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BY WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR 
 
 OUR SCHOOLS 
 
 THEIR ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 
 448 PAGES PRICE $1.50 
 
 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 THEIR DIRECTION AND MANAGEMENT 
 335 PAGES PRICE $1.25 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO.. PUBLISHERS 
 
OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 THEIR DIRECTION AND 
 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
 
 tECTURER ON EDUCATION, GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, AND CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 AND ON HISTORY OF EDUCATION, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. AUTHOR OF 
 
 "OUR schools: their ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION"; "a 
 
 THEORY OF MOTIVES, IDEALS, AND VALUES IN EDUCATION" 
 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 1908 
 
Ill I 
 
 LIBRARY of CONGRE^S.^ 
 
 Iwo Cupies Keceiviy.' 
 
 JUL 17 ISOb 
 
 0uu.ynK7M c.i\inr 
 Q\JiSi>. J % a/c. «o, 
 
 -^1 X 
 
 COPY 
 
 Copyright, 1908, by 
 
 WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
THE TEACHERS 
 
 OF THE TOWN OF BLOOMFIELD AND OF 
 
 THE CITY OF PATERSON 
 
 IN THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY 
 
 WITH WHOM I SPENT A DECADE OF HAPPY YEARS 
 
 LEARNING WHAT THE PROFESSION OF 
 
 EDUCATION MEANS 
 
 IN TOKEN OF APPRECIATION AND 
 
 CHANGELESS REGARD 
 
" But to the spirit select there is no choice ; 
 He cannot say, This will I do, or that, 
 For the cheap means putting Heaven'' s ends in pawn, 
 And bartering his bleak rocks, the freehold stern 
 Of destiny's first-born, for smoother fields 
 That yield no crop of self-denyitig will ; 
 A hand is stretched to him from out the dark. 
 Which grasping without qtiestion, he is led 
 Where there is work that he must do for God. 
 * * * * * If 
 
 Chances have laws as fixed as planets have, 
 And disappointme7ifs dry and bitter root, 
 Envy''s harsh berries, and the choking pool 
 Of the world'' s scorn, are the right mother-milk 
 To the tough hearts that pioneer their kind. 
 And break a pathway to those unknown realms 
 That in the ear til's broad shadow lie enthralled i 
 Endurance is the crowning qicality. 
 And patience all the passion of great hearts ; 
 These are their stay, and when the leaden world 
 Sets its hard face against their fateful thought. 
 And brute strength like a scornful conqueror. 
 Clangs his huge mace dowti in the other scale, 
 The inspired soul but flings his patience in, 
 And slowly that outweighs the ponderous globe, — 
 One faith against a whole earth'' s unbelief. 
 One soul against the flesh of all 7tiankind.'''' 
 
 — "Columbus": James Russell Lowell. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The present book follows an earlier one entitled Our Schools : 
 Their Administration and Supe?-vision. In that book, I had in 
 view communities of from five thousand population to forty or 
 fifty thousand. In this, I have considered the larger cities. 
 
 The true unit of all educational endeavor, the teacher and his 
 class (or " school," as the group is known in many localities of 
 the South and West), is not the same internally or externally in 
 the great city as it is in the town or village. 
 
 Similarly, the work of the superintendent is strangely changed ; 
 almost equally changed is the work of the building principal. 
 
 The city, the great city ever tending to become yet greater, 
 is the insoluble problem of civilization ; its degeneration and 
 collapse have hitherto been inevitable. Universal education may 
 be the missing factor by which mankind is to solve the problem. 
 
 It was my fortune about the time when Our Schools was pub- 
 lished to change from the direction of public education in a 
 community of twelve thousand population, within the metropoli- 
 tan district with its millions of men, women, and children around 
 New York harbor, to a community of one hundred and thirty 
 thousand population within the same district and, in connection 
 with that superintendency, to assume a lectureship in school 
 administration in New York University. In less than two years 
 after this change, it was my fortune to be placed in what may 
 fairly be called a strategic position in relation to the progress 
 of education by administrative changes, — the superintendency 
 of schools in the National Capital at a time of revolution, not 
 wholly wise, in fundamental school legislation. This revolution 
 included the certification of teachers, hitherto not required ; 
 assignment to the superintendent of the right and obligation to 
 nominate teachers and janitors ; establishment of examining 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 boards for applicants for positions ; complete separation of the 
 two races, white and colored ; creation of a board of education 
 consisting of men and of women, white and colored ; divesting 
 the board of all financial authority and vesting it partly in a 
 school-house commission, but mainly in Congress ; and corre- 
 lating for each race the many hitherto separate school divisions 
 of the District. 
 
 It has also been my fortune, as pupil and teacher, to know the 
 schools of such widely separated cities as Dayton, Worcester, 
 New York, Philadelphia, Lincoln, Bloomfield, Paterson, and 
 Washington. Lastly, it has been my fortune to serve a town, 
 a city, and a national government of unusual generosity in pro- 
 viding funds and leaves of absence for personal observation of 
 schools in other communities, so that I have been able to visit 
 schools in a hundred and fifty communities, through a range of 
 territory from Seattle to Boston and from Atlanta to St. Paul. 
 
 This experience has emphasized in my mind that conclusion 
 of German philosophy : The mechanism is of universal significance 
 and conditions the success of the activities of the spirit} Contrary 
 to many, I am obliged (by what I have seen) to hold that a 
 correct school system is absolutely essential to good schools 
 within the system. In the poor school system, the good school 
 is an accident and is always in peril of destruction. In the good 
 school system, the poor school is an anomaly and is certainly 
 in process of reform and of improvement. In other words, I 
 know that a good teacher cannot evolve a good school every- 
 where, and that a poor teacher is growing better or is removed 
 where the right system prevails. 
 
 In view of the rights of men and women to labor in their 
 accustomed occupations, I am not willing to go so far as to say 
 that every child is entitled to the best available teacher ; but I 
 do not hesitate to assert his claim to the best known methods 
 and devices of legislation, of administration, of supervision, of 
 discipline, and of instruction, to the end that whatever teacher 
 
 J Lotze, Microcosmus, preface. 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 he has shall be able to do the best for him. Such is the power 
 of teachers in every community, whether deserved or unde- 
 served, that no superintendent who would reform the service by 
 changing its personnel can long hold office. Nor would I divert 
 the attention of educators from matters of pedagogical technique 
 and of professional scholarship, though I am of the opinion that 
 we neglect general scholarship and ignore the sure fruitioning 
 of knowledge in motives, in ideals, and in judgments. But I 
 mean to bring into the light of public attention and considera- 
 tion the necessity that the incompetent teacher should accept 
 the good system upon which the competent educator insists. 
 
 How to require such acceptance is the problem of the educa- 
 tional law-deviser and administrator. Too long have teachers 
 in authority asked only better work from those under their 
 authority. My proposition as a democrat is to look to the 
 authority itself, and to improve the methods and the processes 
 by which that authority expresses itself in State laws, in Board 
 rules, and in the orders of educational directors. 
 
 A book of this character is not designed for experienced city 
 school administrators, but rather for students of education. 
 Not a few of its remarks will seem needlessly elementary to 
 critics. In some cities, there are certain features actually in 
 advance of matters that, presented here in academic fashion, 
 seem radical. No one city exemplifies all that is advocated, yet 
 little is here proposed that is not a reality somewhere. I have 
 meant to construct a system of principles. Of course, the 
 annual report of the superintendent and board of a large city 
 usually contains more material and touches more points than 
 are considered here, and whatever I have said should be criti- 
 cised in the light of common day. 
 
 The receipt of more than five hundred personal letters from 
 readers of my earlier book warrants me in acknowledging 
 heartily the manner of its acceptance by the profession of edu- 
 cators. I hope that this study, also, will prove helpful. 
 
 W. E. C. 
 
 Washington, D.C., 
 January i, 1908. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 AND SYLLABUS OF CHAPTERS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface v 
 
 A correct system as necessary as correct educational methods. 
 
 Chapter I. The State and the School . . . i 
 
 The State is society organized as government, i. The' modern State is itself 
 controlled by Property and Business, i. Educational activities of the United 
 States Government, 2. A Secretary of Education of Cabinet rank, 3. Inequali- 
 ties of educational opportunity in the various States, 4. Centralization within 
 certain States, 4. The State legislature is really the highest school board, 5. 
 The desirability of a strong State board of education, 5. Suggestions by way 
 of sociological prognosis, 6. Powers of the State board, 7. Powers of the 
 State superintendent, 9. Powers of the State board of examiners, 11. Com- 
 parison of country and city, 12. The county, 13. Elective v. appointive 
 ^ boards, 14. Powers of the city board, 16. Comparative .interest taken in pri- 
 vate benevolence and in public tax expenditure, 20. The two political tradi- 
 tions, maximum and minimum of State power, 20. Geographic comparisons, 
 
 21. Social comparisons, 21. True function (^private philanthropy, 21. The 
 State as founder of the Universal School, 22ftJ The proper period of education, 
 
 22. The educational progress of the individual, 22. Education is the solvent 
 of the city slum, 23. The educational curriculum should widen and deepen 
 with life, 23. 
 
 Chapter II. The City School System . . -25 
 
 Several ways of securing appointment as city superintendent, 25. Advantages 
 of promoting a subordinate, 26; disadvantages, 26. Advantages and disad- 
 vantages of the superintendent from outside, 29. The extent and rapidity of 
 the work of the superintendency, 28. The duties of the superintendent, 28. 
 The essentials to success, 29. Administrative organization of city school sys- 
 tems, 29. Locus and ch^acter of supervision, 30. Vertical v. horizontal 
 supervision, 30. The necessity for direction and supervision, 31. The nature 
 of a school, 33. The principal as central authority, 33. The principal as an 
 addendum, 33. Historical account of the two kinds of schools, 33. Central- 
 ization V. individualization, 35. Advantages of the centralized school, 35. The 
 principle of the educational continuum, 35. Disadvantages of the individual- 
 ized school, 36, Housing v, educating the children, 37. The educational 
 organization of a city school system, 38. Primary and intermediate schools 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 V. Complete elementary schools, 40. Normal size of a school, 40. The great 
 city school, 41. The salary problem, 42. A proposed schedule, 43, Basis of 
 increase, 45. Promotional examinations, 46. 
 
 Chapter III. The Business Officers of the City 
 
 System 49 
 
 The true way for a board to secure large authority, 49. Salary schedule of 
 higher officers, 49. Responsibility and duties of the school attorney, 50. A 
 warning to the secretary, 50. The business manager, 51. The work of the 
 school architect is not less important than that of the school superintendent, 52. 
 Competition for plans ineffective, 52. Either the school architect or the busi- 
 ness manager should employ engineers and janitors, 52. Strictly civil service 
 reform methods should control their appointments, promotions, demotions, 
 transfers, and dismissals, 53. Cheap " help " and political " help " are too 
 common, 53. Cleaning the building by contract v. Salaries to all janitors and 
 assistants, 54. Schedule of salaries, 55. Separation of engineer service from 
 that of the janitor, 56. Repair shops, 57. 
 
 Chapter IV. The City School 58 
 
 The schoolhouse, 58. Value of American schoolhouses, 58. The schoolroom 
 unit, 59. So-called " extra schoolrooms," 59. The remedy for the present 
 conditions, 60. Lighting, 61. Stairways, 5i. Cellar, 62. Desks, 62. Toilet 
 rooms, 62. Ventilation, 63. Doors and windows, 63. Library, 63. Other 
 requisite rooms, 63. Blackboards, 63. Double kindergarten, 64. Typical 
 enrollment in city school, 64. The proper location of a schoolhouse is in a 
 park, 64. Danger of too large a plot, 65. Competitions for plans, 65. The 
 teaching complement, 65. Medical inspector and school nurse, 66. School 
 librarian, 66. Duties of the principal, 66. The library of the principal, 67. 
 The social influence of the principal, 68. Salary increases, 69. Organization 
 of classes and grades, 70. Departmental teaching, 71. Comparison of the 
 work of the city school principal and village superintendent, 72. Heads of 
 departments in large schools, 72. Daily programmes, 72. Use of the assem- 
 bly room, 73. Length of school periods, 73. Plan for department of four 
 teachers, 75. The services of special teachers, 77. 
 
 Chapter V. Equipment 78 
 
 Comparative importance of buildings, of equipment, and of teachers, 78. Lan- 
 terns and globes, 78, 79. Blackboards, 79. Exhibit cabinets, 80. Provisions 
 against fire, 80. Telephone service, 80. The United States flag, 81. The 
 manual training center, 81. The furniture should be substantial and artistic, 
 82. The schoolroom desk, 82. Various items, 83. Flowers in the school- 
 room, 83. Gas and electric lighting, 84. " Power," 84. Seating of the 
 assembly hall, 84. Platforms, 85. Pianos, 85. Furniture for the art mu- 
 seum, 86. Common sense is incompetent to furnish a schoolhouse properly, 
 86. Who should pay for text-books? 87. " Listing" books and supplies, 87. 
 Not enough books are now used, 88. The requisite qualities of a good text- 
 book, 89. Estimated cost of equipment of loan text-books, 90. Free gift of 
 other supplies, 91. School and class libraries, 92. Relation of the public 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 library to the public school, 93. The kindergarten equipment, 93. Gymna- 
 siums, 94. A good laboratory necessary in the elementary school, 95. A 
 system of laboratories in high schools, 95. Schoolroom decoration, 95. A 
 central building for teachers' classes and meetings, 96. Equipment of the 
 rooms of supervisors and of other officers, 97, 
 
 Chapter VI. The Pupil g8 
 
 The pupil as the subject of school administration, 98. Principles of pupil 
 collection, 99. The neighborhood as a factor in school location, 99. Early 
 adolescence as the dividing time, ^'99. Sex as the dividing line, 100. The 
 seasons as a factor in studies, loi. The effect of fatigue upon study periods, 
 loi. ' Psychology v. Sociology, loi. The attempted uniformity, 102. The 
 true test is displayed by psychogenetics, 102. The true school is a relation 
 between two, 103. The outlook of the principal, 103. Growth v. Education, 
 103. The limits of the true school community, 103. Four school groups 
 recommended, 104. Age classification, 104. The fatigue levels, 106. The 
 higher educational institutions of the city, 106. Its educational value the sole 
 reason for introducing a subject, 108. Comparative maturities of children, 
 108. Differentiation and integration essential in civilization, 109. 
 
 Chapter VII. Special Schools . . . . , no 
 
 School uniformity and its perils, no. Comparison of communities at the 
 extremes of uniformity and of variety, no. Economy of a completely varied 
 system, in. The so-called "democratic" objection to classification of chil- 
 dren and of youth, 112. Ignorance of what education is, 112. The economic 
 pressure for early completion of schooling, 113. Half-timing a necessity, 113, 
 Complexity of modern life, 114. Special schools are complementary to the 
 regular schools, 114. The evening school, 114. This school a makeshift needed 
 in a transitional era, 116. Construction of schoolhouse for double purpose of 
 day and evening instruction, 116. The high school building should accom- 
 modate day, evening, atid half-timing pupils, 116. Text-books for adults, 
 117. Trade-texts, 117. Programmes for evening school classes, 119. Corre- 
 lation of instruction, 121. A vocation, an avocation, and a recreation are requi- 
 site, 122. The school for defectives, 122, The normal and the variant, 123. 
 Home is the keynote, 125. Principles governing admission to special day 
 and home schools, 126. Qualifications of teachers, 127. A phase of the disci- 
 pline difficulty, 128. The special school is a prophylactic against pauperism 
 and criminality, 128. Wealth is incommensurate with humanity, 129. A 
 charitable society is cooperative, 129. No child can be pauperized, 129. 
 The source of wealth is labor-skill, not natural treasures, 129. Kinds of 
 special schools required, 130. The parental school should be isolated but not 
 inaccessible, 130. Congenital types, 131. The reformation school, 133. 
 Qualifications of teachers, 134. Site and buildings, 135. Course of instruc-' 
 tion should be characteristically physiological, 136. The juvenile court, 136. 
 Attendance (compulsory education) officers, 137. Summer schools, 137. 
 Evening lectures for adults, 139. Democracy requires broadly diffused knowl- 
 edge, 139. Need of a new kind of schoolhouse, 141. Location and use of 
 ungraded individual-help classes, 142. 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter VIII. Programmes and Records . .145 
 
 Importance of caring for the immediate future, 145. Conditions of a rational 
 will, 146. The several values of records, 146. The school day to the child v. 
 to the teacher, 147. A general daily programme for Grade IV, 148. A special 
 daily programme, 148. Why records save time, 151. The plan book, 151. 
 Vertical v. Horizontal courses of study, 152. Records required, 153. Analy- 
 sis of the present opinion regarding marks, 154. Importance of complete 
 records or else relying on present opinion only, 156. Contrast of urban and 
 rural schools in relation to the home, 157. The argument against examina- 
 tions, 158. The function of reviews, 159. Tests from the central office 
 should be to equalize atid standardize work, never to examine pupils, 160. 
 Preservation of the pupil's record, 160. Transfer of records on promotion 
 inadvisable, 160. 
 
 Chapter IX. Aids and Accessories . , . .162 
 
 Home and school, 162. The process of decadence in the total progress of 
 civilization, 162. Theory of the social institutions, 163. The process of de- 
 cadence in the progress of human character, 163. Theory of the anti-social 
 institutions, 164. Home and school center upon the child, 165. Effect of 
 parental ignorance, 166. Character of present parents' associations, 167. Con- 
 ditions of their successful establishment and maintenance, 167. The 
 " mothers' club," 168. The city public education society, 169. Without con- 
 flict, freedom dies, 169. Influence of the public press upon opinion, 169. Side- 
 tracking of the superintendent, 170. Medical inspectors, 170. School nurses, 
 171. Gang 71. Club, 172. Scheme of school clubs, 173. The secret society, 
 174. The teaching of parliamentary law, 175. School athletics, 176. Their 
 governing board, 176. Individualizing athletics, 176. Scheme for organiza- 
 tion of teachers' associations for a large city, 177. 
 
 Chapter X. Converting the Occupation into a 
 
 Profession 178 
 
 The superintendent is the intermediary between the School and the World, 
 178. Lay-domination v. School-intrigue, 179. The schools as they are v. 
 The schools as they may be made, 180. Dwelling in the house of the inter- 
 preter, 180. Why the board of education should represent Culture, not Busi- 
 ness, not Politics, 181. A "vicious circle," 181. Every good man is willing 
 to be a public man, 181. Function of the board of examiners in converting 
 education into a profession, 182. Its composition, 182. Character of examina- 
 tions, 183. Competitive examinations for higher positions, 184. Villagers in 
 cities as critics of its school affairs, 185. Examiners may "list" text-books, 
 185. Eligible lists, 186. The open, optional text-book list, 187. Advantages 
 of the board of associate superintendents as compared with several assistants, 
 187. Teachers' pensions, 188. Municipal pensions, 189. The retiring board, 
 189. Teachers' advanced courses, 190. The city normal school causes in- 
 breeding, 191; and lowers salaries, 191. The " teachers' college," 192. Pay- 
 ing for the financial support of apprentice teachers, 192. Practice-classes, 193. 
 The teachers' council, 194. Various plans for its institution and organization, 
 194. The principle of professional loyalty, 196. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 xiu 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. i. Open Letter to Educators desirous of becoming Superin- 
 
 tendents of Schools in Large Cities . . . .199 
 ii. Open Letter to Members of Boards of Education and to 
 
 Candidates for Board Membership .... 205 
 
 B. The Annual Report 210 
 
 C. The Food Question 214 
 
 D. Forms : General Note 2i6 
 
 i. Report of Supervisory Officer upon Condition of School . . . 218 
 
 ii. Principal's Rating by Supervisory Officer 220 
 
 iii. Requirements for Teacher's First License 221 
 
 iv. Form of Temporary License 223 
 
 V, Form of Permanent License 223 
 
 vi. Examination Record of Candidate for Certificate . . . , 224 
 
 vii. Form of Application for Endorsement of Diplomas and Certificates . 225 
 
 viii. Teachers' Directory 227 
 
 ix. Assignment of Teacher to School 227 
 
 X. Termination of Service 228 
 
 xi. Change of Name 228 
 
 xii. Change in Salary Schedule 229 
 
 xiii. Quality of Service 229 
 
 xiv. Transfer 230 
 
 XV. Experience 230 
 
 xvi. High School Entrance 231 
 
 xvii. Special Teacher's Rating by Supervisory Officer .... 231 
 xviii. Recommendation by Supervisory Officers as to Teacher's Promotion 232 
 xix. Form of Reference by Superintendent to Other Educational Authori- 
 ties regarding Candidate . ■ 233 
 
 XX. Notification of Retirement on Civil Pension 23s 
 
 xxi. Absence with Pay 236 
 
 xxii. Teaching Record 338 
 
 xxiii. Substitute's Certificate 239 
 
 xxiv. Transfer of Pupil out of City , 239 
 
 XXV. Form of Application for License as Teacher . . . . . 240 
 
 xxvi. Report upon Officers and Teachers 242 
 
 xxvii. General Report on Teachers' Standing 243 
 
 xxviii. Age and Schooling Certificate 245 
 
 xxix. Medical Examination of Candidate for Appointment as Teacher . 246 
 
 XXX. Notices of Transfer of Pupil within City 248 
 
 xxxi. Application for Admission to High School 249 
 
 xxxii. Record of Pupil's Attainments 250 
 
 xxxiii. Poster Notice of School Registration Days . . . . . 253 
 
 xxxiv. Otherwise " Lost " Pupils 234 
 
 XXXV. Newsboy's Permit and Badge , 256 
 
 xxxvi. Report upon Children wandering About , 257 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 D. Forms {continued) : page 
 
 xxxvii. Absentees and Illegally Employed Children 257 
 
 xxxviii. Parole and Probation Card 257 
 
 xxxix. Poster Notice of Child Labor and Compulsory Education Laws . 258 
 
 xl. Postal Card Notice of Truant or Absentee 258 
 
 xli. Postal Card Notice to Attendance Officer and Reply . . . 259 
 
 xlii. Evening School Admission Card 259 
 
 xliii. Commitment of Child to Reformatory 260 
 
 xliv. Notice of Absence from Evening School of Pupil within Compul- 
 sory Education Age 261 
 
 xlv. Exemption from Vaccination 261 
 
 xlvi. Notice of Absence from School to Employer and Reply of Employer 262 
 
 xlvii. Monthly Report of Attendance Officer 263 
 
 xlviii. Hearing upon Case of Absenteeism 264 
 
 xlix. Affidavit of Attendance Officer 265 
 
 L Annual Report by Principal upon Evening School .... 266 
 
 li. Notice to Attendance Officers of Commitment of Truant to Parental 
 
 School 268 
 
 lii. Recreation Center Report 269 
 
 liii. Time Programme of Special Teacher 270 
 
 liv. Report of Inspector of Lectures 271 
 
 Iv. Time Programme of Manual Training Center 272 
 
 Ivi. Report of Lecturer 272 
 
 Ivii. Report of Kindergarten Mothers' Meetings 273 
 
 Iviii. Report of Library, Evening Recreation Center .... 274 
 
 lix. Instructions to Principals and Teachers in Evening Recreation 
 
 Centers 275 
 
 Ix. Literary Club Programme, Evening Recreation Centers . . 277 
 
 Ixi. Vacation School Excursion Report 278 
 
 Ixii. Report of Baths at Public School 278 
 
 Ixiii. Principal's Report upon Band Music 279 
 
 Ixiv. Form of Exclusion of Pupil apparently 111, by Medical Inspector . 279 
 
 Ixv. Form of Municipal Report upon School Attendance to State Officers 280 
 
 Ixvi. Teacher's Monthly Statistical Report 281 
 
 Ixvii. History of Child Truant 282 
 
 Ixviiu Statistical Account of Ages in Grades 283 
 
 Ixix. Report of Medical Inspector 284 
 
 Ixx. Observations on Child Proposed for Ungraded Class . . . 285 
 
 Ixxi. Record of Pupil at School 286 
 
 Ixxii. School Athletics 287 
 
 Ixxiii. Authorization of Vaccination by Public Health Physician , , 289 
 
 Ixxiv. Medical Report upon Defective Pupil 289 
 
 Ixxv. Text-book Record for School Year 290 
 
 Ixxvi. Voucher Schedule for Salaries 291 
 
 Ixxvii. Voucher Schedule for Supplies 292 
 
 Ixxviii. Official Billhead 293 
 
 Ixxix, Inventory of Heating Apparatus and Service 294 
 
 Ixxx. Card Record of Special Educational Articles 295 
 
 Ixxxi. Card Record of Incidental and General Expense Fund . . . 296 
 
 Ixxxii. Examination Record at High School Graduation .... 297 
 
 Ixxxiii. Payroll Receipts and Audit 298 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XV 
 
 Forms (continued) : 
 
 Ixxxiv. Estimate of Needs for New Schoolhouse 
 
 Ixxxv. Inventory of Construction Cost of Schoolhouse . . . . 
 
 Ixxxvi. History of Site and Building . . . . . . . , 
 
 Ixxxvii. Repairs to Schoolhouse 
 
 Ixxxviii. Operating Cost of Schoolhouse 
 
 Ixxxix. School Day Programme 
 
 xc. Application for School Tickets 
 
 xci. Report of Corporal Punishment Case 
 
 xcii. Annual Report of Parochial and Private Schools to City Superin- 
 tendent 
 
 xciii. Postal Card Notice to Librarian 
 
 xciv. Report by Special Teacher 
 
 xcv. Form of Building Contract 
 
 E. Constitution of a Schoolmen's Club 
 
 F. Schedule of Salaries (Jersey City) 
 
 G. A Real Superintendency 
 //. Teachers' Pensions 
 
 /. Bibliography .... 
 
 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 302 
 303 
 304 
 30s 
 305 
 306 
 307 
 
 • 307 
 
 308' 
 309 
 309 
 310 
 
 319 
 
 322 
 
 334 
 337 
 
THESES 
 
 By developing various social institutions, under the 
 protection of the State, democracy means to secure both 
 the freedom of the individual and the welfare of society. 
 
 In education, the purpose of democracy is to develop 
 all the energies of all the people in order that, by becom- 
 ing intelligent, efficient, and moral, they may all have life 
 abundantly. 
 
 In every respect, each school should express the wealth, 
 the culture, and the goodwill of society. 
 
 The educational curriculum should conform at the same 
 time to the conditions of society and to the interests of the 
 progressing individual soul. 
 
 To save its own life, this democratic civilization is build- 
 ing the universal school in many forms. 
 
 Universal education, let us hope, is the only missing 
 factor requisite for the permanence of civilization. 
 
 As a social institution, the School requires direction and 
 management by the profession of educators. 
 
OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 
 
 By the State, we mean a society organized as govern- 
 ment and controlled by force in respect to individuals and 
 to other societies. The State has been conceived by some 
 as practically synonymous with society^; but it is difficult to 
 distinguish such a conception from State Socialism, a con- 
 dition to which it must be admitted by all that no society 
 has yet come. A State absolutely supreme means a de- 
 pendent Church, a dependent Family, a dependent School, 
 and a dependent Business, not to mention other social in- 
 stitutions. We are growing out of such a State, as appears 
 upon investigation of the history of our North European 
 ancestors and also upon consideration of the heritage of 
 South European culture. 
 
 The individual is liberated in American democracy by 
 the conflicts of numerous social institutions, each suffi- 
 ciently strong to resist the encroachment of the others. He 
 is not surrounded, circumscribed, confined by the social tra- 
 ditions, but sets them against one another. He is free in 
 a free society. He and society become free together. 
 
 Vast and powerful as the State now is, one may seri- 
 ously question whether that most ancient of human 
 institutions. Property, is not really its master. This seri- 
 ous question opens into the very heart of the issue between 
 
 1 Bosanquet, Philosophical Theory of the State. Cf. page 163, infra. 
 I 
 
2 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 private and public education ; an issue likely to grow in 
 importance as the democratic State in America arrogates 
 to itself more and more power over the lives of children, 
 of youth, and of aspiring adults.^ 
 
 The State manifests itself in certain famiUar forms, 
 of which the chief is the Nation. Other forms of in- 
 terest in the present inquiry are the State, the County, 
 and the City. In each of these forms, American democ- 
 racy undertakes to relate itself to the work of education. 
 
 There is a widespread notion that the Government of 
 the United States concerns itself but little with education, 
 maintaining only a National Bureau of Education for the 
 collection and distribution of information. As a matter of 
 fact, however, the Government has many other educational 
 activities. At great annual expense, it maintains the Naval 
 Academy at Annapolis and the Military Academy at West 
 Point. It costs almost as much a year to train a cadet for 
 military service as it does to restrain a felon from criminal 
 practices by confining him at public expense in a peniten- 
 tiary. The American Government maintains free schools 
 in the Philippines and in Porto Rico. It maintains the pub- 
 lic schools of the District of Columbia and certain special 
 schools, and makes an annual grant to higher endowed 
 education there. It maintains the various Indian schools 
 and makes grants to others that receive Indians. It oper- 
 ates schools in Alaska. It instructs annually thousands of 
 its soldiers and sailors and tens of thousands of its depart- 
 ment clerks. In their practical operation, not a few of the 
 
 1 For the distinction between Business and Property, and for the question whether Busi- 
 ness may not yet oust Property from control of the State, vide A Theory of Motives, Ideals, 
 and Values in Education, Chapter II. Singular as it may appear upon historical grounds, 
 business, which began as a mode of acquiring property simpler than war, is to-day in several 
 aspects the potent destroyer of property. For a discussion of the effort of Business to get 
 control of the School, vide op. cit.. Chapter VII. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 3 
 
 bureaus of scientific inquiry are apprentice training schools. 
 It pays ;iS25,ooo annually to each State for the support of 
 higher agricultural and mechanical education. It has 
 given hundreds of millions of acres of land to endow the 
 common schools in many States. It incorporates educa- 
 tional and cultural societies. If all the educational enter- 
 prises of the various Departments were concentrated in 
 one Department of Education, and if all the educational 
 laws in the National Statutes and all the educational rules, 
 regulations, and courses of study of all its Departments, 
 Bureaus, and Boards were brought together and system- 
 atized, the Government would at once appear to be what 
 it really is, the greatest single agency of education in all 
 our lands. 
 
 Because the proposition to establish a Department of 
 Education with a Secretary of Cabinet rank ^ has not yet 
 risen to the prominence of a political issue and because 
 the Congress maintains the policy of leaving all local 
 affairs of education to the States (though not to the Colo- 
 nies or to the Dependencies or to the District of Columbia 
 and not entirely to the Territories), most men and women 
 outside of Government circles imagine that the United 
 States is indifferent to educational enterprises. 
 
 Whether this policy of decentralization in respect to 
 local education is safe for the future of our people is 
 
 1 The arguments against elevating Education to Cabinet rank are too familiar to require 
 development here. i. We have too many Secretaries now: why not combine War and 
 Navy, the defence and offence departments ? 2. The Secretary would change with political 
 changes : do we wish life-tenure and all its incidents in that office any more than in the State 
 or Treasury or Agriculture departments ? 3. Education is not a political matter to be 
 fought over or affected by political methods : is not this equally true of finance, of postal 
 service, of international relations? 
 
 For a year or so after its establishment as such in 1867, Education was a Department. 
 
 Whatever view we take, we should endorse actively the plan of a great Education Hall 
 at the Capitol; a National Museum of Arts and Sciences as notable in quality as the Library 
 of Congress and larger. 
 
4 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 gravely questioned by those who know the facts of illit- 
 eracy, of inefficiency, and of immorality in certain of our 
 States. It is the old issue of Nationalism versus Federal- 
 ism ; and it involves a matter not less serious than that of 
 Negro slavery. For its own protection, American democ- 
 racy, working in its strongest mode, the National Govern- 
 ment, may yet be compelled to standardize and to subsidize 
 education through all the States, to relieve this illiteracy, 
 this inefficiency, and this immorality of the " mountain 
 whites," of the " swamp blacks," of the child-laborers, 
 and of the slum denizens. It may yet be necessary for the 
 strong hand of the central Government to take of our 
 accumulating wealth that our men may not decay. 
 
 A comparison of the school legislation of the various 
 States and Territories of the Union reveals most striking 
 differences. The greatest decentralization of authority by 
 its distribution appears in Pennsylvania and the greatest 
 centralization in Louisiana. The greatest local indepen- 
 dence and variety of actual conditions prevail apparently in 
 Massachusetts. New Jersey has a State Board of Educa- 
 tion and also a State Board of Examiners of applicants 
 for teachers' certificates. Some States have neither State 
 Boards of Education nor State Boards of Examiners, while 
 other States have only the latter, but style them by the 
 other title. In examining the Statutes of a State, the first 
 thing to determine is the meaning of such terms as board 
 of education, county superintendent, and board of normal 
 school control. Often when we think that we are discuss- 
 ing the same thing, in reality, because these terms have 
 various contents, we are discussing different things. 
 
 The time may come when the United States Government, in par- 
 ticular the Congress and the President, shall become in all the States 
 what they now are to education in the Philippines, in the District of 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 5 
 
 Columbia, and in the Indian Schools, the highest school board of the 
 land ; but the time is already here when each State legislature is in 
 reality the highest school board, the educational court of appeal in every 
 State. Or the time may come when the School shall rise coordinate 
 with the State, and independent of its political legislature, and have its 
 own National board of education, subject only to the Constitution of 
 the United States ; ^ but the time has already come in several States, 
 when the State board of education is the correlate of the legislature in 
 government. In such a season, the National board of school control 
 will have for its members mostly educators, as now the National legis- 
 lature has mostly lawyers.^ The only safety for democracy is its 
 acceptance, indeed its encouragement, of the services of experts. The 
 democracy, however, will choose its board members by ballot at special 
 fixed elections as it now chooses the members of its legislatures. Of 
 course, such a conception is an attempted prevision of the future ; but the 
 signs are not wanting of its advent in this century of brilliant promise 
 for the development of the social institutions to larger usefulness. 
 
 Whatever may be said of the merits of the argument for 
 a National board of education or whatever may be said of 
 the merits of the lesser proposition to make a Cabinet 
 Secretaryship of the present Commissionership of Educa- 
 tion, the desirability of a State Board of Education as well 
 as of a State Superintendent or an officer of equivalent 
 powers but some different name is not seriously questioned 
 by those who are familiar with the records of the States 
 now maintaining such bodies. 
 
 There are two standard ways of creating these State boards : — 
 
 1. Appointment by the Governor. 
 
 2. Elevating certain city superintendencies and other educational 
 
 1 This view is presented solely as a quasi-teleological mode of testing the direction of 
 present educational tendencies. 
 
 Thinking of our Congress and of our State legislatures as instances of representative 
 democracy, we delude ourselves. Neither grade of legislature represents all classes of the 
 people. Nine-tenths of all members of Congress and of our State legislatures are representa- 
 tives of the law; that is, of government itself. Centuries hence, society may come to com- 
 plete or universal institutions. In such case, the boards of health, National, State, and 
 Municipal, will be composed of physicians. 
 
6 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 positions into board rank by making their occupants members of the 
 State board ex officio ^ 
 
 Where the State board is appointed but the State superintendent is 
 elected, the latter may better make the appointments to the board than 
 the governor or a court. 
 
 A Study of the State laws in all the States shows that 
 the School is everywhere in transition and in development. 
 When it goes free of the State, it will have its own special 
 legislature, laws, officers. Obviously, this will include a 
 superintendent or some educational director otherwise 
 entitled. Consequently, the election of a State superin- 
 tendent is probably closer to the stream of tendency than 
 is his appointment by an appointed board of education, 
 itself dependent upon the political governor of a State. 
 
 This conception involves the elevation of the Constitu- 
 tion of a State and of the Constitutional Convention into 
 even higher importance than now. We may perhaps think 
 of the community within State lines organized in some such 
 way as this, viz. : — 
 
 Constitution of Society 
 
 A B C D etc. 
 
 State Church School Trades 
 
 (government) (religion) (education) (livelihood) 
 
 The Society would have its constitutional convention. 
 
 The State would have its legislature. 
 
 The Church its synod or other central governing body. 
 
 The School its board of education. 
 
 The Trades their central house of delegates. 
 
 The constitutional convention, meeting (say) every quar- 
 ter century, would be composed of the direct representa- 
 tives of the people ; while the legislature would be com- 
 
 ' To the present time, this has succeeded admirably in Indiana. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 7 
 
 posed of lawyers ; the synod, of ministers ; the board, of 
 educators ; the house, of mechanics ; etc. 
 
 The foregoing is not presented as in detail prophetic 
 of what the future has in store ; but as affording a means 
 of testing a special question that is part of a general ques- 
 tion. The latter is this : — Does American democracy 
 involve as its logical outcome the reduction of every 
 social institution to the majordty control of laymen ? ^ The 
 special question is this : Is the board of education to become 
 a board of educational experts ; or do indications point to 
 the abolition of boards and the erection of a strictly educa- 
 tional hierarchy with a sole director at its head.? Other 
 phases of this question will occur to every one who cares 
 for social prognosis. 
 
 A State board may have the following powers, viz. : — 
 
 I. To appoint — 
 
 i. A State superintendent.^ 
 
 ii. A State school architect. 
 
 iii. A secretary, 
 
 iv. An attorney. 
 
 v. A State attendance officer, 
 
 vi. A State medical supervisor. 
 
 For the present, in the older States, the most practical 
 plan seems to be to have a State board of education ap- 
 pointed by the governor of the State, composed of from 
 seven to twelve members, serving for terms of not less 
 
 ^ The great agitation in England and in the United States in favor of lay inspection of 
 all scientific research involving animals is a case in point, and a warning. 
 
 2 It is held in some quarters that the board of education should have the power to confirm 
 or to reject the nominations of this officer and of those who follow ; but the best practice un- 
 questionably is that the subordinates in each case should be absolutely in the control of the 
 superior. If the chief makes improper nominations, he should be removed. Otherwise, a 
 board wastes time over these matters of subordinates. In the newer States, the superin- 
 tendent should be elected ; but qualifications should be prescribed for eligibility to the office. 
 
8 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 than three years or more than five. In the newer States, 
 the State Board should be elected at large by the people 
 at a special election, for terms of (say) four years, and 
 should be smaller than the appointive board, (say) four or 
 six members.^ The validity of this distinction consists in 
 the difficulty of dealing with the Eastern tradition of dis- 
 trust of democracy and the Western development after the 
 rise of confidence. 
 
 2. To determine finally, without reference to State 
 courts, all appeals from the decisions of the officers named 
 under i. 
 
 3. To receive, file, and print the reports of these officers. 
 
 4. To control all State normal schools. 
 
 5. To control all State reform schools for persons un- 
 der twenty-one years of age.^ 
 
 6. To inspect, in the persons of their appointees or of 
 themselves, any and all schools of all grades and descrip- 
 tion, — public, fiduciary, parochial, and proprietary, — and 
 to regulate such features as upon examination are deemed 
 prejudicial to the interests of the pupils or otherwise in- 
 jurious to the public. 
 
 7. To establish and control new State universities, col- 
 leges, institutes, or other higher institutions of learning for 
 the benefit of the entire State.^ 
 
 8. Upon the recommendation of the State superintend- 
 ent, to apportion in whatever manner is deemed expe- 
 
 1 Vide page 16, infra, for a discussion of the reasons why appointive boards should be 
 twice or three times as large as elective boards and operate through a small executive com- 
 mittee or some committee of similar powers but otherwise designated. But whether ap- 
 pointive or elective, the State board should organize itself into as few committees as possible. 
 Vide Our Schools, page 44. 
 
 2 There are good reasons to advocate their control of all prisons, jails, penitentiaries, and 
 reformatories. 
 
 8 This means, of course, that the State superintendent is to name their heads. The board 
 of education controls salaries and other expenditures. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL g 
 
 dient the annual State grants arid taxes for the current 
 expenditures or permanent improvement of local schools.^ 
 
 9. With such penalties as they consider appropriate, to 
 compel municipalities to improve their schools in course 
 of instruction, in architecture, in sanitation, in salaries, in 
 number, in equipment, or in general maintenance, so as 
 to meet definite standards fixed by the board. 
 
 10. To fix minimum salaries for any and all who work 
 in the public schools. 
 
 11. To serve as a State school-taxing body, to raise such 
 funds as may be prescribed by the State constitution and 
 the State laws, and to accept and administer as trustees, 
 legacies, donations, and other benefactions designed to 
 promote the cause of public enlightenment.^ 
 
 12. To expend moneys.^ 
 
 13. As a corporation, to transact all this business and 
 all similar business reasonably contemplated by its title 
 and powers, whether general or specific. 
 
 The State superintendent should be the executive agent 
 of the board and, in cooperation with the State school at- 
 torney, should enforce all the powers indicated in the fore- 
 going enumeration; and in addition should have the power: 
 
 1. To appoint — 
 
 i. A deputy superintendent. 
 
 ii. State supervisors (or directors or inspectors), 
 
 iii. The heads of the State schools, 
 
 iv. Other subordinates. 
 
 2. To remove any educational worker — whether teacher 
 
 ^ As a general proposition, the State should secure from corporation, inheritance, and 
 ground rent taxes, enough funds to pay from one-third to one-half (but not more than one- 
 half) of all the costs of local education, including that of schoolhouses. 
 
 2 Pending the time when the School and the State shall be entirely separate in legislation. 
 
 2 The State board of education may properly occupy its own office building separate from 
 the political Capitol. 
 
10 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 or board member — for any one of three reasons: i. gross 
 moral obliquity ; ii. dishonesty ; iii. definite act of disloy- 
 alty to the cause of education. 
 
 3. To appoint a State board of examiners of applicants 
 for teachers' certificates, to be valid in any and every mu- 
 nicipality, in every public State school, and in any and all 
 private schools. 
 
 4. To visit in person or by officially designated repre- 
 sentative any school whatever. 
 
 5. To make standard courses of study for all schools 
 and to enforce minimums and maximums: such as num- 
 ber of pupils per teacher, number of text-books used, 
 amount of instruction afforded in essential studies. 
 
 6. To report to the board of education annually, and 
 also whenever special occasion arises, such matters as may 
 appear of moment.^ 
 
 What corps of subordinates the State superintendent may require 
 will depend largely upon whether or not there are county superintend- 
 ents. But he will certainly need supervisors for higher educational 
 institutions, for normal schools, for high schools, for elementary schools, 
 for private schools, and for the various studies. 
 
 The State schoolhouse architect should make standard 
 plans for buildings and should lay out grounds. He should 
 examine plans for all buildings, additions, and repairs, and 
 no bonds should be issued or other funds secured or their 
 proceeds expended without his certificate that the plans are 
 satisfactory. In his own person, or by deputy, he should 
 inspect all buildings and important additions in course of 
 erection. For this work, he will require an adequate corps 
 of assistants and adequate funds. 
 
 The secretary to the State board should keep the 
 
 1 These will include professional and clerical assistance in his own department ; new legis- 
 lation; school conditions, general and special; enterprises under way or contemplated. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL II 
 
 minutes of its proceedings and of its various committees. 
 These minutes and proper journals, together with all other 
 records and official documents, should be properly filed; 
 and these archives should be preserved in absolutely fire- 
 proof conditions.^ 
 
 The secretary should conduct all the correspondence of 
 the board.^ 
 
 As for the attorney, the attendance officer, and the medi- 
 cal inspector, their duties are such as are indicated by their 
 titles.3 
 
 The foregoing scheme is offered rather as a criterion of judgment than 
 as a plan for any special State. I advocate a great central authority 
 rather than several separate authorities ^ such as generally prevail. I 
 am aware that there are certain advantages in separate control as for the 
 State university, the State normal schools, teachers' certificates, etc., but 
 the loss of the special interest of the isolated and independent authority 
 is more than counterbalanced by the great powers and the understand- 
 ing of relations possessed by the single authority. Government has its 
 governor and legislature and highest court ; education needs similar 
 simplicity of control. 
 
 The State board of examiners should have the following 
 powers : — 
 
 I. To estabhsh the standards and to examine appli- 
 cants for teachers' certificates. 
 
 * It is not enough that the framework of the building be fireproof: the whole interior 
 must be fireproof, — floors, " woodwork," which should be steel or other non-combustible ma- 
 terial, and the files themselves. The loss or disappearance of documents has damaged, even 
 wrecked, many a promising administration as it has injured many a business enterprise. 
 
 2 The State superintendent, however, and not the secretary to the board, should be its 
 executive officer. 
 
 3 For comparison with the duties of similar officers in city systems, vide Chapter VIII, 
 infra. 
 
 * In the text, I have used the terms " State superintendent of public instruction," and 
 " board of education." Personally, I prefer the terms " State director of education " and 
 " State regents of education" (or " State board of school control"). Vide Our Schools, page 
 II. The term " commissioner of education " has been used to designate both educators and 
 laymen. It is, therefore, confusing until defined. 
 
12 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 No person who has not a State certificate should be allowed to teach, 
 in regular schools, pupils within the ages of compulsory attendance. 
 
 2. To reexamine for higher certificates. 
 
 No person should be eligible to any educational position, not even a 
 city superintendency or a private academy principalship, until he holds 
 the publicly approved and recognized certificate of fitness. By this 
 provision, teaching will be made as true a profession as law, medicine, 
 and theology. The certificates must be as few as possible, but should 
 include the State superintendency itself and membership upon the 
 board of examiners.^ 
 
 Save where more qualifications for teachers are needed than those 
 required by the State, all local boards of examiners and all local certifi- 
 cates should be abolished ; but there should be established several con- 
 venient places in the State for the taking of examinations. All locally 
 controlled normal and training schools should be placed under the sole 
 and positive direction of the State. ^ 
 
 3. To cancel certificates for cause properly deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Such reforms would clear the ground for the proper 
 work of local superintendents and boards of education. 
 
 In the present development of American government, 
 the county is gradually losing its serviceability. Whether 
 for good or for evil, as a people we are ceasing to be rural 
 and are becoming urban. Even in our remaining rural 
 sections, we are tending away from the open country and 
 are once again villagers. Man is by nature gregarious. 
 The immense populations congested in the tenement and 
 slum districts and in the many-storied apartment build- 
 ings of our great cities are but twentieth-century mani- 
 festations of the same human spirit that has animated the 
 hordes of earlier times in other lands. In the strict- 
 
 ^ The time may come when such certificates will be required of members of the State 
 board of education, 
 
 - Certificates now held should, however, be valid for the terms and upon the conditions 
 set forth therein. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 1 3 
 
 est interpretation, there is no sueh thing as humanness 
 in isolation.^ The soul cannot be educated in soHtude. 
 But the sessile city multitude more than the locomotive 
 field horde oppresses the individual, who often requires 
 emancipation by escape to the "solitude where none 
 intrudes." 
 
 The county was a convenient geographical division of 
 government in ages when society was agricultural. It 
 helped develop man from his pastoral condition into the 
 agricultural. Similarly, the chartered municipality — the 
 village, the town, and the city — is encouraging his de- 
 velopment from the agricultural to the machinofacturing 
 industrial life of this modern time. Good roads, tele- 
 phone, and rural mail delivery may discourage the move- 
 ment of men into communities ; yet the delay will make 
 the final social structure only the more solid and sub- 
 stantial. 
 
 As a political form, the county may serve certain minor 
 purposes for a century to come ; but even now, in most 
 States,^ it serves no important purpose in education that 
 cannot be better served either by the central government 
 of the State or by the immediate local municipality, the 
 school district proper. 
 
 The city as a school district presents the phase of 
 education that is most interesting to the general public, — 
 a fact that should not blind professional educators to the 
 paramount importance for the present of the State laws 
 and executive officers. 
 
 The large cities of our land have more population and, 
 
 1 Comenius said that " only by a proper education can one become a man," and then pro- 
 ceeded to describe education as in great part association. The Great Didactic, Chapter 
 XVI. Also vide A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education, Chapter XXII. 
 
 2 The exceptions are certain Southern States that have few towns and no cities of consid- 
 erable size. 
 
14 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 therefore, wealth ^ than most of the States. Their adminis- 
 tration is more difhcult to understand than is the adminis- 
 tration of States, because they are examples of hnperiiim in 
 imperio. To know the city, we must first know the State. 
 Sometimes, we must study also the charter of the city. 
 
 The principles that apply to the selection of board 
 members for the boards of great cities are more closely 
 analogous to the principles that should govern States than 
 they are to those which should govern towns, villages, and 
 rural districts. 
 
 The reasons why " party " lines should not be followed 
 in selecting State board members are the same which 
 show that party lines should not be followed in selecting 
 city board members. The major reason is that the State 
 is one social institution and the School is another ; there- 
 fore, the same considerations do not apply. The minor 
 reason is that politics (I use the term here in its deroga- 
 tory sense of personal intrigues and party conflicts relating 
 to government) seldom aim at placing the best man in a 
 position ; he does not need to resort to politics. It follows, 
 therefore, that when School elections take place at the 
 same time as State elections, their issues being popularly 
 considered of minor importance, are confused with, and 
 subordinated to, the political issues. Obviously, whether a 
 man is a Democrat or a Republican or a Socialist or a 
 Prohibitionist or a Laborite in politics does not materially 
 affect his value as an " educator." ^ 
 
 1 Statistically, I mean The land values of a city, which make so large a portion of its 
 total " wealth" are due entirely to the population and are fictitious, therefore, in the sense 
 that they do not produce wealth, but merely serve as means for converting such wealth as is 
 produced by labor and capital into property for the landlords. 
 
 2 In the press despatches of a newspaper syndicate the members of a certain State board 
 of education were styled " educators." And this is quite right. A board member to-day 
 can do more for or against education than the superintendent. Vide McAndrew, Looking 
 for Trouble. Also, "Open Letter to Board Members,'' Appendix A, 2, ijifra. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 1 5 
 
 But practically for many a year to come, in most States 
 and in most cities, board members — that is, the ruling 
 educators — will be voted for on Democratic and Repub- 
 lican tickets or appointed by Democratic or Republican 
 mayors ; and their elections or appointments will be deter- 
 mined upon partisan political considerations. There is very 
 little benefit to anticipate from tinkering with boards year 
 after year in this fashion. Occasionally the nominating 
 conventions will choose " good " candidates or the mayor 
 a " good " man (" good," that is, because he will think 
 primarily of the good of the school pupils and will be 
 competent in his thinking); but the general stream of 
 tendency will be to use the schools for the advantage of 
 the political parties. It cannot be otherwise. What we 
 need is not the so-called " spasm of civic interest in edu- 
 cation," but the complete separation of education from 
 government in their practical operations.^ 
 
 Under the State constitution, the State board of educa- 
 tion, the State board of examiners, the State superintendent, 
 and the other State educational officers, the city school dis- 
 trict should be developed substantially in the following 
 manner : — 
 
 1. The board of education should be a body corporate 
 to control the city as a school district coordinate with, but 
 entirely distinct from, the political city. 
 
 In other terms, education should be diiferentiated from government 
 and separately integrated in order that it may perform its social func- 
 tions without bias because of political considerations. 
 
 2. This board should consist either of a considerable 
 number of men — from twelve to eighteen — appointed by 
 
 1 Several cities have tried bi-partisan boards. Buffalo has tried no board at all, leaving 
 the financial affairs of the schools in the control of the aldermen. This entire matter should 
 be considered carefully in the light of the history of the State of Louisiana. 
 
l6 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 the mayor for a term of three or four years or of a small 
 number of men — from four to seven — elected at large 
 for a term of four or five years. 
 
 The important principles involved here are seldom discerned and 
 recognized at their true value. The appointive board represents no 
 constituency : each member is the personal choice of one man. In 
 order fairly to represent public opinion and to lead it forward, the ap- 
 poifitive board jmist be large. Indeed, an appointive board of thirty or 
 more members with an executive committee of seven is none too large for 
 service in a democracy. But every member of an elective board repre- 
 sents a majority of the constituency that elected him. The elected 
 board should be small, (say)yf'y^ members.^ The entire board represents 
 fairly the general public opinion. In view of the large powers that 
 should be vested in a city board of education, the people have a just 
 right to choose its membership directly. But in the present state of the 
 average individual intelligence of city voters, this right to choose is sel- 
 dom coincident with a true power to do so. On the other hand, the 
 mayors of our large cities are scarcely more to be trusted than the body 
 of voters. The opinion actually held by educators of competence and 
 experience will differ radically so long as American cities differ so 
 greatly in the intelligence and character of their voters. I favor the 
 small elective board, but my reasons are based upon my own experience 
 with appointive boards. 
 
 The board should have the general powers already im- 
 plied ; and in addition the following specific powers : — 
 
 3. The power to bond the city for new sites and build- 
 ings without limit and without reference to any other 
 municipal governing body. 
 
 ^The recent history of St. Louis and of Boston amply justifies the opinion in 'the text. 
 When each board member serves but three years and comes up for renomination and reelec- 
 tion with but one other man, there being usually no more than four or six candidates in the 
 field, then the public can scrutinize each man thoroughly. It is extremely desirable, it is in- 
 deed so essentially necessary as to be imperative, that the nominations should be by petition 
 and the election at a separate date from the political elections. 
 
 New York City now has a board of forty- five members by appointment of the mayor. 
 There is some agitation by the Public Education Society in favor of a reduction to fifteen 
 members. In this instance, the executive committee feature of the plan has been considered 
 unsuccessful. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 1 7 
 
 Education is at once a necessity of the present and an investment for 
 the fhture. To limit its permanent plant is to limit the progress of 
 mankind. 
 
