object of his devotion. The religious orders of knighthood, viz., the Order of the Knights of St. John, the Order of the Temple, and the Teutonic knights, were monastic orders, and obliged their members, especially, to fight against the Saracens, to aid poor pilgrims, and to nurse the sick. They all originated in Jerusalem. The Knights of St. John were in later time called Knights of Rhodes and Malta, because, after the loss of Palestine, they had their seat at Rhodes and because this island also was conquered by the Turks, at Malta. § 62. Church. Anathema. Interdict. Inquisitional Tri- bunal. Canon Law. Celibacy. Popes. Gregory VII. Innocent III. In Europe, it is true, the Slavonians, Hungarians -and Russians, and in Asia the Tartarian tribes were converted to Christianity, but its doctrine and spirit remained unknown to them, for they were as yet in the lowest degrees of civilization. They were driven to the rivers and aspersed with water. Then they were baptized and called Christians. Their princes, who had accepted the Christian faith before them, commanded them to follow their example, and they thoughtlessly obeyed. The Roman Church separated from the Grecian. — In the Occi- dental Church the Latin language was introduced. The chaffering in relics and indulgences, and the number of church festivals in- creased. The infidels and heretics, as the non-conformists were called, were treated most cruelly. The Jews, too, were often very severely persecuted. The' most dreadful weapons of the clergy were the anathema, What degree prepared for it ? Who, in the tournaments, distributed the prizes ? What influence did chivalry exert on the development of womanhood ? What were the religious Orders of Knighthood ? What were the obligations of their members ? Where did they originate ? What were the Knights of St. John called in later times ? \ 62. What kind of Christianity did the newly converted nations in Europe and Asia adopt ? What two churches separated ? What lan- guage was introduced in the church ? What of relics, indulgences and holydays ? How were infidels, heretics and Jews treated ? Which were the most dreadful weapons of the clergy ? 137 the interdict and the inquisitional tribunal. The anathema deprived a man of the enjoyment of all ecclesiastical, civil and natural rights. He was thereby unfitted to make contracts. His children could dispense with their duty of respect and obedience. Even his hfe was at the mercy of every murderer. By the interdict the divine service was suspended in entire coun- tries. Then no church bell sounded ; the altars were unclothed, and even the church doors locked, the marriages contracted on the graves, and all public amusements interdicted, even greetings forbid- den. These punishments usually were inflicted on princes who would not comply with the caprices and ambitious designs of the bishops and popes. The inquisitio7ial tribunal, that infamous pillory of popery, was instituted by Gregory IX. against the Albigenses (1229 A. D.) (see § 57), and soon after directed against all heretics. He committed it to the Order of the Dominicans. The object of this tribunal was not only to root out heresies, but also pretended sorceries, and even philosophical, political and mathematical doctrines. Thus Galileo was put into its dungeon, because he had taught the theorem that the earth revolves around the sun. The courts of the tribunal were held in horrid castles, where the prisoners were tortured in subterranean chambers, in order to ex- tort from them the confessions which they refused to make sponta- neously. At the first degree of torture the tormentors raised them to a certain height from the ground, and then suddenly let them fall again. At the second degree, their mouth was forcibly opened, a cloth put over it, and through it a great quantity of water slowly poured into their throat, thereby causing in the unfortunate victims the sensation of choking. At the third degree, their feet were slowly roasted over a coal-fire. The penalties of the sentenced were confiscation of property, service on the galleys, life-long imprisonment, and death. This was inflicted by racks which tore the joints apart, by wheels breaking the bones, by combustion, etc. Many of the rich were adjudged guilty simply for the reason that their impeachers and judges were desirous Give an aCcount of the anathema and interdict. Who instituted the inquisi- tional tribunal? Against what sect was it first directed? To what Order was it committed? What were its objects? How were its courts constructed? Which was the first degree of torture ? The second ? The third ? What pen- alties were inflicted on the sentenced ? In what manner were they put to death ? 138 of obtaining their treasures. Combustion in Spain was called auto da fe (judicial decree of faith.) On the way to the place of exe- cution the condemned wore the Sanbenito, a peculiar dress, on which they were represented as burning in the flames, and surrounded by devils ; a high cap, painted all over with demons ; they also had a rope around the neck and carried a burning candle in the hand. In this attire they were paraded in the streets, and had to pass by a stage on which the king and his court-officers and court-ladies were seated. The sentenced victims were finally brought to the place of execution, where funeral piles were raised. There they were for the last time summoned to forswear their faith, and if they persevered in it, put upon the wood-piles. At a given signal these were kin- dled, and the unhappy victims sloAvly burned to death. Their tor- ments frequently lasted many hours; sometimes their skin burst, and through the scalds the intestines protruded. If the executed were authors, their writings were burned at the same time. This infernal tribunal was established in most of the countries of Europe, and even in Asia and America. It especially flourished in ^ Spain and Portugal, in France and Italy. In America many Indians were burned, because they would not be converted to Christianity. No rank, no sex, no age was exempt from the power of the tribunal; even kings and bishops were subject to it. Most of the victims of the Inquisition were sacrificed in the Spanish dominions during the governments of Ferdinand the Cath- olic and of Philip II. Isabella, Ferdinand's wife, had promised to her confessor to exterminate all heretics, should the royal crown fall to her share. She became queen. Now all the Jews and Moors, who at that time formed the greater portion of the inhabitants in Spain, had to consent to be baptized or to leave the country ; but as many of them who submitted to baptism secretly remained attached to their former creed, she induced her husband to establish the Inquisitional Tribunal. In this country 10,000 men were burned alive in the course of eighteen years. Even more dreadful was the rage of Philip II., who persecuted the Protestants in the Nether- Describe the ceremonies of combustion. What was the Sanbenito ? Where were they paraded ? In whose presence were they burned ? What of the ' funeral piles ? How long did their torments last ? What were the effects caused by the flames ? In what countries was tlae tribunal established ? Were any persons exempt from its power ? What two kings caused the most combus- tions ? What of the Jews and Moors in Spain ? How many persons were burned by Ferdinand and Isabella ? ' 189 lands (see § 79). The last case of combustion happened in 1782, in Seville. It has been computed that the number of all individuals who have been burned since the institution of the Inquisition, in different countries of the earth, amounts to nine millions. The clergy, during this period, was the most powerful caste in the State ; but its members indulged in ambition, luxury and indo- lence. Even the bishops carried on feuds, or were used to hunting and military exercises. Frequently priests, returning from huntings went immediately to church, accompanied by their hounds, in order to say mass. The monks became wild and savage ; many clergymen did not even know how to read. The popes in particu- lar were greedy and desirous of enlarging their dominions, ambi- tious, cruel and perfidious. They shunned no fraud, if it served to increase their authority; e. g., they frequently appealed to the Canon Law, a collection partly of fictitious or adulterated laws of the oldest synods and Roman bishops, and partly of later papal edicts. They introduced it as'the statute-book of the church. By it they were declared to be the sovereigns of the church, the bish- ops being only their representatives. With Gregory VII. (1073-1085 A. D.), the universal dominion of the popes begins. He demanded of the bishops an oath, similar to that of allegiance, and declared most countries to be fiefs of the Roman See. He asserted that the papal power resembles the sun ; the royal, the moon; as the moon gets her hght from the sun^ in the same manner emperors and kings do not exist, but by per- mission of the pope; consequently those are obhged to obey him. He deprived the sovereigns of the right to nominate the prelates of the church, and to invest them with tracts of land, and usurped it for himself. Moreover, he instituted celibacy (the unmarried state of life) of priests, forbidding them to contract matrimony, and finally separating those who had married from their wives and children. As in the former ages of the church priests were not forbidden to marry, and even in Gregory's age many of them had wives, they opposed the introduction of celibacy, causing even revolts against How many (as it is reported) in all countries of the earth ? Which was the most powerful caste ? In what exercises would even bishops indulge ? What of the morafs of the clergy and monks ? How did the popes increase their authority ? What were the contents of the canon law ? With what pope does the universal dominion of the popes begin ? What comparison did Gregory draw between his and the royal power ? What did he institute ? How did he use married priests ? 140 the pope; however, he carried his prohibition through by dint of force. Next to Gregory, Innocent III. (1198-1216 A. D.) was the most imperious and most powerful pope. During the war which Otto of Brunswick waged against PhiUp of Suabia, he contrived to augment considerably the papal dominions ; he deprived the laymen of the chalice of the Holy Supper ; he censured them severely for reading the Bible, introduced the auricular confession by law and set the interdict at work. Proof of his cruelty is the persecution of the Albigenses (see § 57). § 63. The Arts and Sciences. Troubadours and Minne- singers. Commerce. From the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century the density of ignorance still increased; the art of writing was almost lost. All schools were in the hands of clergymen. Fmally, the universities sprung up, which again diffused some enhghtenment. The majority of their scholars were full grown men, and often of high rank, such as archbishops and cardinals. The most celebrated were the univer- sities of Bologna (for science of laws), of Salerno (for medicine), and of Paris and Oxford (for theology and philosophy). Still, philosophy was the hand-maid of the church, obliged to agree with her dogmas, however absurd they might be. The poesy of chivalry was in a most flourishing condition during the reign of the Hohen- stauffen. Alphonso X. of Castile caused astronomical tables, which are very important for modern astronomy, to be constructed by Moorish and Jewish mathematicians, expending enormous sums for this purpose. Generally, he paid and rewarded scholars very liberally. Among the greatest scholars were Otto of Freisingen and Albertus Magnus. The former understood all the languages and sciences of his age. He wrote a universal history in which the achievements of Frederic I. are related at large. Albertus excelled in natural sciences and mechanics. His writings fill not less than twenty-one volumes in folio. What of Innocent III. ? What did he introduce ? What did he considerably augment ? Of what did he deprive the laymen ? What sect did he cruelly per- secute ? Which was the darkest time of civilization ? What institutes finally diffused some enlightenment? Who attended the universities? For what science was that of Bologna renowned ? Palermo ? Paris and Oxford ? How did Alfonso of Castile promote astronomy ? What of Otto of Freisingen and Albertus Magnus ? 141 The troubadours in France, and the epic poets and minnesingers in southern Germany, were efficacious in creating a love for the national poesy and the cultivation of language. The songs of the troubadours were frequently set to music. Every well-bred man, even sovereigns, attempted to write such poetry. Emulative singing, at which ladies distributed the prize, took place. The art of heroic poesy and of the minnesingers was principally cultivated in Suabia, Franconia, Austria and Switzerland. The oldest and grandest epical poem of the German language is "■ der Nibeluiige noth " (the distress of the Nibelunge.) It originally consisted of several separate national songs, which, at the end of the twelfth century, were connected into a whole. More recent epic poyets are : Wolfram von Eshenbach, Hartmann von der Au, etc. The best minnelays were composed by Walter von der Vogelweide. All poets were also singers. They sung with harp accompaniment, the harp being the favorite instrument of the mid- dle ages. Most of them belo'nged to the lower nobility. They wandered from court to court, and were present at coronation days, at assemblies of princes, and at wedding feasts. The presents they received consisted of money and new garments.. The emperors of Hohenstauf, the landgraves of Thuringia, and the dukes of Austria were most liberal to them. Concerning industry and commerce, they could not prosper in the German countries, by reason of their wretched political condi- tion. To the lord of the coast the stranded mariner was forfeited with all his property ; even the goods of the wagon which broke in the public highway belonged, in some places, to the ruler of the country. For some time the Normans, principally, carried on com- merce. The Italian cities, especially since the crusades, did a lively trade, which extended as far as Siberia, India and China. They transported silk stuffs, which they wove from home-spun silk, and sugar, to Southern and Western Europe. They carried on the prin- cipal trade for some time even in Central Europe, and only the Jews emulated with them here. To the Italian cities, not to the What of the troubadours and minnesingers in France and Germany ? Which is the oldest and grandest German epopee ? Other epic poets ? Who composed the best minnelays ? Which was the favorite musical instrument of the middle ages ? What presents did the poets receive ? What of industry and commerce ? To whom did the property of stranded persons belong ? Who carried on com- merce in Northern Europe and Italy ? To what cities is Europe indebted for liberty ? 142 sovereigns, therefore, is Europe indebted for the advantages of com- merce, industry and Hberty. In this period, too, commerce and trades were in a most flourishing condition among the Arabs. EXERCISES. Biographies. — Frederic I. His conduct — i, in Italy («) against Arnold of Brescia and the cities (Romej, (/;) against the Lombard cities and the popes ; 2, in Asia. — Frederic II. His efficacy — I, in Germany; 2, in Italy, (a) against the Lombard cities, {b) against the popes ; 3, in Asia. — Gregory VII. I. His domineering, («) in general, {Ij) especially in Germany (Henry IV.) 2. Means employed for this purpose. — Innocent III. I. His imperious conduct in Italy and England. 2. His despotism in religious matters, {a) genei-ally ; (^) against the Albigenses. Give a description of the crusade against Saladin. Who was, in this period, the most excellent sovereign in Germany ? Of the Mohamme- dans ? Which sovereign became most remarkable by his quarrels w^ith the popes ? Who vv^ere the founders of nevs^ dynasties in France and England ? What sov- ereigns engaged in the crusades ? When and how long did Gregory VII. rule? When and by whom was the Inquisitional Tribunal established ? When and by whom was the Magna Charta granted ? When did the contest of the Lombard ■cities for liberty commence, and how many years did it last ? How many centu- ries passed during the crusades ? When and by whom was the Latin empire founded, and how long did it subsist ? SIXTH PERIOD. From tF|e End of tl^e Crusades to tl^e Discovery of Anqer- ica, Decay of tlqe Imperial Power, oF Papacy aqd Churc^^, Frorn 1300 to 1492 A, D. FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. \ 64. Germany. Rudolph of Hapsburg. "War of the Hussites. Maximilian I. With Rudolph of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, proprietor of rnany estates, a happier period again began for Germany (1273 A. D.) He declared it to be his calling to " protect peace and right, the most precious of all heavenly gifts; " and he answered What nation, in Asia, also flourished by commerce and trades ? With what €mperor began a happier period for Germany ? 143 for it more faithfully than any other emperor since Henry I. Forth- with he proclaimed, at the first imperial diet, general public peace, which he also maintained with strength and rigor. In all prov- inces he presided himself at the tribunals. Thuringia resembled a den of robbers. He was employed there a whole year to establish peace. As robbery and warfare recommenced, he returned and punished the guilty with inexorable severity. He caused sixty-six castles of robbers to be destroyed, and the high-born robbers who were caught to be beheaded. In the same way he dealt in Suabia and Franconia, and along the Rhine, where, in one year, he laid in ruins more than seventy haunts of noble robbers. In this manner he re-established tranquillity and peace. In the campaigns he undertook for that purpose, the herdsmen of the forest cantons especially aided him. His manner of living was moderate, and he despised splendor and pomp. In war-time he mended his doublet with his own hand. When his army once was in want of provisions, he pulled up a turnip from a field and ate it raw ; the army followed his example without murmuring, and after the turnips had been con- sumed, he called his men to combat, saying : " If we gain victory, we shall have plenty of provisions ; but if we are defeated, they will also give food and drink to the captives." He was also grateful for any act of kindness rendered. A citizen of Ziirich had saved his life by endangering his own. As he entered the imperial hall in Mentz, Rudolph rose from the throne and gave him friendly and respectful salutation. His faithfulness in keeping his promises became proverbial. But he, too, already showed indications of the greediness for aggrandizement peculiar to his house, for he married his six daughters to the most powerful sovereigns, and wanted even to make the regal dignity heritable in his family; but to this the German rulers did not consent. He was also weak enough to rat- ify the usurped possessions of the popes. His son, Albert of Austria, was hated for his tyranny and covet- ousness. His ward, John of Suabia, demanded from him his law- What heavenly gifts did he declare most precious ? What did he proclaim in the first diet? How did he dispense justice, especially in Thuringia, Suabia and Franconia ? How did he punish the high-born robbers ? Who aided him in his campaigns ? What was the course of his life ? Give examples of it. Mention an instance of his gratitude. What of his faithfulness ? What fault had he in common with his house ? Whose possessions did he ratify ? Why was Albert of Austria hated ? 144 ful heritage, but without success. The emperor kept him in sus- pense by vain promises, whereby the former was so enraged that, assisted by some congenial friends, he slew him. The children of the emperor took terrible revehge on the guilty and innocent. After Albrecht, Henry VII. followed (1308 A. D.), who deprived the Lombard cities of their liberty, and subjected them to his dominion. Under the reign of Sigismond IV. the great synod in Constance was held, by whose order John Huss was burned (see § 69). From his ashes arose one of the most dreadful religious wars ( 1419-1433 A. D.) His adherents, the Hussites in Bohemia'and Moravia, already exasperated because they were forbidden to confess the doctrine of their teacher, and to use the chalice at the Lord's Supper, and now enraged by his horrible execution, closely united themselves at the town of Kniss, upon a mountain which they called Tabor, where they also founded a town of the same name, and celebrated the divine service. Their general was a nobleman called Ziska (the one-eyed). The pope summoned all Christendom to wage a cru- sade against them, and emperor Sigismond came to" Prague with an immense army (1422 A. D.); but Ziska repelled him. A second army was also defeated, and the emperor had to flee from Bohemia. After Ziska's death, the two Procops became the generals of the Hussites. They also vanquished several imperial armies, and spread flames of war over Germany. Everywhere terror preceded them. Finally, the council in Basil invited them to negotiations. Procop the Great made his appearance there at the head of a large em- bassy. The synod granted to the moderate party of the Hussites the chalice and the free sermon. They would have obtained still more important rights, if they had lived in concord instead of quarreling with each other. With Albert II. the imperial dignity returned to the house of Hapsburg, and remained with it till that ■ dignity was abolished (1806 A. D.) Maximilian I. (1493-1519 A. D.) succeeded in establishing perpetual public peace by which the club-law was abolished unconditionally, and oppression and rapine were made to Who killed him ? Why ? Who took revenge ? , Who deprived the Lombard cities of their liberty ? What war desolated Germany under Sigismond IV. ? How was it caused ? Give a narrative of it. Who were the leaders of the Hus- sites ? What did the council of Basil .grant them ? Who established perpetual public peace ? 145 yield forever to the authority of law. At a general diet held at Worms, the several States subscribed to it (1495 ^- ^•) § 63. Switzerland. Combats of the Swiss Confederates for Liberty. Battles at Sempach, Granson and Murten. Arnold Winkelried. In the aboriginal cantons (Schwytz, Uri and Unterwalden) the inhabitants, being simple herdsmen, had maintained their independ- ence, and the three cantons were united by ancient friendship. They lived directly under the protection of the German empire. Emperor Rudolph had protected their rights ; but his son Albert refused to confirm them, and bade the cantons to submit to the dominion of his dynasty. When they declined to do so, he appointed Austrian governors for their country. These, and the noblemen who were settled in the land, oppressed them. Therefore, in Riitli, a meadow on the lake of Lucerne, 33 men delegated by them, swore to restore the ancient liberty and to humble the insolent nobility. When William Tell, a skilled archer of the canton of Uri, whom (as the legend goes) the cruel governor Gessler had forced to shoot at an apple placed on the head of his own son, had killed Gessler, the inhabitants expelled the governors and knights, destroyed their castles, and renewed their ancient confederation for the purpose of maintaining and defending their old liberties. Duke Leopold could not forget that they had thrown off the yoke of his father. He led a well-armed host against them, but they met him fearlessly at Morgarten, and the best part of the nobility sank from the blows of the herdsmen. Even Leopold barely escaped death. Later, the cities Lucerne, Ziirich, Zug, Glarus and Berne, in spite of the violent protest of Austria, joined the league of the three forest cantons (1332-1353 A. D.) Duke Leopold IIL, in conjunction with many noble and eccle- siastical lords, wanted to strike the main blow against the freedom of the confederates. Near Sempach they commenced the attack (1386 A. D.) In the first lines stood several thousand knights, clad § 65. What three cantons maintained their independence ? Under whose protection did they live? To what dominion did Emperor Albert bid them submit ? What governors did he appoint ? How did they govern ? What did the delegates of the cantons swear ? What of Governor Gessler ? What were the consequences of his tyranny ? Who killed him? W^hy? Whom did the can- tons expel ? What did they renew ? What of Dul^e Leopold and of the battle at Morgarten ? What cities j oined the league ? Give an account of the battle of Sempach. (10) 146 in iron armor. The undaunted confederates, though only mustering 1,400 men, rushed upon the iron men, but could not break their ranks. They were already in danger of being out-flanked and crushed by the numerous enemies, when Arnold Winkelried cried : " I will make way for liberty ! Dear confederates, take care of my wife and children ! " He then, with arms extended wide, ran into the midst of the hostile spears, grasped as many as he could, and pierced through he fell, pulHng them down with the weight of his body. The confederates darted over his corpse into the opened breach, dashed the knights to the ground with their maces, and gained a complete victory. Leopold himself was slain. The humbled Austria concluded peace with the confederates. Soon after followed the glorious combats of the herdsmen of Appenzell against the abbots of St. Gall, who ruled them severely and capriciously. Tired of their tyranny, the herdsmen expelled their governors and put the troops of the abbots to flight (1403 A. D.) The abbots asked Frederic of Austria for help, which the latter afforded. But the herdsmen, led by the brave count Rudolph Wer- denberg, who, like a common herdsman, lived with them, fought valiantly against the enemies; even their wives and daughters, dressed like shepherds, appeared in arms. The enemies fled in wild confusion, and were entirely defeated. Cursing the unhappy issue of the war, Frederic returned home, and the inhabitants of Appenzell became independent of the dominion of the abbots. When Charles the Bold hesitated to restore Alsace to Emperor Frederic III., according to contract, and besides caused the inhab- itants to be oppressed by his governor, the former expelled his gar- rison, and as he advanced with an army, they allied with the duke of Lorraine and the confederates. Charles took possession of Lorraine, and, at the head of 60,000 men, marched against the confederates (1476 A. D.) In vain they offered him peace, and their alliance; he said that he wanted to chastise the peasants. The confederates attacked him courageously at Granson, where he could hardly resist their vanguard. But as he saw their main forces drawing near, he cried, alarmed : "Alas ! if before a handful of men tired Who devoted his life to his country ? What success followed the battle ? Describe the glorious days of the herdsmen of Appenzell. "V^Tio was their leader ? What of their wives and daughters ? ' Of Frederic ? Of the dominion of the abbots ? Why did the inhabitants of Alsace ally with the Swiss confed- erates ? What did the latter offer to Charles ? What was his intention in mak- ing war on the confederates ? Give an account of the battle at Granson. Wliat did Charles say as their main forces drew near ? What of his soldiers ? 147 us, what shall become of us now ? " A panic seized his soldiers ; they took to flight. It was in vain that he opposed himself to them ; they carried him along. He lost his camp, abounding in riches (1476 A. D.) Three months after this defeat he ventured a second battle at Murten. The confederates implored the help of God before the combat. As during the prayers the sun pierced the clouds, one of their commanders cried : "Confederates ! On ! See, God gives us light for victory." They began cheerfully to fight. The duke, whose troops were discouraged, and fought only because forced, was totally defeated. He had scarcely time to flee, a few knights accompanying him. In this combat he lost 15,000 men (1476 A. D.) The corpses were thrown into large lime-pits, their bones collected and preserved in a chapel in memory of his defeat. The next year he was vanquished once more at Nancy, and slain by his pursuers in a swamp (1477 A. D.) The bloody Suabian war gloriously concludes this epoch of Swiss history. Emperor Maximilian I. threatened the confederates with war because, preferring Uberty, they refused to have their land incorporated with the German empire. He actually commenced war, as they formed a defensive alliance with the confederates of Grisons (1499 ^- D.) During eight months the emperor lost more than 20,000 men in eight battles. In one (at Malserhaide) Bene- dict Fontana first scaled the hostile bulwark. He went on fighting, even when his intestines protruded from his wounds, crying: "Go on, confederates ! Do not care for my death ! Save liberty ! If you are vanquished to-day, you leave perpetual servitude to your children!" He died like a hero. Maximilian was compelled to conclude peace, and the independence of Switzerland from Ger- many was established forever (1499 A. D.) A sad fact, at the end of this period, are the mercenary wars which the Swiss, hired by foreign sovereigns, waged, especially either for or against France and Milan, som.etimes even for both parties, though they fought in these wars also with their usual valor. Of himself? What did Charles lose in this battle-? Give some circum- stances of the battle at Murten. How great was the loss of the duke ? What of the corpses of the killed? Where did Charles lose his life? What war con- cluded the Swiss history in this period ? Why did Maximilian wage war against the Swiss ? How long did the war last ? How many men did the emperor lose? What of Benedict Fontana? Delineate his exploit. What of the mercenary wars of the Swiss ? 148 § 66. France and England. Philip the Fair. Abolish- ment of the Order of the Templars. English- French National War. Wars of the Two Roses. Philip IV., king of France, surnamed the Fair, was a scourge of the popes. Boniface VIII. forbade him to assess the clergy, but as the king nevertheless carried his will into execution, sent a bull wherein he declared himself to be the supreme judge of the king, France being a papal fief. Philip ordered the papal letter to be burned at an assembly of the States- General. Then the pope excommunicated him, and dispensed his subjects from their oath of allegiance. The king held another assembly of the States, which protested against all papal decrees (1303 A. D.) In order to chas- tise the pope yet more severely, he intended to have him seized secretly, and conducted to France. Boniface was suddenly attacked in Anagni, put on the back of a miserable nag, which had neither bridle nor saddle, and imprisoned. The people, however, delivered him and carried him to Rome ; but he was so much enraged by the suffered insult that he dashed his head to pieces on the wall of his room. Philip then had Clemens V., by birth a Frenchman, elected pope, because he hoped that, being a native, he would be more supple. In order that he might rule him the more easily, he bound him by the condition that he should take up his residence in France. From that time, during seventy years, Avignon was the seat of the popes (1307-1377 A. D.) Through covetousness, Philip attained also the abolishment of the Order of the Templars. Upon the same day all knights of the Temple in France were seized ; then, under the pretext of having committed secret crimes and vices, put to the rack, and forced to make false confessions. Fifty-nine of them, and James Molay, their Grand Master, were burned by a slow fire (13 10 A. D.) In the hour of death they retracted their confessions. Molay himself had never declared himself to be guilty. The king confiscated the large dominions of the Order, and divided the booty with the pope, who abolished the Order of the Templars also in the other countries. § 66. State the difference which disunited Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. Who sided with the king? What did the pope declare in his bull ? What then of the bull ? What intention did Philip form to further chastise the pope ? Did he succeed ? How did the pope end his life ? Whom did Philip cause to be elected pope ? Why ? Where did the popes then reside ? How long ? What Order did Philip cause to be abolished? What \was his motive? Describe the proceedings against the Templars. 149 With the sons of PhiUp the Fair, the first hneage of the house of Capet became extinct ; then the Hneage of Valois followed (1328 A. D.) Philip IV. was its next male relation; besides the States- General declared in his favor; he became king. But Edward III., king of England, and son of the daughter of Philip the Fair, also laid claim to the throne, and commenced one of the bloodiest wars ever fought, which lasted more than a hundred years (1330- 1453 A. D.) Phihp and his son John fought with very bad fortune against Edward and his valiant son, who, from his armor, was called the Black Prince. The French suffered terrible defeats at Sluis, in Flanders, by sea (1340 A. D.); at Cressy, in Picardy, and at Poi- tiers (1356 A. D.) John himself was taken prisoner. He obtained his liberty, in fact, on condition that he would pay three miUions of gold florins ; but, as France was not able to raise this sum, and as his son, who, meanwhile, was prisoner in his stead, ran away, the father voluntarily returned into captivity, in which he died (1364 A. D.) Under Charles VI., a youth of only twelve years, the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy contended for the regency. Henry V. of England, whose juvenile life was turbulent and dissipated, after __ his accession laid aside youthful pleasures and devoted all his ener- gies to a wise government of his kingdom. He revived the EngHsh claim to France, and passed over into Normandy with 30,000 men. After his army had been reduced by a contagious disease to 11,000, he met and defeated the French army of 50,000 men in the battle at Agincourt, killing 10,000 and taking 14,000 prisoners, among whom were many of the most eminent princes of the realm (1415 A. D.) ' The duke of Burgundy, and even the king's mother, allied with him. Henry married Catherine, the daughter of Charles, and was to succeed to the throne on the death of her father, while in the meantime he was to govern the kingdom as regent. But he did not live to wear the crown of France, and the helpless Charles sur- vived him only two months. France was now divided between two How many were burned ? When did they retract ? What of James Molay ? Who divided the booty with the king ? What two kings laid claim to the throne of France ? By what reasons ? How long did the war last ? Who was suc- cessful ? Where were the French defeated ? What was the fate of King John ? What of Henry V. ? What was his j uvenile character ? How did he conduct himself as a man ? What claim did he revive ? How large was his army first ? How large after the epidemic ? How large was the French army ? Where was it vanquished ? How many were taken prisoners ? Who allied with .Henry ? Whom did he marry ? When would he succeed to the throne of France ? Be- tween which monarchs was France then divided ? 150 rival monarchs, Henry VI. and Charles VII. In this dilemma, an obscure country girl of Dom Remy, in Lorraine, Joan of Arc^ saved her country. Divinely commissioned (as her credulous age believed), she put herself at the head of a selected troop, and suc- ceeded in furnishing provisions for the besieged city of Orleans. Now her holy mission was thought to be certain ; the courage of the French was aroused again, and the English were put into such a fright that they raised the siege of the city. New bands gathered from all parts of the country around the flag of the heroine. The enemies fled wherever she made her appearance ; they were every- where vanquished, and many towns were re-taken. The maiden led Charles VII. to Rheims, and crowned him (1429 A. D.) But the next year, in a sally, she was separated from her band, and taken prisoner by the Burgundians, then summoned to an ecclesiastical tribunal, which, to please the English, declared her to be guilty of sorcery, and caused her to be burned. In later times the memory of the heroine was honored by a monument, and by conferring the rank of nobility upon her relations. Finally, the duke of Burgundy was reconciled to Charles. The English were vanquished; their brave General Talbot fell in battle, and the war ceased without a for- mal treaty of peace (1453 A. D.) Of all their conquests, the Eng- lish retained only Calais, In England, the government of the house of Lancaster commenced with Henry IV., duke of Lancaster, and a descend- ant of the third son of Edward III. Under his grandson, Henry VI., who was only nine months old when he inherited the kingdom, the realm experienced all the horrors of govern- ments administered by guardians. One chief after another seized upon the regency, and one of the most sanguinary civil wars broke out — the War of the Two Roses, so called from the symbols of the parties. During thirty years (1452-1485 A. D.), not a day passed in England without slaughter and assassination. Eighty princes of the royal blood were killed; seven or eight battles fought, and hundreds of thousands of the citizens perished in the What maiden saved France ? Give an account of her exploits. Where did she crown the king ? What misfortune then befell her? Bywhat tribunal was she condenmed ? What was her fate ? How was her memory later honored ? What were the further events of the war ? How was it finished ? What place did the English retain ? Why did both Henry VI. and Richard of York claim the English throne? How was the government administered when the former was a child? What was the condition of England during the civil war? Who commenced it ? Why is it called the War of the Two Roses ? 151 contests. Duke Richard of York, also a grandson of Edward III., believing himself to have a nearer title to the throne than Henry, set himself up for regent of the realm. The royal partisans (wear- ing a red rose) opposed him, and Richard, supported by his parti- sans (wearing a white rose), commenced civil war. He and one of his sons were killed ; but Henry and his son met with the same fate, and Edward IV., another son of Richard, was proclaimed king. Edward's sons were murdered by their uncle, Richard III., and the whole nation was alienated from Richard by his crimes. The claims of the Lancaster family were revived by Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, and at the decisive battle of Bosworth field, Richard was defeated and slain (1485 A. D.) The earl of Richmond was proclaimed king, Avith the title of Henry VII. His marriage, soon after, with the princess Elizabeth, heiress of the house of York, united the rival claims of York and Lancaster in the Tudor family, and put an end to the civil contests. § 67. The-Turks in Europe. Conquest of Constantinople. Osman, a Turkish emir in Asia Minor, subdued the larger part of anterior Asia (about 1300 A. D.) His successor obtained a foothold in the Greek empire, selected the most vigorous young men from the vanquished Christian nations, and formed from them, by a military education, the corps of the Janizaries. Bajazet I. enlarged his conquests, and vanquished the united Christians — Greeks, Hungarians, Germans, French and English, Emperor Sigismund being at their head (1396 A. D.), but was defeated himself, and taken prisoner by Tamerlane (1402 A. D.) Soon the Grecian em- perors had only a few pieces of land left besides the capital, and were compelled to pay an annual tribute. In order to gain the help of the Occident, they were willing to acknowledge the pope as the head of the Grecian church, but vainly; they were left to their fate. Mohammed II., resolving to establish his residence in Constan- tinople, declared war to the Emperor Constantine XL During fifty What of Richard and his son ? Of Henry and his son ? Who, after their death, was proclaimed king? By whom were Edward's sons murdered? Why was the nation alienated from Richard ? By whom were the claims of the Lancaster family revived ? How did Richard perish ? How were the rival claims of the two houses united ? § 67. What of Osman ? Where did his successor gain a foothold ? What corps did he form ? Whom did Baj azet I. vanquish ? By whom was he defeated ? What of the territory of the Grecian emperors? Were they aided by the Occidental Christians?. Who declared war to Constantine XI. ? 152 days the city defied all assaults and blockading machines ; at last the walls were scaled (1453 A. D.) Constantine, arms in hand, met with a praiseworthy death ; the Christian inhabitants were reduced to slavery, the splendid church of St. Sophia transformed into a mosque, and Constantinople set up as the capital of the new empire. SECOND OHAPTEE- HISTORY OP CIVILIZATION. I 68. Condition of Constitutions. Law. Secret Criminal Tribunal'. The power of the German emperors waned more and more, and sometimes there was no head of the empire ; more frequently it existed only nominally. Then the several countries were obhged to seek protection from their own sovereigns. In this way the power of the latter increased; still it was limited by the States- General, because they needed their consent in order to collect new taxes, to form alliances, and to declare war. The emperors Were, at the diets of the empire, as it were^ the presidents of the assembly of the princes. In Switzerland the forest-cantons and the cities were free; the rest of the inhabitants were subjects, in some places even serfs. In Polonia and Hungaria the nobility governed; the peasants were slaves, who might even be killed by their lords on a fine of a few dollars. The lawless condition of the former period was still prevailing in Germany ; the noblemen, especially, still perpetrated rapine and murder, attacked in ambush wagons and ships, and invaded the boundaries of the lands. Torture, boiling and burning were general means of punishment, but neither were efficacious. It was an ex- traordinary private court of justice, called "Fehmgericht," which, in some degree, checked the anarchy. It exerted its power in secret, and numbered 100,000 members. The first chief justice was the archbishop of Cologne; in later time the emperor himself. Terri- Give an account of the siege and fate of the emperor and the inhabitants. What of Constantinople ? ^ 68. In what manner did the power of the different sovereigns in Germany increase ? By whom was it limited ? Why ? What were the emperors at the diets ? Who was free in Switzerland ? What of the rest of the inhabitants ? Who governed in Polonia and Hungaria ? What was the fate of the peasants ? What condition of the former period was still prevail- ing ? What of the noblemen ? Of the means of punishment ? Give a descrip- tion of the " Fehmgericht." What was the number of its members ? Who was Chief Justice? 153 ble oaths obliged the members to secrecy and absolute obedience. They accorded neither pardon nor appeal. Their sentence pur- ported nothing but death, and was immediately executed after having seized the criminal, the judges hanging him on the next tree. In order to indicate that the secret tribunal had passed sentence, they stuck a knife close by. A victim seldom escaped their vigilance. Many crimes were prevented or punished by this tribunal, but some, at least, were also perpetrated in its name. After the establishment of a better administration of justice and of public peace, it ceased to exist. ^ 69. Chiareh. Wycliffe. John Huss. The Popes. Schism of the ChUreh. Synod of Constance. The public morals were barbarous and corrupt ; cruelty and debauchery generally prevailed, even among the clergy. To this evil were also added the belief in witches and ghosts, exorcisms, persecu- tions of the infidels and heretics. The Jews, e. g.^ were generally ill-treated, even by the magistrates ; their testimony against Chris- tians was null and void ; they were debarred from acquiring landed property ; their children were excluded from the pubUc schools; in larger towns they were confined to special districts, and forbidden on pain of capital punishment to educate a Christian child in their faith, or to marry a Christian maid. / John Wycliffe, professor of theology in England, who has been called the morning star of the reformation, was excommunicated and suspended, because he censured the popes and monastic Orders, and admitted the Bible alone as the rule of Christian faith. The pope insisted on his being brought to trial as a Jieretic, but he was effectually protected by the English nobility. { He translated the Bible into the language of his country, and continued, till he died {1385 A. D.), to teach with candid courage. Some of his disciples were burned, others exiled. The latter propagated his doctrine in Germany and Bohemia. What were their obligations ? What sort of sentence did the court pass ? What was the manner of executing it ? Give both sides of the effect of the tribunal. \ 69. What of the public morals ? What other evils were added to this ? How were the Jews treated ? What of their testimony ? Of their right of possession ? Of the education of their children ? Of their dwelling places in the larger towns ? When was capital punishment inflicted upon them ? Who was John Wycliffe ? What was he called ? Why was he excommunicated ? What did the pope want to do ? Who protected Wycliffe ? What did he trans- late ? What was the fate of his disciples ? Where did they propagate his doc- trine ? Who was John Huss, and what was he teaching ? 154 In the latter country, soon after, John Huss, professor of theology in Prague, being imbued Avith Wycliffe's spirit, whose books he had assiduously read, began teaching. His writings and sermons were anathematized. However, even the anathema of the pope did not diminish the power which he exercised over the people. He burned the papal bull of indulgence amid great tumult. Large crowds accompanied him, and listened to the sermons he delivered in the open air. He was summoned to the synod of Constance, at which Emperor Sigismund, Pope John XXHI., and many other princes, bishops, abbots, and doctors of divinity were present. He was ordered to recant his doctrine. He attempted to defend himself, but the priests did not allow him to speak, preventing him by clamor. They thrust him into a marshy dungeon, in which he languished during seven months, and was taken sick. As he would not retract, he was sentenced to be burned at the stake (1415 A. D.) He appealed in vain to the safe conduct he had received from the emperor, and to the promise of security given to him by the pope. The synod declared that people are not bound to keep their word with heretics. First his writings were burned, then he himself, and his ashes scattered in the Rhine. One year later his friend, Jerome of Prague, suffered the same fate. In order to extort money from the credulous, the popes em- ployed many different means. They disposed of the prebends by auction, sold the indulgences, dispensed with the ecclesiastical laws, and imposed contributions for fighting the Turks, the Peter's pence, and other taxes. For money they were ready to grant the remission of any crime. This was extended even to the dead. After the introduction of the inquisition the execution of the here- tics was one of their ordinary functions. Their greed for more dominions continually involved them in wars. For a time two popes reigned — one in Rome, the other in Avignon (see § 66). Finally, even tliree were ruling (1409 A. D.) In order to end the schism of the Church, and to reform both its head and members, that great How did the pope oppose him ? What did Huss burn ? Where did he deliver his sermons ? To what synod was he summoned ? Who was present at the synod ? What was he ordered to recant ? Did the priests give him a hear- ing ? Where was he thrust ? What sentence did the synod pronounce against him ? To what did he appeal in vain ? What did the synod declare ? What ■was his end ? W'ho suffered the same fate ? INIention some artifices of the popes to extort money from the credulous ? How many popes were, for a time, simultaneously reigning ? 155 synod of Constance was held (1414-1418 A. D.) The three popes were deposed and a new one, Martin V., elected; but he was not more energetic than the others, and dismissed the assembly with his benediction. Since that time the popes pursued their scandalous life, oppressed the national churches, and imposed taxes upon the nations for the benefit of their own families and relations. § 70. The Sciences and Arts. Invention of the Art of Printing. Gutenberg. Commerce. Hanseatic League. At last the arts and sciences revived, and the dawn of a brighter time appeared ; for civil order returned. The Greeks who, after the conquest of Constantinople, fled to Italy, carried along with them Grecian literature, and several sovereigns honored and fostered the sciences and arts. To these belonged the Emperor Maximilian, some popes, and especially the princes of Florence, from the family of the Medici. But the principal cause of that happy event was the invention of the printing press. Its inventor was John Gensfieisch, of Gutenberg, a native of Mayence. He was the first who printed with movable letters (about 1440 A. D.) Others before him had already printed with wooden plates. First he carved the letters from wood, but as these were not durable enough, he cut others from lead. Ha\dng, by these experiments, sacrificed his little fortune, he connected himself with the rich goldsmith, Faust, who advanced the necessary money. Peter Schoeffer then united with these two and invented the art of founding types and printing ink. In this way the first complete Bibles appeared (1456 A. D.) in print. The nice, and compara- tively cheap books, excited general astonishment, for they cost twenty times less than the written Bibles of the monks ; therefore these descried the new invention as a work of the devil. When Gutenberg could not pay Faust, the latter seized the types and presses. He, however, succeeded m establishing another printing What of Martin V. ? For whose benefit did the popes impose taxes upon the nations ? § 70. What causes brought about the dawn of literature and the arts ? What princes fostered them ? Who is the inventor of the printing press ? From what material did he first carve the letters ? Why did he cut others from lead ? What of Faust and Peter Schoeffer ? What books were first completely printed ? Why did the monks descry the new art as a work of the devil ? How was Gutenberg treated by Faust ? 