 4. The power to tax the city for current costs without 
 limit and without reference to other governing bodies. 
 
 Indeed, the State board of education should have the mandatory 
 power with sanctions fixed to compel a city board to do its duty when 
 derelict. 
 
 5. To own and to control in every particular as against 
 all other city authorities the school buildings, sites, and 
 apparatus. 
 
 6. To appoint a city superintendent from an eligible list 
 furnished by the State superintendent or a person accept- 
 able to him and to the State board of examiners. 
 
 7. To appoint a business manager. 
 
 8. To appoint a secretary. 
 
 9. To appoint an attorney, 
 
 10. To appoint an attendance officer. 
 
 11. To appoint a school architect. 
 
 12. To appoint a treasurer. 
 
 13. To appoint an auditor.^ 
 
 * It is one of the inscrutable features of my experience as a superintendent for a dozen 
 years that I have found the "business men" of city boards of education more willing to 
 allow the business officers in the foregoing list (that is, all except the superintendent, and 
 perhaps the attorney) to appoint all their subordinates than to allow the professional men to 
 do so. But notwithstanding this experience, it is my opinion that the public welfare demands 
 that laymen must keep their hands off from the appointments of teachers as well as of clerks; 
 they should not have the power to confirm or to reject nominations or the power to vote upon 
 dismissal. I have seen teachers blackmailed under threats of suggesting dismissal. This is 
 a worse form of corruption than taking fees for suggesting or effecting appointments. It is 
 my hope that when we come to demand educational qualifications for board members (vide 
 Our Schools, pages 14 and 16), we are likely to exclude the men who do not see the reason 
 why every subordinate should serve but one master, his official superior. In a certain city, 
 an assistant superintendent defended his treachery to the superintendent by saying that he 
 owed loyalty not to his chief but to the board, and that when a difference of opinion arose 
 between the superintendent and himself, he had a " perfect right " to appeal to the board 
 and attempt to influence it against the superintendent. 
 
I8 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 14. To establish whatever schools, departments, and 
 kinds of education it considers likely to promote the cultu- 
 ral progress of the community. 
 
 15. To receive, file, and print such reports of these 
 officers as it may be requested so to do.^ 
 
 16. Under the provisions of the State constitution and 
 the rules of the State regents of education to levy taxes for 
 local school purposes. 
 
 17. Similarly, to issue bonds for permanent school im- 
 provements, including purchase of lands. 
 
 18. To fix and pay salaries at or above the State mini- 
 mums. 
 
 19. To accept and administer as trustees legacies of 
 property, donations, and other benefactions designed to 
 promote the cause of local public education. 
 
 20. As a public corporation with a seal, to transact all 
 this business and all business of a similar nature reasonably 
 contemplated by the erection of the corporation.^ 
 
 The city board of education should be organized with 
 as few committees as possible. A small board, such as the 
 elective board should be, requires no committees at all. A 
 larger appointive board may have three : — 
 
 1. An executive committee (or styled, ways and means). 
 
 2. A committee on buildings, sites, and janitors. 
 
 3. A committee on miscellaneous and new business. 
 
 In no properly conceived city school system is there any 
 call for committees on teachers, or on courses of study, or 
 
 1 The board should not have any power whatever to revise the report of the superintendent. 
 
 2 To those who care to follow out these matters to their logical conclusions and thoroughly, 
 I suggest reading the following annual reports of board and superintendent: New York, Cleve- 
 land, Boston, Indianapolis, and St. Louis, There is need of a work that from the administra- 
 tive point of view will clearly yet briefly describe about twelve city school systems compara- 
 tively. In the New York report for 1907 (pages 9-14) there is a clear summary of these 
 powers. The Cleveland board appears to have nearly all the powers indicated in the text. 
 The variations, however, are significant. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL I9 
 
 on sanitation, or on evening lectures, or on compulsory 
 education. All these matters belong to the administrative 
 employees. Because they are the employees of the board, 
 they are already subject to the board in all these and in all 
 similar matters. For the board or for any members to 
 interfere in details is clearly reprehensible. 
 
 In general, the function of the city board of education 
 is to govern the schools : to regulate them as the governor 
 of the steam engine regulates and steadies its action. Its 
 function is not to manage the schools. It is to control, to 
 oversee, to assist rather than to direct education. In this 
 capacity, a good board can be invaluable. In any other 
 capacity, even a good board is perilous to the true educa- 
 tional interests of a community, while a bad board is 
 pernicious. Irrespective of the private character and gen- 
 eral abihty of its members, no board can be " good " that 
 tries " to run the schools." 
 
 Fortunately in a large city, so vast is the enterprise that no board, 
 however bad, can destroy a good educational system before it is dis- 
 covered and obstructed by general public opinion awakened by the 
 conscientious activities of the educators in the city. But unfortunately 
 the converse is true, that in large cities the ablest of superintendents 
 and the best of boards can do but little in any one year to redeem the 
 past when that has been going steadily from bad to worse. 
 
 In the view presented as to the nature of the relations 
 of the State and of the School, the most important feature 
 is the horizon Une of the limits of free public education. 
 In actual practice in the various States, this horizoja line 
 tells significantly the heights of the various points of view. 
 As an economic matter, it is not important whether a mill- 
 ion dollars is provided annually for education from general 
 taxation or from particular properties isolated for the pur- 
 pose of paying over their earnings to education. The 
 
20 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 taxation does not fall upon all citizens alike. But in both 
 the political and the social relations, it is of much impor- 
 tance how the annual fund is provided. 
 
 Any private benevolence secures an amount of public attention far 
 beyond that given to an equal tax-expenditure. We have heard year 
 after year a vast deal about the good accomplished in Southern educa- 
 tion by the Peabody and the Slater funds ; yet single American cities of 
 but a half million people spend annually more than the total endow- 
 ments of these philanthropies combined. The invested funds of Har- 
 vard or Columbia can be expressed in totals of impressive magnitude. 
 The State universities cannot capitalize the good will and the good 
 faith that cause the annual appropriations of the legislatures. On a 
 five per cent basis, the concern of New York City in its schools may be 
 roughly estimated at five hundred million dollars ; that is, a philanthro- 
 pist undertaking so to endow the New York system of public schools as 
 to withdraw their costs from general taxation would need to set aside a 
 property equal to one-half that of the entire United States Steel Cor- 
 poration. With all his wonderful benefactions, Andrew Carnegie has 
 done only one-quarter as much. 
 
 A philanthropist in the East or South may give one million or ten 
 millions of dollars of the general wealth that he owns to the cause of 
 education and may determine what grade or form of education may be 
 served thereby ; and he is assured of the plaudits of public opinion and 
 of the generous approval of succeeding generations. In these regions, 
 the public man who should propose to assign from State or local taxes 
 an amount equal to five per cent upon such capital funds for education 
 must be prepared to fight for his cause ; and to be defeated. West 
 of the AUeghanies, in the newer region with its keener democracy, he 
 can hope to win and may win. 
 
 There are two political traditions, — one that the State 
 shall do only what private philanthropy will not do and 
 shall do this only upon stern necessity put to the proof ; 
 the other that the State shall do whatever is for the general 
 welfare. The first is the tradition of the East and of the 
 South ; the second is that of the North beyond the Appa- 
 lachians and of all the trans-Mississippi country. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 21 
 
 The East and the South compromise with the second 
 tradition by estabhshing not a few scholarships to send 
 needy pupils to the endowed institutions and by special 
 grants. The West and the North compromise with the 
 first tradition by encouraging private endowments in rivalry 
 with the public universities. 
 
 But to the student himself or herself there is a tremen- 
 dous difference whether the entire education from the kin- 
 dergarten through the professional school is afforded by 
 the State. It colors one's patriotism red or white whether 
 the State provides all the range of educational opportunity 
 or does not.^ And this difference between the final obli- 
 gations of loyalty East and West will in generations to 
 come record itself more and more clearly in the American 
 character. 
 
 Socially, one who is graduated from Harvard or from 
 Vanderbilt is at the antipodes from one who is graduated 
 at Michigan or Nebraska. The private endowment means 
 as a matter of tradition education in sex-isolation ; the 
 public maintenance means sex-association, " co-education." 
 The exceptions merely demonstrate the rule. One who 
 pays no tuition in the endowed universities is a favored 
 individual, who must feel more or less regret; but all 
 students are on the level plane of recipients of the public 
 bounty in the public [university. 
 
 The true functions of private philanthropy appear to be 
 to establish experiment stations and to do work supple- 
 mental to that of the State, while the true function of the 
 public enterprises is to supply the approved best for every 
 general need and interest of society. 
 
 The question as to how far the education afforded by 
 
 ^ An endowed corporate university operating under State laws is in that degree a quasi- 
 public (political) enterprise, Butler, Educational Review, December, 1907. 
 
22 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 the State shall go is already answered. Whatever boys 
 and girls, men and women, need to learn, whenever and 
 wherever they need to know it, that the State constitution 
 should enable the public school to provide. This includes 
 all trades, all professions, all arts, all knowledge. The 
 only questions to be asked by the State are : Is this need 
 gj(od .-• Is this person competent to receive this instruction .-' 
 J The term of school-going at the expense of the State is 
 not the age of fifteen or the age of eighteen or the age of 
 twenty-one, but school-going in a democracy that aspires to 
 serve mankind is zvitJwut term. Therefore, every State 
 needs normal schools, colleges, universities, trade schools, 
 agricultural institutes, and every other proper institution 
 of education ; and it needs enough of them at convenient 
 points within its borders to supply all the demands. 
 
 The duration of public education is, therefore, any time 
 within the educable period of individual human life. But 
 within a certain portion of this educable period, the process 
 of education must be rigidly and universally applied. 
 
 We may divide this period into that in which intelligence, 
 efficiency, and morality ^ are developed and that in which 
 these are applied to science, to art, and to philosophy for 
 the further extension of human culture. The first portion 
 may be said to end at eighteen or nineteen years of age. 
 
 These evidences of the progress of the individual in edu- 
 cation are successive and become simultaneous only at the 
 end of the period of educability. Intelligence begins with 
 activity of the mind in observation and proceeds to literacy, 
 an absolute essential in modern civilization. Efficiency 
 proceeds to apply intelligence to the doing of things, the 
 performing of services, the making of products. And 
 moraUty directs the efficiency of the soul and of the body 
 
 • Vide A Theory of Motives, chapters thus entitled. 
 
THE STATE AND THE SCHOOL 23 
 
 to the systematic accomplishment of what is worth while 
 by methods beneficent to human society. Our war is 
 for illiterates, to make them literate ; for the literate- 
 inefficient, to make them efficient ; for the literate-efficient- 
 immoral, to make them moral.^ A moral man who is 
 inefficient and illiterate is an impossibiHty. In the pres- 
 ence of a vast, difficult, and dangerous civilization, whose 
 meaning is only now being slowly won by the masses 
 of mankind, — European peasants and African savages 
 now in process of redemption into American citizenship, 
 — the illiterate and the inefficie7it are necessarily immoral. 
 How can one possibly do right who has neither the intelli- 
 gence to discern the right nor the will to realize it ? 
 
 Therefore, education must be absolutely universal for 
 the youth of our country, — that all may learn to see facts 
 and truth, to rejoice in effort, and to love what is good. 
 Thus education redeems both the city slum and the remote 
 wilderness. 
 
 As for the variety of the methods and of the subjects of 
 education, this must increase with every year of the life 
 of the individual until he is ready to specialize. The cur- 
 riculum of the kindergarten is designed to train the obser- 
 vation and to direct the energies of the child, and may 
 and should be closely prescriptive. The curriculum of 
 the high school has widened out as a fan widens. Here 
 we are teaching morality through sympathy with the many 
 concerns of man, and particularly his culture. And in the 
 university, we open wide the doors of the higher and larger 
 world, saying, " Enter in and add what you can." 
 
 In any proper conception, all this range and all this 
 duration of instruction are well within the duties of the 
 
 ^ " It follows therefore that he who is sent to school must be kept there until he is well in- 
 formed, efficient, and pious." Comenius, The Great Didactic, Chapter XVI. 
 
24 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 superintendent and board of education of any and every 
 State and of every large city. By other conceptions, pri- 
 vate philanthropy is exalted above public duty, and the 
 obligations of Property are elevated above the opportuni- 
 ties of Government.^ 
 
 1 One who advocates emphasizing the duties of private philanthropy must logically favor 
 such legal conditions for property and business as will conduce to large private wealth ; while 
 one who advocates emphasizing the duties of government in education will logically favor 
 conditions that will make the burdens of general taxation easy by distributing wealth gener- 
 ally. In the terms of universal history and of the progress of civilization, the question here 
 implied is interesting and significant. The relation of this question to that of religious obli- 
 gation is obvious. 
 
 One of our difficulties is that many have not yet risen to the conception of Aristotle as 
 expressed in the Politics, — " That which contributes most to the permanence of constitutions 
 is the adaptation of education to the form of government," and therefore oppose public school- 
 ing, and that others are anchored at the point where they see in private (?) schools (including 
 universities) mere anachronisms, while a few have grown wise enough to see that democracy 
 is too large a matter to be confined within a pyramid whose granite walls are governmental. 
 One may indeed desire that the State shall be paramount, as the best mode in which men may 
 obey the command, — " Come, let us reason together," without regarding the State as sole. 
 The way out of these misunderstandings of one another, because we are of various " ages" of 
 social evolution and of political belief, is to resolve the situation into its elements, to think 
 through to the conclusion, and then to try to develop every kind of school to its maximum, 
 rejecting only such as cannot adopt the catholic philosophy of democracy itself. 
 
 It may indeed be that East and West have parted ; if so, they should become generous 
 rivals, intent upon displaying all the good essentially inherent in each of these radically 
 different schemes of social organization. The view of the text is that they may yet ultimately 
 be reconciled in the Universal School. If so, each will have made important contributions, — 
 the public political school and university may transmit the graces and the usefulness of the 
 institution that lives by social favor ; the endowed school and university, the inner forces 
 and substantial freedom of the institution that lives by rights and privileges. There is com- 
 fort in the faith that, in the education of to-day, there is seen only 
 
 " The baby figure of the giant mass 
 Of things to come at large." 
 — Nestor (speaking), Troilus and Cressida, I, i, Shakespeare. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 There are two recognized ways by which one now 
 comes to the superintendency of schools in the large city. 
 Such a superintendency may be described as an office in 
 which in fact one is held responsible for conditions beyond 
 the possible range of his personal knowledge and author- 
 ity. It exists of necessity where the number of teachers 
 exceeds two or three hundred; and it consists in being 
 obliged to rely for information as to facts upon intermedi- 
 ate officers. 
 
 Were it not for the accepted correctness of this defini- 
 tion, there would be but one way by which to come to the 
 superintendency of the large city with its thousands of 
 teachers and hundreds of other employees. 
 
 Formerly, there were three ways to secure an appoint- 
 ment to the city superintendency: first, to succeed more 
 or less in something else and to get the office by influence, 
 — political, social, economic, family, religious, — any way to 
 get it ; second, to succeed in a lesser educational position in 
 the city and to use this as a fitlcrum to get the final and 
 the highest office; and third, to succeed in a superinten- 
 dency in another city, presumably smaller, and to be "called 
 higher." 
 
 With the rise of educational convictions and the appear- 
 ance of the educational conscience, it seldom happens now 
 that any one is elected superintendent of schools in a large 
 city because he was once postmaster or public attorney or 
 
 25 
 
26 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 pastor of a church ; and it will happen less frequently in 
 the future than it does even now. 
 
 The arguments for the appointment of an assistant 
 superintendent or a principal within the system to a vacant 
 superintendency are three. All of them are designed to 
 invalidate the foregoing description of the city superintend- 
 ency. The first is that, in his subordinate local office, the 
 candidate acquired large famiharity with the persons in the 
 force. This is true ; and thereby he acquired the preju- 
 dices that make so difficult the work of administering a 
 really large school system. " Once a colleague, always 
 one " may fairly be asserted.^ The second argument is 
 that the subordinate knows the traditions of the schools, 
 while the stranger must grope blindly for months, and per- 
 haps for years, trying to find out what methods, what 
 principles, what ideals are actually in control and in use. 
 The third argument is that the subordinate has learned the 
 work by watching his superior do it. In short, though the 
 last incumbent was actually in office, every person near 
 him was as good as in the office. These latter reasons (or 
 arguments, as they easily become upon expansion) have a 
 certain air of validity when the traditions are good and 
 the last incumbent was successful. The chief disadvan- 
 tages are two : First, the man who has won (or has been 
 given) promotion is usually a popular or a political favorite. 
 He feels that he can hold favor only by obeying popular 
 or political opinion. Seldom is he willing to inaugurate 
 
 1 In a certain city, a teacher, after being appointed supervisor, appeared for five or six weeks 
 unable to perform any of the duties of the office. When asked what the trouble was, she re- 
 plied: " You see, these teachers are ladies; I meet them socially. I cannot give them orders. 
 Besides, I know how they feel when they receive orders. I have been a teacher myself." 
 
 Another instance is this: A superintendent who had risen from the ranks, when asked 
 why he did not issue a certain order, said, " The principals and teachers will never stand for 
 it." He was then asked, " But it is absolutely necessary for school progress, is it not ? " To 
 this, he replied, " And holding my position is absolutely necessary for my livelihood." 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 27 
 
 measures of reform or of progress. He must listen to his 
 supporters. Second, he has seldom been a student of the 
 larger issues in education. He may be a college graduate, 
 but in only the exceptional instance has he pursued gradu- 
 ate courses for years. In other words, it is not likely that 
 he has either the courage or the knowledge requisite for 
 the responsibilities of the office. ^ 
 
 The third way of reaching the large city superintendency 
 is becoming more and more common. The reasons for 
 this are obvious. 
 
 By whichever of these two routes one reaches the posi- 
 tion of control of several hundred or of several thousand 
 employees, the first matter to which one must give atten- 
 tion is this : To discard promptly the notion that one 
 knows anything about the work to be done. The peril of 
 the man who has risen from a supervisorship or from a 
 principalship is that of becoming a supervisor or a princi- 
 pal expanded large, while the peril of the man who is 
 transferred from one city to a greater is that of thinking he 
 has the old city expanded large. The real situation is that 
 the superintendency is in no sense a great supervisorship 
 or principalship, and that one city differs from another city 
 far more than one town differs from another town. There- 
 fore, while the first business of the elevated principal is to 
 learn what a superintendent should do (chiefly, lay railroad 
 track into the future), the first business of the transferred 
 superintendent is to find out what his city is (that is, learn 
 his primary terminal station from which he is to lay track 
 to the next). 
 
 To either man, the discovery that he must push on 
 
 ^ Probably few boards of education ever take these factors into serious consideration: cer- 
 tainly few do so unless forced to consider them by local students of education at a time when 
 the superintendency is vacant. Vide Chapter XV, Our Schools. 
 
28 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 rapidly, that through his office the current flows fast, that 
 it is " now or never," — that he cannot read all his mail 
 carefully, cannot give a proper hearing to every caller, 
 cannot visit the particular teacher or school that needs 
 him, cannot see every board member, cannot keep in close 
 touch with every newspaper, cannot answer every critic, 
 and must neglect opposistion and details and trust to main 
 force and his general policy, -=- this discovery of his own 
 littleness in so great an opportunity comes with a shock 
 of surprise and regret that he must not allow to disconcert 
 him. Here the wisdom garnered of experience tells or 
 fails. The man who worries over past mistakes, real or 
 fancied, is making the worst of all possible mistakes, — 
 misusing the present moment that alone counts in human 
 life. 
 
 In the normal city of considerable population in which 
 the board of education owns and constructs the school 
 buildings, makes the budgets, and levies the school taxes, 
 the superintendent has the sole direction and charge of the 
 immediate affairs of education, which may be summarized 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. Nominating, promoting, transferring, and discharg- 
 ing every educational subordinate, — of all associate and 
 assistant superintendents, directors, supervisors, principals, 
 specialists, teachers, librarians, kindergartners, clerks, and 
 whoever else controls, teaches, assists, or substitutes in any 
 school or schools of the city. 
 
 2. Making, revising, and enforcing all courses of study 
 in every city school. 
 
 3. Selecting all apparatus, text-books, educational sup- 
 plies, and general equipment relating to the school work. 
 
 4. Controlling all health officers and school nurses and 
 similarly controlHng all attendance officers. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 29 
 
 5. Advising in respect to all new buildings, to all addi- 
 tions, and to all important repairs. 
 
 6. Representing publicly the educational policy of the 
 city. 
 
 7. Distributing the duties of all subordinates, dispos- 
 ing of correspondence, and issuing annual, monthly, and 
 special reports.^ 
 
 The superintendent does not do everything himself. In '' 
 his own understanding of this fact lies " his chance of 
 success," and in the public understanding of it lies the dis- 
 position of the city toward the office itself. I say " chance 
 of success " considerately, for the real superintendent has 
 at best only a chance of success. By failing to be a real 
 superintendent in crises, one may hold office for years ; 
 but the history of city superintendencies — very interest- 
 ing reading for the main part — shows that the office is 
 legally too weak in authority for any substantial grounds 
 of hope for permanence of the person in it.^ 
 
 To success, one of the essentials is a proper number and 
 organization of assistants. The best approved hierarchy 
 is this : — 
 
 1 . S uperintendent . 
 
 2. Board of Associate (Division) Superintendents. 
 
 In coordination, 
 
 3. High School Principals. 
 
 Elementary School for 
 Group Principals. 
 
 3. Directors of Special Subjects 
 
 through all Grades. 
 
 H-. Supervisors of Subjects in Spe- 
 cial Grades. 
 
 5. High School Teachers (day) (evening) f Special subject 
 
 6. Elementary School Teachers (day) (evening) \ teachers. 
 
 7. Kindergartners. 
 
 ^ Vide Dexter, History of Education in the United States, page 196, for a significant 
 summary of actual conditions in many cities. 
 
 2 No man who for any reason is removed from the superintendency should allow himself 
 to take a subordinate position in the service ; and no man, taking a superintendency, should 
 give any former superintendent any place in the administration. 
 
30 ' OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The critical points in this assignment are three, viz. : — 
 
 1. There should be enough division superintendents^ 
 promptly to dispose of all central office affairs and of all 
 the referred local affairs. In a general way, it may be 
 said that one division superintendent is required for every 
 three to five hundred teachers. Each associate superin- 
 tendent should have two offices, one in the central hall of 
 administration, the other in the locality to which for the 
 year he is assigned. The assignments should be changed 
 every year.^ Every important matter, general or local, 
 should be discussed in the weekly board of supervision 
 meeting and regularly determined and recorded there. 
 
 2. Every principal should be a supervisory non-class- 
 teaching officer, and should have about twenty -five teachers 
 in his special control. The principal to whom there are 
 assigned more than thirty teachers needs one non-class- 
 teaching department head for every twenty class teachers. 
 Where school buildings are comparatively small, with but 
 six, eight, or ten teachers, they should be grouped in twos, 
 threes, or fours under one principal. The school or group 
 principal should be required to go about among his classes 
 and to give daily two or more hours of instruction, spend- 
 ing the rest of his time in supervision, in direction, and 
 in executive and clerical duties.^ 
 
 3. The directors and supervisors should be of such 
 superior accompUshments that they may safely be given 
 control of methods of instruction within the field of their 
 jurisdiction. With the exception of kindergarten and 
 lower primary grade instruction, the supervision and direc- 
 tion should always be vertical and should express the 
 
 1 Vide page 188, injra. 
 
 ' They are to be counsellors and advisers of the local officers, not directors of detail. 
 
 * Vide Our Schools, page 181. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 31 
 
 nature of the intellectual continuum., the progressive pro- 
 cess by which the child grows into maturity. Horizontal 
 supervision by grade specialists, cross-sectioning the 
 classes, is an unfortunate duplication of effort where there 
 are competent superintendents and principals. 
 
 The question arising from the foregoing propositions as . 
 to whether the large city with six or a dozen or a score of . 
 high schools shall have a high school director or an associ- 
 ate superintendent assigned to that field is actually an- 
 swered already. The board of associates as a whole should 
 supervise all normal, high school, and collegiate instruction, 
 perhaps assigning some one or two of their number to 
 gather special information. This, indeed, should be the 
 attitude toward the elementary schools, — that the one dis- 
 trict assigned to the particular associate for a year is 
 assigned to him as a representative of the entire body. 
 And as far as possible, the particular principal of the par- 
 ticular school is to be its public head, its authority in all 
 save the most important and the most general matters. 
 
 Supervision needs to come close to the teacher and to 
 report immediately to the superintendent. 
 
 The question arising upon the face of these propositions 
 as to what subjects shall have supervisors or directors 
 needs some explicitness and detail in its answer. 
 
 Supervisors are needed for all subjects extending ver- 
 tically through several schools and under teachers regularly 
 in charge of class rooms. These subjects may conveniently 
 be grouped as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1. Mathematics. 
 
 2. History and Geography. 
 
 3. English. 
 
 Directors are needed for all subjects extending through 
 more than one range of school courses and taught by per- 
 
32 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 sons not regularly in charge of classes. These subjects 
 are as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1. Science and Nature-study. 
 
 2. Art and Drawing. 
 
 3. Music. 
 
 4. The Mechanic Arts and Sciences (applied). 
 
 5. The Domestic Arts and Sciences (applied). 
 
 A third class of subjects need heads of departments. 
 Such subjects do not extend beyond one school course, and 
 are taught ordinarily by regular class teachers. These are 
 as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1. The Ancient Languages. 
 
 2. The Modern Languages.^ 
 
 3. The Commercial Arts and Sciences. 
 
 The directors and the supervisors need assistants who 
 shall take particular subjects vertically up and down 
 through all the grades. Unless penmanship is to become 
 a lost art, unless reading, already lost, is not again to 
 be known, such special supervisors are absolutely neces- 
 sary as assistants to the general supervisor of English. 
 The number of such assistant supervisors will depend 
 upon the special needs of the special community, for one 
 feature of supervision is never for an instant to be lost 
 sight of, — supervision aims to bring the poorer work up 
 to standard. It is, therefore, required most for the new 
 incoming subjects and for neglected old but meritorious 
 subjects.^ As to another aspect of the matter of the num- 
 ber of assistant supervisors, another principle of super- 
 vision is not to be lost sight of, — supervision is never to 
 displace teaching, but only to correct and to assist it. For 
 
 1 Where these languages are begun in Grade VII or Grade VIII, directors are advisable. 
 Where German is taught from the primary grades up, a director is necessary. 
 
 2 Vide Our Schools, Chapter XII, which presents the theory of supervision in relation 
 to the course of study. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 33 
 
 want of observing these two principles, at many points 
 there is much useless supervision, and at other points there 
 is often lack of supervision that is wofully needed. 
 
 In many parts of the country, there is a total failure to 
 understand what a school really is, and therefore for what 
 the principalship stands. This failure may be easily ac- 
 counted for. The district one-teacher school may grow 
 in either of two ways, — (i) by adding a new teacher and 
 a new room and by thinking of the new arrangement as 
 the collocation of two schools ; or (2) by adding an assistant 
 teacher with or without a new room, and then thinking of 
 the new arrangement as but two sections or classes of 
 one school. The tests as to which thing really exists after 
 this growth are whether the old and the new teacher get 
 each the same or about the same salary; whether each 
 teacher has the power of admitting and discharging 
 pupils ; whether one teacher has any authority as to the 
 selection and retention of the other; whether one has 
 jurisdiction over the topics studied, the methods pursued, 
 and the devices used in the class room of the other; 
 and whether one or both report to the next higher school 
 authority. 
 
 It is true that in actual practice, in large cities, entire 
 schools or collections of schools are assembled at one 
 time so that there is no historical succession in appoint- 
 ment, but all teachers are appointed at one and the same 
 session of the governing authority. However, in such 
 cities there are always the custom and tradition as to the 
 relations of the various appointees, and usually definite 
 rules and regulations upon the subject. 
 
 In the practice of large cities, we find two extremes. 
 Of these, one is that where the principal literally controls, 
 manages, directs — is the entire school, and the teachers 
 
34 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 are his assistants. Such a school is often housed in a 
 building with a large study hall surrounded with small 
 class rooms, to which the pupils go from period to period 
 for instruction by the teachers there. In such a case, usu- 
 ally the salary of the principal is two or three times that 
 of the assistants. The school community and the superior 
 school authorities regard him as the real teacher, though 
 actually he may not give instruction daily for as much as 
 one period to any class, or even preside as the teacher in 
 charge of the main study hall. Here all the children 
 speak of "going to the school of Mr. (or Professor) Cad- 
 mus" or "of going to the Lincoln School (or to School 
 Number Forty-two)," and seldom speak of their indi- 
 vidual class teachers. Often, indeed, even for primary 
 instruction, they go to the class rooms of several different 
 teachers : to Mr. Arnold for their reading lesson, to Miss 
 Wright for their history, and so on. Here, each teacher 
 is more or less of a specialist, with one, two, or three sub- 
 jects in charge. This kind of school prevails in New 
 England and in the South, wherever the Protestant Eng- 
 lish tradition is strong ; and its history, to be traced easily 
 in the records, is as instructive as it is interesting. 
 
 The other extreme is that where there is no study hall 
 or assembly room, but all teachers are in entire charge of 
 their own special classes or " schools " as they are often 
 called. In this case the building has two, four, ten, twenty 
 or more rooms, usually of equal size. Upon coming to 
 school, the children go directly to their own rooms. They 
 talk only of their teacher for the term or year. In this in- 
 stance, the plan of one teacher in each room and for each 
 class extends even through the high school. In the ex- 
 treme cases of this type, the building has not even a head 
 teacher, and as a matter of course, no supervising princi- 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 35 
 
 pal.^ An entire city will have no general officer save the 
 superintendent himself ; and he will be a clerk and an ex- 
 ecutive rather than a supervisor, because there falls upon 
 him the entire burden of clerical and administrative details. 
 Between the excessive concentration and centralization of 
 the first type of school and the excessive dissipation and in- 
 dividualization of the second type, there is apparently little 
 to choose. In some instances, the teaching staff in the 
 centralized school will receive one body of children in the 
 morning and teach them for three or four hours, and another 
 body of children, equal in number, for three or four hours 
 in the afternoon. Similarly, the various teachers of the 
 building with individualized schools may receive one set 
 of children in the morning and another at eleven or twelve 
 or one o'clock. The oppression of teachers and the rob- 
 bing of children of proper amounts of time in school and 
 of preparation for instruction out of school seem to be 
 as common and as easy to maintain in one case as in the 
 other. But when progress is actually desired, it is almost 
 always easier to accomplish with schools of the first type 
 than with schools of the second; these seem to be the 
 reasons, viz. : — 
 
 1. In such a school, there is a leader who can argue for 
 the additional teacher or course of study, who, by virtue of 
 his primacy, represents the other teachers, who is ac- 
 cepted in the school community as the principal, indeed, 
 as the visible school, and who really knows what the true 
 needs of the school are. 
 
 2. The principle of the educational continuum is properly 
 incorporated in the course of study, in the promotions, and 
 in the other features of the school organization ; and the 
 relation of the additional teacher or subject to the prog- 
 
 1 Vide Our Schools, page 177, for the argument in favor of the supervising principal. 
 
36 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 ress of the individual child is so apparent as to be appreci- 
 ated quickly by the general public. Moreover, there is 
 one person to place the new teacher properly or to enforce 
 the new study. 
 
 3. The advantage to the city in one respect is obvious : 
 the superintendent has a select body of advisers, not so 
 large as that of the entire teaching corps and of a higher 
 average quality. 
 
 Two reasons are not affirmative (for this type of school), 
 but negative (against the other type). 
 
 4. Where all the teachers are isolated in equality with 
 one another, the first teacher added without a class is 
 resented as a supernumerary, a critic, an inferior in quan- 
 tity of work, an alien, and the forerunner of the overseeing, 
 inspecting, and undesired principal. Any differentiation 
 of duties beyond the assignment to various grades is op- 
 posed as the beginning of the overthrow of democracy 
 and of the establishment of aristocracy or of hierarchy. 
 
 5. While it is easy enough to slough off any studies or 
 exercises not favored by the individual teacher, there is 
 no machinery provided for adding studies and exercises 
 to meet the changing conditions of the social environ- 
 ment. 
 
 In practice, the higher educational institutions accept 
 or tend to accept the extreme first type, while the lower 
 schools drift toward the second almost everywhere. For 
 this type, the two reasons most frequently assigned are 
 that the child is confused by meeting more than one 
 teacher, and that two or more teachers cannot agree as to 
 how much time daily the child shall give to each of them. 
 The countervailing reason that in schools of the first type, 
 because the children have two or more teachers each day, 
 therefore they have the same teachers for two or more 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 37 
 
 years, and that this longer acquaintance is almost neces- 
 sary to the educational continuum is sometimes not under- 
 stood. 
 
 In cities with schools of the first type, it matters little 
 whether the buildings are large or small, few or many ; 
 but in cities with schools of the second type, or with 
 schools of intermediate character, this matters much. A 
 school of the second type may have three or four primary 
 classes, no grammar classes, and several high school 
 classes : it is in truth not a school but a collocation of 
 schools. The problem of good school organization to-day 
 is the reconciliation of the two plans, — rejecting the weak 
 feature of low-salaried " assistants " in the first, and the 
 weak features of no policy for want of a head in the second. 
 
 The first question that a growing city should ask, if it is 
 willing to be progressive and to ask any questions at all, is 
 whether it desires real schools, full of a school spirit, or 
 whether it means simply to house the children; i.e. to 
 shelter them in rooms. In other words, strange as it may 
 sound, the kind of education proposed should determine 
 the kind of building, its size, and all its other features. 
 When school-keeping is the object, the mechanical problem 
 is simple. Upon the basis of (say) 40 or 60 children per 
 teacher, how many rooms are required for (say) 200 or 
 2000 children? Such a problem, of course, denies that 
 education is an art for experts ; but political authority in 
 a democracy is by hypothesis not vested in experts. All 
 that the educators can do is to try to convince "the 
 authorities." 
 
 In the large city, there should be institutions presenting 
 the entire educational continuum from the kindergarten up, 
 and including every important profession, trade, and occu- 
 pation. No man is properly educated until he knows weU 
 
38 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 some righteous means of livelihood. To educate every one 
 properly is to cut away the materials of vice and of crime 
 in their earliest manifestations. Incidental to the complete 
 education of the good in school is the immediate segrega- 
 tion and isolation of the bad in reformatories and asylums. 
 This is an educational programme worth fighting for. 
 
 The entire educational system of the large city would, 
 therefore, include the following, viz. : — 
 
 1. A university for the professions. 
 
 2. Colleges of the sciences and liberal arts. 
 
 3. Institutes for the trades and industrial arts. 
 
 4. High schools. 
 
 5. Grammar schools. 
 
 6. Primary schools. 
 
 7. Kindergartens. 
 
 This means, of course, an entire education of every one 
 for life as an adult in the institutions of Property, of Family, 
 of Church, of State, of Occupation, of Culture, of Charity, 
 of War (if need be), of Business (if need be), and for 
 Society conceived as a whole ; in other words, it means 
 complete education at the general expense. This proposi- 
 tion, familiar enough in Nebraska or in California, has not 
 yet been heard everywhere. It means education from the 
 age of five or six years to the age at least of eighteen with 
 graduation from a trade, to perhaps twenty-two or three 
 with graduation from a profession. 
 
 Obviously, all the administrative problems of such a 
 school system cannot be discussed in the space proposed 
 here; but the problems of most importance at this stage 
 in the discussion are : How many grades of schools shall 
 there be below the city colleges ? and. What shall be the 
 standard size of each kind of school .'' 
 
 These questions may be expressed more definitely, the 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 39 
 
 first in this form : In which of these schemes shall the 
 schools below the city college be arranged ? 
 
 Grade 
 
 A 
 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 
 XV f Part of 
 XIV {college 
 
 XV " 
 XIV. 
 
 Part of 
 
 XV " 
 
 
 College 
 
 XIV 
 
 High 
 Srhnnl 
 
 xiin 
 
 
 XIII' 
 
 
 XIII 
 
 XII 
 
 High 
 
 XII 
 
 
 XII 
 
 'kj\^i.x\j\JJL 
 
 XI 
 
 ' School 
 
 XI 
 
 ■ Secondary 
 
 XI 
 
 
 X 
 
 IX '■ 
 VIII 
 
 
 X 
 IX 
 
 . viir 
 
 
 X 
 IX 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Intermediate 
 " School 
 
 VII 
 
 
 VII 
 
 
 VII 
 
 VI 
 
 Elementary 
 
 VI 
 
 
 VI 1 Elementary 
 
 V 
 IV 
 
 "School 
 
 V 
 IV 
 
 ■ Primary 
 
 V 1 School 
 IV . 
 
 ni 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 Ill 1 
 
 II . 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 II Primary 
 
 I 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 And the second in this form : Is it desirable to bring 
 together in one building as many or as few classes as 
 possible ; and shall the classes be graded annually, semi- 
 annually, or quarterly ? ^ 
 
 Clearly, the definite answer to this second question de- 
 pends partly upon the answer to the first. And clearly, 
 also, the practical answer to the second depends partly 
 upon considerations not in the least educational but wholly 
 economic. 
 
 Scheme A is prevalent in the United States ; unknown .elsewhere. 
 Scheme B is like that in France. It is represented in not a few success- 
 ful private and endowed schools in our own country. ^ Scheme C is as 
 yet theoretical, though it now has strong advocates.^ 
 
 1 It is entirely feasible to grade a large elementary school in quarterly promotions : this is 
 desirable for the pupils. But if the teachers repeat the grade work four times in one year, 
 their intellectual ruin is certain and soon. 
 
 2 E.g. the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, in New York City. 
 
 ^ Cf. the Philadelphia Central High School with that proposed here. 
 
40 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The arguments for an intermediate school of three or 
 four years between the high or secondary school and the 
 primary school are several. First, it is educationally de- 
 sirable to isolate boys and girls of the ages of eleven to 
 sixteen (typically, twelve to fourteen in a three-year inter- 
 mediate school) from both younger and older pupils, for 
 their own sake and for the sake of these other pupils. 
 Second, the plan is convenient in the arrangement and 
 location of the schools of a large city. 
 
 The unit of the scheme may be as follows, viz. : — 
 
 For each high school 
 (say) four intermediate schools as feeders. 
 
 For each intermediate school 
 (say) two elementary schools as feeders. 
 
 For each elementary school 
 (say) two primary schools as feeders. 
 
 Third, by this plan, the small children will have but 
 short distances to walk in getting to their kindergartens 
 and primary grades, while as they grow older, they will 
 have relatively longer distances. 
 
 Are there limits, minimal and maximal, beyond which 
 numbers schools should not go ? It would appear so. 
 There should be enough classes to secure good grading 
 not less often than every half year. The highest class 
 should be reasonably large and of a single half grade. 
 An intermediate school on this plan would be normally as 
 follows, viz. : — 
 
 Grade IX, B (prior to graduation) 40 pupils 
 
 Grade IX, A 42 pupils 
 
 Grade VIII, B 45 pupils 
 
 Grade VIII, A . 48 pupils 
 
 Grade VII, B, 2 classes, each 26 pupils 
 
 Grade VII, A, 2 classes, each 30 pupils 
 
 In all, 8 classes and 287 pupils. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 41 
 
 A schoolhouse to accommodate these 8 classes would 
 require an assembly hall and at least 14 rooms : 8 class 
 rooms, I boys' manual training room, i girls' manual train- 
 ing room, I library, i laboratory, i exhibit (museum) room, 
 and I gymnasium. Obviously, it would be more economi- 
 cal to construct a building for 600 pupils than for these 
 300, because in this case the arrangement would be as 
 follows, viz. : — 
 
 Grade IX, B, 2 classes, each 40 pupils 
 
 Grade IX, A, 2 classes, each 42 pupils 
 
 Grade VIII, B, 2 classes, each 45 pupils 
 
 Grade VIII, A, 2 classes, each 48 pupils 
 
 Grade VII, B, 3 classes, each . . . . . -35 pupils 
 
 Grade VII, A, 3 classes, each 40 pupils 
 
 In all, 14 classes and 575 pupils. 
 
 This school would require an assembly hall and at least 
 20 rooms : 14 classrooms, i boys' manual training room, 
 I girls' manual training room, i library, i laboratory, i 
 museum, and i gymnasium. But why not double this 
 unit again ? It might be well to do so ; yet to double it 
 would mean to double the so-called " extra " rooms, for 
 there are but (say) 30 periods a week in which the manual 
 training rooms and the gymnasium are available for class 
 use. To give each class two periods a week, accommo- 
 dates 15 classes. A larger school would mean, therefore, 
 two manual training rooms. There would then be two 
 gymnasiums, one for each sex, a desirable feature. The 
 boys and the girls should have at least four periods each 
 week in the gymnasium and in manual training ; and prac- 
 tically the classes for proper instruction must be kept 
 small. On the other hand, to enlarge the plan so as to 
 accommodate 1200 pupils or 2400, or, as in the largest 
 cities, 4800, means opportunity to provide at but slight per 
 capita expense many extra rooms of great convenience 
 
42 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 to teachers and to pupils, such as science laboratories, 
 lecture rooms, departmental libraries, special-trade school- 
 rooms, sick-rooms, baths, parents' reception rooms, art and 
 drawing rooms, and music rooms.^ The only limits are 
 those established by the wealth and the culture of the 
 community. 
 
 As a general proposition, however, it may be said 
 safely that every child should know and be known by 
 the educational director of his school. Few principals can 
 learn in three or four years the dispositions of over 800 
 or 1000 pupils; half such a number is better. In our 
 laudable effort to get some fair salaries for school officers, 
 we have sometimes vastly exceeded these numbers while 
 still retaining the notion that the principal is the educa- 
 tional head of the school and not merely an administrator. 
 
 It is this genuine conflict between the educational prin- 
 ciples that should govern a city school system and the 
 practical administrative and economic necessities that 
 generally do govern it that has occasioned most of the 
 troubles involved in salary schedules. 
 
 There are two general problems, — the various rates 
 of salary in the different grades, and the annual increases. 
 Unfortunately, the mmimums and the maximums of sala- 
 ries are still governed by the demand not of educational 
 experts for competeiit teachers and by the supply of such 
 teachers, but by the demand of laymen for and by the supply 
 of those who represent themselves as teachers. Our schools 
 are not yet professionalized or even unionized against the 
 incompetent.^ 
 
 It is harder to teach forty-five large boys and girls than 
 twenty-five kindergarten children or forty-five primary 
 
 1 Vide Annual Reports of the Superintendent of School Buildings, New York, 
 ^ To unionize them means to render their educational control impossible; but it does help 
 salaries. Vide page 194. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 43 
 
 children ; and it requires more preparation both before 
 beginning to teach at all and for the daily teaching. But 
 it requires more natural gifts and more pedagogical skill 
 to teach the small children than the larger. In the highest 
 years, scholarship is almost all-important ; in the lowest 
 years, art. When j^iooo is a fair salary for a kindergartner 
 managing without an assistant forty-five children for four 
 hours a day, then ^2000 is a fair salary for a high school 
 teacher instructing thirty pupils for five hours a day.^ 
 From one end of the country to the other, we are paying 
 beginners too little because we are taking half -prepared 
 apprentices and giving them altogether too much responsi- 
 bility. Unfortunately, we cannot reach the seat of the 
 trouble; we cannot yet control entrance into the pro- 
 fession. There is too much sympathy with taxpayers and 
 too much with the girl who needs a salary ; and there is 
 too little sympathy with parents and too little with the 
 pupils who need an education. 
 
 Though the high school teachers should receive more 
 salary than intermediate school teachers and these more 
 than primary teachers, all teachers in the same school, 
 male and female, irrespective of the year or grade in 
 charge, should be upon the same schedule for the same 
 number of hours of teaching. As a basis of criticism, I 
 submit the following scheme, viz. : — 
 
 For Classroom Teachers ^ 
 
 The 6-year secondary school . . 
 
 The 3-year intermediate school 
 
 The 4-year elementary school 
 
 The 3-year primary school .... 
 
 1 As matter of fact, often we pay $600 to a kindergartner who manages twenty-five chil- 
 dren with an assistant for three hours a day, and (say) $750 to a grammar grade teacher who 
 alone manages fifty pupils five hours a day. 
 
 2 This does not contemplate any supervision of the work of any other teacher. 
 
 INIMUM 
 
 MAXIMUM 
 
 lOX 
 
 30;tr 
 
 Sx 
 
 2SX 
 
 yx 
 
 i8r 
 
 6x 
 
 I2;ir 
 
44 
 
 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 When by;trwe mean $ioo, which is little enough, then 
 the kindergartner beginner would get $600 and the high 
 school veteran $2500. The fair questions now are : How 
 long shall the kindergartner wait for the maximum ? How 
 long shall the high school teacher wait? Shall the in- 
 creases be automatic or conditional ? If conditional, what 
 shall the conditions be ? 
 
 As a matter of general experience, this will probably 
 be accepted, that such teachers begin and reach their best 
 years of service at the following ages,^ viz. : — 
 
 
 beginners' age 
 
 BEST SERVICE 
 
 In the secondary school . 
 
 23 years 
 
 40 years 
 
 In the intermediate school 
 
 22 years 
 
 36 years 
 
 In the elementary school . 
 
 ■ . 21 years 
 
 33 years 
 
 In the primary school 
 
 20 years 
 
 30 years 
 
 It will no doubt be accepted by all that, once the 
 maximum is reached, it should be kept until the pension 
 period with honorable retirement is reached. And it will 
 probably be agreed that the maximum^ should be reached 
 before the best years of service are attained, and not after 
 the physical powers have begun to decline.^ Very small 
 increases, prolonged into actual old age, are an injustice 
 to the public servant and to the public taxpayer alike. ^ 
 Again, it should be possible to secure the increases annu- 
 ally until the maximum is reached. 
 
 On this basis, I propose this scheme for increases, 
 viz. : — 
 
 1 This averages both men and women. The variation between the men and women in 
 the years of " best service " averages twenty per cent, men teaching best at 45 years and 
 women at 36 in secondary schools. 
 
 2 With both men and women in classroom positions the decline is now unduly early for 
 want of the sabbatical year of rest with pay. 
 
 3 Similarly, too low a beginning salary is an injustice to both teacher and taxpayer and 
 also to parents and pupils. 
 
INCREASE 1 
 
 AGE 2 
 
 I X 
 
 38 yr, 
 
 \x 
 
 34 yr- 
 
 u 
 
 31 yr> 
 
 ix 
 
 28 yr. 
 
 THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 45 
 
 In the secondary school, annually 
 In the intermediate school .... 
 In the elementary school ..... 
 In the primary school 
 
 The foregoing propositions are not likely to be contro- 
 verted or even seriously opposed by educators. But there 
 is no general agreement as to how the fitness for the 
 increase shall be determined. Many laymen, especially 
 the politicians in large cities, assert that every teacher 
 not discharged should be increased until the maximum 
 is reached. Some educators hold that promotions in sal- 
 ary should be determined solely by the success of the 
 teacher in the class room. I submit the following proposi- 
 tions : — 
 
 1 . The increase should be granted always except in the 
 cases when substantial evidence that it has not been earned 
 or deserved is on record. 
 
 2. Such evidence should be evaluated carefully to de- 
 termine whether it establishes (a) mere unfitness for the 
 increase, {d) deserved transfer to another school, or {c) ac- 
 tual incompetence with warrant for discharge. 
 
 3. This evidence should be (a) cumulative,^ {d) supported 
 by not less than two superior officers acting severally and 
 jointly, and (c) written at the times averred. 
 
 4. It should be weighed over against evidence of pro- 
 fessional study, to be tested by examination or other 
 
 1 It may be noted that when x = $ioo, the annual increase is $75 for the teachers of the 
 youngest children, $80 for the next two schools, and $100 for the teachers of the highest 
 school. These increases are worth trying to get. When school-teaching has become a pro- 
 fession, jv will be $200 or $250 in large cities. 
 
 ^ Average at time of reaching the maximum. 
 
 ^ A certain city has a form that to me seems unfortunate. It affords a place for recording 
 a bad year's work forever. This seems to me " unfair." Sometimes, there is a physical 
 cause in the teacher for a bad year and sometimes the environing conditions conspire against 
 him. Such a year should be forgotten. 
 
46 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 substantial testimony such as that of university professors 
 or of a special examining board. 
 
 5. It should be considered in the light of the earlier 
 record of the teacher. Incidentally, let it be said that the 
 increase should be granted the more freely the older the 
 teacher is ; and if possible, it should be granted at the end 
 of the first year. 
 
 6. The critical periods appear to be at the end of the 
 second and of the fifth years of experience. No first city 
 license should be valid for over two years, when the teacher 
 who is certified as successful by the school principal, by 
 the supervisors, and by the division superintendent, or, in 
 doubtful cases, by the best of these reporting officers, should 
 be eligible to a second examination to be given by the city 
 board of examiners in the presence of one or more of the 
 superintendents. From this advanced examination, none 
 should be exempt. At the end of the fifth year, teachers 
 not consistently successful should be discharge^ or required 
 to take a third examination as the basis of the final 
 decision. But the teachers who at the end of their third 
 year have been steadily successful should have their cer- 
 tificates made permanent upon the recommendation of the 
 board of supervision to the city board of examiners. 
 
 7. The first, and in most cases the only, promotional ex- 
 amination should be upon such professional subjects as 
 applied psychology, comparative education, special meth- 
 ods, school management, and pedagogical theory, and upon 
 such academic subjects as English and American litera- 
 ture, modern history, biology, and art. 
 
 8. Teachers twice transferred for cause should be 
 dropped, subject to reappointment upon proof of at least 
 one year of successful advanced study in residence. 
 
 It is true that by analogy with law, medicine, and 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 47 
 
 theology there should be only one certificate for education ; 
 but practically there are at present two radical differences. 
 In the first place, lawyers, physicians, and ministers are 
 constantly subject to criticism by adults, to whom or in 
 whose presence their services are rendered. If they im- 
 prove in the quality of their work, or the contrary, this 
 is known at once to those who control their compensation. 
 But teachers render their services in the presence of chil- 
 dren and youth who (despite the opinion of some parents) 
 are not competent critics and who obviously do not control 
 their compensation. In the second place, the body of pro- 
 fessional literature to be mastered by teachers before they 
 begin to teach is trivial in quality and in quantity compared 
 with that which must be mastered by any candidate in law, 
 in theology, or in medicine.^ It is true that we now have 
 several fairly voluminous treatises ; but their mastery is not 
 yet required even for the highest certificate of the most diffi- 
 cult examining board in the nation. Our text writers do not 
 yet dare to write books at five dollars a volume. To put 
 the matter otherwise, we are not yet a learned profession, 
 but some acquire technical learning and become profes- 
 sionalized by work in what may perhaps be properly 
 styled a " skilled occupation." 
 
 Ultimately, we may hope for a dignified professional 
 library and then for admission to the profession compar- 
 able with ordination to the ministry and admission to the 
 bar. 
 
 We speak of lawyers as " disciples of Blackstone," which implies a 
 service by Blackstone to the legal profession not yet paralleled by that 
 of any exponent of education. He analyzed all the elements of law and 
 jurisprudence. No one has yet done this for education. It is possible 
 
 ^ Mulcaster was the first schoolmaster seriously to propose teaching as one of the learned 
 professions. He announced this as a major " position." Vide his Positions (1581 a.d.)- 
 
48 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 to show in education a few special works fairly comparable with the 
 many special law treatises of high authority. The same comparison 
 holds for medicine and for theology. 
 
 Goethe in the Wanderjahre of Wilhehn Meister presented as the 
 core of the principles of education practised in the " Pedagogic Pro- 
 vince" gradual conformity to more and more law. Not only is there a 
 time in education when things are to be learned or done, but there is 
 also a duration in which reflection without information or production 
 proceeds. This dialectic of progress, from fact to principle, from princi- 
 ple to fact ; from learning to doing, from doing to learning ; from science 
 to art, from art to science ; from conduct to philosophy, from philosophy 
 to conduct ; from the esoteric to the exoteric ; from outer to inner, and 
 inner to outer, always via thought : this zigzag of what we now call 
 " functionings," is the educational process.^ As Emerson says, in Uses 
 of Great Men, man is " endogenous." His growth is, as it were, cell 
 by cell. Education is no more straightening or " instructing " natural 
 " bents " than it is overlaying ignorance with knowledge as a veneer. 
 Education encourages what is good by nourishing it with facts or by 
 exercising it in actions ; and it inhibits, arrests, encysts or atrophies 
 what is bad. It is a philosophy, rooted in biology, physiology, psy- 
 chology, and metaphysics ; and branching out into the " world " in 
 sociology, economics, history, literature. To require the uneducated to 
 educate others is as unkind to them as it is criminal to society. Froebel 
 presented this clearly in the first paragraphs of his Education of Man. 
 
 This matter of professional preparation and devotion is 
 vital to the complete success of the coming educational 
 renaissance. 
 
 1 Bagley displays this in his Educative Process. There is a test of considerable value 
 to such as object to anything that appears mystical and therefore anapodeictic. 
 