156 press. Gutenberg himself, who had so far remained poor, was at last patronized by the prince elector of Mayence, and passed the rest of his life free from cares. The sovereigns and priests soon limited the liberty of the press by severe censorial laws. The invention of paper, made of linen (about 1300 A. D.), and 'of the printing of wooden figures (1355 A. D.) preceded and aided that of the printing press. The latter led to the invention of en- graving on copper. First the figures were cut into copper plates. Later (about 1500 A. D.) the art of etching them (by means of strong acids) was learned. Moreover, in this period the spectacles (1295 A. D.) and the telescope, the gunpowder, and the watches (about 1500 A. D.) were invented. Before this (since 1000 A. D.) only clocks of steeples and house-clocks were known. By the use of gunpowder the whole military science, principally the tactics of besieging, were changed. Bertold Schwarz, a monk, is said to have invented it (about 1300 A. D.) The Arabs and Chinese, however, already knew it before this. In later times, the lock and the cock of guns were invented (15 17 A. D.) The compass was improved (1302 A. D.) The fine arts first flourished again principally in Italy, but the practical sciences were still neglected. The minds of men were by far less applied to philosophy, for the power of the Church was opposed to it. Many universities were instituted. They were attended by thousands. The university of Pavia had sixty-seven professors. In Germany the most ancient universities were in Prague (1348 A. D.), Vienna, Heidelberg and Leipsic. The first theater was opened in France (13 13 A. D.) The eminent scholars of this period in Germany were : Ulric Hutten, Reuchlin and Erasmus of Rotterdam. They zealously pro- moted the study of the ancient classic languages and sciences. They also contended victoriously against monachism with the weap- ons of raillery ; especially so did Erasmus in his book, " Praise of Folly." In England, Roger Bacon and William Occam were the Why ? What did Gutenberg re-establish ? Who, at last, patronized him ? Who limited the liberty of the press ? What inventions preceded that of the press ? To what invention did the latter lead ? Mention other inventions of this period. What influence had the invention of gunpowder on warfare ? Who is said to hfive invented it ? What instrument was improved ? Where did the fine arts first flourish ? How many professors had the university of Pavia ? Which was the oldest university in Germany ? Where was the first theater opened ? Scholars in Germany? How did Erasmus contend against the monks? Name two English scholars. 157 most liberal thinkers of their age. The former, a Franciscan friar, became famous for his discoveries in chemistry and mechanical philosophy. Dante and Petrarca, in Italy, were the greatest poets. Dante was also a statesman and jurisprudent, an astronomer, geogra- pher and historian. He strove almost as strongly as Luther against the doctrine of the popes and monks. He was called the greatest man of his age for his celebrated poem entitled, " Divina Comedia." In it he describes the purgatory, the heaven and hell. To the latter he relegates popes and crowned sovereigns also. Petrarca was crowned poet laureate by the king of Naples. Commerce began to rise by the institution of posts, banks and bills of exchange, and by the discovery of new lands. Besides Venice, Genoa, Nuremberg and Augsberg, principally, the Hanse towns in northern Germany prospered by it. These towns had formed a large commercial company, called Hansa (Hanseatic League), in order to protect their commerce against the pillage of the Normans and the predatory knights (about 1240 A. D.) Their league comprised more than eighty cities which, from Cologne to Narva, formed a long, well-fortified series. At their head were Liibeck and Bremen. They kept large armies in pay, fitted out powerful fleets, and waged war even against kings. They not only monopolized the trade of the Baltic, but extended their influences to the shores of the Mediterranean, and competed with the Italians in the merchandise of India. EXERCISES. Biographies. Rudolph of Hapsburg : i. His good qualities (administra- tion of justice, simplicity, frugality, gratitude, faithfulness); 2. His faults. Albert I. : His dealings — I. With the forest cantons ; 2. With his ward. Give a narrative of the Burgundian wars — i. Their cause ; 2. Battles at Gran- son, Murten and Nancy. With what Austrian sovereigns did the Swiss confed- erates have conflicts ? When and where ? Write the history of England, from Edward III. to Henry VII. Show from French and German history, and from the transactions of a great synod, that in this period the power of the popes began to wane. Who were the harbingers of Martin Luther, and what was By what did Bacon become f9,mous? Italian poets? Against whom did Dante strive ? For what poem was he called the greatest man of his age ? What does he describe in the " Divina Comedia" ? Who is relegated to hell ? By whom was Petrarca crowned poet laureatus ? By what means did commerce rise? What towns prospered by it ? Give an account of the Hansa. How far did her commeixe extend ? How many cities did she comprise ? Which were at the head of the League ? What of its power ? 158 their fate ? What inventions were made in this period ? What renowned poets lived during the time embraced in it ? What memorable events happened in the years 1215, 1315, 1415 and 1515? What celebrated antagonist of popery- died 300 years after Gregory VII. ? How many years after the abolition of the Order of Templars was the first theater in France opened ? How many years elapsed between the beginning of the War of the Two Roses and the conquest of Constantinople ? What war came to an end simultaneously with the latter ? When did Switzerland, in fact, become independent of Germany ? How many years before the battle at Murten did Petrarca die ? THIRD SECTION. MODERN HISTORY, SEVENTH PERIOD. FrotT] the Discovery of America to i\\e Westphaliaq Peace. I, Voyages of Discovery, 2, Reforma- tioq of the Cl^ristian Churchi and Relig- ious Wars, Frorr] 1492 to 1648 A, D, FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOET. 1. VOYAGES OF DISOOVEET-1420 to 1530 A. D. § 71. Vaseo de Gama. Columbus. During the middle ages the articles of merchandise of southern Asia were received by way of Egypt or Syria, or they were carried from the interior of Asia to the Caspian and Black seas, and from there through Russia to the Baltic* Sea, from whence they came into the northern and western countries of Europe. These round- about ways of commerce were inconvenient and very expensive. Therefore prince Henry, son of John I., king of Portugal, caused a way by sea to be sought for, on which it should be possible to reach Hindostan by doubling the southern point of Africa. The mariners sent out for this purpose by degrees discovered (1420- 1460 A. D.) Porto Santo, Madeira, the Azores, and different coun- § 71. By what ways were the articles of merchandise of Southern Asia trans- ported during the middle ages ? What other way did Prince Henry of Portugal cause to be sought for ? Why ? What islands and countries did the mariners discover ? 159 160 tries on the western coast of Africa. John II. ordered these voy- ages to be continued. Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern point of Africa (i486 A. D.), but tempests compelled him to return. He therefore called it the Cape of Tempests. But when the king received the good tidings, he cried out : " No ! it must be called Cape of Good Hope, for now the way by sea to India is found." Vasco de Gama discovered it. He boldly doubled the cape (1497 A. D.), and, guided by Arabs who knew the route by sea, arrived happily in Hindostan, entering into the harbor of Calicut (1498 A. D.) By degrees the Portuguese, partly by treaties, partly by conquests, acquired the possession of many maritime countries of Africa and Asia, where the illustrious viceroy, Albuquerque, ex- tended their dominion from Persia as far as China, many Indian islands also being included. But Christopher Columbus, of Genoa, surpassed all mariners of his age. When a youth he assiduously studied geography, geom- etry and astronomy, and even from boyhood devoted himself to navigation. Persuaded by the possibility of reaching Eastern India by sailing westward across the Atlantic, he first applied to his native town, also to John II., for ships to attempt this passage. Rejected by both, he had recourse to Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain. Here, too, he had to wait five years, which he passed in poverty. Many to whom he disclosed his plan even thought hmi to be crazy. Finally, as he was about to go to England for aid, Queen Isabella was gained over to his purpose. By her favor he obtained three old ships, with a crew of 120 men, and was promised that in the countries he would discover he should keep the hereditary dignity of a viceroy. He set out the third day of August, 1492, from the harbor of Palos, and sailed first to the Qanary Islands, where he made provi- sions for fresh water, and from there westward into the open main. The sailors were frightened by the limitless expanse of the unknown ocean. They were still more discouraged when, after having sailed How far did Diaz go? Why not farther ? What did John II. call the south- ern point of Africa ? How far did Vasco de Gama sail ? Into what harbor did he enter ? What possessions did the Portuguese acquire ? By whose aid ? Who surpassed all mariners ? What did Columbus study in his youth ? Of what possibility was he persuaded ? To whom did he first apply for ships ? To whom afterwards ? How did he succeed in Spain ? Who was gained for his purpose ? What did he obtain, and what was he promised ? When did he set out ? Fi-om where ? Where did he first sail ? Why ? Why were the sailors frightened ? 161 for six weeks, no land yet appeared in sight. They impetuously demanded an immediate return to Spain. Columbus, however, suc- ceeded in appeasing them for a time; but at last they arose in mu- tiny; some even thought it to be the best plan to throw him straightway overboard, and then to report that he, while observing the stars, had fallen from the ship into the water and been drowned. Columbus was aware of the danger of his situation, which was the more hopeless because all the vessels were already leaky. He was, nevertheless, able to calm them once more. But soon the mutiny began again, and he saw that the moment of his destruction was imminent, when, suddenly believing that they saw land, hope took the place of despair. However, they had been mistaken. Finally, the end of the voyage approached. Numerous flocks of birds flew by the ships. Columbus followed their direction, steering southwest. The air now grew fresher, the scent of plants diffusing itself as at the return of spring; rushes, reed-stalks, branches of trees, and a board, artfully fitted, came floating towards them. On the morning of the twelfth of October, 1492, the New World lay in sight of the bold, enraptured sailors. This was the happiest day in the entire life of Columbus. It was the Island Guanahani (St. Salvador), one of the Bahama islands, on which he landed. He took possession of it instantly in the name of the king of Spain. Then he sailed to Hayti, in order to get gold, built a fort there and furnished it with a garrison. On his return to Spain, he again underwent a fearful tempest. In order to save, if possible, the information of the new discoveries, he wrote an abstract of his voyage on two scrolls of parchment, putting them into two tuns, of which one was immediately thrown into the ocean ; the other was to be let down the moment of ship- wreck. But the storm abated, and Columbus landed safely in Spain, where his journey resembled a triumphal procession. King Ferdinand received him most honorably, and confirmed all rights conferred on him. Columbus undertook three more voyages to America (1493-1502 How long had they sailed, when they wanted to return ? Continue the nar- rative of the voyage. What of the mutiny of the mariners ? What of Colum- bus ? Why were the sailors appeased ? What signs of land appeared ? What did Columbus follow in his course ? When did land appear ? What island was it where he landed ? Where did he sail to from it ? Why ? What did he build on Hayti ? Narrate his return ? What precaution did he take in the tempest ? How was he received in Spain ? What did the king confirm ? How many more voyages did Columbus undertake ? (11) 162 A. D.) during which he discovered the Caribbee Islands, Jamaica, the Little Antilles, and Central America ; the most southern point he reached was the Island of Trinidad. The garrison left in Hayti treated the defenseless inhabitants so cruelly that they, at last, assailed and killed the Spaniards. Colum- bus imposed upon the Indians a tribute in gold, in order to satisfy the avarice of his companions and the king. The wretches op- posed him in vain ; they were vanquished, and cut down by the Spanish horsemen. Columbus divided the land among the Span- iards, giving to each also some natives as slaves. Most of these, however, soon succumbed under the burden of the unusual tasks imposed upon them. These cruel deeds, though, did not afford to Columbus the ex- pected profit. He was recalled from his second voyage by the calumnies of his discontented companions, and ordered to appear at the Spanish court, where he succeeded as yet in exculpating him- self; but when the indictment was repeated, Ferdinand deposed him and dispatched Francis Bobadilla to take his place and be his judge, who, without any inquiry, caused Columbus and his brother to be fettered and conducted to Spain. Columbus, in fact, proved his innocence this time, too, but the dignity of viceroy was forever lost ; and, as his patroness, Isabella, died soon after, his merits and achievements were soon forgotten. These undeserved mortifications hastened his death (1506 A. D.) According to his last will, the chains he wore during the passage were put into his grave. Finally, his son recovered the vice-regency, not by his own right, but only because he had married the niece of a duke. Columbus himself, like his contemporaries, believed the newly discovered countries to be the sought-for India, therefore the islands near Central America are still called West Indies. Concerning the name America, the new continent received it from Americus Vespu- cius, who first described it. What countries did he discover ? Why was the garrison in Hayti killed ? What did he impose upon the Indians ? Why ? How were they treated ? How did the king deal with Columbus ? From what voyage was he recalled ? How was Jie and his brother used by Bovadilla ? What dignity did he lose ? What was his last will ? Why did his son recover the lost dignity ? Why are the islands near Central America called West Indies ? From whom did America first receive its name ? 163 ^ 72. Ferdinand Cortez. Pizarro. Magellan. First Settlements in the Territory of the United States. The Pilgrim Fathers. After the death of Columbus, the voyages of discovery in America were continued with great ardor. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien, where he was governor of a Spanish colony, and discovered the Pacific Ocean (15 13 A. D.) Ferdinand Cortez landed in Mexico (1519 A. D.), where he found people of much higher culture than he had met with before in America. But he had only 600 men and ten small cannon, besides some muskets and horsemen. The Mexicans were astonished by the sight of the white men, whom they deemed beings of a higher order, and espe- cially by the horsemen, whom they beHeved, with their horses, to ■ be composed of one body, and therefore to be a pecuHar species of creatures. Cortez entered their capital without resistance, took their cazique, Montezuma, prisoner, and destroyed their idols, to whom they sacrificed annually thousands of men as victims. But, driven by the cruelty and covetousness of the Spaniards to insurrection, they compelled them to quit the city. After having received a rein- forcement of troops, they besieged Mexico, and took it (15 21 A. D.) They disgraced their victory by revolting cruelty. They put the inhabitants to the rack in order to extort treasures from them. They inflicted this torture also upon the young emperor, and after that Cortez caused him to be hung. When he was governor in the con- quered land, he acted even more cruelly. Thus he caused sixty princes, and four hundred other distinguished men to be burned alive ; their children were obUged to be present at their death as witnesses. Cortez, " after all the services he had rendered to the king, Charles v., was, like Columbus, persecuted at home. Francis Pizarro who, from a swine-herd, had, in the name of Charles V., become the conquerer of Peru (1529 A. D.), was still more savage. As the Inca (king) was contending with a relation for the throne, he made use of the strife as a pretext in order to g 72. Who crossed the Isthmus of Darien ? Who landed in Mexico ? What military forces did he have ? What sight astonished the Mexicans ? Why ? Whom did Cortez take prisoner ? What did he destroy ? How did the Spaniards use the Mexicans ? What was the consequence ? How did they deal with the vanquished people ? Why did they put them to the rack ? What was the fate of the emperor ? How did Cortez, while governor, act toward the Spaniards ? Was Charles V. grateful to him ? What country did Pizarro conquer ? Under what pretext did he take the Inca prisoner ? 164 take him prisoner. The former promised in vain to fill up an entire room with gold for his freedom. Pizarro took the gold, and never- theless executed the Inca. When the treasures were divided, every foot-soldier received 30,000 florins, every horseman twice as much, the officers still more ; and over a million was sent to the king of Spain. Pizarro, at last, was killed by his own men. In general, the Spaniards committed in America the most atrocious cruelties. They abused even religion as a cloak for their wrong-doings. The Indians were compelled to be baptized ; he who refused was burned, without ceremony. Therefore a cazique, whom a priest tried to persuade to be baptized by promising him the para- dise, would rather be burned than to come to a place where, accord- ing to the words of the priest, Spaniards were residing. Hundreds of dead Indians were seen lying at the entrance of the mines at which they were obliged to work. Of a million inhabitants, hardly' 50,000 were left alive after fifteen years. The caziques were usually first burned, in order to warn their subjects by their fate. It was in vain that the noble-minded Las Casas declared against such pro- ceedings ; his representations were left unheard at the court ; only since then it became the usage to employ the stronger negroes, instead of the Indians, for the cultivation of the plantations. In all these horrors the Inquisitional Tribunal freely took part. The enormous quantity of the precious metals which Spain drew from her American possessions contributed to make her, for awhile, the preponderating power in Europe ; but an inordinate thirst for the gold and silver in America led the Spaniards to neglect agriculture and manufactures, and before the close of this period their best days were over. The Portuguese discovered Brazil (1500 A. D.) In this time the first sailing around the globe took place (1519- 1522 A. D.) Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, in the Spanish service, sailed with three miserable ships from Sevilla to South America, passed the winter in Patagonia, and then, through the What did the latter give him for his freedom ? Did he become free ? How much did the soldiers receive when the treasures were divided ? How much the king ? How did Pizarro perish ? In what manner were the Indians converted to Christianity ? "What answer did a cazique make to a priest who tried to convert him ? How many Indians perished in the mines ? Who was usually first burned ? Why ? By whom were they finally substituted ? What tribunal took part in the atrocities ? Was Spain much benefited by the acquisition of so many treasures ? Why not ? What country did the Portuguese discover ? Who first sailed around the globe ? Give the narrative of his voyage. Where did he pass the winter ? 165 straits bearing his name, entered the Pacific Ocean. Here they suffered an indescribable famine. They ate not only biscuit mixed with worms, but even roasted leather, saw-dust and mice, paying half a ducat apiece. Almost the whole crew fell sick ; several died. Magellan himself was killed in a fight on the Phihppines with the savages. Finally they reached the Moluccas. The Portuguese who were here trading commenced hostiUties against the navigators, the crew of one ship being compelled to surrender, the other to quickly depart. Out of more than two hundred persons only eighteen returned to Spain. About loo years after the discovery of America the settlement of the eastern coast of North America began, which formed the foundation of the United States. First the London commercial ■company sent colonists to Virginia who founded Jamestown (1607 A. D.) The colony was divided into several counties, and the people were allowed to elect two representatives from each county to a colonial assembly (1619 A. D.) In the same year the first representative assembly ever convened in America was held at Jamestown. The company further granted the Virginians a written constitution (1621 A. D.) This secured them the privilege of elect- ing their legislature, of trial by jury and other important rights, and was the foundation of civil liberty in Virginia. At this time (1620 A. D.) the first African slaves were bought by the planters. Later their numbers greatly increased. New York State was settled by the Dutch. Henry Hudson landed on Manhattan Island and discovered Hudson river (1609 A. D.) The Dutch West India Company sent out a number of families who founded New Amsterdam (now New York) (1623 A. D.), and a year later Albany (1624 A. D.) In Massachusetts a colony was founded by a small band of per- secuted religious Englishmen, known as the Pilgrim Fathers. They belonged to the sect of the Puritans, left England on account of What of the famine of the crew ? What was the effect ? Where was Magel- lan killed ? What incidents happened in the Moluccas ? How many returned ? When did the settlement of the coast of North America begin ? What company sent the first settlers ? What town did they found? What rights did the colony enjoy? When and where was the first representative assembly convened ? What rights did the company grant the organization in the written constitution ? When were the first negroes imported ? Who founded New York and Albany ? What was the former town called ? What State did the Dutch settle ? Who founded the first colony in Massachusetts ? Why did they leave England ? 166 religious persecution, and resolved to seek an asylum in the wilds of America. They took passage on a vessel named the Mayflower (1620 A. D.) There were one hundred and one persons. They made a' landing at Plymouth. On board the Mayflower the men had all agreed they would obey the laws that should be made for the common good. Their government was a pure democracy. In the cold New England winter most of them fell sick, and before spring half of the little band had perished. Some years later the Massa- chusetts Bay Company sent many more Puritan settlers (1628 A. D.) who founded Boston, Cambridge and other places. John Winthrop was their first governor. He was greatly respected, and frequently re-elected chief magistrate of the new colony. The government of this colony was under a charter or written instrument granted by Charles I., king of England. It gave the settlers certain political rights and privileges. The persecution of English CathoHcs led to the colonization of Maryland (1634 A. D.) Their leader was Lord Baltimore. Roger Williams, though himself a Puritan, desired to give an equal protection to every form of religious faith. His brethren in Massachusetts, therefore, banished him, and resolved to remove him to England. He escaped to Rhode Island, and founded Providence (1636 A. D.) "I desired," said he, "that the place might be a shelter for persons distressed for conscience sake." 2, KEPORMATION OF THE CHURCH AND EELIGIOTJS WARS. 1517-1648 A, D. I 73. Germany. Causes of the Reformation. Martin Luther. Diet of Worms. In the preceding period the condition of the Christian Church was already so wretched that the outcry for its reform universally resounded. But this was neither heeded by the popes nor by the prelates of the Church generally, and the great synods of Constance and Basle passed without any success in this direction. The lay- men themselves, therefore, were obliged to set to work to effect a reformation. How many were there ? What kind of government did they establish ? Where did they make a landing ? What fate did they suffer ? Who founded Boston and Cambridge ? Who was their first governor ? What did Charles I. grant to the colony ? By whom was Maryland colonized ? Who was the leader of the colonists ? How was Roger Williams used by his brethern ? What place did he found ? What was his intention in founding it ? § 73. What outcry concerning the Church was universal in the preceding period ? Was it heeded ? Who, thei-efore, was obliged to take the work in hand ? 167 In Germany there were some additional reasons for a reforma- tion The sovereigns of the empire were dependent upon Rome Even the emperors were oMiged to obey the popes, because they wire c owned by them. The German prelates and churches pos- retred the larger and finer part of the public property, and were ex- empt from all civil charges and duties. The corruption and tyranny o^the clergy was unbounded. The assurance of ^P^'y — «; led them to perpetrate the gravest crimes. They mdulged m the ;te!; luxury' The popes extorted from Germany tmmen. sums under the titles of dispensations, mdulgences, taxes for *e Turk'^h wars etc They reserved half of the benefices for themselves, and Te ftem to the highest bidders, who sold them again to others^ By their notorious viciousness they had already lost a 8°?^ tol of the, authority and power. Finally, the pnntmg press diffused the rays orenhgLenmen. wider and wider, and public opimon gained more "'BTti:Te~se which excited the rehgious revolution was the scandalous traffic in indulgences of Leo X. In Germany, espe- SaT this pope hoped to acquire through them the sums he needed r atisfy hfs love of splendor and of luxury. He asserted that the money paM over to him would make amends for the lack of morality, Td deUver the guilty from their civil and divine pena tie. For a trifling sum the remission of all, even the grossest sins, could be pur chased and heaven was thrown open to every crimina. Of the ;';! 'agents, the archbishops of Metz, and the domm.an, ohn Tezel, carried on this traffic the most successfully. Now cned Tezel and his fellow preachers, " now heaven is open ; »" ^^ enter who does not come in by such a cheap bargam ? What mind mu" he have who does not hurry to release his father from the Torments of purgatory? As soon as the shrove-money jmgles m the chest, the soul jumps out of purgatory.' Every inteUigent man was disgusted by this scandal, and more so than all. Dr. Martm Luther, an Augustine friar_andprofess«rf were ,h. sovereigns and even .he ^^"■''X''^^'''':' X^'jl^^lZ^^ and churches? How were the morals ot the ''<^^\J^''\'''jT''^Zt did o( the nones' How did they lose much ot their authority? What effect da thepinSVess produce? Uat was the next cause »f *= f;i;'°- ";t; ion? Whi did Leo X. assert? Who were h,s agents ? ^hat "' Teze , Whrt dM he promise to the credtdous for their money? Give some detail of the youth of Martin Luther. 168 theology at Wittenberg. He was born in Eisleben, where his father was a poor miner. He was destined by him to study jurisprudence. One day he took a walk with a friend, who was killed by lightning at his side. The youth grew melancholy, and joined the Order of the Augustine monks. Here he had to perform the lowest work, to open a,nd shut the church doors, go with the beggar-bag through the streets, etc. His melancholy increased ; nothing but music was able to divert him. Still he was studying assiduously, and was grad- uated as Doctor of Philosophy. He hked best to study the Bible. From this gloomy state of mind, which wasted his mental and phys- ical forces, the prior of the convent delivered him, by proposing to Frederic the Wise, elector-sovereign of Saxony, to appoint him pro- fessor in the university of Wittenberg. Here Luther entered into a sphere of activity which was better suited to his erudition (1508 A. D.) Soon after he became also town preacher. During a jour- ney on which he went to Rome (1510 A. D.), by order of his con- vent, he became better acquainted with the infamous life of the popes, and with the immorality of their court. After having in vain complained in a missive he had addressed to the archbishop of Metz, of the mischief of the indulgences, he affixed on the church of the castle in Wittenberg those famous ninety-five theses, by which he declared the indulgences to have been merely invented by the popes with the design to make money. These theses were translated into German, and innumerable copies spread abroad. Luther was summoned to Rome, and only with difficulty could his sovereign procure him a trial in Augsburg. Luther appeared with a safe conduct, provided by Frederic, in the presence of the papal legate (1518 A. D.) This dignitary de- manded unconditional recantation, and threatened him with the anathema. Luther quickly departed, for the legate made prepara- tions to take him prisoner. A second attempt another legate made, in order to induce him to recant, had no better success. After this, the papal bull of excommunication directed against Luther arrived from Rome (1520 A. D.), but without great effect. ^Vho was his father ? Why did he grow melancholy ? What were his chores in the convent ? What art would tend to diminish his melancholy ? What did he like best to study ? Who deliVei-ed him from the gloomy state of his mind? In what manner ? How did he become better acquainted with the life of the popes ? What writing did he publish in Wittenberg? What were the contents of the theses ? What eifect had they ? What of the trials of the papal legate ? Why did Luther quickly depart ? What bull did the pope then direct against him ? 169 In Leipsic the students nearly killed its bearer. Luther assembled the teachers of the university of Wittenberg outside of the town. The students raised a wood-pile, a teacher kindled it, and amid general exultation Luther threw the bull and the volumes of the canon law into the fire. Meanwhile the lately elected emperor, Charles V., came to Ger- many, in order to hold a diet in Worms, and Luther was summoned to be present at it (1521 A. D.) Though suffering from the effects of a fever, he resolved to set out immediately. A friend warned him against Worms, but he answered : " I shall go, even if as many devils were in town as tiles on the roofs." However, his sovereign did not consent to his journey till the emperor had promised him a safe conduct -and a secure return. Luther's journey resembled a triumphal procession. In all towns through which he passed he was met by crowds of people, who hailed him as their deUverer. A great many noblemen swore to assist him. The papal legate, on the contrary, though traveling in the train of the emperor, was only scoffed and derided ; hardly anybody would receive him. When Luther appeared in the diet, being intimidated by the aspect of the large, resplendent assembly, he asked them to grant him one day for consideration ; but on the second day he defended his doctrine with resoluteness and courage, declined absolutely to retract, as they ordered him to do, and concluded by saying: " Now, because they demand a plain, smiple answer from me, I will give one which has neither horns nor teeth. I do neither believe the pope, nor his synods, for both have often erred and contra- dicted themselves. Therefore, I cannot, and shall not recant, unless they refute me by testimonies of the holy writ, or by evident rea- sons; for it is not advisable to do anything against conscience. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise ! God help me ! If this be human work, it will fall to ruins of itself; but if it be from God, you will never destroy it!" Luther's numerous friends were delighted by this bold answer. He was proscribed ; but his sovereign Frederic had taken precaution How did Luther and the students treat it ? To what diet was he summoned ? What did the emperor promise to him ? What did his journey resemble ? What did the noblemen swear to do ? What of the papal legate ? Give an account of Luther's conduct in the diet. What did he ask on the first day ? Why ? What did he do on the next day ? Why would he not believe the popes and the synods ? Upon what condition only would he recant ? What sentence did the diet pass ? Who protected his life ? 170 to protect the reformer. On his return, accordingly, Luther was suddenly stopped in a forest by masked horsemen, and safely carried to the fortified castle Wartburg, near Eisenach. In the profound concealment in which he lived here, he composed new writings, especially the excellent translation of the New Testament. Meanwhile the ban of the empire, inflicted on him, was forgot- ten, and the work of reformation speedily advanced. Many con- vents Avere abolished, and a large part of their revenues set aside for the ministry of the gospel, for the instruction of the youth, and for institutions for the poor. The priests were permitted to marry. Mass and confession were abrogated. Luther himself laid aside the habit of his Order, and married (1525 A. D.) Catherine Bora, who had left the convent with other nuns. His faithful friend and asso- ciate in the reformatory task was the meek and learned Philip Melanchton. §74. Continued. Insurrection of the Peasants. Confes- sion of Augsburg. "War of Smaleald, Religious Peace of Augsburg. Many peasants in Southern Germany, mistaking the spirit of such reforms, believed themselves to be entitled to attain, in con- nection with religious liberty, also social equality, and demanded (not without reason, however) from the sovereigns that they take off the unfair imposts, and abolish servitude, socage, tithes, etc. But they dealt cruelly with their lords, destroyed their castles, and plun- dered churches and convents. They were vanquished and killed in bands, even bishops acting as their hangmen, when Luther uttered these severe words: "Slay the mad dogs!" They submitted again, and their doom became even sadder. Of the longest dura- tion was the sedition of the Anabaptists in Thuringia, who preached community of property. They were also beaten, and their leader, Thomas Miinzer, captured and beheaded. When some Catholic princes concluded an alliance for the protection of their creed, the Lutheran States did the same for the defense of their belief (1526 A. D.) At the diet of Speier (1529 A. D.) some restrictions on their faith were decreed, but they protested solemnly against them. In what manner ? What did he translate in his retirement ? Give some de- tail of the reformation. What of Catherine Bora ? Of Melanchton ? | 74. What social reforms did many peasants in southern Germany demand ? How did they deal with their lords ? With churches and convents ? What was their success ? What of the Anabaptists in Thuringia? 171 whence they received the name Protestants. At the diet of Augs- burg (1530 A. D.) they presented a memorial, composed by Melanchton, and containing their religious confession, therefore they were called the relations of the Augsburg confession. The Catho- lic States of the empire rejected it, and summoned the heretics (as they called them) to return into the fold of the orthodox Church. Indignantly the Protestants left the diet, whereupon their faith was declared to be heresy, and its propagation forbidden under the severest penalties. Therefore all the Protestant princes confederated at Smalcald, in order to defend their religious liberty, if necessary^ with force. Finally, Charles prepared for war against them. They also took up arms ; but the emperor, pressed by the arms of the Turks, and needing the help of the Protestants, did not execute, at this time, the resolutions of that diet. At last, after the Turks had been defeated and driven back upon their own territories, he deter- mined, in concert with the pope, to put down the Reformation by force of arms. Maurice of Saxony, though himself a Protestant, but longing for the lands of his cousin, the elector-sovereign of Saxony, deserted to the emperor, conquered Saxony, and took his cousin prisoner. The landgrave of Hessen was also made a prisoner. Maurice obtained Saxony as a reward for his treason. When his avarice was satisfied he favored the Protestants again, and asked the emperor to liberate the two princes, and, as Charles did not grant his request, he led his army against him (1552 A. D.) The latter narrowly es- caped capture. The princes became free, and at Augsburg a treaty was concluded which granted the Protestants the free practice of their reUgion (1555 A. D.), with the stipulation, however, that, if in future States and prelates should be converted to the Protest- ant Church, their prebends should be reserved to the Catholic Church. This article of ecclesiastic reservation, which the emperor had arbitrarily added, became, in later time, the cause of indescrib- able sufferings for all Germany. How did the name "Protestant" originate? What did the Protestants pre- sent at the diet of Augsburg ? What did the diet resolve concerning their faith ? Explain the origin of the confederation at Smalcald. Why did Charles not make war upon them ? When did he wage it ? Who deserted to him ? Why ? Who became his prisoners ? When did Maurice again favor the Protestants, and what did he ask of the emperor then ? How did he compel him to grant his request ? What right did the Protestants obtain by the treaty of Augsburg ? Explain the article of the ecclesiastical reservation. 172 Ferdinand I. (1553-1564 A. D.), brother of Charles, paid to the Turks an annual tribute. Maximilian II. (1564-1576 A. D.) marched with 80,000 soldiers, composed of Germans, Austrians, Italians and French, against Solimafi II., who wanted to conquer Hungary, and besieged the fortress Sigeth. Nicholas Zrini defended it, and died upon its smoking ruins, a hero like Leonidas. Both sovereigns kept their conquests. Rudolph II (1576-1612 A. D.) was often defeated by the Turks. For the sake of his astronomical reveries, he neglected the duties of government. He did not mind the religious troubles which hicreased every day, and already in several places were settled by the sword. The Protestant States, in order to aid each other, formed the Union and the Catholic concluded the League (^i6 10 A. D.); both parties levied armies; at their head were the electoral sovereigns Frederic, of Palatinate, and Maximilian, of Bavaria. ^ 75. Continued. The Thirty Years' War. Insurrection of the Bohemians. Ferdinand II. Restitution Edict. Emperor Rudolph II. had accorded the Bohemian Protest- ants a charter by which he had granted them religious liberty, and, especially, the right to build churches and school-houses. Accord- ing to this right, the Evangelical inhabitants of the Klostergrab and Braunau built churches, but by order of Emperor Matthias, who meanwhile had succeeded Rudolph, one church was demolished, the other locked up. The States- General of the country remonstrated, but without success. Therefore they called the nation to arms, expelled the Jesuits and chose Frederic, elector-palatine, as their king (16 18 A. D.) Moreover, the Bohemians even besieged the new Emperor, Ferdinand II, in Vienna. But he, unawares, received aid, formed an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, who was at the head of the Catholic League, and vanquished the Bohemians in the battle of Prague (1620 A. D.) As he was educated by cunning Jesuits, he had long ago vowed the extirpation of the Protestant faith; now the helpless country was compelled to endure his full What of Nicholas Zrini ? What did Rudolph II. neglect for astronomical fancy ? What alliances did the Protestant and Catholic States form? \ 75. How- did the Thirty years' war commence ? What did the inhabitants of Klostergrab and Braunau build ? What did the Emperor Rudolph do ? Who remonstrated ? Who called the nation to arms ? Whom did the States expel ? Whom did they choose king ? Whom did the Bohemians besiege ? Who aided Ferdinand ? Who was vanquished ? . What had Ferdinand vowed ? 173 revenge. Twenty-seven leaders of the rebellion, and an uncounted number of common citizens besides, were cruelly executed and their property confiscated, the Protestant preachers and school- teachers ill-treated and exiled, the Catholic religion, and with it the Order of the Jesuits re-established, over 30,000 familes driven into exile, and free religious exercise suspended. Ferdinand cut the charter of religious liberty in two with his own hand, and burned the seal. Frederic was proscribed, and Maximilian invested with his lands and dignity. Ferdinand's generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, vanquished all his adversaries, and now it depended upon him to terminate the pernicious war which for ten years had devastated Germany ; but he, believing that now the moment had arrived to strike the decisive blow on the Protestant Church, issued the ill-famed Edict of Restitution, and by it prolonged the terrors of war for twenty years. Appealing to the treaty of Augsburg (see § 74), he ordered the Protestants to restore all the ecclesiastic possessions they had confiscated since the conclusion of that treaty. To these belonged not less than two archbishoprics and twelve bishoprics, besides all canonicates of northern Germany, and a countless num- ber of abbeys and convents. An universal outcry of horror passed through entire Protestant Germany ; but, too weak to longer resist the implacable enemy, it could only be saved by foreign succor ; this was unexpectedly brought by Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. § 76. Continued. Gustavus Adolphus. Battles at Leipsie and JLutzen. Gustavus Adolphus, induced by the most important reasons, turned his arms against Ferdinand. He saw his country and his faith, to which he Avas devoted with enthusiasm, threatened by the conquests the emperor had already made and was still making. He felt himself also competent to undertake the great enterprise. He was the first general of his age, and his troops were the best. He maintained strict discipline, and punished every excess in camp. At the morning and evening prayers every regiment was to form a What revenge did he take on the Bohemians ? How many were executed ? How many exiled ? What of the property of the executed ? Of religious liberty ? What Order and what religion were re-established ? What of Frederic ? Who were Ferdinand's generals? What of them ? What edict did he issue ? For how many years was the war prolonged by it ? What should the Protestants restore ? By whom was Protestant Germany saved ? § 76. Why did Gustavus wage war against Ferdinand ? What of his generalship and troops ? What of their discipline ? 174 circle around its preacher, and to perform its acts of devotion in open air. He shared every fatigue with the soldiers, and was per- sonally valiant. Such a leader was followed by the army into all dangers. Gustavus Adolphus landed with only 15,000 men, but they were chosen warriors, and the emperor himself soon augmented their number by dismissing 18,000 men from his army, most of whom enlisted with the king. At the same time Ferdinand discharged Wallenstein, his ablest general, at the request of the commander's personal enemies. The king chased the imperials from Pomerania and Mecklenburg, gave the latter country back to its princes, and allied with them. He also invited the electoral prince of Saxony to take part in the treaty, but the latter, through fear, hesitated to make up his mind. Meanwhile, General Tilly took Magdeburg by assault, and perpetrated an awful massacre among the inhabi- tants (1631 A. D.); 30,000 of them lost their lives. Neither age nor sex was spared ; infants were thrown into the flames, and babes speared on the bosoms of their mothers. The entire city was destroyed by fire. The electoral princes and the rest of the Protestant States did not hesitate any longer to participate in the league with Adolphus. The allies immediately tried their strength against the redoubtable Tilly, on the large plain, near Leipsic (1631 A. D.) This general charged the Saxons impetuously, and put them to flight ; only a division of Swedes, which the king had added to them, stood firmly. Meanwhile, Gustavus himself repelled the wild attacks of the im- perialists with his Swedes. Seven times Pappenheim attacked him, . and each time was compelled to give way. Finally, the king mounted the hill, on which the hostile artillery stood, took it, and directed it against the foe himself; thus Tilly's defeat was accom- plished. He took to flight ; his army was annihilated. Ferdinand thereafter did not despise the " snow king,'' as he ironically called Gustavus. With how many men did he land ? How did the emperor augment the Swedish army ? What general did he discharge ? Why ? From what countries did the king chase the imperials ? Who would not ally with him ? Why not ? What calamity was the consequence of the hesitation of the electoral prince? Give a description of the calamity. What effect did it exert on the Protestant States ? Where was a decisive battle fought ? Give an account of it. By what maneuver did Gustavus accomplish the defeat of Tilly ? What did Ferdinand ironically call Gustavus ? 175 The king rapidly continued his victorious course, passed through all Germany, defeated the imperial troops everywhere, forced the crossing over the Leek, where Tilly fell on the field of battle, and celebrated his entrance into Munich. In the meantime, the Saxons had conquered Bohemia. Ferdinand had now no army, nor a general. In his difficulty he applied entreatingly to Wallenstein, the offended subject, who indeed created for him a new army of 40,000 men in three months, but he consented to take its command only on the condition of dictatory power. At Lutzen, in the environs of Leipsic, Gustavus Adolphus attacked him. The Swedes rush on the imperial troops with the watchword, " God is with us," and soon beat the wing against which the king himself is fighting. The other wing wavers. The king hastens to its aid. Being near-sighted, he is carried too near the foe ; an imperial sergeant perceives him, and calls to a musketeer : " Discharge on him; he must be a distinguished man." That moment the ball shatters the left arm of the king. He orders his companion to lead him out of the crowd, and on the way receives a second shot through the back. " I have enough, brother," says he to him, "save only yourself," drops from the- horse and dies. The news of the king's death inflames his troops to new rage, instead of dispiriting them; the duke Bernard of Weimar leads on with the king's spirit. They twice cross again the hostile ditches ; whole regiments are cut down on the place where they stand fighting; Wallenstein's left wing is entirely routed ; the imperial powder- wagons take fire ; Count Pap- penheim, Wallenstein's bravest general, is killed. At last night puts an end to the combat, Wallenstein begins his retreat, and the Swedes are in triumphant possession of the battle-ground. More than 9,000 dead of both armies covered it. Gustavus' corpse, cov- eted with blood and wounds, robbed of the clothes and adornment, was drawn forth from under a heap of slain. The gray landmark where it was found is since that time called the " Swedes'-stone." What success had the latter ? What country did the Saxons conquer ? Who collected a new army for Ferdinand ? On what condition did Wallenstein take its command ? Where did Gustavus give him battle ? Give a description of the battle. What wing was beaten ? What misfortune befell the king? What effect did his death cause among his troops ? What of Bernard of Weimar ? Of Count Pappenheim ? Who kept the battle-ground ? Where was the corpse of Gustavus found ? 