 The trained child obeys the direct orders of persons; 
 
 The instructed youth obeys certain, uniform, universal rules; and 
 
 The educated man obeys principles resolved by reason. 
 One may be confident that instruction is eventuating in education when it appears am- 
 phibolic in the direction of the desired anagnorisis of free (reasoning and self-determined) 
 character. And this, as Matthew Arnold showed in Culture atid Anarchy, is fairly gauged 
 by conduct. Jesus said, " By their fruits, ye shall know them." Matthew, Gospel, vii. 20. 
 Cf. " First, the blade, then the ear, last the full corn in the ear." 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE BUSINESS OFFICERS OF THE CITY SYSTEM 
 
 Wherever and whenever in a State fundamental legisla- 
 tion can be secured, there at the present time it is usually- 
 best to create a small elective board of education with 
 large general powers that it should be required to exert 
 through three coordinate officers, — a superintendent, an 
 architect, and a business manager, — with the assistance of 
 two other officers, an attorney and a secretary. 
 
 It may appear that a large board, divided into many committees, 
 each doing much executive work full of details, has greater authority 
 over the schools than a small board, doing no executive work at all ; 
 but a close examination of the history of school boards in Boston, Cleve- 
 land, Indianapolis, and St. Louis, where there has been true progress, 
 and a cursory examination of the record of such communities as, for ex- 
 ample, the District of Columbia, where the board has been enlarged, 
 quickly dispel the illusion. 
 
 At the present time, a fair statement of the relative 
 values ^ of these several positions would qualify them 
 financially in cities (say) of 100,000 population as follows, 
 viz. : — 
 
 All their time — 
 Superintendent, 6:xr 
 Architect, 6x 
 
 Business manager (director), 4X 
 Secretary, 2^ 
 Part time — 
 Attorney, ^x 
 
 1 Obviously, these are meant only on the present supply and demand market. For a city 
 of a million or more, — superintendent, 20 jr, architect, 16 x, business manager, 10 jr, secretary, 
 
 49 
 
50 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The work of the attorney should be to prepare all bonds, 
 deeds, leases, contracts, and bills for new legislation; to 
 criticise rules and regulations ; to take all the court cases 
 of the board and of its officers ; and otherwise to assist 
 and advise the board and its officers. 
 
 The attorney should be a regularly appointed and sala- 
 ried officer with a fixed term of not less than that of an in- 
 dividual board member (say four years). He should have 
 no fear of displacement, no motive to please the board. 
 His salary should be large enough to secure an experi- 
 enced, skilful, and highly regarded member of the local 
 bar.i 
 
 The attendance of this attorney should not be required 
 at regular board meetings ; nor should his services be at 
 the call of individual members or officers, but only upon the 
 resolution of the board. 
 
 The business of the secretary of the board is to record 
 the proceedings and to conduct all its correspondence. 
 The secretary is not a clerk for individual members, nor 
 should his stenographers be at their beck and call. In 
 his office, he should enforce rigidly these principles, 
 viz. : — 
 
 1. To obey only the properly passed and recorded reso- 
 lutions of the board. 
 
 2. Not to permit any board member to issue any orders 
 to, or without his full knowledge and consent to consult, 
 any of his subordinates.^ Especially let him avoid re- 
 sponding to the " leading board member," who may yet 
 
 6 jr, attorney, i6 jr. In absolute value, there can be almost no comparison between the work 
 of the superintendent of schools in the very large city and that in the small city; but it is 
 much easier to estimate the work of the other officers relatively. 
 
 * A certain small city which did not believe in employing an attorney on salary, spent in 
 fees in one year of special litigation and legislative lobbying $23,000, an amount sufficient, if 
 paid in annual salary, to have secured the services of the same attorney for ten years. 
 
 2 Vide Our Schools, page 11, 
 
THE BUSINESS OFFICERS OF THE CITY SYSTEM 51 
 
 prove to be a meddlesome, intriguing busybody, getting 
 material for later treachery or at least confusion. 
 
 3. To put as much as possible of the doings and even 
 opinions of the board in writing. It pays not only to re- 
 cord the resolutions but also to journaHze the entire pro- 
 ceedings. 
 
 4. To keep the files as sacrosanct archives. Not a 
 paper should ever be allowed out of his possession or that 
 of the attorney of the board.^ 
 
 The secretary of the board of education in a city of con- 
 siderable size should never be also business agent or man- 
 ager, nor should he employ or be' employed by such a 
 business officer. The kind of a man who makes a good 
 recording officer seldom, perhaps never, makes a good 
 business agent. 
 
 This latter officer, who buys for the schools, should be 
 an enterprising business man, familiar with every kind of 
 value, — real estate, bricks, books, paper, labor. He should 
 advertise for bids for all kinds of materials and supplies 
 needed ; should foresee needs ; keep the board from mak- 
 ing financial mistakes ; and, in a sense, do all the business 
 for the board. 
 
 Like the secretary, the business agent must regard only 
 the resolutions of the board. 
 
 The duties of the superintendent need not be suggested 
 here ^ further than to serve as a standard for those of the 
 school architect. In an age when we are trying to bring 
 our schoolhouses up to the standard of our banks, 
 churches, and theatres in appearance and in convenience, 
 and to the standard of our hotels and hospitals in 
 
 ^ A certain city has a form permitting the withdrawal of a document and a substitution 
 therefor. But even with a signed voucher, this is ■dangerous. From personal experience, I 
 adhere to the proposition: No withdrawal of documents upon any reason whatsoever. 
 
 2 Vz'de Chapter V, Our Schools. 
 
52 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 sanitation, the work of the school architect is only less 
 important and scarcely less important than that of the 
 superintendent.^ In one respect, it is more important. 
 A poorly designed school building will last forty years ; 
 an unskilful superintendent is not likely to last forty 
 months in the kind of a community that has enough cul- 
 ture and conscience to employ a school architect. 
 
 The prevaihng practice of giving out the planning of 
 schoolhouses to the competition of architects with the 
 agreement of the board to select the best or one of the 
 better plans, is indeed to be preferred to the practice of 
 ordering a building direct from a contractor or to putting 
 it up by day labor according to a design made by the 
 board itself ; but it is by no means so good as that of em- 
 ploying one man year in and year out to make plans and 
 to learn by experience and by inquiry how to better them 
 in every new schoolhouse.^ 
 
 An important question not yet uniformly determined in 
 school practice is whether the school architect or the 
 business manager shall employ the engineers and janitors. 
 It is agreed quite generally that these persons shall be 
 
 1 In a certain community, there were erected in 1907 side by side a bank and a school- 
 house both of ordinary brick with sandstone trimming. The contrast is significant: the bank 
 employed an architect, the board did not. 
 
 2 The absurdity of selecting plans for buildings by the competition of architects reached 
 its climax some years ago in the District of Columbia, where the District Commissioners, not 
 the so-called " board of education," had the control of school buildings. There, at the 
 time, thirteen new buildings of eight rooms each were to be built within a year. A few 
 architects, more than this number, entered the competition, with the understanding that the 
 winner was to erect all thirteen buildings; but to avoid hard feeling, the Commissioners de- 
 cided to choose thirteen of the plans and to give one building to each of the designers. The 
 result may be seen by all visitors to the Capital. 
 
 The plan of having a first-rate architect serve as referee in a competition is seldom 
 honestly carried out by the board. In two instances, in two large cities, where the referee 
 awarded the prize to out-of-town architects, the boards rejected the award, whereupon the 
 first-class newspapers attacked the board so violently that public opinion forced the abandon- 
 ment of the projects. In neither city has the proposed high school as yet, after several years, 
 proceeded beyond the purchase of lots. Vide p. 65, infra. 
 
THE BUSINESS OFFICERS OF THE CITY SYSTEM 53 
 
 selected, promoted, and discharged under distinctly civil 
 service reform rules. They should enter competitive ex- 
 aminations as rigid as those for the teachers, and they 
 should be eligible to pensions when invalided by disease 
 or by superannuation. 
 
 Because the schoolhouse architect has control of new- 
 buildings, of additions, of repairs, of grounds, and of 
 machinery, it seems to be the better opinion that he, rather 
 than the business manager, should have control of these 
 caretakers of the schools.^ 
 
 Every large city needs also a schoolhouse heating and 
 ventilating engineer, who should be selected by the archi- 
 tect. Their relation thereafter should be that of colleagues 
 and joint advisers to the board. 
 
 What deputies, assistants, clerks, and stenographers 
 these various officers may require will, of course, depend 
 upon local conditions ; but invariably they should all be 
 appointed by examining boards, one of whose members 
 should be their manager. Thereafter, he alone should direct 
 and control their promotions, demotions, and discharges. 
 When a board of education comes to disapprove of an 
 under officer whom his chief regards with favor, the only 
 proper remedy is the removal of the chief at the end of 
 his term, or, when the term is indefinite, at the end of the 
 fiscal year. 
 
 Of the engineer and janitor service in our city public 
 schools, it is a regrettable fact that the first is good only 
 when the laws require the exclusive employment of licensed 
 engineers, and that the second is seldom good. The causes 
 are two : where politics do not influence the appointments 
 of engineers and janitors, a hard business notion of 
 
 1 Under him should be the superintendent of janitors. In very large cities, he will need 
 also a chief of engineers. 
 
54 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 getting the cheapest available service is apt to control; 
 and where politics do enter into the matter, there the 
 appointees are usually incompetent. 
 
 We are often told that here, there, ahnost everywhere, the janitor 
 gets more than the teacher. Seldom does the janitor get, over and 
 above the cost of his " help," a salary as large as that of an experienced 
 class teacher. Almost never is he paid net as much as the building 
 principal. Not only is it true that the laboring janitor is worthy of his 
 hire, as is every other laboring man, but two or three other things are 
 also true : he is the associate necessarily of ladies and gentlemen ; he 
 practically controls from day to day the health conditions of, it may be, 
 hundreds and even thousands of children, and he is a man among boys, 
 and more or less their model or warning. In large buildings, he is also 
 the director of labor and the custodian in effect of many thousands of 
 dollars' worth of property. He should be a married man of family. In 
 short, we are asking much of him. 
 
 The question is often raised whether in large buildings 
 the janitor shall be given a contract to take care of it, or 
 he and all his assistants shall be carried separately upon 
 the public pay-rolls. It is an objection to the first plan 
 that whenever a janitor is transferred or promoted or dies 
 or is dismissed and a new janitor comes in, there is a ten- 
 dency to change all the help. This is usually a disadvan- 
 tage not only to the cleanliness of the building, but also to 
 the relations between the faculty and the janitor service. 
 It is supposed by some to be an objection that it gives the 
 board of education and the faculty no direct control over 
 the subordinates of the janitor. It is a third objection that 
 he will try to get " cheap help " so as to make as large an 
 income for himself as he can. To the other plan, how- 
 ever, the objections are still weightier ; and it is, therefore, 
 not so common in practice. The janitor's assistants are 
 not the personal servants of even the principal, cer- 
 tainly not of the teachers ; nor can his helpers serve two 
 
THE BUSINESS OFFICERS OF THE CITY SYSTEM 55 
 
 masters, — himself and the principal. Moreover, except 
 such of his higher assistants as may, like himself, be re- 
 quired to pass civil service examinations, his helpers should 
 tfe selected by himself, not by board members or principal 
 or teachers ; he is the best judge of what he needs. 
 
 It is possible to utilize some of the good features of both 
 plans, as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1. Select the janitor and his more important assistants 
 (one or two in large buildings) by civil service tests. 
 
 2. Allow him to secure all other help. 
 
 3. Specify exactly how much per month or per diem he 
 shall pay to each of his help. 
 
 4. Specify also the total amount that he is to pay out 
 per month for help.-^ 
 
 5. Give him a total sum large enough to recoup the 
 foregoing items and to give him a respectable livelihood. 
 
 There is a salary or expense difficulty in connection with 
 engineer and janitor service in our public schools that is 
 worth working out statistically in every system : equitable 
 payment as between schools and equitable payment for 
 longevity or seniority in service. The first is sometimes 
 attempted ; the second almost never. 
 
 I suggest the following items, viz. : — 
 
 Schedule A 
 
 1. Per square foot of classroom per month 
 
 2. Per square foot of hallways per month . 
 
 3. Per square foot of assembly hall per month 
 
 4. Per square foot of sidewalk per month • 
 
 5. Per square foot of school yard per month 
 
 6. Per window per month .... 
 
 7. Special allowances. 
 
 2 X cents. 
 
 3 X cents. 
 I X cents. 
 I X cents. 
 I X cents. 
 
 20 X cents. 
 
 * In some cities, the total is only credited to the janitor. Upon his voucher, or that of the 
 principal, the "cleaners" are paid in public funds. After deduction of these charges, the 
 janitor is paid the bookkeeping balance. 
 
56 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 For longevity pay, the following may serve, viz. : — 
 
 Schedule B 
 
 1 . First year 'j x 
 
 2. Second year %x 
 
 3. Third year 9T 
 
 4. Fourth to tenth year \ox 
 
 5. Tenth to twentieth year \\ x 
 
 6. Thereafter 1 2 r 
 
 Each school property should be computed under 
 Schedule A on the minimum basis. As a matter of con- 
 venience to bookkeepers, odd results should be averaged, 
 but not too much so. 
 
 The schedules for assistants and helpers should also be 
 prescribed by the officer or board of control as well as the 
 number of such persons to be employed in each school ; 
 and should recognize successful experience. 
 
 Modern school buildings in the North are usually heated 
 by steam or hot-water boilers. In such buildings, there 
 should always be licensed engineers, with as many firemen 
 and other assistants as the plant requires. Contrary to 
 the experience with janitor service, it has usually been 
 found best to put each of the engineers and assistants 
 separately upon the public pay-roll. The nature of the 
 work seems to require the grade of men who appreciate 
 such a relation to the pubhc as warrants individual rec- 
 ognition. 
 
 Shall the janitor employ or appoint or nominate or con- 
 trol in any way the engineer .'' By no means. Nor is the 
 janitor service as well performed if in any way subordinate 
 to the engineer service. In large cities, there should be a 
 supervisor of janitors and a supervisor of engineers, coor- 
 dinate with one another under the school architect, the 
 building commission, or the business manager. 
 
THE BUSINESS OFFICERS OF THE CITY SYSTEM 57 
 
 Both engineer and janitor forces should be beneficiaries 
 of pension systems quite as much so as city policemen, 
 firemen, and teachers. Such pensions are as judicious 
 from the point of view of public economy and efficiency as 
 they are proper from the point of view of public justice. 
 
 Other subordinates that may be found useful in large 
 cities and not suggested by the foregoing treatment are 
 the following, viz. : — 
 
 Supervisor of repairing. 
 Inspector of plumbing. 
 
 Most large cities find it economical as well as convenient 
 to maintain repair shops, whose character and organization 
 depend upon local conditions and needs. Old cities with 
 many old buildings are in a different situation from new 
 cities whose school buildings are mostly modern. Some 
 cities began with frame schoolhouses, which are now being 
 rapidly replaced by fireproof structures. 
 
 Superintendents sometimes discover that the engineers 
 or janitors or both are required to do trivial or unreason- 
 able things by principals and teachers. Sometimes this 
 cannot be corrected through orders to teachers and con- 
 ferences with the heads of the engineer and janitor ser- 
 vices. In such conditions, it may be justifiable for the 
 superintendent to call all these workers together and in 
 the presence of their chiefs go over all the complaints, lay- 
 ing down the principles involved.^ 
 
 ^ Among causes of complaint are requirements to sharpen lead-pencils, to wash all black- 
 boards every evening, to run personal errands, and similar duties that should be covered in 
 the rules and regulations. Janitors usually, and engineers sometimes, seem to think that indi- 
 vidually and collectively the teachers have great "influence" with the board. It is the 
 respect and the fear of ignorance and good-will. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE CITY SCHOOL 
 
 In the large city, the schools vary in size from one to one 
 hundred or even more classes. Conditions, therefore, are 
 extreme ; and rules that apply in one case fail in another. 
 Some schools may be for pupils of a particular race or 
 nationality, by accident or by design. The buildings may 
 be new or old, good or bad, with or without annexes, with 
 rooms large or small, with or without assembly halls, etc. 
 At least a third of the city schoolhouses of America should 
 be condemned and destroyed, and a third more should be 
 thoroughly overhauled at an expense of half their original 
 cost of construction.^ Humanity is dull to its own inter- 
 ests here. We have now some 85,000,000 people and 
 ;^ 1 15,000,000,000 of wealth ; but the entire present value of 
 all our school buildings and grounds is not ^1,660,000,000 
 (which would be ^100 per pupil), or even half that sum.^ 
 As the children of school age are one-fourth of the popu- 
 lation and the whole of our future, — all that humanity 
 really works for,^ — is it too much to suggest that one- 
 fortieth of our wealth, or $3,000,000,000, would be scarcely 
 too much to invest in school buildings and grounds for 
 
 1 We are doing this for our business enterprises. Why not for our more important educa- 
 tional concerns ? 
 
 2 The estimated value in 1906 was $783,000,000. [ Vide Report U.S. Bureau of Education, 
 Vol. I, 1906.] The value upon competent appraisal would probably not be $500,000,000. I 
 find that almost all cities, towns, and villages carry their buildings on their books at first 
 cost, making no allowances for depreciation, such as are invariably made by the account- 
 ants of business enterprises, yet often adding all repairs. 
 
 ^ " And what would it avail if we possessed and performed all else, and became perfect 
 saints, if we neglect that for which we chiefly live, namely, to care for the young." — Luther, 
 Letter to Mayors and Aldermen. 
 
 58 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 59 
 
 them ? In cities and towns, we need ;^200 per capita 
 to provide right accommodations. In them, we have 
 5,500,000 children at school and should have 8,000,000. 
 
 There is no typical schoolhouse ; and we have not yet 
 agreed as to what such a schoolhouse would be. But cer- 
 tain considerations appear somewhat clear. We need both 
 schoolrooms — that is, rooms to which all the pupils resort 
 upon occasion — and classrooms for special grades or 
 groups of the pupils. We need grounds about the build- 
 ing, and in the city a roof-garden. And we must not go 
 over three stories unless there is an elevator with a proper 
 attendant.^ We must have the best-known sanitation, 
 ventilation, heating, hghting, and access to stairways. In 
 exterior and in interior, the building should be a delight, 
 a genuine lesson in art. It should have rooms not easily 
 overcrowded, yet not too large for convenient instruction 
 by one teacher.^ It should have the best-known furniture 
 for school uses. Of course, it should have slate black- 
 boards, plenty of pictures, pianos, statuary, wall friezes, and 
 sound deadening composition floors in hallways.^ But 
 these requirements are matters of commonplace knowl- 
 edge : the difficulty is to secure them from the managers of 
 the public funds. 
 
 It is not, however, a matter of common knowledge that 
 the schoolhouse should have half as many schoolrooms as 
 it has classrooms ; or how these should be arranged and 
 equipped. The chief business and delight of city finan- 
 ciers seem to be to strip the building of its best features, 
 of the assembly hall, which is the centre of true school 
 life, of the library, of the gymnasium, of the manual 
 
 1 Even then we are in danger from panic upon the stairways and at the elevator shaft. 
 
 2 The room over 24' x 32' or 25' x 30' is an open invitation to put in 56 pupils in 7 rows 
 of 8 desks each, or 64, or even more. 
 
 ^ As in the Brockton, Mass., high school, the best flooring known. The Boston curved 
 corner is also noteworthy. 
 
6o OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 training rooms, and of the science laboratory. Unfortu- 
 nately, the superintendent and the school principal, who should 
 be the attorneys for their voiceless child-clients, are too often 
 in fear of their own liveliJioods to defend a true educational 
 policy. ^ Architects seldom know anything of the real 
 _ needs of the school to be housed in the building or of the 
 latest advances in schoolhouse construction. The three 
 requirements of the city financial authorities in school 
 matters are: i. House as many children as possible. 
 2. Do it as cheaply as possible. 3. Make a decent ap- 
 pearance with the buildings. Among the remedies are : 
 I. To get the absolute control of the funds vested in the 
 board of education. 2. To fasten all good teachers and 
 officers in their places firmly. 3. To keep out and to get 
 out all incompetents. Then the educators will persuade and 
 help the board members to express in the school buildings 
 that good-will for the youth of the land which the Ameri- 
 can public actually does feel but which politicians defy. 
 
 A good city schoolhouse has an assembly hall that will 
 seat a thousand persons. This seems arbitrary ; but chil- 
 dren and youth cannot recite loud enough to be heard in 
 larger rooms. A school with but three hundred pupils in 
 a building with eight class rooms and four schoolrooms 
 will easily draw upon occasion five hundred and more par- 
 ents and neighbors together.^ This hall is to be used also 
 as a school lecture extension and general community cetttre. 
 The assembly halls of the larger high schools may accom- 
 modate on the floor and in the galleries fifteen hundred 
 persons, but to go beyond this capacity is unwise. 
 
 Where parents are poor or many pupils come from 
 remote homes, the school building should have a large 
 
 1 Vide Appendix A, i, infra. 
 
 ' A distinction is attempted here. I use schoolroom to include recitation rooms and 
 laboratories in contradistinction from class rooms. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 
 
 6i 
 
 24 
 
 Desk of teacher 
 
 Windows 
 permissible 
 
 t 
 
 room properly equipped for lunch purposes : in some 
 instances, even for breakfasts. Whether these meals 
 should be furnished "at cost" or be donated should de- 
 pend not upon theory but upon facts. ^ 
 
 There are many pitfalls in schoolhouse construction ; a 
 few may be suggested. 
 
 By unilateral lighting, which is absolutely necessary, is 
 meant Ughting within the quadrant centred upon the 
 centre of the front row of pupils' 
 desks. This eliminates most of 
 the cross hghts. Usually such 
 lighting is upon the left side of 
 the pupils ; but it may as well 
 be to the left and rear, provided 
 that the quadrant principle is rig- 
 idly observed. The total window- 
 area should be 20 per cent of the 
 floor area, and well blocked close 
 to the ceiling and within the 
 quadrant. The window-shades 
 should be translucent and not 
 opaque. This is especially nec- 
 essary for sunny windows. 
 
 There must be no windows for the children to face in 
 the assembly hall or in the rooms seated with desks. 
 
 Stairways should be not under four feet wide or over 
 five and a half ; that is, there must be passageway, but not 
 enough space for three files at one time, lest the centre file, 
 unsupported by a wall or by a rail, be precipitated down- 
 stairs. The double reverse stairway is a great advance.^ 
 
 1 The cost plan has been solved in the St. Louis high schools and in the Rhode Island 
 State Normal School, Providence. 
 
 2 This is one of the many fine features of recent schoolhouse construction in New York 
 under Mr. C. B. F. Snyder, architect for the board of education. 
 
 The permissible windows may be 
 only (upper) half length. 
 
62 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The cellar must be high and dry, but not so well lighted 
 as ever to be convertible into class rooms, — an iniquity of 
 frequent commission by ignorant indifference or by posi- 
 tive wickedness. A damp gymnasium in a cellar may be 
 worse than none at all. 
 
 The double desk is an offence both against the person- 
 ality of the school boy or girl and against sound hygiene. 
 Building now rooms so small as to force the use of double 
 desks is ignorance that should be legally criminal. 
 
 The best place for the toilet rooms of any building is, of 
 course, outside of the building, where the special structure 
 should be perfectly ventilated and sufficiently lighted and 
 heated.^ Brick walls and entrances to the passageways 
 remote from one another must separate the sexes, whether 
 these rooms be inside or outside of the building. The 
 amount of accommodation provided for girls and for the 
 smaller boys is seldom one-third of the real need. Where 
 these conveniences are inside of the school building, they 
 should be concentrated and not scattered about. In a 
 small building, the basement alone is the proper place. 
 This should be at least ten feet in clear height, with forced 
 ventilation. The plumbing must not be merely accessible ; 
 as far as possible it must be exposed in plain sight. 
 
 The minimum provision of floor space per desk should 
 be twenty square feet. The maximum number of seats 
 in a room should be forty-eight ; while forty-two or less 
 should be the average. Only one set of pupils should use 
 the building daily .^ 
 
 1 Chicago has a tower plan that seems to solve this problem, Mr. D. H. Perkins, architect. 
 By this plan, there are two toilet rooms upon each floor at opposite ends of the building. 
 The ventilation is perfect. 
 
 2 There is in a certain city a schoolhouse that averages 120 pupils per teacher per day, 60 
 pupils four hours in the morning and as many in the afternoon. It is a crime against human 
 nature, both that of the teacher who gives eight hours of instruction daily, and that of the 120 
 pupils who attend. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 6$ 
 
 The ventilation ducts should be so arranged as to create 
 no drafts upon either teacher or children. They must 
 operate successfully in all kinds of weather, which is espe- 
 cially difficult to secure in the mild damp days of fall or 
 of winter or of spring.^ Then the children most need the 
 fresh air that even the windows will not supply. That is ' 
 an unsuccessful system of ventilation which requires to 
 be supplemented by the windows and the doors.^ % 
 
 Every class room, schoolroom, cloak room, wardrobe, 
 library, and toilet should have at least two doors, for free 
 passage of entrance or exit either way.^ 
 
 Every cloak room must have at least one large window, 
 and inlet and outlet ventilation flues with forced draft. 
 
 The library should be large enough to accommodate 
 at least an entire class at one time, with provision for 
 at least ten thousand books; but in addition, every room 
 should have a special collection of books for individual 
 reading. 
 
 Each class room and room for special uses should have a 
 closet, not less than 5' x 8', with drawers and shelves. 
 
 There should be a good stock-room. The janitor requires 
 a proper room for his tools, for his supplies, and for him- 
 self ; but he should not live in the building. 
 
 There should be a room for the women teachers and 
 another for the men, with proper conveniences. 
 
 All school buildings should be strictly fireproof. 
 
 In the rooms for small children, blackboards should begin 
 
 1 St. Louis has solved admirably the problem of washing air clean and of giving it proper 
 humidity, about 55° of saturation. Heated air otherwise superinduces to colds and 
 pneumonia. 
 
 2 Forced ventilation hy plenum (supply) and vacuum (exhaust) fans is now standardized 
 in all modern schoolhouse construction. 
 
 2 Per contra, in order that the teacher may have perfect control against panic, Boston 
 gives but one door to the class room, while the two doors of the wardrobe open into the 
 class room. 
 
64 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 at 26" from the floor and should be graded up to 34" 
 in high schools. Behind the teacher's desk, the board 
 may extend to 9'; but on other walls not over f . It is a 
 waste of money to put blackboards in kindergartens. 
 
 Every primary school should have a double kindergarten, 
 for two grades of children, the 4- to 5-year old and the 5- 
 to 6-year old. A typical school for all elementary grades 
 will have an enrolment as follows, viz. : — 
 
 Beginning kindergarten, 4 to 5 yr 32 pupils 
 
 Advanced kindergarten, 5 to 6 yr., 75 pupils 
 
 Grade II, A and B, 6 to 7^ yr 100 pupils 
 
 Grade III, A and B, 7 to 9 yr 120 pupils 
 
 Grade IV, A and B, 8 to 10 yr 115 pupils 
 
 Grade V, A and B, g to 12 yr 100 pupils 
 
 Grade VI, A and B, 10 to 13 yr. 85 pupils 
 
 Grade VII, A and B, II to 14 yr 75 pupils 
 
 Grade VIII, A and B, 11^ to 15 yr 60 pupils 
 
 Grade IX, A and B, 12 to 162 yr 50 pupils 
 
 812 pupils 
 
 The double kindergarten, connected by sUding or fold- 
 ing doors, is desirable for the general exercises. It should 
 be so shut off by halls and cloak rooms and by deadened 
 floors that its music and games will not disturb other 
 classes. 
 
 Schoolhouses, if possible, should be protected against 
 external nuisances from streets paved with stones, from 
 railroad traffic, from factory chimneys with their soft 
 smoke, and from high buildings that shut out the hght. 
 In the eyes of the Maker of the earth, it cannot be a waste 
 of ground to put a school in a park even on a city street. 
 Neither does this deprive the city of so much taxable prop- 
 erty, for the business people simply build elsewhere. 
 Would God that some genuine political economists might 
 investigate education and tell the people all the truth about 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 65 
 
 schools and their relation to wealth ! An acre of land 
 for the first sixteen rooms full of school children is the 
 minimum; then add a half acre for every sixteen rooms 
 more. The other idea, of transporting all the children to- 
 gether outside of the congested sections, cannot win, 
 though it is valuable as the solution of a special problem.^ 
 The parents want their boys and girls near home. 
 
 In a congested part of a city, the plan of a " large plot " 
 is a mistake.^ It invites future building, which defeats 
 the end proposed. The city needs not a plot but a park. 
 
 The open competition for plans is a pitfall, dangerous 
 even when sealed, unsigned plans, based upon the specifi- 
 cations of an expert, are submitted to his choice. An hon- 
 est, competent choice by a true architect, possessing the 
 familiarity of an expert with the principles and the condi- 
 tions involved, seldom appeals to the artistic or other 
 sense of the committee of laymen who must ratify the 
 choice. The large city should employ a school architect 
 on an adequate salary for expert service.^ 
 
 The city schoolhouse with twenty class rooms and with 
 half a dozen other rooms used for school purposes accom- 
 modates nine hundred children in actual attendance, and 
 requires as its teaching complement 
 
 I principal 2 manual training teachers 
 
 20 class room teachers i physical culture teacher 
 
 I music teacher i clerk 
 
 I art teacher i apprentice teacher 
 
 1 Search, An Ideal School. 
 
 2 In a certain city are four separate schoolhouses on a plot originally meant for one. No 
 yard remains. For city plots, the buildings should be upon LI, H, or n (interior court) 
 plans. These insure some outside, ground-level play-spaces. Roof gardens should be added. 
 
 3 The Boston plan of a schoolhouse commission will work admirably as long as there is a 
 competent architect upon the commission. In this instance, the city has Mr. R. Clipston 
 Sturgis. Such a commission is prepared to make a competent choice of plans. Vide p. 97, 
 infra. 
 
66 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 In addition, there should be one medical inspector for every 
 three or four schools of this size and one school nurse. 
 
 A school with forty classrooms requires one department 
 head ; that with sixty, two such heads. The school of over 
 thirty classes requires also a school librarian. There is no 
 economy in the larger schoolhouses save in the cost of 
 land when they have over three stories and have an elevator 
 service. For equal quality of instruction, the running ex- 
 penses per capita of the pupils are least in schools of from 
 sixteen to twenty-four rooms. Both smaller schools and 
 larger schools are more costly. 
 
 Among the duties of the principal of such a school are 
 the following, viz. : — 
 
 1. To assign the old teachers to their grades, classes, 
 and, in certain instances, special subjects ; to confer with 
 higher school authorities, and to assist them in assign- 
 ing new teachers ; to recommend transfers and discharges 
 of teachers ; to recommend salary promotions ; and, monthly 
 or otherwise, to report their pay-rolls. 
 
 2. To promote, to advance, and to demote at fixed inter- 
 vals the pupils ; to enter new pupils ; to keep records of 
 their proficiency, punctuality, regularity, conduct, health, 
 special deficiencies or defects, gradation and promotion ; to 
 organize them in classes ; and to direct and to control their 
 recesses, intermission periods, playground games, athletics, 
 societies, and meetings of any and every kind that centre 
 upon the school. 
 
 3. To assist parents' organizations, evening schools, and 
 lectures, medical inspection, alumni associations ; in short, 
 any and all activities in the creation of the school as a 
 social centre, in the making of a true school community, 
 and in school extension generally. 
 
 4. To prepare grade and subject programmes and to assist 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 67 
 
 teachers in preparing daily programmes of class recitation, 
 exercises, and study ; to advise teachers regarding methods 
 and materials and devices ; to hold faculty meetings at 
 least fortnightly ; to visit all schoolrooms in person daily 
 and to know the work of every teacher and of every child ^ 
 as they progress through the term. 
 
 5. To obey, to counsel, to assist, and in every way pos- 
 sible to promote the efforts of all higher professional 
 authorities ; to hold all subordinates to loyal and active 
 support ; to keep open the gateways of information and to 
 be ready and eager to improve in knowledge, in skill, and 
 in courage ; and to belong to the profession of education. 
 
 6. To know all that is to be known of school architec- 
 ture; to know one's own building; to control the janitor 
 and engineer service; to tolerate no inefficiency that is 
 remediable by any process within reason ; to think of prog- 
 ress in quality and in quantity of building and of grounds, 
 and to work for progress with the board of education, with 
 the city council (where that body still has, as it should not 
 have, any power over school funds), with the State board 
 of education, and with the State legislature. 
 
 6. And never to put livelihood before or above genuine 
 educational service ; nor pride of personal opinion above 
 one's sense of what is the next thing that it is wise and 
 right to do. 
 
 The principal requires a suitable office, with a large 
 desk, with shelf room for a thousand books upon pedagogy, 
 philosophy, psychology, literature, economics, history, and 
 sociology, with abundant window light coming upon the 
 left side of his desk, with a typewriter and a duplicating 
 
 1 This applies in the case of the school with forty or more classes to department heads, for 
 the obligation to know all his pupils applies only to those in the twenty classes solely in the 
 charge of the principal. 
 
68 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 machine, with available artificial light for evening work,^ 
 with simple medical and surgical supplies to supplement 
 the work of the school nurse or to supply the absence of 
 such a person, and with a door with a full-size plain glass 
 panel opening upon the hallway. 
 
 He is the first educational officer to come to the school 
 in the morning, and is not the first to leave at the noon 
 intermission or when school closes in the afternoon. He 
 works at least as hard as the hardest-working teacher. 
 He reads at least as much current periodical school litera- 
 ture and journalism as the brightest of his teachers. He 
 is the leader, he \s facile prmceps. Otherwise, he is out of 
 place, a detriment to the school, an object of contempt not 
 the less real because it is silent, a stumbling-block to edu- 
 cational progress, in the school community, in the city, and 
 in the nation. 
 
 The true principal is the school. He conducts the morn- 
 ing exercises, reading the Scriptures,^ leading in the Lord's 
 Prayer, quoting the best poetry, directing and encouraging 
 the school music, devising the rhetoricals, the innocent 
 school plays and concerts, and the Saturday excursions to 
 the fields or to places of historic interest, and guiding the 
 children with ethical counsels while he supports the teach- 
 ers with unvarying and unwavering authority. The good 
 principal is the refuge of the distracted teacher; in his 
 school, no teacher ever is long distracted. And he is at 
 once wise, strong, and kind enough to be the best friend 
 of the children, next to their own parents, and often a 
 
 1 The best principals whom I know are not afraid of working even all night in a crisis, and 
 keep their health at a point where upon occasion they can do this without injury. Strength, 
 not health, wins in this world. They are not synonymous or coexistent. Health is vitality 
 plus reserve. Strength is vigor, which is surplus reserve. For a little time, a sick man, 
 hitherto well, may display strength both in offence and in endurance. 
 
 2 Not the parts that lead to theological controversy. As for the Prayer, who yet has 
 searched out all of its meaning or felt all of its grace and beauty ? 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 69 
 
 better and more helpful friend than their own parents. 
 He understands and believes that education is the fonn 
 that religion takes i7t this age ; and he knows that one 
 who sees a duty and does not perform it, to that extent 
 blocks some purpose of God. 
 
 How much is such a principal worth to a community, to 
 his fellow-teachers also .>' Does the theory of promotion in 
 salary apply also to him or to her? I submit the following 
 schedule : — 
 
 For the Principal 
 
 In a school of 20 teachers : — 
 
 ist year 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 
 
 Secondary . 25 ;ir i(yx i"] x iZx 29 ;f 30 :«• 
 
 Intermediate. 10 x 2\x 7.2 x 23 :r 2\x 25 jt 
 
 Elementary . 15 r \6x ly x iSx 
 
 Primary. . I2;ir 13 ;r I4;ir j^x 
 
 For the first addition of 20 classes with a department supervisor or 
 head in the nature of an assistant principal : — 
 
 Secondary school • . . . . . . 10 x 
 
 Intermediate school 7 x 
 
 Elementary school ....... ^x 
 
 Primary school 2X 
 
 In determining the rank of a school, the criterion should 
 be the rank af its highest grade ; that is, an intermediate 
 school of forty classes of grades VH, VHI, and IX should 
 rank no higher than a school with grades kindergarten to 
 IX, inclusive. If there is any difference in difficulties of 
 administration, of organization, and of supervision, the 
 second is the harder to direct and to manage.^ 
 
 By the foregoing schedule, the experienced principal of 
 an intermediate (grammar) school of twenty classes would 
 
 1 It is profitable to note the philology of these words : administer, to serve ; organize, 
 to discover the organs and to help them function, to set in order ; supervise, to oversee ; 
 direct, to set right ; and manage, to put (and keep) in hand. 
 
70 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 receive 25 per cent more than a successful teacher of grade 
 IX, while the principal of a school of sixty-five classes 
 would receive 100 per cent more. 
 
 As the principal is the potent factor in the rating and 
 promoting of teachers, so in the large city the associate 
 superintendent assigned for the year to the division should 
 be the potent but not the final authority in rating and pro- 
 moting the principal. The license as principal should be 
 valid for two years, and after one or more years of 
 successful experience may be made permanent upon 
 reexamination. An unsuccessful principal, before being 
 discharged, should be given trial elsewhere by at least 
 one transfer ; but if not successful at the close of the 
 fifth year, should be reduced in rank and given a position 
 as department head or as a class teacher. 
 
 There are various schemes for organizing the city 
 school of fifty or a hundred classes. Some are more ap- 
 propriate to the school of no or relatively few grammar 
 classes ; and others, less appropriate. The appropriateness 
 of a scheme is dependent upon two points, as an ellipse 
 depends upon its two foci. These two points are the maxi- 
 mum grade of pupil in the school and the actual maximum 
 salary of the class teacher. These two points condition 
 the fitness of a scheme and are both essential. Depart- 
 mental organization is entirely out of place in any school, 
 large or small, in which the highest grade is not at least 
 the eighth year ^ (the second year below the common high 
 school), or in any school with a low maximum salary ; a 
 reason may be given in each case, a reason derived from ' 
 
 1 This is said without prejudice to the question of the length of the school course. It is 
 interesting, however, to note that Germany, with its universal compulsion and with its unique 
 thoroughness, cannot hold boys and girls at school and promote them much more generally 
 than we do. Report, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1906, Vol. I, page 70. Vide pp. 22-3, supra, 
 where the principle involved is discussed. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 71 
 
 practical experience. The departmental teacher in all sub- 
 jects is disadvantageous in classes with pupils below four- 
 teen years of age and below the systematic study of United 
 States history, of general geography, and of the English 
 language. All lower classes are confused by too many 
 teachers ; and each needs one teacher for recitation exer- 
 cises. Whether intending to do so or not, the one teacher, 
 of psychological inevitableness, must correlate the daily 
 material of studies, exercises, and recreations. The har- 
 mony of method in instruction and in discipline tends to 
 harmonize the soul of the child. 
 
 The necessity of a fairly high maximum salary in the 
 case of departmental teachers consists in the fact that the 
 scheme is a sifting process, and the poor teacher, being 
 tested relentlessly and constantly both by pupils and by 
 all adults environing him or her, cannot last. In con- 
 sequence, where many teachers are of poor quality, the 
 plan itself appears to be a failure, for by hypothesis the 
 amount available for salaries is too low to command uni- 
 formly good teachers. In departmental teaching, every 
 teacher must be a good teacher. 
 
 When a school consists of twenty or forty or sixty classes 
 with twenty or forty or sixty teachers, one to each class 
 for all day, its organization is a very rudimentary, proto- 
 plasmic, affair. But a school with a corresponding num- 
 ber of classes may well be a complex, highly developed 
 organism, as shown in this scheme, viz. : — 
 
 9 GRADES 
 
 6s CLASSES IN ALI 
 
 PRINCIPAL 
 
 73 TEACHERS IN ALL 
 
 VH-IX 
 
 12 classes 
 
 Intermediate department 
 
 15 teachers 
 
 ni-vi 
 
 27 classes 
 
 Elementary department 
 
 30 teachers 
 
 K-n 
 
 25 classes 
 
 Primary department 
 
 27 teachers 
 
 
 I class 
 
 Ungraded self-help class 
 
 I teacher 
 
 
 General clerk 
 
 Librarian General substitute 
 
 Janitor and assistant Engineer and fireman 
 
72 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 In all, about eighty persons upon the public pay-roll. Ten years'" 
 course, two in the kindergarten. 
 
 Clearly, this principal has a larger educational enterprise 
 upon his hands than many a superintendent in a town or 
 a small city. True, he has not the task of trying to get a 
 board of laymen to accept professional views of education ; 
 and he has no direct contact with money matters.^ But to 
 offset these anxieties, he has the vexations of comparative 
 powerlessness often under close authoritative prescriptions. 
 He must meet or parry the criticisms of visiting superin- 
 tendents, supervisors, directors, and special teachers ; and 
 he cannot reply once a year in a formal printed report of 
 more or less interest to the general public.^ 
 
 The organization of the intermediate department may 
 prove the first concern of the principal, for he will prob- 
 ably give to the two heads of departments assisting him 
 the organization of the elementary and primary depart- 
 ments respectively. The twelve intermediate classes may 
 perhaps readily be assigned in three groups of four classes 
 each, or of three, four, and five classes respectively. A 
 four-class department division maybe as follows, viz.: — 
 
 Grade IX, B 
 Grade IX, B 
 Grade IX, A 
 Grade IX, A 
 
 A-B. History, geography. 
 
 C-D. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry. 
 
 P-Q. Reading, spelling, grammar. 
 
 Y-Z. Science, writing, miscellaneous. 
 
 A school day of Grade IX, B, may have this programme, 
 viz. : — 
 
 9-9 : 15 A.M. Morning exercises, current events with A-B. 
 
 9 : 15-10. Algebra with C-D. 
 
 10-10 : 10. Physical exercise with W-X, the teacher for all the 
 
 school. 
 
 1 Unless he can direct small immediate repairs not to exceed (say) $50 per month, as, e.g., 
 in New York city. 
 
 2 In the development of all the values of a city school system, this is likely to come. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 73 
 
 10 : 10-10 :30 A.M. Writing with Y-Z. 
 10:30-10:45. Recess. 
 
 10 : 45-1 1:15. History with A-B. 
 II : 15-12. Grammar with P-Q. 
 
 1 : 15-1 :45 P.M. Geography with A-B. 
 
 1 : 45-3. Manual training, boys with W-Y, and girls with S-T, 
 
 teachers for the entire school. 
 
 Another school day for the same class may have this 
 programme, viz. : — 
 
 9-9:15 A.M. Morning exercises, music with E-F, teacher for all 
 
 the school. 
 
 9 : 15-10. Arithmetic with C-D. 
 
 10-10 : 10. Physical exercise with W-X. 
 
 10 : 10-10 : 30. SpelHng with P-Q. 
 
 10:30-10:45. Recess. 
 
 10 : 45-1 1:15. History with A-B. 
 
 1 1 : 15-12. Grammar with P-Q. 
 
 1 : 1 5-1 :45 P.M. Reading with P-Q. 
 
 1 :45-2 : 15. Science with Y-Z. 
 
 2 :i5-3. Drawing with G-H, teacher for all the school. 
 
 Among the primary matters of school management that 
 must be settled before these daily programmes can be en- 
 tirely adjusted are the following, viz. : — 
 
 Shall the school as a whole go to the assembly hall for 
 general exercises every morning ? If not, into how many 
 sections shall the school be divided .'' It is good manage- 
 ment for each class to have morning exercises in its own 
 room, the teacher giving the special ethical instruction. 
 
 The question of the number of periods of recitations 
 and exercises each day must be answered, as well as that 
 of the hours of opening and of closing, before the pro- 
 gramme can be made. 
 
 It is necessary to have the periods of about the same 
 
74 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 length throughout the day, because in one class arithme- 
 tic will occupy the first period, in another grammar, in a 
 third history, etc. There may, however, be half-periods. 
 In adjusting these matters nicely, the principal shows the 
 degree of skill that he possesses. 
 
 It is always requisite that the classroom teacher shall 
 have charge of the discipline of the class, and, under the 
 principal, the matter of relations with the parents. This 
 teacher also oversees the home lessons of the pupils and, 
 if possible, directs the study periods at school. 
 
 When the curriculum calls for ten studies in the grade, 
 it will be no more possible in the departmental programme 
 to arrange for a lesson in every subject every day than it 
 is in the plan of one teacher per class.^ Certain subjects, 
 such as spelling and writing, may have a short lesson every 
 day, and arithmetic or grammar or both may have full 
 periods daily. 
 
 Such a subject as science or nature study may have 
 but one or two lessons a week in the way of recreative 
 information. 
 
 Such subjects as drawing, music, woodworking, cooking, 
 sewing, and physical culture will have one teacher each for 
 the entire school ; or, when confined to the highest grades, 
 may have for the entire school but part of the time of the 
 teacher, who may give lessons in several schools. Such 
 teachers of classes must not be confused with supervisors 
 of these subjects. 
 
 Current events are proposed as a kind of present geog- 
 raphy and history. A lesson the first hour on Monday or 
 the last hour on Friday usually meets all requirements. 
 
 ^ In all ages, the attempt to teach at one time many things has been a symptom of educa- 
 tional retrogression. Vide Motives, Ideals, and Values, Chapter XIX. Said Comenius in 
 The Great Didactic, " Confusion has arisen in the schools through the endeavor to teach 
 scholars many things at one time." 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 75 
 
 This plan does not contemplate too rigid an assignment 
 of subjects to the teachers, for it may well be that M. N. 
 teaches history and arithmetic in two classes, while O. P. 
 teaches these subjects in two other classes. It may prove 
 advantageous to make the department of four teachers as 
 follows : — 
 
 Grade IX, B 
 Grade IX, A 
 Grade VIII, B 
 Grade VIII, A 
 
 The advantage consists in the fact that the four 
 teachers will have the same children for two 
 years. 
 
 The argument for the superiority of a departmental ar- 
 rangement over a collocation of unconnected classes rests 
 upon these propositions, viz. : — 
 
 The pupil above twelve or fourteen years of age wearies 
 of seeing the same teacher every moment at school for 
 an entire term, and benefits by meeting different person- 
 alities. 
 
 The teacher also is happier in meeting a variety of 
 pupils. 
 
 In the course of a few years, the teacher who has les- 
 sons to prepare in but a few subjects becomes reasonably 
 proficient in these subjects and teaches with a much larger 
 body of scholarship and with a much larger equipment of 
 special pedagogical devices than may ever be possessed 
 by one who must teach four or five times as many subjects. 
 
 Every teacher has certain subjects in which he is more 
 proficient and more interested than he is in others. When 
 one must teach all subjects, one cannot avoid emphasizing 
 some and neglecting others. In the departmental plan, 
 each teacher instructs in the subjects of greatest interest 
 to himself. 
 
 As a matter of practical experience, it is found that while 
 the class taught by one teacher may excel in the drill 
 
76 
 
 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 features of the various subjects, the class taught by several 
 teachers of equal competence with the one teacher always 
 excels in body of knowledge and in skill in dealing with 
 the material of each subject. 
 
 The strongest reason, in my judgment, for favoring the 
 departmental plan in higher grades is that in few cases are 
 pupils and the teacher "good friends." In most cases, 
 some pupils either do not hke or are dishked by the 
 teacher. The boy who is out of favor or who keeps his 
 teacher out of his favor has but little hope of education in 
 the one-teacher class. Where he has three or four teachers 
 daily, he is almost certain to find at least one with whom 
 he may prosper intellectually and morally.^ 
 
 There are, however, certain lower grades in which a sub- 
 stantially one-teacher plan is best, the supplementary in- 
 struction being given by special teachers assigned to the 
 department. The plan may be as follows, viz. : — 
 
 Grade III, 
 
 B 1 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 
 Grade III, 
 
 B 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 
 Grade III, 
 
 A^ (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 Department teachers in 
 
 Grade III, 
 
 A 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 I. Music 
 
 Grade II, 
 
 B 1 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 2. Drawing 
 
 Grade II, 
 
 B 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 3. Physical culture 
 
 Grade II, 
 
 A^ (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 4. Writing 
 
 Grade II, 
 
 A 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 or as may be possible or 
 
 Grade I, 
 
 B 1 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 preferable financially or 
 
 Grade I, 
 
 B 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 educationally. 
 
 Grade I, 
 
 A^ (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 
 Grade I, 
 
 A 2 (class) 
 
 teacher 
 
 
 1 This seems to me the true reason for the success of the plan of Superintendent John 
 Kennedy at Batavia, N.Y. This last reason is perhaps a strong enough reason for organizing 
 the middle grades or even all grades with two teachers for two classes, each instructing half a 
 day in a class or in alternating periods, or one teacher doing all the class-teaching, while the 
 other gives all the individual help. This, however, is a plan not to be confused with com- 
 plete departmental organization involving many teachers. 
 
THE CITY SCHOOL 77 
 
 The teachers of the " incoming subjects " or those espe- 
 cially difficult or those requiring special skill may teach in 
 each class a brief period each day ; or when assigned to 
 several departments, they may teach but once a week. 
 They tend both to standardize the work in the different 
 classes; to give the teachers of the other subjects a little 
 relief from the monotonous routine of the day and week ; 
 and to refresh the pupils with t^ie voices and the presence 
 of various teachers. The quality of the instruction in a 
 school system may be gauged by the number of such spe- 
 cial teachers and by their salaries. Several of such teachers 
 in each school on high salaries means a good school system ; 
 none at all means a dry routine ; one or two on low salaries 
 means progress; while many on low salaries means politics 
 and place-hunting.^ 
 
 It is not justifiable to dismiss the question of departmental work in 
 the grades in a cavalier fashion without at least mentioning certain dis- 
 advantages of this plan and certain practical reasons for not introduc- 
 ing it in some communities. 
 
 1 . Where teachers have actual or practical life tenures, and where at 
 the same time the higher salaries for long experience are paid only in 
 the upper grades, there of a certainty many teachers will be too weak in 
 intellect, too fixed in habit, and too antagonistic to new ideas and 
 methods to make the success of departmental work possible. 
 
 2. It is desirable to teach several subjects every day and at certain 
 times in the day and invariably at the same time.^ This cannot be 
 arranged for all classes in the department. 
 
 1^ In a certain city, there were, in 1907, over 300 supervisors and specialists, in the pro- 
 portion of I to every 8 class teachers; and one half of these supervisors received less salary 
 than those whom they supervised. 
 2 Vide Our Schools, page 390. 
 
 First on programme (to bring into " the school atmosphere") : 
 
 Music and ethical lessons. 
 
 Next, the hardest lesson: Mathematics. 
 
 Then, a recreation: Physical culture. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 EQUIPMENT 
 
 European visitors, when taken to the " show " American 
 schools, are wont to say that our buildings are fine and 
 costly and our apparatus fair, but our teachers poorly paid 
 (and, of course, therefore, poorly prepared). It is a super- 
 ficial criticism, and on the whole, too favorable ; yet it con- 
 tains an element of truth. Of these three factors in educa- 
 tion, tJie teacher is of the most importance, eqtnpment next, 
 building least. Of the middle term, " equipment," it may 
 be said that poor teachers must have an abundance of appa- 
 ratus, books, and supplies, while good teachers will demand 
 it as of right ; but the saying of this does not offset the fact 
 that in America it is easier to get money for things visible 
 than it is to get money for that invisible thing, — teaching 
 power. Our culture is relatively young : in this respect, 
 age brings wisdom. 
 
 By school apparatus, we mean everything mechanical 
 that serves the purposes of teaching, — from the " splints" 
 used in counting in the advanced kindergarten or " con- 
 necting class " to the machines for determining the laws 
 of physics in high, normal, and collegiate grades. A cata- 
 logue of things desirable in a city school system makes a 
 book by itself ; but some few things of first importance 
 require emphasis. 
 
 Every school, irrespective of grade, may well have a 
 good stereopticon lantern and a rejlectoscope. Such a lan- 
 tern may be single or double, direct or dissolving, large or 
 
 78 
 
EQUIPMENT 79 
 
 small; its light may be electric, acetylene, oxyhydrogen, 
 kerosene, or ordinary gas.^ The reflectoscope is a device 
 for throwing the reflection of ordinary pictures upon the 
 screen. 2 In geography, history, nature, and natural 
 science teaching, these lantern views are invaluable. Of 
 course, the possession of a lantern or reflectoscope neces- 
 sitates some means for darkening the room in which it is 
 to be used. The notion that one lantern will do for a school 
 system or even one for each normal and high school of a 
 city was an advance upon that of the day when there 
 were no lanterns at all ; but it is now well understood that 
 every elementary school requires at least one lantern 
 and one reflectoscope of its own for day lectures to its 
 own pupils and that every high school requires several. 
 Teaching by lantern views is well-established pedagogy. 
 Every school benefits having a set of stereoscopes with a 
 sufficient supply of views. 
 
 Every school requires also several large globes of the 
 world. The eighteen-inch globe is standard. There should 
 also be an equipment of fifty or more small globes in the 
 rooms in which world geography is taught. The plane 
 map gives false views of spatial relations. It serves well 
 enough for learned and travelled adults ; but it misleads 
 the ignorant. Often, it is not understood at all. 
 
 Slate blackboards or better should be used. Genuine 
 slate (not limestone) is indeed expensive ; but it wears for- 
 ever. There is at least one cement formula^ even blacker 
 and cleaner-cutting than slate ; but it is equally expensive 
 and perhaps more troublesome to provide. Plaster and 
 wooden blackboards are expensive to maintain. Various 
 papier-mache boards are better than plaster ; but not so 
 
 ^ Cost ranges up to $250. Slides average 40 cents. 
 
 ^ Cost ranges up to $100. 
 
 2 In successful use in Cleveland, O., public schools. 
 
80 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 good as slate or cement. The old notions that the black- 
 board should be only upon the front of the class room 
 or that it must go all around the room at a uniform 
 height and of a uniform width can no longer be sustained. 
 Some rooms require no blackboards at all. Others re- 
 quire great cabinets of blackboards, one behind another.^ 
 
 Every school requirts fo/dhi^ leaf cabiiiets, or the equiva- 
 lent, for the serial display of the work of the pupils. The 
 value of such permanent exhibits of school work is entirely 
 obvious : the only reason why every school does not thus 
 record its own history is because we do not provide enough 
 money for our public schools (or indeed for most of our 
 private schools either). 
 
 As a matter of construction, even strictly fireproof build- 
 ings should have provision of hose and couplings and ade- 
 quate head of water upon every floor with sound water 
 pipes for immediately putting out " local fires " in closets, 
 waste-baskets, or desks. Chemical fire extinguishers also 
 are requisite. From basement to roof ridge, the building 
 should be absolutely safe and wholly protected. Every 
 door must open outward. No door of any kind is ever to 
 be locked or fastened when even one child is in the building. 
 
 Not only should all the buildings be connected by tele- 
 phone with the central office of the superintendent and his 
 immediate advisers,^ but all parts of every school should be 
 connected by telephone service with the office of the prin- 
 cipal. In those small schools in which the principal has 
 also a class in charge (with or without an assistant), it is 
 especially desirable that there should be easy communica- 
 tion between rooms. The value of inter-room and inter- 
 
 1 In Boston, Newton, and Cambridge, Mass., svich cabinets of five or six disappearing 
 blackboards are a common equipment for the science lecture rooms. 
 
 ' In the metropolitan cities, the schools will be so connected via the offices of district and 
 division superintendents. 
 
EQUIPMENT 8 1 
 
 school telephone service is all out of proportion to and 
 many times as great as the expense. It is indeed so great 
 that I used to wonder why in parsimonious communities 
 the teachers themselves did not make the installation at their 
 own expense. Later, I came to see that parsimonious com- 
 munities are cause and effect of parsim-onious teachers, — 
 made so, be it confessed, by their own poverty. ; 
 
 The school buildings and apparatus of a community are r 
 not often below the standards of the teachers themselves. 
 
 Every school should have in its main front yard a great 
 flagpole to fly the " Stars and Stripes " of the United 
 States, at a height far above the roof-tops. This pole will 
 cost at the present time ^200 to 1^300.^ 
 
 Every school should have for its assembly hall a flag of 
 suitable size and a small flag for every child and youth 
 to carry upon patriotic marches about the building and 
 grounds and upon occasion in street processions. 
 
 Every school needs what we now call a " manual train- 
 ing" equipment. This is only a general term, meant to 
 cover mechanic arts in high schools, domestic science and 
 art, and plain carpentry and sewing. 
 
 A reason why such courses are pronounced by many 
 persons " fads and frills," and educationally undesirable, 
 is because these persons are avaricious or miserly, and 
 manual training costs money. A good " centre " for (say) 
 twenty-five hundred boys and girls during a week needs 
 eight to ten rooms (twenty classes of twenty-four pupils 
 each per day, an hour and a half each).^ 
 
 Such a centre is not ideal, because it presupposes 
 
 1 To be seen to advantage in East Orange, N.J. 
 
 2 The attractive " French manual training centre school" (for elementary pupils) in the 
 District of Columbia is a good beginning in one city. A proper equipment for an elementary 
 (grammar) school course will cost $4000 to $6000 " extra," that is, beyond the cost of the 
 " essentials." 
 
82 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 drawing together for the purposes of this instruction the 
 grammar-grade children from several schools, whereas it is 
 ediicatio7ially desirable to have this instruction an ititegral 
 part of the everyday work. The very existence of a 
 separate centre seems to imply that the manual training 
 courses are not " regular." Consequently, it is desirable 
 to have each school building sufficiently large to accommo- 
 date a sufficient number of pupils to warrant a complete 
 manual training equipment. 
 
 The furniture of a school building should be at once 
 artistic and substantial. Indeed, it cannot be the first 
 without also being the second. Each teacher needs a 
 good desk with a flat top and drawers upon both sides.^ 
 
 The schoolroom desk is a unique American invention. 
 In its best form, it is adjustable up and down, forward and 
 back. The chair is independent of the desk and is simi- 
 larly adjustable up and down, forward and back. The 
 best back or shoulder rest is the so-called "typewriter 
 chair back," which also is adjustable up and down.^ To 
 these adjustments are sometimes added adjustability of 
 the lid for desks in higher grammar grades and in high 
 and normal schools. It is sometimes objected to these 
 adjustments that they are so complicated as to be unwork- 
 able by ordinary principals, teachers, and janitors. So 
 much the more is there reason for getting better princi- 
 pals, teachers, and janitors. Again, it is urged that most 
 children in a well-graded school are so nearly standard in 
 
 1 Such a desk cannot be bought at wholesale for less than $23 to $25. In a certain city, 
 there were approximately one thousand teachers. The average desk had cost $7. The 
 board of education one day discovered the situation, only to find that to make this matter 
 right for every teacher meant a total expenditure of $20,000 in one item. This city actually 
 did replace all desks in the next four years. 
 
 2 This is the so-called " Boston schoolhouse commission type." Technically, these adjust- 
 ments are styled horizontal plus (+) and minus (— ) and vertical + and — . The range is 
 usually four to five inches, 
 
EQUIPMENT 83 
 
 size that one row of adjustable desks suffices. To this, the 
 one reply is that one row of adjustable desks is better than 
 none, that two are better than one, et cetera. 
 
 All schoolrooms, even those for manual training, indeed 
 also the janitor's room, requires a built-in bookcase'^ to 
 accommodate (say) four hundred books. The lower part 
 of the built-in recess should have drawers and a cabinet 
 closet. 
 
 In addition, each room requires three standard chairs, 
 preferably of bent wood and cane. The best of these 
 chairs is for the teacher, the others are for visitors. 
 
 A big, substantial table with suitable chairs, at which six 
 to ten children can work, is a desideratum for Nature study, 
 geography, and busy-work. 
 
 In high schools and in higher grammar grades, revolving 
 book cases with movable reading shelves for dictionaries, 
 gazetteers, encyclopaedias, and other reference books are 
 requisite. 
 
 For photographs, objets du vertu, and permissible bric-a- 
 brac, the best arrangement consists of a shelf eight inches 
 wide immediately above the blackboard. 
 
 The question of flowers can be solved only with the 
 assistance of the architect, who should provide a proper 
 window ledge.^ What is required is adequate provision 
 for drainage of water, and also provision to prevent freez- 
 ing. Wooden window boxes to be set in metal pans should 
 be built with the woodwork of the schoolhouse. The 
 flower question, be it understood, is not settled by having 
 no flowers in the schoolrooms. 
 
 For window shades, the material and color required are 
 
 ' This is independent of the large closet, page 63, supra. 
 
 * The detail in St. Louis is entirely satisfactory. The city also has an ingenious plan of 
 casement windows opening outward upon balconies. 
 
84 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 such as let in and diffuse the light, but exclude the yellow 
 rays of the sunshine,^ There should be two shades at each 
 window : one to be depended from the top, and the other 
 from the middle of the window ; or both from the middle, 
 one running up and the other down. 
 
 For south windows in regions where the sunlight is very 
 strong, there is a demand for double shades. In this case, 
 one shade may be opaque green and the other translucent 
 ecru. 
 
 In every city, a considerable number of the schools, say 
 one-half, should have all the class rooms equipped with 
 lights for evening classes. The "combination fixture " for 
 gas and electric light is still in vogue; but electricity is 
 rapidly becoming the standard artificial school light. The 
 gas, however, is useful in the experiments in chemistry. 
 As a matter of course, there should be an adequate 
 lighting system in every schoolhouse for the hallways, 
 basement, teachers' rooms, and assembly halls. 
 
 The question as to whether light and power should be 
 developed in each schoolhouse by a special plant or be 
 purchased from private companies or be secured from a 
 general municipal plant, is not purely financial. The 
 small isolated plant is more Ukely to get out of order 
 than the large plant with its duplicate, triple, and even 
 quadruple machinery. The question of securing com- 
 petent engineers and firemen for the schools is beginning 
 to be closely involved in the great American " struggle 
 between capital and labor," between the corporations and 
 the unions. 
 
 For school purposes, something may be said in favor of 
 bench seats rather than individual chairs or connected 
 
 1 This problem has been successfully solved in St. Louis by Mr. W. B. Ittner, architect 
 to the board of education. 
 
EQUIPMENT 85 
 
 opera sittings in the assembly hall. Sometimes, it is 
 necessary to crowd three persons where two should go ; 
 sometimes, it is desirable to clear the floor. And yet the 
 best practice is to seat the assembly hall permanently 
 with opera chairs. The floor should grade about 5 '. 
 
 The question of the platform in class room and in assem- 
 bly hall is really a question of schoolhouse construction, 
 but a remark here is in order, notwithstanding. There 
 should be no platform in any study or recitation room ; 
 the teacher is expected to walk about the room. The 
 chair of the teacher is only for occasional rest and change. 
 But platforms are necessary in lecture rooms and assembly 
 halls. The principle is that they should be as low as 
 possible while accomplishing their purpose but as wide 
 and as long as is architecturally convenient. The as- 
 sembly hall platform should accommodate an entire class 
 in gymnastic exhibitions and an entire cast in school 
 theatricals. 
 
 In lighting the hall, it is desirable to remember that 
 lights near the ceiling caiLse the best diffusion through reflec- 
 tion. It is possible to light a large room perfectly by 
 indirect light. Low, direct chandelier lights are exceed- 
 ingly trying to the eyes. In this same connection, it is 
 profitable to note that the light for the reading desk upon 
 the platform must be so perfectly concealed that no direct 
 ray escapes forward to irritate the eyes of an audience that 
 desires to be attentive. 
 
 11)10, plat form furniture in a school assembly hall should 
 be substantial, dignified, and beautiful; but it should not 
 give the room the air of a church or chapel. A dozen 
 handsome chairs all alike, a long wide table, and a light 
 reading stand make a good equipment. 
 
 Every school needs an assembly hall piano ; for normal 
 
86 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 and high schools, fine pipe organs are also desirable.^ 
 Kindergartens should have good pianos? Every school 
 should have also a music room, equipped with piano, reed 
 organ, harp, and the smaller standard musical instruments. 
 Let us meet the crass, coarse, defiant and discordant in- 
 dividualism and materialism of our age with music. No 
 people on earth so need and so lack music as ourselves. 
 
 This music hall requires a platform and a sufficient com- 
 plement of chairs for musicians and auditors.^ 
 
 The art imiseuni will require cabinets and cases, wall 
 frames, stained glass windows, tables and chairs, book- 
 cases, and artificial lighting.* 
 
 The library should consist of a reading room and stand- 
 ard book stacks. Such a library is by no means to be con- 
 fined to universities and colleges. The youth in grammar 
 schools are in the reading age. One who does not learn 
 to read as a habit before he is fifteen years old will never 
 read as a habit after he is twenty-five. 
 
 Farther pursuit of this interesting line of thought would 
 carry us into the equipment of the wood and iron working 
 rooms, the dressmaking and millinery rooms, the trade 
 schools, proper toilet appliances,^ garden and tree outfits, 
 furniture for principal's offices and teachers' rooms. Nor 
 are these merely matters of " common sense." In the di- 
 rection of American free public schools, the common sense of 
 average men as board members has nearly destroyed educa- 
 tion in many communities. It is a familiar observation that 
 
 ' There is a superb organ in the Morris Heights High School, Bronx Borough, N.Y. 
 Many other high schools also now have excellent organs. 
 
 ^ Not "second-hand squares." A grand piano will cost $1000. A good upright $400 
 to $500. 
 
 3 The Eastern High School in Baltimore has a fine example of such a room. 
 
 * St. Louis has made a fine beginning in both Nature and Art Museums. 
 
 ^ The devices in use in certain schools in the District of Columbia are perhaps the best 
 anywhere, installed by Mr. Snowden Ashford, building inspector to the District Com- 
 missioners. 
 
EQUIPMENT Sy 
 
 to learn how to equip properly a modern school, superin- 
 tendent, architect, and board must travel. To this, I would 
 add, — And the superintendent must not believe that his 
 livelihood depends upon the board and must learn to think 
 and to speak the truth. In the course of time, his liveli- 
 hood depends upon professional opinion of his services; 
 and this opinion is, I am glad to say, dependent absolutely 
 upon his loyalty to the cause of education and upon his 
 professional ability, equipment, and honor. 
 
 The first question about text-books is : Who is to pay 
 for them ? Two practices are now struggling for control. 
 The old practice was for the board (not the superintend- 
 ent, who was but a clerk) to prescribe a very limited list 
 of books and for the parents to buy them. The new prac- 
 tice is for the board (upon the recommendation of the 
 superintendent) to authorize or '* list " for use and to pur- 
 chase a considerably augmented variety of books and to 
 lend these to the pupils for use. Midway between these 
 practices are several others. In some entire States, and 
 in some chartered cities in other States, books and supplies 
 are furnished only to indigent pupils ; in others, only to 
 those who ask for them ; in at least one jurisdiction,^ to 
 ** all who are not otherwise supplied " ; while in still others, 
 certain books are loaned, but other books must be pri- 
 vately purchased. As an extreme in contrast with the 
 private purchase of all books, there is now beginning in a 
 few communities a practice of donating all books and sup- 
 plies outright to the pupils — pauperizing them with books 
 exactly as parents " pauperize " them with food, clothes, 
 and shelter.^ 
 
 What is the correct way ? The answer depends upon 
 
 * The United States Government in the District of Columbia. 
 
 * There is an age when such property should no longer be given to a youth of the male 
 sex — say, eighteen years. 
 
88 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 one's philosophy of society and of life. When every fam- 
 ily owns absolutely its own house, grounds, and gardens, 
 in fee tail to the direct heirs inalienable, then the first 
 practice of absolute self-reliance will be correct.^ Now, 
 when most famiUes are tenants and most men merely 
 wage-earners, the last practice is absolutely correct. When 
 it becomes necessary to choose between books and food, 
 the good parent must buy for his child the latter, because 
 health is fundamental. 
 
 This leaves the State to provide the books, — a necessary 
 socialistic palliative, if child education is to be compulsory 
 in an age of the poverty of " the many " both in city and 
 in country. 
 
 Where books are purchased by the parents, the board 
 of education has a very delicate problem to solve. A 
 superintendent in such a community does well to keep 
 out of the public thought when it comes to changing books 
 that otherwise would be handed down in the family from 
 child to child. In other words, parental purchase of 
 books limits in two ways the educational progress of a 
 community : first, it blocks changes for the better ; and, 
 second, it compels a very narrow supply of books and 
 of other materials. This, be it understood, is not at all 
 because of parental indifference to the welfare of the 
 children, but because of parental poverty and of parental 
 ignorance, which supposes that oral teaching can supply 
 any and all deficiencies. 
 
 Pupils really need at least one standard text-book in 
 nearly every subject taught, and supplementary books 
 for reading (literature), for history, for geography, and 
 for each of the sciences. It is, no doubt, possible to 
 
 1 Of course, in such an age, all producers of wealth will be part owners of the capital 
 employed in wealth production. 
 
EQUIPMENT 89 
 
 assign too many books to a child at one time ; but I 
 do not know of any public school in the United States in 
 which in the course of a year any class is required to study 
 too many books. All the elementary school classes that 
 I have ever visited had too few books to meet correct stand- 
 ards and to fulfil proper ideals. Most classes are seriously 
 lacking in text-books, pens, paper, tools, and the other gear 
 of a really sijicere education. Perhaps, we should not expect 
 anything else so long as public schools are governed by those 
 who know nothing of the science and art of education. 
 
 To say this is not to indorse the prevailing courses 
 of study. These are almost everywhere too crowded be- 
 cause not integral, and not true to the genesis and progress 
 of human nature. But a philosophical and a psychological 
 course of study, however coherent and integral, will require 
 rather more books even than now, for it will emphasize far 
 more than does the present opportunistic course the value 
 of individual study and reading. 
 
 A good text-book meets these requirements, viz. : — 
 
 1. Its facts conform closely to the best knowledge at 
 the time of its production. 
 
 2. It incorporates a rational method : one that fairly 
 interprets the data. 
 
 3. It is not an epitome or a thesaurus of the subject, 
 but an outline and an interpretation. 
 
 4. It is interesting; it manifests humanity and style. 
 It is not a patchwork but a creation. 
 
 5. It is printed in large, clear type, 
 
 a. with permanent black ink, 
 
 b. upon cream paper of good texture, without 
 
 gloss, save for the pictures. 
 
 6. It is well bound in leather or cloth so that it will 
 last a long time and stay clean on the outside. 
 
90 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 7. Though covering all the ground of its subject, it is 
 not too big to hold in the hand. 
 
 8. It is kept revised. 
 
 Of books of this character, almost none can be secured in America. 
 
 1. Our text writers seldom know their subjects. 
 
 2. They try to develop the facts by a general method, not under- 
 standing that every subject, properly capable of text-book treatment, 
 has its own inherent, characteristic, and peculiar logic and method.^ 
 
 3. The hardest of all books to read is the thesaurus, whether dic- 
 tionary, encyclopaedia, or handbook. Next hardest is the epitome, 
 which is suitable only for a person already learned in the subject. 
 
 4. Most American text-books are ugly mosaics — of pieces stolen 
 from other text-books. 
 
 5. Type is generally too small, 11 -point is the smallest permissible 
 for grades IV and above. Below IV, still larger type is requisite. 
 
 6. Ink is usually poor. 
 
 7. Paper is usually glazed and therefore too shiny. 5, 6, and 7 
 cause many a child's eyes to fail. 
 
 8. The bindings of American books are nearly all miserable ; 
 hence, the cry in the case of school books for leatherette book covers, 
 a confession of the vileness of the original bindings. 
 
 9. The spongy quality of the binding makes it a good " culture " 
 for disease germs. 
 
 ID. Most American text-books do not cover aU the ground. 
 II. Once on the market, the book stays there unchanged until 
 forced out by competition.^ 
 
 We do not know what a competent loan outfit would 
 really cost for a school system per unit of pupils.^ No 
 such loan outfit actually exists anywhere, though a few 
 
 1 The work of our schools may be classified thus : — 
 
 I Studies \ ^' Logical. The books for \, A may be strictly termed " text- 
 
 ' B. Informational. books." Those for I, B are " readers." Those for 
 
 II. Exercises S ■^* Psychological. II are all at best only " manuals." 
 
 I B. Physiological. 
 
 2 States that manufacture their own schoolbooks do well to make them better than the 
 commercial product. Well-made books would last ten years and like other good manufactures 
 be " the cheapest in the end." 
 
 3 The question of reducing the cost of books by State printing is now being answered 
 through the experiment of California. 
 
EQUIPMENT 91 
 
 cities approximate it. But an estimate may be worked 
 out as follows, viz. : — 
 
 Average total cost of normal school books for one pupil . . $6.00 
 
 Ditto for high school pupil 5.00 
 
 Ditto for grammar school pupil 4.00 
 
 Ditto for primary school pupil (including supplementary 
 
 books) 2.00 
 
 Ditto for kindergarten pupil .50 
 
 The above figures are low. 
 For 100,000 pupils, divided as follows: 
 
 Normal school 600 
 
 High school . . . . . . . . • . 10,000 
 
 Elementary schools 85,000 
 
 Kindergartens 4j400 
 
 The cost would be : — 
 
 Normal school $3,6oo 
 
 High school 50,000 
 
 Elementary schools ........ 340,000 
 
 Kindergartens ......... 2,200 
 
 Total cost $395,800 
 
 Average life of a book, four years. 
 
 Average annual cost of loan outfit properly cared for and 
 
 renewed $98,950 
 
 Add 5 per cent for discarding inferior books .... 4^975 
 
 Total annual cost of books $103,925 
 
 Average annual cost of loan books per pupil .... $1.04 
 
 I know a number of small cities and towns that spend 
 more than the 1^1.04 per pupil for books; but I know of 
 no large city that even approximates this figure. 
 
 In addition to books, many States and a few chartered 
 cities in other States profess to supply also paper, pen- 
 cils, pens, wood, iron, cloth, thread, and everything else 
 that is required in the daily work of the pupils. When 
 this is actually done, the cost runs far beyond the cost of 
 books. In mechanic arts high schools, the annual cost 
 
92 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 for tools, materials, and chemicals cannot be kept below 
 i^io per pupil. In elementary schools, with manual train- 
 ing courses, the cost will be half as large. 
 
 No doubt this question of supplying books and mate- 
 rials of every kind opens up the entire question of the 
 proper relation of the individual to society. I have never 
 yet heard it argued that books as well as tuition should be 
 free to the men and women in State universities, except 
 in so far as this argument is a minor constituent of the 
 theory of socialism. Let knowledge be as free as the air, 
 say some, and each man will become a living soul. For 
 myself, I am inclined to the exactly opposite theory; as 
 Jesus said, " My Father worketh hitherto, and I work." ^ 
 He was not suggesting work for wages, but work for the 
 entire product, the profit increase above the cost of the 
 raw materials. 
 
 It must be noted before we pass from this theme, that 
 a loan or gift outfit system requires for its intelligent and 
 economical administration a competent bureau of purchas- 
 ing and distributing agents, managers, clerks, and carriers. 
 
 Every schoolroom requires a good dictionary, and every 
 school one or more standard eiicyclopcedias, lexicons of the 
 foreign languages, gazetteers, atlases, dictionaries of dates, 
 of mythology, of the sciences, and of philosophy. 
 
 In every school, there should be two kinds of libraries : 
 the classroofn library of from one to four hundred books in 
 constant circulation, and a general library of one thousand 
 books or more.^ The books should include works upon 
 travel, biography, history, poetry, science, and the best fic- 
 tion. Of certain magazines, there should be complete files. 
 
 1 No conclusion, however, is to be drawn from this that would force small children to 
 work for their entire support. On the other hand, Pestalozzi was right in insisting that they 
 should not be wholly economic parasites. — Leonard and Gertrude, 
 
 2 See Catalogue of the Cleveland, O., Public Library. 
 
EQUIPMENT 93 
 
 The principles for administering these libraries may be 
 stated as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1. The books should be in as constant circulation as is 
 feasible. 
 
 2. Books should not be taken from the classrooms or 
 the general library except upon written record. 
 
 3. The pupils should have reasonable access to all the 
 books — to look them over and to taste them, as it were. 
 
 4. The teachers and the librarians should know all the 
 books. 
 
 5. Of the best books, the general library may well have 
 several copies. Mere multitude of titles is no criterion of 
 good school library administration. 
 
 The public library needs sufficient current funds to main- 
 tain branches in at least a few of the public schools. At 
 these branches, there should be loan collections of five 
 hundred or more books, constantly in course of change. 
 There should be also regular delivery stations for adults 
 of the neighborhood, as well as for the children and youth 
 of the schools. 
 
 There rises here the question whether or not the public 
 library should be part and parcel of the public school sys- 
 tem. In not a few towns and cities, this plan is in suc- 
 cessful operation. At any rate, the superintendent of 
 schools should always be ex officio, or otherwise, a mem- 
 ber of the library board of control. 
 
 For the kindergarten equipment, there are required the 
 standard kindergarten tables and chairs, the "gifts" of 
 Froebel, cubes, splints, a large variety of "penny pic- 
 tures," games, toy animals, picture books, sand table or 
 box, dolls, tin soldiers, balls of rubber (hollow) or of 
 worsted, bean bags, colored paper and cardboard, scissors 
 (with square or rounded ends), flowers in pots and in 
 
94 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 boxes, garden tools, and general toys. The kindergar- 
 ten child learns by doing under direction. His self- 
 activity is to become regulated activity ; he is to be kept 
 as happy as possible ; he has a right to his paradise. 
 The more of the true kindergarten spirit that we can get 
 into the elementary school, the better for our children.^ 
 
 Every school for boys and girls above twelve years of 
 age should have a separate gymnasium for each sex. Be- 
 low this age, a few pieces of apparatus in the basement or 
 halls will serve sufficiently well. In most cities, shower 
 baths for small children are more important than gym- 
 nasiums.2 
 
 The proper equipment for a gymnasium is determined 
 in part by the sex of those who are to use it, in part by 
 their age, in part by their other opportunities for exer- 
 cise, and in part by the climate. 
 
 Each gymnasium should be in use all day long by 
 squads of pupils under competent and sufficient direction. 
 The shower baths may be a matter of building construc- 
 tion in part, or wholly a matter of special equipment ; but 
 the swimming tank must be a part of the building itself. 
 The tendency is to build such tanks too deep and too 
 square. For grammar schools, the following dimensions 
 are adequate, viz.: — 
 
 Length 40'. 
 
 Width 16'. 
 
 Depth below water level 3'6" to 5'. 
 
 Height above water level i'6". 
 
 The purpose of such a tank is not to afford a place for 
 expert swimmers to practise diving, but to teach small 
 
 1 Excluding the piano, a sufficient kindergarten equipment for thirty-five children costs 
 about $200. The annual cost thereafter need not exceed $20. 
 
 2 It is an unpleasant fact to those who would like to believe that everybody is happy in a 
 country worth loving ; but unless our city children bathe at school, many of them will never 
 bathe at all in winter, and they will grow up to be of " the great unwashed." 
 
EQUIPMENT 95 
 
 boys how to swim well. When the smaller boys are being 
 taught, the water level can be reduced a foot. This tank 
 is not a bath tub : no boy should be allowed in it until he 
 has taken a sufficient shower with lukewarm water and 
 soap. In Japanese fashion, he washes before bathing. 
 
 The gymnasium equipment should include anthropo- 
 metric apparatus, — eye, ear, lung, spine testing machines, 
 lockers for gymnasium clothes, dumb-bells, wands, swing- 
 ing rings, chest weights, parallel bars, ladders, "horses," 
 and similar apparatus, and may include a good running 
 track and gallery for visitors. 
 
 Unfortunately, we have come to think of laboratories as 
 requisite only in universities, colleges, and high schools. 
 But at least one good laboratory is desirable in every com- 
 plete elementary school. Such a laboratory needs a sink, 
 running water, a ventilating sulphide hood closet, a cabinet 
 for chemicals, table boxes for germinating seeds, and 
 other similar equipment for illustrating some of the sim- 
 plest and fundamental facts and principles of Nature and 
 natural science. 
 
 The high school should have a system of laboratories 
 and of lecture rooms. Every high school student should 
 spend weekly at least one-quarter of his time in the study 
 of science. As function determines structure in the world 
 of life, so in the school the course of study should con- 
 trol architecture; but as a general principle, it is safe 
 to assign one-quarter of the space of a high school to 
 rooms for the teaching of science. 
 
 Decoration for schoolrooms is now a theme upon many 
 tongues. The time is soon to come when suitable deco- 
 ration in the class room will be as much a matter of course 
 as an artistic front for the building. The walls should 
 be colored with water-color paints, washable and easily 
 
96 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 renewed. For north rooms, which should never be class 
 rooms, choose the warm reds and yellows ; for south rooms, 
 the light greens. 
 
 The problem of pictures and statuary for class rooms has 
 not yet been satisfactorily solved. In elementary schools, 
 color is desirable for the pictures ; but only artists can 
 make, one by one, good colored pictures. Nor have we 
 learned as yet how to choose for children the subjects of 
 pictures and statues that at once instruct and interest them 
 profitably. 
 
 In the school yard there should be simple apparatus for 
 games, play, and exercise ; such as horizontal bars, basket 
 ball poles, swings, tennis posts. 
 
 In a certain city, a teacher had upon her desk a plaster cast, about 
 eighteen inches high, of a famous "prize fighter." In another city, 
 upon the door of a schoolroom, was a great poster representing a small 
 boy smoking his father's pipe. In a town school was a crude chromo 
 representing several " sports " dining and wining some supposedly " gay " 
 young actresses and chorus girls. Per contra, I have seen walls covered 
 with sombre photographs, all religious in theme, all entirely out of the 
 range of the six to eight year old children in the room. 
 
 A school system needs a central building convenient to 
 the offices of the superintendent and supervisors in which 
 there are rooms of various kinds for various meetings. 
 One room should accommodate several hundred teachers. 
 Three, four, or five of these rooms should accommodate 
 eighty to one hundred persons each. There should also be 
 offices for the various directors and supervisors. In these 
 rooms and offices, the heads can meet, after school and on 
 Saturdays, such teachers as they may desire to instruct, 
 to direct, or to consult regarding the prosecution of the 
 class-room work. By having all these rooms and offices 
 centralized, the superintendent can keep closely in touch 
 
EQUIPMENT 97 
 
 with the work of all his immediate assistants, can equalize 
 and standardize their demands upon the teachers, and can 
 himself conveniently meet them. Like his subordinates, he 
 has only twenty-four hours in the day in which to live and to 
 work. Neither he nor his immediate assistants can afford 
 to waste time going from building to building to counsel 
 with here one and there two or three. When he visits 
 schools, it should be to see the work of the children, not to 
 direct the teachers. 
 
 Each of these proposed rooms and offices needs a suitable 
 equipment. The music room should have several pianos, 
 the art room a complete studio equipment, the physical 
 culture room its proper apparatus.-^ 
 
 The establishment of Schoolhouse Commissions in such commu- 
 nities as Boston and (by Act of Congress) the District of Columbia is 
 noteworthy evidence of the distrust of the fitness of laymen in educa- 
 tional matters. In Boston, the commission consists of an architect, a 
 building contractor, and a lawyer : for Washington, it consists of the 
 supervising architect of the United States Treasury, the engineer com- 
 missioner of the District of Columbia (detailed from the Army engineer 
 corps), and the superintendent of schools. In other cities, boards of 
 public works are being given the duties of acquiring sites and building 
 schoolhouses. 
 
 Wisconsin has recently created municipal manual training boards of 
 five members, all of whom must be professional educators or certificated 
 expert mechanics. 
 
 The removal of these powers and responsibilities from boards of 
 education shuts them into what can be considered only the strictest kind 
 of professional work, e.^., selection of text books, making of courses of 
 study, and appointing teachers. Two results fpllow : the boards under- 
 take to make the superintendents clerks ; and the legislatures talk of 
 doing away with boards m toto.^ 
 
 1 This problem is admirably worked out in Rochester, N.Y. 
 * Vt'de Appendix A, 2, and G. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE PUPIL 
 
 Of course, this book, every book that deals in any way 
 with education, should centre upon the boy or girl to be 
 educated. We hear much about the educator, but we 
 have not even the term the "educatee," whom now we 
 may briefly consider. This is the last factor in the city 
 school system. For want of knowledge of this factor, 
 most educational equations are not solved.^ 
 
 The world of the child consists of his playmates, — 
 brothers, sisters, cousins, neighbors ; of his parents, 
 grandparents, uncles, aunts, and other relatives ; of his 
 pets and toys ; of natural phases and objects, — day, night, 
 summer, winter, trees, flowers, birds, brooks; of books, — 
 their pictures and, to an extent, their characters and 
 descriptions ; and of the echoes of his soul, in which the 
 experiences of his ancestors find reverberating voices. Of 
 himself as an ego or identity with purposes, habits, ideals, 
 there is very little consciousness. Occasionally, some adult 
 — a teacher, a story-telling man or woman, a fisherman 
 or other adventurer — breaks in upon his consciousness at 
 its periphery ; it may be reaches even the heart of him. 
 The little child lives through more sensations in a day 
 than the youth does in a week or the adult in a year. So 
 many and great are the differences between child and 
 
 1 It is beyond the scope of a book upon the administration of city schools to deal with the 
 pupil in education generally considered. But the pupil as the subject of organization, of ad- 
 ministration, of supervision, of direction, and of management certainly deserves a chapter to 
 himself 
 
 98 
 
THE PUPIL 99 
 
 adult that neither can or does comprehend or understand 
 the other. The child fears, loves, it may be reveres the 
 grown-up, who for his part despises or compassionates 
 the little one. Necessarily the great man, of the best edu- 
 cation and of the largest culture, goes about uncompre- 
 hended, misunderstood by other adults : wherein comes 
 the mystery that the genius and the child are very near 
 to one another — they are upon the same centre, which 
 is the following of the inner light. 
 
 Children differ from one another far more than do the 
 socialized adults around them, whom, indeed, they but 
 dimly perceive as remote gods or daimons, whom they 
 feel rather than comprehend. These are the units whom 
 the teachers must organize into classes and schools. So 
 to organize them the adults proceed somewhat as follows, 
 viz. : — 
 
 1. The children within the limits of a particular vicin- 
 age go to school together. In some localities, the school 
 districts are sharply demarked ; in others, the lines are 
 traditional and not absolutely mandatory. 
 
 2. But there is a certain cross-sectioning and combining 
 in respect to various ages. Seldom do kindergarten, ele- 
 mentary, secondary, and graduate students go for instruc- 
 tion to the same building. They seldom go to the same 
 group of buildings. In nearly all communities of large 
 population, there are at least four well-recognized ages 
 and lines of separation : — 
 
 a. From infancy to childhood, at six years of age : 
 Kindergarten to Elementary. 
 
 b. From childhood to early adolescence, at fourteen 
 years of age : Elementary to Secondary. 
 
 c. Early to middle adolescence: Secondary to Colle- 
 giate. 
 
lOO OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 d. Middle to later adolescence : Collegiate to Graduate.^ 
 
 3. In some communities, there is a vertical dividing in 
 the separation of boys and girls. Strange traditions pre- 
 vail. Some communities separate children below fourteen 
 years of age ; others separate them between fourteen and 
 nineteen ; still others, only after nineteen ; some, not at all ; 
 and others always. Is there a guiding principle ? 
 
 Those who desire to increase the final attraction of men 
 and of women would keep them separate until late adoles- 
 cence or full adulthood. Those who desire to humanize 
 both fully — men and women to be integral as far as possible 
 and not simply complementary — are for coeducation. 
 There is a profound philosophy in each view.^ Women 
 brought up with one another alone from early childhood 
 have a depth and a richness and a fineness of sentiment 
 beyond the coeducated ; but this is at the expense of 
 energy, of judgment, and of wholesomeness. From this 
 line as a basis of departure, the arguments lead to the 
 antipodes.^ 
 
 4. Everywhere, let it not be forgotten, there is classifi- 
 cation primarily by ages.^ This may not appear true super- 
 ficially ; but it is none the less the reality. We say that 
 
 ^ These may be challenged. For Middle and Southern Americans, thirteen is nearer the 
 beginning of adolescence for boys and twelve for girls. Were this sincerely recognized, there 
 would be more boys and girls in Southern high schools and academies. Even in the North, 
 the four years of secondary education are too few. From the physiological point of view, 
 high school courses should be six years in duration, from thirteen to nineteen years of age for 
 Middle Americans. The fourth stage is misplaced. Later adolescence seldom begins before 
 twenty-two or -three years of age in young men, and in Middle America before nineteen or 
 twenty years of age in young women. Here the coeducation of the sexes at equal ages fails. 
 
 2 Because I am absolutely a democrat, an equal suffragist, anti-class and anti-caste, I 
 cannot logically accept at any stage the separate education of the sexes; but if there is to be 
 any separation at all, it promises most good and least harm after early adolescence, i.e. after 
 eighteen in boys and sixteen in girls of Middle America. This, however, is really after edu- 
 cation is fairly completed and when culture has become the aim. For the distinction, vide 
 Motives, Ideals and Values, p. 342. Vide also p. 107, infra. 
 
 3 Per contra, Hall, Adolescence: its Psychology, Chapter vii. 
 Vide Appendix LXVIII. 
 
THE PUPIL lOI 
 
 the boy of six, if not below mediocrity, should know so 
 much. By mediocrity, we mean an average and a relative, 
 not an absolute, amount. Mediocrity is the average of 
 those not distinctly backward ; that is, arrested in develop- 
 ment. 
 
 5. Everywhere, irrespective of promotion schemes, the 
 seasons govern the course of study, and cause us to cut it 
 into annual sections. Moreover, the day again cuts it. 
 
 6. Everywhere, the conventions, religious and economic, 
 a third time cut the courses into weeks, and a fourth time 
 into sections between holidays.^ 
 
 7. Everywhere, the fatigue limits finally do control in 
 two ways. In the first instance, we determine how much 
 of this study or that the pupils above submediocre can 
 stand, and so much we give them hour by hour. In the 
 second instance, the submediocre, as soon as they escape 
 the State tyranny of compulsory education laws, leave 
 school and try to accommodate themselves to their own 
 proper fatigue limits.^ 
 
 8. Everywhere, we try to compromise the two rival 
 claims : of the boy to be educated, — who needs to acquire 
 habits, ideals, and principles, and to grow in physical 
 strength, — and of society to be supplied with workers for 
 its tasks. It is a ceaseless struggle, as it were, between 
 applied psychology and applied sociology. Generally the 
 victory seems to be to society ; but now and then as by 
 miracle arises the man who will not conform, but who must 
 teach by example the higher truth that individuals are 
 
 1 Consider how our school courses would differ were our days twice as long, our years 
 twice as long, and our holidays four times as far apart ! On the contrary, were our days 
 half as long, our years half as long, and our holidays but one-fourth as far apart ! On the 
 assumption, that psychological rate and time remain the same. 
 
 ^ A striking confirmation of this comes in the recent discoveries that most criminals are 
 without education and require eyeglasses, eye-operations, ear-drums, spinal cures, etc. In 
 short, they commit crime because of fatigue and its toxic poisons, or of other physical stresses. 
 
I02 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 eternal, societies temporal. The course of study is in conse- 
 quence Janus-faced. Yet the moment that we think to 
 condemn it entirely as utilitarian and materialistic, we dis- 
 cover some item or quality purely spiritual and educative. 
 
 9. Everywhere, in the beginning, we try to educate all 
 together, — the dull, the mediocre, the clever, and the bril- 
 liant; the abnormal, the subnormal, the normal, and the 
 supernormal ; the perfect, the typical, the defective, and 
 almost the monstrous, until there dawns upon us that edu- 
 cation is not regimentation but integration and differentia- 
 tion by consciously produced evolution ; and then we begin 
 to discriminate, to separate, to segregate, and really in most 
 cases to educate. 
 
 10. We understand in the end, then, that to attempt to 
 educate upon sociological grounds for whatever purpose, 
 — industrial, commercial, artistic, or professional, is to 
 educate, if at all, accidentally and indirectly, not inten- 
 tionally, or as completely as we might. We conclude that 
 we must educate by true psychogenetics : which is not the 
 recapitulation or culture epochs theory, but a theory of the 
 evolution of functions of the mind, — an evolution of mo- 
 tives, of ideals, and of principles. We set up not the attain- 
 ment of quantitative measures of this and of that as the test 
 and evidence of education, but the manifestation of certain 
 qualities, which we summarize as intelligence, efficiency, 
 and morality. These qualitative evidences we recognize 
 as in series : intelligence the first power or function, as 
 it were, of motivation ; efficiency, the second power ; and 
 morality as the third power, the highest of the three and 
 built of them, being in essence the same.^ 
 
 ■1 Here the theory of the triune nature of man as an intelligent, efficient, and moral being 
 breaks down after serving its purpose, which is to show how liberty in order is possible to 
 man. Here unity appears as in truth the whole of his nature. Cf. Froebel, Education 0/ Man. 
 
THE PUPIL 103 
 
 II. In consequence, at last, we return to the education 
 of individuals ; and the teacher becomes in spirit the 
 tutor of one child. For the brief time of the recitation 
 and of the counsel, the rest of the class are but witnesses 
 of the true school, which is a relation between two, the one 
 who knows and the one seeking to know.^ 
 
 Upon these principles and such as these, — in part in 
 accordance with the necessities of his situation, that is, the 
 qualities of his board of education, of his teachers, and 
 of his community, the size and extent of his buildings and 
 equipment, the amount of annual revenue for expenses, 
 the legislation of the State and the existent rules and 
 regulations of the board, and his own knowledge and skill ; 
 in part in accordance with the traditions of the profession or 
 occupation of teaching ; and only in part in accordance with 
 the real nature of the child, — the educator proceeds to in- 
 form and to evolve the educatee. With him. Nature, the 
 kind mother of us all, conspires, for she intends to make of 
 every child all of which he is capable. Usually, Nature fails. 
 Usually, the precious nascent periods pass unnoticed ; some- 
 times, they are defied. Civilization is largely inhibition of 
 the poetic, the creative. The boy would grow far more, 
 far better, were he more free to grow. But he does grow ; 
 and education gets much credit that really belongs to 
 Nature.^ 
 
 From the principles here distinguished, certain conclu- 
 sions follow. Some of these conclusions are so patent 
 and so potent that intelligent communities have already 
 put them into practice. 
 
 I. School communities should be delimited rather by 
 
 » Vide Our Schools, Chapter IX. 
 
 2 Were it not for our faith that the soul, which is here confined, may, must elsewhere be 
 freed, that God will yet have His way with each of us, from their present rebellion against 
 things as they are between the eternities, many would effloresce into insanity. 
 
104 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 social considerations than by political boundaries. Trans- 
 fers of pupils from school to school should be made when- 
 ever educational principles so dictate. Ward schools, 
 with strictly preserved artificial limits, are indefensible.^ 
 The work done in these local schools should supplement 
 the needs of such schools rather than merely emphasize 
 and enforce their interests. Let the city child have all 
 the Nature-study possible. 
 
 2. It is desirable to separate students into at least four 
 groups, viz. : — 
 
 2 years. Kindergarten : below seven years of age. 
 
 6 years. Primary : from seven to thirteen years. 
 
 6 years. Secondary : from fourteen to nineteen years 
 of age. 
 
 Unlimited. Higher : above nineteen years of age. 
 
 These, students should not go to school together. Be- 
 tween successive groups there are conflicts of motives, of 
 ideals, of physical conditions, of social relations, and of 
 powers. Merely to illustrate this matter and with no de- 
 sire to complete the presentation, one may cite these 
 propositions, viz. : — 
 
 I. Under seven years of age, no child should go to 
 school more than once a day, or stay over three hours 
 under guidance, or be required to go with daily regularity, 
 or to follow one particular exercise over fifteen minutes 
 continuously, or be confined to desk and chair, or be 
 trained to study (read) anything, or be taught by more 
 than one teacher. 
 
 II. From seven to thirteen years of age, no child 
 should be in school over five hours a day, or over three 
 
 ' A city with one hundred schools should have each school both named and numbered, e.g. 
 "The Abraham Lincoln School, Number 89, Chicago." The combination of name and city 
 number teaches the child daily the unity of civic patriotism. 
 
THE PUPIL 105 
 
 hours at a session, or over two hundred days in the year, 
 or be required to follow one particular exercise over thirty 
 minutes continuously, or be confined to desk and chair 
 over an hour at a time, or to take any work home for 
 study in the evening,^ or to have less than two teachers 
 daily. 
 
 III. From fourteen to nineteen years of age, the boy 
 is neither child nor man. From thirteen to seventeen 
 years of age, in Middle America, the girl of English stock 
 is not child and is scarcely woman. Schooling is now a 
 notably different problem from schooling before early 
 adolescence. Unfortunately, no city in America has yet 
 established neighborhood high schools, as America must 
 and will in the day when we have learned that early ado- 
 lescence is the one period for education as preadolescence 
 is the true period for schooling. No child should need to 
 go over a mile to school. On this basis, boys and girls in 
 secondary schools should be in school six hours daily ,2 but 
 not over three hours continuously ; and the interim at 
 noon should be not less than an hour and a half, prefera- 
 bly two hours. They should have at least three different 
 teachers each day, and not over five. A single recitation 
 may be as long as forty-five minutes in duration. The 
 habit of going to school daily, acquired in the preceding 
 period, may be encouraged in the case of the boys; but 
 not in that of the girls. Home study in language, in liter- 
 ature, in literary science, in history, and home exercises 
 of a laboratory nature may be encouraged as a directive 
 
 1 There is much to be said in favor of maintaining school sessions six mornings and three 
 or four afternoons in the week. Home study must either deprive the child of play in the late 
 afternoon or compel intellectual effort and enforce physical restraint in the evening (after the 
 city dinner). This may seem for a while to promote the interests of an individual, but it will 
 ruin a race. In the preadolescent period, the child must accumulate vital reserves. 
 
 2 No teachers, however, should stay over four hours, with not over three hours of teach- 
 ing daily. 
 
Io6 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 of the adolescent revery ; but not to the point of over- 
 fatigue.^ 
 
 IV. Above nineteen years of age, that youth prospers 
 who has found himself in earlier adolesgence, and who 
 thereafter follows the inner light, seeking his own pole 
 star. The days of hygienic prescription by superior per- 
 sons are nearly over. Life is more or less conscious 
 obedience to maxims, to proceed gradually into obedience 
 to principles. There is much yet to learn ; but the funda- 
 mentals already acquired are seldom unlearned. In the 
 city school system of the present time, there is usually 
 a normal school ; and occasionally, a college. In the city 
 system of the future, there will certainly be the teachers' 
 college ^ and the university. Influenced by the elementary 
 and secondary schools, the higher schools of the city, 
 collegiate, graduate, and professional, will tend to be more 
 systematic in their programmes than are the endowed 
 colleges and universities or even the present State univer- 
 sities. They will offer work throughout the year, summer 
 and winter, fitting the topics in a measure to the season, 
 
 1 In these adolescent boys and girls, there are three fatigue levels: (i), tiring from the 
 successive impulses to effort before persistence in effort is established. (2) True fatigue be- 
 cause of wilful persistence in effort continued until the ordinary surplus of energy is actually 
 exhausted. (This corresponds to wearing out the "second wind" in running.) (3) Over- 
 fatigue because of excited continuance in systematic endeavor after the physical energy is 
 consumed. (In this phase, the mind is dominant.) No boy or girl should ever need to go 
 to bed suffering from the effects of overfatigue. During the entire period of childhood and 
 youth such a condition may be excusable upon a few occasions between sunrise and sunset 
 to test and " try out " a young athlete or scholar; but it is an intoxication fully as perilous as 
 that which is induced by poisons and drugs, introduced externally into the system. 
 
 In adults, there are five fatigue levels. These may be considered as manifestations of 
 the results of first, second, third, fourth, and fifth powers or functions of motivation, of intel- 
 lection, and of volition. Genius short-circuits easily to the same results as those of talent pro- 
 ceeding circuitously to its highest levels. Preceding each fatigue level is a brief period of 
 excitement when the mind scintillates. 
 
 These are the general and normal fatigue-levels. Eye-strain, spinal curvature, acid and 
 alkaline diatheses, anseraia, primary and secondary neurasthenias, and other similar ills more 
 or less affect arrival at and delay upon each level. 
 
 ' If so, why not colleges for other professions and skilled occupations ? 
 
THE PUPIL 107 
 
 with heavier work, of course, in the colder weather.^ They 
 will tend to reduce the daily working period to the com- 
 mercial and industrial plan of eight day-hours under high 
 pressure, with the after-dinner work, if any, recreative and 
 at low pressure. They will be executive in spirit, not quite 
 so academic perhaps as now, more pragmatic, cultural 
 rather than educative. The seminars, conferences, and 
 clubs will be in the early evening. To acquire knowledge, 
 to express it with skill, to see and to put things in their 
 relations, to perfect a health of body, already well estab- 
 lished : in other words, science, art, philosophy, and per- 
 sonal hygiene will be the progressive, cumulative aims of 
 these higher schools of learning. 
 
 3. There will be separation of boys and girls and of 
 young men and young women upon occasion and for 
 cause. Democracy is coeducational in its conviction ; it 
 will end in equal rights of every kind ; this may, indeed, be 
 a cause of its end. Certain subjects cannot be taught at 
 all to both sexes at the same time. Some subjects can best 
 be taught in isolation. The real subject of education is, of 
 course, the pupil ; it is only in the cultural aspect of the 
 course of study — for schools of pupils above thirteen 
 years of age — that coeducation is logical. In consequence 
 of this philosophy, biology, for example, will become a 
 required study for girls, while physiology and hygiene will 
 be taught in separate classes. In large cities, some high 
 schools will probably be for boys, others for girls, while 
 most will be coeducational. This raises the question 
 whether there shall be separate mechanic arts and " busi- 
 ness " high schools, or whether all high schools shall be 
 general. The tendency in this respect is to offer a variety : 
 
 1 In his Annual Report for 1907, Superintendent Wm. H. Maxwell of New York proposes 
 summer sessions for high schools. 
 
I08 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 some high schools should be general, with classical, scien- 
 tific, commercial, technical, and literary courses ; while 
 others in the same city should be wholly classical or tech- 
 nical or commercial. But one feature of this tendency 
 to variety of schools, of departments, and of courses is 
 entirely to be condemned ; this feature is the introduction 
 of subjects for sociological (that is, utilitarian or mate- 
 rialistic) reasons. Absolutely no subject of instruction in 
 any course for boys and girls under eighteen or nineteen 
 years of age should be pursued for any other reason than 
 that it is educative. What the world most needs, sorely 
 needs, is the man of motives, of ideals, of principles — the 
 educated man. 
 
 4. The principle of associating children primarily by 
 ages needs to be converted, transformed, and transmuted 
 into the principle of associating them by their stages of 
 development.^ It may be that there are back currents and 
 eddies ; and a child may be younger as compared with 
 " average " children at nine than he was at seven. How- 
 ever, the true test is not the superficial one of extent and 
 accuracy of knowledge and of proficiency in expression, 
 but the substantial one of energy, of motivation, of volition, 
 of intellection, of self-control, and of self-direction. This 
 subtler and truer test we must learn to make. We must 
 grade and promote children not by ages, not by knowledge, 
 not by past attainments, but by powers to go forward.^ 
 There is not revolution, but true reform in this proposition. 
 
 ^ There is a single feature of etymological history worth noting, as an aside. Words of 
 similar sound often come from roots containing one vague idea : age, cage, page, rage, stage ; 
 life, wife, rife, knife, strife, fife ; of this principle, poetry has availed itself freely. The matter 
 goes far deeper than mere sensation ; it lies beyond onomatopoeia ; for it concerns the soul. 
 Here is the secret of the origin of language. Emerson disliked words beginning with sn. 
 
 2 The research into psychical age offers rich promise ; but even physical age is not clearly 
 understood. It can be recovered for exposition only in the light of historical somatology. 
 This problem is extremely complicated because of the mixed racial heritages of our 
 
THE PUPIL 109 
 
 The determining principle becomes clear that the more 
 we differentiate and integrate our schools and courses, and 
 the more we distinguish, isolate, and group the different 
 kinds of boys and girls, the more likely we are to educate. 
 This principle cuts far below the two notions : that we 
 should allow the boy to follow his bent, to develop himself 
 where his power is ; and the converse, that education is 
 supplemental, makes strength out of weakness, straightens 
 the bent, rounds out the circle, founds itself upon the truth 
 that education has no external aim, no objective measures, 
 no standards of authority, but is full of faith in the soul as 
 its own mentor. This is a hard doctrine ; it is bed rock, it 
 is the soul asserting itself as one and integral, eternal, 
 final, self-governed, self-justified, as part and parcel of the 
 universal spirit. 
 
 people. Five racial stocks contribute to the American people; and our school pupils vary 
 as they represent greater or smaller portions of the blood of these stocks, (i) The stock 
 numerically most important is the Alpine, — Celtic in the east of Europe, Slavic in the west. 
 The characteristics of this stock are: — broad head, short, stout body, blue eyes or gray, 
 brown or sandy hair. They are patient, sessile, altruistic, communal, sympathetic, indus- 
 trious, persevering, practical, philosophical. (2) The stock spiritually most significant is the 
 Teutonic. Characteristics : — long, narrow, deep head, tall, strong body, blue eyes, flaxen or 
 tawny hair. They are vigorous, roaming, egoistic, feudal, individualistic, passionate, war- 
 loving, executive, creative. (3) Historically, the oldest stock, which now has few pure 
 representatives, is the Mediterranean. Characteristics : — long, narrow head, tall, thin body, 
 black hair, black or brown eyes. They are keen, eager, selfish, emotional, sentimental, 
 artistic and poetic. A boy of the Mediterranean stock (Southwest Italy) is as mature at six- 
 teen years of age as an Alpine (Swiss) at twenty or a pure Teuton (Central Sweden) at 
 twenty four. (4) A minor race is the " Old British." Characteristics: — round head, black 
 hair and eyes, short, strong body. Solid, intense, brooding, warlike, communal. These four 
 stocks are already mixed in America, and are mixing more every year. (5) Our Negroes 
 (" Afro-Americans ") mix them and some four or five Negro (African) stocks also. Of their 
 "white" blood, our "blacks" have a large portion of Ibero (Mediterranean) Celt plus some 
 Teuton from the Portuguese and Spanish peoples. Vide Deniker, Sergi, Shufelt, Dowd, 
 Ripley, Thomas, and Du Bois. . 
 