176 § 77. Concluded. Battle at Nordlingen. Bernard of Weimar. Torstensohn, "Westphalian Peace. After the death of Gustavus, his great chancellor, Axel Oxen- stierna, managed the affairs of the Protestants in the councils, and Bernard of Weimar in the army. Wallenstein remained almost inactive; as he entered into secret negotiations with Saxony, his enemies accused him of treason, and the emperor secretly pro- scribed him. Then he engaged also with the Swedes, and to this end he went to Eger; but here he was killed (1634 A. D.) Ferdi- nand gave to his murderers a rich reward. The Protestants sus- tained another calamity by the battle at Nordlingen, where they lost 12,000 men (1634 A. D.) The Swedes were dispossessed of many conquests ; Saxony and other German States made a shame- ful separate peace with the emperor, according to which the Swedes should receive some millions of dollars, and then be expelled from Germany. In this distress, France, Austria's relentless enemy, afforded help to the Protestants. According to the advice of her great minister, Richeheu, she declared war on Ferdinand, paying to Bernard's troops their wages, who gained several victories. After his death, French generals commanded his army. The Swedes themselves contiruued to fight bravely; led by the great generals, Banner, Horn, Torsten- sohn, Wrangel, all pupils of Gustavus Adolphus, they soon obtained the superiority again, and maintained it almost continually till the end of the war. In the meantime Ferdinand II. had died, and his son, Ferdi- nand III., finally consented that a general peace congress of the belligerent States ought to be convened (1640 A. D.) But he was not in earnest in desiring peace ; he wanted only to get a respite, in order to recover the sunken vigor of his house. The Protestants, therefore, continued the war with energy, and Torstensohn van- quished the emperor in the same field at Leipsic where, ten years previous, Gustavus Adolphus was victorious. But, as the French were defeated, and Denmark declared war on the Swedes, Ferdi- nand once more suspended further action on the already com- § 77. What of Oxenstierna? Of Wallenstein and his death ? By whom was he proscribed ? Why ? What of the battle at Nordlingen ? What was the loss of the Protestants ? W^ho made a separate peace ? Who afforded help to the Protestants ? What of the Swedish generals ? What did Ferdinand III. consent to do ? Was he in earnest ? Where did Torstensohn vanquish him ? ■ 177 menced treaty of peace. Still Torstensohn invaded Denmark in the midst of winter, and compelled it to lay,down its arms. Then he hastened back to Germany again and drove the imperials on, gained a splendid victory over Ferdinand's last army at Jankowitz^ not far from Tabor, and invaded his hereditary States, which thus far had been exempt from the desolations of the war. Ferdinand had to take to flight. Now he opened the congress in reahty ; but as soon as the French and Swedes, trusting to his honesty of pur- pose, had retired, the negotiations ceased again. The provoked French returned and overran Bavaria; the Swedes besieged Prague and conquered a part of the city. Then peace was finally con- cluded in Miinster and Osnabriick (1648 A.D.), according to the terms of which the three principal religious parties — Catholics, Lutherans and Reformers — ought to enjoy equal rights, the Protestants to recover the ecclesiastic property they had possessed before the year 1624, Sweden to obtain the province of Pomerania, and France that of Alsace. The first effects of this lengthy war were dreadful. Germany lost many milhons of inhabitants by it ; whole countries were utterly desolated, many towns ruined, and civilization for a long time retarded. The menacing preponderance of the Spanish-Austrian dynasty, however, was destroyed by it, the power of the papacy broken, and the tyranny of the Church annihilated. Free investi- gation, especially in religious matters, was secured, a path opened to the sciences, and the road to civil liberty prepared. g 78. Switzerland. Zwingli. Calvin. Unitarians. Contemporaneous with Luther, Ulricus Zwingli rose as a re- former in Switzerland. He was a parson in the village of Einsiedeln, which was frequently visited by large crowds of pilgrims, who wor- shiped the image of the Virgin Mary there. In his sermons he boldly censured the abuses of the Christian Church, especially the What country did the former invade in winter ? How did he succeed at Jankowitz? "What States did he then invade? What of Ferdinand and the congress ? What was the last exploit of the Swedes ? Where was peace con- cluded? Mention its principal articles. What provinces should Sweden and France obtain ? Give an account of the first effects of the war. What advan- tages did it afford ? With regard to Spain and Austria; to the papacy; to the Church; (o free investigation; to sciences and civil liberty? \ 78. What other reformer was a contempoi'ary of Luther ? What office did he perform in Ein- siedeln ? What abuses did he censure ? (12) 178 nuisance of the indulgences, the worship of reHcs, and the pil- grimages. He also called upon the bishop of Constance to abolish these abuses, but without success. Finally, he was called by the government of the canton of Ziirich to that city (1518 A. D.), and here his higher efficiency commenced. At that time the seller of indulgences, Bertihardiii Samson, came to Switzerland and gathered a large amount of money. Zwingli effected the prohibition of this traffic in Ziirich. In spite of the invectives of his adversaries, especially among the friars, he con- tinued to censure the prevailing abuses of the Church, and defended his doctrine in two public disputations with such good success that the government encouraged him to continue preaching the gospel. The reformation gradually went on. The images were removed from the churches, processions and pilgrimages abrogated, the con- vents abolished, matrimony allowed to the priests (Zwingli married Arma Reinhard'), the mass discarded, and a simple celebration of the Lord's Supper instituted, at which, according to Zwingli's doc- trine, bread and wine were distributed only as typical of the body and blood of Jesus. In other cantons similar reforms were accomplished. In Geneva they were effected by the urgency of y^o/m Calvin. He was very active and zealous in the discharge of his official duties, but he was also obstinate and sullen, sometimes even cruel. He caused the learned Michael Servetus, when traveling through the territory of Geneva, to be taken prisoner, because in a Latin book he had ex- pressed more liberal views on the Trinity than others. Calvin de- nounced him as a heretical teacher who deserved capital punish- ment, and Servetus was burned. He also taught that God had pre- destined some men, without their merit, to eternal bHss, and innum- erable others, even children, without their guilt, to everlasting dam- nation. In Switzerland the reformation was also resisted, principally in the interior cantons. They marched their troops into the field; the reformed cantons were disunited ; Berne hesitated ; Ziirich alone opposed the Catholics, at Cappel, with a small corps, which com- Upon whom did he also call for their abolishment ? Where was he called to ? What of Bernhardin Samson ? Where was his traffic prohibited ? What abuses were reformed ? What of Anna Reinhard ? Of the Lord's Supper ? Who was the reformer in Geneva ? What was his character ? How did he proceed against Michael Servetus ? What did he teach concerning predestination ? What cantons resisted the reformation ? 179 menced the attack (1531 A. D.) Later, the main corps arrived; the troops were tired, but ZwingH, who accompanied them as chap- lain, admonished them to fight, crying : " I, at least, will join these honest men, and die with them, or help to save them ! " They obeyed his advice, but were beaten. Zwingli, who was one of the last on the battle-field, was first hit with a stone, then wounded with a spear. As he refiised to invoke the saints, he was killed, and his corpse quartered and burned. The reformers had to submit to a disadvantageous peace, and in many places the Catholic ritual was re-established. In the southern part of Switzerland, Socinus, a pious priest, had uttered the belief that there is only one God, and that Jesus is not his equal in essence, but that his nature was human. He gained ■many adherents, who called themselves Socinians or Unitarians. They were cruelly persecuted by their Catholic governors, and finally expelled. The papal legate even ordered'their children to be taken from them ; but in this he was opposed by the govern- ment. In the middle of the winter, deprived of all their property, they, with their wives and children, were forced to pass over the Alps, which were covered with ice and snow. They wandered to Zurich and implored the inhabitants, who had already been con- verted to the Reformed religion, to aftbrd them a quiet home ; but even here they were turned away, being considered atheists. They finally found an asylum in the forests of Poland, and in North America. \ 79. Spain. Charles I. Philip II. Secession of the Netherlands. William of Orange. Charles I. (V.), as king of Spain, waged several wars against Francis L, king of France (see § 80). He also undertook two cam- paigns against Tunis, and chastised Schereddin Barbarossa for the piracies he committed on Spain, delivered 10,000 Christian captives and rendered the piratical State tributary to his government. Weary Give the narrative of the conflict at Cappel. In what character did Zwingli accompany the troops of Ziirich ? What was his fate ? Why was he Icilled ? What did Socinus teach ? What were his adherents called i How were they treated by the Catholic governor and the papal legate ? Narrate their migration. How were they received in Ziirich ? Why? Where did they find an asylum ? \ 79. Against whom did Charles I. of Spain undertake wars ? Why against Tunis ? How many Christian slaves did he deliver ? Where did he withdraw to ? 180 of life, he retired to the monastery of St. Juste, in Spain, where he died, dissatisfied with himself and the world (1558 A. D.) In the Netherlands, which country at that time belonged to Spain, he persecuted the Protestants. During his reign at least 50,000 were killed. His son, Philip II., established the Inquisition, and thereby caused revolts; the States- General protested, and 40a noblemen concluded a league for the purpose of defending their constitutional rights, and of opposing the Inquisitional tribunal (1565 A. D.) They presented to the duchess Margaret, Philip's sister, who governed the Netherlands in his name, a petition of the nation, in which they demanded the abro- gation of the religious edicts, and the assembling of the States- General. As Margaret turned pale at the sight of their number, a counselor whispered to her not to be afraid of a crowd of beggars • (gueux). The confederates chose this nickname as their party- name, and called'themselves Gueuses. When Philip was informed of the revolt, he ordered Margaret to employ the force of arms, declar- ing that he would rather not govern at all than to rule heretics. She conquered the malcontents after a short resistance, and behaved cruelly towards them ; by her orders the Protestant churches were destroyed, gibbets erected from their rafters, and hundreds sus- pended on them in every town. Now Duke Alva, the royal hangman, arrived at the head of a well- organized army, and took Margaret's place. He had received unlimited power from the king. He took the chiefs of the nobility, the earls Egmont and Horn, prisoners, and executed them. An uncounted number of other victims followed them ; even the sick were dragged from the hospitals to the gallows. In Harlem the heroic citizens, two-by-two, were thrown into the sea. He boasted, during the six years of his administration, of having executed 18,000 inhabitants with the executioner's axe, on funeral-piles, etc. The goods of the killed and proscribed were confiscated ; they yielded Where did he persecute the Protestants ? How many were killed ? What did Philip II. establish ? Who protested against the Inquisition ? What did they demand from Margaret ? What party-name did they assume ? By what incident was the name " Gueux " applied to them ? What did Philip order Margaret to employ ? What did he declare ? How did she deal with the sub- dued Protestants ? By whom was she succeeded? What was Alva's power? What chiefs did he take prisoners ? What was their doom ? How many followed them ? What of the sick ? Of the citizens of Harlem ? How many did he boast of having executed ? What of their goods ? 181 to the king annually at least twelve million dollars profit. After all^ a heavy tax overturned Alva's terrorism. Besides the hundredth part of the whole property, he commanded the inhabitants to pay the twentieth part of their immovable, and the tenth part of their movable goods, as often as they were sold. The nation rose, and declared William of Orange stadt-holder. Though the southern provinces, in which the Catholic creed prevailed, withdrew from the northern, William united the latter into a confederation, which declared itself independent from Spain, and elected WiUiam as its chief (1581 A. D.) Soon after the prince was shot at by an assassin, who desired to earn the price Philip had promised to pay for William's head. WiUiam had sacrificed his considerable wealth for the happiness of his country, and died in noble poverty. But his son Maurice succeeded him as stadt-holder ; both he and his brother Henry resisted the king bravely, and at last Spain was com- pelled to acknowledge the independence of the Netherlands, by the Westphalian peace (1648 A. D.) To this happy issue of the combat much was contributed by the high-minded Olden Barneveld, who led the repubhc in. the council, and by Tromp, the naval hero. Philip II. also conquered Portugal, deprived it of its privileges, and exhausted it by his extortions. During his reign he lost most of his foreign possessions by the EngHsh and Dutch. Spain, too, through him, lost the rest of its liberty. His furious fanaticism kept up the religious war in France, incited him to war with England, and caused a bloody insurrection of the Moors in Spain, and a war with the Turks (1571 A. D.), who supported the Moors, but were completely defeated by Don Juan at Lepanto. At last the tyrant died from a hideous sickness, called the " lousy " disease. He left to the State an enormous burden of debts. Under Philip IV. Por- tugal became independent from Spain (1640 A. D.) \ 80. France. Wars of Francis I. and Charles I. War Against the Huguenots. St. Bartholomew. Henry IV. Edict of Nantes. When the imperial throne of Germany became vacant by the How much was the annual profit of the king ? What taxes did he charge on movable and immovable goods? What was the effect of this tyranny? Who was the leader of the insurrection ? What was he declared? How did he die ? What had he sacrificed ? What of his sons Maurice and Henry ? Of Olden Barneveld and Tromp ? When was Spain compelled to acknowledge the inde- pendence of the Netherlands ? What of Portugal ? By whom did Philip II. lose his foreign possessions ? What of his fanaticism ? How did he go to de- struction? What of Portugal under Philip IV.? 182 death of Maximilian, Francis /., of France, and Charles I. (V.),. were competitors for the crown ; and on the success of the latter, the mutual claims of the two princes on each other's dominions,, especially in Italy and the Low Countries, soon made them declared enemies. Francis waged four wars against Charles V. In the first war the duke of Bourbon, his best general, who had received repeated affronts from the king, hi§ master, deserted to Charles, and was by him invested with the. chief command of his forces. Francis was defeated by him in the battle of Pavia and taken prisoner, and his army almost totally destroyed. The duke gave all Italy up to pillage. To obtain the greater plunder, he marched upon Rome ; the city was attacked and carried by storm. Although Bourbon fell in the assault, the pillage was universal, neither convents nor churches being spared. From seven to eight thousand Romans were massacred the first day, and the most barbarous ravages of the Goths and Huns did not surpass those of the army of the first prince in Christendom. In the second war, the admiral of Francis, Andrew Doria, deserted to the emperor, delivered his native town,. Genoa, from French dominion, and gave it a republican constitu- tion. Francis lost his possessions in Italy. Aside from this his conflicts with the Hugueiiots took up much of his time. They were followers of the Reformed Church, in Switzerland, and their name was probably derived from the word " Eidgenossen " (confederates), as the Swiss, among whom the Re- formed Church had the most members, were usually called so. In France their number was very considerable, even among the nobil- ity, and at the royal court many of them were found. But Francis persecuted them cruelly ; he even, during a solemn procession, caused several of them to be burned. Under his son, Henry II., executions by fire frequently occurred. Under the sons of the latter these persecutions turned into open warfare. The Reformers, indeed, had bad success in several cam- paigns; their religious liberty, however, was always increasing, and § 80. "\Miat caused the enmity between Francis I. and Charles I. ? How many wars did Francis I. wage against Charles ? What of the duke of Bourbon ? Where did he defeat and capture Francis ? What city did he carry by storm ? What misery was inflicted upon it ? How many inhabitants were killed ? Who deserted in the second war ? What constitution did Doria give to Genoa ? W^hat did Francis lose ? What is the origin of the name " Huguenots ? " How were the Huguenots treated by Francis? By Henry II.? Into what did the persecution turn under his sons ? What of the religious liberty of the Huguenots ?' 183 finally peace was made. Even a marriage was to be consummated between prince Henry of Navarre^ who confessed the Reformed creed, and the sister of king Charles IX. But, probably, thereby the vigilance of the Reformers was only to be lulled to rest. The noblest of them were allured to Paris and lodged in the neighbor- hood of admiral Coligfiy^ the venerable leader of the Reformers, The nuptials were celebrated on the ill-famed night of Bartholomew (Aug. 24, 1572 A. D.) At a signal given by the king, all Hugue- nots in Paris were murdered. The royal guard, the city militia, and many inhabitants vied with each other in fury and cruelty. The Catholics wore white crosses as badges on their hats, the windows of their dwellings were illuminated. In the royal castle the blood was drizzling in all corners. The murderers penetrated to the very bed-chambers of the new-married queen ; she fled to her sister, and saw at the door a nobleman stabbed close to her. Charles him- self fired at the fugitives. The next day he walked with his court- iers through the streets, looking at the decomposing corpses, and as they turned away disgusted from Coligny's corpse, he jokingly said : "A dead enemy always smells nicely." His mother, with her court-ladies, also passed through the streets, and rejoiced at the hideous sight. The slaughter in Paris lasted one week; 5,000 persons lost their lives. Charles also sent his orders for slaughter to the provinces ; only a few governors refused to execute them. In all, at least 40,000 Huguenots were killed. Henry of Navarre was compelled to forswear his creed ; as he hesitated to do so, Charles threatened to kill him ; after this he turned Catholic. The pope celebrated the news of the Saint Bartholomew massacre like a holy- day, and had a medal stamped to commemorate it. But the Reformers, nevertheless, remained unsubdued. They were for eight months besieged in Rochelle, where they defended themselves courageously, and by a new treaty of peace compelled their former rights to be confirmed. Charles, tormented by What marriage was to be consummated ? Who was allured to Paris ? In whose neighborhood were the Huguenots lodged ? In what night were the nuptials celebrated ? Give the narrative of the events of that night. What were the badges of the Catholics ? What happened in the royal castle ? What of the king ? What did he say when he saw the corpse of Coligny ? What of his mother ? How long did the slaughter in Paris continue ? What of the gov- ernors in the provinces ? How many Huguenots, in all, were killed ? What was Henry of Navarre compelled to forswear? What of the pope? Were the Huguenots subdued ? Where were they besieged ? .184 terrible remorses, died (1574 A. D.) His brother Henry III., a faint-hearted debauchee, again began war. Henry of Navarre, recanting his apostacy, became chief of the Huguenots. The king, pressed hard by their arms, granted them almost equal rights with the Catholics. After his murder (1589 A. D.) Henry was pro- claimed king in the camp of the Huguenots; he totally defeated his adversaries at Ivry (1590 A. D.), but comprehending that a Huguenot never could become king of a Catholic country, he for- swore his faith once more, and went again to mass. Owing to this change of creed, he was generally acknowledged king (1594 A. D.) With him the house of Bourbon commenced to reign. Henry, assisted by his excellent minister and friend, Sully, re- stored the prosperity of France. Sully not only discharged its debts, but collected also a great treasure. The charges of the peo- ple were considerably diminished. Most of all, he took care of agriculture, the source of national wealth. The Seine and Loire were connected by a canal. Henry, by the edict of Nantes, secured to the Huguenots the free exercise of their religion, and an equal claim with the Catholics to all offices and dignities (1598 A. D.) The stabs of a knife in the hands of the fanatic Francis Ravaillac put an end to his life (16 10 A. D.) He was the best and most be- loved king of France. Louis XIII., by the advice of his minister, Richelieu, seized from the Huguenots all their places of security. Rochelle was obstinately defended. Fifteen thousand men perished by hunger. The fortress was demolished. He, however, granted to the subdued the free exercise of their religion. Sully left, mourning the corruption of his court. § 81. England and Scotland. Henry VIII. Elizabeth. Mary Stuart. Charles I. Henry VIII. (i 509-1 547 A. D.) founded the English or Epis- copal Church, the tenets of which are between the Catholic and the Protestant. For divorcing his first wife, and marrying Anne Boleyn, What of Henry III. ? Who became chief of the Huguenots ? What of him, when the king was murdered ? What of his adversaries ? On what condition was he generally acknowledged king? What house commenced to reign with him ? \'VTiat of Sully and his actions ? What did Henry secure to the Huguenots ? How did he lose his life ? What of Louis XIII. and the Hugue- nots? What of Rochelle ? What did he grant to them ? §81. What Church did Henry VIII. found ? Why was he excommunicated ? 185 he was excommunicated, a measure which induced him to break off all allegiance to Rome, and to declare himself supreme head of the English Church. He carried his reforms into execution by capital punishment, which he inflicted, without discriminating between any creed, on Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists. He put even women and maidens to the flames, e. g., Anna Askue, a lady distinguished for youth and beauty, who had slightly doubted the real presence of Jesus in the Holy Supper. With the same tyranny he dealt with his wives. Three years after having married Anne Boleyn he brought her from the throne to the scafibld, and married Jane Sey- mour, and after her death, Anne of Cleves, from whom he soon procured a divorce, taking Catharine Howard for his wife ; but on a charge of dissolute conduct she was also brought to the scaffold. His last wife was Catharine Parr, and even she came near being brought to the block on a charge of heresy, when he died (1547 A. D.) His minister, Cromwell, on whose recommendation he had married Anne of Cleves, was, as the king began to dislike her, un- justly condemned and executed on a charge of treason. The cele- brated Wolsey was also accused of treason, and stripped of all his possessions. He died of a broken heart (1530 A. D.) The vir- tuous chanceUor Thomas Morus also had to perish on the scaffold, because he declared Henry's first-born daughter to be entitled to the inheritance of the crown. The cowardly parHament acted according to the pleasure of the despot, declared his marriages vaUd or invalid, his daughters legiti- mate or bastards, as he demanded it ; and even resolved that he was permitted to make any law without their agreement. Accord- ing to his last will, his son Edward was to be first heir to the throne, after him Mary, and then Elizabeth. After him Edward VI. governed, under guardianship. The duke of Northumberland was successful in persuading him to nomi- nate as his successor his daughter-in-law, Jane Grey, excluding thereby the legitimate heiress, Mary. Jane was queen only ten Why did he declare himself supreme head of the English Church? How did he carry his reforms into execution ? Give an example of his cruelty. How did he deal with his wives ? With Anne Boleyn ? With Anne of Cleves ? With Catharine Howard? With Cromwell? With Wolsey? With Thomas Morus ? How did the parliament act ? What was his last will with regard to the succession ? Whom did Edward VI. nominate as his successor ? By whom was he persuaded to do so ? What of Jane Grey, her husband, and her father- in-law? 186 days. Her father-in-law, and herself with her husband, died on the scaffold (1553 A. D.) Mary, Henry's daughter from his first wife, then became queen (1553-1558 A. D.) Being a Catholic, and governed by her husband, Philip I., king of Spain, she re- established the mass, and subdued England to the pope. During three years 270 Protestants died in the flames. She was called "bloody" Mary. Queen Elizabeth (1558- 1603 A.D.), restored the Episcopal Church. Philip wooed her, and meeting with a refusal, became her implac- able enemy. He armed, against her and the Netherlands, the " Invincible Armada," as he called the fleet. It numbered 160 sails, and carried 2,630 cannons and 30,000 of the bravest Spanish troops on board. Thirty thousand others were to invade England from the Netherlands ; Elizabeth and her Church were to be anni- hilated in one campaign. The pope had blessed the expedition, and offered the sovereignty of England as the conqueror's prize. Elizabeth was not discouraged ; she visited the seaports in person, superintended the preparations for defense, and on horseback ad- dressed the troops. Lord Howard, of Effingham, was appointed admiral of the fleet. Drake, Hawkins and Frobisher, the most renowned seamen in Europe, served under him, while an army of 45,000 men was organized for the defense of the coast and. the cap- ital. One-half of the large, unwieldy Spanish ships were destroyed by storms; the other by the English and Dutch (1589 A. D.) The defeat of the "Armada " was regarded as the triumph of the Prot- estant cause; it raised the courage of the Netherlands and the Huguenots in France, and destroyed the decisive influence Spain had long maintained in the affairs of Europe. The English con- tinued the naval v/ar, and captured the rich cargoes of many Span- ish ships. At this time England held the balance of power in Christen- dom. No monarch of England ever surpassed Elizabeth in firm- Who succeeded her? Who was Mary's husband? What did she re-es- tablish ? How many Protestants were burned in three years ? What was she called ? What Church did Elizabeth restore ? Why did Philip II. become her implacable enemy ? WHiat fleet did he arm against her ? Give an account of the " Armada." How did Elizabeth act in this situation ? Who was admiral of the fleet ? What seamen served under him ? Who was to defend the coast and London? How was the "Armada" destroyed? What happy results did its destruction cause for the Protestants and Huguenots, and what harm to Spain ? What of Elizabeth's government, compared with that of other sovereigns ? 187 ness and address, and none ever conducted the government with more uniform success. She provided for the welfare of England ; yet her pohtical maxims were arbitrary in the extreme, and she had Httle regard for the liberties of her people, or the privileges of par- liament. It was not allowable for two or three persons to read the Bible together, or to converse in company on rehgion. ' But the darkest stain of her history, was the unjust execution of Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland. Educated in France, m the CathoUc faith, Mary was regarded by the Cathohc States of Europe as the rightful claimant of the Enghsh throne, bemg a grandniece of Henry VIII. ; she assumed, therefore, the arms and tide of Queen of England. When she returned to Scodand her husband was murdered, and some months later she married the Earl of Bothwell, the principal author of the crime. The Protestant Scots, already hating her on account of her religion, took her prisoner, and forced her to dismiss Bothwell, and to resign the crown to her infant son, James VI. She fled into England, and threw herself upon the protection of EHzabeth, her deadly enemy. But Eliza- beth afraid of her claims for the Enghsh throne, retained the un- happy Mary a prisoner, let her languish nineteen years m captivity, prevented her reconciliation with the Scots, and treated every attempt of the prisoner to escape from her fetters as a crime. When the fanatic Babington finally attempted to deliver Mary by kiUing her rival, the parliament passed an act authorizing her trial. She was accused by her enemies of having been cognizant of the crime, and, without being convicted, she was hastily beheaded (1C87 A D.) Elizabeth was compelled, accor dm g to the demand of the nation, to declare James VI., son of Mary, her successor He succeeded with the tide of James I. England and Scodand were thus united under one sovereign, and henceforth the two co-untries received the common designation of "Great Britam." ~ But what of her political m^^d^i^^T^What of re^dh^^^hT^le, and of conversing on religion ? What is the darkest stain of her history ? How did the Catholic States regard the claim of Mary to the Enghsh throne? Why ? What did she assume? What of her husband in Scotland? Whom did she marry after his death ? What did the Scots force her to do ? Whose protection did she ask for ? How did Elizabeth deal with her ? How long was Mary her prisoner^ What did Elizabeth prevent? How did she treat every attempt of the prisoner to escape? What act did the parliament pass when Babington attempted to deliver Mary? Of what did her enemies accuse her? Was she convicted > What washer fate? Whom did Elizabeth declare her successor? Under what king were England and Scotland united ? Under what common des- ignation ? 188 During the government of Elizabeth Francis Drake sailed around the earth (15 77-1580 A. D.) Since Magellan, nobody had ventured on such an enterprise. Charles I., the son of James, immediately after his accession, •came into conflict with the parliament, which he suddenly dissolved because it refused to vote the supplies demanded by him. He then convoked a second, third and fourth parliament, and also dissolved each one of them for the same reason. Meanwhile, in various illegal ways, he levied money without the consent of parliament. His chief political counselor was the earl of Strafford, the most formidable enemy of the liberties of the people, and his adviser in ecclesiastical affairs was archbishop Laud. His attempt to introduce the Episcopal form of worship into Scotland (1637 A. D.) drove the Scotch to open rebellion, and they immediately covenanted to •defend the religion, the laws and the liberties of their country. After eleven years (1640 A. D.) he again convoked a parliament, but the House of Commons, instead of listening to his demands for supplies, began with presenting to him the public grievances, under three heads, viz., of privileges of which parliament had been de- prived, of illegal taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. Not long afterwards Strafford and Laud were sent to the Tower on several charges. The former was brought to trial on a charge of treason, and was condemned and beheaded. Five years later Laud suffered the same fate. The difficulties between the king and parliament at length reached such a climax that he left London (1642 A. D.), resolving to stake his claims on the hazards of war. The adherents of parlia- ment were not unprepared for the contest. On the king's side were ranged most of the nobility, called " cavaliers ;" on that of parliament, Puritans (Presbyterians and Independents), and other Dissenters, called "roundheads," from their practice of cropping the hair. Chief commanders of the parliamentary army were the earl of Essex, Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, head of the Independents. The war was carried on for several years with varied success, but Who, under the government of Elizabeth, sailed around the earth ? How many parliaments did Charles I. dissolve? Why? Who were his two coun- selors ? Why did the Scots rebel ? What did they covenant ? What three grievances did the new parliament present to the king ? What of Strafford and Laud ? What did the king at length hazard ? Who was on the king's side ? Who on that of parliament ? Who were the chief commanders of the parliamentary army ? 189 finally the battle of Naseby, northeast of London, gained by the parliamentary forces, decided the contest. Charles threw himself into the hands of his Scotch subjects ; but the latter treated him as a prisoner, and delivered him up to the commissioners of parliament. Under the influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons instituted a high court of justice to try the king for treason, which, on the charge of having levied war against the parhament, condemned him to death (1649 A. D). The principal cause of his downfall was the duplicity and insincerity with which he acted in his public character. Such was his want of fidelity in his engagements that parliament could never confide in his promises. The Scots took no part in the trial of the king, and after his death proclaimed his son, Charles II., their sovereign • but the royal army was entirely defeated in the desperate battle of Worcester (1651 A. D.); Charles escaped with difficulty. Under the controlling influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons abohshed the monarchy and the House of Lords, established a repubHcan govern- ment called the Commotiwealth of England, and bestowed the title and office of Protector on Cromwell (1653 A. D.) I 82. Northern Realms. S^^reden. Gustavus Vasa. Prussia. Charles I., king of Denmark, and brother-in-law of Charles V., according to the union of Calmar (see § 58), reclaimed the govern- ment of Sweden which his father had lost. But the country hated him on account of his cruelty. Favored by the anathema of the pope, he subdued it by force of arms (1520 A. D.), and, during the festivities of the coronation, caused six hundred of the grandees to be seized and executed. Gustavus Vasa, whose father and brother- in-law lost their Hves in this slaughter, escaped from the prison in Denmark, to which the tyrant had dragged him and other hostages. He went into the service of the drovers, came with them to Liibeck, and from there to Sweden. Here he passed the nights In what battle was the contest decided ? Where did the king seek refuge ? What did the Scotch do ? What did the House of Commons institute ? What was the verdict of the court ? What was the principal cause of the downfall of Charles ? Whom did the Scots proclaim their king ? With what result ? What did the House of Commons abolish, and what establish ? Who became Pro- tector of the realm ? § 82. What country did Christian II. reclaim ? Why did the country hate him ? How did he then proceed ? Give a proof of his perfidy and cruelty. What hostage escaped from prison ? 190 sometimes in fields of rye, sometimes in the woods, for he was pro- scribed. He then entered into the service of a rich miner, but soon had to fly again from Christian's spies. After having escaped from many other dangers, he came to the valiant mountaineers of Dale- carlia, represented to them the adversity under which their native country was suffering, reminded them of the heroic deeds of their ancestors, and sought to encourage them, with his assistance, to deliver it from the bondage of the despot. They were at first undetermined, and permitted him to depart without granting the desired aid. But when they received new reports of the cruelty of Christian, they sent couriers after him, who overtook him on his flight to Norway, and he returned in triumph. They began, under his command, to fight the king, and, aided by the Hansa, everywhere defeated his troops. Gustavus was elected governor. He besieged Stockholm. At last, when the Danes themselves deposed the des- pot, that city also capitulated, and Gustavus was universally declared kmg of Sweden (1523 A. D.) He established the Protestant religion, received also the delegates of the townships and peasantry into the States- General, and promoted arts and sciences, commerce and maritime power. Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in' Prussia, advised by Luther, renounced the doctrine of the papacy, then concluded a treaty with the king of Poland (1525 A. D.), by which he obtained Prussia as a Polish fief, and introduced the Reformation into this country. SECOND OHAPTER-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION. § 83. The Protestant and Catholic Church. Synod of Trent. Order of the Jesuits. Luther's doctrine spread through a large part of Germany, especiaUy in Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Denmark, and also in Sweden. In Austria, Bohemia, Hungaria and Polonia it also had many adherents. The reformed reHgion, according to the assertions of Zwingli Give an account of Vasa's wanderings. What of tlie Dalecarlians ? Whom did they fight ? Who aided them ? With what success ? What of Gustavus ? What was he declared ? How did he rule ? Who advised Albert of Branden- burg to renounce popery ? With whom did he conclude a treaty ? Under what limitation did he obtain Prussia ? • What faith did he introduce ? ^ 83. Through what countries did Luther's doctrine spread ? Through which the Reformed faith ? 191 and Calvin, penetrated from Switzerland into France, and the coun- tries bordering the Rhine, as far as Holland and Scotland. In England the High Episcopal Church became predominant, retain- ing the ecclesiastical government and most of the rites of the Catholic Church. I Soon differences arose between the new denominations of the Church. Luther already bitterly opposed ZwingU's view regarding the Lord's Supper, and the endeavor of the landgrave of Hesse to arrange a religious conference between them was fruidess. By Luther's obstinacy every attempt at an amicable compromise' was frustrated. Neither did he keep the promise of mutual friendship with which they had parted. He wrote with bitterness against Zwingli. These internal quarrels even caused bloodshed in some places, e. g., in Holland. The Presbyterians, who were also fight- ing for poUtical liberty, were violently persecuted, many imprisoned, others banished or, like the noble-minded Olden Barneveld, exe- cuted. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 187 Catholics were ripped up and boiled ahve. Henry VHI. and Calvin were also cruel (see § 78 and § 8i). ■ The state of the Catholic Church grew worse and worse, and the council of Trent did not remedy it. The synod lasted eight years in all. It was evident that its decrees only tended to enlarge the papal power, and to humble the Protestants, against whom it incessantly hurled its anathemas. The life of the popes also continued to be the same as before. Alexander VI. (1492-1503 A. D.) was the most cruel of all popes, and an outcast of mankind. He, his son Caesar, and his daughter, Lucretia Borgia, dispatched their enemies by poison and poniard. He aided the ambitious son to enlarge his dominion in Italy. Finally he perished himself by the poison he had prepared for another. He instituted the censorship of books. Leo X. was the notorious adversary of Reformation. Paul III. anathematized the heretics, and sent troops against them. Jules IIL appointed a keeper of monkeys as a cardinal, because he was his favorite. What Church in England ? What rite of the Church caused a difference between Luther and Zwingli ? How did the former behave towards Zwingli ? How were the Presbyterians in Holland, who were also fighting for political liberty, treated? What of Queen Elizabeth, Henry VHI. and Calvin? What was the state of the Catholic Church ? The life of the popes ? What of Alex- ander VI.? What did he institute ? What of Leo X. ? Paul III. ? Jules TIL? Paul IV.? 192 Paul IV. was ambitious, and enlarged the list of the prohibited books. Sixtus V., though enlightened, was cruel and despotic. Gregory VIII. celebrated the St. Bartholomew massacre. — A new institute of the Catholic Church in this period is the Order of the Society of y^esus. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, when a. young man, did military service in the army of Ferdinand the CathoHc. He was wounded during a siege, and fell sick. Being confined to his bed, he excited his imagination, already disposed to fanaticism, even more by reading odd legends. Then he instituted the Society of Jesus (1540 A. D.), the members of which, besides the three usual monastic vows, celibacy, poverty and obedience, pledged themselves to unconditionally obey the pope, especially in matters of heresy and infidelity. Their principal object was to combat Protestant doctrine, and to suppress mental liberty. The General of the Order resided in Rome. They entered public life in a thousand different forms. They made their appearance as teachers of the youth, as preachers, nurses of the sick, inquisitors of faith, missionaries, confessors, ministers of States, and even as tradesmen. Among the laymen they also organized fraternities, which even princes and their sons joined. Their chief aim was to captivate rich young men. The fortunes of such victims became the prey of their society. Their Order spread rapidly. It was admitted into all Catholic countries; it entered even Hindostan, China and Japan. The number of its members was very consider- able. In the eighteenth century it numbered at one time twenty- two thousand. In the council of Trent it carried the issue. In Asia it established the Inquisitional Tribunal. In Germany its prin- cipal seats were Munich and Vienna; Bavaria was called its para- dise. It fostered the belief in miracles, arranged painful exercises of penance for the stupid populace, and permitted the rich and pow- erful everything they longed for. Later, the education of the Cath- olic youth in the higher institutes was secured by the Jesuits, whereby they obtained the greatest influence in civil society. They Sixtus v.? Gregory XIII.? What new institute of the Catholic Church came into existence ? Who was the founder of the Order i Relate some facts of his life when he was a young man. What obligations do the Jesuits take besides the usual vows ? What was their obj ect ? In what forms did they enter public life ? What did they organize among laymen ? Whom did they chiefly try to captivate ? Why ? What about their spreading? What was their number at one time ? What did they establish in Asia? , What were their principal seats in Germany ? What did they foster ? What did they arrange for tJie populace? What did they permit to the rich ? What institutes did they seize ? 193 crept into the confidence of the sovereigns, became their confessors and counselors, and soon, also, the governors of State affairs. Though praise for great scholarship cannot be withheld from indi- vidual members of their Order, yet, on the whole, their perform- ances were far behind the demands of their age. They were ene- mies of enlightenment, of political and religious liberty. Their moral code permitted the use of all foul means, even regicide, in order to obtain sought-for ends. They possessed immense riches, which they acquired in divers ways, even by commercial business. § 84. Arts and Sciences. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cer- vantes. Galileo. Nicolas Copernicus. Correc- tion of the Calendar. While the arts had already attained a high degree of accom- plishment, especially in Italy, in sciences a great deal was yet to be desired. In Italy flourished the great painters, Michael Angelo Buonarotti, Leonardo da Vinci, whose most celebrated picture is the "Lord's Supper;" Allegris Correggio, Guido Reni, Titian, and, more than all, Raphael Sanzi d'Urbino, called by his contempo- raries, "the divine." He was recommended to Pope Julius II., who desired several apartments in- the Vatican to be embellished by pictures. Thus, by his masterly pencil, a series of large historic pictures were created, of which every one occupies one wall, every figure being of full length. He also painted much for Leo X. He alone was sought to paint everything ; but this demand upon him surpassing his strength, he at last outlined only the drawings, and left the finishing to be done by his scholars. In this way the renowned wall-paintings (lodges) originated in a gallery of the Vatican. His last work was the transfiguration of Christ on the Mount of Tabor. He died when only thirty-seven years old.(i52o A. D.) Plis funeral was the occasion of deep mourning for the whole city of Rome, in which the most excellent men shared. He was honored by a monument worthy of his name. Michael Angelo was also architect; his most celebrated structure is the What did they become at the courts of princes ? What of their scholarship ? Were they promoters of enlightenment and liberty ? What did their moral code permit? How did they acquire riches ? § 84. /i'a/j/. Painters ? Which is the most celebrated picture of Leonardo da Vinci ? Which painter was called the divine ? How did the historic pictures in the Vatican originate ? How the lodges ? What was Raphael's last work ? How was his funeral celebrated ? How was his memory honored ? Who was also architect ? (13) 194 cupola in the church of St. Peter, in Rome. In the Netherlands, Paul Rembrandt and the great Rubens painted exceedingly well; in Germany, Albert Diirer, Lucas Kranach, and John Holbein, whose "Dance of Death," iii Basle, is yet admired; in France, Poussin, etc. To the most excellent poets belonged : In Italy, Ariosto, who composed the charming comic epopee, " II furioso Rolando ; " and Torquato Tasso, who wrote the " Jerusalem Delivered ; " in Eng- land, Milton, celebrated for his poem, " Paradise Lost ; " Dryden, and the incomparable William Shakespeare (t 1616 A. D.) The subjects of his great tragedies are partly historical events (Henry IV., Richard III.), and partly events of human life (Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet.) Of his many come- dies, "A Midsummer Night's Dream," and "The Merry Wives of Windsor " are best known. The Spanish poet, Michael Cervantes, represented in his comical, satirical novel, " Don Quixote," a vis- ionary who mistakes the reality and is fighting for imaginary con- ceptions. Dramatic poets : Lope de Vega and Calderon. — Portu- gal : Camoens, author of the " I^usiad," was the best poet. He cel- ebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, representing all the great achievements of Portuguese heroism. His poem was translated into the best modern languages. The German master- singers, as they were called, formed special societies, and were mostly workmen. The most productive poet among them was Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, in Nuremberg. In Switzerland, Nicolas of Berne, and Jacob Ruef, of Ziirich, excelled in poetry. Among the great number of scholars, are prominent : Melanch- ton, who promoted the study of ancient classic literature; Luther, whose translation of the Bible is full of vigor and euphony; the naturalists, Conrad Gessner and Agricola; the astronomers, Nicolas Copernicus of Thorn, and Galileo. The former demonstrated that the sun is a fixed star, and that the earth revolves around it regu- larly. Galileo, whose views were the same, was therefore accused of What part of St. Peter's church did he construct ? — Painters in the Nether- lands? In Germany? In France? Poets. 1\\ Italy 1 What poem did Ariosto compose? What Torquato Tasso ? In England! What did Milton compose ? What of Shakespeare ? Name some of his most celebrated tragedies and com- edies. Who was the greatest Spanish poet ? What novel did he write ? What is its subject? What of the German master-singers? Which was the most productive? What poets in Swizerland ? Scholars. In Germany! What about Luther's translation of the Bible? Astronomers! What did Nicolas Copernicus demonstrate? How was Galileo treated by the Jesuits and the Inquisition? 195 heresy by the monks and Jesuits, and arraigned at the Inquisitional Tribunal (1633 A. D.) After having languished several months in prison he was compelled, on bended knees, to forswear the truth he had taught. When rising, he stamped with his foot, murmuring the words: "And still it is moving!" Then he was sentenced to be put, for an indefinite term, into the dungeon of the Inquisition, and his doctrine condemned, because contradicting the Bible (Joshua X., 12, 13.) It is probable that the unfortunate old man was also put to the rack. Pope Gregory XIII. caused the Julian calendar to be cor- rected (1582 A. D.) Under Julius Caesar the solar year, which only contains 365 days, five hours and about forty-eight minutes, was assumed somewhat too great. This error in calculation amounted, at the time of that pope, already to ten days. Gregory ordered them to be omitted in the chronology. Likewise, three intercalary days should be omitted in every four hundred years. The Catholics immediately accepted the amended calendar. The Protestants refused for a long time, but finally accepted it (1700 A. D.) The Greeks and Russians are still reckoning according to the ancient calendar, and are already twelve days behind the correct chronology. EXERCISES. Biographies: Luther, (a) as friar in the convent; {6) as reformer, espe- cially as antagonist of the indulgences, and at the diet of Worms. Zwingli, («) as parson in Einsiedeln; (d) as reformer; (c) his death. Gustavus Adolphus, (a) -reasons of his war against Emperor Ferdinand II.; (6) his victorious course; [c) his victory at Leipsic; (d) his death. Henry IV., (a) as prince of Navarre; (3) as king. — Describe the discovery of America; the battle of Liitzen; secession of the Netherlands; the St. Bartholomew. What heroes distinguished themselves in the thirty years' war, and at the delivery of the Netherlands ? When and where were the Swedes victorious ? Name the greatest reformers; the most renowned discoverers of land; the principal painters and poets of this period. — Describe the destruction of the " Invincible Armada." Give the names of some North American settlements of this period. What memorable events distin- guish the years 1519, 1523, 1546, 1589? The years 1498 and 1598? 1529 and 1629? 1530 and 1630? 1532 and 1632? 1548 and 1648? How many years elapsed between Luther's first appearance until the outbreak of the thirty years' war ? In what year did Raphael and Shakespeare die ? What was he compelled to forswear ? What words did he murmur ? What sentence did the Inquisition pass on him ? Explain the correction of the calen- dar under Gregory XIII. How many days was the year 1582 behind the true chronology ? How was this error amended ? Who did not accept the correct calendar ? 196 EIGHTH PERIOD. Frorr} the Westphaliaq Peace to the Frenclq Revolution. Unlimited Monarchy and Europeaq EquilibriutTj., Fron^ 1648 to 1789 A, D. riEST OHAPTER-POLITIOAL HISTORY. § 8S. Austria. Sobieski of Poland. Maria Theresa. War of Succession. Joseph II. Leopold I. was a drowsy sovereign, conserving antiquated in- stitutions, a manageable instrument of the ministers, confessors and Jesuits, and an enemy of religious and political liberty. Having ceded some fortresses on the frontier of Hungary to the Turks with whom he waged war, rriany Hungarians, irritated thereby, because these fortresses were regarded as bulwarks of their country, con- spired against him, but the conspiracy having been detected, they were partly executed, and, the whole nation being presumed to be guilty, many others, especially Protestants, punished. Indignant at this tyranny they took up arms (1678 A. D.); the Turks supported them, and besieged Vienna (1683 A. D.) Leopold had to flee. The city defended itself with a small garrison and an auxiliary corps of the citizens and students during two months against 200,000 enemies, till John Sobieski, king of Poland, uniting with the impe- rial army, defeated the barbarians before the walls, and forced them to withdraw. Prince Eugene vanquished the Turks also (1699 A. D.) and compelled them to conclude peace. The discontented Hun- garians rose again (1701 A. D.), and, finally, by their persevering struggles, regained almost all their lost liberties (1711 A. D.) Leo- pold and his sons waged war also against Louis XIV. (see § 87). One of these sons, Charles VI., arranged in favor of his daughter,. Maria Theresa, a solemn ordinance of succession, called " the § 85. What was the character of Leopold I. ? How did he irritate the Hungarians? How did he punish them? Give a description of the siege of Vienna. Who delivered the city ? Who vanquished the Turks also ? What was the final result of the sedition of the Hungarians ? 