 In the vast masses of our whites and mulattoes, our Creoles, Indians and Ladinos are at 
 present perhaps sociologically negligible; but American history and romance will always 
 find them profitable themes. 
 
 The theory of the value of prolonged infancy should be supplemented by the theory of the 
 value of a prolonged adolescence. Vide Fiske and Butler. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 SPECIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 A CERTAIN portion of humanity, variable in town and 
 city, in different regions, with different racial stocks and 
 linguistic families, may safely be brought together into 
 one regular system of schools for education. Without 
 physiological or psychological warrant, we Americans, how- 
 ever, have agreed rather generally in all our States that 
 practically all boys and girls may be so brought together ; 
 and unfortunately, where the public ignorance is greatest, 
 and often in the very place where the portion safely to 
 be placed in regular schools is smallest, there uniformity 
 of educational procedure is most completely enforced. 
 
 There are several causes for this popular insistence 
 upon universal uniformity. Of these, the first in the pub- 
 lic attention is the immediate financial economy thereby 
 realized. Simplicity of school organization tends to raise 
 the number of pupils per teacher and to lower the number 
 of teachers per supervisor. This secures a low expense per 
 pupil for instruction and a low expense per teacher for 
 supervision. Two examples will make this clear : — 
 
 The city A has 10,000 pupils The city B has 10,000 pupils 
 
 I superintendent i superintendent 
 
 50 directors and supervisors No directors or supervisors 
 
 70 special teachers No special teachers 
 
 24 building principals without No building principals without 
 
 classes to teach classes to teach 
 
 12 ungraded classes No ungraded classes 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS III 
 
 The city A has 10,000 pupils The city B has 10,000 pupils 
 
 36 kindergartens with instructor No kindergartens 
 
 and an assistant in each 
 
 260 class teachers 250 class teachers 
 
 75 " extra " evening school No " extra " evening teachers 
 
 teachers 
 
 The actual cost per pupil in A is 1^36 annually, in B 
 $1"/, or less than half as much. The actual cost of super- 
 vision per class teacher in A is 1^720; in B is j^io, that is, 
 2-5-5- of the salary of the superintendent, which is {^2500. 
 The superintendent in A receives {^4000. The cost of 
 "extra" teachers in A as compared with B is almost 
 ;^200,ooo, while B pays for all school purposes but 
 ^170,000. These are extreme cases; but they are true. 
 Obviously, all the weight of argument appears to be in 
 favor of the taxpayer who is parsimonious and considers 
 only the immediate present. 
 
 A second cause is that it is easy to understand the 
 simple, low-cost collocation of schools.^ The general public 
 sees only the teacher and the child as the school and, until 
 clearly shown the other factors in complete education, 
 knows nothing whatever about them. 
 
 In a certain city, an economical board of education decided that an 
 ungraded, individual class for incorrigibles and habitual truants was 
 unnecessary, and voted to dispense with it. At the time of disbandment, 
 there were 16 pupils. This meant but one or two more pupils to each 
 of about a dozen teachers, and, according to the argument of the board 
 member who moved the resolution, " saved the taxpayers the salary of a 
 $900 teacher." But, as usual, appearances deceived, for before the 
 year was out, because of the presence of these troublesome boys in 
 these dozen classes, it became necessary to reduce several schools 
 from an average of 50 pupils per teacher to an average of 40, and to 
 employ 4 additional class teachers. This, however, cut both ways, 
 making positions for friends. 
 
 1 Vide pages 33-37, sztpra. 
 
112 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 A third cause for uniform classification of pupils in 
 regular common schools is the democratic notion that all 
 persons, young and old, because they are equal before the 
 law, are equal in intelligence, industry, and character, or at 
 least sufficiently so to be afforded the same instruction. 
 The generality of men object to any kind of classification, 
 not less to the kinds that subtly imply to certain persons 
 the right to separate the inferior and the peculiar from 
 the mediocre or better and the typical, than to the kinds 
 that openly assign to certain other persons the right to 
 "live without work" upon the products of the workers. 
 An "average" man is irritated when his child is pro- 
 nounced "different" from other children. He wishes the 
 boy taught "the same as others." Because it implies a 
 superiority denied by the democratic slogan of equality, he 
 resents the assertion by "authorities " of the right to 
 decide whether the boy is normal, abnormal, or subnor- 
 mal. In consequence, he objects to practically any and 
 every kind of special school. 
 
 A fourth cause why universal uniformity finds social 
 support is that most men and women do not know or 
 understand what education is. We may divide the popu- 
 lation into three classes, — the tmschooledy the schooled but 
 uneducated, and the educated} The last, who have experi- 
 enced and understood education, are and always will be 
 but few in number. That education must take each child 
 where it finds him and educate him out of his actual pres- 
 ent condition, that he and not arithmetic or language is 
 the subject of education, that he undergoes a process of 
 internal change, is incredible because it is incomprehensi- 
 ble to most persons, because they have not experienced 
 this process,^ This is not to say that most children are 
 
 1 Vide page 23, supra. - Vide Bagley, The Educative Process. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS II3 
 
 incapable of education, — my own belief goes farther in 
 the opposite direction than the foregoing phrase suggests, 
 — but it is to say that in their childhood most adults of 
 the present time did not experience the advantage of real 
 education. In order to experience education, the children 
 of to-day and to-morrow must be offered each moment the 
 kind of education requisite for their individual needs : in 
 other terms, there must be special schools for the care of 
 all kinds of peculiar persons except the supernormal.^ 
 
 The first reason for a complete system of general and 
 special schools rests in physiology and psychology. The 
 second reason is founded upon economics and sociology. 
 
 In the present economic regime, most families are so 
 poor as to require at the earliest possible age the service 
 or the earnings of each child. It is wrong to dispute this 
 proposition. With mothers overworked and underfed and 
 with younger children also underfed and with the entire 
 family in overcrowded quarters, there is for the older 
 children no escape from economic work as soon as they 
 are able to perform it without immediate and obvious- detri- 
 ment to themselves. From this predicament of the fifteen- 
 year-old boys and girls of the masses, who form the great 
 majority of at least urban and suburban, if not rural, Ameri- 
 cans, there are but two modes of escape for society. One 
 is to overthrow the present economic regime, by which, as 
 every statistician knows, only 20 per cent^ of the product 
 
 1 The suggestion that in the schools for idiots and defectives there is an analogy for the 
 institution of schools for genius and great talents is incorrect. The genius is one who absorbs 
 more of society than the mediocre, and must, therefore, live in society. The way to destroy 
 genius is to isolate it. (Baldwin, Mental Development, Volume II, Chapter V.) Moreover, 
 genius can find in schools no competent teachers. In the presence of the world of society 
 and by reflection in solitude upon what he has observed in society, the genius teaches and 
 educates himself. This is not to be taken as an objection to advanced groups. 
 
 2 Even the orthodox statisticians and economists do not challenge this fact; they justify it. 
 According to certain sociologists, by means of this economic inequity, democracy is building 
 
114 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 is paid to the laboring producer; the other is to amelio- 
 rate this particular defect of the existing social order by 
 providing some kind of paid work for part of the day of 
 every school-child who is able to do any economic work at 
 all. I am persuaded by my own experience that to avoid 
 the cataclysm of the first mode of escape, we must soon 
 adopt the radicalism of the second. On no other basis do 
 I see how compulsory education through the really impor- 
 tant educable period, from ten to eighteen, inclusive, can 
 be righteously and wisely enforced.^ 
 
 It follows that since every child as he is should be edu- 
 cated for society as it is growing to be, there should be 
 special schools for all classes and cases. Modern society 
 is extremely complex; it is in reality incomprehensibly 
 complex; no man understands it. We need workers of 
 every kind : we need the variety that Nature intends us to 
 have by bringing to birth persons of such various kinds. 
 The school best serves this civilization when it develops all 
 varieties of human nature. There is, no doubt, a certain 
 quality in the school that tends and should tend to har- 
 monize all classes and kinds of men ; but we have mistaken 
 harmony for uniformity. 
 
 Upon these considerations is founded the argument for 
 special schools as complements of the regular school. 
 
 The evening school exists for the working youth of our 
 society, the class that most deserves education. Operat- 
 ing at night, when the body is suffering from more or 
 less fatigue, often depriving the members of the class of 
 
 up many social institutions in the midst of whose conflicts the individual is to win freedom at 
 once personal and social. 
 
 * Every important educational thinker in Europe, where civilization has long been rela- 
 tively mature, has, in some form or other, announced this proposition. Our own civilization 
 has now reached a similar maturity ; and manifests, therefore, a similar need for a sufficient 
 number of sufficiently educated men and women to carry on the civilization. Vide Motives, 
 Ideals, and Values, p. 223. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS II5 
 
 needed rest and sleep, and taught usually by teachers who 
 have spent their best strength upon day classes, the prob- 
 lem of the evening school is in itself hard enough, were it 
 not also complicated by external troubles. This charac- 
 teristic problem of the evening school is how to educate 
 boys and girls over thirteen or fourteen years ^ of age who 
 cannot attend day sessions. 
 
 One of the external difficulties of the evening school is 
 to get enough competent teachers who are physically able 
 to do the work without ruining their fitness for teaching 
 day classes. 
 
 A plan in use in at least one Eastern city ^ is to add to the roll of 
 regular teachers a number equal to one-half of the entire number re- 
 quired for evening classes, and then to place on day half-time all the 
 teachers who have evening classes. From this plan there are the fol- 
 lowing results, viz. : — 
 
 1 . As many classes in day schools have two teachers daily, one for 
 the mornings, one for the afternoons, as there are evening classes. 
 
 2. The evening school teachers give 
 
 3 hours in the morning, or 
 3 hours in the afternoon, and 
 2 hours in the evening, 
 
 so that in actual hours of teaching no teachers give instruction for over 
 five hours daily. 
 
 3. There is no evening school pay-roll : and there is consequently 
 no unique financial question as to how many dollars per evening the 
 day-and-evening teacher shall receive. By this system, all teachers of 
 equal experience, education, and success are paid alike. 
 
 4. There is a marked tendency to keep the evening schools open as 
 many months as the day schools. 
 
 1 Theoretically, no pupils under the upper compulsory attendance age limit are present 
 in the evening school. Practically, despite sworn age affidavits of parents and of physicians, 
 search of birth registers and neighbors' hearsay evidence, and despite fines and even im- 
 prisonment of parents for disobeying the law, there are usually present in an evening school 
 some children who are too young and immature to pursue the courses suitable for the 
 other members of the various classes of the school. 
 
 2 Passaic, N.J, 
 
Il6 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 5. There is also a marked tendency to treat the evening schools not 
 as makeshifts and time occupiers, but as integral, essential parts of the 
 modern educational system. 
 
 6. Competition to get positions as teachers in evening schools for 
 the sake of the " extra money " ceases. 
 
 Another difficulty of the evening school is to get proper 
 accommodations without interfering with the accommoda- 
 tions of the day classes. In an ideal state of society, there 
 would be no need of evening schools. Consequently, it is 
 not competent to say that in ideal conditions there would 
 be separate buildings for evening classes. What we should 
 work toward is an educational situation in which no youth 
 shall leave day school until educated. Health absolutely 
 demands the day (from sunrise to sunset) as the time for 
 being educated, and the night for absolute rest.^ But 
 until that epoch arrives, when " leaving school " shall be 
 synonymous with "being educated," we shall need in our 
 school buildings proper room and equipment for evening 
 as well as day pupils. 
 
 The standard elementary school building should accommodate two 
 kinds of pupils, — the day and the evening. It should have small lockers 
 10" X 12" X 20" or 24" into which can be placed the books, paper, pen- 
 cils, etc., of the day and evening pupils (one locker per pupil), so that 
 neither set of pupils will interfere with the other. It should have also 
 separate closets in each room and separate storerooms for day and 
 evening use so that the two staffs of day and evening principals and 
 teachers may work independently. So long as the evening faculty can 
 borrow from the day faculty, it will be impossible to provide the even- 
 ing school with sufficient material in the way of books, tools, and other 
 supplies. 
 
 The standard high school should accommodate three kinds of pupils, 
 
 ^ Artificial light has deceived us as to the real facts of our physical needs and, indeed, 
 necessities. In cities, we now have two '' days," the day of sunlight and the day of electric 
 (and gas) light. Therefore, the modern city more than the ancient imperils our racial 
 vitality and continuance. Modern scientific sanitation is but a palliative. Life may be 
 lengthened ; but the birth rate falls and physical strength declines. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS II7 
 
 — the all-day attendants, the half-day (morning or afternoon) attend- 
 ants, and the evening attendants. Lockers should be provided accord- 
 ingly. The economy as well as the security of this scheme has proven 
 itself so clearly that its success is assured. Originating in Boston, it is 
 now spreading widely. 
 
 For the evening-school pupil, we need a different kind 
 of text-book from that required for the day pupil. For the 
 kind of study that he can pursue with profit, the former is 
 characteristically " over-age." In his readers and histories, 
 he needs more mature, though not less simple, truth than 
 the day pupil can comprehend. The evening-school boy 
 or man, girl or woman, is always a person of at least some 
 worldly experience : he has earned money and has " mixed " 
 with people. He is a wage-earner and knows "society." 
 Too often he is d/ase. Therefore, he needs in his school 
 books corrective as well as directive information.^ 
 
 Among the books required for the proper instruction of 
 evening pupils are texts on the various trades that should 
 be taught in these schools. Such trades should be included 
 as meet the following requirements, viz. : — 
 
 1. Each trade taught should be educative, and that not 
 merely in the disciplinary sense, 
 
 2. Each trade should be one that is already, or may soon 
 be, pursued conveniently in the neighborhood. 
 
 3. Each trade should produce goods literally, — mer- 
 chandise good for the welfare of mankind ; not debat- 
 ably but confessedly good. 
 
 4. Each trade, as far as possible, should be taught in its 
 highest form as an applied science or an industrial art, and 
 not merely as a wage-getting occupation. 
 
 ^ The use, in most of the cities of the country, of the four evening-school texts by 
 Chancellor {Reading Lessons for Foreigners and Adult Beginners ; Studies in Eng- 
 lish ; Arithmetic ; and American History] published in 1903 and 1904 shows that the 
 field is open for the preparation of many books solely for such schools. 
 
Il8 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The slow introduction of the trades into our schools is 
 not caused solely by the reluctance of the public to grant 
 the money ; it is caused partly by the difficulties experi- 
 enced in securing skilful teachers and good text-books. 
 
 Among the crafts that may properly be taught in the day and evening 
 schools are the following, viz. : — 
 
 Leather working, — the making of boots, shoes, harness, trunks 
 
 Iron and steel working 
 
 Brass and copper working 
 
 Construction of machinery (assembling parts) 
 
 Furniture making 
 
 Wheelwrighting and wagon-building 
 
 Carriage making 
 
 The making of pottery 
 
 Tailoring 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Laundering 
 
 The making of textiles, — silk, wool, flax, cotton 
 
 Printing 
 
 Shorthand and typewriting 
 
 Bookkeeping and office business 
 
 Cookery and confectionery 
 
 Certain trades and wage-earning occupations cannot be 
 taught in any schools ; and certain professions, and certain 
 occupations now in the process of becoming professions, 
 can be taught only in universities or schools of " higher 
 education," Journalism is an instance of the last cited 
 kind of profession-in-the-making ; salesmanship, of the first 
 kind of trade. In respect to these matters, I assert an 
 opinion that society organized as the School should be 
 ready and active in teaching every trade and wage-earning 
 occupation that makes for the welfare of mankind ; and I 
 venture another opinion that such trades and occupations 
 as cannot be properly taught in schools are predatory, are 
 survivals of private war, and of other primitive social con- 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS II9 
 
 ditions, and should and will be abolished in the process of 
 perfecting human nature. 
 
 The programmes of exercises for evening-school classes 
 should, of course, vary with the age and attainments of the 
 pupils ; but all of them, to be truly educational, should con- 
 form to these principles, viz. : — 
 
 1. The purpose of the first exercise of the evening 
 should be to bring every member of the school fully into 
 the atmosphere of education. This can be done only 
 by establishing esprit du corps. The boy and the girl, 
 the man and the woman, attending evening school, must 
 be brought out of the worldly atmosphere that characterizes 
 him or her and into the school atmosphere. The worldly 
 atmosphere may be that of the street gang or of the sordid 
 counting-room or the reeking mill or the vicious den : 
 whatever it is, it can be removed only by displacement. 
 As soon as the pupil enters the building, the school life 
 must surround, environ, absorb, penetrate, and permeate 
 him, as it certainly will, if it be true life. In displacing 
 the other atmosphere with its voices and echoes, there is 
 nothing so good as prompt musical, literary, and dramatic 
 exercises. These should not be too long ; and they should 
 be of a character suited to the special interests and con- 
 cerns of the pupils.^ 
 
 2. For evening-class programmes, the following are 
 suggested as affording the most profitable use of the 
 time : — 
 
 1 In some neighborhoods and in some seasons (as at Christmas time in commercial cities) 
 the pupils cannot all reach school at 7 or 7 : 30 o'clock. In such cases, I have found it best 
 to devote the first half-hour, while the classes are assembling, to individual instruction and 
 hard study under the guidance of the teacher ; and then to hold a fifteen-minute assembly. 
 The last evening of the week, the programme may be varied by having a half or three- 
 quarter-hour assembly with somewhat formal exercises, including occasionally an address 
 by some successful man who is also a convincing public speaker. Gregariousness is a 
 characteristic, and an essential one, of human nature. 
 
120 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 7 : 30 to 7:45 School assembly with music 
 7 :45 to 8:15 English 
 8:15 to 8 : 30 Arithmetic 
 8 : 30 to 9 : 30 Trade 
 
 II 
 
 7 : 30 to 7 : 40 Assembly 
 7 : 40 to 8 : 00 Writing 
 
 8 : 00 to 8:15 Spelling 
 8:15 to 8 : 30 Reading 
 8 : 30 to 9 : 30 Trade 
 
 III 
 
 7 : 30 to 7 : 40 Assembly 
 
 7 : 40 to 7:55 American history 
 7:55 to 8 : 20 Arithmetic 
 
 8 : 20 to 9 : 00 Drawing 
 9 : 00 to 9 : 30 Trade 
 
 3. Where no trade can be taught, and not even manual 
 training, the programme can include only the more 
 familiar day subjects ; it should not, however, include more 
 than four different studies for any one evening or indeed 
 any one term. 
 
 4. In the more advanced lines of workj the following 
 programmes are suggested : — 
 
 IV 
 
 7:30 to 7:45 Assembly with music 
 7 : 45 to 8 : 30 Mechanical drawing 
 8 : 30 to 9 : 30 Chemistry in laboratory 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS I2I 
 
 V 
 
 7 : 30 to 7 : 45 Assembly 
 7:45 to 8:15 General history 
 8:15 to 8:45 Geometry 
 
 8 : 45 to 9 : 30 Trade (or occupation) 
 
 VI 
 
 7 : 30 to 7 : 40 Assembly 
 
 7 : 40 to 8 : 20 Spanish 
 
 8 : 20 to 8:45 Commercial law 
 8:45 to 9 : 30 Trade (or occupation) 
 
 5. The correlation of the technical manual or trade work 
 with the academic work of the evening school is an even 
 more difficult problem than in the case of the day school, 
 where it is indeed hard enough. This correlation is per- 
 haps best effected by means of composition and of drawing 
 — of composition by writing clear and accurate accounts 
 of the various successive processes of the trade, and of 
 drawing by plotting working sketches of the things done 
 or to be done. But both these processes take time, and 
 time is what the evening school cannot give. In the case of 
 some pupils, — for instance, those whose day-work ends at 
 four o'clock, — these explanatory compositions and sche- 
 matic drawings can be done at home, but such conditions 
 are few. The director of evening schools is consequently 
 forced to choose between an attempt to correlate the work 
 of the classroom with that of the shop by reducing the 
 time for the actual handling of the tools and for the oper- 
 ating of the processes, and no attempt at such correlation. 
 In the former case, he lengthens the time that is required 
 for the completion of the special technical course — which 
 means that he reduces the percentage of persons able to 
 
122 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 Stay and to complete the course. In the latter case, he 
 increases the number of persons to be graduated but 
 reduces more or less the educational value of the course 
 and even its special technical value, for within limits mere 
 length of time is a psychological desideratum. 
 
 It is a safe proposition that to permit any person to pur- 
 sue one trade only with no other study or exercise evening 
 after evening, year after year, is to delay even the mastery 
 of the trade as well as to throw away an educational op- 
 portunity. One who knows but one thing cannot fully 
 know even that. That man prospers in life who has at 
 least two wearing lines, — a vocation and an avocation; 
 and he prospers best who has a vocatiojt, mi avocation, and 
 a recreation. Similarly in the school, to see the materials 
 by which one is to be educated, one must cross-view them 
 by having at least two points of view.^ 
 
 The special school next in importance for the remedy 
 of the deficiency of the regular day school as the instru- 
 ment of universal education is the school for the defective. 
 The evening school exists because in this economic regime 
 many youth "leave school" (meaning "day school") before 
 they are educated. The school for defectives exists because 
 Nature brings to birth, or the accidents and evils of life 
 after birth make, a considerable number who cannot 
 benefit from class work with normal children and whose 
 presence in classes with such children is detrimental. 
 
 1 The principle applies to the science of education and to the art of educating. There is a 
 special science of education, very closely related to the science of genetic psychology ; and 
 there is a special art of educating, unlike any other; but the science and the art, to be under- 
 stood, must be viewed and criticised in the light of other sciences, — psychology, physiology, 
 hygiene, logic, ethics, politics, economics, anthropology, ethnology, sociology, philosophy, 
 — and of other arts and professions, — music, poetry, painting, oratory, law, medicine, 
 theology, engineering, journalism, statesmanship. Those who do not see this, and confess 
 or boast that they do not, are empirics, to whom are due some of the worst of the chronic mala- 
 dies of human society. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 23 
 
 We may divide the children of men into two classes, — 
 the normal and the variant. These latter may be divided 
 again into three groups, — the supernormal, the abnormal, 
 and the subnormal.^ 
 
 The abnormal include the defectives, — the deaf, the 
 blind, the paralytic, — as well as the non-sane. 
 
 We may test mankind by such psychophysiological tests 
 as these : — 
 
 a. Psychical rate 
 
 b. Psychical field 
 
 c. Retention of facts 
 
 d. Retention of conclusions from facts 
 
 e. Rate of acquiring a physical habit 
 
 Were mankind to be judged by only the first of these 
 tests, classification would be easy enough ; but there are 
 many tests that confuse the issue. One who "thinks" fast, 
 seldom carries many ideas : his field is small. Similarly, one 
 who retains ideas strongly is usually slow to draw conclu- 
 sions and apt to be forgetful of them. The observant are 
 seldom reflective ; the retentive, seldom progressive. To 
 be progressive is to discard old habits quickly by rapidly 
 acquiring new ones.^ 
 
 Consciously or unconsciously, all of us more or less fre- 
 quently judge our fellows by these and related standards. 
 This one we call " quick," that one " slow " ; this one 
 "broad," that one "narrow"; this one "reliable," that 
 one a "liar" or "promise-breaker"; this one "docile" or 
 "teachable," that one "obstinate"; this one we say has 
 "good judgment," that one "bad." We are "smart" 
 or " dull," " thorough " or " superficial," " far-sighted " or 
 
 ^ Vide page 132, infra. 
 
 ' No habit can be discarded in any other way than by displacement when another habit is 
 being acquired. 
 
124 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 the contrary, according to our superiority, mediocrity, 
 or inferiority in relation to an average standard deter- 
 mined by the individual critic in the light of his social 
 knowledge.^ 
 
 Practically, in large cities there are needed the follow- 
 ing schools, viz. : — 
 
 For the supernormal and the normal, a standard hierar- 
 chical and progressive system from the kindergarten 
 through the university and professional schools. The 
 supernormal should not be advanced beyond their age, but 
 be given more work of a quality suited to the age ; until 
 twelve or fourteen years old, they need to be delayed by 
 their average fellows, who in turn need them as incentives 
 to effort. After adolescence has set in, most of this ma- 
 jority of our youth should go to continuation trade high 
 schools'^ and colleges instead of dropping down into "life," 
 the unripe fruit of our badly nourished educational tree. 
 The strongest should go forward to scientific and classical 
 courses in professional schools of hterature, art, engineer- 
 ing, agriculture, commerce, manufacture. 
 
 ' Every school needs an equipment for making definite tests; and every city needs a suffi- 
 cient number of physiopsychologists to make these tests at proper intervals. When education 
 has become a science, we shall determine the progress of a pupil in these qualities of power 
 and of skill as well as in gzcanta of knowledge. 
 
 ' It is so radical a proposition that I hesitate to print it in large type ; we should have 
 city agrictdtural higJi schools. Why? Because the best thing that we can do for the 
 present welfare of our people and for the future of our stock is to encourage them to know 
 Nature, to live out of doors, and to be natural. I would like to have all people live as many 
 do in the Connecticut River valley : in villages with their farms perhaps miles away. Each 
 family needs a home with a garden "close" and an orchard. If we must have cities for 
 manufacture and for trading, let the cities be in no sense residence centres, but business and 
 occupation centres only. (/4 Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values, Chapter XXII. 
 " The Natural Man.") In developing once more the country as the human ideal, the agri- 
 cultural high school will prove a powerful factor This is now the United States Govern- 
 ment policy. Wisconsin, e.g., already has established county (country) agricultural high 
 schools. But the city needs them more than does the country. The agricultural high school 
 will interest the city youth more than the country youth, because it is different, and because 
 it fills an ancient hunger of the soul, an ideal due to past ancestral lives. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 25 
 
 For the subnormal and the abnormal there are needed 
 the following schools, viz. : — 
 
 Day Schools, — 
 
 For incorrigibles, pending trial as to whether the incor- 
 rigibility is transient or permanent. 
 
 For truants and habitual absentees from school, pending 
 trial. 
 
 For the belated and backward, pending trial whether 
 their deficiencies are due to remediable or accidental causes 
 or are permanent and progressive relative to normal 
 children. 
 
 For deaf non-mutes. 
 
 For cripples. 
 
 For the blind. 
 
 These schools should be conducted as independent 
 classes, preferably not in or near buildings with normal 
 children. 
 
 Home Schools, — 
 
 For the reform of incorrigibles, of chronic truants, and 
 of chronic absentees. 
 
 For deaf-mutes. 
 
 For the blind and poor. 
 
 For the crippled and poor. 
 
 For pauper orphans. 
 
 For the absolutely vicious. 
 
 These home or parental schools should be not in the 
 same but in separate buildings. In their courses, all such 
 schools should be essentially industrial, and no child once 
 committed to them should be released until able to earn a 
 living by self-directed labor in a trade or recognized and 
 reliable occupation. 
 
126 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 Our business as educators is at every possible point to 
 cut off the supply of youth for bar-tending, gambling, pros- 
 titution, and grand and petty criminality. 
 
 Obviously, the limits of space available in this text do 
 not permit a detailed discussion of the management of all 
 of these schools, for each has its own purpose. There are, 
 however, certain considerations too important to be omitted 
 here. 
 
 Admission to the special day schools should be upon the 
 written recommendation of the teacher, and of the princi- 
 pal, and by order of the superintendent for the district or 
 division. A copy of the order of admission when the 
 special school is outside the jurisdiction of the district 
 superintendent should be filed in the office of the city or 
 division superintendent. This should apply even when 
 the ungraded, individual-help class is within the building 
 of the principal recommending the transfer. 
 
 There should be strict rules governing the length of 
 stay in the class, which should never be less than the 
 reform of the pupil as certified in writing by the teacher 
 of the class. In cities large enough to have supervisors 
 of classes for incorrigibles, truants, habitual absentees, and 
 backward pupils, the transfer out of the class in the case 
 of reform should be made with the advice and consent of 
 such supervisor or supervisors. 
 
 It is a proposition safe enough in the minds of the expe- 
 rienced that the stay of pupils in the classes for the first 
 three kinds of abnormality should never be less than two 
 months even when reform is immediately manifested. A 
 pupil who can be permanently reformed in less than this 
 period needed transfer to another teacher, not a special 
 regimen. 
 
 But when upon being transferred to the day-school class 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 127 
 
 the pupil grows steadily worse, as soon as this is reliably- 
 ascertained, he should be committed to a parental or home 
 school. 
 
 In nearly all instances, the reformed pupil, when re- 
 turned to the regular school work, should be assigned to 
 a different teacher from the one from whose class he was 
 originally sent to the ungraded school. This will usually ; 
 be a matter of course, for he will have been in the special 
 school long enough to advance beyond the grade from' 
 which he was transferred. But in certain instances, it is 
 best for him to go back to the class whence he came and 
 to the teacher who asked for his removal. This is true 
 when the following conditions concur : — 
 
 1. The pupil desires to be so returned. 
 
 2. The teacher is not only willing but glad to take him 
 back.^ 
 
 3. His associations in the class are not such as to 
 induce in him the old spirit of transgression. 
 
 4. There is no other regular class of the same or simi- 
 lar grade to which he may not equally well be transferred. 
 
 Obviously, such a concurrence of conditions will be 
 unusual, perhaps not one case in ten, in large cities or in 
 small. 
 
 Another consideration applicable to all varieties of spe- 
 cial day schools is that they must (not merely should) 
 have the best possible teachers considered from every point 
 of view ; that is, they must be broadly developed, thoroughly 
 and regularly educated educators, and they must also be 
 specially prepared for the field that their special school 
 
 1 It is sometimes argued that it is best for the boy to be tried once more in the same 
 environment. Common sense says, " A burnt child dreads the fire." Paul says, " Flee 
 temptation." Jesus says, "Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil." The 
 argument is based upon ignorance of human nature and arises from the " teasing spirit," 
 which is unworthy in professed educators. 
 
128 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 represents. More than this, they must have what we call 
 " personalities " adapted to their peculiar tasks. A per- 
 sonality that may serve admirably in a school for the 
 physically defective is not apt to meet the different 
 requirements of the manager of a class of incorrigibles. 
 
 Unless these special day schools are well "manned" or 
 "womanned," they may be worse than useless. Salaries 
 should be high. Frequent relief for the teachers by visiting 
 elsewhere or in plain rest and recreation should be custom- 
 ary ; it serves also as an inducement for those to take such 
 positions who otherwise are reluctant to do so. 
 
 Another consideration is that, wherever possible, the 
 classes should be so arranged that in one way or another 
 two teachers share the responsibility and the work. A 
 class of incorrigible pupils in a room isolated from all 
 other schools and in the control of a single teacher may 
 suffer a dangerous outbreak of disorder. It is too much 
 of a strain to place upon one person.^ 
 
 There is no doubt that special day classes are costly per 
 capita. But they are less costly than reform schools and 
 much less costly than jails and penitentiaries. That boys 
 habitually absent from school or incorrigible in school are on 
 their way to jail and to penitentiary is not to be questioned. 
 These special day schools are also less costly than pauper- 
 ism ; and that the neglected deaf-mute or crippled or blind 
 boy or girl is on the way to becoming a public charge in 
 almshouse or by outdoor relief is not to be questioned. ^ 
 
 1 In a certain city, an incorrigible, ansemic boy, always irritable, suddenly became vio- 
 lently insane in class. The predicament of the teacher and of the other boys was in this 
 instance, as it were " providentially," relieved by the unwonted appearance of a policeman 
 passing upon the street on his way home to dinner. As the attack was the beginning of 
 chronic insanity with destructive mania, it is not pleasant to think of what might have hap- 
 pened. With two teachers on hand, the situation would have been greatly mitigated. 
 
 2 Not only the city of New York, but also the State of Wisconsin, is now moving nobly to 
 the rescue of blind children through public education. So progressive are we now becoming. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 29 
 
 The argument, however, cannot honorably be permitted 
 to rest here. In this age in America, when the aver- 
 age wealth per capita is ^1370, and the average annual 
 income per capita is at least ;^I200, publicists, ethical 
 teachers, legislators, and medical and other experts in 
 human nature cannot evaluate fullness of life in terms 
 of dollars and cents ; property and education in this age 
 of the surplus are incommensurate with men and women.^ 
 In ages and lands when taking property from the strong 
 to save the weak meant damaging, if not ruining, the 
 strong, whether or not to tax the well in order to save the 
 sick, was at least a debatable question. But now the use 
 of wealth to save the unwell is merely a question of dimin- 
 ishing the luxuries, not the necessaries or even the com- 
 forts of the few. Moreover, it means not quite that, but 
 rather the investment of the surplus so as to diminish the 
 number of the destroyers of labor-power and the parasites 
 upon wealth. Paradoxical though it has always sounded, 
 the experience of mankind proves that it pays richly to 
 save the weak, to correct the wrong. A charitable society 
 necessarily grows rich ; it produces no enemies of the gen- 
 eral welfare; it is cooperative. Such charity does not 
 pauperize but enriches its beneficiaries. 
 
 The multi-millionnaire father who educates his sons, 
 though at great expense, does not thereby pauperize either 
 themselves or himself. A multi-billionnaire society that 
 educates its youth thereby enriches itself. All the wealth 
 of a nation is in its good citizens because the good citizens 
 either add to the general wealth, or respect and protect 
 it, or both. The costly citizens are the great criminals 
 
 that only a spectator, free to look about, can keep in touch with all these forward movements. 
 The work of Chicago for cripples is likewise notable. 
 1 Vide Patten, New Basis of Civilization. 
 
130 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 who live outside the law and the small criminals who 
 are ground beneath the law. A true national education, 
 universally enforced, would permit no criminal to develop.^ 
 By the same argument, which is not subtle but obvious, 
 the parental schools are likewise justified. Wherever pos- 
 sible, these, like the day schools, should be separated and 
 set apart one from another. In large cities, there are re- 
 quired home schools for at least these different kinds of 
 abnormal children and youth : — 
 
 1. The chronic incorrigibles, truants, and absentees. 
 
 2. Deaf-mutes. 
 
 3. Blind youth.2 
 
 4. Idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded, or otherwise neu- 
 rotic. 
 
 5. Orphan paupers. 
 
 6. Crippled paupers. 
 
 7. Deserted, cruelly treated, and seriously neglected 
 children and youth. 
 
 8. Criminal youth.^ 
 
 ' " Even so, it is not the will of your Father which is in heaven that one of these little 
 ones should perish." — Jesus, Gospel of Matthew, xviii, 14. 
 
 " The Lord is not willing that any should perish." — 2 Epistle Peter, iii, 9. 
 
 "Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or tittle shall in no wise pass from the law until all 
 be fulfilled." — Jesus, Matthew, v, 18. 
 
 2 In respect to certain of these classes, it is thought best in some States to send such 
 youth to State or County institutions. This implies the establishment of schools outside of 
 educational control. The desideratum is to bring all these institutions within the field of edu- 
 cation. Stated otherwise, the ideal is so to enlarge the conception of education as a tnode 
 of human progress atid of the school as a social institution that they will include all 
 kinds of humanity. In consequence, unless the actual or proposed parental school of State 
 or County is under the State or County board of education and State or County superintend- 
 ent of instruction, who is a qualified expert, the logic of the argument requires favoring a 
 city school under the city board and superintendent. There is another reason — these 
 parental schools are best when small and near the homes of most of their inmates. While 
 isolated, they should not be remote or inaccessible. Again, in general, County institutions are 
 inferior to State snd City institutions; and in at least a fair majority of instances, it is easier 
 for general public opinion and expert professional opinion to reform City than State institu- 
 tions. Of course, these city institutions should always have grounds about them. 
 
 3 All penal institutions should be reformatory , that is, educational. Not to pass upon 
 the question whether or not certain crimes are evidences of a moral insanity so dangerous as 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 131 
 
 Humanity in civilization brings to birth children of at 
 least six recognizably different types. These may be con- 
 sidered as the following, viz. : — 
 
 Supernormal but not abnormal. 
 
 Both supernormal and abnormal. 
 
 Normal. 
 
 Abnormal but neither supernormal nor subnormal. 
 
 Subnormal but not abnormal. 
 
 Both subnormal and abnormal. 
 
 To type I belong persons of so many and so generous talents as to 
 constitute them full-orbed geniuses ; e.g. Vinci, Shakespeare, Franklin. 
 
 To type 2 belong 
 persons of special but 
 surpassing talent: 
 this is the group of 
 men and women of 
 " genius," used in a 
 narrow sense ; e.g. 
 Heine, Keats, Haw- 
 thorne. 
 
 To type 3 belong 
 most of us. 
 
 To type 4 belong 
 the " obvious fail- 
 ures," our " ne'er-do- 
 weels." 
 
 To type 5 belong 
 the dull and the de- 
 fective. 
 
 To type 6 belong 
 the true "perverts," 
 the idiot and the imbecile. 
 
 All criminals belong to types 2, 4, and 6. 
 
 to make the extending of the hope of return to the world itself criminal, one may with entire 
 safety say that most of the youth guilty of misdemeanors, crimes, and felonies require educa- 
 tive treatment in the hope of release to the world upon cure and growth. Such educative 
 treatment can best be afforded in small institutions that are in form prisons but in spirit and 
 in process schools. 
 
 1 SUPERNORMAL 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 3 
 
 NORMA L 
 
 
 R 
 M 
 A 
 L 
 
 5 
 
 SUBNORMAL 
 
 6 
 
132 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 These variations from the normal may be determined 
 by the close observer who has had psychological training. 
 The following points are to be noted, viz. : — 
 
 1. The psychical rate. 
 
 With some persons, images flow fast, with others very 
 slowly. Even the standard normal vary as much as 
 4 to I. 
 
 2. The psychical field. 
 
 Some persons carry several ideas at a time. They 
 "consider" and consciously "judge." Others have but 
 one or two ideas at a time. 
 
 3. Observation. 
 
 Some see much, others see something, the poorest see, 
 hear, feel, very little. This is the question of sense- 
 receptivity. 
 
 4. Recollection. 
 
 Some recall " facts " clearly and easily, others less well, 
 the poorest scarcely at all. 
 
 5. Memory. 
 
 Some who cannot recall facts recall their conclusions. 
 These are the irredeemable conservatives of human so- 
 ciety. Some cannot recall either facts or conclusions. 
 These are the double-minded, " driven with the wind and 
 tossed." Others recall both facts and conclusions. These 
 are the possible progressives. Still others recall only the 
 facts, forgetting the conclusions. These are the redeem- 
 able conservatives. 
 
 6. Imagination and judgment. 
 
 The power to recall facts and conclusions is only the 
 foundation for the power to compose and constitute them 
 into pictures and judgments. The normal can do this well. 
 The supernormal do it so easily and so well that they seem 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 33 
 
 to possess "intuitions," "genius," and other mysterious 
 powers.^ 
 
 We have, therefore, the normal and the variants. Of 
 the latter, there are five types. Unfortunatel}'^, the plain 
 subnormal, and the grotesque and often pitiable, subnormal- 
 abnormal, are many times as numerous as the supernormal. 
 
 Beside the home schools, society needs also the out-and- 
 out reform or penal schools even for children. There 
 come into the world souls aged, as it were, dissolute, un- 
 regulated. Often, their bodies are prematurely old. The 
 physiological explanation is not far to seek. Every cell 
 of the human body is, of course, alive ; it has sensations, 
 impulses, volitions, affections. We are congeries of mill- 
 ions on millions of cells. Character is but these cells 
 brought into relation by a compelling soul. Conscience is 
 but a self-understanding correlation of all these motives, 
 desires, emotions. The good man rules and reigns in the 
 cosmic soul of his " world " ; the bad man flits about in 
 chaos. To control tropisms, actions, reflexes, is to secure 
 and to prolong life in this universe of the body. Personal 
 identity and dignity : this is nothing but an integrating 
 or unifying of so-called "physical" forces into so-called 
 "spirit"; and spirit thus made self-conscious as soul. Yet 
 some come into life incapable of organizing its elements, 
 its instincts, habits, impulse into personality. 
 
 To the reform school must go not a few children and 
 youth who are thieves because incapable of comprehending 
 the notion of property ; thugs and prostitutes because in- 
 capable of comprehending the notion of human personality ; 
 and other victims in any one or more of twenty other 
 
 1 This entire problem as such belongs outside of the province of this book. Obviously, I 
 have suggested only the entrance into this field. It has possibilities of immense educational 
 value. For classification of the atypical, vide reports of Groszmann, School for Defectives, 
 Plainfield, N.J. Also MacDonald, Experimental Study of Children. 
 
134 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 modes and stages of the incomplete evolution of the soul 
 in man.^ 
 
 Reform school management is, of course, an art in itself. 
 Similarly, the management of schools for each kind of 
 defectives constitutes a special art. All these special arts, 
 however, are but component elements of the philosophy of 
 education. What require emphasis at this point are the 
 two propositions that fitness to manage regular schools and 
 even entire school systems does not insure fitness to man- 
 age any one of these special kinds of schools, and that for 
 the management of or instruction in any of these special 
 schools there is an absolutely necessary prerequisite in a 
 thorough, extensive, and profound knowledge of the biology 
 of man, which alone can interpret physical and psychical 
 pathology.^ 
 
 Administrators of State and City school systems know 
 how exceedingly difficult it is to secure competent heads for 
 any kind of special school, — ungraded, cripple, blind, 
 deaf, reform, — and they know well the reasons. For the 
 sake of the record, it may, however, be proper to note in 
 passing what the reasons are. 
 
 The first of these reasons is, of course, the unwillingness 
 of the lords of economic society to consider the relation of 
 all these human unfortunates to the welfare and progress 
 of general society. 
 
 The second reason is the inability of the dependent 
 classes, whose intuitions in all these matters are correct, to 
 force the lords to proper support of remedial and preventa- 
 tive measures. 
 
 * I have suggested in another work — A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values — a 
 few aspects of this immeasurably important principle. The conditions of American public 
 opinion do not yet permit in popular writings any expositions of these themes of the animal 
 in man. The presence of these conditions is sufficient warrant for the opinion that to attempt 
 their discussion at this epoch is evidence of unfitness for popular teaching. 
 
 * Bibliography, Appendi.x I, infra. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 35 
 
 The third reason is the insufficiency of knowledge on 
 the part of the professional classes regarding the social 
 situation ; in consequence of their comparative ignorance, 
 ministers, lawyers, educators, even most journalists and 
 physicians, fail to see the significance of the presence of 
 degenerates in the social mass. 
 
 From these three reasons, these facts result, viz. : — 
 
 1. There are so few of these special schools for defec- 
 tives as to attract almost no attention from talented youth 
 as an interesting mode of activity in years of maturity. 
 
 2. The mode of life possible to workers in these institu- 
 tions is so limited upon its material side in respect both to 
 buildings, apparatus, and equipment, and to "compensa- 
 tion " for services as almost to forbid voluntary entrance. 
 Most managers and teachers have literally been drafted 
 into the work by hunger and cold. 
 
 3. The work appears as yet in the notion of the general 
 public to be purely charitable, whereas it is capable of being 
 made largely, if not mainly, educational. 
 
 There are, however, a few general principles that may 
 safely be laid down for the guidance of organizers and 
 administrators of reform and other schools for the probable 
 failures in life. 
 
 Of these, the first principle is that the buildings for the 
 school should all be upon the "cottage plan." This means 
 that the dormitories should house each but a score of boys 
 (or of girls); that even the schoolhouses should each be 
 small, however numerous the inmates of the school ; that 
 the barns and stables and workshops should be small and 
 many, rather than large and few. 
 
 The second principle is that the school must be in a 
 park, not upon a mere building plot. It must have gar- 
 dens, walks, woods, fields, streams, and playgrounds. It 
 
136 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 must appeal to our fundamental human nature, to the 
 hereditary ancestral man. ^ 
 
 The third principle is that the school must be controlled 
 and in the main taught by parents, preferably by those 
 parents who themselves have had wayward or deformed 
 or otherwise atypical children. Compassion is the essence 
 of good special school teaching. 
 
 The fourth principle is that the work must be primarily 
 physical and essentially physiological. The manager and 
 head assistants should be graduated physicians as well as 
 thoroughly taught educators. 
 
 Closely associated with this topic is another special topic 
 that also requires for its proper treatment a volume by it- 
 self. I refer to the juvenile court. The purposes of this 
 court are several. 
 
 Of these purposes, the first is to save youth from reform 
 schools and penal institutions, if possible, while at the same 
 time giving them both a severe warning and a definite les- 
 son in the power of society organized as government. 
 The essence, therefore, of juvenile court reproof is proba- 
 tion with a sanction ; that is, excuse from the legally appro- 
 priate penalty, provided there are the fruits of works meet 
 for repentance. 
 
 The second purpose is the correlation of court, school, 
 and home : of the law, of education, and of family 
 discipline. 
 
 Obviously, the juvenile court is very closely related to 
 the enforcement of the compulsory education laws. We 
 
 1 Behind this principle, which should be a mere commonplace for the education of each 
 and every child of man, is not only philosophy, but also strictly scientific truth. Said Rous- 
 seau in the Entile, — " In the first movement of the mind, let the senses always be the guides; 
 let there be no books but the world and no other instruction but facts." This literary opinion 
 was the beginning of all the constructive work in education from Kant and Pestalozzi to Hall, 
 Dewey, and Baldwin. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 37 
 
 open up here the bitter questions of poverty, of ignorance, 
 and of family isolation. 
 
 I cannot pass this topic without a reference to the attend- 
 ance or "truant" officers. The latter name is unfortu- 
 nately the more common. These officers should be, not 
 policemen, never punishers, but always the almoners of 
 education. Preferably, most of them should be women, and 
 always they should be parents.^ 
 
 The question of the mode of appointment, term of office, 
 salary, and other features of the tenure of juvenile court 
 judges would lead us too far afield, were it to be answered 
 here fully; but so much as this is certain. A juvenile 
 court judge should be as good a jurist as sits on the bench ; 
 he is dealing with lives. He should be a mature man who 
 knows the world ; and he must be a keen critic of human 
 nature. He must be both religious and a reformer. As 
 such, he can play a large and a blessed part in the modern 
 city. Such a man will know how to select proper proba- 
 tion officers and how to advise the superintendent of 
 schools in the proper selection of attendance officers. 
 
 The attendance officers must be part and parcel of the 
 educational work of the school system. In salary, they 
 should receive as much as the principals of small elemen- 
 tary schools. And they should be selected upon strict] 
 civil service reform principles, by examination as to quali-' 
 fications and investigation of previous record. , 
 
 Of other special schools, the summer schools, so called, 
 are perhaps the most important. These are of two distinct 
 kinds, — the schools or institutes for teachers and appren- 
 tices, and the schools for pupils who otherwise would be 
 
 1 The attendance officers of the District of Columbia are all of them married women. 
 Their efficiency and their sympathy have both sprung largely from their own life 
 experiences. 
 
138 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 upon the streets. The first kind of school is of so much 
 significance in the professional development of city school 
 systems as to warrant longer treatment.^ The second kind 
 is a temporary makeshift in the North, pending a proper 
 and complete organization of the school year.^ In certain 
 southern regions of our country, the heat is such as to 
 preclude the holding of summer day-school sessions. 
 
 Of the makeshift summer schools, there are three types. 
 Of these, the first is that of the morning session devoted 
 mainly to Nature-study and to manual training. As for 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic, these and other so-called 
 "essentials" are scarcely considered. In the afternoon, the 
 children roam the streets. This morning day school is 
 usually interesting at first; but as the weeks go by the 
 attendance dwindles. Part of the cause lies in the fact 
 that the teachers are either young and unskilful, working 
 for the " pay," ^ or old and tired, working out of habit or 
 a sense of duty or mere will-lessness to do anything else. 
 
 The second type of modern summer school for children 
 is the play school. This often has two sessions, with some- 
 times one set, more frequently two sets, of children in 
 attendance. In the play or playground summer session, 
 the children are taught games and gymnastics, stories, 
 play-acting, perhaps wood-working and sewing. The 
 teachers are necessarily more or less speciaUsts; they 
 are at least specialists in posse. 
 
 Sometimes these two types of school are combined. 
 
 The third type of present-day summer school conforms 
 more or less closely to the regular winter school. Per- 
 haps home nursing, cookery, sewing, and bench work are 
 
 1 Page 192, infra, shows relation of subjects to professionalization of teaching. 
 
 2 Page 366, Our Schools. 
 
 ' The salary of a summer school teacher is usually about half that of the teacher who is 
 on the winter (or regular) roll. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 1 39 
 
 especially emphasized; but all or nearly all the regular 
 studies may be carried on. 
 
 It is noteworthy that nowhere as yet are there either 
 summer day high schools or summer evening schools. 
 These lie in the future, in the course of the development 
 of the universal school. 
 
 Similarly evening lectures for adults lie in the course of 
 the development of the universal school ; but there is to 
 be' remembered this important difference. For evening 
 lectures, there will always be a demand, which will sustain 
 them much as they are now, even when the universal school 
 is doing its systematic work, day and night, winter and 
 summer, for all inquiring minds with the requisite leisure. 
 
 In some cities, at the present time, there are given annu- 
 ally hundreds, even thousands, of lectures in more or less 
 systematic courses. So far has this development now gone 
 in New York city as to suggest the faint outlines of the 
 future universal school. But in certain other large cities, 
 as yet not one lecture is given annually for the benefit of 
 the public and at the public expense in connection with 
 the public school. 
 
 It is not a phase of the purpose of this book to present 
 substantive social or even educational arguments for any 
 proposition. But there is no proposition for which an argu- 
 ment may be more properly or more convincingly made 
 than this that a representative democracy requires as broadly 
 diffused knowledge as it can possibly secure. There is no 
 better medium for the diffusion of knowledge than the 
 evening lecture. 
 
 If it be asked, upon what subjects shall evening lectures 
 be given, the reply is very simple, upon knowledge that is 
 both useful and desired. Knowledge is like wealth in be- 
 ing limited in amount, difficult to get, and desirable. To 
 
140 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 destroy poverty, diffuse wealth. To destroy ignorance, 
 the mother-culture t)f poverty, diffuse knowledge. 
 
 I am quite well aware that this general principle does 
 not answer the question in definite detail. But prescrip- 
 tion of detail as to educational content lies outside the 
 province of this work ; given a competent supervision of 
 evening lectures, and the proper course of action proceeds 
 automatically. 
 
 Hitherto, in American public education, far too much 
 attention has been paid to measures and to methods, 
 and far too little to the men who are to initiate and 
 to accomplish them. A few general principles may be 
 suggested. 
 
 The proper officer in a considerable city school system 
 to inaugurate or to expand free evening lectures is the 
 first desideratum. All of at least one man's time is re- 
 quired for the work of securing lecturers, janitors, lantern 
 operators and supplies, and in spreading by newspaper 
 notices, handbills, posters, and pamphlets, the news, not 
 merely of the existence of the system, but of the early com- 
 ing of each special attraction. Though the lectures are 
 given in the evening, this man will need to work all day. As 
 the enterprise grows in value and in public favor, he will 
 soon need a bureau of clerks and stenographers to assist 
 him and also ample office room. Ultimately, the director 
 of evening lectures will become one of the regular associate 
 or assistant superintendents of the general superintendent 
 of the school system, 
 
 A second principle is that as rapidly as possible the indi- 
 vidual lecture will be displaced by the series of six or eight 
 lectures upon one general subject; and the short series 
 will give way to the complete course of twenty-five to thirty 
 lectures, supplemented by personal home study. In other 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 141 
 
 words, each evening lecture course will become properly a 
 part of a genuine popular evening university. 
 
 A third principle is that, as rapidly as possible, the 
 ephemerally or superficially attractive will give way to 
 the permanently valuable. This, however, should not be 
 attempted too soon. 
 
 An obvious principle is that the lectures shall be widely 
 distributed through the city. Of this principle, the corol- 
 lary must not be forgotten : where the needs ^ and interest 
 are greatest, there the most lectures should be given. 
 
 In general, the purpose of evening lectures is to educate 
 the public, — to revive in depressed souls the hunger and 
 thirst after knowledge that lifts man above the animal. 
 
 In the development of American cities, there has been 
 but little foresight manifested, though much boasting 
 thereof. As an example of entire blindness to future 
 needs, the situation of the schoolhouse is significant. 
 Every child at school needs at least a desk space of twenty 
 square feet and a playing place outdoors of thirty square 
 feet. But not only are the schoolrooms and the schoolhouses 
 too small, but the playgrounds are almost non-existent.^ 
 
 Many American cities are laid out in blocks of 200' x 
 400', more or less. Such a block, of about two acres, serves 
 very well for the accommodation of a school for a thousand 
 children. But no provision for reserving these blocks for 
 school purposes has ever been generally made by the self- 
 laudatory city fathers. As for establishing double blocks 
 
 1 Needs usually exist in the absence of interest. In a certain city, the public lectures were 
 poorly attended until a wealthy and prominent citizen took them under his patronage, riding 
 to and from the hall in a splendid new automobile. This set the fashion. 
 
 2 In a certain large city, there are two schoolhouses each accommodating seven hundred 
 children. The playgrounds for each of these schools are 23' x 29' and 22' x 31' respectively : 
 and both sexes play in each yard. Of course, neither yard is large enough for the boys or girls 
 alone of even one class. The children actually play on the streets ; in each instance, the 
 streets upon which these schoolhouses abut are main business thoroughfares. 
 