197 Pragmatic Sanction," by which, in default of a male heir, the whole Austrian monarchy should devolve upon the female Hneage. This ordinance was accepted by the States- General of the monarchy, and approved by the European sovereigns; Bavaria alone rejected it, claiming to have the next right to the Austrian inheritance. But Charles was scarcely cold in death (1740 A. D.) before many other princes claimed the rich heritage ; Spain and Bavaria demanded the whole, and Frederic II., king of Prussia, some Silesian dukedoms. A universal war broke out against Maria Theresa, and was opened immediately by Frederic. Maria Theresa presented herself, with her infant son in her arms, in the diet of the Hungarian nobles, and, having first sworn to pro- tect their independence, with tears implored their aid (1741 A. D.) The swords of the Hungarians flashed in the air, and their unani- mous acclamation was : " Let us die for our sovereign, Maria Theresa ! " From all sides the Hungarians drew near and overran Bavaria, whose sovereign, Charles VII., had already conquered a part of Austria, and had been proclaimed king in Bohemia and -emperor in Germany. Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederic II., made peace with him (1742 A. D.), and gained the alliance of Saxony, England and other countries. Then she energetically con. tinued the war against Bavaria and France. Charles lost his land. Meanwhile Frederic II., anxious for his conquests, renewed the war, conquering Bohemia and Saxony, and Maria Theresa left him Silesia for the second time. War with the other enemies con- tinued. Enormous armies were fighting each other ; battle followed battle ; in Italy, in Germany, and in the Netherlands, blood flowed copiously. Beyond Europe war was also raging. Russia also entered the lists of combat for Maria Theresa. At that time the Turkish Sultan admonished the Christian sovereigns to make peace. This was finally brought about at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748 A. D.), Maria Theresa retaining almost her whole heritage. She, however, waged a seven years' war, especially against Frederic II. (see § 86). The noblest-hearted of all Austrian sovereigns was her son, Joseph II. ( 1 780-1 790 A. D.) He undertook many important re- What do the words " Pragmatic Sanction " mean ? Why did Charles VI. arrange it ? Was it heeded by the European sovereigns ? What did Spain demand ? Bavaria ? What Frederic II. ? Who supported Maria Theresa ? What country did she cede to Frederic II. ? What sovereigns were her allies ? Who admon- ished the combatants to make peace ? What final success had she ? Who was her noble-hearted son? 198 forms, which were certainly all well meant, though in some points too rash. He improved the miUtary concerns, and established a wise national economy, not only Hving moderately himself, but diminishing also the expenses of his court, and Hmiting the arbi- trary power of the public officers. He made milder laws for capital crimes, and aboHshed capital punishment. He fostered commerce and industry, and promoted agriculture. But his greatest merit was his reHgious toleration, his care for enhghtenment, and his love for the citizen and peasant. He fought courageously for right and enlightenment, against the prejudices of the multitude, and against the prerogatives of the higher castes. He granted to the Protestants and the Greeks free exercise of religion, and protected the Jews against the rigor of barbarian laws. He made the Catholic Church independent from the Holy See, and abolished a great number of convents, the prop- erty of which he devoted to the care of souls, and to the instruc- tion of the youth. Lastly, he abrogated censure, and granted general liberty of thought. The people were astonished by the bold reformer, and Pope Pius VI. did an unprecedented thing. He went himself to Vienna in order to remonstrate. But Joseph persisted in his enactments. He went even farther. In his States he broke the yoke of servi- tude, abrogated the excessive socage service, gave the tenants a State- Attorney against the oppression of the landlords, and ordained equable taxation. By these reforms he excited the nobility and priests to violent resistance, and the low populace to revolt. They declared him an enemy to religion, and accused him of having violated the constitu- tional rights of divers lands. Insurrections broke out in Hungary and the Lowlands, and the latter declared themselves independent of Austria (1789 A. D.) § 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven Years' "War. Battles at Rossbach and Lissa. Frederic II., king of Prussia, besides carrying on the Silesian wars, waged also the seven years' war against Austria. Maria Theresa, not able to get over the loss of Silesia, concluded a secret Mention some of his reforms; in his court; with regard to capital crimes, to commerce, agriculture, religious toleration; to convents; to servitude; to taxa- tion. "Who opposed his reforms? In what countries did insurrections break out ? § 86. "What was the origin of the seven years' war ? "Who sided with Maria Theresa? 199 alliance with most of the German States, with Sweden, Russia and even France, for the purpose of annihilating Frederic. England only sided with the latter. But the plan was betrayed, and Frederic, anticipating his enemies, invaded Bohemia and Saxony, and com- pletely conquered the latter country (1756 A. D.) The whole Saxon army was captured at Pima. During the next year Frederic was defeated at Kolin, and his brave general, Schwerin, lost his life. The Austrians extended their raids as far as Berlin. The Swedes occupied Pomerania, the Russians ravaged Prussia, and the French also advanced upon it. Frederic seemed to be on the verge of ruin ; but he surprised and defeated the French and the imperial army of 66,000 men at Rossbach, not far from Merseburg, with 22,000 Prussians. Only the Swiss mercenaries retreated in good order. One month later, he gained, with the same army, the greatest of his victories at Lissa, in Silesia, routing 80,000 Austrians, so that only 17,000 men reached Bohemia. The Russians and Swedes had also to retreat. In the third year of th'e war he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, in Brandenburg (1758 A. D.) The two following campaigns were disastrous to him. He was completely defeated at Kunnersdorf, in Brandenburg, a Prussian army captured, and most of his lands were conquered. It was his good fortune, however, that Elizabeth, empress of Russia, died. Her successor, Peter II., held him so dear that he gave up to him the Russian troops for his support (1762 A. D.) He was soon after killed, but Catharine III., who succeeded him, concluded peace with Prussia. Frederic expelled the enemies from his lands. The English were successfully fighting the French in America, Africa and Asia, and thus at last a general peace followed, ending one of the bloodiest wars on record. The treaty of peace was concluded in the castle of Hubertsburg, near Leipsic (1763 A. D.) Frederic retained Silesia, He endeavored now to restore prosperity in his lands by distrib- uting grain for food and seed, rebuilding the burned villages, found- ing colonies, and in special regions remitting all taxes, etc. In Who with Frederic II. ? What success had he in the first campaign ? What reverses did he have during the second campaign ? What success did he have at the end of the campaign ? In what two battles did he defeat the enemies ? What enemy did he defeat in the third campaign ? How did he succeed in the two following years ? What was then his good fortune ? Who concluded peace with him ? Where was general peace concluded ? What country did he hold ? How did he endeavor to restore prosperity in his lands ? 200 general, he took praiseworthy care of agriculture, arts and manu- factures. He amended the laws, aboHshed the torture and other cruel punishments of the middle ages, increased the public reve- . nues, granted liberty of conscience and of the press, and enjoyed the intercourse with scholars. He worked with restless assiduity, and raised Prussia to her present eminence. He governed about fifty years (i 740-1 786 A. D.) ^ 87. France. Louis XIV. 's Predominance in Europe. His Wars. Spanish War of Succession. Battle at Blenheim. Persecution of Prot- estants. Louis XV. Most of the wars of conquest were waged in this period by Louis XIV. — the first (1667-1668 A. D.) against his brother-in- law, Charles II., king of Spain, because he claimed some lands as an heirloom of his wife, though she had solemnly resigned her heirship in a contrtict. He achieved great conquests, but was soon com- pelled by the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden, to make peace. Resentful against Holland, and thinking that country to be the prioicipal plotter of the alliance, he sent his great Generals Conde, Turenne, Luxemburg and Vauban, with 100,000 men, against the republic (1672-1678 A. D.) He was supported besides by Eng- land and Sweden. Holland was overrun by her enemies, and the capital, Amsterdam, besieged. Then the inhabitants opened their dykes, making the sea their ally by letting it in, and their great adiniral, Ruyter, defeated the English- French fleet. Presently^ Spam, Lorraine, Germany, Austria and Denmark also took arms against Louis, and Ruyter vanquished three more times the hostile fleets. Meanwhile, Turenne devastated Germany along the Rhine. At last Holland disgracefully deserted her allies and made separate peace with Louis, at Nymegen (1678 A. D.), by which treaty all it had lost was again recovered. The allies of Holland, however, had to suffer for it. Spain lost Franche-Comte, the duke of Lor- raine his entire domain, and the German empire several cities. How was his administration, in general ? How long did he govern Prussia ? I 87. Who waged the most wars of conquest ? Against whom did he wage his first war ? Why ? Who compelled him to make peace ? Against whom did he wage the second war ? How did the Dutch defend themselves ? What great generals did he have ? What admiral defeated the English-French fleet ? What country made a separate peace with Louis ? Who had to suffer ? 201 Moreover, Louis, in the name of the duchess of Orleans, claimed a share of the heritage of her brother, the prince-elector of the Pa- latinate, though she had expressly resigned her claims ; in addition, he wanted to appoint an archbishop in Cologne. As Germany and the pope refused the prelate, he snatched PhiHpsburg from the em- pire and Avignon from the pope, and thus the German war was enkindled (1688-1697 A. D.) Fighting against him were Ger- many, Austria, the pope. Savoy, England, Holland and Denmark. Louis was left alone (only Switzerland permitted its mercenaries to xemain in his service). It would have been an admirable combat, if he had waged it for the sacred cause of right. He made great con- quests ; nevertheless, he was obliged, by the peace of Ryswick, to return almost all of the conquered lands to the enemies (1697 A. D.) He fought most tenaciously in the war of the Spanish succession (1701-1714 A. D.) Charles II., king of Spain, was childless. The large realm was claimed by Bavaria and Savoy, but especially by Louis XIV., in the name of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, and by Emperor Leopold I. The latter had the next right to the heritage. As Louis had married Maria Theresa, daughter of PhiUp of Spain, he had renounced all claim to the Spanish crown, either for himself or his successors. When England mediated a treaty of partition between the parties concerned, Charles II., provoked by these arbi- trary proceedmgs, designated the prince of Bavaria as the universal heir; but the latter suddenly died. Charles II. then wanted to give ■ up the whole heritage to prince Charles, Leopold's son, on the con- dition, however, that Leopold should send his son with an army to Spain ; but the emperor could not be induced to do so. By a new treaty of partition, Louis would leave the heritage for the most part to the Austrian prince; Leopold also rejected this proposal. Meanwhile Charles II. died, and a last will of his appeared, which designated Philip of Anjou single heir. This prince immediately went to Spain and took possession of the country (1701 A. D.) Soon Austria, England, Holland, Prussia, Portugal and Savoy declared war against Louis; Bavaria only sided with him. Eugen and Marlborough, the great generals of Austria and England, defeated the army of the French and Bavarians at What of his German war? What enemies fought against him? What was the result of this war ? What was the cause of the Spanish war of succession ? Who took possession of Spain?. What countries were his enemies ? Who sided with him ? Where was he defeated ? How was he disposed to act after his defeat ? 202 Blenheim (Hochstedt), in Bavaria, the greatest battle which had occurred for 200 years (1704 A. D.) Added to this, were a severe winter and a want of bread in France. Louis be- came disposed to deliver up the whole heritage; but when Aus- tria and England both demanded of him that he expel his grand- son from Spain, he firmly refused, and was saved by — a pair of gloves belonging to Lady Marlborough, which pleased Queen Anne, and were denied her by the lady. She, having already offended the queen several times, was together with her husband disgraced, and the latter lost his command ; besides. Emperor Joseph I., Leopold's first-born son, died; his brother and successor. Emperor Charles VL would, by the possession of the Spanish heritage, have become the overpowering monarch of Europe. Therefore Anne began negotia- tions, and Louis concluded peace with all his enemies (17 13 A. D.) The emperor and Germany assented to it at Rastadt and Baden (17 14 A. D.) Philip of Anjou remained king of Spain; Austria received Naples, Milan, Sardinia and the Spanish Netherlands; Gibraltar was ceded to England. Louis still waged some smaller wars against Holland. According to the decision of the reunion chambers, which he instituted in different towns, in order to have it settled what in ancient times belonged to France, he took away part of Luxemburg, Brabant and Flanders from Holland, Strasburg from Germany, and defended his prey by war. He cruelly persecuted the Huguenots in France, being persuaded to do so by the Jesuits and Madame de Maintenon, whom he had^ elevated by a secret marriage to the rank of his wife. They were excluded from all offices, and deprived of their children ; the sick who refused to turn Catholics lost their property, and were sent to the galleys, if they recovered. Incursions of troops, called dragon- ades, enforced these measures. Finally, Louis revoked the edict of Nantes (1685 A. D.), ordered all Huguenots to become converts to the Catholic religion, forbade the practice of their worship, and ban- ished from the kingdom, within fifteen days, all their ministers who would not recant. Afterwards he closed the ports against the fugi- tives, sent those who attempted to escape to the galleys, and con- What did Austria and England demand of him ? Did he obey them ? By what trifle was he saved ? Who was disgraced by Queen Anne ? Who remained king of Spain? What did Austria and England receive? What Christian sect did Louis persecute ? By whom was he instigated to do so ? In what manner was it persecuted ? What of the dragonades ? What edict did he revoke ? What result did his persecution cause ? 203 fiscated their property. However, in spite of all prohibition and punishment, 500,000 Huguenots emigrated, taking with them, to the great damage of the State, their treasures, arts and industries to England, Holland and Germany. New violence directed against the Huguenots in the province of Languedoc, and financial oppression of its inhabitants, caused an insurrection which three marshals could scarcely suppress (i 703-1 704 A. D.) 100,000 men lost their lives on the battle-field, and 10,000 Huguenots died on the scaffold. Under the reign of Louis the pubUc offices were venal ; 45»°°o were really sold, and, for want of money, 40,000 more established and offered for sale. In conclusion, it cannot be gainsaid that he greariy encouraged the arts and sciences, commerce and industry. A great share of his merits, however, was due to his excellent minister, Colbert. He reigned 72 years (1643-1715 A. D.) When he at last died, France was exultant. During the government of Louis XV., John Law, in order to reimburse the immense debt of the State, established a public bank, which at first afforded great profit to a few stockholders ; but as the bank became unable to pay more, the value of the stocks was lessened to one-half, and many thousand families were thus reduced to poverty. — Louis XV. was engaged in the war of the Austrian succession, and the Seven Years' War (see §§ 85, 86.) § 88. England. Crom^A^ell. War Against Holland. Ad- mirals Blake, Van Tromp, and de Ruyter. Charles II. Whigs and Tories. Dethronement of James II. William III. Accession of the House of Hanover. The Preienders. Cromwell had formed the project of a coaUtion with Holland, which was to make the two republics one and indivisible; but national antipathies could not be overcome, and instead of the pro- posed coahtion, there ensued a fierce war (1652 A. D.) The repub- lican parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, by prohibiting the importation of all foreign merchandise, except in English bot- toms, or in those of the country producing the commodities. The act tended greatly to promote the naval superiority of Great Brit- ain, its object being to wrest the carrying trade of Europe from the What of the public offices ? To whom was due a great share of his merits for promoting the arts and sciences ? For what purpose was the bank of John Law established? What was its result ? ^ 88. What was the tendency of the Navi- gation Act ? What war did it cause ? In whose favor did the war end ? 204 Dutch. The war terminated in favor of England. The celebrated Admiral Blake distinguished himself in it; he had for his antago- nists the great Dutch maritime chiefs, Van Tromp and de Ruyter. Peace was concluded on terms advantageous to England, and Cromwell, as protector, signed the treaty of pacification (1654 A. D.) He governed England with unrivaled energy and abiHty, and was the most powerful potentate of his time in Europe. He pro- moted commerce, created a strong navy, and made wise laws. In private life, in the several relations of a husband, a father, a neigh- bor and a friend, he was exemplary. His household was like that of a simple citizen. But he had many adversaries and enviers. Several conspiracies and attempts to murder him deprived him of peace of mind. After his death (1658 A. D.), contending factions in the army as well as in parliament, for a time filled the country with bloody dissension, when General Monk, at the head of an army, declared in favor of the restoration of royalty ; consequently, Charles II., son of the late king, was proclaimed sovereign of Eng- land by the united acclamations of the army, the people, and the two houses of parliament. He had not become wiser by the misfortune of his father. He caused the documents of the republic to be burned by the hangman, and the Scots to be cruelly persecuted by his Catholic brother, James ; he limited the right of petition, and deprived the cities of their liberties. A conspiracy was planned against him, in which the most excellent men participated. But it was detected, and the conspirators atoned for their crime by their blood (1683 A. D.) During his administration the Whig and Tory parties were organized. The former gave the nation the right to oppose energetic resistance to the king who would injure the constitution, but the latter required passive obedience by the people. Parliament also decreed the celebrated habeas-corpus act, that sacred law of personal liberty. By the provisions of this act, no magistrate is authorized to take a prisoner without showing reason for the arrest in writing, and the prisoner shall be brought within three days before the judge. Though Charles professed adherence to the principles of the Reforma- What admirals distinguished themselves in the war ? How was Cromwell's public administration and private life ? What general declared in favor of the restoration of royalty ? Mention some ordinances of Charles II. Explain the terms "Whigs " and "Tories;" the kaleas-corpus act. 205 tion, yet his great and secret designs were the establishment of papacy. His brother, James II., forced the Scots to forsake their creed,, and appointed bishops, suspended 350 Presbyterian ministers and expelled them, together with their families. In England, also, he assailed the national church. Guided by the Jesuits, he abol- ished religious freedom, appointed Catholic teachers in the col- leges, turned out Protestant ministers, and gave the public offices to Catholics, in opposition to the laws of the country. In Ireland also he gave orders to persecute and exterminate the Protestants. Many of the nobility and great men of the kingdom, foreseeing no redress for their grievances, finally sent an invitation to Williamy prince of Orange, the stadt-holder of the United Dutch Provinces,, who had married the" king's eldest daughter, and requested him to come over and aid them, by his arms, in the recovery of their laws and liberties. William landed at the head of an army, declaring that he had come to restore liberty (1688 A. D.) He was every- where received with the highest favor. The frightened tyrant fled secretly to France. The national convention, called by William,, declared that the king's withdrawal was an abdication of the gov- ernment, and that the throne was thereby made vacant, and a bill was passed settling the crown on William and his wife Mary, and the succession on princess Anne, the next eldest daughter of the late king. At the same time the convention made a declaration of the most precious natural and constitutional rights of the English people; thereby the English constitution was completed. The Catholic religion was forever excluded from the throne. James, furnished with a fleet by Louis XIV., returned and landed in Ireland, where the Catholics took up arms for him, but lost the decis- ive battle, and fled again to France, where Louis granted him a beggar's livelihood. The course taken by this monarch led to a declaration of war against France (1689 A. D.) which, in its prog- ress, involved most of the continental powers, who united with William for the purpose of putting a stop to the encroachments of Louis (see § 87). What misdeeds did James II. commit .'' How did he deal with the Protestant Scots? How with the national Church of England? How with the Protestants of Ireland ? To whom did he give the public offices ? Who was invited to assist England ? How did William proceed ? How .was he received ? What did the national convention declare ? What religion was excluded from the throne ? Who- took up arms for James II. ? What was his end ? 206 After William, Anne succeeded to the throne, and after her George I., prince elector of Hanover, and great grandson of James I. (1714A. D.) A most prominent person in the administration during a portion of his reign and during the first part of that of George II., was the talented minister, Robert Walpole. The son of James II. pretended to the succession; Louis XIV. favored his cause, and many Scotch nobles took up arms in defense of it. The Pretender arrived in Scotland and was proclaimed king by his follow- ers, but finding his struggle desperate, he returned to France. The rebellion was suppressed, and the leaders executed. His son, Charles Edward, called the young Pretender, repeated the attempt of his father. Assisted by Louis XV., he landed at the head of a small force in Scotland, and caused his father to be proclaimed king of Great Britain. But the royal troops gained a bloody victory over him at Culloden (1746 A. D.) which forever crushed the hope of the Stuart family. Numbers of his adherents perished on the scaffold or by military execution. Under George III. the United States of North America became independent (see § 92, etc.) His great minister was WiUiam Pitt (Lord Chatham). § 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. Battles at Narva and Pultowa. First Parti- tion of Poland. Alexei, Czar of Russia, left several children. When his eldest son had died (1682 A. D.) the youngest, Peter, ought to have suc- ceeded to the government ; but his sister, Sophia, sought to supplant him, and, supported by the body-guards, even to deprive him of life ; but he frustrated her scheme, and relegated her to a convent. Having learned from his tutor, Le Fort, of Geneva, to appreciate civilization, Peter resolved to enlighten the people of his country, and thus raise them from their state of barbarism. To this end he or- ganized an army, taking Europe for his model, and built a fleet. For the sake of commerce he seized the town of Azof from the Turks (1696 A. D.) At this time he also suppressed a conspiracy of the life-guards. He went to Germany, Holland and England (1697 A. Who succeeded William and Anne? Who was a prominent minister of George I. and II. ? Give a narrative of the attempt of the two Pretenders. § 89. Who was the celebrated son of Czar Alexei ? Who tried to supplant Peter ? "With the help of whom ? How did Peter punish his sister? What did he resolve upon concerning his country ? What did he organize ? W^hat build ? What town seize from the Turks ? Give an account of his travels. 207 D.), in order to acquire more learning. In Holland he learned ship-building, and was not ashamed to wield the ax like a common ship-wright. In Saardam the house where he then lived as a journey- man is still shown. He also took instruction in surgery, chemistry and physics. On his return he was accompanied by numerous arti- sans whom he had engaged to aid him in the great design of civiliz- ing his subjects. Recalled from a second journey by a new riot of the life-guards, he punished the guilty in a terrible manner (1698 A. D.) He suspected Sophia to have again instigated the revolt. He caused many of the guilty to be put to the rack in order to compel them to confess their crime, and many were hung below the win- dows of his sister. He himself assisted in this bloody work. After a third sedition he abolished the corps (1705 A. D.) In order to promote commerce on the Baltic Sea, he resolved to dispossess the S^vedes of the lands they had there. Poland and Denmark were his allies. But Charles XII., the young king of Swe- den, subdued the Danes, and with a small army defeated 80,000 Russians at Narva, one-fourth of whom he killed in battle (1700 A. D. He then expelled Augustus, king of Poland and Saxony, from Poland (1702-1706 A. D.), and put Saxony under contribution. Meanwhile Peter conquered the Swedish province Ingermanland, on the Baltic Sea, and with a great loss of human life founded the city of Petersburg (1703 A. D.) Charles invaded Russia, and first ad- vanced to Moscow ; then he turned to the Ukraine, where he expected to have the assistance of the Cossacks; but his hope was frustrated, and he as well as his troops suffered bitterly from want of provisions. Peter made an offer of reconciliation, but Charles would not resolve on peace except in Moscow. He was totally beaten at Pultowa, and himself wounded (i 709 A. D.); he then fled to the Turks. After two years he succeeded in inciting them to make war against Peter ; 200,000 Turks surrounded the Russians on the banks of the Pruth; Peter seemed to be lost ; but the sagacity of his wife Catharine, who accompanied him during the campaign, saved him and the army. She advised him to bribe the Turkish General with her own jewels, which she freely offered ; the attempt succeeded, and Peter obtained, How did he punish his life-guards after a new riot ? In what way would he promote commerce on the Baltic Sea ? Who opposed him ? In what battle was he defeated by Charles XII. ? How did the latter deal with the king of Poland ? "What large city did Peter found ? How did Charles succeed in the war against him ? Where was he defeated ? Where did he take refuge ? Where did the Turks surround the Russians ? Who saved Peter ? By what means ? 208 on fair conditions, free retreat and peace. Charles remained three years more in Turkey, in order to rouse it once more against Russia. In the meantime Peter made great conquests in Sweden. When finally the sultan himself ordered Charles to depart, he defied him also, and m his foolhardiness withstood a siege of his house one day against a whole Turkish army. Without an army, and with a single com- panion, he returned to his kingdom, which was in the greatest con- fusion. In a second war against Denmark he was killed by a ball (1718 A. D.) Meanwhile Peter continued to take care of the welfare of his country. He called into it many foreign manufacturers, mechanics^ artists and scholars, established schools, built high-roads and canals,, improved agriculture, limited the power of the clergy, and reformed the convents. His care extended from one end of his vast realm to the other. He respected merit in every position, and placed little value upon rank and race. He made Menshikof, a confectioner, liis friend and minister, and took Catharine, daughter of a Swedish peas- ant, for his second wife. He had repudiated his first wife because she disliked his reforms. His son Alexei also detested them, being misled by discontented noblemen and monks, and caused public commo- tions (17 16 A. D.), while Peter was again traveling abroad. Then the father caused him to be put to death (it is said, at the instigation of Catharine). — Chief among Peter's faults were drunkenness and ill-temper, during which he often rudely treated friends most en- deared to him, sometimes even with the knout. He died suddenly (1725 A. D.), and not having designated a successor, Catharine was proclaimed heiress' of the throne. She reigned two years. Under Peter II. Menshikof atoned for his insolence against the grandees with banishment. Elizabeth I., a daughter of Peter I., put the youth Ivan into prison, exiled the imperial ministers, Miinnich and Osterman, to Siberia, and ascended the throne herself. Catharine II. caused her husband, Peter III., to be murdered, waged war against the Turks, and seized a large part of Poland. She ordered troops to march into this land under the pretense of restoring tranquillity between its contesting parties. When they How long did Charles remain in Turkey? Give a specimen of his fool- hardiness. What was his end? How did Peter care for his country? Did he place much value upon rank and race ? Illustrate by examples. How did he deal with his first wife and his son Alexei ? What were his chief faults ? Who was proclaimed empress after his death? What of Elizabeth I. and Catharine II. ? Under what pretense did the latter march troops into Poland ? 209 then engaged in civil war, she, Frederic II. and Joseph II. deman- ded the cession of different provinces. In vain the people com- plained ; in vain King Stanislaus Augustus and the States-General protested against the impudent demand ; in vain some deputies re- fused to do homage, and others gave themselves up in despair to^ death. The three sovereigns threatened to divide the whole country among themselves, and, therefore, the king and the States- General fin- ally agreed to their exaction (1772 A. D.) In this way one-third was torn from Poland with five miUions of inhabitants ; Frederic seized West Prussia ; Maria Theresa, Galicia, and Catharine some eastern provinces ; the three sovereigns, besides, warranted to themselves the undisturbed possession of their prey. Europe looked upon their pro- ceedings with silence. Frederic treated his new subjects cruelly. They were, like cattle, violently dragged to Prussia, their estates pil- laged, the young men impressed, the daughters arbitrarily married, and their dowries extorted from their parents. § 90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company. In the East Indies Aureng Zeb (1659-1707 A. D.) elevated the empire of the Great Mogul to the summit of its power, but after his death it rapidly sank again. Domestic and foreign enemies as- sailed it. Among the latter the most fortunate was Nadir, who, from a camel-driver, had risen to the dignity of a Shah of Persia ; the Great Mogul was obfiged to cede many possessions to him. When Philip II., who had united Portugal with Spain, was en- gaged in war with the Dutch, they took from the Portuguese most of their possessions in the East Indies, but in the eighteenth century they lost most of them again through the English. Queen Elizabeth had already conceded to the East Indian Com- pany, a society of English merchants, the privilege of carrying on commerce with the East Indies. The Company took advantage of the decay of the Mongolian empire, and of the quarrels of the native sovereigns, in order to make conquests. When the governor of Ben- gal took Calcutta, the principal settlement of the Company, and What did she, together with Frederic II. and Joseph II., demand of it ? What threats did they make ? What provinces did they tear from Poland ? How did Frederic II. deal with the Polanders ? | 90. What of Aureng Zeb and Nadir in the East Indies ? Who seized the possessions of the Europeans in the East Indies from the Portuguese ? Who from the Dutch ? Give an account of the origin and aggrandizement of the East Indian Company. From whom did it obtain the sovereignt^y of Bengal ? (14) 210 dealt cruelly with the prisoners (1756 A. D.) it took vengeance by war, and obtained from the Great Mogul the sovereignty of Bengal for an annuity (1765 A. D.) The cruelty of the English finally ex- cited general exasperation; Hyder Ali, the prudent and powerful sovereign of Mysore, began war against them, and continued it for many years ; aided by a body of French troops, he at the head of an army of 100, coo natives attacked the English forces, and killed or captured the whole of them (1780 A. D.) He made great con- quests (i 779-1 783 A. D.); but his son, Tippo Saheb, lost them again, and the dominion of his own lands besides. The Company also waged war against the Mahrattas several times (after 1774 A. D.) and conquered a great part of their territory. Thus it acquired, in the East Indies, the possession of a far-reaching dominion. It estab- lished its own government, appointed governors and maintained great armies. But later it had to give up the right of government in the conquered countries to the English crown (1784 A. D.) Its monopoly of trade was also by degrees limited, and finally was reduced to the single article of tea. I 91. United. States of North America. Their Colonies. The French Wars. The first settlements in the United States of America were men- tioned in the preceding period (see § 71). More colonies were founded in this period. Connecticut and New Hampshire were settled by colonists from England : the latter was sometimes united to Massachusetts, and at other times separated from it ; finally it was separated, remaining a distinct colony (1741 A. D.) The different colonies of the former were also united into one by Charles II. (1665 A. D.) — New Jersey and Delaware were settled much like New York, and fell under English rule at the same time as New York. New Jersey later became a separate province (1738 A. D.) — North Carolina was settled by emigrants from Virginia and Europe ; South Carolina, by English and Huguenots. Both at first formed one colony, called Carolina; later (1729 A. D.) North Carolina was made a separate one. — Georgia was founded by Enghsh emigrants Who was its most formidable enemy ? What did it establish ? To whom did it then give up its right of government ? To what article was its monopoly of trade at last limited? § 91. What of the settlements in Connecticut and New Hampshire ? In New Jersey and Delaware ? In North and South Carolina ? In Georgia ? What of Maine ? 211 under Oglethorpe (1733 ^- ^0 — Maine was a part of Massachusetts till 1 8 20, when it came into the Union as an independent State. The most remarkable colony is that of the noble-minded Quaker, William Penn, in the State of Pennsylvania, so-called from his name. The English government had owed Penn's father, who was an ad- miral in the British navy, a large sum of money. Penn, in payment, took a grant for a large territory in that State and bought other lands from the Indians, with whom he made a famous treaty. A large company of emigrants, mostly Quakers, left England and came to the new settlement (168 1 A. D.) He laid the foundation of Philadelphia (brotherly love), and gave to his colony an excel- lent constitution (see § 94). It grew rapidly and prospered. The colonists lived in unbroken harmony with the Indians, who called Penn " Onas," and the highest praise they could give a white man was to say he was like " Onas." After Penn's death (17 18 A. D.) his sons were the proprietors of the colony. — The Spaniards foun- ded St. Augustine in Florida (1565 A. D.), the oldest city in the United States, and Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582 A. D.) Almost all the colonies were more or less troubled with Indian wars; Virginia suffered two massacres, in which several hundred whites were slaughtered. The colonists invariably got the better in the end, and gradually the Indians receded farther and farther from the neighborhood of the whites. In the last period (after 1600 A. D.) the French commenced to colonize Acadia (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, etc.), and Canada, calling these countries New France. Port Royal (Annapolis) was their first permanent colony. In 17 18 the city of New Orleans was founded by them. They gradually established missions, trad- ing-posts and forts along the chain of the Great Lakes, e. g., Fort Niagara, penetrated the Mississippi Valley, and finally claimed that valley from the source of this river to its mouth, saying it was a part of New France. The presence of two rival nations on the same soil made it certain that some time the two would come into conflict. The conflict came, and was fought through four wars. During King William's war, which was waged in Europe be- tween England and France (1688-1697 A. D.), the eastern Indians, Which is the most remarkable colony ? Give an account of William Penn. What grant did he take from England ? What city did he found ? What did the Indians call him ? By what tribes were the colonies troubled ? What did the French call New France? What did they establish along the chain of the Great Lakes ? What valley did they claim as part of New France ? 212 who were allies of the French, destroyed several settlements in Maine, New Hampshire and New York State. The colonists re- solved to send a fleet and an army to attack Quebec and Montreal, But the expedition was a failure ; only Port Royal was taken. By the treaty of Ryswick it was agreed that each side was to have the same territory as before the war. In Queen Anne's war (1702-1713 A. D.) the contest took the same form as the previous one. The French and their Indian allies laid waste the frontier settlements of New England. The colonists de- termined again to invade Acadia and Canada ; but the plan was once more a failure. The only gain to England was the winning of Acadia. After the war, the French continued to increase their power in the Northwest. They built Fort Niagara and Crown. Point, and had more than sixty military stations, extending from; Lake Ontario down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Their progress was interrupted by King George's war (1744 A. D.) There was only one important event in this war, the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, and even this place was by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle given up to the French (1748 A. D.) Thus far the English had attempted no settlements west of the Alleghanies. Now a company of English merchants obtained from the king of England a grant of a large tract of land on the east bank of the Ohio river, and established a trading-post on the Monongahela. The French immediately sent troops to build forts in the disputed territory. Major George Washington, a young Vir- ginian, only twenty-one years old, was then, in the name of the Enghsh government, sent as embassador to demand an explanation of this outrage on the part of the French. The French command- ant sent back a letter by Washington to the governor of Virginia, refusing to withdraw the French troops from the disputed territory. The governor sent a party of workmen to construct a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and a regiment of soldiers, in which Washington was second in command. Mean- What was the success of the expeditions to Quebec and Montreal in King William's war ? What country did the English gain in Queen Anne's war ? How many military stations did the French have after this war, between Lake Ontario and New Orleans ? On what tributary of the Ohio river did a company of English merchants establish a trading-post ? What did the French then do in the disputed territory ? Who was sent as an embassador to them ? What was the reply of the French commander ? What did the governor of Virginia cause to be constructed there ? Who was second in command? 213 while the French had driven ofif the fort-builders, and themselves completed the work (1754 A. D.) They called it Fort du Quesne (now Pittsburg). Washington hastened forward with an advanced party, and beat a body of the French at a place called Great Mead- ows. There he built Fort Necessity, which was about fifty miles distant from Fort du Quesne. While waiting here the commanded died, and Washington became chief commander. He was attacked by the French and had to surrender, after having held out all day. He and his troops were permitted to return to Virginia. Next spring General Braddock marched at the head of two regiments of regulars against Fort du Quesne. Washington accompanied him as an aide-de-camp (1755 ^- ^0 Nearly all the colonies had raised militia, and voted money and supplies to carry on this cam- paign. When near the fort, Braddock, leading an advanced body of about 1,200 men, was attacked by the French and Indians, who were concealed in the woods. The whole column was thrown into confusion and fled in a panic. The commander was killed. Wash- ington, with a little band of Virginians, covered the retreat. The expedition was now given up. Another column, designed to march against Fort Niagara, reached Oswego, but storms, sickness and desertion of the Indians induced the commander to abandon the enterprise. A third column of 6,000 men, led by General Johnson, and sent to attack Fort Crown Point, built Fort Edward on the Hudson, and moved to the southern end of Lake George. As the French moved forward to attack the fort, Johnson sent Colonel Williams with a thousand men to watch the French. A fight followed, in which WiUiams was defeated and killed. The French followed the fugitives to Johnson's main body, which was encamped at Lake George, where they were defeated, and their general, Dieskau, taken prisoner. Johnson, not feeling able to attack Crown Point, dis- banded his army. While preparations for this campaign were going on, an expedi- tion sailed to the head of the Bay of Fundy, kidnapped the French settlers of Nova Scotia to the nvimber of 7,000, put them on board Give an account of Washington's conflict with the French. Who was the commander of the English regulars against Fort du Quesne the next spring ? Who accompanied him ? By whom was Braddock attacked ? With what effect ? Who covered the retreat ? With what success did another, and a third column carry on the war? What of the kidnapping of the French settlers of Nova Scotia ? 214 the ships, and exiled them to various colonies. It was a terrible deed, but it was thought necessary. In the two following campaigns Montcalm, the French general, captured the fort at Oswego (1756 A. D.) and Fort William Henry (1757 A. D.) In the former he took 1,400 prisoners and a large quantity of stores; in the latter, 2,000 troops. His Indian allies killed a number of prisoners in cold blood here. The great William Pitt was now made a member of the British cabinet, and placed at the head of colonial affairs. He prepared to carry on the war with great vigor. In the fourth campaign (1758 A. D.) 50,000 men — 22,000 Brit- ish regulars and 28,000 colonists — were engaged. Three expedi- tions were planned. The first took Cape Breton Island, with 6,000 prisoners and a large amount of munitions of war. It was a very severe bloAv to the French. The only success of the second expe- dition was the capture of Fort Frontenac (now Kingston). The operations of the third campaign were directed against Fort du Quesne. The French force there, being now much reduced, aban- doned the fort. Its name was changed to Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). In the last campaign (1759 A. D.) the principal object was to capture Quebec. With a fleet carrying 8,000 troops, General Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence to Orleans Island, a few miles below Quebec. Here he landed and prepared for the attack. For this reason Montcalm weakened the garrisons at Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort Niagara, etc. The result was their capture. The pre- liminary operations of General Wolfe were unsuccessful. After- wards the bold design of scaling the Heights of Abraham was car- ried out. Here was fought a battle that decided the war (the 13th of September). Wolfe was twice wounded, but continued to lead the charge at the head of his grenadiers till he received a third and mortal wound. Montcalm also was mortally wounded. After hours of stubborn fighting, the left wing and center of the French gave way, and the English were victorious. Five days after, Quebec What forts did Montcalm capture in the two following campaigns ? Who was then placed at the head of colonial affairs in the British cabinet ? How many- British regulars and colonists were engaged in the fourth campaign ? How many expeditions were planned ? What island did the first expedition take ? What fort did the second expedition capture ? Against what fort was the third directed ? What was the principal object of the last campaign ? Who was the English general? Describe his campaign. Where did General Wolfe land? What Heights did he scale? Give an account of the battle. 215 surrendered. Soon after Montreal and other military stations in Canada were also given up to the EngHsh. The contest for the possession of America ended triumphantly for them (1760 A. D.) Three years after peace was concluded. During this time the Indians were very hostile, capturing most of the English posts in the Northwest, and killing hundreds of persons. At length the colon- ists subdued them. By the treaty of Paris France gave up to England all her American possessions east of the Mississippi, except New Orleans (1763 A. D.) By the same treaty Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana. I 92. Continued. War* of the Colonies for Independence. The Stamp Act. Battle at Bunker Hill. Declara- tion of Independence. George Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine. When England learned to appreciate the importance of her colonies, she attempted to limit their liberty, and to gain their com- mercial advantages for herself. She prohibited them from establish- ing manufactories, and levied high duties on merchandise, the im- portation of which had formerly been free. The French wars had added largely to the already heavy debt of England, and the British government determined that the colonies should bear a part of this burden. These denied that parliament had a right to impose taxes upon them, their own losses and expenses in the wars having already been as heavy as they could bear. Nevertheless, the parliament passed the "Stamp Act" (1765 A. D.), an act ordering that all legal writings, together with pamphlets, news- papers, etc., etc., in the colonies, should be executed on stamped paper, for which a duty should be paid to the crown. The colon- ists became highly indignant ; everywhere was heard the cry : " Liberty, property^ and no stamps ! " The stamp act was not complied with, and it was resolved to import no more English goods till it was repealed. In order to dispense more easily with them, coarse materials were fabricated ; families denied themselves the use of all foreign luxuries, and the ; ladies put foreign finery What generals lost their lives ? Who obtained the victory ? What stations in Canada vi^ere given up to the English ? What was the result of the peace ? I 92. What did England attempt after the French wars ? What did it deter- mine ? Why did the colonies deny England the right to impose taxes ? What act did parliament pass ? What effect did the Stamp Act produce in the colonies ? In what manner did they dispense with English goods ? 