142 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 of 400' X 400' to provide building space and grounds for 
 two thousand children, none of these foresighted men has 
 ever dreamed of this ; at least, not " out loud." 
 
 So disheartening is the pHght of humanity in cities as 
 fully to warrant the suggestion of their entire abandon- 
 ment to industry and commerce and the establishment of 
 true hamlets^ in their neighborhoods, that we may save 
 the physical and spiritual lives of our youth. Hitherto, the 
 city has ultimately destroyed every nation. Hitherto, it 
 has been an insoluble problem. 
 
 In the degree in which we can build up country-like 
 suburbs and preserve them as such, we can work for the 
 schoolhouse with ample grounds. 
 
 For the present, the problem of the great city school 
 edifice is how to provide basement playrooms and roof 
 gardens. Here the subject encroaches upon that of 
 schoolhouse architecture, which, like so many other themes, 
 lies outside the immediate province of this book. 
 
 We should be ready, let us agree in passing, to accept 
 certain general principles. The great schoolhouse with 
 no grounds is essentially undesirable. Its worth is rel- 
 ative, not absolute. The proper tendency is toward 
 many comparatively small school buildings, of (say) 
 twenty to thirty rooms, located in parks. The norm for 
 a school does not much exceed five or six hundred chil- 
 dren, with at least a full acre of space for their outdoor 
 plays and games. 
 
 The location and use of the ungraded individual-help 
 class or classes in the school system vary in different com- 
 munities so widely and so substantially as to create the 
 appearance of the absence of all principle in their consti- 
 
 * Vide A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values, page 462. Hamlet means literally 
 "home abode"; the "let" reinforces the "ham." The ideal of the Teuton is the castle; 
 of the Slav and Celt, the village. Vide note, page 109. 
 
SPECIAL SCHOOLS 143 
 
 tution and function. The large city school of (say) one 
 hundred classes with four thousand children, mostly foreign- 
 born and representing a dozen different nationalities, races, 
 languages, and religions, may find it advantageous to have 
 four or five such classes. This is especially probable at a 
 time when new and more drastic compulsory attendance 
 laws are being enforced. In some of these classes belong 
 boys and girls who are incorrigible or habitual truants. 
 These should be segregated by grades, — e.g. self-help 
 Class A for pupils in Grades III-IV ; and B for Grades V 
 and VI. Another kind of class or of classes should be 
 formed for belated pupils, deficients in studies, and occa- 
 sional absentees, trying to make up lost work. In the 
 large city school, there may also be a need for a class of 
 defectives, — the partly blind, the partly deaf, the invalids, 
 the somewhat imbecile. Every large city, of course, needs 
 special schools for hopeless incorrigibles, wayward boys 
 and girls, the bhnd, the deaf and dumb, and the true 
 imbeciles and idiots. With the recent substantial progress 
 of educators in physiological knowledge and in psycho- 
 logical acumen, there are being saved from incarceration 
 in reform schools, in asylums for the feeble-minded, and 
 in similar institutions many pupils who would otherwise 
 be doomed to isolation from the stimulating rivalry of 
 the competent. 
 
 In a special class, there should never be over eighteen or 
 twenty pupils, and twelve should be the desired average. 
 The entire purpose in putting the pupils in a special class 
 is to make them fit to leave it as soon as possible. Too 
 early discharge is, however, undesirable. In my own ex- 
 perience, I have found that unless improvement sets in 
 within a month and unless the minimum standard of effi- 
 ciency has been attained within three months, the pupil 
 
144 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 for his own good should be sent to a special school where 
 he may be taken charge of day and night. Seven in 
 ten display improvement within a fortnight and can be 
 safely remanded to a regular class within ten or twelve 
 weeks. This hope must be kept as bright as possible in 
 the soul of every special pupil. 
 
 The argument so often heard, especially from the lips of interested 
 parents, that classification of children into superior, average, dull, imbe- 
 cile, idiot, incorrigible, wayward, etc., is "undemocratic," involves 
 several postulates, i. That democracy for children as well as for 
 adults means equality. 2. That democracy is a denial of the special 
 rights of the weak. 3. That democracy is a denial of the special obli- 
 gations of the strong. 4. That democracy is a mere ideology and not 
 a scientific system, — a practical working philosophy of facts and 
 demonstrated principles. True democracy means fitting each man for 
 the best service of which he is capable and locating him where he can 
 perform this service. Lowell, Whitman, Eliot, and Butler are the relia- 
 ble exponents of this doctrine. 
 
 Democracy is solely an affirmation of the locus of power. As such, 
 it affirms that power rises up out of and is vested in the people. De- 
 mocracy is the opposite of monarchy in that it collects power in the 
 whole people while monarchy collects power in one person. Democracy 
 is the opposite of feudalism in that the latter divides and distributes 
 power into hierarchic fiefs or feuds. It is the opposite of oligarchy, of 
 aristocracy, and of autocracy for other equally obvious reasons. But 
 true democracy is not blind to the values of the one or of the best or of 
 the few or even of the fief. Upon the final and complete sovereignty 
 of all, democracy is building a humanity equally regardful of the uses 
 of the naturally strong and of the needs of the weak. Because privilege 
 confuses this issue, democracy is for equal opportunity and against all 
 privilege. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 
 
 It is the day's work that counts. No other period of 
 time is so calculable, so controllable, so patent, and so de- \ 
 terminative. It is true that, though we own no instant of 
 time, we can in a measure direct our life in the moment 
 that impends. In this aspect, our direction is over, not the 
 present (the presented time), and certainly not over the 
 future as a whole or even in considerable part, but it is 
 over the next few seconds ahead. Extraordinary and sud- 
 den as the necessities of life are, it still happens that 
 neither death nor disease nor accident nor other calamity 
 scarcely ever comes so suddenly, so finally, that we cannot 
 do or receive in the next two or three seconds of time what 
 in the circumstances we choose. In these two or three 
 seconds, the will of man operates. 
 
 But in respect to this immediate future, we must regu- 
 larly choose times to rest, to sleep, to eat, to clothe our- 
 selves, to play, to bathe, to care for ourselves so as to keep 
 alive. We surrender parts of our day that the rest of the day 
 may be secure. I make this argument upon the premise that 
 we prefer to belong to that kind of persons by whom and 
 from whom things happen and not to that other kind to ' 
 whom and for whom they happen. The affirmative actors 
 in the drama of the world have a different philosophy of 
 conduct from the spectators in the audience and from the 
 ticket sellers in the lobby.^ Such persons tally their lives 
 
 1 Nietzsche thought that he saw in the world two kinds and classes of persons, the lords 
 with their principles of aristocracy, and the menials with their " neighbor religion." I would 
 
146 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 at the end of each day. They cannot proceed without a 
 plan from waking to sleeping, for theirs are lives of 
 self-determination. 
 
 The will of the self-determined man is quick to change 
 in the presence of emergent need, for precisely the reason 
 that it is not obstinate but rational. Such a man is not 
 willful but mindful, — a person of intelligence and of sym- 
 pathy as well as of motivation. 
 
 The setting up of a programme for the day's work with 
 the following of it reasonably is not fettering but freeing 
 one's self. As the road rails do not limit, but rather for- 
 ward the adventure of the locomotive steam engine, so the 
 forehanded provision of a daily programme gives track- 
 age for the progressive teacher. In this world of time, of 
 space, and of cause, things are seldom what they seem; 
 and what looks like the letter of prescription is often the 
 letter of emancipation.^ 
 
 The same argument holds for records. One may have 
 a memory " never so good " ; the keeping of records will 
 not weaken it, but rather release its energies for yet other 
 accumulations. The mere making of the record is a disci- 
 pline in selection and in discrimination. Moreover, the 
 record itself is a bulwark of freedom in the day of conflict 
 with the unsupported recollections of others. 
 
 Men literally write themselves up or down in the pages 
 
 discriminate a third class of the servile who are the executives of the wills, now of nobles, 
 now of the masses; these are the true helots : who resist orders even less than manual laborers 
 and domestic menials. We know them by their professed ethics. The lords believe in the 
 primacy of will, in the nobility of struggle, whether it cost fortune, health, reputation, or life 
 itself. The laborers believe in the primacy of affection, in the humanity of mutual love and 
 help and, if need be, in self-sacrifice for others. The servile believe in the primacy of intellect 
 or " good judgment," in the propriety of self-preservation. Honor is the virtue of aristocrats ; 
 kindness, that of the workers ; tact, that of the servile. Cf. note, page 355, Our Schools. 
 
 1 Not infrequently has it happened in history that whom the lords of the world must other- 
 wise emancipate honorably they have violently proscribed. There are certain indications 
 that education is to go free from government (or politics) in the latter manner. Cf. Aristotle, 
 Politics, with Froebel, Education of Man, as to political homoeopathy v. allopathy. 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS I47 
 
 of history. Their records are revelations of their true 
 selves. In civilization, as we grow closer together physi- 
 cally from mere accumulation of numbers, we grow more 
 and more apart from one another psychically from mere 
 multiplication of events. The increasing varieties of ex- 
 perience tend to separate us ever more and more in opin- 
 ion, because we differ more and more in the facts before 
 and around us. There are two means for bringing men 
 together, — the event and the record. In the record as in 
 the work, it is the day that counts. The only record of 
 value is contemporaneous with the event. The ideal is to 
 clean tip the work of each day as we live it ; to file its 
 record; and to attack the new day with as few old scores 
 as possible. 
 
 It is true that as one grows older, time shortens. A 
 year at fifty is scarcely as long in retrospect or in pros- 
 pect as a month at twenty or a day at five. As one grows 
 older, the acts enlarge ; and fewer can be performed in 
 the day. In consequence, our duty is to plan each day 
 ever more and more carefully. 
 
 To the school child, the school day is by no means the 
 same thing as it is to the school-teacher ; and their recol- 
 lections of it will always be widely different But what the 
 school day is to be to the child is within the control of the 
 teacher in almost the same degree as what it is to be to 
 the teacher himself. To the school child, the day is to be 
 full of so many events that he is likely to see neither its 
 ineaning as a whole nor the import of its chief events. 
 To the school-teacher, the day is likely to pass unidenti- 
 fied in a series of routine activities. 
 
 For two complementary reasons, as related to himself 
 and to the pupil, the teacher needs to plan the day : for 
 his own sake, that he may take interest in it, economize 
 
148 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 his efforts, give the day distinction, and have it a pleasant 
 memory ; for the sake of the child, that the day may 
 have form, purpose, definiteness, and value.^ 
 
 By the daily programme we may mean two different 
 things : the ordinary routine, and the special plan of topics 
 for the particular day. This may be illustrated in fifth- 
 year (Grade IV) work by two schemes, viz. : — 
 
 General Daily Programme 
 
 9-9:15 
 
 Morning exercises in room 
 
 9:15-9:50 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 9: 50-10: 10 
 
 Spelling 
 
 10: 10-10:30 
 
 Writing 
 
 10:30-10:45 
 
 Recess 
 
 10:45-11 : 15 
 
 Language 
 
 II : 15-II : 25 
 
 Physical culture 
 
 II : 25-12 
 
 Geography 
 
 I : 15-2 
 
 Drawing 
 
 2-2: 15 
 
 Music 
 
 2:15-2:45 
 
 Reading 
 
 2:45-3:15 
 
 History 
 
 Special Daily Program, October 15. 
 9-9 : 1 5 Read First Psalm. 
 
 Sing Nearer, my God, to Thee. 
 Read Excelsior. 
 Talk about Keeping Protnises. 
 Sing Flag of the Free. 
 
 Call for memory gems, — those now on blackboard to be 
 covered. 
 9:15-9:50 Problems in cancellation, — to be placed on black- 
 board. 
 12x3x7x4 ^ p 
 6 X 9 X 21 
 (2) iix3ix6^x9»fX8A=? 
 
 Assign four problems, page 67, in text-book. 
 
 * Vide Burk, " The Withered Heart of the Schools," Educational Review, November, 
 
 (0 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 149 
 
 Explain difficulties in each problem. 
 
 Collect written work. 
 
 Speak to A. B. about fractions. 
 
 Remind C. D. about correct copying. 
 
 Notice whether X. Y. does not need glasses. 
 9 : 50-10 : 10 Give these twelve new words : — 
 among, wilderness, etc. 
 
 Practise these words : — 
 separate, thought, wholesome?- 
 10 : 10-10 : 30 Practise capital L and the word many. 
 
 Write on blackboard for imitation : — 
 Luther Long lived many years. 
 
 Discriminate 7n, n, and ti : write luminous. 
 10 : 30-10 : 45 Recess.^ — 
 
 10:45-11 : 15 Teach the direct uses of like and as, as illustrated in 
 the following sentences : 
 John is like his brother George. 
 Like a bird, the arrow flew 
 Swift from the bow of bending yew. 
 This is as good as that. 
 As one man, they worked together. 
 As a bird flies, so flew the arrow. 
 
 Refer to the dictionary. 
 
 Read quotation from Heath Reader, page 49. 
 
 Teach first two stanzas, Psalm of Life. 
 
 Refer to Excelsior by same poet. 
 
 Tell about Longfellow. 
 11:15-11:25 Repeat old exercises, add new exercise, p. 137 of 
 Manual. 
 
 Change positions of desks of E. F. and Q. R. 
 11:25-12 Review points of compass from classroom. Imagine 
 
 ourselves at City Hall, and find points of compass 
 there. Draw compass on blackboard, including N.E., 
 S.E., S.W., and N.W. Read map in text-book, 
 page 7. Teach decorative compass. Show how to 
 find Pole Star by the pointers in Great Dipper. Tell 
 
 1 When all but one or two pupils in a class know a word, do not require all the class to 
 study it, but omit it from any future list. 
 
 2 Ask head of department to visit language class. 
 
150 OUR CITY SCHOOLS ' 
 
 story of Orion and Great Bear. Read supplementary 
 book on stars, p. 36. Give children ten minutes to 
 write a paragraph on what the pocket compass would 
 tell me to do when trying to find my way home from 
 North Woods (outside of the city). 
 
 1 : 15-2 Take plenty of oak leaves, green, green yellow, and 
 
 yellow, and give water-color lesson. Make black- 
 board sketch of leaf form and lines. 
 
 2-2 : 15 Sing scale of G major in half and whole notes. Learn by 
 
 rote song, page 18 in music text. Sing the song in 
 G major. Ask children to explain meaning of words 
 and effect of the melody upon themselves. 
 
 2:15-2:45 Read selection, page 180, in Robert's Fourth Reader, 
 dividing class into three groups, A to tell the story, B 
 to read, and C to criticise and to give improvements.^ 
 
 2:45-3:15 The story of Saladin and some account of the Sara- 
 cens. [Here follows a paragraph of two hundred 
 words to be placed on the blackboard.] Read in 
 class pp. 190-192, Supplementary Reader. Locate the 
 time in the perspective of history and the places upon 
 a globe or a map. 
 
 The good principal will direct his teachers in making the 
 general programme but will only suggest to them what the 
 special programmes should be. Files of such programmes 
 are helpful as records for several purposes : — 
 
 1. To show parents and other visitors and inquirers 
 what the particular class has been doing absolutely, and 
 also relatively as compared with other classes. 
 
 2. To assist the teacher in improving her own methods 
 and devices, from term to term, when she remains in the 
 same grade. 
 
 3. To afford suggestions from the past for the present. 
 To make memoranda for the programme of the next day, 
 
 1 This is set forth as current practice. It may be true that all class exercises in reading 
 should be given up, to be replaced by individual elocution lessons, by recitations of long 
 selections, by oral conversations as to plot and character, and by written compositions based 
 on silent reading. 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 151 
 
 either by remaining after school for half an hour in the after- 
 noon or by coming to school half an hour earlier in the 
 morning or by working half an hour in the evening, may 
 seem to take time.^ This may be the case at the moment ; 
 but it reduces the strain of the actual daily management 
 and instruction and, therefore, tends to economize and to 
 lengthen life. Of course, when the purpose of teaching 
 is to keep school, to earn some money, and to bridge over 
 a period preceding matrimony or preparation for " a pro- 
 fession" or opportunity to enter business, then we can 
 hardly expect any time to be spent out of school making 
 plans or records. These objects are based upon postulates 
 not accepted by educators who believe that good teaching 
 is not a bar to happy marriage, that every parent should 
 know how to teach his own children skilfully, that teaching 
 should be educating, that educating is an art, that the art 
 of teaching is a profession requiring quite as much skill and 
 learning as law or medicine or theology or engineering, and 
 that good teaching is the busiest business known to m,en, but 
 that " business " should not be synonymous with "money- 
 getting business." 
 
 Another form of programme is the month or term plan 
 book, which gives the provisions of the various courses of 
 study. In such a book, the work is usually planned in 
 consecutive detail with freedom for the teacher to choose 
 how much to select for the lessons from day to day. 
 
 We are here confronted by the question whether courses 
 of study for city schools shall be by grades or by subjects ; 
 that is, in special monographs, including all subjects for 
 particular grades, or in monographs presenting particular 
 
 1 The lawyer spends much more time in preparing his case than he does in arguing it in 
 court. Similarly, the successful preacher prepares his sermon with care and study. We are 
 learning that the best physicians look up the records and successful therapy of all similar 
 cases. The learned professions keep up and increase their learning. 
 
152 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 subjects for all grades. Though apparently a mechanical 
 question, this is in substance philosophical and psychologi- 
 cal. Apparently, it is merely a question as to whether we 
 shall cut up the entire educational curriculum crosswise or 
 lengthwise, horizontally or vertically. Really, the question 
 is whether the logic of the subject studied or the psychol- 
 ogy of the subject studying, whether philosophy or human 
 nature, shall prevail. Practically, the answer depends 
 upon the pupils for whom the question is being asked. 
 To older pupils, the intellectual continuum, the progress in 
 the subject, is of the greater importance ; while to younger 
 pupils the correlation of the thought of the day, the intel- 
 lectual sociiim, is the more important. This solution is 
 correct both in psychology and in philosophy : in psy- 
 chology, because the mind of the child is full of centripetal, 
 centrifugal, tangential, parabolic, often chaotic, form- 
 seeking and form-losing ideas that need to be organized, 
 correlated, defined, suppressed, and emphasized, while the 
 mind of the youth needs to be developed, forwarded, sys- 
 tematized, and in a measure specialized; and in philosophy, 
 because childhood must acquire those masses of ideas and 
 must exercise those motives, which youth uses as reser- 
 voirs of fact and of energy and by which youth is enabled 
 to irrigate the waste places of life and of the soul. 
 
 That school system is fortunate which has its courses pub- 
 lished both by grades and by subjects ; ^ this is especially 
 helpful in the middle grades, V to VIII or IX. When we 
 cannot have both, the horizontal plan is preferable in the 
 kindergarten and in Grades I to IV; and the vertical there- 
 after, especially in high school and college. But even in 
 the college and the university, the so-called conspectus of 
 all the work offered in a given year often seems almost 
 
 1 With complete syllabi and numerous references. 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 1 53 
 
 as valuable as the syllabus for all the work in a depart- 
 ment or course. 
 
 What records a principal, a head of a department, a 
 supervisor, a director, and a teacher should keep is a ques- 
 tion that the individual is seldom permitted to answer ; it is 
 answered for him by some higher authority and in two ways : 
 affirmatively, by prescribing particular records ; and nega- 
 tively, by failing to provide the funds for making them, — 
 clerical service, paper, and printing. The higher authori- 
 ties that make these prescriptions seldom prepare them to 
 meet educational requirements. 
 
 The most common record is that of registration, enrol- 
 ment, presence, absence, tardiness, transfer, dismissal.^ 
 
 It is usually made in a blank book to be filed, when 
 filed at all, at some other place with some higher authority. 
 Its customary purpose is to serve as the basis for the 
 apportionment of State funds. 
 
 When kept at the school, in card catalogues conven- 
 iently filed in free-moving indexed drawers, such items 
 from day to day may be useful educationally. As records 
 of school history, they are of no great value. 
 
 Almost as common is the record of scholarship, that is, 
 averages derived from daily recitations, written tests, and 
 final examinations ; days' attendance ; and conduct. This 
 record is sent in duplicate to parents and is supposed to 
 inform them how their particular child stands at some 
 particular time. 
 
 A strange superstition prevails regarding these marks 
 for studies, for exercises, and for conduct; very sensible 
 men and women, parents as well as teachers, interested 
 
 1 What shall be added to these depends upon the jurisdiction. House address seems 
 desirable. Most persons insist upon vaccination. Notes as to conduct, physical defects, 
 and grade at school are frequently added. Vide Perry, Management of a City School, 
 Chapter VHI, a valuable discussion of principles. 
 
154 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 citizens as well as school authorities, seem to see in the 
 marks 70 or 90, F or E, C or B +, or in the words " poor " 
 or " very good," etc., demonstrable truths. And yet as 
 soon as teachers and parents come together to discuss 
 the actual standing of individual children, the teachers 
 find that, in order to be understood, they must translate 
 whatever set of marks they have given the children into 
 some other set. 
 
 To illustrate, Walter Hosmer, first year in high school, 
 has this report : — 
 
 English, C Physical training, A 
 
 Algebra, A Drawing, A 
 
 German, D Music, D 
 
 Physical geography, B Current events, A 
 
 English history, C Rhetoricals, B 
 Manual training, B 
 
 Upon inquiry, his parents learn that A is excellent, B is 
 good, C is fair, that is, it " passes the boy," and D is 
 poor, and does not " pass " him. In other words, the 
 marks are valueless until translated. Walter's parents 
 go home to think the matter over. The longer they 
 consider it, the less they understand the translation. They 
 return, and they learn this in addition. — A means that 
 the boy is among the best in the class, does at least 
 90 per cent of all the work that the best pupil, " a per- 
 fect scholar," might be expected to do, B means be- 
 tween 80 and 90 per cent, C means between 70 and 80 
 per cent, and D means less than 70 per cent, which is the 
 amount required to pass. This additional " intelligence " 
 helps a little. Walter, however, is in a confidential mood 
 and renews their confusion by an assertion that some 
 teachers are " easy markers " and others are " hard 
 markers," and that anybody can get C in English History 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 
 
 155 
 
 and no one over C in German. With this deliverance, all 
 parental confidence in marks collapses, as it should. 
 
 An arraignment of marks as not dependable may in- 
 clude the following points, viz. : — 
 
 1. The personal equation of the teacher in respect to 
 at least two important particulars : {a) His own scholar- 
 ship, {b) His sympathy with and insight into the charac- 
 ters of children and youth. 
 
 (a) A fine and exact scholar is apt to be a hard marker, 
 because his standards are high, {b) A sympathetic teacher 
 is apt to mark industry and motive rather than attainment. 
 
 2. At best, the amount of material to be covered is 
 always a subjective criterion known only to the teacher.^ 
 
 3. The subjects themselves are not evaluated. To re- 
 turn to the illustration and to improve it as follows, viz. : — 
 
 Subjects 
 
 Recita- 
 tions per 
 week 
 
 Counts 
 per term 
 
 Letter 
 mark 
 
 Word 
 mark 
 
 Per cent 
 mark 
 
 
 Remarks 
 
 English 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 c 
 
 Fair 
 
 75 
 
 52 
 
 Rhetoric text: read- 
 ing: composition 
 
 Algebra 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 A 
 
 Excellent 
 
 95 
 
 
 Ekjuations of two un- 
 known quantities 
 
 German 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 D 
 
 Poor 
 
 25 
 
 It 
 
 Beginning grammar: 
 conversation 
 
 Phys.Geog. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 Good 
 
 85 
 
 
 Field-work : text-book 
 
 Eng. Hist. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 C 
 
 Fair 
 
 70 
 
 CU 
 
 To Henry VHI 
 
 Man. Tr. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 Good 
 
 88 
 
 oi 
 
 Forging of iron 
 
 Phys. Tr. 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 Excellent 
 
 95 
 
 a! 
 
 Gymnasium and class 
 exercise 
 
 Drawing 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 Excellent 
 
 90 
 
 0,-+: 
 
 
 Mechanical designs in 
 iron 
 
 Music 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 D 
 
 Poor 
 
 SO 
 
 c 
 
 Three-part chorus 
 
 Cur. Ev. 
 
 I per 
 term 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 Excellent 
 
 98 
 
 „ 
 ■5 2 
 
 Discussion of" trusts " 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 I per 
 term 
 
 i 
 
 B 
 
 Good 
 
 80 
 
 
 Declamation, "Hora- 
 tius " 
 
 1 In Arithmetic, 75 per cent, or fair, means one thing to one Grade VI teacher and another 
 to the next, while it means one thing to the Grade VI teacher as such and a very different 
 thing to that same teacher as a citizen of the world. These two variations tend to vitiate all 
 marking, 
 
156 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 These facts now appear, viz.: — 
 
 {a) Until letters and words are reduced to per cents, it 
 is not possible to find the average. * 
 
 {d) Finding the average by per cents, when counting 
 English and Physical Training equal, is contrary to sound 
 opinion. The frequent remedy, not to count the minor 
 subjects at all, results in neglect of those subjects in favor 
 of such as are marked. Counted as equal, the average is 
 yy.6 per cent. Counted as evaluated in the second column, 
 the average is 74.3 per cent. If the pupil had obtained 95 
 per cent in his English instead of 75 per cent, his average 
 would have been 78.3 per cent instead of 74.3 per cent. 
 It is clear, therefore, that since EngHsh is a most impor- 
 tant subject, the inaccurate average is calculated to mislead 
 uncritical readers of the report. And it follows that if 
 marks are to be given at all, they should be graded 
 according to the relative importance of the different 
 subjects. 
 
 (c) But marking, even when scientifically calculated, 
 gives opinion without worth-while information, since the 
 parent who really cares to know what his child is doing 
 needs at least as many facts as are conveyed under the 
 above heading of "remarks." Of course, to many parents, 
 the material or content of the courses studied by their 
 children at school belongs to the unknown worlds of edu- 
 cation and of culture ; on the other hand, to some par- 
 ents all marks and remarks are but sources of irritation. 
 In many instances, children and youth would be left at 
 school much longer than they are, some would even be 
 sent to college who are now denied that privilege, but for 
 the fact that the parents resent the terminology of these 
 reports. 
 
 (d) The attempt to meet the difficulties of the marking 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 1 57 
 
 situation is given up by some who advocate separating 
 children and youth into the two classes, — satisfactory and 
 unsatisfactory ; those to be promoted, and those to be 
 detained. This dismisses the difficulty, but does not solve 
 it. The teacher must discriminate between the successful 
 and the unsuccessful ; he must explain to parents the extent 
 of the success and of the failure ; and he must work out 
 these matters quantitatively by the processes of arithmetic. 
 It is an unpleasant and a tiresome matter, this judging 
 of efforts and results, this being set as a ruler and divider 
 among one's kind. Behind the decision whether to give 
 full and accurate opinions, within the limits of one's judg- 
 ment and knowledge, or to refuse to give particulars 
 upon the matter, there is an important philosophy. If the 
 school and the home are to be correlated and kept closely 
 interested in one another, then two things follow, viz. : — 
 
 1. One or the other, the school or the home, must in 
 respect to the development of the child be superior. 
 
 2. The school must give to the home all the information 
 requested. 
 
 It follows, therefore, that any definite report by the 
 teacher to the parent is a recognition of the parent's 
 right at least of criticism, if not of appeal and of review. 
 It follows, also, that any refusal of such definite informa- 
 tion amounts to a denial of the desirability of a mutual 
 understanding between the school and the home. 
 
 An observer of educational conditions finds that the 
 tendency of city administration is to deny the superiority 
 of the home to the school and the need of any correlation, 
 while the contrary tendency prevails in village and rural 
 schools. One finds, also, that the tendency in primary 
 grades and in colleges and universities is toward withhold- 
 ing definite detailed marks, while the contrary is true in 
 
158 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 grammar grades and in high schools and academies. This 
 is an extremely suggestive situation. It shows the weak- 
 ness of the non-compulsory public school grades and the 
 strength of the compulsory grades and of the schools of 
 the higher learning, for opposite reasons : the lower grades 
 because the parents have no recourse against the teachers ; 
 the higher institutions because they are for the privileged 
 pupils only. Full reporting by the middle schools tends, 
 no doubt, both to a strengthening of the confidence of the 
 parents of those pupils who do stay at school through early 
 adolescence and to discouraging the attendance of pupils 
 whose parents cannot see the meaning of Latin and 
 Physics and Trigonometry. It is also scarcely to be 
 doubted that when compulsory attendance includes the 
 years of early adolescence, the marking of pupils scien- 
 tifically as the basis for reports to parents will not be 
 attempted. 
 
 It is sometimes agreed that because in " real life," that 
 is, life out in the open conflicts of the world, in times of 
 crisis the whole man comes up for relentless examination, 
 therefore, at various stages, the boy should be put through 
 a universal test. This by no means follows. Because the 
 timber is to become a joist and to bear huge weight, is not 
 quite a good reason for cutting down a sapling. Trees 
 growing upon ledges of rock on the sides of mountains in 
 the full drift of the winds do not make the largest growth. 
 An examination is a kind of storm that it is well to postpone 
 until rather late in life. One might perhaps well say, the 
 later the better. Eighteen or nineteen years of age is 
 early enough to begin examinations. 
 
 Earlier than this epoch, instead of extensive, drastic ex- 
 aminations, there should be required at frequent intervals, 
 — the lower the grade the greater the frequency, — brief 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS 1 59 
 
 reviews of the topics immediately traversed. In primary- 
 work, the daily lessons should be part review, part ad- 
 vance, with no review test covering even in fourth year 
 more than a fortnight. In the so-called " grammar grades," 
 fifth year to eighth, the review tests should cover not over 
 a month of work. In the secondary school, the six-weeks ■ 
 period should be the basis, with semi-annual review tests ■" 
 added in the third and fourth years. Throughout the/ 
 course, from kindergarten through the city college and nor-" 
 mal school, whenever and wherever marks are given, then 
 and there the daily work should count at least one-half in 
 questions of promotion, of detention, and of demotion. 
 
 This daily-work mark, however, need not be such liter- 
 ally. Let the teacher keep sincerely in mind what kind 
 of work the pupil is doing daily, and enter upon his record 
 two or three or four times a month his opinions in a for- 
 mal mark as to what the daily work deserves, doing this 
 before examining the paper in the written test ; and then 
 let him average the two, taking each as half, or the daily 
 work as two-thirds or three-fourths in the average in one 
 or other of these ways, viz. : — 
 
 Daily work taken as J 70 60 85 75 
 Test to be taken as ^ 
 
 Daily work taken as | 70 60 85 75 
 Test to be taken as + 
 
 Average 72.5 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 76.2+ Gen. Ave. 
 
 72.5 X 
 
 2= 145 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 
 3|22S 
 
 
 75 Gen. Ave. 
 
 
 85% 
 
 
 80 
 
 ■- 335. ^ 
 
 ^ 4 = 83I Gen. Ave. 
 
 Daily work taken as f 8 9 9 8 
 Test to be taken as \ 
 
 85 X 3 = 255, -1-80 
 
 To some, this method will seem needlessly precise ; but 
 where any honors or ranking may be dependent, marking 
 cannot be too precise. 
 
l60 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 But shall the superintendent or the board of superintend- 
 ents or the supervisor of this or that never issue from the 
 main office a set of examinations to determine the profi- 
 ciency of the pupils ? In a large city, where the super- 
 visor does not know every teacher and pupil, never. If he 
 chooses to issue tests, let them be solely for the sake of 
 standardismg Mid equalizing the work of the various 
 schools, and be for the central office alone. The results 
 should not affect the promotion of a single child or even 
 be published or known to him or to his parents or to the 
 public as respects individuals. Moreover, these tests should 
 invariably be brief. If any are ever given, let them be 
 brief and frequent so as to arouse but little excitement and 
 to occasion but little extra fatigue. The time required may 
 be set as twenty minutes in primary grades, forty in gram- 
 mar grades, an hour in the high schools, and an hour and 
 a half in normal schools and colleges. These represent 
 maximum limits.^ 
 
 A question has arisen as to whether records of one kind 
 and another shall be forwarded with the class from year to 
 year for the guidance of the successive teachers. There 
 is much to be said on each side of the argument. The 
 value of certain kinds of information is considerable : the 
 business of the parent; the number of boys and girls in 
 the family; birth and parentage; age of entering school; 
 physical defects not obvious, as partial bhndness in one 
 eye ; a spinal curvature. But the weight of opinion seems 
 to be that no records should be passed forward from 
 teacher to teacher as to co^idnct, scholarship, and character 
 {i.e. reputation), but that there should be a clean slate, as 
 it were, with each promotion or transfer. Such records as 
 
 ' In the case of girls between eleven and eighteen, formal, rigid, and extensive examina- 
 tions are unforgivable offences against themselves, their future consorts, and posterity. Vide 
 page 105, supra. 
 
PROGRAMMES AND RECORDS l6l 
 
 there are should be for the office files of the principal and 
 superintendent. Perhaps too much school gossip circu- 
 lates now from room to room, from school to school, from 
 district to district. The bad boy in Anderson may be 
 the good boy in Bradford ; the failure in Carter, the suc- 
 cess in Dayton. Children change faster and more com- 
 pletely than do adults. They turn over new leaves so 
 quickly that often we fail to see the process.^ 
 
 ^ It is because education is a process of internal change, — as Froebel showed us in the 
 Edttcation of Man, from self-activity and self-determination, the latter as important as 
 the former, — that we are not able to accept certain theories of education as true. Some 
 theories appear to the daily class teacher as grandiose and unreal ; e.g. (i) the sociological 
 and (2) the historical (culture-epoch) . Other theories appear amyclous and lacunal to serious 
 students of education ; e.g. (3) the opportunistic and (4) the eclectic. (5) Others appear 
 incomplete to both educators and educationists ; e.g. (6) the disciplinary, (7) the scien- 
 tific, and (8) the (objectively) cultural. It is possible that a (9) formal psychophysical 
 or physiopsychical theory will be developed at once so broad and real as to satisfy all 
 concerned ; but it is more probable that the solution of the problem will be a truly (10) philo- 
 sophical theory. As affairs stand now, education does not seem to know its polar star. In 
 such case, even a good compass avails nothing. 
 
 The sociological theory, when properly constructed out of the historical, offers immediate 
 practical help in the improvement of our present opportunistic courses. An eclectic prin- 
 ciple, systematically pursued for some years, may gradually approximate to a philosophical 
 standard. The physiopsychic theory, when duly genetic in all lines (process and functioning 
 of ideas [Wundt, Titchener, and Baldwin], origin and process of race and soul [Hall and 
 Dewey], and evolution of body into humanity [Drummond, Foster and Balfour, Calderwood 
 and Tyler]), accounts for the process of internal change. Drawing as it does upon both phys- 
 iology and psychology, it is incidentally an adequate test by which to divide pseudo-educators 
 from the real. So rich, however, is human nature that a youth of resources in himself may 
 be educated by materials and methods assembled by opportunities upon whom personally the 
 light of educational theory has never dawned. 
 
 Our hope now in America is by a correct and ample synthesis to arrive at a philosophy 
 of education. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 
 
 Great efforts are now being made in various quarters to 
 relate more closely the school and the home, teachers and 
 parents. Many devices are being resorted to for the 
 accomplishment of this purpose. There are parents' after- 
 noons, somewhat in the manner of district-school entertain- 
 ments, when the children speak set pieces and the school 
 trustee makes some remarks. There are elaborate forms 
 of reports to parents and acknowledgments by them. 
 There are special visiting or exhibition days when the 
 parents are expected to come to see their children do 
 the regular daily work. There are days for reviews and 
 prizes. Collections of money, of books, and of pictures, 
 are sometimes solicited for the equipment or decoration 
 of school, assembly-room, and hallways, or of class- 
 rooms. 
 
 But the whole force of civilization seems to run counter 
 to the movement for the correlation, one may even say 
 reconciliation, of school and home. 
 
 As the school waxes, the home wanes. This is not cause 
 and effect, however; both movements are the effects of 
 the same cause, which is a certain social decadence. 
 This decadence manifests itself in the decline of the pri- 
 mary social institutions and the rise of the secondary. 
 
 The primary institutions are : — 
 
 Property, Home, Church, Industry, and War. 
 162 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 163 
 
 The secondary institutions are : — 
 
 State, School, Culture, Charity, and Business.^ 
 The historical progress is a zigzag : — 
 
 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Integrating 
 primary secondary 
 
 I. Property 
 
 2. State 
 
 / 
 
 3. Home 
 
 \ 
 
 4. School 
 
 / 
 
 5. Church 
 
 6. Culture 
 7. Industry 
 
 8. Charity 
 
 Disintegrating 
 I. War 
 
 \ 
 
 II. Business 
 
 When civilized man reaches the last stages, he has drawn 
 away from the first. The workers in the fields of culture 
 and of charity are not and cannot be devoted to the 
 interests of property and of family. It may be said that 
 in the dawn of history, man was merely human : he cared 
 only for himself and for his own. Next he became tribal, 
 poUtical. He grew later into the patriarchate or the 
 
 1 War IS the antitheme of the first four ; Business, the antitheme of the last four. A 
 Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education, Chapter II. 
 
l64 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 matriarchate. Then arose the temple with its teach- 
 ing; and after this, the religious notion and its nec- 
 essary structure, the church. Society had now become 
 complex; and the scientific and artistic cultures became 
 necessary. Social order preserved and multiplied hu- 
 manity ; and systematic industry, based on science and 
 practised in arts, became established. Last, we are 
 learning to love and to cherish the young and the old, 
 the sick and the infirm ; we are becoming charitable, 
 or, to speak more accurately, we are developing some 
 definite institutions of both preventative and also remedial 
 charity. 
 
 As we move cityward, as more and more we become 
 citizens by birth and by rearing, we get away farther and 
 farther from the soil and from the productions of the field, 
 chief of which is physical man himself. And we become 
 more and more superficial, secondary, abstract in thought 
 and in constitution. Charity, Culture, School, and State 
 subtend ever larger and larger arcs in our angles of vision ; 
 Industry, Church, Home, and Property ever recede more 
 and more upon the edges of the angle of our in- 
 terests. 
 
 And, in addition, as War declines. Business increases. 
 These two modes of chaos are forever trying to destroy 
 the cosmos of our constructive social institutions. War is 
 flagrant, open, inconstant, tempestuous ; Business is subtle, 
 reticent, constant, maelstromic. 
 
 We talk of preparation for life in the social institutions ; 
 we talk of correlating two of these institutions; but we 
 seldom think what a social institution is, and almost never 
 define the various institutions accurately. A social insti- 
 tution is a popular mode of thought in respect to the com- 
 mon life and for or against the common welfare so habitual 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 165 
 
 as to compel consequent action} Take a thousand persons 
 out of a thousand different civiUzed communities ; put them 
 irrevocably together ; and, behold, they are making wealth 
 and acquiring property, establishing customs and laws, set- 
 tling disputes and preserving order, marrying, teaching 
 the ignorant and the young, worshipping, painting, sing- 
 ing, constructing, and healing : moreover, they are fighting 
 and trading one with another, hoping to get something for 
 nothing or more for less. Why ? Because we think to-day 
 in the terms of having and excluding — which is Property; 
 of legislating and judging — which is Government; of 
 marrying and breeding — which is Home-making ; of 
 teaching and training — which is Education; of worship- 
 ping — which is Religion ; of the Arts and Sciences, of 
 Systematic Labor, and of Systematic Helping : more- 
 over, whom we cannot persuade we would overpower — 
 which is War ; and whom we cannot overpower, we would 
 outbargain — - which is Business. 
 
 Now we are in a position to ask : Why should we try 
 to relate Home and School? And why should we pre- 
 pare for all the social institutions ? The latter question 
 scarcely belongs in this text for thorough answer ; but the 
 former lies in the course of the argument. Both Home 
 and School centre upon the child. These two institutions 
 exist, as do no other, almost solely for the sake of the child, 
 the same child. Nor in this common purpose, to develop 
 the child, do Home and School conflict. The trouble that 
 we meet in our effort to relate Home to School and School 
 to Home arises from two main causes. To the more im- 
 portant of these, attention has already been directed : the 
 
 1 It is well to see clearly in what sense social institutions, traditions, customs, notions, 
 and habits are " chains," as Rousseau labelled them. Contrary to his critics, let us agree 
 that the label is not a libel but an important true name. By these chains, the ship of the 
 present is firmly fastened to the sheet-anchors of the past and rides out the storms safely. 
 
1 66 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 Home is visibly disintegrating. Parentage and parent- 
 hood are declining in importance as human interests. It 
 has never been otherwise, and in an advancing civilization 
 accompanied by an increasing population it can never be 
 otherwise, for the masses of the adults, that is, of the 
 parents, are being constantly left farther and farther in 
 the rear of those who know the best in the thought and 
 practice of the world. Moreover, it cannot be otherwise 
 until the parents themselves en masse join the thinkers 
 and the interpreting teachers in their search after knowl- 
 edge. The rescue of the adults from ignorance, which 
 is the new phase of the mission of the universal school, 
 is to be at the same time in part the redemption, the re- 
 vival, of the home. 
 
 This is the true way to correlate Home and School : 
 that parent and child shall together with the teacher study 
 in the library and in the laboratory the things appropriate 
 for each of them respectively to know. The parent may 
 go to school or institute or college, call it what one chooses, 
 in the evenings or upon holidays or during vacation 
 seasons ; but wherever and whenever he goes, it is in 
 the same mood as his child goes. And the teacher re- 
 ceives him in the same mood. 
 
 We see this upon a small scale in various institutions 
 even now. And the hope grows strong that we shall see 
 it fully and generously estabHshed everywhere in the 
 land. 
 
 What, then, is the true situation.? Why do parents 
 shrink from meeting principals and teachers } It is the 
 meeting of unequals and of aliens : the parents do not 
 really understand what the children are doing, and they 
 are both too ignorant and too oppressed with the world 
 to care much, if at all. They send their children to 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 167 
 
 school for five or six years, what to learn they do not 
 and often cannot clearly know. 
 
 Those who have tried parents' organizations of one kind or another 
 will understand completely what facts lie behind the foregoing generali- 
 zations. The persons who attend such meetings may be classified as 
 follows, viz. : — 
 
 a. The very ignorant, such as foreigners of the lower European 
 classes, accepting humbly the opportunity to meet teachers, whom they 
 conceive as of high social class. 
 
 b. Parents curious to see their own children or their neighbors' chil- 
 dren " on the platform." 
 
 c. Politicians anxious to win and to hold the favor of the com- 
 munity about the school. 
 
 d. A few really earnest mothers, anxious about the welfare of their 
 children. 
 
 e. A few strangers desirous to see the interior of the school building. 
 
 f. Those with nothing else to do and nowhere else to go. 
 
 g. Recent " alumni " of the school. 
 
 But of men really concerned for education as such or for the prog- 
 ress of the particular school or for that of their own children, there 
 are almost none. Of women similarly concerned, there are but few. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these obstacles and all these down- 
 ward tendencies, in most school communities, parents* 
 organizations tending educationward are well worth the 
 effort to establish and to maintain them. To make them 
 successful, the following suggestions are offered, viz. : — 
 
 1. To correlate their entertainments and other sessions 
 
 {a) with evening lecture courses, 
 {b) with evening school courses. 
 
 2. To draw in as large a number as may be of the chil- 
 dren of the parents as participators in the exercises.^ 
 
 3. For the head of the school to maintain a place 
 upon the executive committee or other governing board 
 
 * In a certain city, the continuance of an organization for ten years is accounted for by 
 the principal by one characteristic of every session : there is always at least one class exer- 
 cise, involving the attendance of at least forty children and their eighty parents. 
 
l68 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 of the organization, and then by one means or another 
 to secure the active cooperation of at least two or three 
 parents in the work of the committee, — in short, to direct 
 by suggestion. 
 
 4. To announce the special features of every session at 
 least ten days before, and to hold every session upon a 
 regular day of the month, and never to vary, 
 
 5. To give the work ceaseless publicity. 
 
 6. To introduce in the entertainment or session itself 
 as much genuine value as is consistent with constant in- 
 terest. 
 
 7. Invariably, refreshments or souvenirs. 
 
 8. Invariably, a hand-shaking reception committee. 
 
 9. Always in the near foreground, some material ob- 
 ject for " funds " — more pictures, a piano, a picnic. 
 
 10. To have, every evening, one or more parents con- 
 tribute some feature of the programme. 
 
 Parents' organizations usually meet evenings ; mothers' 
 clubs usually meet afternoons. These latter are often 
 restricted to mothers only of the kindergarten children. 
 This, however, is a serious and usually an unfortunate 
 limitation, because these children are seldom in the 
 kindergarten more than a year ; with each new generation 
 of children, there is a new " mothers' club." The kinder- 
 garten mothers' club, indeed, is seldom more than a fine 
 name for the kindergartner's afternoon tea or reception. 
 This, indeed, is the true secret of the success in keeping 
 alive any mothers* club, — to conduct it as a social tea. 
 But a good mothers' club, like the good parents' organiza- 
 tion, is much more than a teachers' reception or afternoon 
 tea to mothers. As already indicated, the mothers should 
 be to the fore, and the teachers in the rear. 
 
 Parents' organizations are tap-roots of the school into 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 1 69 
 
 the community : the children and the youth are roots and 
 rootlets. Together, they sustain the trunk, branches, and 
 leaves of the tree. 
 
 For the city, a large public education society, led by 
 persons of good standing, is invaluable ; but it is difficult to 
 establish, though not so difficult to maintain. 
 
 Both the city education society and the school parents' 
 organization should be controlled for all details by an ex- 
 ecutive committee or board of governors or similar central 
 authority.^ The general membership exercises its power 
 by its selection of the officers. 
 
 A city education society requires both an office, open for 
 at least an hour or so regularly every day, and a place of 
 meeting, at once accessible and commodious.^ It should 
 appoint a secretary and a treasurer with a view to per- 
 manence in these offices. 
 
 A successful public education society is in danger of arousing the 
 jealousy of the board of education. Nor can it perform its social duty 
 unless it does from time to time make suggestions to the board of edu- 
 cation and to the superintendent of schools. But this is no valid reason 
 for suppressing or even discouraging such a society. Without conflict, 
 there can be.no freedom ; and without freedom, there can be no progress, 
 for all human progress is progress at once in freedom and in order. In 
 a certain sense, the free education society represents the one, and the 
 governmental board represents the other. 
 
 These volunteer organizations should be induced by the 
 administrative officers of the school system to work for the 
 introduction of desirable new features. This work should 
 be done mainly in two directions, first, public sentiment, 
 and, second, the keepers of the public purse. All other 
 effort is more or less waste. To reach and to affect public 
 sentiment, by far the best avenue is that of the press. 
 
 1 For type of control, m'lie Appendix E, " Constitution of the Federal Schoolmen's Club," 
 for Virginia, District of Columbia, and Maryland. 
 
 ^ Baltimore has a notable society of this character. 
 
170 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 However much we may in matters familiar to ourselves 
 discount the published news and explain away editorial 
 opinion, in all other matters we are the passive and 
 obedient creatures of printers' ink. It cannot be otherwise. 
 We believe what we are told. Of the thousands of items 
 in a single issue of a city daily, we usually know noth- 
 ing of more than a dozen or a score. To most, of 
 course, we are utterly indifferent; but of hundreds of 
 items, strange and interesting, for a day or two we say, 
 "I saw it in the paper," or " The Times said so-and-so." 
 Three days after, we forget how we learned it, but know 
 that it is so. 
 
 The other ways of affecting public opinion are to reach 
 the ministers, the physicians, and other professional per- 
 sons; to inform the teachers themselves; to publish pam- 
 phlets ; and to influence the popular leaders, in business, 
 in the unions, and in other associations of men. 
 
 For want of time and for fear of arousing the antagonism 
 of board members, of taxpayers, and of professional politi- 
 cians,^ the school superintendent himself cannot do much 
 more for a special reform than to recommend it in his 
 written reports, in personal conversations, and in public 
 addresses. He cannot go about getting votes for it. 
 
 A good city or town school system requires three kinds 
 of officers concerned directly with the health of the pupils, 
 — physicians, nurses, and physical culture teachers. The 
 physicians are commonly styled " medical inspectors," and 
 are also commonly appointed by the public board of health. 
 The duties of a medical inspector consist in visiting daily 
 each of the schools assigned to him, of there inspecting all 
 the pupils referred to him by teacher and principal, of 
 
 ' Reference is made, of course, to the typical, not to the unusual, board members, tax- 
 payers, and politicians. I hope that when the history of American education is written, certain 
 of these lovers of their fellowmen will be included. Vide Our Schools, page ii6. 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 171 
 
 sending home with suitable notes such as seem to have 
 contagious or infectious diseases or such other diseases and 
 ailments as require medical attendance, of notifying at 
 at once by telephone or messenger the central office of the 
 board of health regarding the cases perilous to others, 
 of making written records of all cases referred to him, and 
 of reporting them to school and health authorities. Other 
 duties properly assignable to the medical inspectors are 
 thorough, regular, and frequent investigation of the sanitary 
 condition of every school building and yard, with written 
 report thereon ; the holding of stated and reasonably fre- 
 quent meetings with the officers and teachers of the schools, 
 to instruct them in the nature and symptoms of all diseases 
 of children and youth ; the determining by personal exam- 
 ination what pupils shall be assigned to the atypical classes ; 
 making recommendations as to buildings and repairs to 
 the official body that controls these matters ; making sug- 
 gestions as to school courses and programmes; exempting 
 pupils upon certain conditions from all-day regular school 
 attendance ; vaccinating indigent children ; ^ and examining 
 candidates for positions as teachers and for entrance into 
 normal schools and teachers' colleges.^ 
 
 Quite as important as the medical inspector is the school 
 nurse. Where there is a good corps of school nurses,^ 
 
 1 1 am not a vaccination enthusiast. I have invariably enforced strictly the vaccination 
 rules; but I know one child in Washington whose death was entirely due to vaccination. Of 
 course, either the vaccine was impure or the sore was carelessly exposed, or the child was 
 unhealthy. But at any rate, as the law teaches us, but for being vaccinated, the child would 
 probably be alive. One of my own children, absolutely well and vigorous hitherto, was 
 seriously ill from vaccination for two years. But I yield to the professional opinion of the 
 experts, though with misgivings. I hope for something better. 
 
 2 Here also I have some misgivings. I have seen some very good teaching and fairly good 
 executive management by persons clearly invalids, by cripples, and by others whom most 
 medical inspectors would not pass. The ambitious and talented city girl is apt to injure, and 
 sometimes ruin, her health in the modern city high school. Vide page i6o, supra, 
 
 8 As in Boston and in Rochester now. 
 
172 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 the medical inspectors can be reduced in number, for they 
 will scarcely need to visit every school daily. 
 
 The duties of the school nurse include visiting every 
 school in her district daily ; tending personally to the easily 
 remediable cases, but sending home others or referring 
 them to the medical inspector ; dressing wounds and sores 
 that would perhaps otherwise prevent regular attendance ; 
 and in all other practical ways assisting the work of the 
 school physician. The school nurse may reasonably be 
 expected to follow up serious cases by visits to the homes 
 of the pupils who are seriously ill ; to counsel the teachers 
 carefully; to talk to parents at the meetings of parents' 
 associations and of mothers' clubs ; and to systematize many 
 pathological duties of public school administration. 
 
 Both medical inspectors and school nurses should work 
 in sympathy with the attendance officers and the physical 
 culture teachers. 
 
 Since the city itself is a manifestation of the gregarious 
 spirit of mankind,^ the direct effect of that almost sufficient 
 cause, it is scarcely an occasion of surprise that children 
 in school desire to form clubs and to run in gangs about 
 the streets, alleys, warehouses, vacant lots, and parks. 
 Play and conspire in twos and in threes, in gangs and 
 in clubs, they certainly will, whatever schoolmasters and 
 schoolmistresses think or desire. The one proper course 
 for us to pursue is to regulate these associations, to give 
 them educative content, and to see that there are no chil- 
 dren lost in isolation. For the child that does not work 
 and play with his fellows is in danger of the spiritual dis- 
 ease of loneliness in the midst of society. 
 
 Even in grammar schools, there should be various clubs 
 
 > Notes, pages 109 and 142, snf>ra. This city-building, not "intriguing," is what Aris- 
 totle meant when he said, "Man is a political animal." (noAis = city.) 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 173 
 
 and societies under the direction and supervision of the 
 teachers. To say this is not to advocate pupil self-govern- 
 ment, which because of child-nature is impossible ; but it 
 is to advocate pupil development through directed self- 
 activity. Such clubs and societies as are formed should 
 be the outgrowth of the school interests as the pupils 
 present them and as the teachers see them. They may 
 include the following, viz. : — 
 
 Debating clubs. 
 
 Literary clubs. 
 
 Dramatic clubs. 
 
 Athletic teams, baseball, basket ball, bicycle, football, field (running, 
 jumping, tennis, etc.). 
 
 Current events societies. 
 
 Teams for playing matches in checkers, chess, "authors," domi- 
 noes, etc. 
 
 Cadet (military drill) companies. 
 
 Reading clubs. 
 
 Orchestras. 
 
 Camera (photography) clubs. 
 
 Stamp collectors' club. 
 
 School reception association. 
 
 School papers and other publications. 
 
 Periodical and book clubs. 
 
 Teams for mechanical construction, dressmaking, etc. 
 
 Any, but of course not all, of such clubs and teams as 
 these, from playing marbles and flying kites to building 
 model (miniature) houses, may be established in any elemen- 
 tary school ; and many of them should exist in every high 
 school. It may be thought that the teachers who run such 
 enterprises will not have time to "teach school." They 
 will scarcely need to teach school, for where the energies 
 of pupils are liberated, there school almost teaches itself.^ 
 
 1 In this kind of school, the teacher (in the fine but now obsolete meaning of the word) 
 *' learns " the pupil this and that ; i.e., causes hinm to learn. Cf. German, lehren. 
 
174 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 It is not to be supposed that these clubs will be of the 
 permanent and formal nature of the clubs of adults. They 
 will come and go and come again. 
 
 For teachers' colleges, normal schools, and high schools, 
 there has arisen the secret society, which manifests itself 
 in various types. Of these types, three are important, viz. : 
 the national fraternity, with chapters in different commu- 
 nities ; the local society, represented in several schools with 
 a central room for meetings ; and the special school society, 
 sometimes for both sexes, but usually confined to one. 
 The professional opinion of educators has already been 
 registered upon this subject; and all that I propose is to 
 record the opinion. Whether or not college Greek letter 
 fraternities and sororities are desirable is a mooted ques- 
 tion, and there is room for difference of opinion. But edu- 
 cators in control of city schools are practically unanimous 
 in their opposition to any and every kind of secret society. 
 
 1. We object to the secrecy itself, holding that both 
 parents and teachers have the right to know what the 
 activities, the interests, and the opinions of our children 
 are. 
 
 2. We object to the clannishness with "snobbery" that 
 almost inevitably results from the secrecy. 
 
 3. We object to the expenses incident to secret societies, 
 — the fraternity pins, the refreshments, the excursions. 
 
 4. We object to the time consumed in planning and in 
 carrying on the meetings, 
 
 5. We especially object to the national fraternity, which 
 is directed by alumni beyond the jurisdiction of the school 
 authorities, 
 
 6. We know that the open society is far better. By 
 the open society is meant one whose meetings are held 
 either at school or in some home, and may be attended by 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 175 
 
 any parent or teacher, and whose constitution and by-laws 
 are fully published and understood. 
 
 Those who have not had experience with secret societies 
 may be surprised to know of their enterprises. Personally 
 I know of these events : {a) holding " smokers " in rented 
 room ; {b) playing cards there for money ; {c) trying to ; 
 control class elections ; {d) trying to intimidate the facultyf 
 into issuing diplomas; {e) controlling votes on the board -^ 
 of education ; (/) raising purses to bet on interscholastic' 
 athletics ; {g) hazing ; (Jt) forcing resignation of school 
 principal ; (z) splitting school into two camps, " frats " and 
 "nobodies " ; (/) holding costly dances and suppers. 
 
 The question is sometimes raised as to whether the open 
 society should be allowed to maintain a limited member- 
 ship and an eligible list. In small schools, with few socie- 
 ties and clubs, no ; in large schools, with many societies, 
 yes. 
 
 The school principal or some teacher well versed in 
 parliamentary law should attend the sessions of all these 
 clubs from time to time and should give instruction in the 
 conduct of public business. Teachers should be designated 
 as auditors for every club team or society that requires 
 money to be collected and expended.^ In this kind of 
 work, an ounce of prevention saves many a pound of cure. 
 In our age, children and youth have almost no sense of 
 "mine" and "thine" or "ours." 
 
 The work of these open societies of school pupils may 
 often be presented to advantage in the meetings of parents' 
 associations. 
 
 1 In a certain city, a boy treasurer fell behind $36, which he misappropriated largely in 
 taking schoolgirls to Saturday matinees at the theatres. He stole a valuable microscope, 
 pawned it, set fire to the schoolhouse to destroy the evidence, was arrested and sent to an 
 asylum for the criminal insane, and released months afterward with a record that has followed 
 him through life. Another instance was the embezzlement of $87 from a school paper, reim- 
 bursed with great difiSculty by very poor parents. 
 
176 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 The place of athletics in large city schools is now becom- 
 ing important, but by no means more important than it 
 deserves to be. Physical exercise, spontaneous or directed, 
 in-doors and out-doors, individual or social, — as play, 
 games, or military drill, — is one of the means of partially 
 reHeving humanity from the curse of the city. For the 
 control of the athletics of a city school system, there is 
 perhaps no better device than a board of faculty advisers. 
 There should be one member from each school that main- 
 tains athletic teams, and at least one representative from 
 the physical culture department. This board should be 
 the court of final jurisdiction on facts, with an appeal to 
 the board of superintendents upon questions of rules and 
 regulations. 
 
 The present tendency is against the extension of inter- 
 scholastic games between different cities ; but the policy of 
 permitting such games between schools of the same grade 
 and character within the same school system (or indeed 
 similar private schools also) is not yet sufficiently chal- 
 lenged to be considered unwise or even doubtful. 
 
 The main issue is this : to secure for every boy and 
 for every girl athletic opportunity, and to enforce athletic 
 endeavor by all who are not physically incapacitated for 
 games, drill, play, and work. It is really much more 
 important for a boy to be able to skate a fast mile than 
 to know how to scan a stanza of Virgil or of Ovid. I 
 would rather be able to play a position on a baseball 
 nine than to know how to write a chemical formula. The 
 point for the city school administrator is to institute and to 
 operate such machinery as will insure that every healthy 
 boy and girl of sixteen or eighteen shall become sufficiently 
 skilled in some form of physical diversion, and hence will 
 enjoy doing it so much, that as an adult he will not become 
 
AIDS AND ACCESSORIES 1 77 
 
 a wreck because of invalidism, no matter how great be the 
 strain upon him. Every full-grown man and woman on 
 earth should find regular exercise in some physical recrea- 
 tion or sport — be it golf, polo, tennis, canoeing, riding, 
 bicycling, or walking. This interest must begin in child- 
 hood and must be thoroughly developed in adolescence. 
 
 In addition to the public education society, the parents' 
 clubs, and similar organizations of the citizens interested 
 in education, there should be certain general organiza- 
 tions of the officers, teachers, and alumni of the school 
 system, e.g. : — 
 
 A principals' club or association. 
 
 A male teachers' association. 
 
 A high school teachers' association. 
 
 A (general) teachers' association. 
 
 A normal school (or teachers' college) alumni association. 
 
 A high school alumni association. 
 
 Teachers' reading club (or clubs). 
 
 Seminars (for special subjects). 
 
 A club of pensioners and teachers emeriti. 
 
 Most clubs and associations of this character require the 
 following committees, viz. : — 
 
 A legislative committee (to propose to the proper authorities recom- 
 mendations, new laws, the repeal of old laws, rules, regulations, etc.). 
 A programme committee. 
 An executive (or ways and means) committee. 
 
 It is the absence of such societies that makes it possible 
 for politicians in and out of office to corrupt the teaching 
 corps. Their presence gives dignity and power of re- 
 sistance to self-respecting teachers. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 CONVERTING THE OCCUPATION INTO A PROFESSION 
 
 In the process of building up the wage-earning occupa- 
 tion of keeping school into the profession of education, 
 one of the baffling conditions is that afforded by the loca- 
 tion of the superintendent of schools as interpreting medi- 
 ator between the school and the world, — the world being 
 immediately and often aggressively represented to him by 
 a board of education. His position is unique in many 
 respects : he is appointed by a board of control and cease- 
 lessly watched, not only for every move he makes and for 
 every word he says, but also for the thoughts that he is 
 suspected to have. 
 
 His case is not paralleled by that of most other persons in so-called 
 ''government office." This is a reason why his should not be consid- 
 ered a government office. He is an executive of lay making and con- 
 trol, constantly directed by his electors and often appointed during the 
 pleasure of the board. When he has a term of three, four, or six years, 
 he knows that he will be reelected or defeated by a board more or less 
 different in membership from that which originally elected him.^ 
 
 * In a certain city of over 100,000 population, the term of board membership has been 
 2 years. Of its 9 members, 7 were changed by defeat, resignation, or death within 5 months. 
 In a city of similar size, in 62 years of the service of superintendents, the average term was 3J 
 years, and the longest term 7 years. In a certain other city, 2 out of 8 members were changed; 
 but it was immediately an entirely different board, with a new president, a new secretary, and 
 a new policy. In a fourth city, a woman became a board member; and with that single 
 change, the superintendent found it impossible to proceed and resigned soon afterwards. In 
 a fifth city, a board stood one majority for six years for the superintendent ; an election gave 
 him two majority, whereupon his supporters split into two factions, and he was forced to re- 
 sign. [For the theory of resignation, vide Our Schools, pp. 99, 164, 395.] I have in mind a 
 city where the choice for one of the high school principalships of a man who was extremely 
 
 178 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 179 
 
 An analogy occurs. Suppose that a senator from Vermont or Texas 
 should so conduct himself as to displease the legislature of the State, 
 and suppose that this legislature should watch his work every moment, 
 and suppose that when occasion arose this legislature could abruptly 
 terminate his work and his salary, — we should then have a case parallel 
 with that of the superintendent.^ 
 
 Board meetings, committee meetings, conferences with 
 individual board members, interviews with friends of mem- 
 bers, and interviews with reporters keen to discover his 
 plans and publish them abroad, are one and all so many 
 traps for the superintendent's falling. Small wonder that 
 he is seldom an educator ; that after a dozen years of sus- 
 picion, he has forgotten too often what the true purpose of 
 the school is. 
 
 The superintendent must beware of the Scylla on the 
 rocks, which is lay domination. 
 
 On the other hand, Charybdis whirls, the maelstrom of 
 school intrigue.^ 
 
 The superintendent is known to be half politician ; and 
 the educators in the school service of large cities secretly, 
 sometimes openly, are inclined to characterize him as " all 
 politician." Every visit that he makes to a schoolroom, 
 every talk that he has with a subordinate, every address 
 that he gives to the teachers or before the general public, 
 every proposition that he makes tp the board of education, 
 
 clever in politics forced a superintendent out, though this man himself did not desire the 
 superintendency, nor did he take it, nor did he have any candidate for it, nor was he a better 
 equipped educator than the superintendent. It was a mere contrast in personalities and in 
 personal methods that so affected the board as to produce this result. 
 
 1 It may be objected that a senator is a more important person than a city school superin- 
 tendent, that he needs more freedom in which to do his work, and that other senators are 
 watching his course every day. I challenge the first proposition, believing that education is 
 quite as important as government ; as to the second, I venture that both senator and super- 
 intendent require freedom ; and make the correction that his fellow senators are his colleagues, 
 not his paymasters nor in any sense his superiors. 
 
 2 Often these combine, as the walls of the dungeon close in on the prisoner. When this 
 happens, the only hope is the conscience of the community. 
 
l80 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 must manifest enthusiastic commendation of the schools as 
 they are lest he be suspected of intending revolution or at 
 least such reform as will displace somebody from his or 
 her present position. He must be an educator, or seem 
 to be one in the school ; but he must not be one or seem 
 to be one, at least not too earnestly, out in the world. 
 
 The superintendent, therefore, is to interpret the esoteric 
 in the terms of the exoteric. 
 
 He is to mediate between the workers in what is at once 
 a philosophy, a science, and an art, and the public for 
 whom they work. 
 
 The rider of two horses, the servant of two masters, or 
 the reconciler is not apt long to exercise the function in the 
 same community. As soon as he begins to cleave to the 
 the one and to despise the other, he becomes the rejected 
 of men. The term of the school superintendent is short, 
 very short. For the United States, it does not average 
 three years in the same community. Very few men who 
 go into the superintendency reach fifty years of age in that 
 office. 
 
 We are all Napoleons ; for each one there is a Waterloo. 
 Now and then a genius escapes the fate of most or seems 
 to do so ; and conditions are gradually growing better, for 
 reasons that I am about to recite. 
 
 The lot of the superintendent as interpreter between the 
 teaching force and the public may be ameliorated in any 
 or in all of its three terms. He himself as the middle 
 term may be improved in his skill as an interpreter, or one 
 or the other of the parties to be reconciled may be im- 
 proved. All three improvements are coming to pass in 
 America. The teachers are coming to be educators, espe- 
 cially in our cities. As such, they are beginning to un- 
 derstand that the interpreting superintendent may not 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION i8l 
 
 always, must not necessarily, be a traitor to their " inter- 
 ests " because he is the teacher nearest to the board of 
 education. The people are beginning to understand that 
 they should not represent themselves in the persons of 
 their worst, or even of their average, but of their best. 
 The world is beginning in some communities to display on 
 the board of education, not politics, in the persons of ward 
 bosses or heelers, but culture, in the persons of physi- 
 cians, journalists, lawyers, men of wealth and rearing.^ 
 It is usually a slow, zigzag process ; occasionally, it comes 
 in revolution. 
 
 We cannot have notably better schools in America until 
 we have better school superintendents ; but the boards are 
 slow either to elect better superintendents or to let present 
 superintendents display their best qualities. And we can- 
 not have better boards until the level of culture lifts or 
 until the persons of culture wake to the facts. The culti- 
 vated class will not wake of itself, — a mere commonplace, 
 but quite essential to the argument. Who will wake it ? 
 
 There is no good man in America, able-bodied and in 
 the possession of a decent competence, who is not either 
 in public life or willing to enter it. Thousands of men, 
 well thought of among themselves, really good in respect 
 to many small matters concerning property, family, church, 
 business, and " society," are not good men because they 
 have no moral energy or purpose ; they need the shock 
 of being publicly pronounced private-minded, negligent of 
 their duty to community and to nation, irresponsible, and 
 essentially ungrateful. They need to think, to investigate, 
 to suffer shocks, and to act. 
 
 1 Vide Appendix A. Wherever good schools have been permitted, there a board led by 
 men of wealth and culture has suppressed its own notions and carried out the plans of pro- 
 fessional educators. 
 
1 82 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 In the development of better schools in any community 
 we need the following, viz. : — 
 
 (a) a better public sentiment, 
 
 (b) a better board of education,^ 
 
 (c) a better superintendent, 
 
 (d) a better teaching body. 
 
 To secure the last of these desiderata, the only one that 
 is in itself essential, the most important instrument is the 
 municipal or State board of examiners. In fact, we usu- 
 ally find that municipal boards have lower standards for 
 certificates than have the State boards ; in theory, the stat- 
 utes should make the State certificates to teach the minima. 
 An ideal provision in the present situation is that no teacher 
 without a State certificate shall be employed in any mu- 
 nicipality, that the municipal authorities may add what- 
 ever qualifications they choose, and that every municipality 
 issuing certificates higher than those of the State shall 
 appoint and maintain a board of examiners, each of whom 
 shall hold the highest State certificate. 
 
 A municipal board of examiners in a large city should 
 consist of five members, of whom at least two should give 
 their entire time to the work of examining applicants at 
 stated intervals. The board should have a salaried clerk 
 and such stenographers as may be required. The superin- 
 tendent of schools should be a member ex officio and chair- 
 man, and should not only nominate but also appoint the 
 other members. 
 
 In the conduct of such a board of examiners, there are 
 several questions of importance. Of these, perhaps the 
 
 1 The foregoing pages show that there are many steps to be taken before we can go from 
 a better public sentiment to a better board, and so on ; but I mean here to triangulate only 
 the high places in the argument. The good board represents fully the culture of a city and 
 transacts purely financial business only. In this capacity, it is valuable and desirable. Such 
 a board radiates information about the schools throughout the community, and advocates 
 more and better education. Vide Appendix A, 2, and G, infra. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 183 
 
 first in importance is the nature of the tenure of its mem- 
 bers. Is it wise for the membership to be permanent? 
 This seems to me to be one of these cases that admirably 
 illustrate the old adage, — In medias res tutissima via. It 
 exemplifies Aristotle's doctrine of the " golden mean." Let 
 two members of the board be permanent ; let the other two 
 be changed every four or five years. The superintendent 
 will change often enough without any prescription of 
 term. By this plan, some members know the history of 
 conditions for the various positions for many years back, 
 while others keep in touch with actual school work. In 
 large cities, there are sufficient changes in principalships, 
 heads of departments in high schools, and in directorships 
 or supervisorships to make this plan of interchanging these 
 members with principals and directors feasible. 
 
 A second question is what proportion shall be assigned 
 in the marks to the several subjects of examination. I have 
 found the following satisfactory as a type : — 
 
 Credits 
 
 Major subject 30 
 
 Minor subject 15 
 
 Psychology 5 
 
 History of education 5 
 
 School management 5 
 
 English and American literature . 5 
 
 Theory and practice of teaching . 5 
 
 Education 10 
 
 Experience 10 
 
 Oral questions upon answers to writ- 
 ten questions 10 
 
 Written, 60 credits 
 
 Oral, 40 credits 
 
 It has always seemed to me best to give a board of ex- 
 aminers considerable leeway for evidences of personality. 
 In all so-called " special subjects," such as drawing, physi- 
 cal culture, music, it is desirable to see candidates actually 
 
1 84 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 teaching pupils or demonstrating to other teachers. Also, 
 it has always seemed best to require tests in certain sub- 
 jects for all candidates. When seventy credits are required 
 for certification, a candidate who knows but little of psy- 
 chology, literature, theory, and practice must do remarkably 
 well in his major and minor. 
 
 It is understood that no one is finally to be certified for 
 teaching whose " documents " do not appear correct and 
 who does not pass a satisfactory physical culture test.^ 
 
 As to major and minor, the former should cover all the 
 ground requisite for sound scholarship. Almost any com- 
 bination should be allowed, e.g., not only Greek and Latin, 
 but also History and Physics, or English Literature and 
 Shopwork. Successful candidates should be certified only 
 for the major subject. They may, however, pass several 
 examinations for various subjects and thus secure certifi- 
 cates for several majors. 
 
 In the conduct of all examinations for teachers' and 
 principals' certificates, it is important that records and 
 papers should be filed permanently. Written tests should 
 be anonymous, each candidate taking a number. No per- 
 son who fails to get 6^ per cent (40 credits) in the written 
 work should be admitted to the oral test.^ 
 
 Here arises the question of competitive examinations for 
 positions. Many self-respecting men seem to object to 
 such examinations; and yet for most kinds of so-called 
 " high-salaried positions " they constitute at once a safe- 
 guard against favoritism and an assurance of the promo- 
 tion of the best interests of the public. It is sometimes 
 alleged that there is favoritism in the decision upon exam- 
 inations. Such an allegation is seldom made by any one 
 with knowledge of a standard city-school system. Trickery 
 
 1 Vide page 171, supra. - On the basis of the plans, page 182. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 185 
 
 is practically impossible because of the number of persons 
 concerned in making the decision and because of the 
 number of candidates.^ One of the real difficulties of city 
 school administration is the presence of so many villagers 
 who do not in the least understand the fundamental facts.^ 
 These persons at best know about the superintendent and 
 the teachers. They are entirely unable to comprehend the 
 uses of hundreds of intermediate ' officers ; as, for exam- 
 ple, here in the prevention of favoritism. The really com- 
 petent superintendent is more afraid of favoritism lest it 
 weaken his administration by rotting it than is the most 
 persistent of gossips or the most violent of professional re- 
 formers. And strange as it may seem, even the favoritism 
 of an incompetent man does no more harm than his other 
 acts of incompetence. 
 
 The long examination is not to be commended. All the 
 written papers of applicants should be strictly limited to 
 not exceeding five or six hours of one day or three hours 
 upon each of two days. We desire rather to sample the 
 knowledge of a candidate than to exhaust it? For the few 
 who pass the written tests and are admitted to the oral, 
 there should be reserved an average of twenty minutes 
 each for examination, to include all topics. 
 
 In addition to the examination of applicants for cer- 
 tificates and to the competitive examination of candidates 
 (of whom many doubtless already hold certificates), there is 
 a field for the services of an examining board not often 
 occupied by it — the listing of text-books for use in the 
 schools.* This clears away from the board of education 
 
 ^ Large cities have thousands of candidates every year for their hundreds, even thousands, 
 of vacancies. 
 
 2 Vide Chapter XXII, A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education. 
 
 * Most cities make the passing mark too high. It should be from 50 to 70 per cent. 
 When higher, too little is taught, and thoroughness is attempted at the expense of breadth. 
 
 * This plan is in successful operation in Newark, N.J. 
 
1 86 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 a responsibility for which they are, of course, incompetent, 
 and it gives to the superintendent of schools colleagues 
 whom he can safely trust. They, in turn, will call upon 
 committees of teachers to advise them. By performing 
 these several duties solely in the light of educational prin- 
 ciples, the municipal board of examiners can do much 
 toward making education a profession. 
 
 The topic of eligible lists for appointment to the stand- 
 ard positions is of sufficient importance to require some 
 additional treatment by itself. A comparatively short eli- 
 gible list strengthens the technical position of the school 
 administrator. He is not forced to take the first applicant 
 who may appear with the minimum necessary documents. 
 Given three or four names, when one person is not imme- 
 diately available, he may take another essentially as good. 
 A short list means one that will be exhausted not before, 
 but at about the same time as the next examination takes 
 place. A list that overlaps a new one when determined 
 may lead to embarrassment. 
 
 No person should ever be placed upon an eligible list 
 whose services are not really desirable. When a board of 
 education is notified that it can get ten good applicants 
 for one kind of position to one of another, it should treat 
 such notice as a warning to raise the salary of the second 
 kind of position.^ 
 
 The rank of a person upon an eligible list should be 
 absolute — not to be changed except at his request. Later 
 licenses should rank lower, irrespective of the mark 
 attained. 
 
 1 It is here that all prescriptions of salary by legislatures or powers other than the board 
 of education are injurious. This is seen at its worst in the District of Columbia, where Con- 
 gress not only fixes all salaries but prescribes how many salaries of each amount are available 
 for the use of the school authorities, and directs in what positions they shall be paid. In 
 consequence, there are some positions that cannot be filled, for there are no candidates at the 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 187 
 
 Another topic that has already been mentioned deserves 
 here a Httle more consideration, the text-book list. All the 
 weight of professional opinion is now thrown for the open, 
 optional list, with at least two or three titles for basic texts 
 and a half dozen for supplementary material.^ The final 
 choice of books actually to be purchased ^ is then to be 
 made by the head of each school or by such director or 
 supervisor as may have this authority. Books should not 
 be changed lightly or often ; they should be adopted for 
 a term of years, but not all should be reconsidered the 
 same year. This term of adoption should be inviolate. 
 Let mathematics come up one year, the languages the 
 next, history a third year. The cycle should be not less 
 than four nor more than seven years in duration. This plan 
 is advantageous not only as a matter of money, but also as 
 a matter of care in considering this most important subject. 
 It also tends to the professionalization of the choice of 
 books. 
 
 It is often asked which is the better plan for arranging 
 the superintendents, viz. : — 
 
 A. Superintendent, 
 1st Assistant, 
 2d Assistant, 
 3d Assistant, or 
 
 B. Superintendent, 
 
 X Associate superintendents.^ 
 For most reasons, and for the more cogent reasons, the 
 second plan is preferable. 
 
 salaries prescribed. As Congress is in session but ten months in every two years, and can 
 give but little attention at any time to District affairs, the principle is displayed here in the 
 clear light of a negative instance. 
 
 ^ Vide Our Schools, pages 85-7. 
 
 2 Schools should be given total allowances based upon per capita attendance. Vide 
 plans in New York City and in Paterson, N.J. 
 
 * Vide page 30, supra. 
 
l88 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 1 . By the plan of a board of supervision with a superin- 
 tendent as chairman, and several associates as equal col- 
 leagues, the community secures decisions upon numerous 
 and varied facts and well-debated opinions as basis for 
 educational action. 
 
 2. Time is saved. There is less procedure to get a 
 matter from a teacher up to the superintendent. 
 
 3. There is less " red tape." 
 
 4. There are less grades in the hierarchy; this means 
 fewer causes for jealousy. The succession to the superin- 
 tendency is not apparently predetermined. 
 
 5. It is much easier to assign associates to various tasks 
 than to assign assistants of several ranks. 
 
 6. There is no salary problem of how to reconcile equal- 
 ity of work with equity as to talent employed. 
 
 7. Practically, it is easier for a superintendent to get a 
 board of education (or other superior financial authority) 
 to give him six associates than four assistants. 
 
 8. A weak assistant may survive, though blocking the 
 work : a weak associate cannot survive in competition 
 with other associates. This also is a matter of experi- 
 ence.i 
 
 In the deliverance of teachers from bondage to hand-to- 
 mouth wages, to employing boards, and to fear of poverty 
 when invalided by old age or otherwise, nothing is more 
 important than the pension. We find this provision for 
 retirement in several different forms : — 
 
 I. The purely private voluntary "fund," managed by a 
 society usually incorporated for the purpose. This may be 
 called "a teachers' aid and annuity association." 
 
 1 To preserve its interest in education and its vitality, a city school system must take 
 some of its higher officers as well as some of its class teachers from outside. One in 
 three is the standard. Inbreeding is as pernicious in the superintendencies and principal- 
 ships as in the other grades of the service. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 189 
 
 2. A similar " fund," authorized by the school law, into 
 which teachers pay or direct the custodian of the school 
 moneys to pay monthly a statutory percentage of their 
 salaries. 
 
 3. A compulsory fund to which, therefore, every teacher 
 contributes and to whose benefits every one is entitled. 
 
 4. The State, county, or municipal pension,^ payable out 
 of the taxes. This constitutes a true civil service retire- 
 ment pension. It is well-deserved half-pay. 
 
 The argument for pensions cannot be stated in full here ; 
 pensions do not come as a matter of argument.^ The old- 
 age pension for teachers as for firemen, police, soldiers, and 
 sailors is mainly a matter of sentiment, partly a matter of 
 intuition and partly of pure experience. — At the present 
 time, the large city that does not pay pensions must pay 
 many full salaries that are little better than annuities. 
 For myself, I will never recommend the discharge of 
 teachers invalided for any cause whatever; just as I 
 would never, of my own free will, "dock" the salary 
 of a teacher for illness, no matter how long that illness 
 continues. 
 
 The notion seems generally to prevail that the pension 
 should be one-half of the salary of the teacher, but that it 
 should not exceed some stated maximum.^ The amount 
 must depend mainly upon local conditions ; but I do not 
 know of any large city in America where the pension can 
 decently be less to any one than ^600 a year. 
 
 The constitution of the retiring board is an important 
 matter. This board should not exceed seven members. 
 
 1 This strictly public pension is thoroughly established in the States of New Jersey, of 
 Maryland, and of Ohio. 
 
 2 Vide Tupper, The Retirement Fund (Journal of Education). Also, Appendix I, infra. 
 8 In New Jersey, with its compulsory pension fund and with its municipal pensions also, 
 
 a teacher who fulfils certain conditions may get two pensions. 
 
190 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 When composed of five members, it should include the 
 superintendent of schools, the president of the board of 
 education, the officer who is treasurer of the fund, and two 
 representatives of the teachers, elected by them. 
 
 For the municipal pension, retirement should be manda- 
 tory upon the application of the teacher, the certificate of 
 the attending physician as to invalidism, and the certificate 
 of the superintendent of schools as to length of service. 
 The tax assessors, the taxing body, and all financial officers 
 should be required to provide sufficient funds annually to 
 meet all such needs as, and not a/;ter, they arise. This is 
 one more reason why funds must be raised by or supplied 
 to the school authorities in btnip, and not in specific items. 
 
 In the transformation of the occupation of teaching into 
 the profession of education, the progressive schoolman 
 meets both more support and also more opposition in the 
 large city than in the open country districts. This mani- 
 fests itself notably in the matter of pedagogical and other 
 courses of self-improvement for teachers. This movement 
 is one of the astonishing signs of the times. It displays 
 itself in three general ways : in courses of lectures, weekly 
 or fortnightly, upon different subjects by experts ; in 
 courses of systematic lectures, of from six to thirty during 
 the year ; and in summer institutes or schools, lasting from 
 one to six weeks. In large cities, all these may be in 
 operation, supplementing the State institutes whose main 
 purpose is to help teachers to reach higher view-points and 
 thence to take broader views. Sometimes, these courses 
 are financed by selling tickets ; sometimes, they are open to 
 all persons enrolled as members of the city teachers' asso- 
 ciation ; occasionally, they are paid for out of the regular 
 school funds. The notable thing is that as salaries increase, 
 the expenditure of teachers for self -improvement increases. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 191 
 
 No one who has had experience with the voluntary- 
 courses of the teachers, operating through more or less 
 spontaneously organized committees, questions that these 
 courses develop an enthusiasm for increase of knowledge 
 and improvement in skill that are essential to an appre- 
 ciation of grade and special subject meeting held by the 
 regular school officers. 
 
 It is of much importance that the courses of voluntary 
 lectures should not be too narrow in range ; they should 
 include economics, sociology, philosophy, foreign literature, 
 as well as subjects more immediately "practical." In the 
 getting of knowledge, it pays to invest widely. 
 
 That generally State normal schools are better in nearly 
 every way than city normal schools is an undeniable and 
 regrettable fact. The reverse should be true, if the city 
 school is to last.^ This proviso, however, is not necessarily 
 to be accepted. There are two associated facts regarding 
 the city normal school, or teachers' college, that make it 
 dangerous to the welfare of a city school system. First, it 
 not merely promotes, it is the instrumentality of, inbreed- 
 ing.2 And inbreeding means everything pernicious in the 
 life and growth of a school system and of the culture of a 
 community.^ It means factionalism, routinism, self-satis- 
 faction. Second, the city normal school means low salaries 
 for the teachers because it insures a large and, therefore, 
 cheap supply of young teachers. Of course, it is possible 
 somewhat to offset this tendency by having a fine, high- 
 salaried normal school staff and a principal and a board 
 of examiners with consciences, who will insist upon 
 
 1 Vide also Our Schools, page 196. 
 
 2 Almost always there is a rule of the board to take no outsiders until every normal school 
 graduate has been placed on the pay-roll. 
 
 ^ Vide, where it is shown that inbreeding for several generations destroys the stock, Der 
 Einfluss (Feer), cited Appendix I, 9, infra. 
 
192 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 satisfactory performance of work before issuing the di- 
 ploma of graduation and the certificate to teach.^ 
 
 Much of the severe criticism, however, that is visited 
 upon the city normal school is equally deserved by the State 
 school. The fact is that the course is too short. Unques- 
 tionably, we must build stage by stage. At first, we let 
 any one teach; then we ask for high school graduates; 
 next, for those who are both high and normal school grad- 
 uates; now we are asking for four-year combined col- 
 legiate and normal courses ; ^ nor will we stop until 
 teachers are as well prepared as are ministers, lawyers, 
 and physicians.^ Meanwhile, we are urging our teachers 
 to study education in summer schools systematically year 
 after year. We are professionalizing theology, law, medi- 
 cine, and education together when we make entrance 
 upon these professions conditional upon (a) high school 
 graduation, {d) a college course or its equivalent, (c) and 
 a professional course.* 
 
 I am fully prepared to concede that in the present economic regime, 
 there must be some financial support of apprentice teachers if the course 
 is to be so greatly extended.^ In return for this half-pay, the cadets 
 can do some teaching ; but this should be only incidental.^ 
 
 1 Such a condition as that of the Lowell City Normal School is unique. There no one 
 enters the school who is not already a graduate of a State normal school or of a college. 
 
 - This is really the so-called " Teachers' College " plan, a decided step in advance. 
 
 ^"Official" note relating to Hon. John Doe, M.C. (verbatim), "He taught school 
 three years, but, being ambitious, studied law in the evenings and so prepared himself for a 
 profession." 
 
 * A graduate of the Harvard Medical School has completed an eight- or nine-year ele- 
 mentary course, a four-year high school course, a four-year college course, and a four-year 
 medical course. If he has done well, he then has two years experience as hospital interne. 
 It is a tremendous preparation for the cure of bodies: do we need less for the nurture of souls ? 
 
 s It will be much harder to professionalize education than law, theology, or medicine for 
 several reasons: i. We need, and we know that we need, Soo,ooo educators now. [Hlotives, 
 Ideals, and Values, page 172.) Can the population actually produce such a number of per- 
 sons potentially competent to be developed into educators.' There is authority for the opinion 
 that we can and do produce such a number. (y^axA, Applied Sociology.') 2. Instead of these, 
 we have now some 500,000, of whom we can fairly say that 300,000 are in no proper sense 
 educators or teachers in fact or in intention. They constitute a powerful resistance to the 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 193 
 
 The most serious question for the city normal school is 
 its practice work. We have all extremes : from the schools 
 that have almost no academic instruction to schools that 
 have almost no model or practice work. The true plan 
 provides for some practice, as occasional substituting for 
 a half-day, in the first half-year, and all-day practice for 
 weeks at a time in the care of a critic-teacher toward the 
 end of the course. This involves, first, a large number of - 
 practice classes extending to school buildings in all parts 
 of the city; second, a corresponding number of critic- 
 teachers ; and third, a flexible and generous mode of 
 organization for the school. 
 
 It may be asked which extreme is better, — too much 
 practice or too much academic instruction. To this, from 
 personal experience of both extremes, I unhesitatingly 
 answer : the' latter. At first, the well-trained teacher does 
 far better ; but in the course of years, the larger informa- 
 tion of the teacher who ha^ had a broad academic course 
 saves him or her from the monotonous routinism, the crass 
 conceit, and the general hopelessness of the teacher who 
 was only trained and not educated. Forever the law : — 
 knowledge is greater than efficiency, and efficiency than 
 morality; for the ignorant cannot be efficient, and the 
 inefficient cannot be good.^ 
 
 Most of the large cities of America have colleges, uni- 
 versities, scientific institutions, and libraries. The school 
 authorities should encourage at least one of these institu- 
 tions to open extension courses, even teachers' colleges, and 
 
 movement for professionalization. 3. One-tenth of all American men are engaged to-day in 
 the transportation of the persons and goods of civilization. One-fiftieth of all American men 
 and women are needed for the education of the two-fifths of the entire population who are " of 
 school age," five to twenty-one years old. Professionalizing teachers means raising their pay 
 and thereby increasing their number. Can we develop a popular opinion to sustain this 
 movement ? " Ou-y Schools, page 367. 
 
 1 Chapter XI, Motives, Ideals, and Values. 
 
194 
 
 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 post-graduate schools until such time as the public treasury- 
 will sustain their cost, either directly or by subsidizing the 
 institution when it needs funds (as is universally the case). 
 
 These limitations are merely tentative. I incline to the opinion that 
 a great civilization needs the independent as well as universal school; 
 and I do not see how the independence of the school can be secured 
 except by creating for it adequate endowment by private benefaction 
 and public grant.^ 
 
 There is an institution for the development of the pro- 
 fessional spirit and for the building of the independent, 
 self-controlled, and universal school of which I have great 
 hopes from trial : I mean a teachers' council. It is not a 
 safe institution for a superintendent to create in a com- 
 munity in which he is a stranger. No plan yet suggested 
 to me appears to be everywhere useful. But I am confi- 
 dent of the value of the principle upon which it is based. 
 This principle is that the progress of education depends 
 upon its internal life. The council is simply to embody 
 that life, to give it form, to acknowledge it publicly. 
 
 I have tried four plans : — 
 
 1. A council of eleven members, each selected by the 
 superintendent. 
 
 2. A council of twelve members chosen as follows : the 
 superintendent selects the first, these two the second, these 
 three the third, these four the fourth, etc. No selection 
 takes place within a fortnight of the preceding selection. 
 
 3. An unlimited council, meeting fortnightly for con- 
 ference at a " round table." 
 
 4. A council of delegates chosen by various bodies of 
 teachers : so many to represent high schools, so many for 
 grammar grades, so many for kindergartens, so many for 
 special teachers, etc. 
 
 1 Motives, page 43. Also note, Appendix A, infra. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 195 
 
 Each of these plans has its peculiar value. The pur- 
 poses of such a council may be specifically stated in these 
 terms, viz. : — 
 
 1. To present vigorously and constantly to the superin- 
 tendent of schools the opinions, the interests, and the needs 
 of practical working class teachers. 
 
 2. To canvass measures before issuing orders. 
 
 3. To give the teachers a voice through permanent and 
 recognized representatives. 
 
 4. To publish the fact that the direction of education is 
 properly vested in educators. 
 
 5. To overcome the bureaucratic tendencies of the 
 higher officers. 
 
 This institution of a teachers' council is worth consider- 
 ing in the light of those famous political measures, ■ — the 
 initiative, the referendum, and the recall to supplement 
 elected representatives, and the other familiar established 
 methods of modern democracy in America. 
 
 In the event of a vacancy in the superintendency, this 
 council should inform itself as to the best available men, 
 local and national, for that office ; and in a dignified man- 
 ner give its opinions to the board of education. 
 
 Every meeting of the council should be absolutely 
 confidential, and nothing should be reported of its pro- 
 ceedings except by direction of the council through the 
 secretary. 
 
 Here it is proper to discuss an important question aris- 
 ing almost daily in every large school system : a teacher 
 has a grievance, her immediate superior will not or cannot 
 ameliorate it, and she (seldom he) grows restive. What 
 shall she do .■' She writes out her complaint, she starts it 
 forward through " proper channels " (that is, via principal, 
 district superintendent, and assistant superintendent) to the 
 
196 OUR CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 superintendent, but it seems to fail to reach him. She 
 does not know any board member and considers it disloyal 
 to the profession to make complaints to a layman. And 
 now what shall she do? Has she the right to jump over 
 her superiors and to appeal directly to the superintendent ? 
 He has very little time and no eagerness for such matters. 
 In a large city, many such complaints to him are symp- 
 tomatic of a serious disease.^ Here, it seems to me, is one 
 service that a teachers' council can render. It can investi- 
 gate the complaint and report it only when justified. 
 
 The principle of appeal to the head is inviolate. After 
 waiting a reasonable time, teachers owe it to themselves 
 and to the school system to make a direct complaint in 
 writing and to ask for an appointment to see the superin- 
 tendent. Do I need to add — I fear so — that it is decid- 
 edly the business of the superintendent to do all that he 
 can at once to settle the matter and to prevent its recur- 
 rence .'' In such a case, there should be a record in his 
 official diary with a note as to the files. 
 
 Some complaints prove profitable for reflection. 
 
 In the creation of the professional spirit, one element 
 is absolutely necessary — the element of loyalty ; but in a 
 large school, at present, it is almost impossible to secure 
 and to maintain. Fundamentally, loyalty is personal fealty. 
 There is needed loyalty to one's associates, to one's infe- 
 riors, to one's superiors, to the community, and to the 
 children and youth. 
 
 Loyalty is easy to recognize ; hard to describe and 
 harder to define ; hardest for some natures to display. 
 
 It is obedience to the moral law for the sake of persons ; 
 
 1 As superintendent in a city with two separate school systems, I have known periods 
 when for weeks, because of official engagements of prior date and of superior importance, 
 I have been unable to make any appointment to see complainants. 
 
CONVERTING OCCUPATION INTO PROFESSION 197 
 
 it is "legality" in the sense of faithfulness. It is the bet- 
 ter part of honor, which is recognition of the necessities 
 of the situation in which one finds himself — obedience to 
 all the requirements of the social milieu. Honor is higher 
 than truth-telling. It adds fortitude to courage. The man 
 of honor sweareth to his own hurt and changeth not ; ^ 
 honor is loyalty and more — it is loyalty at any personal 
 cost to the highest interests of society. Loyalty is clear- 
 sighted and sympathetic and efficient ; honor is personally 
 loyal and faithful, and also far-sighted, charitable, and 
 vital as the life-blood itself. To understand and to dis- 
 play loyalty and honor is to possess at once the highest 
 intelligence, unbalked efficiency, and genuine and generous 
 morality — qualities beyond most of us. Yet to develop 
 properly a city school system, honor and loyalty must be 
 the pattern ideals of every officer and of every teacher. 
 Loyalty to all one's fellow-workers, and honor in every re- 
 lation of one's service, characterize all the members and 
 constitute the ethics of a learned profession. 
 
 To wear professional honor with the habit of the veteran, 
 to be trusted as quickly and as safely as physician or 
 minister or lawyer may well be the goal of the educator 
 in this democratic age of need and of opportunity. 
 
 1 David, Psalm xv, 4. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 OPEN LETTERS 
 
 I 
 
 To Educators Desirous of becoming Superintendents of Schools 
 
 IN Large Cities 
 Dear Sirs : — 
 
 At the present time, there are about fifteen hundred State and mu- 
 nicipal superintendencies. Some positions so recorded by the United 
 States Bureau of Education pay no more than six hundred dollars. Two 
 pay ten thousand dollars ; none pay more. Sixty pay at least three 
 thousand. When a two-thousand-dollar superintendency is vacant, there 
 are at once a hundred candidates. For the three-thousand-dollar posi- 
 tion, there are a score of applicants. A five-thousand-dollar superin- 
 tendency was offered to and declined by three eligible men before 
 being accepted by the fourth ; and he was secured only because the 
 committee on nominations suppressed the facts that led the others to 
 decline. 
 
 In the course of travels that have extended through forty States dur- 
 ing a period of twenty-five years, I have met hundreds of school super- 
 intendents and ex-superintendents and thousands of other educators 
 who would like to be superintendents. I have received hundreds of 
 confidential letters from these educators and from members of boards 
 of education. And I have come to certain opinions regarding the per- 
 sonal aspects of the problem presented upon other lines in the maiu 
 text of this book. 
 
 There are now not quite seven hundred cities of eight thousand and 
 more population. In nearly every one of these cities, the control of 
 public education is vested in a board of education and is effected 
 through a superintendent. (The exceptional places, such as Buffalo 
 where there is no board of education but only a superintendent elected 
 by the people and Hartford with four boards and four superintendents, 
 are too few to affect the general situation. The entire situation in the 
 
 199 . 
 
200 APPENDIX A 
 
 State of Louisiana is unique.) Seven hundred and fifty other com- 
 munities from four to eight thousand population similarly have superin- 
 tendents (or " supervising principals ") employed by boards of education. 
 More than that number, however, of these small communities "get 
 along" educationally vk'ithout superintendents. Until about 1850, all 
 the world got along without boards of education, — which were dreamed 
 of two thousand years ago by Aristotle, but remained little more than 
 a dream until democracy arose with Jackson and the New West in 
 America. 
 
 The city is apparently an insoluble problem. Mrs. Partington could 
 no more sweep back the sea with her broom than any statesman can 
 redeem the city from its destiny, which is to multiply and to bleach 
 human lives. 
 
 The superintendency is sought by and does not seek its occupant. 
 The physician in good standing never seeks a patient nor does the pro- 
 fessional lawyer seek a client. The superintendency is won by com- 
 petition. ^ This tends to make the occupation one of rivals and critics. 
 The competent is determined by incompetent judges, who have nothing 
 personal at stake upon the issue. The centre of gravity is outside of 
 the city school system. And the lay judges who selected the superin- 
 tendent originally will probably not be the ones to decide upon his 
 success or failure in office. 
 
 The city superintendent knows more about his city than does the 
 mayor or the chief of police or the oldest inhabitant or all these com- 
 bined. He sees it whole and in detail, its good and its evil.^ 
 
 If the ten thousand best informed men of the United States were to 
 come together, one thousand of them would probably be members or 
 ex-members of the United States Congress, and another thousand 
 would be superintendents and ex-superintendents ; and strange as it 
 may seem, their average experience in office would be the same, about 
 three or four years. More than one-half of our senators and about one- 
 half of our representatives serve not more than one term, respectively 
 of six years and of two. 
 
 There is a city of over one hundred thousand population now that 
 elected its first superintendent in 1854. Since then it has had over 
 twenty different superintendents, an average term of three years. A 
 
 ^ Vide Chapter XV, " Getting the Office," Our Schools. 
 2 Vide Chapters V, "The Superintendent," and XIII, "The Educational 
 Policy of the Community," Our Schools. 
 
OPEN LETTERS 201 
 
 still larger city has had three superintendents within one year, not one 
 of these changes being due to death. An impression prevails that 
 though a superintendent may serve but two, three, or four years in the 
 same community, he can then go elsewhere. This does, of course, 
 occur; but with all the progress in this matter, only two-thirds of our 
 superintendents upon vacating the first position of this kind get a 
 second. And very, very few who have held two superintendencies 
 ever get a third. In a certain city recently, there were three ex-super- 
 intendents serving as principals, while a fourth was "in business." 
 
 The man who is dismissed or who resigns " under fire " seldom gets 
 another superintendency. The land is (it would seem) full of ex-super- 
 intendents : they are book agents, real estate operators, storekeepers, 
 manufacturers, bank presidents, professors, governors, judges, and con- 
 gressmen ; but they are no longer superintendents. 
 
 This is the first fact to face. The town or city superintendency is a 
 splendid training — for something, for almost anything, else. 
 
 I know that there are exceptional cases, especially in our largest 
 cities. Yet I recall a recent instance of a man who by hard and ambi- 
 tious work for over thirty years won the superintendency that he had 
 long desired. In eight months he was dead, unquestionably because 
 of a political fight that his own election had occasioned, if not caused. 
 
 I recall one man's superintendency in a large city that lasted only a 
 year ; it was a year of great accomplishment, so great as to compass his 
 own utter ruin as a superintendent. And I recall the superintendency 
 of another man lasting fifteen years ; he never accomplished anything 
 for education, but swung like a weathercock to every wind. 
 
 This is the second fact to be faced bravely, — that quality of service, 
 not length, counts. 
 
 In a certain city, a man served for an even ten years, during which 
 by good investments and successful speculations he made a hundred 
 thousand dollars. A new board came up out of the city and said, 
 " We want an educator, not a business man," and removed him. Less 
 than a hundred miles away was another man who knew little about 
 money and cared nothing for it. He got into debt — it was for less than 
 one hundred dollars in all, and his salary was eighteen hundred. But 
 in his fourth year of fine service, the members of his board quarrelled 
 over that debt, and he resigned on account of its publicity. 
 
 This is the third fact with two phases. What suits one community 
 angers another; and boards change like kaleidoscopes. One man 
 
202 APPENDIX A 
 
 " loses out " because he is a " book-worm," and another because he is 
 an "athlete." A certain board removed a hitherto bachelor superin- 
 tendent because he married a teacher ; in the same year, another board 
 removed a superintendent who was a widower with three children 
 because he married a widow with other three children ; but in a town just 
 across the State line from these two communities, the board voted not to 
 employ any unmarried man as superintendent or as building principal. 
 
 Another confusing illustration occurs. I knew one board to refuse 
 to consider a man with the doctorate of philosophy from a fine 
 university; he was "too erudite." Twenty miles away, a candidate, 
 with the best possible experience and actually in office elsewhere at the 
 salary of the vacant superintendency, was thrown out solely because he 
 had done no postgraduate work. 
 
 Unless in office elsewhere, it is almost impossible to secure a really 
 important city superintendency ; yet I have seen the letter of a board 
 secretary with these sentences : " The committee feels that after 
 twenty years of continuous service in public office, you must be in need 
 of a year of rest. In view of this fact, I am directed to return your 
 application." I knew one city to refuse to elect a man who had 
 written some books, — and for that reason. And I knew another city to 
 elect a man solely because he had a substantial income from his books. 
 Verily, " the wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound 
 thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth." 
 
 School superintendents are on the skirmish-line of the forward 
 movement in education ; the research workers of the universities are 
 the commissary department, and the masters of the normal schools 
 are the recruiting sergeants ; the class teachers are the army itself. 
 The educationalists are urgiitg progress. The siiperi7itendents move 
 forward as the leaders, aitd are shot to pieces. 
 
 Such is democracy as it builds the School. 
 
 Yet the experience of being removed is not regretted by all ex-super- 
 intendents. They have often learned the due relation and sequence 
 between honesty and generosity, justice and mercy, honor and tact, 
 patriotism and friendship, aim and policy, morals and decency. 
 
 Out of experience, I ask of you who desire to control in your day 
 some large city these questions, viz. : — 
 
 I . Can you keep peace with yourself, though knowing that you are 
 not doing and cannot do one-hundredth of the things that need 
 doing ? 
 
OPEN LETTERS 203 
 
 2. Can you rise up and go to bed, knowing that you cannot know 
 what a day or a. night may bring forth, but knowing also with cer- 
 tainty that soon or late the end of office cometh? Superintendents 
 do not die of old age in office. 
 
 3. Can you fear neither victory nor defeat, for victory is worse than 
 defeat in that it makes the target ever more prominent? Can the 
 fear of not doing your duty drive out every other fear ? 
 
 4. Can you rest merely by varying your work ? For if you play 
 golf or drive horses or read books or attend the theatre or go to 
 parties, all the world will know it. Long vacations are impossible- 
 Some members of the board are always at one end of the telephone. 
 
 5. Can you be affable, yet tell nothing.? A thousand or ten thou- 
 sand teachers are eager to know your thoughts ; and every newspaper 
 is ready to give you a column. 
 
 6. Can you appear progressive without being so, and equally can 
 you be progressive without appearing so ? 
 
 7. Can you conceal the fact that you are doing an enormous amount 
 of work? For one reason the teachers, and for another reason the 
 board members, are timid about men who are seen, or even suspected, 
 to work hard. 
 
 8. Are you willing to earn at least for two, three, seven, perhaps ten, 
 years (say) $4000 or $6000 a year, and then to drop out with no sav- 
 ings (or else with no children) to earn $1200 or $1500 in teaching, or 
 (say) $3000 in business? That has been the fate of most persons 
 who have been successful in this ambition to be city school superinten- 
 dents. 
 
 9. Do you really love people? Do you love them so much that you 
 can be happy in the day when some one of " the people " comes to you, 
 and in substantial ignorance of yourself, of education, and of the needs 
 of the city, and says, " We want a new man." On your forehead will be 
 set the brand "REJECTED OF MEN,"i not to be forgotten even 
 though you get another superintendency. One of the successful superin- 
 tendents of recent years in his present position spends a considerable 
 part of his time explaining his failure (?) in a former position. This 
 failure consisted In doing his duty in matters of right and wrong, and 
 thereby losing votes. 
 
 1 Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Herbart, and Horace Mann all wore that 
 brand. Only the transgressor, whose " way is hard," is remembered in educa- 
 tional history. However, not every failure is a worth-while reformer. 
 
204 APPENDIX A 
 
 10. Have you carefully inquired into the history of the American 
 city superintendency ? 
 
 In June, 1837, in the Common School Journal, edited by Horace 
 Mann, Boston, there appeared an advertisement for a school superin- 
 tendent in the city of Providence. About that time, Buffalo and Louis- 
 ville also elected superintendents. Except in Buffalo, which has no 
 board of education, these officers, however, were both superintendents 
 of schools and clerks to the board, — a combination not unknown even 
 yet in large cities, and quite common in small cities and towns. Not 
 until 1850, in Boston, were the duties of supervision magnified as of 
 greater importance than the clerical ser\'ices. Even to-day, in many 
 cities, the superintendent, if not merely a clerk, is at least no more than 
 the agent of the will of the board. 
 
 In 1837, Massachusetts appointed a secretary to the State Board of 
 Education ; to this day, there is no State superintendent or director of 
 education. Public opinion, however, has required the secretary to be 
 an educator in fact. Most of the other States have superintendents — 
 by popular election. Here, again, public opinion runs ahead of the law ; 
 and this political office is usually filled by an educator. Unfortunately, 
 this cannot be said so strongly of the county superintendents of most 
 States. 
 
 Teachers have tenure or contracts ; most superintendents have terms 
 of office. Even for the term, the tenure is not certain. Almost alone 
 of office-holders, superintendents have critics of higher political au- 
 thority and legal control daily, hourly, at their side. Removal during 
 the school year is not uncommon. 
 
 In the light of this history, in the presence of this opportunity, do 
 you really desire a superintendency ? 
 
 11. Can you endure seeing experienced teachers, young teachers, 
 applicants, blackmailed for money by politicians in league with board 
 members? You may see that. You may see repeated an actual court 
 decision that such board members are "irremovable and unimpeach- 
 able upon the evidence of an employee." Can you endure in silence 
 the knowledge of the waste of public money in overpriced real estate, 
 in poorly constructed buildings, in ancient text-books, in petty con- 
 tracts? To denounce " graft " is to insure being called "liar"; that is 
 the only possible reply. Can you endure seeing the work of years of 
 school progress undone in a day by amateurs on the board ? Can you 
 endure virulent newspaper abuse? That is the common lot of pro- 
 
OPEN LETTERS 205 
 
 gressive superintendents when kept in office by clean and competent 
 boards. Can you endure attacks, open and covert, by persons whom 
 you yourself have placed in " good positions " ? Can you so endure, 
 though knowing that not even endurance insures continuance in office, 
 — may even cause prompt removal in the hour of public awakening? 
 
 Strange as it may sound, your problem of preparation for the super- 
 intendency, getting the office and staying in it, is not nearly so serious 
 as our national problem of how to get boards of education anxious to 
 secure good men as superintendents, and to support them ; or else how 
 to control schools with no boards at all. 
 