216 aside. By such measures many workmen in England were de- prived of their living, and some of the most successful manufac- tories had to stop. Benjamin Franklin made his appearance (1766 A. D.) in parliament, in order to defend the rights of the colonies. This most celebrated man, a native of Boston, had been a printer while young, and had acquired great scholarship by private studies. He then composed ingenious, useful, popular writings, founded a public library in Philadelphia, a fire-company, an academy, a hos- pital, and invented the lightning-rod (1752 A. D.) His country had already intrusted him with the most important offices ; he was now postmaster-general of the colonies. He spoke in parliament without fear, plainly, with energy and presence of mind. William Pitt and Edmund Burke, then both members of parliament, also advocated the repeal of the Stamp Act. It was repealed, but at the same time it was declared that parliament had the right to tax the colonies. They contested this right, asserting that they had, originally, the same rights as the mother country, therefore the right to tax themselves, through their provincial assemblies, of their own accord; the more so, because they were denied representation in the English parliament. They declared that taxation without rep- resentation was tyranny. The first colonial congress, meeting in New York (1765 A. D.), made a similar declaration, and a petition to the king and parhament was also sent to England. This coun- try, however, soon again imposed duties on different articles, and sent revenue commissioners and two regiments to the colonies. Bloodshed soon followed. In New York the soldiers killed one man ; in Boston, several. The attempt to raise a revenue by taxa- tion turned out a total failure. England repealed the duties, except on tea. But the colonies also rejected this measure, and when the tea arrived it was, in different places, sent back. In Boston, several men, disguised as Indians, broke open a number of tea- chests and emptied them into the sea (1773 A. D.) What bad results were thereby caused to English workmen and manufacturers ? Who defended the rights of the colonies in parliament ? Give some particulars of Franklin's life. What ofhce did he then hold in the colonies ? What mem- bers of parliament did also advocate the repeal of the Stamp Act ? Was it re- pealed ? What right did parliament assert it possessed ? Did the colonies acknowl- edge this right? Why not? What congress in the colonies made a similar declaration ? What did parliament again impose ? What further did it do against the colonies ? Where was the first blood shed? What article was not exempted from taxation? How were the tea chests handled in Boston ? 217 These events incited parliament to pass the most severe resolu- tions. The port of Boston was closed (i774 A. D.); the partakers in the rebellion, for punishment, were to be carried to England ; Franklin lost his office of postmaster-general. The colonists began to think of armed resistance. They called the first continental con- gress at Philadelphia, in which they agreed upon a declaration of rights, recommended the suspension of all commercial intercourse with England, and sent another petition to the king. The Massa- chusetts assembly organized a corps of militia called " minute-men," and formed a "committee of safety," with John Hancock for chairman. Washington organized the mihtia of Virginia, and Pat- rick Henry exclaimed : " I repeat it, sir, we must fight ! Give me liberty or give me death ! " General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British, learning that there were some mihtary suppUes at Con- cord, sent a body of men to destroy them. When they reached Lexington they found a small body of minute-men there. An English officer rode up to them, saying : " Disperse, you rebels ! " As the Americans did not obey, he ordered the soldiers to fire. Eight Americans were killed and several wounded; the rest dis- persed. The British then marched on to Concord, where they destroyed the stores. On their retreat to Charlestown they lost about 280 men; the Americans about 90. The colonies immediately called their men to arms, and Gage was soon beleaguered in Boston by 20,000 Americans. A month after (in May, 1775), large reinforcements of British troops reached Boston from England. Gage therefore resolved to commence operations. The Americans suspected this, and sent a force of 800 men to pre-occupy Bunker Hill. One of the officers, however, led the troops to Breed's Hill, directly opposite Boston, where they, during the night-time, erected an earthwork. Three thousand regulars, under General Howe, crossed in boats to storm it, behind which about 1,500 Americans, under Prescott, lay. The British made two assaults, but were severely repulsed by the Amer- icans. These, however, having completely used up their ammuni- tion, the British, in a third assault, carried the defenses (June 17th). But the victory was dearly won, for they had lost 1,000 men; the What resolutions did parliament then adopt ? What precautions did the col- onists take now ? Especially Massachusetts ? Washington ? Relate how Gen- eral Gage destroyed the military supplies at Concord. How many men did he lose ? Give an account of the action at Breed's Hill. What was the number of men lost on both sides ? 218 Americans only 450. Meanwhile a second continental congress was held in Philadelphia, in which the confederation of the thirteen colonies was declared, they receiving the name of the " United Col- onies" (May, 1775). It voted to raise an army of 20,000 men, chose George Washington as commander-in-chief, and sent Frank- lin off to France in order to gain the support of that country. Soon after the action at Lexington, Ethan Allen, with a small band of volunteers, took Fort Ticonderoga by stratagem, the fortress being guarded by over 100 pieces of artillery; Fort Crown Point surrendered with equal, ease. The invasion of Canada with two- columns was also planned — the first under Schuyler and Montgom- ery, the other under Benedict Arnold ; but it was a failure. It was known that a large British army would arrive in the spring (1776 A. D.); accordingly, Washington was ordered to take Boston. He erected batteries on the Heights of Dorchester (now South Boston). This was done suddenly and secretly, and placed the city at the mercy of his cannon. General Howe surrendered,, on condition that he should be allowed to withdraw with his troops.. Washington occupied Boston. The first offensive movements of the British in the south were directed against Charleston, South Carohna (1776 A. D.) The entrance to the harbor was defended by a fort (afterwards named Fort Moultrie), made of sand and palmetto-logs, and garrisoned by 400 men, under Colonel Moultrie. A land and naval attack made on this work was a complete failure. In a few days the expedition sailed for New York, South Carolina received the thanks of con- gress and the country for the gallant defense of Charleston. The British parliament proclaimed the Americans rebels, and raised a large army to crush them (1776 A. D.) Consequently, the Ameri- cans could see that nothing short of independence would now do. Thomas Paine, the secretary of the congress, in his " Common Sense,"^ first proclaimed the grand words : . " The free and independent States of America." The effect of this pamphlet was electric ; it inflamed the minds of the Americans to declare themselves independent.* What was resolved upon in the second continental congress ? Who took Fort Ticonderoga ? What of the invasion of Canada ? What orders were given to Washington ? How did he succeed ? What of Charleston ? Who defended the fort ? Who succeeded ? What did congress do ? Who first proclaimed the word, " Independence ? " What of the pamphlet, "Common Sense ? " * " I published the pamphlet 'Common Sense.' The success it met with was beyond anything since the invention of printing. The demand ran to not less than 100,000 copies." — Th. Paine, Pol. Works. By the sale of this pamphlet Paine had an opportunity to enrich himself, but he came out poor, for he presented the copyright to each of the colonies. 219 On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution that the " United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States." This was earnestly debated and adopted July 2d. A committee of congress had been appointed to prepare a. Declaration of Independefice . It was written by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. On the 4th of July, 1776, it was adopted by congress. The thirteen colonies then became the United States of America,, the royal emblems were destroyed, and balls were made out of the wrecks of the statue of George III. §93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. La- fayette. Surrender of Burgoyne. French Alliance. Surrender of Corn^A^allis. Treaty of Paris. Washington the First President. The war went on. England was fighting with German mer- cenaries who had been sold to this end by the sovereigns of Hesse, Brunswick and Hanover. Washington, the commander-in-chief, was the son of a rich planter in Virginia. He had made of himself a good surveyor at sixteen. At nineteen he was made adjutant of one of the Virginia militia districts, with the rank of major. Even then he was looked upon as a young man of uncommon promise. Now, as he was placed at the head of the federal army, his military talents appeared to full advantage. His troops were not drilled ; they were in want of the necessary requisites for war, often even pay and food ; still by courage, foresight and restless activity he overcame all these impediments. The first contests were, in fact, unfavorable for the Americans. In the battle of Long Island they lost about 2,000 men (1776 A. D.); the British General Howe captured Fort Washington with about 3,000 Americans, and General Lee, whom Washington frequently ordered to join him with his force, did not obey him. It was but recently discovered that he was a traitor to the American cause. These successes made the enemies haughty and careless, but Washington surprised them at Trenton, where he captured one thou- sand Hessians (1776 A. D.), and at Princeton (1777 A. D.), and routed them. Franklin's negotiations at the French court were so Who offered the resolution of independence in congress ? When was it adopted ? Who wrote the Declaration of Independence ? When was it adopted ? What of the statue of George III.? | 93. With what auxiliaries did Eng- land fight the Americans ? Give some account of Washington's youth ? Who gained the battle of Long Island and captured Fort Washington ? What of General Lee ? Of the battles at Trenton and at Princeton ? 220 ■effective beforehand that officers with implements of war were secretly permitted to go to America. Many volunteers also came to assist the sons of liberty. Among them Lafayette, Kosciusko, Count Pulaski, Barons de Kalb and Steuben, distinguished themselves. The former, at his own expense, fitted out a ship for the Americans and hastened to join them, in spite of an order by the court for- bidding him to do so, and shed his blood for them. In the campaign of 1777, Washington went to Brandy wine to prevent the British from moving northward to Philadelphia, but was defeated, and the British took possession of this city. He then attacked a portion of the British army at German town, but was again repulsed. The enemies also took Forts Mifflin and Mercer, below Philadelphia. Washington then went into winterquarters at Valley Forge. It was a gloomy winter; his army was dispirited and miserably supplied ; many soldiers were barefooted ; they were scantily clad, ill-fed and unpaid. In these times, " that tried men's souls," Thomas Paine published and continued a new series of pamphlets to the end of the war, entitled " The Crisis," by which he raised the sunken spirit of the American army, and powerfully promoted the work which led to the glorious result of the contest. More brilhant were the successes of the Americans in New . York State. Burgoyne, the British general, sent two detachments to capture a qua;ntity of stores at Bennington, Vermont ; both were defeated by the Colonels John Stark and Warner, with a body of " Green Mountain Boys " and New Hampshire militia. He then advanced on Stillwater, where he was defeated; he next attempted to retreat to Fort Edward. The Americans, under General Gates, advanced so rapidly that they cut off his retreat, and surrounded his army at Saratoga ; he had to surrender with nearly 6,000 men (October 17th). When the French king heard of Burgoyne's surrender, he hesi- tated no longer; he acknowledged the independence of the United States, made a treaty of alliance with them, and assisted them with What did Franklin effect at the court of the French king ? What volunteers aided the Americans ? What of Lafayette ? Of the battles at Brandywine and Germantown? Of Forts Mifflin and Mercer ? Describe the winterquarters in Valley Forge. By what pamphlets did Thomas Paine encourage the army ? What were the successes of the Americans in the State of New York ? Who defeated Burgoyne at Bennington ? Where was he again defeated ? Who captured his army at Saratoga ? How many men were made prisoners ? Who made a treaty ■of alliance with the United States ? 221 money and troops. Spain and Holland joined France, and in the East Indies the formidable Hyder Ali was fighting England (see § 90). Humiliated, England now offered peace to the colonies ; but not willing to acknowledge their independence, the contest was con- tinued. In Germany, Emperor Joseph II. forbade the levymg of troops for England; Frederic II. also declared for America. About 2,000 German mercenaries deserted from the British army to the Americans. The contest continued, but for three years showed no great results ; therefore a summary of the events will suffice for the out- lines of a Universal History. In April, 17 78," a French fleet sailed for America, the effect of which was the retreat of the British from Philadelphia. Washington followed and overtook them near Mon- mouth, New Jersey. Here an action took place, but owing to the bad conduct of General Lee, nothing was gained. He was dis- missed from service for insolent behavior to General Washington. When the French fleet arrived in America, it sailed out to give bat- tle to the British. But a violent storm arose, which so damaged it that it had to put into Boston for repairs. After refitting, it sailed for the West Indies, and the British had to follow it. A British division, sent by General Clinton, captured Savannah and defeated General Ash at Brier Creek. One year after, the French fleet returned from the West Indies, and appeared off Savannah (1779 A. D.) It assaulted the city, with General Lincoln, but the attack was repulsed ; after this the fleet sailed home. The next year (1780 A. D.) Clinton took Charleston with about 5,000 men. Gates was defeated at Sander's Creek. Marion, Sumter, and other dashing officers, however, collected irregular troops, and carried on a partisan warfare. Eight of them attacked and defeated a large force of British and royalists on King's Moun- tain. At Cowpens, General Morgan whipped the British cavalry leader, Tarleton. General Green attacked the British at Guilford Court House, at Ninety-six and Eutaw Springs, but the actions were not decisive. Some other incidents of these campaigns must yet be mentioned. What of Spain, Holland and Hyder Ali ? Why was the war continued ? What of Joseph II. ? Of Frederic II. ? Of German mercenaries ? Give an account of the operations of the French fleet. Who captured Savannah ? What city did Clinton lake the next year ? What officers carried on a partisan warfare ? Who was successful on King's Mountain ? Who at Cowpens ? At Guilford Court House .■*" At Ninety-six ? At Eutaw Springs ? 222 During the summer of 1779, the American commissioners at Paris iitted out a squadron, which was placed under command of Paul Jones, a brave Scotch-American. He fell in with two English frigates convoying a fleet of merchantmen, attacked them, and after a bloody fight, captured both. — General Benedict Arnold had been court-martialed for appropriating public money, but was forgiven by Washington, and put by him in command of the fortress of West Point. Being filled with a desire for revenge, Arnold promised to General Clinton in New York, to deliver up West Point for a reward of 10,000 pounds sterling and a general's commission (1780 A. D.) The general sent Major Andre to him for a personal interview, who, when returning in disguise, was seized by three militiamen, and hung as a spy. Arnold escaped to a British vessel. Congress gave each of the captors a medal, and a pension for life. — In the course of the war the paper money of congress depreciated greatly in value. It took thirty, and at last fifty and sixty dollars of it to make one dollar in specie. It finally became impossible to purchase provisions with this currency. Washington had to take supplies from the surround- ing country. The winter of 1 780-1 781 brought new sufferings to his soldiers, and 1,300 of the Pennsylvania line left the camp and marched for Philadelphia in order to demand relief from congress. A committee of congress met them at Princeton, satisfied their de- mands, and they returned to camp. In order to better the con- dition of the army, congress appointed Robert Morris, a wealthy Philadelphia merchant, financial agent of the government. At last (178 1 A. D.) the decision of the long contest drew near. At Yorktown, in Virginia, CornwaUis, the British general, fortified himself, because Clinton, in New York, wished him to be on hand in case Washington should attack New York. Washington really had formed the design of attacking the British in New York ; but he now gave it up, as he thought he could accomplish more by striking a blow at CornwaUis in Virginia. He, however, continued What of Paul Jones ? Give an account of Benedict Arnold's treason. What of Major Andre ? How was he captured and punished ? How were his captors rewarded ? In what condition was the paper money of congress ? What bad effects did its depreciation produce ? What of the Pennsylvania soldiers ? Who was appointed financial agent ? Where was the contest of the United States with Great Britain finally decided ? Why did CornwaUis fortify himself at Yorktown ? What design had Washington really formed ? Why did he give it up ? In what manner did he deceive Clinton ? When did he march for York- town? 223 to act so as to make Clinton think he was really going to attack New York. In September, when everything was ready, he suddenly drew off and made forced marches for Yorktown. Here, united with Lafayette, Kosciusko and the French general, he surrounded the British army from the land side, while the French fleet blocked up the British by sea. CornwaUis stood the siege for three weeks. Fmd- ing his situation hopeless, he surrendered his army of over 7,000 men with the implements of war (19th of October). After this blow England abandoned all hope of subduing her colonies. She offered them first a separate peace, and consented, as the demand was rejected, to general peace by the treaty of Paris (3d of Sept., 1783). By this treaty Great Britain acknowledged the independ- ence of the United States. Their boundaries were agreed upon as extending northward to the Great Lakes, and westward to the Missis- sippi.— The siege of Gibraltar, begun during this war by the Span- iards, is yet to be mentioned. Elliott, the English general, defended the fortress for three years, and finally destroyed their floating bat- teries with red-hot cannon balls. To the young republic the care of framing a suitable federal constitution still remained. A convention of delegates from all the States met for this purpose in Philadelphia. But when they con- sidered the old constitution (adopted in 1777, and called the "Arti- cles of Confederation"), they found it so faulty that it was resolved to form a new constitution. It was framed, and adopted by a majority of the people (i 787-1 789 A. D.) Washington was twice president of the United States, the capital of which received his name. He administered the laws with vigor and wisdom. After the expiration of his terms he returned to his country home at Mount Vernon, where he died in 1799, praised by his fellow-citizens as the founder of their liberty. In his last will he declared his slaves free, and bequeathed considerable sums for the foundation of a university, and a free school for poor children. His friend Frank- lin had died several years before (1790 A. D.) He also had be- queathed large sums for the establishment of useful institutions. How was the British army hemmed in by land and sea ? How long did Corn- wallis stand the siege ? Give an account of the capitulation. What was the result of the victory ? Give the date of the treaty. What did this treaty acknowl- edge? State what is said of the boundaries of the United States. What of the siege of Gibraltar during this war ? What of the origin of the constitution of the United States ? Who was the first president ? What was his last will ? What legacies did he bequeath ? 224 The National Assembly of France publicly mourned his demise. Below his bust they wrote the words : " He seized the lightning from the heaven, and the sceptres from the tyrants " (eripuit fulgus coelis and sceptra tyrannis). SECOND OHAPTEE-HISTOEY OP CIVILIZATION, I 94. Political Condition of Europe. Constitution of the United States. In Europe the motive of the poHtical actions was no longer religious inspiration, but narrow-minded policy. It was the princi- ple of politics to preserve the equilibrium between the separate States, especially between France and Austria. The nations were little more than a property of the governing families. Their liberty and independence was out of the question. The luxury of the courts and the standing armies consumed the blessings of nature and the fruits of labor. Agriculture and industry, in fact, throve, but the landlords and the owners of factories, for the most part, earned the profit of the workmen. In Germany, especially, the two-fold yoke of the landlords and the sovereigns oppressed the people. The meetings of the diets were changed into mere con- gresses of embassadors ; and in Switzerland the levying of mercen- aries continued. In America, William Penn gave to his colony an excellent consti- tution ; the two principal points in his legislation were civil and relig- ious liberty. He declared to the people : " You shall be governed by laws of your own making. As liberty of conscience is a right which all men have received from nature with their existence, it is resolved that nobody shall be compelled to assist at any kind of public wor- ship." Agriculture and commerce should be the principal founda- tion of his colony. Down to the Declaration of Independence, the colonies were all under the dominion of the crown of England but How did the National Assembly of France manifest its grief when Franklin died ? What words were written below his bust ? ? 94. What was the motive for political actions in Europe ? What was the principle of politics ? How were the nations considered by the sovereigns ? How were the blessings of the coun- tries consumed ? Who earned the profit, for the most part, from real estates and factories ? Who, in America, gave to his colony a good constitution ? What were its two principal points? 'What did he say about liberty of conscience? What shovild be the foundation of his colony ? 225 governed in different ways, mostly by royal governors, who were appointed by the crown ; some by proprietors, as Pennsylvania and Maryland ; others by charters given by the king, and granting certain political rights and privileges, as Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Penn's constitution in later time became the foundation of the constitution of the United States. According to this document, they form a confederacy consisting of different independent repub- lics, which, by the general congress, are united. This congress has the right to make contracts, to declare war, to make general laws and to levy taxes. It is composed of the House of Representatives and of the Senate; its members are the delegates of the different States. The executive power belongs to the President of the United States; he is also the general-in- chief of the army and appoints, as a rule, the civil officers of the United States, with the consent of the Senate. Both he and the members of Congress are periodically elected. No law can be made against liberty of religion and the press, nor against the right to petition the government. The constitutions of the single States are framed upon similar principles. Every citizen is hound to mili- tary service. In the United States there is neither a State Church nor a caste of nobihty. — Slavery was tolerated in the Southern States. I 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J.J.Rousseau. Abolition of the Order of Jesuits. Religious toleration was almost unknown in Europe, proof of which is seen in the persecutions of the Protestants in France,. Hungary and England (see § 85, § 87 and § 88). In the arch- bishopric of Saltzburg also 20,000 Protestants had to emigrate,, because persecuted by the bishop (1731 A. D.) Single individuals were also persecuted. When J. J. Rousseau published his far-famed By whom were the colonies governed ? Especially Pennsylvania and Mary- land ? Massachusetts, etc. ? Give the outlines of the Constitution of the United States. What do they form? What rights has the congress ? How is it composed ? To whom belongs the executive power ? What other preroga- tives does the President possess ? What of the term of the offices of the Presi- dent and of the members of congress ? What of liberty of religion and the press ? Of the right of petition ? How are the constitutions of the single States framed ? To what service is every citizen bound ? Is there in the United States a State Church or a caste of nobility ? In what part of the Union was slavery tolerated? I95. What about religious toleration in Europe ? Give examples. How was J. J. Rousseau and his book "Emile" treated? (15) 226 book " Emile," it excited the hatred of the Catholic and Protestant clergy ; the book was burned in Paris, torn into pieces by the hang- man in Geneva, and he himself banished from this city, though he was a citizen of it. North America was more tolerant as regards religious liberty. William Penn and the charter of Rhode Island granted liberty of conscience, yet even here some instances of persecution occurred. When the Quakers settled among the Puritans in New England, violent religious quarrels arose between the two sects. The Quakers were banished, and if they returned to the colony, flogged, imprisoned and executed. After some time capital punishment was abolished. Presumptive witches, too, were often accused of sorcery, and several were burned at the stake. — Sectarianism was increasing. In the Protestant Church the Quakers, Pietists and Herrenhuters took origin, and aside from many sound principles, they confessed also some eccentric opinions. About the middle of the eighteenth century the epoch of Rationalism began, as liberal authors commenced to interpret the Bible in such a manner that its contents would harmonize with the dictates of reason. The Deists attacked every revealed religion, preserving only the belief in God (Deus). Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau and Thomas Paine are the most prominent among them. The for- mer wielded the weapons of wit and irony against superstition with great success ; on the contrary, it was warmth of feeling by which Rousseau promoted religious enlightenment. Thomas Paine, in his book, " The Age of Reason," subjected the Bible to severe criticism. A hard blow was struck at papacy during this period by the abolition of the Order of Jesuits. As their general procurator in France transmitted a large sum for a debt to a trading-house in Marseilles, and the money was captured by the English, that house demanded payment from the entire Order in France: as it was refused, a law-suit was commenced against it, which brought on an examination of its inner organization. Choiseul, minister of Louis XV., found that the society was endangering the State ; it was there- fore abolished (1764 A. D.) Where, in America, was liberty of conscience granted ? How did the Puri- tans in New England deal with the Quakers and witches ? What new sects originated in the Protestant Church ? What of Rationalism ? Of Deists ? Give the names of some prominent Deists. By what methods did Voltaire and Rousseau attack superstition ? By what incidents was the abolition of the Order of Jesuits in France, .Spain and Portugal brought about ? W^hat did the Order in France refuse to pay ? What minister caused its abolishment ? Why ? 227 The Spanish Jesuits had founded a State in Paraguay and Uru- guay, which they governed under Spain's sovereignty. As, at that time, Spain intended to cede some portions of that State to Portu- gal, the natives, led by the Jesuits, opposed the government and commenced war. Besides, the Jesuits in Portugal were said to have participated in a secret conspiracy against King Joseph I, Therefore, Pombal, the energetic minister of the king, required the pope to abohsh the Order in Portugal, and as he did not consent to do it, the minister abolished it himself, and dispatched the Fathers to Rome. Their goods were confiscated; the war in Paraguay caused also their suspension in Spain (1767 A. D.) In one day their colleges were closed, their treasures seized, and they them- selves carried to Rome. Pope Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli), at last abolished the Order in all countries (1773 A. D.) ; it was tolerated only in Russia and Prussia. 1 96. Arts and Sciences. Inventions. Cook's Voyages of Discovery. Civilization spread in Europe, aflecting even the lower ranks. New universities were estabhshed, and public libraries, observatories, botanical gardens, academies, normal schools, ladies' seminaries and institutions for the deaf and dumb founded. In the United States were founded, during this period, Harvard University (1636 A. D.), William and Mary College (1692 A. D.), Yale College (1700 A. D.) and Brown University (1764 A. D.) The first newspaper was printed in Boston (1704 A. D.) In France, under Louis XIV., the sciences and arts celebrated their golden era. All were cultivated in special academies. French became the favorite language of the courts and well-educated peo- ple. Paris was the center of modern culture. Some of the most renowned artists and scholars of that country were Peter Corneille (le Cid) and Racine (Iphigenie), tragic poets, and Moliere, the ■greatest writer of comedies. His best plays are " The Miser " and What had the Spanish Jesuits founded in Paraguay and Uruguay? Who commenced war against the government ? Who were the leaders of the war ? How were they punished ? What was the reason of their suspension in Por- tugal ? Who abolished the Order in all countries ? 1 96. What was the condi- tion of civilization in Europe ? By what institutes was it promoted ? What iiniversities and colleges were founded in the United States ? Under whom did arts and sciences, in France, celebrate their golden era ? Which was the favorite language of the courts ? What city was the center of modern culture ? Name tragic poets. Who wrote the best comedies ? 228 • " TartufFe." In the latter play he represents a hypocrite who, under the mask of piety, hides a vicious life. Others on the list were : Boileau, the French Horace ; La Fontaine and Florian, fabulists ; Fenelon, author of Telemaque, a novel which was translated into all languages of Europe ; Montesquieu, who in his work, " Spirit of the Laws, " recommends England's constitution as the best ; the natu- ralist Buftbn, and the two philosophers, Voltaire and J. J. Rousseau (who both died in the same year, 1778 A. D.) Voltaire was also poet, historian and mathematician. Some of his best works are : " The Henriade," an epic poem, in which he celebrates Henry IV. ; his plays, " Death of Csesar " and "Zaire, " and the life of Charles XII. Rousseau wrote " Emile, " and " The Social Contract." The first work treats of education and instruction ; the second of demo- cratic constitution. Philosophers : Bayle and Descartes ; pulpit orators, Bossuet, Bourdaloue and Massillon ; novelists, Le Sage (the adventures of " Gil Bias, " and the " Limping Devil," both satuic fictions, picturing the dissolute manners of his age), etc. Both works received much praise. The gigantic work of the encyclopedists d'Alembert, Diderot and others comprises all sciences and arts. England emulated France in superiority of its civihzation, and even surpassed it in political eloquence, as well as in the mathemat- ical and philosophical sciences. Some of her poets were : Gold- smith (" The Vicar of Wakefield,'' " The Deserted Village," " She Stoops to Conquer"), Young, Pope ("The Rape of the Lock"), Richard B. Sheridan ("The School for Scandal"), Thomson, etc. The latter, in the Seasons, described the charms of nature. Essay- ists : Addison (" The Spectator"), Steele ("The Tattler"), and Dean Swift. Philosophers : Locke (Essay on Human Under- standing), etc. Among the jjarliamentary orators were : William Pitt, father and son, Fox and Burke. Noted astronomers : Hallai, Newton (who already, when twenty-four years old, made great discoveries in mathematics), and Herschel, a German, who resided in London, and aided by his gigantic telescope, greatly enlarged the knowledge of the starry heavens. Among the Americans Franklin excelled in philosophical and practical writings. Thomas Paine, by his theological and political Who is represented by " Tartuffe ? " What fabulists ?■ What of Telemaque ? What did Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau write? What the encyclopedists ? In what sciences did England surpass France ? Name some English poets, philosophers, orators and astronomers; some American authors ; some German mathematicians, philosophers, poets, pedagogues and composers. 229 works (" Common Sense, " " The Crisis "). Holland: Spinoza, one of the greatest philosophers of his age (1677 A. D). Germany was sUghtly less advanced in civilization. Still, it already had great mathematicians, e. g., Fahrenheit, and sagacious philosophers, as Thomasius, who fearlessly opposed the trials of witches, Leibniz, Lessing, but especially Kant. The most eminent poets were Lessing, author of the plays " Emilia Galotti," " Minna von Barnhelm," and " Nathan the Wise." In the latter he exposes the sad consequences of superstition, and recommends religious toleration. There were besides, Klopstock, author of " The Mes- siade," Wieland, Goethe and Schiller (see § 133). Basedow and Salzman deserved well in the department of education. Celebrated composers were Gluck, Joseph Haydn and Mozart. — In Sweden Linne classified all plants according to the number of their stamens. In Italy sciences and arts were sinking ; but still the poets Gozzi and Alfieri, the mathematicians Cassini and Toricelli, and the statu- ary Canova were prominent. In this period were invented : The barometer, the thermometer, the air-pump and the lightning rod (by Franklin, 1752 A. D.); the balloon by Montgolfiere (1783 A. D.), and the steam engine by Watt (1764 A. D.) Under George III., James Cook made his great voyages of dis- covery. In his youth he was a sailor, then became crew's cook, and later assistant of the pilot. Understanding the advantage of mathematical knowledge, he provided instruction for himself by his savings, and became a great navigator. His first voyage was to the Pacific Ocean (1768-1771 A. D.) In New Zealand he dis- covered hemp ; on the second voyage he discovered New Caledonia, South Georgia and the Sandwich land. On the third, he should examine if it was possible to pass from the Atlantic through Belir- ing's Straits into the Pacific Ocean, and if, by this passage the East Indies could be reached sooner than by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope. He found in that northern region, in the midst of summer, impenetrable masses of ice, so that he was persuaded that Who was the great German philosopher ? What does Lessing recommend in *' Nathan the Wise ? " What renowned botanist of Sweden classified all plants ? What eminent poets, mathematicians and statuaries in Italy ? What inventions were made in this period ? Who was James Cook ? In what way did he be- come a great navigator ? In what ocean did he make his first voyage ? What discoveries did he make on the second voyage ? What was the obj ect of the third voyage ? Why did he not find his enterprise practicable ? Where was he killed ? 230 his enterprise was impracticable. He afterwards discovered the Sandwich Islands, but was there killed in a quarrel with the savages (1779 A. D.) KXERCISES. Biographies: Peter I. — (a) his self-education by journeys, ((^) his reforms, (c) his conduct towards his domestic enemies (towards his sister, first wife, son and body-guards); against foreign enemies (Charles XII. and the Turks); (d) his dealings with Menshikoff and Catharine. William Penn. — (a) founder of a colony in Pennsylvania, (i) constitution of the colony. Frederic II. — {a) in the Silesian wars, ((5) in the seven years' war, (c) at the partition df Poland, (d) in peace. Joseph II. — (a) his political and religious reforms, (d) their results. Washington. — (a) in war, (d) during peace. Franklin — (a) a self-educated man, (5) a popular author and inventor, (c) the representative of the colonies in England, {d) embassador in France, (e) his end. — Describe the contest of the United States for independence under the following headings: i. Causes of the war. 2. Forces of the British. 3. Foixes of the Americans, giving the names of their most important patriots and allies. 4. Their victories. 5. Their independence. Describe the battle at Bunker Hill. The constitution of the United States. In what countries were the Protestants persecuted ? When were the wars of the Spanish and Austrian succession waged ? And when the seven years' and the American wars ? In what wars did England and Austria jointly fight against France ? How many years elapsed from St. Bartholomew to the first partition of Poland? How long did Louis XIV., Peter I. and Frederic II. govern? How many years after Louis XIV. did Peter I. die ? . Give the names of two renowned French authors who died in the same year. 231 NINTH PERIOD FrotT] the Frencl^ Revolutioq to the Second Peace of Paris, Revolutioq and Political Reforms \r\ France, Wars Caused by It, Fronq 1789 to 1815 A, D, A. PEENOH EEVOLUTION. 1. POLITICAL EEFOEMS IN FB,AKCE-1789 to 1792 A. D. § 97. Causes and Effects of the French Revolution. The revolution of the British colonies in America, in which France took such an energetic part, also excited in this country a longing for similar rights and liberties as the brave Americans had acquired. Ingenious authors like Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rous- seau enlightened the people concerning their rights. But the prin- cipal causes of the great revolution which shook not only France, but the whole of Europe, were the great demorahzation among the higher ranks of that country, the defective organization of the State, and the utter ruin of its finances. Nowhere had corruption of morals permeated everything so deeply as among the higher castes of France. Luxury and volup- tuousness had their sway in the courts of, Louis XIV. and of the dis- sipated Louis XV. Unbounded were the expenses of these kings. Besides, nobiUty and clergy were ignorant and haughty. The kmgs governed like tyrants ; the offices were venal, the tribunals hable to bribery. The public charges were divided very unequally. While the nobihty possessed immense property and took hold of all high civil and military employments, they contributed almost nothing to the 1 97. What were the causes of the French revolution? How were the morals of the higher classes in France ? What of the expenses of the kings ? Were the public charges divided equally ? What of the possessions of the nobility and clergy ? To whom did the tithes belong ? What did the nobility and clergy contribute to the public taxes ? 232 public taxes. The numerous clergy held the finest part of the country, collected the tithes in the whole realm, and offered nothing for that to the State but voluntary, insignificant presents. Besides, there was an army of privileged ones who were largely exempted from taxation. The people, on the contrary, succumbed under the pressure of the public charges. Land-taxes, poll-taxes, property- taxes and a hundred other taxes were devised to exhaust their resources. The peasant, especially, was obliged to pay tithe; besides, he was a bondman, and forced to do socage-service. And finally, the common people had to do military service, while noble and distinguished men performed it only at their own free will. The last shock, which caused the outburst of the revolution, was given by the ruin of the finances; for the public debts had increased to an enormous degree, and the income of the State did not any longer suffice, by a large sum, to cover the expenses. The people could not give any more, and . the nobility and clergy would not, therefore revolution began. Unhappy, indeed, were its first effects upon France and Europe. Still, the former gained, forever, a free constitution, and in the other countries of Europe the rights of the citizens ever since were more highly appreciated. I 98. National Assembly. The Third Estate. Mirataeau. Louis XVL, called the Long-desired, ascended the throne in 1774. His minister of finances, Necker, the friend of the people, demanded a limitation of the expenses of the court, and a reform of the system of taxes; but the court and the higher orders opposed this. He, therefore, resigned his ofiice, and, regretted by the whole nation, left the country (17S1 A. D.) New loans were procured, but finally*, when it was impossible to longer meet the ■ exigencies of the government, the king called an assembly of the notables — the chiefs of the nobility and clergy, and some deputies of the towns — in order to deliberate with them on the necessary ways and means in order to save the State. As the minis- ter of finances proposed a general taxation of the nobility and clergy, as well as of the commons, they vehemently opposed it, and Was the peasant free ? What about military service ? What gave to the revolution the last shock ? What were the first effects of the revolution? What its final gain ? \ 98. What did Minister Necker demand ? Who opposed him ? What followed after his resignation ? Whom vi^as the king obliged to call ? What for ? What did the minister of finances propose ? How was his demand received ? 233 compelled him to run away. The nation demanded the convoca- tion of the States- General, because it expected no relief but from that body, and the king, at last, yielded to the demand. Necker, too, was re-appointed minister of the finances. At his advice, the king declared himself to be ready to give up his unlimited power, and called 600 delegates of the third estate, and 600 more, partly of the nobility and partly of the clergy. They convened in Versailles, but the deputies of the commons were sHghted. They were not admitted into the rooms of the king, like those of the higher orders. They were obliged to wait for a time in a shed, etc. The clergy and nobihty insisted that there should be three assemblies, each possessing a veto on the acts of the others, while the commons demanded that ail should be united m one general assembly, without any distinction of orders. After long, useless negotiations the commons declared themselves the " National Assembly," representing the great majority of the nation. The people were delighted by this declaration, but the king was so provoked that he gave orders to stop the sessions of the diet, and locked up the hall of their meetings. Then the commons assem- bled in the tennis-court, and swore rather to die than to separate be- fore the promised State reform was accompHshed. The majority of the clergy now united with them. Now the king himself made his appearance in their midst, and expressed his displeasure to them, commanding them to vote by orders, in three special assemblies, and to separate. He went off. The deputies still remained in their seats. Then the royal master of ceremonies came, and repeated the king's order to evacuate the hall. In this decisive moment Count Mirabeau rose, exclaiming : " Report to those who sent you that we are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but the force of bayonets can drive us away from our seats." At the same time the delegates declared all who would assail them traitors of the country. The king, seeing the firmness of the commons, yielded, What did the nation demand? What did the king do? Who was re-ap- pointed? What munber of delegates was called? Where did they meet? How were the deputies of the commons treated ? How many assemblies did the nobility and clergy want ? What did the commons demand ? What declar- ation did they make ? Who was provoked by their declaration? What orders did he give ? What next of the commons ? What did they swear to risk ? Who appeared in their midst ? What order did the master of ceremonies de- liver ? What did Mirabeau reply ? What did the delegates then declare ? What was the final effect of the declaration ? 234 because a general insurrection was to be feared, and ordered the two other houses to unite with them. I 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of Feudal Servitude. But the king had only simulated acquiescence; he collected 50,000 men, for the most part foreign troops, around Paris and Ver- sailles, with the intention of dispersing the National Assembly and. of capturing its boldest speakers. The city of Paris was vehemently agitated by this measure ; even the women exhorted to a vigorous resistance. The French guards swore they would not fight the citizens, and other national troops followed their example. The National Assembly requested the king in several addresses to with- draw the foreign troops, in order that they might be able to deliberate in a free and undisturbed way ; he proposed to the Assembly to with- draw to another place, remote from the capital ; but Mirabeau in- sisted upon the demand that he should withdraw the troops. The king persisted in his refusal, dismissed Necker, and selected ministers from the party of the court. The dismission of Necker was the signal of the general insurrec- tion in Paris, where the dissolution of the National Assembly and an attack of the foreign troops was feared. The alarm-bells were sounded, arms hurriedly forged, 30,000 guns taken from the hospital of the invalids, and in two days 60,000 men armed. Now the out- cry was heard : " No peace nor liberty as long as the Bastile is standing!" The bands rushed upon the fortress (the 14th of July),, and, assisted by the French guards, after a few hours took the place which the court imagined to be impregnable. Its conquest cost the life of many citizens; but the garrison was put to the sword, the old bulwark of tyranny was demolished, and songs of liberty resounded throughout the city and the whole country. In Versailles, meanwhile, festivals were arranged, at which the princes and princesses lavished presents and caresses on the soldiers. The night from the 14th to the 15th of July was set down for the execution of a violent measure.' The commander of the royal troops had received full power to carry it out. The king should g 99. Wherefore did the king collect an army ? How did this measure affect Paris and the French guards ? What did the National Assembly request of the king ? What measures did he take ? Give an account of the insurrec- tion in Paris, and of the capture of the Bastile. What was meanwhile arranged in Versailles ? What violent measure was to be executed in the night of the 14th of July ? 235 take to flight, the National Assembly should be dissolved, and the royal power restored. A carriage was continually kept ready for the flight, and the body-guards did not undress for several days. The National Assem- bly knew all these projects. Afraid of being dispersed and of see- ing the States-Hall forcibly locked up, it was also sitting during night. The capture of the Bastile released it from all alarm; finally, the king removed the troops and again recalled Necker. Immediately after the 14th of July, the noblemen left the country in large bands; the princes of the royal house set the example. It was their design to return with open force, and, supported by the foreign countries, to repossess themselves of their old command, and to be revenged by the blood of their enemies. In order to bafile their purpose, national guards were organized in the whole realm ; in eight days three millions of citizens were armed. Instead of the lily,_the three-colored cockade (a ribbon on the hat) was worn. In Paris, the populace sacrificed many victims to its vengeance. Hunger, too, contributed to its excesses. Party-leaders augmented the commotion. The duke of Orleans especially belonged to these. He was a vicious man who, longing for the crown, had bought many, followers among the populace. In the provinces also anarchy pre- vailed. The peasants, crying, " Peace to the cottages ! War to the palaces!" marched against the castles of the noblemen, against monasteries and toll-houses, and destroyed them. Gangs of rob- bers, committing arson, passed through the land. The National Assembly took serious measures against the ex- cesses of the multitude; but Count Noailles pointed out that the disturbances and the sufferings of the nation generally were caused by the feudal services, under the pressure of which it must sink down. He, therefore, motioned their abolishment. All the members of the Assembly enthusiastically consented to this. In future there ought to be only one nation and one realm. In a few hours the fetters fell which the French nation had borne since the middle ages. Now, in the memorable evening session of the 4th of August, were abolished : Servitude, the torture, every kind of socage, the juris- Why did the Assembly also sit during night ? What of the emigrants ? Who set the example for them ? What was their design ? Why were national guards organized ? What cockade was worn ? What excesses happened in Paris and in the provinces ? What buildings did the peasants destroy ? Who augmented the commotion ? What duke especially? How did the Assembly act then? What did Count Noailles point 'out ? What did he motion? What services were then abolished ? 236 diction of the landlords, the tithes, the privileges of the higher orders in the payment of taxes and in the claims of offices and dig- nities, the venality of the tribunals, all privileges of single provinces, towns and corporations, etc. The clergymen, immediately after that, retracted what they had granted in this night ; but they were -answered that the lands held by the clergy were national property. ^ lOO. Conducting Louis to Paris. The king soon caused troops to again come to Versailles. At a banquet given to them by the body-guards, the queen presented the Dauplim in her arms. They drank, with drawn swords, the health of the royal family. The national cockade was trampled under foot, and the court-ladies distributed the white cockade. After three days the festival was repeated. This caused general indignation in Paris. Added to this, the refusal of the king to approve several articles of the new constitution, the rumor of his imminent flight, and of the secret preparations for a counter revolu- tion, finally famine and want of bread in the capital, the city believed there would be no end of its apprehensions till king and National Assembly were again in the midst of it. The poor, be- sides, hoped for bread and support from the presence of the king. Several thousand women of the suburbs marched to the town- house, where they armed themselves, and from there, led by a citi- zen, advanced towards Versailles. They were followed by a crowd of savage men who were armed with pikes and clubs, in order to make the body-guards, but especially the queen, whose bad influence upon the king was kno"wn, feel their hatred. Finally the national guards also set out to conduct the king to Paris. I^afayette, their commander, went with them only by compulsion, and in order to prevent mischief. The women, who arrived first, expressed their distress to the king, having had no bread for their children for three days, and demanded of him, together with the National Assembly, to declare that he would accept all articles upon which it had already resolved, and go to Paris. The king so declared. At mid- Mention some of them. In what night was this accomplished? Who re- tracted the grant? ^ loo. Relate the doings of the body-guards and of the queen at a banquet. Whom did the city desire to have in her midst? For what reasons ? Who marched to the town-house and from there to Versailles ? Who followed the women ? Why ? Who set out finally ? Why ? What did the women demand ? 237 night the national guards also arrived. At dawn the savage crowd mentioned before, for plunder, assailed the castle, broke into the apartments of the queen, who hardly could escape mto the room of _ the king, and murdered several body-guards. But now Lafayette met the enraged mob, drove them away, and restored peace. The king allowed himself to be led to Paris by the multitude. The heads of two life-guards were carried on pikes m front of the pro- cession The National Assembly soon followed. Louis protested again that he would give up the rights of a sovereign, and become the limited chief of a repubUc. The nation received his declaration with exultation. ^ i e ^ The National Assembly earnestly continued its task, in tuture there ought to be only one chamber of the delegates. To the king the executive power and the right of the veto for a term of two legislatures was conceded, and his person declared inviolable ; but the ministers should be responsible. The church property and the crown-demesne were declared national property, and sold m order to reimburse the national debt. In this manner bankruptcy of the State was avoided. Then the abolishment of all ecclesiastical orders and convents followed. The Church ought to cease to be a State in the State. The sustenance of the king and clergy was honorably provided for. The administration of justice was created anew, especially the jury instituted, citizenship conferred upon the Israehtes, and all titles, escutcheons, and marks of distinction ot the nobility were abrogated. The king consented to all these reso- lutions of the Assembly. On the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile (i4tli of July, 17Q0A D), a general festival of the covenant was celebrated m the Mars-field at Paris, at which the deputies of the national guards and of the troops of the line, the king and the National Assembly swore to maintain the constitution. The same oath was taken the same day by all citizens of France, assembled m large camps. The priests alone, for the most part, refused it. They even provoked the people against the National^Assemblj^^nd^^u^^ led the king to Paris ? What of the heads of the two life-guards ? What d^ the Assembly continue ? What power should the king have ? Who should be responsible? How was bankruptcy of the State avoided? ^l-t of convents ? For whose sustenance was honorably provided? What of a jury? Of titles and . other distinctions of the nobility ? Who consented to these reso utions of the Assembly ? Huw was the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile celebrated ? Who swore allegiance to the constitution ? Who refused the oath ? 238 name of God, preached public revolt. The pope praised their obstinacy, and declared the employments of those who took the oath forfeited. 2. REVOLUTIONARY WARS. I lOl. Flight of the King. The Constitution Finished. While the National Assembly zealously labored for the welfare of the country, the king again planned his flight. Large sums of money were put aside. At the frontier of Luxemburg, where he intended to flee, an army was ready to receive him, and on differ- ent points of the road leading there, divisions of troops were placed for his protection. His intention was, if his flight would succeed, to return with the emigrants, and to again subdue the nation with the assistance of the army and of the German emperor. First the women departed. Then (the 20th of June) the king, the queen, their children, the Count of Provence (oldest brother of the king, and later King Louis XVIII. ), and his sister suddenly disappeared. In a declaration left by Louis, and written by himself, he rejected the resolutions of the National Assembly he had before this ratified, and made known his design to overturn the new organization of the State. France heard the news of his flight calmly. The National Assembly, which was sitting continu- ously for seven days and nights, hastily made the necessary preparations for the government of the realm, and ordered all per- sons to be stopped who would leave the country. Meanwhile, the king had proceeded as far as St. Menehould, in Lorraine. Here postmaster Drouet recognized him; his son, in the midst of night, hastened before him to Varennes. The citizens of^ this town blocked up the bridge over which the king had to ride, and took him prisoner. Now the tocsins were sounded all round, and the king had to return to Paris between the files of the national guards. On his arrival there a death-like silence prevailed. Only now and then the cry was audible : " God save- the nation ! " All heads remained covered ; the arms were lowered, and when Louis alighted at his palace, single voices were heard : " To the lantern ! " What did the priests preach? What of the pope? ^ 10 1. Give an account of the designs and arrangements of the king. Wlio departed first ? Who after- wards ? What declaration did Louis leave ? What preparations did the Assem- bly make ? Who took the king prisoner ? What had he to do ? How was he received in Paris ? 239 In the meantime he was suspended from his office; still, the efforts of the moderate party were successful, and he was soon reinstated. After many domestic storms and obstacles, the National Assem- bly finally finished its grand work, and declaring the revolution ended, it left to the king to designate the place and time for examining the constitution, and, as he pleased, either to accept or reject it. He gave it his approval, and confirmed it by oath. Fes- tivals were celebrated in the whole realm, and a general amnesty proclaimed. Besides the already enumerated articles, the constitu- tion further granted personal liberty, equality before the law, Hberty of conscience and of the press. The National Assembly dissolved itself, and the Legislative took its place (September 30th). Not long before this Count Mirabeau, the soul of the National Assembly and the idol of the people, had died. When the nobility, in the election of the ordres, had passed him unheeded, he took refuge with the commons, was chosen delegate by them, and defended their interests with the greatest energy. He was the first one interred in the church of St. Genevieve, the temple of honor of the great French citizens. This privilege, after him, was conferred upon Voltaire, Rousseau, and others. But when, in later times, his secret correspondence with the king and queen was discovered, his remains were again removed from the temple. I 102. Legislative Assembly. "War of Austria and Prus- sia. Suspension of the King. The Jacobins. The emigrants, the royal princes at their head, together with the foreign sovereigns, rose against the new constitution. On the fron- tier of the realm 30,000 emigrants stood in arms, inciting the for- eign monarchs to wage war against their country.. Several of the latter promised them assistance; Emperor Francis II. threatened it most vehemently of all. The National Assembly had in vain pro- tested its pacific intentions to give up forever all wars of conquest, and inserted the protestation even in the document of the constitu- tion ; it had in vain avoided everything that could offend the em- What could he choose to do when the Assembly had finished the work of the constitution ? What did he do ? What further rights did this document grant ? Who took the place of the Assembly ? What of Mirabeau ? Where was he in- terred ? When were his remains removed from the temple ? | 102. Who rose against the new constitution ? How many emigrants stood in arms on the frontier ? What monarchs promised them assistance ? What had the National Assembly protested ? 240 peror ; he was bent upon war. When France demanded that the electoral prince of Treves should remove the armed emigrants, and in case of refusal, threatened war against him, the emperor sent him auxiliary forces, alhed with Frederic William II., king of Prus- sia, and posted several corps of the army along the French frontier. At last he directly declared that he and his ally had resolved to re- establish the royal power in France. Withal, he called the rulers of that country a furious party, endeavoring to overturn all govern- ments. After this declaration, the Legislative assembly almost unanimously resolved to wage war against the sovereign Francis,, not against his subjects;, on the contrary, it promised to these friendship and protection (1792 A. D.) The king of Prussia, sev- eral other German sovereigns, and Sardinia, supported the emperor. Louis made defective and slow preparations for war, secretly enter- taining the hope of seeing the arms of the allies victorious. The war at the beginning was unfortunate for France. The duke of Brunswick, commander of the united armies of Austria and Prussia, joined besides by 20,000 emigrants, invaded the country and directed his march, without delay, towards the capital. In a proclamation he ordered the nation to repent its acts and to submit, threatening, in case of resistance, punishment and utter destruc- tion. But this outrageous address only tended to further inflame the indignation of the people. New multitudes, determined to live and die for liberty, rushed into the camps. Dumouriez, at Grandpre, m the Champagne, sustained an attack of the more numerous enemies for three days, and Kellerman held his ground at Valmy against the terrible fire of the Prussian cannons. After this the allied army retreated, for the National Convent had declared that it was beneath the dignity of a free people to negotiate with the despots as long as they remained on the soil of liberty. The national army followed the enemies, and leagued with tempests and rains, annihilated most of them. France, after a few months, was entirely released from the foreign mercenaries. In the meantime, Louis XVI. was no longer king. The National What of the electoral prince of Treves? Of the king of Prussia? Of Francis II.? What did the Legislative Assembly declare against the latter? Who supported him? What preparations did Louis make? Hom^ was the commencement of the war for France ? What was the nation, in a proclamation, ordered to do ? What was the effect of this proclamation ? What of Dumouriez and Kellerman? What were the allies forced to do? What was the fate of their armies ? 241 Assembly had already summoned the emigrants to return ; the Legislative Assembly repeated the summons, menacing them with severe penalties. It likewise threatened the priests who declined to take the oath upon the constitution, with the loss of their salary, and imprisonment, if they caused revolts. The king refused his appro- bation to both decrees, and only suffered unsworn priests in his presence. Embittered by this resistance, the suburbs of Paris rose in revolt. When the proclamation of the duke of Brunswick appeared, the country was declared to be in danger, and the insur- rection began again (Aug. lo, 1792 A. D.) The king sought shelter in the hall of the Legislative Assembly, the royal palace having been taken by storm, and most of the Swiss guards, composed of about 1,000 men, were massacred. Several thousands of the people were also killed. The Assembly then declared Louis suspended, for the reason that it was impossible to save Hberty and the country in the midst of so many domestic and foreign dangers, as long as the executive power was in the hands of a ruler who almost openly conspired with the enemies of the people. A National Convent ought to govern in the name of the sovereign people. The nation and the army consented to this resolution. Lafayette, summoning his army to protect the king and the constitution, was forsaken by the troops and compelled to flee ; he was seized by the Austrians and kept in captivity for several years, till Napoleon released him. The nearer the enemies advanced, the more infuriate grew the inhabitants of the capital. The king and his family were imprisoned in the Temple ; several priests who had refused to take the oath, and the followers of the king who had fought against the people were horribly killed, and many citizens proscribed. The Legislative Assembly had lost its power ; the National Convent took its place (the 2ist of September). The club of the Jacobins (sans-culottes)* was much to be blamed for these atrocious deeds. It was so called from the con- vent where its members assembled. It had been founded by What decrees did the king refuse to confirm? What of the suburbs of Paris ? When did the insurrection begin again ? Mention the sad consequences of it. Who was then suspended ? Why ? Who should govern instead of the king ? What accident happened to Lafayette ? Who released him ? Who was imprisoned in the Temple ? What of the refractory priests and the followers of the king ? What body politique took the place of the Legislative ? What club was much to be blamed for the atrocities committed ? * The nick-name sans-culottes (without breeches) was first given by the court party to the poorest class of people ; afterwards it meant an extreme republican, a Jacobin. (16) 242 patriotic deputies, in order to oppose the monarchic club, and became the leader of many similar societies in France ; but immoral and blood-thirsty men later joined it and corrupted its original spirit. Marat, Danton and Robespierre were among the most furious Jacobins. 1 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. First Coalition War. Civil "War. Reign of Terror. The Convent, at its first session, abolished the royal dignity and declared France a republic. The party of the Mountainists, so called because they occupied the highest seats in the convention, assisted by the Jacobins, soon demanded also the life of the king. The Convent, mainly relying on secret papers which were discov- ered in an iron safe behind a wall of the Tuileries, accused Louis of having conspired against the liberty and security of the State, and condemned him to death by a majority of only 26 votes out of 721, and the sentence was promptly executed (the 21st of January, 1793 A. D.)* The committee of public welfare, composed of nine members, then assumed a kind of dictatorship ; a second committee ought to take care of the inner safety of the realm. After the execution of the king, the fall of the Girondists followed. They constituted the moderate party of the Convent who had not desired the death of the king, and were called so from the department of Gironde, by which their ablest members had been elected. The pressure of domestic and foreign perils rendered the nation not only blood- thirsty and even partly insane, but also daring, despising dangers and death. Immediately after the frontiers had been freed, her armies, led by the brave Generals Custine and Dumouriez, invaded the territories of the enemies, and conquered Savoy, Belgium, and several fortresses in Germany. The nations, tired of their sover- eigns, received them everywhere with joy. But the republic, intoxi- What was the origin of its name ? Wliat was its spirit at first ? Name some of its most furious members. § 103. What did the Convent decree at its first session? Explain the name "Mountainists." Whose life did they demand? Relying on what papers ? Was Louis condemned to death by a gi-eat majority of votes ? How did Thomas Paine vote ? When was the king executed ? What two committees were established ? Whose fall followed then ? Explain the name "Girondist." What of the warfai-e of the French nation? What coun- tries did it conquer ? * Thomas Paine, at that time a member of the Convent, did not vote for the death of the king. 243 •cated by victory, forgot its former moderation, craved for conquests, challenged the sovereigns and the nobility of all countries, and offered her alliance to all nations. In this way France declared war against Spain, Holland and England (in February and March, 1793 A. D.) Victory again left her banners. An attack of Holland was a failure. The Netherlands also were again lost. Sardinia, too, was partly lost. Two Spanish armies and a Portuguese auxiliary corps invaded France. Other enemies took the frontier fortresses of the country. Finally, the flame of civil war burst out and spread everywhere within the country. The inhabitants of La Vendee were fighting for the nobility and clergy against the armies of the republic, defeating them many times. The northern and southern departments rose against the Mountainists. Toulon sur- rendered, in order to escape their vengeance, together with immense stores and the largest fleet of the realm, to the EngUsh and Span- iards, and proclaimed the son of- Louis king. More than one-third of the nation waged open war against the Convent. The Convent, however, did not lose courage with so many ene- mies against it. The nation was summoned en masse ; while the younger citizens marched against the enemy, the rest prepared for cases of emergency. All France became one camp ; everywhere the alarm-bell was sounded ; everywhere arms were forged. Hun- dred thousands should, at all points, attack the enemy, and give bat- tle upon battle. Carnot, a man havmg the mind of the ancient republicans, was the soul of this new war system. The republic was declared to be for so long a time in a state of revolution till the foreign powers would acknowledge her independence, and a revo- lutionary government was established (December 4th), headed by the committee of the public welfare. All quaked before it ; afl its measures were adopted. Robespierre was its head. The government of the committee of welfare was terrible, but it saved France. The insurrection in the northern departments was rapidly suppressed. In La Vendee the war should be finished within twenty days; this was the order of the Convent. The pop- What was the republic craving for ? Against whom did it declare war ? What of Holland ? Of the Netherlands ? Of Sardinia? Who invaded France ? In what provinces did civil war break out ? What seaport surrendered ? What arrangements did the Conyent make ? What of the new military system ? Of Carnot ? Of the revolutionary government ? Who was the head of the com- mittee of public welfare ? How were the rebels brought to terms in the north- ern departments ? In La Vendee .'' 244 ulation all around was summoned ; fresh troops drew near and van- quished the mutineers, even before the time fixed. In fact, Bre- tagne now declared also for them, and England prepared a descent for their support. Eighty thousand new combatants replaced the killed, gained several victories, and already drew near to Paris ; the larger armies, however, speedily advanced upon them and struck the blow of perdition (December 12, 13); 20,000 dead royaUsts covered the battle-field. A column of troops, called " the infernal," passed through the country, destroying everything by fire, and the captives, in bands, were killed by swords, cannons, or in the waves of the Loire, into which they were plunged through the movable bottoms of ships. The southern provinces were also compelled to submit and feel the rage of the victors. A special revolutionary army, with the guillotine, passed through the whole country, mur- dering all who did not confess its principles. During eighteen months over a million people lost their lives by civil war ; as many were killed by the foreign wars. Then, by the guillotine, expired : Queen Marie Antoinette ; Elizabeth, the king's sister ; and manj^ other people of the nobility; the imprisoned Girondists, Bailly,. Lafayette's virtuous friend ; the Generals Custine, Westerman, etc. The unhappy son of Louis died in the Temple, in consequence of entire neglect and rough treatment (1795 A. D.) But the duke of Orleans, Danton, and other Mountainists, were also executed. Marat was assassinated by the young heroine, Charlotte Corday. The manners of the nation grew savage. A rude tone pre- vailed in the associations ; education and instruction were neglected ; academies and literary societies abolished; the monuments of art destroyed. Women mounted guard in the Convent. The Christian religion was also abrogated, and in its stead the Service of Reason, per- sonified by a beautiful female, with theatrical show, established. In the meantime, the armies of the republic annihilated also the foreign enemies. Two great victories, at Hondshouten and Mau- beuge, on the banks of the Sambre, drove the allies back from the northern frontier (Sept. 8th, 1793 A. D.) Next year, Pichegru and In Bretagne? Give an account of the infernal column; of the revolutionary army passing through the country. How many lives were lost during eigliteen months by civil war; how many in the foreign wars ? Give the names of some persons who were guillotined. What of the son of Louis XVI.? Of Marat ? What of the manners of the nation ? Of the Christian religion ? Of the cult of Reason ? What of the victories of the French at Hondshouten and Maubeuge ? What of Pichegru and Jourdan ? 245 Jourdan contended successfully. Belgium was once more con- quered; blow after blow was dealt upon the enemies, until they were everywhere compelled to retire over the Rhine. Pichegru, in the midst of winter, boldly passed over the frozen streams of Holland, and with a small army, which was in want of clothing and food, conquered the whole country in three weeks. He was favored by the people ; these hated their obtruded governor, who took to flight, and the power of the aristocrats was overthrown. The rep- resentatives of the people assembled, liberty-poles were set up, the people declared sovereign, and the country changed to a republic, ■confederating with France (1795 A. D.) Still it was obliged to give up to the latter half of its army and part of its fleet. In Italy, too, the French republic won the victory (1794 A. D.), and here, also, the affection of the people made her conquests easier. Even greater was her success in Spain, where Dupommier gained the vic- tory, by the loss of his life, in a battle lasting three days (November 17-20), and several fortresses were taken. Quaking, Spain con- cluded peace. Soon after this splendid success of the French arms the Terrorists were overthrown. § 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial Government. The Coalition War Continued. Napoleon Bonaparte. The cult of Reason did not last long. It was derogated, on mo- tion of Robespierre, by the Convent, and the acknowledgment of a Supreme Being proclaimed (1794 A. D.) He also caused festivals to be appointed to Virtue, Justice and Friendship. Still he con- tinued his executions, thus contradicting those expressions of humanity. Finally, even the Convent got tired of his tyranny. When he would again proscribe a great number of his adversaries, the Convent took him prisoner; his followers, however, released him, but he was again seized, and though he had his jaw-bone frac- tured by a pistol-shot, he was dragged to the place of execution and beheaded. The same doom also befell his confidants, St. Just and Couthon, the general of the city-guard, the mayor of Paris, the Of Belgium? Of Pichegru's campaign in Holland? By whom was he favored ? How was its government changed ? What of Italy ? Of Dupom- mier in Spain? | 104. Did the cult of Reason last long? What festivals did Robespierre introduce? Was he, for all that, more humane? What of his end? Who had the same doom ? How did the spirit of the Convent become ? Whose dominion was at an end ? What did the royalists effect ? 246 president of the club of Jacobins, and one hundred councilors and judges. The spirit of the Convent grew more moderate, relig- ious persecutions ceased, and arts and sciences began to be again honored. True, the friends of the system of terror, aided b}^ some suburbs, yet excited several furious uproars, taking even the hall of the Convent (May, 1795); but they succumbed to the regular power of the Convent. Their leaders were partly executed, partly banished, and the dominion of the Jacobins was forever at an end. But forthwith the adherents of royalty became bolder again. They, through support from England and the emigrants, caused formidable insurrections in La Vendee and Paris; in the former place they proclaimed the brother of Louis XVI. king; in the latter, they besieged the Tuileries. They were vanquished in both places ; in Paris by Napoleon. The Convent then dissolved itself, and two chambers took its place, called the Council of the Old Ones and of the Five Hundred ; five directors should have the executive power. Since the downfall of the reign of terror, war was waged without energy; the armies of the republic suffered many defeats by the Austrian generals. At last Napoleon Bonaparte restored the splen- dor of the French arms. This greatest general of modern time was born in Ajaccio, on the Island of Corsica (1769 A. D.) and educated for the position of an officer in the military schools of Brienne and Paris, where he gained free admission. He liked best to study mathematics and the art of war. In ancient history he read the exploits of the Grecian and Roman heroes with enthu- siasm. He loved to be alone and avoided the merry plays of his school-mates. Besides, he was reserved and stubborn. When still a youth he was employed as an officer of artillery. He sided first with the republicans. At the siege of Toulon he commanded the artillery ; the Convent was indebted to him principally for the cap- ture of the fortress. This young man was appointed general-in-chief of the Italian army by the directory ( i 796 A. D.) The army was in want of money, clothing and provisions ; Napoleon pointed out to it the rich coun- tries of the enemies, where it would find abundance of supplies, led Who vanquished them in Paris ? What government followed after the disso- lution of the Convent ? How vi^as war waged now ? Who restored the splendor of the French arms ? Give some particulars of Napoleon's education. With what party did he side first ? What military service did he do in the siege of Toulon ? For what army was he appointed general-in-chief ? Give an account of his campaign. 247 it at once against them, and vanquished them in rapid succession in five battles. The king of Sardinia was compelled immediately to make peace, losing Savoy. After that Napoleon rushes in upon the Austrian army, passes, at the head of his troops, the bridge at T.odi in a rapid march, without minding the murderous fire of the ene- mies (May loth), conquers the whole of Lombardy, and enters Milan triumphantly ; only Mantua still resists. He besieges the fortress, destroys four armies which hasten to the rescue (the third in the gigantic battle at Arcole, November 15, 16, and 17), and compels the commander to surrender with 12,000 soldiers and 500 cannons. The conquered lands obtained free constitutions, and formed the Cisalpine republic. While Napoleon was fighting with such admirable success in Italy, the Archduke Charles defeated the French in Germany, and forced them to retreat. France offered peace to the emperor ; but he rejected it, declaring that he disavowed the French republic. Consequently Napoleon advanced farther through Tyrol and Corin- thia, and in a quick, victorious course, approached the residence of the emperor. Now he accepted peace, which was made at Campo Formio (1797 A. D.); he lost Belgium and his Italian States. Besides, the pope was vanquished (1798 A. D.), and carried off into captivity, in which he died. Finally, the French government abol- ished the aristocratic dominion of the cities in Switzerland, and established an undivided republic. 1 105. Napoleon's Expedition to Egypt. Second Coali- tion War. Battle at the Pyramids. Naval Com- bat at Abukir. Consular Government. Now Napoleon was sent with a select army to Egypt, in order to strike at the Indian possessions and commerce of England, and to undertake new conqi;ests for France. He took with him artisans of all kinds, a complete collection of philosophical and mathematical instruments, and about a hundred of the most illustrious scientific men of Frande, who should investigate the antiquities of the land. What was his success ? What exploit did he accomplish at Lodi ? What country did he conquer ? Give an account of the siege of Mantua. How many armies did he destroy ? What was the result ? What government did the Lom- bardy obtain ? Describe the continuation and the end of the campaign. What countries did the emperor Jose ? What of the pope and of Switzerland ? 1 105. What was the next expedition of Napoleon ? What was the intention of France ? Who accompanied Napoleon ? 248 He proclaimed to the Arabian population, which formed the majority of the inhabitants, that he had come to protect their religion, to restore their rights and punish their usurpers, the Mame- lukes, a corps of horsemen of Circassian origin, who were engaged in the service of the Turkish Bey. Napoleon attacked and van- quished them at Raminieh and at the Pyramids (1798 A. D.) But Nelson, the English admiral, defeated the French fleet in the bay of Abukir. Nine vessels of the line were taken. The admiral's ship blew up with one thousand men, and one was burned by the French themselves. Napoleon himself besieged Jean d'Acre in Syria with- out success. The French arms being unlucky in Europe also, and the Directory having lost all authority and consideration, he returned to France (1799 A. D.) Egypt yielded again to the government of the Porte (1801 A. D.) While Napoleon was fighting in Egypt, the second coalition war * in Europe had opened against France (1799 A. D.) England, Aus- tria, Russia, Portugal, Naples, the pope and the Turkish sultan were combating the republic. At the commencement of the war the republicans fought successfully. Naples and Tuscany were con- quered, so that France possessed the whole of Italy. But her dominion did not last long. The Austrians and Russians, soon after, conquered the Lombardy. The impetuous Suwarrow was the commander of the latter. Tuscany, Naples, and the States of the Church were lost again. In Germany Archduke Charles vanquished the French at Ostrach and Stockach. But at last Massena totally defeated Suwarrow at Ziirich in Switzerland, and saved France by his victory. Paul, the dejected emperor of Russia, recalled his troops. When Napoleon again arrived in France, the hopes of all parties were turned towards him. He received the command of the troops stationed in Paris and near by, but abused his power, causing those directors who would not voluntarily abdicate to be taken prisoners. Though he had again done allegiance to the constitution by oath, accompanied by grenadiers he entered the council of the five For what purpose ? What did he proclaim to the Arabian population ? Who were the Mamelukes ? Where did Napoleon vanquish them ? Who de- feated the French fleet ? Where ? Give the circumstances of the battle. What powers iormed the second coalition? W^here was the French republic first successful ? What countries did it then lose ? Who was the Russian com- mander ? By whom was he defeated ? Who vanquished the French in Ger- many ? What command did Napoleon receive after his return from Egypt ? How did he abuse his power ? Against the directory ? Against the five hundred ? 249 laundred in order to dissolve them. Checked by their threats, he appealed to the assistance of the troops, with their help expelled the members of the council, and caused, instead of the Directory, three consuls to be appointed, of whom the first should possess the highest power. He himself became first consul. In this way the republic was transformed into a military monarchy. The war against Austria and England continued. Napoleon secretly, with wonderful boldness, led an army over the Great St. Bernhard, and gave a bloody battle to the Austrians at Marengo, in Sardinia, in which Desaix, his friend, gained the almost lost victory by his heroic death (1800 A. D.) The entire command of Italy was given again to France. In Germany Moreau also fought with good success. He gained the victory at Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, and invaded Austria. The emperor had to conclude the peace of Luneville, and to cede the archdukedom of Tuscany (1801 A. D.) ■Germany lost all provinces of the left bank of the Rhine. Mean- while a union of the northern powers was formed against England. Nelson defeated the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1801 A. D.) ; but too weak to continue the war, it also agreed to the general peace at Campo Formio (1802 A. D.) It was compelled to surrender almost all the conquests it had made. § 106. French Empire. Third CoaUtion War. Prusso- Russian War. Battles at Austerlitz, Jena and Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The Continental System. Napoleon now directed his efforts to the pacification and im- provement of France ; by a general amnesty 100,000 emigrants were enabled to return ; a system of public instruction was estabUshed, and the collection of the heterogeneous laws of the monarchy and the republic, into one consistent whole, under the title of " Code Na- poleon," was commenced— an undertaking which has covered the name of Napoleon with glory. Magnificent roads, Hke those over the Alps, canals, bridges, and improvements of all kinds, are to the What magistrates did lie cause to be appointed ? Who became first consul ? At what place in Sardinia did he vanquish the Austrians ? By whose death did he gain the victory? What French general was victorious in Germany ? What countries did Austria and Germany lose ? What success did England have in the contest against the northern powers ? § 106. What improvements did Napoleon make? With regard to public instruction? To legislation? To commerce ? 250 present day eloquent memorials of Napoleon's restless activity. But he pursued also his ambitious plans. He set narrow bounds to the liberty of the press, created a crafty police, occupied the senate with his followers, subjected the State Church again to the pope, and caused himself to be appointed consul for life. Not satisfied with this success, he contrived to have himself elected emperor of France (1804 A. D.) He re-established nobility and a pompous court. In the Lombardy also he caused himself to be appointed king (1805 A. D.), and designated his step-son, Eugene, viceroy. He gave a regent to the republic of Batavia (Holland), and obliged Switzerland to furnish troops every year for his murderous wars. Two conspiracies against his life were failures (1800 and 1804 A. D.) In the first they tried to kill him by a machine, called the infernaL He ordered the members of the second conspiracy partly to be executed, e. g., Pichegru, partly to be banished, like Moreau. Prince Enghien, a descendant of the old dynasty, though living in Germany, was also seized and shot, because he was accused of having been an accomplice in the conspiracy. Hardly a year had elapsed since the conclusion of peace, when England, allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples re-com- menced war against France. Napoleon rapidl}' penetrated Ger- many with a well-armed host, commanded by the excellent Generals Bernadotte, Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Ney and Murat, compelled the sovereigns of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Baden to confederate with him, and captured an Austrian army of 33,000 men in Ulm. Vienna Avas compelled to open her gates to him. At Austerlitz, in Moravia, he fought his greatest battle, in which he entirely defeated the Aus- trians and Russians, taking 18,000 prisoners and 100 cannons. 30,000 dead soldiers covered the battle-field. Emperor Francis then concluded the peace of Presburg, acknowledging Napoleon as ruler of Italy, and ceding Tyrol to Bavaria. Naples and Holland also were compelled to submit to Napoleon (1806 A. D.) and accept of him his brothers Joseph and Louis as kings. To his brother-in-law, Murat, he gave the dukedom Cleves- Berg. Finally he, with the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and How did he show his ambition ? When was he elected emperor ? In what country was he appointed king ? Mention some points of the two conspiracies. What powers participated in the third coalition ? Give the names of some ex- cellent genei-als of Napoleon. What happened in Ulm ? What was the result of the battle at Austerlitz ? Who became king of Naples ? Of Holland ? With what sovereigns did Napoleon form the confederation of the Rhine ? 251 with some other princes, formed the confederation of the Rhine, inducing them to nominate him as its protector. Francis II. then resigned the imperial dignity of Germany. While France contended successfully by land, in the contest by sea it lost her foreign possessions, and Nelson, at the Cape of Tra- falgar, in Spain, destroyed the large French and Spanish fleet; the Spanish admiral was killed, and the French captured. Still the hero of the battle also died immediately after it from a serious wound he had received during the combat (1805 A. D.) Next year Frederic WiUiam III., king of Prussia, declared war against France. England, Russia and Saxony were his allies. The Prussians, divided into two armies, were routed the same day (14th of October, 1806 A. D.), at Jena and Auerstadt, with terrible slaugh- ter. • Their generals {e. g., Bliicher) and their fortresses surrendered one after another, and Berlin opened her gates to the victor. In a few weeks Napoleon- conquered the largest part of the Prussian monarchy. Prussian Poland joined him. He summoned its inhabitants to restore their liberty, and they hastened joyfully to arras. Then he attacked the Russians, too. In the sanguinary battle at Eilau he fought with dubious success (1807 A. D.) But on the 14th of June he vanquished both enemies at Friedland. They demanded peace, which was concluded in Tilsit. Alexander, emperor of Russia, lost nothing, but Prussia was diminished by half. Napoleon, from a part of the conquered countries, formed the king- dom of Westphalia, bestowing it on his brother Jerome, and left Prussian Poland to his new ally, the king of Saxony. In order to weaken the power of England, he established the continental sys- tem, prohibiting by it all commerce in Europe with that country, and causing the English merchandise to be burned. |107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian War. Burning of Moscow. As the king of Portugal did not renounce his alHance with Eng- land, Napoleon invaded his land and conquered it. The king fled Who destroyed the French and Spanish fleet ? Where ? What was the end of the hero ? Give an account of the Prussian war. Where were the Prussian armies routed ? What rapid success did Napoleon have ? What country joined him ? Where did he fight the Russians ? With what success ? What did Prus- sia lose? On whom did Napoleon bestow the kingdom of Westphalia? On whom Prussian Poland? Explain the signification of the continental system. I 107. What of Portugal ? 252 to Brazil. The emperor also enticed the weak-minded king of Spain to come to France, induced him, by cunning intrigues, to confer the crown upon him and his family, and then appointed his brother Joseph king of that land. Naples was left to Murat. But the Spanish nation, hating the new government, and having England's support, opposed it so obstinately that Joseph was obliged to with- draw from Madrid. Portugal also became again free. Napoleon then took the field in Spain himself with immense forces, and, with arms in hand, brought his brother back. He abolished the inquisi- tional tribunal and the feudal law, and diminished the number of con- vents ; but the people, incited by the clergymen and the aristocrats, refused to accept these salutary reforms from him. Joseph, irritated by this resistance, abolished all orders of monks and mendicant friars. As the Austrian war began (1809 A. D.), and Napoleon, therefore, was obliged to quit the country, his generals were again vanquished. Wellesley Wellington, the English general, defeated them several times during the Russian campaign, and Spain was forever released from the foreign dominion. The Cortes (States- General) gave the land a liberal constitution (1812 A. D.) When Emperor Francis saw the resistance of the Spanish nation, he also took up arms once more against Napoleon. But the latter, aided by the confederation of the Rhine, by Russia, Italy and other powers, overwhelmed the Austrian armies in a few days, being especially victorious in the battle at Ratisbon, and entered Vienna some weeks after the commencement of the war. Still, he was defeated at Aspern, near Vienna (the 21st of May), and even in the battle of Wagram (the 5th and 6th of July), in which' he gained the victory, he had more dead and wounded than the ene- mies. Emperor Francis hereafter concluded the peace of Vienna, by which he had to surrender a territory containing three and a half millions of inhabitants. After this Napoleon caused himself to be ■divorced from his wife, the beloved and highly respected Empress Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis (18 10 A. D.) His intention was, by this marriage, to per- manendy establish his power, but it was soon baffled by the events Of Spain ? How did Napoleon get possession of the latter country? Whom did he appoint king ? Who opposed Joseph ? Give the particulars of the Spanish war. Who gave to the land a liberal constitution ? ' Who took up arms against Napoleon once more ? Which English general defeated the French army ? What of the battles of Aspern and Wagram ? What was the loss of Francis ? What of the empresses Josephine and Maria Louisa of Austria ? 253 of war. He also incorporated Holland and the German maritime countries from the Ems to the mouth of the Elbe with the French empire. At last he seized the possessions of the duke of Olden- burg, Alexander's brother-in-law. As he hereby drew nearer and nearer to Russia, Alexander com- plained against him for several reasons, Was the law repealed? How far does the dorrimion of England in the East Indies reach ? How many millions are subject and tributary to her ? What of her war with China? When was Hanover separated from Engand? § 122 Against whom did the Indian chieftain Blaclc Hawlc wage war ? Where was he defeated? What was the result of the defeat? How long did the Flonda war last ? What was the cause of the war ? Were the Indians successful ? 288 When the chief. Osceola, came to the American camp, under a flag of truce, he was seized and imprisoned. Colonel Taylor defeated the Indians at Lake Okechobee ; then they retired to the swamps and kept up an intermittent war till 1842; finally peace was estab- lished. As congress passed a new tariff bill (1832 A. D.), laying heavy- protective duties on imported articles, this met with ^^olent opposi- tion, particularly in the South, where the people did not manufac- ture much, and therefore wanted foreign goods as cheap as possible. South Carolina led the resistance to the bill. A convention of the people of that State said that it should be null and void. President Jackson issued a proclamation warning the people that the law would be enforced. South Carolina threatened to secede from the Union. The matter was settled by a compromise, as Henry Clay got a bill passed in congress providing for the gradual reduction of the duties. The United States resolved to colonize the immense territory of the Columbia river (1843 A. D.), and admitted the repubhc of Texas into the Union (1845 A. D.) This country had previously belonged to the United States of Mexico ; but when a new govern- ment in Mexico estabUshed a Central Republic (1835 A. D.), and changed the sovereign States into dependent districts, Texas pro- tested against this mnovation, and joined the republic of the United States. The Mexicans would not agree to the separation, and be- sides said that the territory of Texas had never extended farther westward than the river Nueces, while the Texans claimed the country as far as the Rio Gra-nde. General Taylor was ordered into the disputed territory (1845 A. D.) Early the next year he moved to the Rio Grande, where he built Fort Brown, and sent Captain Thornton with a party of soldiers up the river to reconnoitre. This party fell into a Mexican ambuscade, and was compelled to surrender. When congress heard the news of the capture of Thornton's party, it declared that Who was imprisoned ? WTio defeated the Indians ? \Miere-did they retire ? WTiat bill met opposition in the South in 1832? Why? Who headed it? What did the convention of South Carolina say? Who would enforce the law ? What did South Carolina threaten to do ? Who compromised the matter ? In what manner ? \Miat republic was admitted into the Union in 1845 ? Why did Texas separate from Mexico ? Did the latter agree to the separation ? Into what part of Texas was General Taylor ordered ? What fort did he build there ? What of Captain Thornton ? What did Congress declare when he was captured ? 289 Avar existed between the United States and Mexico (nth of May, 1846). Taylor met and defeated 6,000 Mexicans at Palo Alto (the 8th of May), and next day defeated another army at Resaca de la Palma. The United States now planned the invasion of Mexico on three different lines. Taylor was to operate on the line of the Rio Grande, a column was to invade the Spanish possessions of New Mexico and California, and another was to enter the northern States of Mexico. General Taylor captured 9,000 Mexicans at INIonterey, and completely vanquished an army of 20,000 men, under command of General Santa Anna, in the narrow mountain pass of Buena Vista (1847 A. D.) About one year previous Captain Fremont, of the topographical engineers, had been sent by the government to seek a new route to Oregon, farther south than the one usually traveled by emigrants. While he was in California, the Mexican commander in that prov- ince was raising a force to expel the American settlers. Fremont was ordered to protect them. They now flocked to his standard, and he beat the Mexicans in several conflicts, and compelled them to retire southward. He and Commodore Stockton accomplished the overthrow of Mexican authority in California (1847 A. D.) General Scott, aided by a considerable part of Taylor's army, besieged Vera Cruz, and after a furious bombardment, the castle and city surrendered (March 29, 1847). He now began to advance on the city of ^Mexico, stormed the works at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, and routed the Mexican army, newly collected by Santa Anna. In the fortified camp of Contreras, at Cherubusco, in the stone building called Molino del Rey, and at the castle of Cha- pultepec the Americans defeated the Mexicans again. The whole Mexican army was routed, and Scott entered the cit}' of Mexico (Sept. 14, 1847 A. D.) By the treaty of Guadaloupe-Hidalgo (1848 A. D.) Mexico ceded to the United States the vast territory now comprised in New Mexico, Utah and California. In return, ^^^lere did Taylor defeat the Mexicans ? ^^'here again ? How many ? On Avhat line of Mexico was Taylor to operate ? In what parts of the countrj- a second and a third column ? How many Mexicans did Taylor capture at Mon- terey ? Where did he vanquish Santa Anna ? How large was the Mexican army ? What commission had the government given to Captain Fremont ? ^^^lom did the Mexican commander intend to expel from California ? ^\ hat was Fremont ordered to do ? How did he execute the order ? What of Commo- dore Stockton ? What city did General Scott besiege ? To what city did he then advance ? Give an account of his exploits ? What coiintries did Mexico cede to the United States ? (10; 290 Mexico received a compensation of fifteen millions of dollars. Thousands of settlers and adventurers have since flocked to Califor- nia, in order to gain a fortune in its rich gold-mines. The amount of gold taken out between 1849 and 1870 is calculated at over $1,000,000,000. 3. THE KE VOLUTIONS IN 1848. I 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Es- tablishment of a Republic and of an Empire. Louis Napoleon III. Franco-German War. Battle at Sedan. Restora- tion of the Republic. The bad election law, according to which only the richer citizens had the right to elect deputies for the second chamber, induced the opposition party to work for a reform of the elections. During the winter of 1847-8 numerous political reform banquets were held throughout France. The leaders of the opposition having announced that such banquets would be held on February 2 2d (Washington's birthday), the government on the evening preceding the 2 2d, forbade the intended meeting in Paris, and made extensive military prepara- tions to crush at once any attempt at insurrection. Irritated by these measures, masses of the people assembled on the 2 2d, without causing any disturbance; but the following day they were erecting barricades, and began to fight against the soldiers, crying : " Long live the Reform ! Down with Guizot (the prime minister) ! " The national guards declared themselves for the people, and demanded also the dissolution of the Ministry. The ministers resigned ; now the uproar subsided, and the people dispersed, the workmen only remain- ing behind the barricades. But when the soldiers in front of Guizot's palace fired upon the multitude, killing many, the combat was again inflamed, and the cry : " To arms ! Down with the assassins ! Down with Louis Philippe ! Down with the Bourbons ! " re- sounded throughoift Paris. The first day the contest was con- tinued. The king appointed Odilon Barrot as minister in order to reconcile the people, but in vain. The troops were discour- What did she receive in return ? Why did many people go to California ? What amount of gold was furnished by the mines in 20 years ? | 123. What induced the opposition party to work for a reform of the elections ? What ban- quets were held in France ? Where was the banquet forbidden, and what prep- arations were made ? Give an account of the events of the 22d of February and the following days. 291 aged by the pressing masses. Philippe then declared himself to be ready to abdicate in favor of his grandson, the count of Paris ; the workmen, however, would not have any more Bourbons, but wanted a republic and a constitution by which the general right of election was established, and labor warranted by the State to the poorer classes, believing that it is the duty and in the power of government to provide for all their wants. They advanced farther, and rushed to the Tuileries. The king had to hurriedly quit Paris with his family. In vaui the count of Paris presented himself, led by his mother, in the hall of deputies. They also had to quickly withdraw from the entering populace. The people appointed a provisional government, the leading mem- ber of which was M. Lamartine, and to whom belongs the renown of having saved the country from immediate anarchy. The ses- sions of the Peers were prohibited, free elections arranged, national workshops established, the hours of labor in the factories reduced, capital punishment for political offenses, the titles of the nobility, and slavery abolished, gratuitous instruction in the public schools ordered, the republic in the whole country acknowledged, the Orleans family banished, and a Constitutional National Assembly, convened. However, many workmen were not satisfied with the accorded grants. They surrounded the National Assembly, drove the deputies from their seats, and tried to dissolve the government (15th of May). But in the meantime the national guard was called out. The rioters were soon dispersed, and the government reinstated. Finding the burdens imposed on the public treasury too heavy to be borne, and thousands of workmen unprofitably em- ployed in the public workshops, the government ordered such as were born in the provinces to return home, and the younger ones of the remainder to enlist in the army. Then they fought the combat of despair against 150,000 men (June 20-26). General Cavaignac vanquished them. Many thousands were killed, thousands of pris- oners transported to the transmarine possessions of France, the public workshops locked, the former hours of labor restored, and What did Philippe declare ? But what was he answered by the workmen ? What kind of a constitution did they want ? What was the king obliged to do ? And the Count of Paris ? Who was the leading member of the provis- ional government? What decrees did it pass? Were all workmen satisfied with them ? What did some try to effect ? Did they succeed ? What did the government order ? What combat followed ? Who vanquished the refractory workmen ? What did the government then effect ? 292 Cavaignac declared dictator. The republic received a new consti- tution, with one legislative assembly. The executive power should be vested in a president, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. Its principles were declared to be liberty, equality and fraternity. Louis Napoleon was elected president, receiving five and a half millions of votes, seven and a half millions having been polled in the nation. He solemnly swore " to remain faithful to the democratic republic." But on the morning of the 2d of December, 185 1, the inhabitants of Paris awoke to find the city filled with troops, while he announced the dissolution of the National Assembly, the restoration of universal suffrage which the assembly had restricted by disfranchising three millions of electors, and the establishment of martial law throughout Paris. The chief members of the Assembly, together with Generals Cavaignac, Chan- garnier and others, had been seized in their beds, and were already in prison. The coup d'etat was entirely successful, and Louis Napo- leon was absolute dictator of France. About 300 members of the assembly, who declared him guilty of treason, and proclaimed his deposition, were surrounded by a band of soldiers and all marched to prison. He threatened to abdicate, if the people did not elect him president for ten years. An insurrection broke out in Paris (Dec. 4th) ; he called out troops, killed about 1,000 insurgents, and quelled all resistance. His demand was accepted, the people elect- ing him president for ten years (Jan. i, 1852). He caused many thousands of his adversaries, also Cavaignac, Changarnier, Lamo- riciere, etc., to be banished or deported. Before a year had passed, the senate, in compliance with his will, adopted a measure to re- establish the imperial government, and the people were called upon to ratify the measure by their votes. A great majority were in favor of the empire (November 20-22). The nation, dazzled by the splendor of the merits of his uncle, desired to have the empire restored. The next year Louis Napoleon, together with England, planned the Crimean war against Russia (see § 127). But Europe did not afford adequate scope for the scheming emperor. The misrule Who should have the executive povi^er ? Who was elected pi-esident ? What did Louis Napoleon swear ? What violent act did he perforin on the 2d of December ? Who was arrested > What did he threaten ? What broke out ? How did he quell the resistance ? What did the people do ? How did Napoleon deal with his adversaries ? What measiire did the senate and the people soon adopt ? What scheme did he devise concerning Mexico ? 293 and disorder in Mexico induced him to send his troops there. The Mexican president fled, and Napoleon, from a Mexican assembly, procured a resolution permitting him to found a monarchy, and to ofter the crown to Archduke Maximilian, brother to the emperor of Austria. Maximilian accepted the fatal gift (1863 A. D.) So long as the French soldiers upheld him, he maintained, with success, an incessant conflict with the republican authority, which he had dis- placed. But when those were withdrawn by Napoleon, Maximilian was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and shot (1867 A. D.) The victories which Prussia gained over Austria, and, in general, the rising power of the former State, aroused the envy and jealousy of the French nation, as well as of her emperor. A cry arose for immediate war; a pretext for a quarrel was easily found. The Spaniards, searching for a king, offered the crown to Prince Leo- pold, of Hohenzollern, a kinsman to the king of Prussia, who might be regarded as head of the family of which Leopold was a member. Though the prince announced his refusal of the vacant throne, Louis Napoleon demanded a pledge that the king would never, in any future time, permit his kinsman to accept the overtures of Spain. " Prussia," replied the king, " was in no way concerned in the transactions of Prince Leopold and the Spanish government, and would not mix herself up with them." Napoleon then de- clared war against Prussia, although he was illy-prepared for its emergencies, his army comprising only 220,000 men, while the German-Prussian army numbered 450,000, led by Count Moltke, the greatest military genius of Europe, and other eminent commanders (July 19, 1870). Marshal Bazaine, commanding the army at Metz, fought two indecisive battles, and finding it impossible to break through the German lines, withdrew to the shelter of the fortress. MacMahon, commander of another army, hastened to his relief. While on the march he was surrounded at Sedan, north of Metz, by two Gerrnan armies, which, with 500 pieces of artillery, carried all the French positions and sent an incessant storm of shells What were his proceedings ? Who became emperor of Mexico ? What was his fate ? What .did the victories of Prussia excite in Napoleon and the French nation ? What did they want ? What pretext of war did Louis Napoleon con- ceive? What pledge did he demand from the king of Prussia? What did the king reply ? What did the former then declare ? Was he prepared ? What was the relative standing of the French and German armies, and what of the German commanders ? Give an account of the war. What was the issue of the battle at Sedan ? What was the fate of Louis Napoleon ? 294 among the French troops. Napoleon, who was present at the battle, surrendered with 83,000 men (Sept. i, 1870), and was taken as a prisoner to Germany. When he was liberated, he went to England (187 1 A. D.), where he died (1873 A. D.) Now the way to Paris was clear for the Germans. As soon as the disaster of Sedan was known there, the Parisians deposed Napo- leon and estabUshed a repubHc. The Germans completely sur- rounded the city which, after four months, during which the inhabit- ants endured starvation, capitulated to the enemies (Jan. 30, 1871). Now the adherents of the commune of Paris undertook to found a government of their own. They seized Paris, manned its defenses, and defied the republican government. For many weeks the French army besieged and shelled the capital. When at last an entrance was forced into the city, thousands of insurgents were killed or made prisoners. The terms of peace with France were severe. Germany took back Alsace and Lorraine, snatched from her by Louis XIV. She demanded an indemnity of 2,200,000,000 pounds sterHng, in reim- bursement of the charges to which France had unjustly put her. A German army would remain on French territory, upheld at French expense, till this huge claim was fully satisfied. M. Thiers was now president of the republic. He was able to discharge in full the claims of Germany, and terminate the occupation within the period fixed for that purpose by the treaty. — The present incumbent of the presidency is M. Grevy. — Prince Louis Napoleon, the only son of Napoleon III., who fought as a volunteer in the English army against the Zulus in South Africa, was killed by them (1879 A. D.) 2 124. Germany. Insurrections in Berlin and in the Grand-dukedom of Baden. German National Assembly. Sehleswig and Holstein. Prusso- Austrian V\/^a.r. Battle of Sadowa. The French revolution in the year 1848 caused also vehement popular commotions m all States of Germany. The month of March everywhere effected insurrections, popular assemblies, peti- Who deposed him ? "What government was established ? What of the siege of Paris ? Of the commune of Paris ? By whom was it besieged and vanquished ? What were the terms of peace with France ? Who was president of the republic ? How did he discharge the claims of Germany .-* Who is now ( 1883) president of the French republic? How did prince Louis Napoleon lose his life? § 124. What did the French revolution cause in Germany ? 295 tions and addresses, and on the part of the governments, different concessions, viz., dismission of hated ministers, calling of diets, and grants of new rights and Uberties. The king of Bavaria resigned the throne. The idea of a National Assembly also became public. The diet met it half way, summoning the German governments to order elections for a National Assembly. Meanwhile, a precon- certing parliament convened in Frankfort. They planned a central constitution by which all enactments not harmonizing with it should be null and void, and elected Archduke John of Austria regent of the empire. Germany should become a hereditary monarchy with a legislative assembly, comprising two houses, the house of the States, and a national one. A deputation of the assembly offered the imperial crown to the king of Prussia, upon condition of his accepting the new constitution, but he rejected the dignity offered him by the people. On the contrary, thousands (and among them even members of the National Assembly) demanded the estabhsh- ment of a German republic. The disunion of the deputies in- creased. Many left Frankfort of their own accord, or by order of their governments. When their number had considerably decreased , the rump parHament was transferred to Stuttgart, and as it here en- deavored to deprive the government of its power, the hall where it held its sessions was locked up (1849 A. D.) Afterwards the regent also resigned, and the old diet was revived. In Berlin, the people demanded the assembling of the States- General, unlimited freedom of the press, etc. The answer of the king not being satisfactory, scenes of bloodshed took place (since March 14th, 1848). King Frederic William IV., however, accorded all demands (March i8th); the people, masses of whom were assembled in front of the palace, received the news with enthusiasm. But immediately after this, troops made their appearance; they charged, with fixed bayonets, and fired upon the people. The whole city now rises in uproar ; the German liberty-flag appears ; citizens, students and workmen hasten to the combat ; barricades What concessions did the sovereigns make ? What idea became public i Who did it meet half way? What did the preconcerting parliament plan ? Who was chosen regent of the empire ? What did others demand ? What was the con- sequence of the disunion ? What of the rump-parliament in Stuttgart ? Of the regent ? Of the old diet ? What did the people of Berlin demand ? What answer did the king give ? What followed ? What did the former then accord ? Was he in earnest ? Give an account of the contest of the people against the troops. Who took part in the combat ? 296 are erected, and courageously defended. They shoot even from the roofs; the soldiers fire with grape-shot and bomb-shells; whole reg- iments are repelled. Deputies of the people beseech the king to withdraw the soldiers ; he refuses, and the contest is continued the whole night; the arsenal is assailed; a young workman, Gustavus Hesse, leads the bands, and the next day the people take the arse- nal. The king was compelled to remove the troops, and to accede to the abdication of the hereditary prince of Prussia, because he had ordered the attack of the troops. The prince left the country, but soon returned, and was even a member of the Prussian National Assembly, which met May 2 2d. Later, the king dissolved it, declared Berlin in a state of siege, and gave the kingdom a consti- tution according to his pleasure. In the grand-duchy of Baden a part of the people, led by Hecker, Struve and other valorous patriots, fought with the aim of establishing a republic (1848 A. D.); the grand-duke took to flight, and asked Prussia for help. The Prussians and other German troops then drew near, drove the army of the republicans south- ward and dispersed it. Many returned to their homes;- some thou- sands retired to Switzerland. The jails and casemates were filled with prisoners, many of whom were shot. These political afflic- tions, to which, in some countries, famine was added, induced thou- sands to emigrate to America. Schleswig and Holstein, the two southern duchies of Denmark, which had always been governed by the king of Denm.ark in his capacity of a prince of Germany, irritated by his endeavor to in- corporate them into his realm, resisted his enterprise, and solicited admission into the German confederation (184S A. D.) Assisted by Prussian and other German volunteers, they waged war against the Danish king. Afterwards they had to do the fighting alone, and finally to submit again to the king (1851 A. D.), because the German diet ordered them to do so. After his death. Christian IX. succeeded him on the throne What did the people beseech the king to do? What public building was as- sailed? Who was the leader of the assailants? With what success? What was the king compelled to do? Did he stand to his promise ? What of the prince ? How did the king later deal with Berlin and the kingdom i* What aim had the patriots in the State of Baden ? Whom did its ruler ask for help ? What of the republican army? What was the fate of the captives? Where did many emigrate to ? What duchies of Denmark did the king endeavor to incor- porate into his realm ? Who resisted him ? Assisted by whom ? W^hy had they to submit again to the king ? 297 (1863 A. D.); but his right of succession to the duchies of Hol- stein'^and Schleswig was contested by the duke of Augustenburg. Prussia and Austria, uniting in a common cause, went still further; . they marched a formidable army into Schleswig and compelled the king to cede the two alUes both duchies. Prussia then tried to m- duc^'e Austria to cede to her all her rights to the duchies. When the latter declared that the question of the duchies appertamed to the German diet, Prussia, with some other States, withdrew from the confederation, and occupied Holstein. Moreover, the lang of Prussia, in order to divide the forces of his rival, entered mto a secret alliance with the king of Italy, who cherished the idea of conquering Venetia. War was accordingly declared agamst Austria by the two alUed powers (June, 1866). But the Italians were de- feated, and compelled to retreat. Prussia fought with better suc- cess ; her troops entered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony, and took possession of these States. At the same time she invaded the Austrian empire with about 300,000 men, in two armies— the one marching from Saxony, commanded by Prince Frederic Charles ; the other proceeding from Silesia, under the crown-prince of Prus- sia. Field-marshal Benedek, commander-in-chief of all the Aus- trian forces engaged in the north, ineffectually endeavored to pre- vent a junction of the two armies ; after which, the king of Prussia took the command in person. Benedek was compelled to accept a general engagement against the enemies, far superior in number, and to whom the needle-gun gave another decided advantage. The battle of Sadowa, after eight or ten hours of fearful struggle, terminated in the rout of the Austrians, with a loss of 40,000 men (July 3d). The campaign had only lasted seven days. The em- peror of Austria, unwilling to protract so disastrous a war, con- cluded the Treaty of Nicholsburg, by which he ceded Venetia to the king of Italy, abandoned all claim of forming a part of the con- federation, which the king of Prussia intended to organize on the north of the Maine river, a nd gave up Jiisjjghts_to^ e duchies of ~ To whom was Christian IX. compelled '^^^ed^^hTd^chies ? " Whom would Prussia induce to cede them to her? Why did she withdraw from the German confederation ? What State did she occupy ? With whom did she enter mto a secret alliance? Against whom did the king of Italy wage war? With what success? What German States did Prussia occupy ? What empire did she in- vade ." Give an account of the campaign. From what countries did her armies make the invasion? What was the Austrian commander unable to prevent? How did he succeed in the battle ? How many men did he lose ? How long did the campaign last ? What were the conditions of peace ? 298 Holstein and Schleswig. The southern States of Germany later also joined the new confederation, and when the union of the dif- ferent States was accomplished, united Germany was a fit match for the contest with France, which broke out in 1870 (see France, § 123). William, king of Prussia, returned from that war as emperor of Germany (1881 A. D.) This country was now supreme in cen- tral Europe. AVilliam's success was due to his able generals, and especially to his great prime minister. Prince Bismarck, whose polit- ical power was prevalent in Germany and in whole Europe. Since Bismarck has been at the helm of the German empire, however, he has endeavored to tread out every spark of liberty. They call him "the man of blood and iron." f 12g. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Reforms of the Government, War in Hungary. Kossuth. Gorgey Surrenders at Villagos. The news that the republic had been proclaimed in France also caused general excitement in Vienna. The students and citizens demanded from Emperor Ferdinand a free constitution, and espe- cially the reform of the public schools (March 12th, 1848). When the soldiers, on the next day, killed several persons, the infuriated people attacked the arsenal, the imperial palace, and several other buildings, and demanded the removal of Minister Metternich. As the latter resigned, the people expressed the greatest joy. When still more troops arrived, however, the national guard was organ- ized, and the students took to arms. The emperor granted more reforms. He accorded liberty of the press, promised to call a National Assembly, and to grant a free constitution. The tithes ought to be redeemed, etc. When the party of the court was threatening to again deprive the people of these grants, the latter, uttering menaces, demanded a diet for the purpose of framing a constitution. The emperor, indeed, conceded this also, but imme- diately left Vienna. Soon after the first Austrian diet began its ses- sions (2 2d of May). The order to dissolve and disarm the aca- demic legion caused the students to erect barricades, and to fight the AVhen did William become emperor of Germany ? To whom was his success due ? § 125. What did the citizens and students of Vienna demand from em- peror Ferdinand ? What did the people do when the soldiers killed several per- sons? What of Metternich? When was the national guard organized ? What did the emperor grant ? Did he stay in Vienna ? When did the diet begin its sessions ? Why did the students fight the soldiers ? .299 soldiers behind them. Supported by the national guard, they pre- vailed, and the soldiers were obliged to retreat. Some troops being ordered to march against the Hungarians, a part of the soldiers opposed the command, and other soldiers were called to compel them to obey. Then soldiers were fighting in the city against soldiers, citizens against citizens. The arsenal was taken by assault, the Minister of War seized by the enraged multitude and hanged. Ferdinand, who meanwhile had returned to Vienna, left the city again, and sent Jellachich, the commander of the Croats, and. Prince Windischgratz with an army of 100,000 men, in order to sub- due the revolt by force. The city was bombarded from all sides, and a Hungarian army, which advanced for the rescue, dispersed. On the third day of the siege the city surrendered (Oct. 28th). Then Messenhauser, general of the national guard, the noble- minded Robert Blum, member of the German National Assembly, Avho took part in the combat as a volunteer, and others, were shot. Bem, general of the garrison, escaped. Vienna was declared in a state of siege, and the diet dissolved. Ferdinand resigned his crown. His successor was his nephew, Francis Joseph I., who almost entirely annulled the liberal constitution. In the other provinces of the empire insurrections also broke out, the people demanding everywhere constitutions in accordance with the spirit of the age. In Prague a parliament of all Slavonians assembled, deliberating by what means they could obtain political liberty. But it was dissolved after Windischgratz had overwhelmed the city in a bloody contest (June 13 and 14). In Hungary the diet aboHshed socage-service, decreed equal taxation, and demanded a more liberal constitution. The emperor granted it, especially their own ministry. Kossuth, the soul of these innovations, became minister of finance. After this the diet resolved to unite Transylvania with Hungary. The nation wanted to become independent from Austria. But the Slavonians, namely, Croats, Serbs, etc., pertaining to Hungaria, opposed the undertaking, and, instigated by the Austrian government, attacked the Hunga- Against whom should the troops march ? What consequence did the order cause ? Who left the city again ? Who was ordered to subdue it ? With what success? What was the fate of Messenhauser and Robert Blum? What of General Bem? What of Vienna and the diet? Who succeeded Ferdinand? What did his successor annul ? What of the other provinces ? Of Prague ? What did the diet in Hungary abolish? Who became minister of finance? Who opposed the resolution of the diet to allow Hungary to become independ- ent from Austria ? 300- rians, Jellachich being their commander. A great Austrian army- supported them (1849 ^- I-*-) The Hungarians did not despair. Arms and ammunition were wanting, and their regular troops were still in Italy, fighting the battles of Austria. Manufactories of pow- der and arms arose as if by magic, and in every town the anvils rang with the clang of the arms which the artisans forged by day and by night. The peasantry, whom the constitution had elevated from the condition of serfs to that of freemen, rose en masse. All Hungarians were fighting with heroic courage. Gorgey, Bern, Dembinsky, Klapka, and other able generals, were at the head of their troops. Bem fought in Transylvania with such good success that the Russians had to be called; but he repelled them. In Hungary Dembinsky and other generals won several glorious victo- ries, and the Austrian armies were compelled to leave the country. The diet, declaring that the crown of Hungary was settled by stat- ute on the direct heirs of the house of Hapsburg, and moreover, that Francis Joseph had not taken the requisite oath to preserve inviolate the constitution, laws and liberties of the Hungarians, but demanded their unconditional submission, denied his right to rule over their nation, and proclaimed the country to be a republic (April, 1849). Kossuth became its governor. Now the emperor begged Russia for help, which was granted without delay. Paske- witsch was commander of the Russian troops, and the cruel Hay- nau, called "Hungary's hangman," commander-in-chief of both armies. Though the power of the allied armies was far superior to that of the Hungarians, the latter were not discouraged, continuing the contest with increased exertion. The cholera became their ally, destroying, together with other diseases, thousands of the enemies. But Gorgey, jealous of Kossuth's power, surrendered, immediately after having been nominated dictator, to the Russians at Villagos with 30,000 men and 140 cannons (Aug. 13, 1849). The public voice of his nation accused him of treachery. Hungary and Tran- sylvania were again overpowered by Austria; only Comorn was still bravely defended by Klapka; he surrendered the fortress only Who supported Jellachich ? Describe the efforts of the Hungarians. Who rose en masse ? What generals were- at the head of iheir armies ? With what success did Bem fight against the Russians ? What of Dembinsky ? Of the Austrian armies ? Why did the diet deny the right of the emperor to rule in Hungary ? What did they proclaim ? Who became governor ? For whose help did the emperor beg ? Who was general-in-chief ? How did the Hungarians contest? Who was their ally ? Who became dictator? How did he act? Of what was he accused ? What of Klapka ? 301 after having obtained favorable conditions for the garrison. The fate the vanquished ones had to suffer was terrible. On the 6th of October (1849 ^- ^■)> ^ '^^Y rendered forever memorable for infamy in the annals of Austria, thirteen generals and staff officers who had surrendered, were shot or hanged at Arad. Many ministers and other civil officials were also executed. An immense number of inferior officers were sent to fortresses to be imprisoned, and about 70,000^ who had taken part in the contest, were forcibly enlisted in Austrian regiments. Kossuth and many others went to Turkey, and from there emigrated to America, where they found an asylum and kind support. § 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. \AAar of Austria Against Sardinia and France. Battles at Magenta and Solferino. United Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi. In the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice the people were op- pressed by heavy taxes. They also hated the government be- cause it was administered by foreigners. Some sentinels in Milan were killed through vengeance. When General Radetzky pro- claimed martial law, the wrath increased, and after the report of the French revolution, broke out in a revolt (March, 1848), by which the Austrians were compelled to withdraw from the city. The entire Lombardy rose in open insurrection and joined Sardinia, its king, Charles Albert, advancing to support the people. The pope and the king of Naples also afforded them aid. But the Austrians disarmed the Romans ; the king of Naples recalled his troops, and Charles Albert remained inactive. Radetzky gained a complete victory at Custozza, and soon after entered Milan. The land had again to submit to Austria. Charles once more tried the chance of arms, but was again vanquished, the campaign having lasted only four days. He abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and went to Portugal, where he died. Venice, which had proclaimed the "republic of St. Mark," also had to surrender to Marshal Radetzky. What fate did the vanquished suffer ? What of the executions at Ai-ad ? What of inferior ojffiicers ? How many were enlisted in Austrian regiments ? Where did Kossuth go to ? How was he received in America ? ^ 126. Why- did the inhabitants of Lombardy and Venice hate the Austrian government? What incidents caused the revolt? What was the effect of the example of the capital throughout the country? Who supported her? Was the success endur- ing ? Why not ? What of Radetzky ? Of Charles Albert ? Of Venice ? 302 Insurrections, at the beginning of 1848, also occurred in the other States of Italy ; the constitutions were amended ; the Jesuits everywhere removed; in Piedmont, besides, liberty of conscience was granted. Pope Pious IX., known for his liberal principles, proposed the plan of framing a confederation of the Italian States, and first effected several beneficial reforms; e.g., liberty of the press; but soon committed acts of a reactionary nature. After a while he lost the confidence of the Romans, who compelled him to flee and elected a National Assembly, which declared that the pope's tem- poral power was at an end, and framed a republican constitution. Mazzini, the chief of the "young Italy," and Garibaldi, a bold leader of a corps of volvmteers, were at the head of the govern- ment. But at the request of the pope, Austrian, Spanish, Neapol- itan and French troops soon drew near ; the French — to the shame of their repubhc — besieged Rome, took it by assault (1849 A. D.), and reinstated the pope, who since was the most determined sup- porter of absolutism. The king of Naples suppressed the insurrec- tions in Naples and Sicily (1848 A. D.), principally by aid of his Swiss guards, and then governed again with unlimited sway. The influence of Austria again became preponderant in Italy. She possessed the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, and all the secular princes of the peninsula were either Austrian archdukes, or faith- ful allies of Austria, excepting Victor Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia. The latter, trusting in the assistance of Napoleon III., and in his liberal minister, Cavour, resolved to -ruin the Austrian power in Italy. For some time he had been constantly arming for this object; the emperor of Austria demanded the cessation of these preparations, and his reclamations being unheeded, ordered his army to invade the Sardinian territory (1859 A. D.) Napoleon joined his army to that of the king, and placed himself at its head to direct the operations of the campaign. Then began a short but bloody war. The Austrians were defeated in two battles, at Magenta (June 4, 1859), and near Solferino (June 24th). The latter battle Of the other States of Italy ? Of the reforms of Pius IX.? Why did he lose the confidence of the Romans ? What was he compelled to do ? What did the Romans frame ? Who was at the head of the government .-' Who abolished it ? Who reinstated the pope? What of the king of Naples ? Who resolved to ruin the power of Austria in Italy ? Trusting in whom ? What did he do for this object? What did the emperor of Austria demand? What did he order his army to do ? What of Louis Napoleon ? Give an account of the war; of the battle at Solferino. 303 lasted from four o'clock in the morning till eight in the evening. At four o'clock in the afternoon, a hurricane swept over the two armies, compeUing them to suspend their bloody work, but the storm was hardly over, when the contest re-commenced with the same fury. At length the Austrians, who had entered the conflict with 220,000 men, were obliged to retreat. Napoleon ofifered a truce which was accepted, and after this the two emperors concluded peace, according to the terms of which the king of Sardinia obtained the Lombardy, and Napoleon, Savoy and the country of Nice. But these were not the only results of the Itahan war. The Austrian garrison had no sooner withdrawn from the papal territory than the Itahan revolutionists proclaimed Victor Emmanuel dictator, who united to his kingdom the greater part of the papal dominions, the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the grand-duchy of Tus- cany (i860 A. D.) The appeals of Pius IX. to the Cathohc powers were unheeded. The revolution continued its progress over other parts of Italy. Garibaldi, secretly assisted by England, landed in Sicily with 2,000 volunteers, and caused a revolt, which had just broken out in this island, to end in triumph. This being accom- plished, he re-crossed the sea to expel Francis II., king of the Two Sicilies, from his contmental possessions. Without striking a blow, he entered Naples (Sept. 7, i860). Then the army of Victor Emman- uel hastened to his assistance, Francis left his kingdom, and the first Italian parliament, composed of deputies from all Italy (except Venetia and what remained of the States of the church), assembled at Turin, and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy (1861 A. D.) Florence, later Rome (1870 A. D.) became the capital of the new government. The beneficial influence of the political reforms have since appeared in the public affairs of the nation. Twenty years ago eighty Italians in every hundred were unable to read or write. Now nearly one million sterling is expended for public instruction. The monasteries, in which 30,000 idle monks were fed, were abol- ished, and the greater part of their revenues devoted to general education. The industrial progress of free Italy has also been rapid. Who had to retreat ? What did Victor Emmanuel gain ? What Napoleon ? W'hat other States did the former unite to his kingdom ? Where did Garibaldi land ? What did he effect in Sicily and Naples ? Who hastened to his assist- ance ? Where did the farst parliament assemble ? Who was proclaimed king of Italy ? Which was the capital ? What beneficial results did the political re- forms exert in Italy ? ^^^^at of public instruction ? Of the monasteries ? Of industrial progress ? 304 Her exports, which formerly (1868 A. D.) were only twenty-two million sterling, had risen in seven years (1875 A. D.) to forty-two million. While Italy advanced in common with the progress of the age, the pope alone remained conservative. At his call, an ecumenical council convened in Rome which, according to his wish, declared him infallible in matters of faith (1869 A. D.) § 127. Russia. Crimean \A/ar.' Siege of Sebastopol. Russo-Turkisli War. Surrender of tlie Turks at the Shipka Pass. The Russian czar, Nicholas, ill concealing his ambition under the plea of protecting the Greek subjects of the Ottoman empire^ declared war against the Turks, and invaded the Danubian prov- inces of the Turkish territory. The great powers in Europe, desiring to maintain the integrity of Turkey for the perservation of the European equilibrium, offered mediation; but their efforts not having succeeded, England, Sardinia and France (under Napoleon III.), aUied with the Sultan and began war against Russia (1854 A. D.) They resolved to take possession of Sebastopol, which was the seat of the Russian power in the Crimean peninsula. Terrible was the attack by land and by sea ; equally terrible was the defense. The czar sent thither constant reinforcements ; the western powers did the same. The siege had lasted one year, when the latter fixed on the 8th of September, 1855, for a general assault. They opened it by a formidable bombardment, which Avas continued for four days and four nights ; then they, with astonishing courage, stormed the defenses of the enemy. Yet it Avas not till after six assaults had been made, that .the French succeeded in taking the Malakoff Tower, which was the principal defense of Sebastopol. Before retiring, Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian commander, completed the sinking of his fleet, and blew up that part of the town which he was compelled to abandon ; then he intrenched himself in the north- ern part of Sebastopol, where he continued for some time to make a desperate resistance, but finally he retreated. Sebastopol by this time had become a heap of ruins. Then the Treaty of Paris fol- lowed (March 30, 1856), by which the Sultan confirmed the ancient How did the exports improve ? Did the pope also advance with the progress of the ageV What of the synod held in Rome? ^127. Against vi^hom did Nicholas of Russia declare war ? Who allied with the Sultan ? What city did the allies besiege ? How long did the siege last ? Give a description of it, and of the storming of the city. Mention some conditions of the peace. Whose privi- leges were confirmed by the Sultan ? 305 privileges of his Christian subjects; Russia renounced all protec- torate rights over the Danubian provinces ; the navigation of the Danube was declared free; the Black Sea, of which Russia had been the sole mistress, became neutral, and was interdicted to any vessel of war. The first great reform of Alexander II., who had signed the treaty of Paris, was the abolishment of serfdom, which created four- teen millions of new, free citizens, the mainstay of Russia's agricul- ture. Corporal punishment was also abolished ; the judicial power separated from the administrative, and founded on trial by jury ; the term of military service lessened, and Hberty of the press and publications enlarged. But, on the other hand, he suppressed the in- surrection in Poland (1863-1864 A. D.) with extreme severity. True, the Russian peasant can no longer be beaten or sold by a master' but his attitude to the great lord of his district is still utterly slavish! Of the schoolmaster he knows nothing.— In point of extent Russia is_ the largest dominion in the world. The subjects of the czar number 85,000,000. Pie is, in the fullest sense of the word, an absolute monarch. All power— legislative, executive, judicial 'and ecclesiastical — centers in him. He is the law of Russia. The oppression of the Turkish subjects in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria urged these provinces to rise against the sultan (1875- 1876 A. D.) Bulgaria was now the scene of atrocities scarcely par- alleled in modern Europe. Christian villages were burned down and their inhabitants slaughtered by thousands. Women, htde children and unoffending old men perished under nameless tor- tures. A vain attempt was made, by a conference of the great powers, to bring the stubborn sultan to reason; he -would not yield to counsel. Russia then declared war, sending her armies over the Balkans, where they occupied the Shipka Pass (1877 A. D.) But they were driven back, and Osman Pasha led an army to Plevna, a Roumanian town. For five months the con- What protectorate did Russia renounce ? What of the navigation of the Danube and of the Black Sea ? What reforms did Alexander 11. accomplish in Russia ? How many peasants did he set free? What punishment did he abrogate? What of judicial power? Of trial by jury ? Of military service? Of liberty of the press ? How did he deal with Poland ? Is the Russian peasant indeed free ? How many subjects are under the dominion of the czar ? Why is he called the most absolute monarch? How were the Turkish subjects in Bul- garia, etc., treated ? Delineate their treatment. To whose counsel would the sultan not yield ? Who waged war against him ? What of Plevna ? (20) 306 test centered in this little town. Todleben, the Russian general, drew heavy masses of troops around it, and starved the enemies. Osman endured the siege till Plevna was a charnel-house, then endeavored to break through the encircling lines; but over- matched and surrounded, he had to lay down his arms. The flower of the Turkish army was lost. A few weeks after the fall of Plevna three Russian armies were led across the Balkans (1878 A. D.) The difficulty of the march was extreme. The roads were slippery with ice, often almost impassable on account of deep snow. Many men perished from intense cold. Still the Russians made their way into Rumelia, and striking the rear of the Turkish army which guarded the outlet from the Shipka Pass, compelled its sur- render. Twenty thousand men laid down their arms. The victo- rious Russians advanced quickly to Adrianople, and the sultan begged for terms of peace, which he was granted on these condi- tions: To the north of the Balkans, Bulgaria was raised into a principality, paying a tribute ; to the south of them, the province of Eastern Rumelia was formed, to be ruled by a Christian governor- general ; and Montenegro, Roumania and Servia received their inde- pendence. Bosnia and Herzegovina were made over to Austria. Russia took back Bessarabia, and received also some Turkish cities in Asia. — The treaty was submitted by Russia to the congress of the European powers, held in Berlin, Prince Bismarck presiding (1878 A. D.) The sultan lost over four million subjects by this war. — Alexander I. was assassinated by the Nihilists (1881 A. D.) ^ 128. America. Secession War in the United States. Abraham Lincoln. When two. new territories were organized in Kansas and Ne- braska, the congress resolved that these territories were to decide for themselves whether they would have slaves or not. This law led to civil war in Kansas. The slavery question had already divided the How long did the contest last in the town ? Who were the leaders of the two armies ? Who was successful ? What loss did Osman suffer ? Describe the difficulties of the march of the Russian armies across the Balkans. How many Turks surrendered ? How far did the Russians advance ? Mention some conditions of the peace. To what congress was the treaty submitted ? How many subjects did the sultan lose by this war ? What of the end of Alexander I. ? ^ 128. What did congress leave to the settlers to decide in Kansas and Nebraska ? What followed this law ? When had the slavery question already divided the nation ? 307 nation when the constitution was framed, and finally caused one of the bloodiest civil wars. In the Declaration of Independence thfe principles were proclaimed that " all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their creator with certain inaHenable rights, and that among these are Hfe, hberty and the pursuit of happiness." According to these principles the Anti-Slavery Society was organ- ized (1S33 A. D.), which held that all slave laws, before God, were utterly null and void. W. Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips presided over the society. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise (see § 116) caused the formation of a new party, called the Repub- lican party, the principal doctrine of which was opposition to the extension of slavery. John Brown, an enthusiastic enemy of slavery, who had taken an active part in the warfare in Kansas, formed the plan to liberate the Southern slaves. With but twenty- one followers he seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (1859 A. D.) He was seized, together with six of his associates. They were tried and hanged. — The RepubUcans elected Abraham Lincoln president (i860 A. D.) The seven slave-holding States— South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas, which were soon joined by the States of Vir- ginia, Arkansas, North CaroHna and Tennessee, formed themselves into a separate confederacy, asserting that they had a perfect right to withdraw at pleasure from the Union, and elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander Stephens vice-president. South Carolina headed the secession. The confederates, moreover, seized most of the forts and arsenals of the United States within their boundaries. Major Anderson, having refused to deUver up Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was attacked by the confederate bat- teries under the command of Gen. Beauregard (April 12th, 186 1), and surrendered after a day's fighting. At this signal of war the president issued a proclamation ordering 75,000 men into the field for the defense of the Union (April 14th). A large army was What did it cause ? What principles are proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence ? What society was organized according to these principles ? Who presided over the society ? What repeal caused the formation of the Re- publican party ? What was the principal doctrine of this party ? Give an account of John Brown's attempt to liberate the slaves. Whom did the Republicans elect president ? What States formed a separate confederacy? What did they assert ? Whom did they elect president ? Whom vice-president ? What State headed the secession ? What did the confederates seize? Who defended Fort Sumter ? To whom did Anderson surrender ? What proclamation did Presi- dent Lincoln issue ? When ? 308 collected around Washington, under the veteran Gen. Scott. The firsfbloodshed occurred in Baltimore (April 19), when a mob attacked a body of troops passing through that city to the 'defense of Wash- ington, and killed two Massachusetts men. In July, Gen. McDowell, having command of the federal force assembled around Washmgton, began to march upon Rich- mond, which had lately become the capital of the confederates. He soon encountered a portion of the confederate troops, under the command of Gen. Beauregard, at a Httle creek named Bull Run. First the Union soldiers were victorious, but, in the after- noon, the confederates, reinforced by J. E. Johnston's column from the Shenandoah valley, defeated them (July 21;. Congress imme- diately levied an army of volunteers which, at the beginning of the year 1862, exceeded 450,000 men. Two hundred thousand of them were near Washington, under Gen. McClellan, Gen. Scott having retired. Gen. Halleck was commander-in-chief of the Western department. The confederate congress passed an act of conscription, which declared every male inhabitant (with a few exceptions) between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five years, a soldier. In the fall of 1861 (October 21) Gen. Banks tried to effect a passage of federal troops across the Potomac river at Ball's Bluff, but the affair was a failure. Gen. Nathaniel Lyon, in Missouri, really saved the State by securing the arsenal at St. Louis (in May, 1861); he fell when he attacked the rebels at Wil- son's Creek (August loth). Col. Sigel won a battle at Carthage, Missouri (July 5th), but was compelled to fall back. Mason and Slidell, two confederate commissioners to the British government, were seized by Capt. Wilkes from an English maiUsteamer and carried to Fort Warren (November 8th). The British government demanded their surrender, beginning preparations for war. But war was avoided, as the United States government gave them up. Towards the middle of March, 1862, Gen. McClellan, now commander of the army of the Potomac, landed it at Fortress Mon- What was collected at Washington ? Undei- whose command ? Where was the first bloodshed ? Give an account of the battle at Bull Run. Who com- manded the Union army ? Who the confederates ? What of Johnston's column ? How many volunteers did congress levy ? What act did the confed- erate congress pass ? What encounter had Gen. Banks with the rebels in the fallof 1861? How did he succeed? What general saved Missouri? Where did he die ? Give a detail of the peninsula campaign. Who was commander of the Union army? 309 roe and began to advance from that point towards Richmond. The confederate works before Yorktown resisted his march, and, after one month, Gen. Johnston evacuated the place. In spite of new obstacles, McClellan approached within a few miles of Rich- mond. But the enemy had by this time received large reinforce- ments, while his own army had been greatly reduced by losses during the campaign, and by sickness on the banks of the Chicka- hominy. Seeing himself pressed by superior numbers, he was com- pelled to retreat. For six days the confederates harassed his march by continual attacks, known as the " seven days' batdes " (from June 25 to July i); but the successful stand which he made at Malvern Hill (July i), checked all further aggressive demonstra- tions against him, and ended the peninsular campaign. The presi- dent now called for 600,000 troops, and soon after ordered that 300,000 of these should be raised by draft, to serve for nine months. Gen. Halleck became commander-in-chief. The success of the confederate government in that campaign induced them to invade the Union territory, in order to strike some important blow. In vain did Gen. Pope oppose the invading army, under Gen. Lee ; he was compelled to retreat, and was severely defeated at the second battle at Bull Run (August 30). McClellan, now recalled from Virginia, advanced with all the forces that were not required for the defense of Washington, to stop the overwhelm- ing march of the confederates. He met them at the great battle at Antietam, in Maryland. Each army numbered, it is said, a hun- dred thousand men (September 17). The combat raged all day, till night put an end to it. McClellan obtained a decided success, and Gen. Lee hastily withdrew his forces across the Potomac, retir- ing into Virginia. The Union army did nothing till November; then McClellan was ordered to dehver up the command of the army of the Potomac to Gen. Ambrose Burnside, who immediately took measures for a new advance upon Richmond. The march to that city was to be made by the route through Fredericksburg. To what city did he advance ? By what, causes was he compelled to retreat ? Where did he make a successful stand ? For how many more troops did the president call ? How many should be raised by draft ? For how many months ? Who became commander-in-chief? Who invaded the Union territory? Who was defeated in the second battle at Bull Run? In what battle did McClellan meet the confederates ? How many men did the armies number ? Who was defeated? Who succeeded McClellan in the command? By what route did Gen. Burnside intend to advance to Richmond ? 310 Lee occupied the town with a part of his forces, and concentrated the rest on the heights in the rear of the town. When the Union army attacked it, no greater opposition was made than was suffi- cient to allure the Union soldiers to push forward. But as soon as the Union army tried to storm the enemy's works on the heights, it was received with such a fire of infantry and artillery that Gen. Burnside gave up the attack (December 13). During this year (186.2 A. D.) military movements m the west were numerous and important. In January, Gen. Thomas won a brilliant victory at Mill Springs, where the rebel Gen. Zollicoffer was killed. In February Gen. Grant, aided by Commodore Foote Avith his gun-boats, captured Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland — the latter place with 13,000 men. These federal successes obliged the rebels to withdraw from Kentucky. Within two months of this brilliant affair, while Grant's army lay encamped at Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), awaiting a federal corps under Gen. Buell, Generals Beauregard and A. S. Johnston attacked Grant, rendering themselves master of a part of his camp. But Johnston was killed in the contest, and during the afternoon Buell's army came up, so that the confederates, on the next day, were compelled to give way and retreat (April 6-7). The rebels retreated to Corinth, Miss., where they were besieged by Gen. Halleck ; after severe fighting, they evacuated the place. When Gen. Halleck was made general-in-chief, Gen. Grant took com- mand of the army of the Tennessee. Gen. Price made a vigorous attempt to drive him from Corinth, but was defeated by Gen. Rose- crans in the battle of luka. At Pea Ridge, Arkansas, the confed- erates were defeated by Generals Curtis and Sigel after three days' fighting (March 8th); Columbus, Kentucky, was abandoned early in the year by the rebels, who then fortified Island No. 10, in the Mis- sissippi. Gen. Pope co-operated with Commodore Foote for its capture. After twenty-three days' bombardment the rebels with- drew, but Pope cut off their retreat, taking many prisoners. Flag- Where was he vanquished ? Describe the battle. Where were the forces of Gen. Lee concentrated ? How was the Union army received on the heights of the town ? What forts were taken by Grant and Foote ? With how many prisoners ? From what State were the confederates obliged to withdraw ? Give an account of the battle of Shiloh. Where did the rebels retreat to ? Who be- sieged them ? Who, after Halleck, took command of the army of the Tennessee ? Who defeated Gen. Price ? Who defeated the confederates at Pea Ridge ? What town of Kentucky did they abandon ? What island did they then fortify t Who captured it ? 311 officer David Farragut was sent to the Gulf in command of a squad- ron, designed to co-operate with the land forces under Gen. Butler for the capture of New Orleans. Forts Jackson and St. Phihp, below the city, having been in vain bombarded for six days, Far- ragut ran past the forts with part of his fleet, destroyed the rebel fleet above, and reached the city (April 25th). The forts surrendered to Commander D. D. Porter, and Butler took command m New Orleans. At the end of the year Gen. Rosecrans gave battle to Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), in Tennessee, and defeated him (Dec. 31, 1862, Jan. i and 2, 1863); both armies suff-ered a heavy loss. The most important naval combat during the year 1862 was waged between the Merrimac and Monitor, m Hampton Roads. The Merrimac was a confederate iron-clad war-vessel, which destroyed a sloop-of-war and a frigate of the Union (the Cumberland and the Congress). But during the night the Monitor, a peculiar iron-clad war-ship, constructed by Captain Ericsson, arrived from New York, and in the morning attacked the Merrimac, which, after a fierce fight, was badly damaged and compelled to retire to Norfolk. During this year immense havoc was committed on the commerce of the North by the Florida and Alabama, two privateers built in England, which were permitted by the British government to pass into the service of the confederates. The latter, commanded by Captain Semmes, was two years after attacked and sunk by the Kearsarge, Captain Winslow, in the harbor of Cherbourg, France. After the war, America called upon England to indemnify her for the loss suff-ered from these cruisers. Commissioners of arbitration were chosen, to whom America submitted her claims. The judges ordained that England should pay three milhon sterling as a suitable indemnity for the evil which she had wrongfully permitted.— West Virginia was admitted to the Uni on in 1862. Who was sent to capture New Orleans ? What forts did Farragut bombard ? Give an account of the naval battle on the Mississippi. To whom did the forts surrender^ Who took command m New Orleans? Who fought the battle of Murfreesboro? Who was defeated? Give the details of the naval combat be- tween the Merrimac and Monitor. What kind of war- vessels were they ? What cruisers caused serious damage to the commerce of the North ? Where had they been built ? Where and by whom was the Alabama sunk ? How were the claims of America against England adjusted after the war? How much mdem- nity did England pay ? What new State was admitted into the Union ? 312 I 129. Continued. Emancipation of the Slaves. Battle at Gettysburg. Surrender of Vieksburg and Port Hudson. In 1862, slavery in the District of Columbia had been abolished by congress, and forever prohibited in the territories of the republic. Congress, induced to do so by the president, had also, in the same year, offered a fair compensation to the slave States for the manu- mission of their slaves. But none were wise enough to accept the offer. Moreover, the president had warned them betime to re- turn into the Union, proclaiming that, in case of reluctance, he would declare their slaves free ; but they did not heed this warning. Therefore, on New Year's day of 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which declared free all the slaves within the borders of the Confederate States. Their number amounted to four millions. Henceforth, the freedmen vigorously supported the cause of the Union. Within six months there were 50,000 colored troops in the Union armies, within another year 150,000, notwithstanding the rebel congress decreed that all white officers of such troops should suffer death if captured, and some privates who were taken were instantly shot. In March the Conscription Act became a law, and the preparations made to enforce it caused great excitement. In New York City the commencement of the draft was followed by a riot in which a great amount of property was destroyed, and many persons, chiefly negroes, were killed. The next advance upon Richmond was undertaken by Gen. Hooker, who had succeeded Gen. Burnside in command, but he was entirely defeated at Chancellorsville, Virginia, with a loss of 18,000 men (May 2 and 3, 1863). The confederates lost their brave and favorite general, Stonewall Jackson. After this battle. Gen. Lee marched through Maryland into Pennsylvania, and ■concentrated his forces at Gettysburg. Here he was met by Gen. Meade, who encamped his troops on a hill-slope. This action, the §129. Where was slavery abolished in 1862? Where prohibited? What did congress offer to the slave States ? With what effect ? What warning did the president proclaim to them ? What proclamation did President Lincoln issue on the first of January, 1863 ? Wfiat was the number of slaves ? How did they prove their gratitude? How many of them, within six months, were in the Union army ? How many within another year ? What did the rebel con- gress decree ? What did the Conscription Act cause ? Where did a riot occur ? Who undertook the next advance upon Richmond ? How did Gen. Hooker suc- ceed ? Mention the circumstances of the battle at Gettysburg. 313 greatest of the war, lasted three days (July i, 2 and 3). All attacks of Gen. Lee were repulsed, and he was compelled, after having lost 30,000 men, to retreat into Virginia with the remnants of his army. Two other heavy blows were at the same time inflicted upon the confederates. Thus far the navigation of the Mississippi river had remained closed between Port Hudson (Louisiana) and Vicksburg (Mississippi). Gen. Grant, with the design of opening the river entirely, undertook an expedition against Vicksburg. But the approach to this place proved most difficult, owing to its position, and the efforts of the enemy, under Gen. J. E. Johnston, to retain the key of the great river. A previous attempt to cut a new chan- nel for the river, which should leave Vicksburg inland, had failed, as did also another to get in its rear by the Yazoo river. Gen. Grant now ran the transports past the batteries during the night (April 22), then marched the army down the west side of the Mis- sissippi far below Vicksburg, crossed it to Grand Gulf, and from there advanced on the rear of Vicksburg. During this movement he met and defeated the confederates under Pemberton in five actions. The latter then retired to his works in Vicksburg, and Grant laid siege to it, which lasted six weeks. The garrison, num- bering over 30,000 men, made a gallant defense ; but their provis- ions becoming very scarce, and no hope remaining of receiving relief, they surrendered (July 4). The surrender of Vicksburg was followed by that of Port Hudson. The capture of these two strongholds of the confederates opened the Mississippi to naviga- tion and commerce, and broke up their communication between the States west and east of that river. After the battle at Murfreesboro, Gen. Rosecrans remained there until June, when he drove the confederates, under Gen. Bragg, across the Cumberland Mountains to Chattanooga, Ga., where the latter was reinforced by Generals Longstreet and Johnston, with many paroled men from Vicksburg. Rosecrans was defeated by How long did it last ? How many men did Gen. Lee lose ? Where did he then retreat to ? What two other blows were inflicted upon the confederates ? Why was the approach to Vicksburg difficult ? What previous attempts failed ? Give the narrative of the siege and capture of Vicksburg. By what maneuver ■did Gen. Grant get into the rear of Vicksburg ? How many times during his movement did he defeat Pemberton? Why did the latter surrender? With how many soldiers ? What other harbor was then captured ? What advantages did the Union gain by the capture of the two places ? Where did Rosecrans drive Gen. Bragg after the battle at Murfreesboro ? By whom was Bragg rein- forced ? 314 Bragg in the great battle of Chickamauga, a few miles south of Chattanooga, but Gen. Thomas, who commanded the Union left, repulsed all attacks of the enemies, and fought so stubbornly that the army was able to retire and fortify itself in Chattanooga. Here it was shut up by Bragg, and nearly starved out. But Grant, joined by Sherman, raised the siege by a battle lasting three days (Nov. 23-25). The confederates Avere attacked at Lookout Mountain and on Missionary Ridge, and completely defeated. At the same time Gen. Burnside was struggling for the possession of East Ten- nessee, being besieged at Knoxville by Longstreet, who had moved northward after the battle of Chickamauga. But Sherman hastened to his relief from Chattanooga, and Longstreet, raising the siege (Dec. 3), rejoined Lee in Virginia. In the same year almost the whole State of Arkansas was restored to the federal government. — Two more marked exploits of the navy were the capture of the " Nashville" by the " Montauk," and of the ram " Atlanta" by the " Weehawken," both on the coast of Georgia. The main campaigns for 1864 were to be made by the armies of the Potomac and of Chattanooga. Grant, now made lieutenant- general, who superintended in person the army of the Potomac, met the confederates in the stubborn and bloody combat of the Wilderness, which lasted about three days, without decided victory on either side (May 4-6). He then effected several flank move- ments which, after six weeks, brought him before Petersburg, the key to the capital. The Union army, in this movement, lost 60,000 men. Lee took his stand between Petersburg and Richmond, occu- pying an extended line of about thirty miles. Grant then settled down to a long siege, in order to " wear out " the confederates (from June, 1864, to April, 1865). Several assaults were made on Petersburg, but repulsed. A tremendous mine of powder, which had been run under one of the confederate forts before the town, was fired, carrying the earthwork into the air (July 30). A storm- Where did he defeat Rosecrans ? What general effected the safe retreat of the latter ? Where was Rosecrans then shut up ? Who relieved him ? By what battle ? How long did it last? Where was Burnside besieged? Who hastened to his relief ? What State was mostly restored to the Union ? Men- tion two further exploits of the navy. What armies had to make the main cam- paigns in 1864 ? Who was now Lieutenant-General ? What of the battle of the Wilderness ? How many days did it last ? What movements brought Grant be- fore Petersburg ? How many men were killed ? Where did Lee take his stand ? What operation did Grant resolve upon ? What of the assaults on Petersburg ? Of the great mine of powder ? 315 ing column then advanced to press through to Petersburg, but the troops were repulsed with great slaughter. At this time, while Grant stopped before Petersburg, Lee sent Gen. Early with a col- umn to threaten and, if possible, to capture Washington. Early- advanced to the works around the capital, but finding them stronger than had been expected, he returned to Virginia. He took with him great booty from Maryland and Pennsylvania. After this, Sheridan, general of the cavalry, and commander in the Shenan- doah valley, defeated the confederates in the battle of Winchester (September 19). At Cedar Creek his army (he being absent), was routed ; after retreating some miles a stand was again made. Sheri- dan arrived, and late in the day, in turn routed the enemies. ' I ISO. Concluded. Sherman's March to the Sea. Sur- render of Richmond and of the Confederate Army. Lincoln Assassinated. Amend- ment of the Constitution. Free Homestead Bill. Gen. Sherman's army at Chattanooga was put in motion (May 5th), towards Atlanta, distant 140 miles. This whole route was contested -by Johnston in a series of battles, among which the most severe were at Resaca and around Dallas and Kenesaw Mountain. By the middle of July, Sherman's army was before Atlanta, where . furious fighting occurred on the 20th, 2 2d and 28th. Gen. McPherson was killed here. Gen. Hood, who had superseded Johnston, withdrew from the city (Sept. i), and Sherman at once occupied this important town, being the center of railroad com- munication between the Western and the Atlantic and Gulf States. Hood, by seizing Sherman's line of suppUes, compelled the army to fall back. Sherman, after following Hood some distance, sent Gen. Thomas with a large force to oppose Hood, while he himself returned to Atlanta ; he burned the town, and then set out on his remarkable " March to the Sea," through Georgia. The confed- erates had no army that could offer any serious resistance. Sher- Whom did Lee send towards Washington ? Wherefore ? Did Early suc- ceed ? In what battle was Sheridan victorious ? What of the battle of Cedar Creek? § 130. Where did Sherman's army move in May, 1864.'' Who con- tested the route ? In what battles ? Before what town did furious fighting oc- cur ? What genera] was killed ? Who withdrew ? Why was Atlanta an import- , ant town ? Why was Sherman compelled to fall back ? Whom did he send against Hood ? Where did he return to ? 316 man, on his march, destroyed their supphes, depriving them, by this stratagem, of the means of sustaining their armies. Five weeks after his departure from Atlanta he reached the sea, and carried Fort McAlhster by assauk (Dec. 13); Savannah surrendered eight days later (Dec. 21). This done, the Union army was in communi- cation with the Union fleet off the coast. Meantmie Gen. Hood, tempted by Sherman's withdrawal from Atlanta, attacked Schofield at Franklin, Tenn., and after a severe battle (November 3d) forced him to retreat to Nashville, which place Hood then besieged; but Thomas, concentrating his forces here, suddenly attacked him, drove him from his entrenchment and com- pletely routed him (December 15-16). Hood had to retreat, and being pursued by the victor, his army was nearly destroyed. Other operations during the year 1864, not directly connected with the two main campaigns, were : First: Gen. Banks, in March, led an expedition from New Orleans into the Red River country, Louisiana. Two actions were fought — the first, Sabine Cross Roads (April 8th), being a confederate victory, and the second, Pleasant Hill, indecisive. The expedition was given up. Second : In February, Gen. Sherman, before he went to Chat- tanooga, made an expedition from Vicksburg, during Avhich the rebel Gen. Forrest defeated his cavalry column and captured Fort Pillow, where he most cruelly massacred a number of negroes who composed the garrison. Generally, cruelty was the anirqating spirit of the rebellion, and its prison discipline at Anderson, Salisbury, and other places where Union soldiers were held, was a rigidly observed policy of delivering to death the greatest number in the briefest time, and by the most barbarous measures. The confeder- ates, in the treatment of their prisoners, outdid the cruelty of Indian warfare. In July, Admiral Farragut, with a powerful fleet and land force was sent against Mobile ; he succeeded in running the batteries of the forts in the harbor with the loss of but one vessel ; he attacked the Give an account of his march to the sea. What stratagem did he carry out ? What was his success ? Whom did Gen. Hood attack ? Where did Schofield retreat to ? Who vanquished Hood here ? What of the expedition of Gen. Banks ? Who defeated the cavalry column of Gen. Sherman ? How^ did For- rest deal with the negroes in Fort Pillow ? In general, how did the confeder- ates deal with their prisoners at Andei'son, Salisbury and other places ? De- scribe the action of Admiral Farragut against Mobile. 317 rebel fleet, destroying among other vessels the " Tennessee," the most formidable ram ever fitted out by the confederates. Aided by the land forces of Gen. Granger, he took the forts and secured pos- session of Mobile Bay. The city surrendered in the next spring (1865). Another confederate stronghold, Fort Fisher, North Car- olina, which commanded the entrance to the port of Wilmington, was attacked by Admiral Porter and Gen. Butler (in December), without success; but the following month Gen. Terry assaulted and captured it (Jan. 15, 1863). In the fall of 1864, Abraham Lincoln was re-elected president, the candidate of the Democratic party being General McClellan. The field of decisive operations was now reduced to the States of North and South Carolina and Virginia. During the winter Gen. Sherman overran the Carolinas with his victorious army, and thereby cut ofi" the resources of Gen. Lee. He found nothing to oppose his march in order to join Grant, except a small confederate force which Gen. J. E. Johnston had hastily gathered together. The first point to which Sherman marched was Columbia, S. C, which he captured and burned (February 17th). This move compelled the confeder- ates to evacuate Charleston (February 17th). Near Averysboro, N. C, he defeated a confederate force, and at Bentonville fought a successful battle against Johnston. On March 23d he entered Goldsboro, where he was joined by forces under Generals Schofield and Terry. In Virginia Gen. Grant, in the -spring of 1865, renewed active operations against Petersburg. Attacks on the rebel works were made daily, with heavy losses on both sides. Sheridan, with his cavalry, rode through the Shenandoah valley, capturing most of the remnants of Early's force, destroyed the canal at the James nver, tore up the railroads, and joined Gen. Grant (March 26). On the ist of April the decisive battle was fought at Five Forks, in which Sheridan broke through the; rebel forces, and thereby decided the contest for Richmond. An attack was then made along the whole What did lie destroy, and what take ? When did the city surrender ? By whom was Fort Fisher attacked ? By whom captured ? What States did Gen. Sherman overrun in the winter of 1864-1865 ? What did he thereby cut off? What general opposed him on his march ? What towns did he take ? Where did he defeat Johnston ? What of Gen. Grant in Virginia ? Of Sheridan ? Whom did he join ? When was the decisive battle fought ? Who broke through the rebel forces ? Where was an attack made on the 2d of April ? What was the result ? 318 line of works in front of Petersburg, and the line carried at several points (April 2). During the night Lee abandoned Petersburg and Richmond, which were entered by the Union army the next day (April 3). Lee retreated, hoping to join Johnston in North Caro- lina. A hot pursuit was immediately begun by Grant. The con- federate army was completely surrounded at Appomattox Court House, and here Lee surrendered (April 9). Gen. Johnston, hear- ing the news of Lee's yielding, also surrendered (April 26). By the end of May all the confederate forces had surrendered, and the civil war was at an end. The news of this happy event occasioned the greatest joy throughout the country, but it was soon changed into deep mourn- ing, for Lincoln was assassinated in the theater at Washington, where he was shot in the head (14th of April), and he died in a few hours. His murderer was the actor John Wilkes Booth. On the same night Secretary Seward was dangerously stabbed by another ruffian, in his own house, while lying ill in bed. — Mr, Lincoln was an honest, clear-headed, and large-hearted man. His wise and firm administration of affairs in such perilous and difficult times had won for him a high respect and love. He was carried to his grave amid the tears of a nation, which will keep his memory equally sacred with that of Washington. — The assassin fled into Maryland, where he was shot by one of his pursuers. Booth, and the assail- ants of Mr. Seward, were members of a band of conspirators, of whom several were afterwards hanged. — Jefferson Davis was cap- tured, then kept in prison for a time, and finally Hberated. — If is stated that in the civil war on both sides over one million of men were either killed or wounded. The national debt, at the end of the war, was about $2,800,000,000, of which thus far over one-third has been paid off. — It is worthy of notice that the United States gov- ernment did not make foreign loans, a market for its notes and bonds being found at home, chiefly among the loyal people of the What of Gen. Lee ? Where did he retreat to ? Where was his army sur- rounded ? What was the effect of it ? What of Gen. Johnston ? Where and when was President Lincoln assassinated ? By whom ? Who was assailed at the same time? What was the character of Mr. Lincoln .-' How was his burial honored? With whose memory will that of Mr. Lincoln be kept equally sacred ? How were Booth and some other conspirators punished ? What of Jefferson Davis f How many men during the civil war, on both sides, were either killed or wounded ? What of the national debt ? Did the government make foreign loans ? Where was a market found for its notes and bonds ? 319 North. The war was carried on by means of paper money called greenbacks. These were first issued in 1862. At this time all the banks of the United States had suspended specie payments. As the war went on, gold began to command a premium. It was at its highest premium in 1864, when a dollar sold for $2.85 in green- backs. The confederates also carried on the war by means of paper money. About the middle of the war this money began to depre- ciate very much. Before the close of the contest confederate notes had become almost worthless. The people voluntarily contributed millions of dollars to the sup- port of the sick and wounded soldiers. From the humblest country towns, as well as from the great cities, money and stores were freely tendered. The Sajiitary and Christian Commissions, with their supplies and aid, penetrated into every camp and hospital in the federal army, while the Union and various Freedmen's Commissions were devoted to the special wants of the distressed Unionists and destitute freedmen of the South. In this way the enemies of public liberty were vanquished ; but the nation must not become careless, for other enemies of liberty can and will still arise. She must always keep wide-awake in order to preserve that precious gem of her country. The starry banner of the Union, planted firmly on the ramparts of Liberty, " — Long may it wave, O'er the land oi\h.t.free And the home of the brave." By two amendments of the constitution (articles 13 and 15) slavery was abolished in the United States and the right of suffrage given also to the colored people. — Congress reconstructed the Southern States, but the difficulties of this task were much aggra- vated by the conflict of opinion between this body and President Johnson, Lincoln's successor. In 1867 congress passed the Tenure of Office Bill, which said that all those civil "officers whose appoint- ment by the president required the consent of the senate, should not be removed from office without the senate's permission. After By what kind ot money was the war carried on ? What of the banks } How much was a dollar of gold worth in greenbacks in 1869? What of the money used by the confederates ? What is said of the voluntary contributions of the people, and of charitable organizations ? Of what ought the nation to take care? In what manner ? What was abolished by amending the constitution, and what right given by it to colored people ? Who reconstructed the Southern States ? By whom was this task rendered difficult ? What was the meaning of the Tenure of Office Bill ? 320 the session of congress closed, Johnson suspended Mr. Stanton, the secretary of war, from office. When congress met again, they rein- stated Secretary Stanton. The president issued an order removing him. Congress then impeached him for violating the Tenure of Office Bill, and only one vote was lacking to convict him. — The United States bought the peninsula Alaska from the Russian gov- ernment for $7,200,000 (1867 A. D.) — After Johnson, Gen. Grant was twice elected president. The last president, Garfield, was assassinated by Guiteau, because the former did not appoint him to a consulate (1881 A. D.) The ruffian murderer was executed. The vice-president, Arthur, followed Garfield in the office. — By the Homestead Bill (passed 1862, and revised 1866) citizens are entitled to settle, free from expenses, on unsold government land, to the ex- tent of 160 acres. — The United States now comprise thirty-eight States and ten territories, with more than fifty-seven million inhab- itants, whose number increases annually by one hundred thousand immigrants. ? 131. Japan. The ruling dynasty of Japan boasts of an unbroken succession during twenty-five centuries. The assumed date of the ascension of its founder (660 B. C.) is styled the year i of the Japanese era. Its emperors are called Mikados. In the sixth century A. D. Budd- hism was introduced from China; with it came the Asiatic civiliza- tion. A stream of skilled artisans, scholars, teachers and missiona- ries poured into the country, and thenceforth the Japanese charac- ter was molded by the same forces that gave to the Chinese its peculiar features. The Shogun (commander-in-chief of the army) in 1192 A. D. acquired the entire control of political affairs, the Mikado retaining only the religious supremacy and the symbols of royalty. Under this dual form of government, there grew up a feudal system, the In what manner did President Johnson act contrary to it ? Who impeached him then ? Was he convicted ? What peninsula did the United States buy from Russia ? For what sum ? Who was president after Johnson ? How did Presi- dent Garfield die ? Who was his successor ? What right does the Homestead Bill give to poor settlers ? How many States and Territories do the United States now comprise ? How many inhabitants do they contain? ^131. Dur- ing how many centuries had the present dynasty of Japan (as it boasts) ruled? In what year (B. C.) begins the Japanese era.? What are the Japanese emperors called ?. When was Buddhism introduced into Japan ? What civilization came with it ? Who acquired the entire control of political affairs in 1192 ? What did the Mikado retain? 321 military leaders securing land in fief, erecting castles, and support- ing a host of retainers. This system lasted until 1868, when a revolution restored the Mikado to supreme power, destroyed the Shogun's rule, and abolished the feudal titles and tenures. At the command of the Mikado, 250 vassal nobles, resigning their princely incomes, lands and retinues, retired to private life. The Portuguese, during their ascendency in the sixteenth cen- tury, came to Japan. The missionary quickly followed the sailor. Francis Xavier, the apostle to the Indies, introduced Christianity (1549 A. D.), and, in time, 600,000 converts were made. This sec- ond influx of foreign civilization was stopped by the expulsion of the Portuguese and a violent persecution of the Christian Japanese. The Dutch alone were allowed a residence upon an island in the harbor of Nagasaki, and to exchange a single ship-load of mer- chandise per year. Commodore Perry, with a squadron of United States vessels, entered the harbor of Yokohama (1854 A. D.) He made a treaty with Japan, and secured the opening of certain ports to our trade. Since then, the third foreign immigration followed. Successive commercial treaties have been made. The former exclusiveness has been broken down, old ideas have been uprooted, and the nation has been thrust into the path of modern civilization. In 1875 ^^^ Mikado established a senate. In 1878 he inaugurated provincial and departmental assemblies, and in 188 1 he promised to convoke in 1890 a national congress. SEOOKD OHAPTEE-HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION DT THE NINTH AND TENTH PEKIODS. § 132. Constitutions. Political and Social Tendencies. Position of Woman, Military Condition. The Church. Most of the European princes, in our century, acknowledge the principle that the constitutional monarchy which unites the rights What system grew up under this dual form of government ? How long did it last ? What reforms did the Mikado make ? Which Europeans came to Japan in the 1 6th century ? What of Francis Xavier? What adversity befell the Portuguese and the Christian Japanese ? Which nation alone was permitted to stay in Japan? Where? What of Commodore Perry ? What then followed ? What civilization did since spread ? What reforms did the Mikado inaugurate in 1875? In 1878? What did he promise? ^132. What principle do most of the European princes acknowledge ? (21) 322 of the rulers and of the nations, is the form of government that best corresponds to the spirit of the age, and to the desires of the peo- ple, therefore the representative system became prevalent. Accord- ing to it the people, through their representatives, exert the right to levy taxes, to take part in legislation, and to enjoy more liberty of the press. Russia and Turkey only did not adopt this new form of constitution. The last revolutions endeavored to enlarge the demo- cratic foundation of the States, and the principle of the sovereignty of the people is more generally acknowledged. Two parties, thus far, contended inside of the States, namely, the Liberals (democrats, republicans), and the Aristocrats (conservatives). The latter would grant the least possible rights to the people. The governments sided with them. The former represented the opposition party. Other outgrowths in the State organism, are socialism and com- munism; they appear especially in France, England and Germany, where the number of proletaries, in proportion to the capital- ists and landed proprietors, has greatly increased. The socialists desire a juster distribution of property, progressive taxes, limitation of the heirship, abrogation of monopolies, lease of public land by the State, right of woman suffrage, workmen associations, etc. The communists, on the contrary, demand complete community of property, by abblishing the right of ownership. The late revolu- tions in France and Germany were, in part, of the socialistic kind. In Russia, the socialists are called Nihilists, because they aim to destroy and annihilate all tyrannical institutions of the govern- ment. They are organized in secret societies, whose members are numbered by thousands; they form the opposition party of the despotic government. The position of woman is far better now, at least in the United States, in England and in France, than it was fifty years ago. The property of the wife is withdrawn from the control of the husband in England, in France and in most of the United States. Many trades and professions are now thrown open to the practice of What political system became prevalent ? What rights do the people exert through their representatives ? What States did not adopt the new form of con- stitution ? What was the aim of the last revolutions ? What two parties are contending inside of the States ? What of the conservative party ? In what States does socialism especially manifest itself ? What do the socialists desire ? What are they called in Russia? Wiat do the communists demand? What is the condition of woman now? Give some details of its improvement; of the free property of the wife; of the trades and professions practiced by women; of their admission to the higher professions; and of their right of suffrage. 323 woman. Thousands are school-teachers, governesses and music- teachers ; painters, photographers, lithographers, book-keepers, cash- iers and attendants in retail stores; compositors, telegraph clerks and operators. Many are employed in post-offices and other branches, of civil service. At Washington there are at least i,ooo women appointed in the different offices of the national govern- ment. Some make a good living on the stage, because the preju- dice against the reputation of actresses is vanishing. In some places women are also admitted to the higher vocations of life ; €. g., to the bar and medical practice. There are many female phy- sicians in England and America. In several of the larger cities of those countries are medical schools for women. Since 1870 twenty- three ladies (most of them from Russia, and some from the United States of America), were graduated in the medical department of the University of Ziirich. In the United States the right of woman suffrage is advocated by many, and has been thus far granted by the legislature of Minnesota, and in the Territories of Wyoming and Washington. As most of the great powers of Europe have, in their States, copied the miUtary system of Prussia, it will suffice to give the out- lines of the latter. All Prussians are trained to military service ; every young man enters the army at twenty, and serves for three years ; for the next nine years he is in the reserve, liable to serve in offensive war; thereafter, for another eighteen years, till he has attained the age of fifty, he may be called on to serve at home in case of invasion. The standing armies of the European States are increasing, devouring their revenues and wealth. i New and more hberal views also made their appearance in mat- ters relating to the Church. In general, Christians became more tolerant of their opponents. Liberty of conscience was granted in most countries by the new constitutions. The Lutherans and Re- formers in Germany, for the most part, united. A host of ingenious writers, like Buckle, Darwin, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Huxley, Lecky, Macaulay, Theo. Parker, Draper, Alex, von Humboldt, Feuerbach, Dr. David Strauss, Louis Biichner, Colenzo, Renan, etc., and a number of liberal periodicals and orators disseminated more rehgious enUghtenment. In the Catholic Church, the German Describe the Prussian military system ?, What is the condition of the church ? What liberty is granted by the new constitutions ? What of Lutherans and Re- formers in Germany .'' What authors did and do disseminate more enlighten- ment ? Who separated from the papacy ? 324 Catholics, as they are called, separated from the papacy. The Protestants in Germany and America established free religious con- gregations, and a congress of liberal Americans organized a National Liberal League, the object of which is to accomplish the total separation of Church and State (1876 A. D.) But the spirit of reaction was also at work against the efforts of progress; below, " Alexander I., read Alexander II. " 14, ' ' 6 " 23, ' ' 4 " 23, ' 16 " 23, ' 18 " 68, ' 8 " 88, ' 16 " 118, • IS " 149. • 3 " 186, ' 4 " 306, ' ' 25 " 306, ' ' 4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, I. ANOIEUT WORLD. TO 375 B. 0. First Period. To joo B. C. About 2000. Ninus in Assyria. Menes in Egypt. Abraham. About 1500. Moses. Invention of glass and purple. 1582. Cecrops. About 1 190. Demolition of Troj a. 1080. Moeris and Cheops. 1068. Codrus, King of Athens, dies. About 933. Homer. About 888. Foundation of Carthage. Lycurgus. 753. Foundation of Rome. 700. Numa Pompilius. 670. King Psammetichus. About 600. Cong-fu-Tse. 600. Sappho, the poetess, born. 594. Solon. 560. Cyrus. 538. Babylon taken by the Persians. 520. Pythagoras. 510. Expulsion of Hippias. Athens becomes a republic. 509. Expulsion of Tarquinius. 494. Secession to the Sacred Mount. Second Period. _^oo-jo B. C. 490. Battle at Marathon. Coriolanus banished. 480. Leonidas at Thermopylse. Battle at Salamis. 479. Battle at Platsese. 450. Pericles. Golden era of arts and sciences in Athens. Phidias. Decemvirs appointed. 435. Herodotus. 431-404. Peloponnesian war. Hippocrates. 429-348. Plato. 399. Death of Socrates. 371. Battle at Leuctra. 362. Battle at Mantinea. 358. Philip of Macedonia. Demosthenes. 345. Timoleon. 338. Battle at Chaeronea. Downfall of Greek liberty. 336-323. Alexander the Great. 333. Battle at Issus. 331. Battle at Arbela. 319. Aristoteles. 314. Aeshines. 280. Tarantine war. 280. Euclid flourished in Alexandria. 264-242. First Punic war. 218-202. Second Punic war. Hannibal. 216. Battle at Cannge. 212. Archimedes. 202. Battle at Zama. 150-146. Third Punic war. 146. Destruction of Carthage. 133. Tib. Gracchus proposes the re- newal of the agi'arian law. 102-101. The Cimbri and Teutones. 90. War of the confederates of Italy. 90-64. War against Mithridates. 87. First civil war. Marius and Sulla. 62. Catiline's conspiracy. Cicero. 60. First Triumvirate. 49. Second civil war. Ccesar and Pompeius. 48. Battle at Pharsalus. 44. Csesar's death. Second Trium- virate. 24. Third civil war. Battle at Philippi. 29. Augustus, Roman emperor. 333 Third Period. 30 B. C-j/jr A. D. 9 (B. C. ) Battle of Arminius, 14 (A. D.) Tiberius. 19. Livius, the historian. 54. Nero. 69. Vespasian. 70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 79. Titus. 96. 98. 117. 138. 161. 285. 306. Nerva. , Trojanus. Hadriannus. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. Diocletian. Constantine I. II. MIDDLE AGES. 375-1492 A. D. Fourth Period. 373-900 A. D. 375. Migration of nations. 379. Theodosius the Great. 395. Partition of the Roman empire. 410. Rome captured by Alaricus. 433-454- Attila. About 450. Meroveus. 451. Battle at Chalons. 476. Downfall of the Occidental empire 481-51 1. Clovis I. Foundation of the Frank empire. Fifth Period. 493-526. Theodoric the Great. 527-565. Justinian. 622. Mohammed's flight. 732. Battle at Tours. 771-814. Charlemagne. 786-808. Haroun al Raschid. 800. Charlemagne, Roman emperor. 850. The Waragians found the Rus- sian empire. goo-1300 A. D. 918-1024. Saxon emperors. 918-936. Henry I. 934. Battle at Merseburg. 936-973. Otto I. 955. Battle on the Lechlield. 987. Hugh Capet. 1 024-1 125. Franconian emperors. 1053. Separation of the Oriental from the Occidental Church. 1056-I106. Henry IV. 1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII. 1096-1291. Crusades. 1 138-1254. Suabian emperors. II38-1190. Frederic Barbarossa. 1158-1183. Contest of the Lombard cities for liberty. 1 164. Minnesingers. 1 174-1193. Emir Saladin. 1 1 76. Battle at Legnano. Sixth Period. 1300-1492 A 1 196-1250. Emperor Frederic II. 1198-1216. Pope Innocent III. 1204-1261. Latin empire. 1207. Crusade against the Albigenses. 1210. Temudschin (Genghis Khan). 12 1 5. Magna Charta of England. 1224. Foundation of the first univer- sity. 1229. Inquisitional Tribunal estab- lished by Gregory IX. 1237-1477. Mongols in Europe. 1259. The Lombard cities become free. 1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg. 1282. The Sicilian Vespers. About 1300. Foundation of the Osman empire. Invention of gunpow^der. D. 1305-1370. The Popes in Avignon. 1308. The Sw^iss confederates expel their governors and restore their league. 13 10. Abolishment of the Order of Templars. 1313. First theater (in France). 1315. Battle at Morgarten. 132 1. Dante Alighieri dies. 1328. House ol Valois in France. 1330-1453. Franco-English succession war. 1347. The great plague in Europe. 1348. First German university (in Prague). 1369. Timurlank. 1374. Petrarca dies. 1385. Wycliffe dies. 1386. Battle at Sempach. 14 14-14 1 8. Synod in Constance. 1415. John Huss burnt. 1419. War of Hussites. 1429. Joan of Arc. 1430-1492. Cosmus and Lorenzo of Medicis. About 1440. Gutenberg invents the printing press. 1452-1485. War of the Two Roses. 1453. Capture of Constantinople. 1476. Battles at Granson and Murten. 1477. Battle at Nancy. 334 m. MODERN TIMES. 1492-1883 A. D. Seventh Period, I4g2-ib48 A. D. 1492. Columbus discovers America. 1498. Passage by sea lo the East In- dies discovered. 1515. Battle at Marignano. 15 1 7. Reformation beginning in Ger- many. Martin Luther. 1519. Zwingli. Magellan. 1521. Diet at Worms. 1523. Gustavus Vasa. 1529. Protestants. 1530. Confession of Augsburg. 1532. Nicholas Copernicus. 1540. Order of Jesuits. 1555. Peace of religion at Augsburg. 1564. W. Shakespeare (died 1616). Galileo. 1566. Nicholas Zrini. 1572. St. Bartholomew of Paris. 1 5 77-' 80. Drake's voyage around the earth. 1589-1610. Henry IV. of France. 1598. Edict of Nantes. 1618-1648. Thirty years' war. 1629. Restitution edict. 1630. Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. 1631. Battle at Leipsic. 1632. Battle at Liitzen. Gustavus Adolphus dies. 1642. Is. Newton (1725). 1648. Westphalian peace. Eighth Period. ib^.S-i'/Sg A. D. 1643-1715. Louis XIV. 1649. Charles I. executed. 1653. Cromwell protector. 1682-1725. Peter the Great. 1683. John Sobieski delivers Vienna. 1684. Peter Corneille, French poet. 1 685 . Revocation of the edict of Nantes. 1688. James II. fled from England. 16S9. William III., king of England. 1692. Witches burnt at Salem. 1694. Lafontaine dies. 1695. Voltaire (1778). 1697-17 18. Charles XII. of Sweden. 1701-1714. Spanish succession war. 1 70 1. Battle of Narva. 1702-1714. Anne, queen of England. 1703. Peter I. founds Petersburg. 1704. Battle at Hochstedt (Blenheim). 1709. Charles XII. defeated at Pul- towa. 1714-1727. George I. of England. 1724-1803. Klopstock, the poet. 1 724-1804. Kant, the philosopher. 1729-1781. Lessing flourished. 1733-1813. Wieland, the poet. 1 740-1 786. Frederic II. of Prussia. 1749-1832. Goethe, the poet. 1755. Braddock's defeat. Earthquake in Lisbon. The French driven into exile from Acadia. 1 756-1 763. Seven years' war. 1757. Battle at Rosbach. 1 759-1805. Frederic Schiller, the poet. 1759. The Jesuits expelled from Por- tugal. 1759. Battle of Quebec, and death of Wolfe. 1765. Passage of the Stamp act. 1 768-1 769. Cook's voyages of discov- ery. 1772. First partition of Poland. 1773. Abolishment of the Order of the Jesuits. 1773. Destruction of tea in' Boston harbor. 1774. The English shut up the harbor of Boston. A congress of the colonies meets at Philadelphia. 1 775-1 783. Contest of the United States for independence. March 17, 1776. The British evacuate Boston. July 4, 1776. Declaration of Independ- ence adopted by the American Congress. Aug. 27, 1776. Battle at Long Island. Dec. 25, 1776. Battle at Trenton. Sept. II, 1777. Battle at Brandywine. Oct. 4, 1777. Battle at Germantown. Oct. 15, 1777. Burgoyne capitulates at Saratoga. Feb. 6, 1778. French alliance with America. Aug. 16, 1780. Battle at Camden. 1780-1790. Joseph II. Oct. 19, 1782. Cornwallis surrenders. Nov. 30, 1782. The independence of America acknowledged by Eng- land. 335 Ninth Period. iy8g-i8 1^ A. D. 1 789-1 797. George Washington Presi- dent of the United States. 1 789-1 79 1. National Assembly in France. July 14, 1789. Storming the Bastile. Aug. 4, 1789. Abolition of the feudal service. 1 791-1792. Legislative assembly. 1792. Austro-Prussian war against France. 1 792- 1 795. National convent. 1 792- 1 804. French republic. 1792. Cotton-gin invented. 1793. First coalition war. Second partition of Poland. 1794. Abolition of slavery in the French colonies. July 27, 1794. Downfall of the reign of terror. 1 795-1 799. Directorial government in France. 1795. Third partition of Poland. 1796. Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. Nov. 15 and 16. Battle at Arcole. 1796. Invention of lithography. 1797. Peace of Cam po Formio. 1798. Second coalition war. Expedition to Egypt. Battle at the Pyramids. Aug. I 1798. Naval battle at Abukir. 1 799- 1 804. Consular government in France. June 14, 1800. Battle at Marengo. Dec. 4, i8uo. Battle of Hohenlinden. 1 80 1. Peace of Luneville. 1804-1815. French empire. 1805. Third coalition war. Oct. 21, 1805. Naval battle at Trafalgar. Dec. 2, 1805. Battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg. 1806. Prusso-Russian war against France. 1806. The double battle at Auer- stedt and Jena. 1807. Battle of Friedland. Peace of Tilsit. The first steamboat built by Fulton. 1808. Spanish war. 1809. Austrian war. May 21 and 22. Battle at Aspern. July 5 and 6. Battle at Wagram. Peace of Vienna. 1810-1825. Contests of the Spanish colonies for independence. 1812. Franco-Russian war. Battle at the Moskwa. Sept. 15-19, 18 12. Conflagration of Moscow. 18 12- 18 14. English-American war. 1813. A British squadron captured by Commodore Perry. Aug. 24, 1 8 14. The capitol in Wash- ington burned by the English. Sept. II, 1814. Commodore McDon- ougli destroyed, in the harbor of Plattsburg, a British flotilla. Jan. 8, 1815. General Jackson defeated the English at New Orleans. 1813. Last coalition war. Oct. 16-19, 1813. Battle at Leipsic. 1814. Restoration of the Bourbons. Napoleon banished to Elba. May 30, 1814. First peace of Paris. Nov. I, 1814. Congress in Vienna. March i, 1815. Napoleon returns to France. June 18, 1815. Battle at Waterloo. Aug. 7, 1815. Napoleon taken pris- oner, and carried off to St. Helena (1821). 1815. The Holy Alliance concluded. Abolition of the slave trade. Nov. 20, 18 1 5. Second peace of Paris. Tenth Period. 1815-1883 A. D. 1820. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont. Revolution in Spain. 1821. Insurrection in Portugal. 1821-1829. Combat of the Greeks for liberty. 1823. Bozzaris' heroic death. 1824. Brazil separated from Portugal. 1826. Capture of Missolonghi. 1827. Naval battle at Navarino. First railroad built in the United States. 1829. Irish Catholics admitted to Par- liament. 1830. Revolution of July in Paris. Charles X. dethroned. Louis Philippe, king of the French. Belgium separates from Holland. The cholera in Europe. 1831. Battle at Ostrolenca. Reform of Parliament in England. 1832. Cuvier and Walter Scott die. 1835. Slave emancipation bill passed in England. 1842. The English Corn laws relaxed. 1844. Electric telegraph invented. 1845. Annexation of Texas to the United States. 336 April, 1846. War between Mexico and the United States. May 8, 9, 1846. Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexican army at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Sept. 21. 23, 1846. Capture of Monte- rey and defeat of the Mexicans by Gen. Taylor. Dec. 25, 1846. Battle of El Paso. Mexicans defeated by Col. Doniphan. Feb. 23, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. Santa Anna defeated by Gen. Taylor. Feb. 28, 1847. Col. Doniphan defeats the Mexicans at Sacramento. March 29, 1847. Vera Cruz surren- ders to Gen. Scott. July, 1847. The Swiss Secession League dissolved by the Diet. Aug. 20, 1847. Mexicans defeated at Contreras and Churubusco. Sept. 8, 1847. Mexicans defeated at Molino del Rey by Gen. Worth. Sept. 12-14, i^47' Chapultepec stormed, and the City of Mexico taken by Gen. Scott. 1847. Swiss secession war. Nov. 4, 1S47. Freiburg and Lucerne subdued by a confederate army. Jan., 1848. Insurrections in Italy. Feb. 23, 1848. Revolution in Paris. • French Republic. March, 1848. Revolutions in Berlin, Baden, Vienna and Hungary. German National Assembly in Frankfort. Austrian war in Italy and Hungary. Danish-German war. March 17, 1848. The Prussian king consents to freedom of the press. May 30, 1848. Treaty of Guadaloupe- Hidalgo. 1849. Rome a Republic. April 14, 1849. The Diet declares Hungary to be independent of Austria. Aug. II, 1849. Gorgey surrenders to the Russians at Villagos. 185 1. Atlantic cable laid at Dover. First international exhibition. 1852. Napoleon III., emperor of France. 1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol. 1857. Atlantic cable laid between New Foundland and Ireland. 1859. Austrian war against Sardinia and France. June 4, 1859. Battle at Magenta. June 24, 1859. Battle at Solferino. i8bi. Italy a kingdom. 1861-1865. Secession war in the United Slates. April 13, 1861. Fort Sumter surren- ders. July 21, 1 86 1. Battle at Bull Run. Feb. 6, 1862. Fort Henry captured. Feb. 16, 1862. Fort Donelson cap- tured. April 6, 7, 1862. Battle of Shiloh. Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. i, 1863. Battle of Murfreesboro. March 7, 8, 1862. Battle at Pea Ridge. June 27, 1862. Battle at Gaines's Mill. July I, 1862 Battle at Malvern Hill. Sept. 17, 1862. Battle of Antietam. Dec. 13, 1862. Battle of Fredericks- burg. April 28, 1862. Capture of New Or- leans. Jan. I, 1863. Abolition of slavery in the United States. May 2. 3, 1863. Battle of Chancellors- ville. July I, 2, 3, 1863. Battle at Gettys- burg. July 4, 1863. Surrender of Vicksburg. July 9, 1863. Surrender of Port Hud- son. Sept. 19, 20, 1863. Battle at Chicka- mauga. Nov. 23, 24, 25, 1863. Battle of Mis- sionary Ridge. May, 1864. Battle of the Wilderness.* June 18, 1864. Attack on Petersburg. Sept. 19, 1864. Battle of Winchester. Oct. 19, 1864. Battle of Cedar Creek. Sept. 2, 1864. Gen. Sherman occupies. Atlanta. Nov., 1864. Gen. Sherman marches to the sea. Dec. 15, 1864. Battle at Nashville. Dec. 21, 1864. Capture of Savannah. Feb. 17, 1865. Charleston falls. April I, 1865. Battle of Five Forks. April 3, 1865. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond. April 14, 1865. President Lincoln as- sassinated. 1866. Prusso-Austrian war. July 3, 1866. Battle at Sadowa. 1870. Franco Prussian war. Sept. I, 1870. Battle at Sedan. 1 87 1. Restoration of the French re- public. Germany an empire. 1877, 1878. Turko-Russian war. Jan., 1878. The Turkish army sur- renders. 1881. Alexander II. assassinated. 1883. The northern transcontinental railroad finished. Woman suffrage granted by the Legislature of Washington Terri- tory.