 Very sincerely, 
 
 The Author. 
 II 
 
 To Members of Boards of Education and to Candidates for Board 
 
 Membership 
 Dear Sirs: — 
 
 The history of the rise and extension of boards of education is one 
 that should be both an encouragement and a warning to members. 
 A good board is a bulwark to a good school system. A bad board is a 
 torment. A good member is a business man, who cares for the finan- 
 cial support of the schools. A bad member is a pseudo- educator, who 
 usurps the direction of professional matters. The meaning of these 
 words " good " and " bad " will appear more fully upon a consideration 
 of the causes that led to the establishment of the first boards and to the 
 increase of the powers of boards as the years have passed. 
 
 In the early years of the nineteenth century, the control of schools 
 was of necessity in the towns themselves because they had originated 
 and were extending them. The rulers of the larger towns were the 
 "selectmen," and often as adviser they took a clergyman, of whom 
 many towns had but one. Church and State, religion and government, 
 though separated in theory, were associated in practice ; and the clergy- 
 man would choose usually for schoolmaster some clergyman out of a 
 position or a student of divinity. At this period, lawyers were few, 
 physicians were then, as now, perhaps twice as numerous, but nearly all 
 educated or " learned " men were clergymen. Gradually, laymen were 
 associated with the clergy in this duty of " visiting " the town school 
 and of choosing the teachers. To this day, in New England, boards of 
 education are by name " school committees " and in theory delegates 
 
206 APPENDIX A 
 
 from town-meeting or assistants of the selectmen in taking charge of the 
 schools. And also in theory the members are the best educated men 
 of the community, those who may most safely be trusted with the direc- 
 tion of the education of youth. 
 
 The making of the board of education into a separate corporation 
 with a seal of its own, often with the power to tax and to bond the 
 community for funds for school uses, was an application to public educa- 
 tion of the theories and practices of Roman law. In the later days of 
 Roman empire, civilization had become complex and society had con- 
 structed several social institutions requiring recognition of their individ- 
 ual needs. The corporation was a Roman legal invention to meet 
 these requirements. 
 
 As the municipal boards of education extended southward into the 
 States that had been more influenced by the Roman law than those of 
 the North, various changes took place in their powers. An examination 
 of all the State laws to-day, of all the State constitutions, and of all the 
 municipal ordinances reveals the most astonishing diversity of condi- 
 tions. For example, in many States, the State Boards of Education are 
 but boards of examiners for licenses as teachers. This is in appearance 
 at least a survival of the examination of the schoolmaster by the minister. 
 
 From the situation in the earliest days, when the town-meeting elected 
 the schoolmaster quite as naturally as it elected its own moderator, fixed 
 his compensation, and determined courses of study, to the present situa- 
 tion in the most advanced communities, is a long journey. 
 
 In Dorchester, Mass., in March, 1645, the town-meeting ordered that 
 •*' Three able and sufficient men of the plantation be chosen to be wardens 
 or overseers of the school who shall have charge, oversight, and ordering 
 thereof and of all things concerning it . . . and shall continue in their 
 office and place for the term of their lives." Under the title of " Presi- 
 dent and Directors of the Literary Fund," North Carolina created in 
 1825 what was probably the first State Board of Education. In 1835, 
 Missouri created a " State Board of Education," apparently the first 
 with that title. The earliest of these State Boards managed and 
 invested funds, sold the lands allotted to public education, and in 
 general were business institutions. As early as 1824, Missouri had 
 civil commissioners of schools who appointed local school "visitors." 
 These officers inspected the schools, examined the teachers, and super- 
 vised instruction in their districts. In 1866, the National Bureau of 
 Education was created. 
 
OPEN LETTERS 
 
 207 
 
 To this day, no other nation has local school boards generally,^ 
 though they are growing in number now in England. A few States 
 have no State school boards. Wherever there are State or local 
 school boards, their history has been of decline in the quality of mem- 
 bership in respect to education and culture. Now it is rare for an 
 entire board or even for the majority of a board to consist of men as > 
 well educated as the clergymen and lawyers who alone were considered v 
 fit for membership in the early days.^ ,>, 
 
 I have indicated in only the barest outlines the history of school boards. ."' 
 No ma7i is fit to serve on any board who is not both competent to under- '^ 
 stand and desirous of knowing the general progress of Ainerican edu- 
 cation as displayed in such authoritative books as Dexter's History of 
 Education in the United States, Brown's Making of our Middle Schools^ 
 and Thwing's History of Higher Education?' Yet these two standards 
 would immediately disqualify nineteen out of twenty, perhaps ninety- 
 nine out of a hundred, of board members. When the American demo- 
 cratic State undertook to deliver education from its threefold misfortunes 
 of a hundred years ago, neglect due to popular ignorance, private 
 money-making, and ecclesiastical control, — it proposed to turn the 
 public school over not to " anybody," that is, the average man, but to 
 disinterested, humanitarian culture. 
 
 You are serving in the most important of all educational positions. 
 One good member upon a board can do more for the cause of education 
 than the superintendent himself. He creates a standard for all others. 
 
 This open letter is the outcome of a letter that I received several 
 years ago ; in it, this question was propounded : " I have just been 
 appointed a member of the board of education in this city. I am not 
 
 1 In 1 8 10, in Germany, the philosopher Herbart said that the school could 
 never do its proper work' under even expert ministerial control, but must be 
 self-active and self-determining. Vide Herbart, Verhaltniss der Schule zum 
 Leben. My oWb hope is that endowed schools of every grade will be increased 
 and that the funds will be vested in the faculties. Vide Motives, p. 129. 
 
 2 Said Herbert Spencer in Educatio7i, " The subject that involves all other 
 subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education of everyone should 
 culminate, is the theory and practice of education." And yet persons not 
 important enough properly to be styled even " business men " (capitalist- 
 employers) undertake often to direct the education of great communities. 
 
 ^ Vide Chapters II, "The Board of Education," and XIV, "Education for 
 Supervision," Our Schools. Also note, page 14, supra. 
 
208 APPENDIX A 
 
 even a graduate of the high school, though I attended it for nearly two 
 years. Will you not let me know of some good book on the subject of 
 the duties of board members ? " 
 
 This inquiry seemed to me remarkable. It is the only one of its 
 kind that I ever received. I have never heard any other educator to 
 whom a similar inquiry had been addressed in writing or orally. No 
 board member in my experience has so much as suggested to me that 
 he needed any extensive preparation. Occasionally a question as to 
 specific facts has been asked ; but equipped with an answer, the typical 
 board member is ready for any and all discussion, which he promptly 
 meets with a decisive "yes" or "no." 
 
 No man who is informed as to actual conditions doubts that we are 
 soon to choose between these courses : — 
 
 1 . Omission of boards from the machinery of school control.^ 
 
 2. Return to private and endowed and parochial schools as the 
 standard means of education. 
 
 3. Enforcement of cultural requirements for membership upon 
 boards. 
 
 It has become clear that for a time after a board has been reduced 
 in size and a new small board has been substituted, affairs go better ; 
 but two forces work against the permanence of the better spirit. As 
 the new members become experienced in school affairs, they become the 
 victims of the confidence of empiricism. Moreover, though at first the 
 members are selected with care, later public interest dies out, and 
 the quality of membership declines. A small board of poor quality is 
 worse than a large board ; democracy itself is important evidence that 
 " there is safety in numbers." 
 
 The notion prevailing in some quarters that board members have 
 a genuine right to control the schools because they are parents, 
 involves a postulate that parents know more about edtccation than 
 the educators know. This raises three other questions, i. Do they? 
 
 1 There are several ways to provide machinery for the election of an educational director. 
 One is to establish in the corps of teachers a properly qualified house of delegates, with 
 power to elect the leader or superintendent. Another is to elect him by popular vote of all 
 citizens at a special school election. A third is to have municipal superintendents appointed 
 by the State superintendent. No doubt these propositions are all unpopular with most of the 
 persons who happen to be superintendents now. They mean changes. The first and third 
 of the foregoing plans bring the center of gravity within the profession. The second is pure 
 democracy. 
 
OPEN LETTERS 209 
 
 2. Are board members parents? 3. Are superintendents not par- 
 ents ? ^ 
 
 But to return to the question of the board member for systematic and 
 competent information, — It can no more be put into a handbook than 
 can American law or medicine or theology. A dollar copy of " every 
 man his own lawyer " is likely to cost a good many thousand dollars, 
 if trusted ; one who is one's own physician is a poor medical risk. '. 
 What, then, is the board member to do ? Either study education or j 
 follow implicitly the advice of the head of the school system. 
 
 " Be not unequally yoked together with unbelievers, for what com- ( 
 munion hath light with darkness ? " wrote Saint Paul. " No man can 
 serve two masters," said Jesus. Either the board or the superintendent 
 must be supreme in the schools. "Unless a superintendent gives over 
 all ideas of jealousy and superiority, and works entirely with the board 
 of education, no school system can progress," was said by a speaker at 
 a recent meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A. 
 {Journal of Education, Mar. 12, 1908.) But who is to decide what 
 progress is ? The harmony proposed is the harmony of Roman citizen 
 and Greek philosopher, that is, of master and slave. The doctrine is a 
 defense of lay-usurpation. It sets the pseudo-educator above the 
 real. 
 
 In office, it will be profitable for the schools that you remember how 
 in the law the appeal is ever to higher lawyers. The final court of 
 appeals consists of the judges who are most learned in the law. But in 
 education, it is to you. And the teachers, the supervisors, and your 
 polite but discreetly silent neighbors hope that you take the appeal in a 
 Pickwickian sense, with that becoming modesty and deference which you 
 expect others to display respecting matters of your own proper business. 
 
 Do not hold supervisors and teachers in contempt. Do not class 
 them all by their least name "teachers." Do not confuse political 
 authority with personal superiority. You do not wish the new gener- 
 ation to be the educational product of inferiors. 
 
 The Dorchester school wardens were elected for life. Dorchester 
 town-meeting saw that overseeing schools is a life-work. 
 
 Very sincerely, 
 
 The Author. 
 
 1 At least one-third of all teachers should be parents. Vide Bfotwes,Ideals and Values., 
 pages 170-172. This, not making persons educational directors such qtta parents, is the true 
 professional solution of home and school. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 THE ANNUAL REPORT 
 
 A COMPARISON of a dozen school reports from as many different 
 cities for the same year shows an astonishing diversity of contents. 
 Similarly, a comparison of the reports of a half-dozen successive super- 
 intendents in the same city shows an almost equal diversity. In 
 itself, diversity is not undesirable ; but in this instance, it covers 
 the range not only of the good but also of the useless and the 
 poor. Such diversity as is due to fundamental differences in State 
 constitutions and statutes is almost an integral feature of American 
 federalism. 
 
 On the other hand, the mere diversity of caprice is undesirable ; 
 it prevents comparison and planning for improvement based upon 
 fmitful suggestions. 
 
 In general, there is an indifference about school statistics, including 
 those of school finance, that indicates two things : the minor, the 
 ultimate, place of the school department, and the low salaries of the 
 reporting and accounting clerks. 
 
 There is also an indifference in their substance that indicates a belief 
 that they will not be read. This is probably true ; but the poor con- 
 tent value and the poor literary quality of these reports tend to cause 
 the public indifference to them. 
 
 In even minor matters, there are strange lapses. Sometimes, the 
 names of the community and State, the date, the period covered in the 
 report, and the titles of the persons reporting are omitted. Often, no 
 report is printed for several years. Paper, type, ink, and binding usually 
 indicate parsimony and ignorance. 
 
 The following statistical plan corresponds closely with that recom- 
 mended by the National Educational Association. 
 
 It has been suggested frequently that many statistics be carried for 
 ten years and then by decades as far back as records go, e.g. school 
 attendance of pupils. 
 
 2IO 
 
THE ANNUAL REPORT 211 
 
 1908 . . . (say) 100,000 1900 75,000 
 
 1907 . . . . . 97,000 1899 73,000 
 
 1906 , . . . . 94,000 1890 ..... 63,000 
 
 1905 ..... go,ooo 1880 ... . . . SS,°°o 
 
 1904 87,000 1870 . . . . . 47,000 
 
 1903 84,000 i860 39,000 
 
 1902 81,000 1850 . . . . . 30,000 
 
 1901 78,000 etc. 
 
 Similarly, value of buildings, cost of sites, annual revenues, annual 
 expenditures, etc. 
 
 REPORT OF SCHOOL RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES 
 OF CITY (OR SCHOOL DISTRICT OR SCHOOL COJl- 
 PORATION) 
 
 of for the year ending 190-- 
 
 (i) Estimated actual value of all property in the city (or school 
 
 district or corporation) $ 
 
 (2) Assessed valuation of all property in city (or school district 
 
 or corporation) 
 
 (3) Rate of school tax levied on each dollar of assessed valua- 
 
 ti on of city (school district or corporation) . . . 
 
 Receipts 
 
 (4) Received from State apportionment or taxes ... 
 
 (5) Received from county apportionment or taxes 
 
 (6) Received from city (or school district or corporation) taxes 
 
 (7) Received from fines, licenses, penalties, etc. . 
 
 (8) Received from all other sources except loans and bond sales 
 
 (Speciiy different sources.) 
 
 (9) Received from loans 
 
 (10) Received from bond sales 
 
 (11) Total receipts, all sources 
 
 Expenditures 
 
 (12) Paid for salaries of teachers and supervisors . 
 
 (13) Paid for current expenses, excluding interest, 
 
 Salaries of officers 
 
 Salaries of janitors 
 
 Fuel and lights 
 
 Text-books, including drawing- and copy-books 
 Stationery . 
 
212 APPENDIX B 
 
 Expenditures — Cotitinued 
 
 (13) Paid for current expenses, excluding interest — Continued 
 
 Other school supplies 
 
 Ordinary repairs to buildings, etc 
 
 All other items of current expense. (Specify items.) . 
 
 (14) Paid for sites 
 
 (15) Paid for additions and new buildings .... 
 
 (16) Paid for permanent furnishings and furniture 
 
 (17) Paid for permanent equipment for manual training, science, 
 
 laboratories, etc 
 
 (18) Paid for reference and library books 
 
 (19) Paid for all other permanent improvements such as grading, 
 
 paving, etc. (Specify different expenditures.) 
 
 (20) Paid for interest 
 
 (21) Paid on principal of loans 
 
 (22) Paid on principal of bonded debt . 
 
 (23) Total paid out, all purposes . 
 
 (24) Cash on hand at beginning of year 
 
 (25) Cash on hand at beginning of year in fund for sites and 
 
 buildings. (Included in 24.) 
 
 (26) Cash on hand at beginning ofyear in sinking fund. (Included 
 
 in 24.) 
 
 (27) Warrants outstanding at beginning of year 
 
 (28) Cash on hand at end of year . 
 
 (29) Cash on hand at end of year in fund for sites and buildings, 
 
 (Included in 28.) 
 
 (30) Cash on hand at end of year in sinking fund. (Included 
 
 in 28.) 
 
 (31) Warrants outstanding at end of year .... 
 
 (32) Paid current expenses, evening schools. (Included in 12 
 
 I3-) 
 
 (33) P^i'^ current expenses, teachers' training schools. (Included 
 
 in 12-13.) 
 
 (34) Paid current expenses, schools for defectives or other special 
 
 schools. (Included in 12-13. Specify different schools.) 
 
 (35) Bonded school debt of city (or school district or corporation) 
 
 at end of year 
 
 (36) Population of city (or school district or corporation) 
 
 (37) Persons of school age, to years, in city 
 
 (or school district or corporation) 
 
 (38) Number of pupils enrolled, all schools 
 
 (39) Average number in daily membership, all schools . 
 
 (40) Average number in daily attendance, all schools . 
 
 (41) Average number in daily attendance, night schools. (In- 
 
 cluded in 40.) 
 
THE ANNUAL REPORT 213 
 
 Expenditures — Continued 
 
 (42) Average number in daily attendance, teachers' training 
 
 schools. (Included in 40.) 
 
 (43) Average number in daily attendance. Schools for defectives 
 
 or other special schools. (Included in 40. Specify dif- 
 ferent schools.) 
 
 (44) Annual cost of education per pupil. (Sum of nos. 12 and 13 
 
 divided by no. 40.) 
 
 Illustrations 
 
 There will be little or no architectural progress in any community 
 that does not care enough about its school buildings to advertise the 
 good things that it is doing in school buildings and grounds by illus- 
 trating its reports with pictures. Still better, though unpleasant, is it to 
 show side by side the desirable new and the undesirable old. Let it be 
 shown graphically that it is unfair to give the 1000 children of a poor 
 neighborhood a yard 40' x 100' (I know much smaller ones) while giv- 
 ing the 300 children of a wealthy neighborhood a yard 200' x 300' 
 (some, I am glad to say, are even larger). The contrast wakes up the 
 attention and the will. Illustrate anything and everything that has a 
 meaning for progress, — book collections, decorated walls, sanitary appli- 
 ances, ventilation fans, front entrances, undesirable buildings near by, 
 and the pupils themselves. Let us appeal to pride and to sympathy. 
 
 But in so doing let us not blind our constituencies with undue praise. 
 Three superintendents in communities, each over a thousand miles from 
 both of the others, in their annual reports for 1906-7, lay claim to 
 having " the best schools in the country." The provincial who says 
 this may make political capital thereby with other provincials, but he is 
 delaying progress. There is demonstrably no "best school"; but 
 every good school is so keen to see its own faults as to seem to itself 
 only tolerable. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 It is undeniably the American national policy to claim " prosperity " 
 and to ignore "poverty." The city school superintendent knows that 
 there is warrant for such an article as that which follows. I have seen 
 the same condition in the National Capital itself. 
 
 "I. GOTHAM SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 "Boys and Girls suffer for Food and Proper Clothing 
 
 " NEW YORK, February 6. — Mrs. Jennie M. Tower, principal of Public School 
 No. 114, at No. 73 Oliver Street, wept for ten minutes yesterday noon as she 
 watched two lines of pupils in her school being provided by private charity with 
 milk and bread to keep them fi-om fainting at their desks through cold and hunger. 
 The little girls of the school were fed with hot milk. The boys received two slices 
 of bread. The donation came from a woman who had learned of conditions at 
 the school, but did not wish her name to be made known. 
 
 " I used to wonder," said Mrs. Tower, "why so many of the children never 
 went home at noontime. I asked them why they did not go and get some lunch. 
 
 " ' What's the use ? ' " was the answer I generally received. 
 
 " Then I realized that scores of the little children knew that the pantry at home 
 was empty. I learned, too, that many of the children did not even have any 
 breakfast before they came to school. It made my heart break. 
 
 Many come to School Hungry 
 
 " I have given up sending for aid to charity societies," added Mrs. Tower. " I 
 have about 800 children in this school, and I find that the societies, when applied 
 to, often try to separate the families that are in want. It does not seem to me that 
 appeals bringing about such a result as that are kind. 
 
 " I have never dared determine definitely what proportion of the children here 
 are in destitute circumstances. They are doing splendid work in the school, and 
 yet I know that a great many of them are utterly unfitted through want to take up 
 the work outlined for them. Many of them come to school hungry and go all day 
 without a bite to eat. 
 
 " Like little Spartans, they refuse to complain until they faint at their work. 
 Even then they hate to admit that they are not being properly fed. Many nation- 
 alities are joined in this school, but all have a sense of pride which prevents their 
 mentioning their troubles. 
 
 214 
 
APPENDIX C 215 
 
 Calico in Zero Weather 
 
 " There has been one little girl who has come to school through the bitterest 
 weather with simply a little calico dress. She has no coat of any kind. This 
 afternoon one of the teachers came to me and asked if she could send out and get 
 a warm shirt for a little boy in her class who has won distinction because of his 
 brightness. 
 
 " Many of our children hate to see the school close for the day. Their parents 
 are out at work and the fires in their homes are extinguished. Throughout the 
 late hours of the afternoon the children have no place to go where they can keep 
 warm. 
 
 " Lack of food is the greatest cause of distress, however. Sometimes children 
 faint in their classes, and are resuscitated through food which the teachers send out 
 for and get. I think the plan proposed by Superintendent Maxwell, of having the 
 city supply lunches in case of need, is a splendid idea. I believe there is not the 
 least danger of its being abused, for, as I have said, the children all have a keen 
 sense of pride and would prefer to go to their homes if they knew they could se- 
 cure food there." — The Star, Washington, D.C., Feb. 6, 1908. 
 
 2. A CHILD'S PRIDE 
 
 The following incident occurred in one of my own schools and was immediately 
 reported to me and verified. 
 
 Amanda B. was a girl of seven, delicate, with staring blue eyes, serious and in- 
 dustrious. She did not go home from school at noon : said it was " too far to 
 walk." (It was three blocks.) Her teacher also stayed at noon. But Amanda 
 would always go away and sit in a dark corner with a little basket and red napkin. 
 She seemed to be eating always a sandwich and an egg ; but if any one came near, 
 she quickly put them under the napkin. Nearly a month passed before by accident 
 the teacher discovered the contents of the basket, — a round stone and carefully 
 folded brown paper. 
 
 The child's father was ill, the mother worked out all day. But Amanda saw the 
 point and played her part bravely. 
 
 All this is now years past. Everything turned out well. Charity is not dead. 
 But there are now other little heroines equally in need. 
 
APPENDIX D 
 FORMS 
 
 Appended to the main text of Our Schools : their Administration 
 and Supervision, there are nearly fifty forms, of which perhaps the 
 most important is that of a report of scholarship, attendance, and 
 conduct substantially in accordance with the main text of the present 
 book.i The forms that follow are additions to those published in the 
 earlier work. 
 
 It is impracticable not only to print all the forms used by so great 
 a city as New York in carrying on its school affairs, but also to print 
 examples of the kinds used in each of the several branches of the 
 school department. 
 
 A careful study of the entire system of forms used in the great cities 
 shows how radically the powers of boards and of superintendents and 
 their methods vary. A system applicable to one city is legally inappli- 
 cable, at least in part, in nearly every other. To say that one system 
 is preferable to another would be to draw an unnecessarily invidious 
 distinction ; several cities have either notably good systems, complete 
 and admirably calculated to effect the purposes in view or notably 
 good special features. Every superintendent and every student of 
 American school administration will profit by examining the forms of 
 the city of New York ; but having done so, there will be good reason 
 to review also those of Minneapolis, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Kansas 
 City, Indianapolis, and Newark. Perhaps equally useful would be the 
 results of time spent in looking into the forms of Milwaukee, Worces- 
 ter, Cleveland, Lowell, St. Joseph, Wilmington, Holyoke, Wilkes- 
 barre, Rochester, Boston, Pittsburg, Syracuse, and Nashville. I have 
 gone over more than two thousand forms with profit to myself. Certain 
 other cities have valuable forms ; but I have not been able to review 
 them. It is, however, proper for me to say that a few cities with good 
 schools seem to pay but little attention to this business aspect of school 
 control. 
 
 * Vide p. 155, supra. 
 2l6 
 
FORMS 217 
 
 The forms that follow are presented solely as illustrations of what 
 seem to me good school forms. Some matters that need forms have, 
 as far as I can find, nothing to meet the needs. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest need of all is more uniformity within each 
 system, for convenience and clearness of record and of review. Some 
 day, some one may take this matter in hand and thoroughly revise the 
 system of a large city. His reform would no doubt be followed 
 promptly by many other cities. In this line especially to be com- 
 mended is the report of the Committee of Finance, Feb. 28, 1906, to the 
 New York Board of Education upon the recommendation of Henry 
 R. M. Cook, auditor. 
 
 Special attention is deservedly called to the rules and regulations of 
 the city of Indianapolis. The teachers' promotion rules of Baltimore 
 are notably valuable. 
 
 In a few instances of obvious errors, I have changed a word or two 
 in a form, without comment. I have made a few other changes for 
 various reasons scarcely worth publishing. 
 
 The theory of certain forms is discussed at several points in Perry's 
 Manage?nent of a City School. The best forms are those patiently de- 
 veloped by experience in some one or more good schools and then 
 tested and improved in other equally good schools. The failure of 
 a form may, of course, be due to the inefficiency of those using it, 
 but more often it is due to its inapplicability to existing conditions. 
 Thereby, it may become a valid criterion of judgment. 
 
 Most of the good forms have been developed by the intermediate 
 school officers — principals, directors, and supervisors — for the suf- 
 ficient reason that they can see both ends of most educational matters. 
 
 The credit due to each city is obvious in nearly every instance upon 
 the face of the form as printed here. Its publication is evidence of my 
 appreciation and thanks. 
 
2l8 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 I 
 
 Public School No Borough of 
 
 Examined by , 190 
 
 Principal General Estimate 
 
 Assistant to Principal " 
 
 Assistant to Principal " 
 
 Additional Teacher. " 
 
 Note. — In rating teachers on this sheet the abbreviations should be used as follows: 
 Meritorious: A (highest grade), B+, B. Non-meritorious: C (inferior), D (deficient). 
 
 When the superintendent's estimate of a teacher's ability to instruct or to discipline is less 
 than B, a detailed report is required under 2 or 3. This detailed report may be omitted in 
 cases where estimate of the teacher's ability to instruct or to discipline is B or higher. 
 
 The superintendents are to report upon the work and attendance of all teachers, regular 
 and special (except substitutes) , who have been employed during any portion of the term. 
 
 Number of Classes at Date. 
 
 Names 
 
 The names of teachers 
 are to be written in alpha- 
 betical order, surnames 
 first, and without regard 
 to the grade of class 
 taught. 
 
 Grade 
 
 AND 
 
 Sex of 
 Class 
 
 Charac- 
 ter OF 
 
 Instruction 
 
 
 D. 
 
 60 
 
 ^ 
 
 B 
 
 
 ■^ rr 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 Sis 
 
 .c 
 
 H< 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 Discipline 
 
 Remarks 
 
 
 
 
 
 I— 1 
 
 
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 H 
 
 
 en 
 
 < 
 
 
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 f3 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 m 
 1 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 w 
 
 
 !zi 
 
 ^) 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 fr^ 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 3 <U 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
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 ■a W 
 
 a o 
 
 
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 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONDITION OP THE SCHOOL AS A WHOLE 
 
FORMS 
 
 219 
 
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 It 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
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 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 s 
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 2> 
 
 6 E 
 
 
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 w 
 
 
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 s 
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 < 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
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 w 
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 s: 
 w 
 u, 
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 < 
 
 
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 Id 
 u 
 Z 
 
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 S 
 
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 < 
 
 
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 5 
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 P 
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220 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 " C. G. Pearce, Superintendent. 
 
 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS Principal's Ratiag 
 
 Surname Given Name and Initials 
 
 School 
 
 Born What Tear 
 
 Date 
 
 190.__ 
 
 Diplomas and certificates. 
 Give particulars. 
 
 
 
 
 Experience, in months, as 
 teacher before becoming 
 principal. Give particulars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Experience, in months, as 
 principal outside Milwau- 
 kee. Give particulars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Experience, in months, as 
 principal in Milwaukee. 
 Give particulars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 General estimate of principal's ability and value 
 
 ASST. 
 SUPT. 
 
 SUPT. 
 
 Remarks: 
 
 Remarks : 
 
 ESTIMATE BY 
 
 = 
 
 = 
 
 ESTIMATE BY 
 
 16, Understanding of and sympathy 
 with children 
 
 = 
 
 
 I. Scholarship 
 
 
 2. Professional preparation 
 
 
 
 17. Knowledge of individual pupils 
 
 
 
 3. Personal appearance 
 
 
 
 18. Influence upon individual pupils 
 
 
 
 4. Educational standards 
 
 
 
 19. Influence on school 
 
 
 
 5. Interest in profession and means 
 of improvement 
 
 
 
 20. Influence in community 
 
 
 
 6. Ability to lead and inspire 
 
 
 
 21. Ability to meet and deal with vis- 
 itors and parents 
 
 
 
 7. Firmness and tact 
 
 
 
 22. Methods of dealing with teachers 
 
 
 
 8. Personal ability to discipline 
 
 
 
 23. Methods of dealing with pupils 
 
 
 
 9. Personal ability to teach 
 
 
 
 24. Use and care of school material 
 and property 
 
 
 
 10. Ability to help teachers to disci- 
 pline 
 
 
 
 25. Use of school time 
 
 
 
 II. Ability to help teachers to instruct 
 
 
 
 26. Attitude towards fellow-employees 
 
 
 
 12. Knowledge of condition of instruc- 
 tion and discipline in the school 
 
 
 
 27. Promptness and correctness of 
 reports 
 
 
 
 13. Order and discipline on play- 
 ground, etc. 
 
 
 
 28. General impression 
 
 
 
 14. Condition of discipline in building 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15. Condition of instruction in build- 
 ing 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 Remarks : 
 
 Remarks: 
 
FORMS 221 
 
 III 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 EXAMINATION FOR TEACHER'S LICENSE No. 1 
 
 Office of the Board of Examinees, 
 
 New York, July 15, 1907. 
 
 A Professional Examination of eligible applicants (men) for License No. i will be con- 
 ducted by the Board of Examiners on Monday and Tuesday, January 6 and 7, 1908, begin- 
 ning at 9 A.M., at the Hall of the Board of Education, Park Avenue and sgth Street, Borough 
 of Manhattan, and at such other places as the Board of Examiners may hereafter determine. 
 
 A Professional Examination of eligible applicants (women) for License No. i will be con- 
 ducted by the Board of Examiners on Monday and Tuesday, January 6 and 7, 1908, begin- 
 ning at 9 A.M., at the DeWitt Clinton High School, loth Avenue, 58th and 59th Streets, 
 Borough of Manhattan, and at such other places as the Board of Examiners may hereafter 
 determine. 
 
 An Academic Examination of eligible applicants for License No. i (men and women) will 
 be held, under the same authority, on January 2 and 3, 1908, at the Hall of the Board of Edu- 
 cation, Park Avenue and sgth Street, Borough of Manhattan. A circular showing the scope 
 of this examination may be obtained at this office upon request. 
 
 All applicants for License No. i, men as well as women, will be required to take the aca- 
 demic and the professional examination; but certain applicants may, in accordance with Sec- 
 tion IV of this circular, be exempted, in whole or in part, from the academic examination. 
 
 Three days may be required for the Professional Examination. Persons coming from a 
 distance should arrange to remain three days in New York City. 
 
 I With the exceptions hereafter mentioned (see Section VH), persons at least eighteen 
 years of age and less than thirty-six years, who are eligible in accordance with the following 
 requirements, will be admitted to the examination: — 
 
 To be eligible for the examination, women applicants must have one of the following 
 qualifications : — 
 
 (a) (i) Graduation from a high school or academy having a course of study of not less 
 than four years, or graduation prior to September i, 1899, from a high school or academy 
 having a course of study of not less than three years, approved by the State Commissioner of 
 Education ; and (2) graduation from a school or class for the professional training of teach- 
 ers having a course of study of not less than two years, consisting of seventy-six weeks, 
 approved (for City licenses) by the State Commissioner of Education ; or, in lieu of such 
 graduation, graduation from a school or class for the professional training of teachers hav- 
 ing a course of study of one year, approved (for City licenses) by the same authority, together 
 with successful experience in teaching for one year of not less than thirty-eight weeks. 
 
 (3) Graduation from a professional course of two years in a normal school, approved by 
 the State Commissioner of Education, after graduation from an approved four years' high 
 school course, together with (i) the passing of an academic examination set by the City 
 Superintendent of Schools for admission to the training schools, or of an academic examina- 
 tion set by the State Commissioner of Education, or by the College Entrance Examination 
 Board of the Middle States and Maryland for entrance to college, or the passing of other 
 examination satisfactory to the Board of Examiners, or (2) one year's successful experience 
 in teaching. 
 
 (<r) Graduation from a four years' normal school course, approved by the State Commis- 
 sioner of Education, together with two years' successful experience in teaching. 
 
 (if) Graduation from a satisfactory normal school or training school course of not less 
 than two years, after graduation from a satisfactory high school, together with not less than 
 three years' successful experience in teaching. 
 
 (?) Five years' successful experience in teaching, together with the passing of an aca- 
 demic examination set by the City Superintendent of Schools for admission to training 
 schools, or by the State Commissioner of Education for a State Life Certificate, given since 
 1892, or by the College Entrance Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland for 
 admission to college, or the passing of other academic examination approved by the Board of 
 Examiners 
 
 (_/) Graduation from a college or university recognized by the Regents of the University 
 of the State of New York, together with (i) the completion of a pedagogical course of at least 
 one year satisfactory to the City Superintendent of Schools, or (2) three years' successful . 
 experience in teaching. 
 
222 APPENDIX D 
 
 The pedagogical course mentioned in this subdivision (/) shall consist of at least two hun- 
 dred and fifty hours of approved pedagogical study, of which not more than ninety hours may 
 be in logic and psychology. 
 
 (g) Graduation from a normal college located within The City of New York, authorized 
 by law to grant degrees, and approved by the State Commissioner of Education for the pro- 
 fessional training of teachers. 
 
 To be eligible for the examination, men applicants must have one of the following 
 qualifications: — 
 
 (h) The same as (/) above. 
 
 The pedagogical course mentioned in this subdivision (/:) shall consist of at least two hun- 
 dred and fiftjr hours of approved pedagogical study, of which not more than ninety hours 
 may be in logic and psychology. 
 
 {i) Graduation from a high school or academy having a course of not less than four years, 
 approved by the State Commissioner of Education, and graduation from a school or class for 
 the professional training of teachers having a course of study of not less than two years, con- 
 sisting of seventy-six weeks, approved by the same authority, or, in lieu thereof, one of the 
 following: (i) Graduation from a four years' normal school course, approved by the State 
 Commissioner of Education, together with three years' successful experience in teaching, or, 
 (2) graduation from a State normal or training school course of not less than two years after 
 the completion of a high school course approved by the State Commissioner of Education, 
 together with three years' successful experience in teaching. 
 
 II. The Professional Examination will be conducted according to the following scheme: — 
 Monday, January 6, 1908, written exami- (a) History and Principles 
 nation of Education (maximum 80) 
 
 (b) Methods of Teaching (maximum 120) 
 \c) Constructive Work 
 
 and Drawing (maximum 16) 
 
 Tuesday, January 7, 1908, written and (d) Music (maximum 16) 
 
 practical tests (e) Physical Training (maximum 16) 
 
 (/) Sewing (for women) (maximum 16) 
 
 (g) An oral examination (maximum 16) designed to enable the examiners to estimate the 
 applicant's use of English, and general personal fitness for the position of teacher, will be 
 |given at times to be appointed by the Board of Examiners. 
 
 (A) An examinatioti of the applicant's character and record (maximum 20) as a student 
 arid teacher will also be made. Successful experience in teaching for one-half year or more 
 will receive credit when proved by original documents. Experience in practice teaching will 
 not receive credit. Substitute teachers in the New York City public schools who have actu- 
 ally taught as substitutes for 80 days or more should file their substitute licenses properly 
 filled out and certified. 
 
 The applicant's use of English in the written examination will also be noted. 
 . III. Applicants who passed the above-described examination in items (a) and (b) (counted 
 together) in January, 1907, or May or June, 1907, may have the standing then obtained 
 remain to their credit for this examination, and they need not appear on January 6, next. 
 Applicants who, in January, 1907, or May or June, 1907, passed the examinations in items 
 (c), {d), (e), and (/) (counted together) may likewise have the standing remain to their credit 
 for this examination, and they need not appear on January 7. Applicants described in the 
 two preceding sentences should make written application to the Board of Examiners at least 
 two weeks before the examination. No woman applicant will be licensed who does not 
 receive a final average of at least seventy per cent between the marks received in group {a, b) 
 and in group (c, d, e, /, g, A), or who does not receive a passing mark in each group and in 
 oral English and in record; and no man will be licensed who does not receive a final average 
 of at least seventy-five per cent between the marks received in group (a, 6) and in group 
 (r, d, e, g, li), or who does not receive a passing mark in each group, and in oral English 
 and in record. 
 
 IV. The City Superintendent will exempt from the Academic Examination for License 
 No. I applicants eligible under I (a), I (c), I {d), I (/), and applicants eligible under I {b) 
 and I (^1, who have had one year's experience in teaching, and also such applicants under 
 I (_/"), and I (h) as the City Superintendent may in his discretion elect. 
 
 Applicants who have passed the examination set by the City Superintendent of Schools 
 for admission to Training Schools, or by the New York State Commissioner of Education for 
 a State Life Certificate, or by the College Entrance Examination Board of the Middle States 
 and Maryland will be exempted by the City Superintendent of Schools from this Academic 
 Examination. 
 
 V. A certificate of physical fitness, made after examination by one of the physicians of 
 the Board of Education, will be required in the case of each applicant. Applicants are 
 required to be vaccinated, unless the examining physician recommends otherwise. 
 
 VI. All persons in doubt as to their eligibility, and desiring information respecting the 
 matter, may communicate with the Board of Examiners not later than December 15, 1907. 
 
FORMS 223 
 
 VII. Section 66, subdivision 12, of the by-laws of the Board of Education, reads as follows: 
 " No married woman shall be appointed to any teaching or supervising posi- 
 tion in the day public schools unless her husband is incapacitated from physical 
 
 or mental disease to earn a livelihood, or has continuously abandoned her for not 
 less than three years prior to the date of appointment, provided proof satisfactory 
 to the Board of Superintendents is furnished to establish such physical or mental 
 disability or abandonment." 
 
 VIII. The examination will begin promptly at the time stated above, and no applicant 
 who is late will be allowed to enter the examination hall. 
 
 WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 IV 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW. YORK 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS— LICENSE No. 1 OR GRADE B 
 
 ZhiQ is to Certffig, That 
 
 having passed the required tests of character, scholarship, and gen- 
 eral fitness, this License No. i (Grade B) is hereby issued to h 
 
 to act as Crade Jeael^er \t) t\)<z Elementary SGI700I5 of The City 
 of New York for the period of one year from the date of appoint- 
 ment, subject to the By-laws of the Board of Education. 
 
 WITNESS my hand and the seal of the Board of Education this 
 day of 190 
 
 City Superintendent of Hchooh. 
 
 V 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS— LICENSE No. I OR GRADE B 
 
 ZUq is to Cerfif^t That 
 
 having passed the required tests of character, scholarship, and gen- 
 eral fitness, this License No. i (Grade B) is hereby issued to h 
 
 to act as Qrade Jeael7er ip tl^e Elemei^tary Sel?ools of The City 
 of New York, subject to the By-laws of the Board of Education. 
 
 WITNESS my hand and the seal of the Board of Education this 
 day of_ 190 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
224 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 VI 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 Office of City Superintendent 
 
 Newark, N.J., 
 
 M 
 
 Your record in the examination for 
 
 certificate, 
 
 held 
 
 will be found on the other side of this notice. 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 City Superintendent. 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 Standing 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 Standing 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 
 History of Education, Elem. 
 
 
 Algebra, Elem. 
 
 
 History of Education, Adv. 
 
 
 Algebra, Adv. 
 
 
 Psychology, Elem. 
 
 
 Plane Geometry 
 
 
 Psychology, Adv. 
 
 
 Solid Geometry 
 
 
 Theory & Prac. of Teaching, 
 
 
 Trigonometry 
 
 
 Elem. 
 Theory & Prac. of Teaching, 
 
 
 U. S. History 
 
 
 Adv. 
 
 
 General History 
 
 
 School Management 
 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 Theory & Prac. of Kind'g, 
 
 
 Physiology & Hygiene 
 
 
 Elem. 
 
 
 Eng. Language & Grammar 
 
 
 Theory of the Kind'g, Adv. 
 
 
 Eng. Language & Literature 
 
 
 Prin. & Prac. of Kind'g, Prin- 
 
 
 Reading & Literature 
 
 
 cipal's 
 
 
 Modern Eng. & Amer. Litera- 
 
 
 
 
 ture 
 
 
 Physical Geography 
 
 
 Gen. Eng. & Amer. Literature 
 
 
 Botany 
 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 
 Geology 
 Astronomy 
 
 
 Spelling 
 
 
 Physics 
 
 
 Writing 
 
 
 Zoology 
 Chemistry 
 
 
 Drawing, Elem. 
 
 
 
 
 Drawing, Adv. 
 
 
 German 
 
 
 Music, Elem. 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 Music, Adv. 
 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 Manual Training 
 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 
 Cooking 
 
 
 Stenography 
 
 
FORMS 
 
 225 
 
 VII 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 NEWARK, N.J. 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 FOR THE ENDORSEMENT OF 
 
 DIPLOMAS AND CERTIFICATES 
 
 PRESENTED BY CANDIDATES FOR LICENSE 
 TO TEACH IN THE 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEWARK, N.J. 
 
 To the Board of Examiners of the City of Newark : 
 
 I, the undersigned, hereby 
 
 make application for the endorsement of my diploma and certificate, in order that 
 I may teach in the public schools of your city. 
 
 In support of my application I make the following statement of facts for your 
 information. 
 
 Dated 
 
 (Signature in full.) 
 
 (PostofBce address.) 
 
 Regular meetings of the Board of Examiners are held each month. All com- 
 munications should be addressed to the City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 it; 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 •s 
 
 B 
 
 4) 
 «3 
 
 © 
 
 a 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 OF 
 
 P. 0. ADDRESS : 
 
 DATE: 
 
 POSITION DESIRED: 
 
 
 a CQ 
 
 9? 
 
 
 ^ 
 
226 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 STATEMENT OF APPLICANT 
 
 Full name?- 
 Age?. 
 
 Academic 
 Training 
 (For Alt) 
 
 Of what High School or other academic institution are you a graduate? 
 
 Date of graduation ? 
 
 What was the time required for the course from which you were graduated? 
 
 If not a graduate, give the name of the school you attended, the course pursued, 
 and the time in attendance 
 
 f Of what Normal School or Training School for Teachers are you a graduate? 
 
 For Nor- 
 malSchool 
 Graduates 
 
 For 
 
 College 
 Graduates 
 
 For 
 Kinder- 
 gartners 
 
 Special 
 Teachers 
 
 Date of graduation ? 
 
 Course of study pursued? 
 
 Length of course? How long did you attend? 
 
 (- Of what College or University are you a graduate? 
 
 j Date of graduation ? Degree received? 
 
 Give the subjects pursued directly bearing on the profession of teaching, and 
 
 state the time devoted to each 
 
 Of what Kindergarten Training School are you a graduate ? 
 
 Length of course ? How long did you attend?. 
 
 Date of graduation ? 
 
 I- Of what Training School or College are you a graduate ? 
 
 -j Length of course? How long did you attend? 
 
 '^ Date of graduation ? 
 
 If you have done post-graduate work, state its character, how much and where done. 
 
 What special certificates do you hold? 
 
 \ Before graduation : 
 
 [ After graduation : 
 
 In what grades have you taught ? 
 
 Make a full statement of your experience as a teacher, naming the places where you 
 have taught, the length of time in each place, and the class or grade taught. If you have 
 served as principal or supervised a department, or taught in summer schools or teachers' 
 institutes, state the fact. In short, set forth any facts which will show your experience, stand- 
 ing, and success as a teacher. 
 
 How many years have you taught? 
 
 Can you teach the required grade music? Drawing?-- 
 
 Can you play the piano for opening and closing exercises? 
 
 What grade or grades are you best fitted to teach ? 
 
 Are you at present engaged in teaching? 
 
 If so, state where, in what capacity, and the salary you are receiving?- 
 
 What notice must you give to secure your release ? 
 
 If you have any physical defects, state their nature? 
 
 Give the names and post-office addresses of three persons of standing who know of your 
 experience and success as a teacher. 
 
FORMS 
 
 227 
 
 VIII 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
 
 TEACHERS' DIRECTORY 
 
 
 
 
 Surname 
 
 First name in full 
 
 Middle initial 
 
 Minneapolis address 
 
 Residence Phone No. 
 
 School Room Grade 
 
 High School subject 
 
 Permanent home address. (If you have no permanent home, please give an 
 address through which you may be reached when not in Minneapolis.) 
 
 Date_ 
 
 -igo- 
 
 If Address is Changed, Notify Superintendent Immediately. 
 Please give name as you wish it permanently carried on the Board of Education 
 
 records. 
 Do not fold or mutilate this slip. Use ink. Write Plainly. 
 
 IX 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF ASSIGNMENT 
 
 Clerk 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3IST 
 
 RIC 
 
 r No. 
 
 BOROUGH OF 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 •0 
 « 
 
 i 
 
 .S3 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 (A 
 
 
 •si 
 'if 
 
 0) 
 
 
 1 
 
 en 
 
 NAME 
 
 0) 
 
 11 
 
 
 u 
 «. 
 SI'S 
 
 -P 
 
 .2^ 
 •5 2 
 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 en 
 
 c 
 n 
 
 Piz; 
 
 
 P6 
 
 tfiU 
 
 t«0 
 
 
 11 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 fSS 
 
 Y 
 
 M 
 
 Y 
 
 Y 
 
 M 
 
 <! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Attest I 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
228 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 X 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 Clerk 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF TERMINATION OF SERVICE 
 DISTRICT No. BOROUGH OF 
 
 School 
 
 Name 
 
 Cause 
 
 Date 
 
 Attest ; 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
 XI 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF CHANGE OF NAME 
 
 Clerk 
 
 
 DISTRICT No. 
 
 borough of 
 
 
 Position 
 
 (Grade or 
 
 Rank) 
 
 School 
 
 NAME CHANGED 
 
 Date of 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 Change 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct. 
 
 Attest ; 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
FORMS 
 
 229 
 
 XII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF CHANGE IN SALARY SCHEDULE 
 
 Clerk 
 
 
 DISTRICT No. 
 
 BOROUGH OF 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 06 
 
 <2 
 
 t3 
 
 
 ffl n! 
 
 
 .2 S 
 
 1 
 
 Name 
 
 3 
 ■a 
 
 ■s 
 
 a 
 
 
 fa 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 > 
 
 2 
 
 Oi 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 >• 
 >. 
 
 — 
 en 
 
 
 PL, 
 
 Year 
 
 C 3 
 
 <;p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Attest ; 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct. 
 
 Cify Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
 DISTRICT No. 
 
 XIII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 The City of New York 
 
 borough of 
 
 At a meeting of the Board of Superintendents held the service 
 
 of the following-named teacher was declared " fit and meritorious " or not " fit and meri- 
 torious" according to the provisions of Section logi of the Revised Charter. 
 
 Clerk 
 
 School 
 
 Name 
 
 Rank 
 
 or 
 Grade 
 
 Year 
 for which 
 Service was 
 Approved 
 
 Year 
 
 for which 
 
 Service was 
 
 NOT Approved 
 
 Schedule 
 
 Salary 
 Year 
 
 Annual 
 
 Increase 
 
 Due on 
 
 ist Day of 
 
 Attest : 
 
 Secretary Board of Superintendents. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
230 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 XIV 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION— The City of New York 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF TRANSFER 
 
 Clerk 
 
 
 
 
 DISTRICT No. BOROUGH OF 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 si 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 •a 
 S 
 
 8S 
 
 •gs 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 H 
 
 o 
 a 
 Q 
 
 4 
 
 ■a 
 
 > 
 o 
 
 o. 
 
 < 
 
 Name 
 
 5 
 
 1^ 
 
 6 
 
 n 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 SO 
 
 C tii 
 
 tSS 
 
 Year 
 
 ^<a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Attest ; 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
 XV 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION— The City of New York 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF EXPERIENCE 
 
 (After deduction for absence on leave) 
 
 Clerk 
 
 DISTRICT No. 
 
 BOROUGH OF 
 
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 to 
 
 deducted from 
 
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 Attest : 
 
 I hereby certify that the above statements are correct. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
FORMS 231 
 
 XVI 
 
 City of Portland — Public Schools 
 
 S;{)is dertifiES tljat 
 
 has creditably completed the Grammar School Course of Study, and having 
 obtained the required rank, is admitted to the 
 
 JFourtJj ®lass of tlje ?§tgf) Sdjool 
 
 Principal. 
 
 Supt. 
 
 Portland Maine, June > 190 
 
 XVII 
 
 4®= The Director, when he has filled in his report, will forward to the District Superin- 
 tendent, who, after making his report, will transmit to the City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 Department of Education — The City of -New York 
 SPECIAL TEACHERS 
 
 REPORT TO THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 
 Record of M ^ 
 
 Teacher of , Borough of ^ 
 
 District No who applies for a renewal of Temporary License to 
 
 Teach from_ 190 
 
 to 1 90 
 
 DIRECTOR'S REPORT 
 
 Ability to comprehend instructions 
 
 Knowledge of special subject — ■ — — — 
 
 Skill in statement . 
 
 Skill in questioning _— 
 
 Use of apperception 
 
 Use of correlation . 
 
 Ability to assist class teachers . — 
 
 Self-control and manners . 
 
 Use of voice _ 
 
 Control of pupils — 
 
 General remarks _ 
 
 Director of- 
 
 DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT 
 
 District Superintendent of— 
 
 DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT'S RECOMMENDATION 
 
 Associate City Superintendent. 
 .190 
 
232 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 XVIII 
 
 RECOMMENDATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF A TEACHER 
 
 Department of Education — The City of New York 
 
 Public School- 
 
 -District- 
 
 -Borough of- 
 
 To THE Board of Superintendents: 
 
 Recommendation is hereby made for the promotion 
 of the following-named teacher in this school : 
 
 Name— 
 
 salary schedule- 
 
 - from salary schedule - 
 
 grade . 
 
 -grade- 
 
 (^For explanation of salary schedules see By-Laws, sec. 64) 
 
 Eligibility, Give licenses (New York City only, not including substitute) with dates, and 
 
 state whether permanent or temporary: 
 
 Length of Service in New York City Public Schools (give dates) : 
 
 Names of Teachers of the Same or Higher Year of the Course who have had 
 Equal or Longer Service, but who have not been recommended for Promo- 
 tion : Give reasons in full why each of these teachers has not been recommended. 
 
 RECOMMENDATION OF DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT 
 
 -Principal. 
 
 District Superintendent. 
 
 Note /or Principals and District Superintendents — This report should be forwarded 
 to the Board o_f Superintetidents as soon as possible after the vacancy occurs. 
 
 conditions of eligibility 
 
 As determined by the Committee on By-Laws and Legislation, December, 1903. 
 
 Graduation Class (8 B). 
 
 In Brooklyn, the teacher must have either the Graduating Class License or License No. 2 
 (Grade A License). 
 
 In Manhattan, The Bronx, Queens and Richmond the teacher must have either the Gradu- 
 ating Class License, the License No. 2 (Grade A License), or License No. i issued prior to 
 1901. 
 
 Grades 7 A, 7 B, and 8 A. 
 
 In Brooklyn, teachers must have either the Promotion License or License No. 2 (Grade A 
 License). 
 
 In Manhattan, The Bronx, Queens and Richmond the teacher must have either the Pro- 
 motion License, License No. 2 (Grade A), or License No. i issued prior to 1901. 
 
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 REMARKS 
 
FORMS 233 
 
 XIX 
 
 OFFICE OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 Park Avenue and 59th Street 
 
 New York, 190. __. 
 
 Dear Sir : — 
 
 M , an applicant for a New York City license, 
 
 refers to you as having knowledge concerning one or more of the following 
 matters, namely: The (a) course of education, (b) standing as respects 
 scholarship, (c) professional experience and moral character of the applicant. 
 
 Will you please give the information asked for under one or more of the 
 divisions below, and thereby greatly oblige. 
 
 Yours respectfully. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 M 
 
 File No. I License __ 
 
 ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL COURSE 
 
 Give the date of the entrance ofM. 
 
 at your institution: Date of leaving: 
 
 Date oi graduation (if any) : Name of course pursued:,. 
 
 Scheduled length of course : .Degree given (if any) : — 
 
 II 
 
 STUDIES 
 What is your estimate of the intellectual ability and general scholarship of the 
 
 applicant ? 
 
 What is his (or her) specialty, and what is his (or her) proficiency therein ? 
 
 Did the applicant pursue in your institution any pedagogical courses of study ? 
 
 If so, what, and for what period ?. 
 
 Did the applicant pursue any graduate studies ? If so, what, for what time, 
 
 and with what success? 
 
234 APPENDIX D 
 
 III 
 
 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE 
 
 Detailed answers for which there is not suf&cient space below may be written on the other 
 side of this sheet, toward the bottom. 
 
 In what schools has the appUcant taught within your knowledge or under 
 your observation ? 
 
 How long in each school ? (^Please give duration and dates of each engage- 
 ment.) 
 
 Was he (or she) ever discharged from any position as a teacher, or required 
 to resign? If so, for what cause ? 
 
 Has he (or she) ever failed of reappointment ? If so, why? 
 
 As far as you have observed, has he (or she) any physical defect ? 
 
 What means does he (or she) employ to maintain order, and with what 
 success? 
 
 Has he (or she) business or executive ability ? 
 
 Are his (or her) general deportment and moral character those becoming a 
 teacher ? 
 
 What is your estimate of the applicant's general teaching ability ? 
 
 Please add such statements as you may wish to make regarding the teaching 
 ability of the applicant in his (or her) specialty. 
 
 (Name) . _ . 
 (Position) 
 (Address) . 
 Date 190 
 
FORMS 235 
 
 XX 
 
 Notification of Retirement 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION of the CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY 
 PARK AVENUE AND FIFTY-NINTH STREET 
 
 M.. 
 
 Dear. 
 
 I have this day had the honor of placing your name on the roll of Retired 
 
 Teachers for The City of New York, to date from , at 
 
 an annuity of^ computed as follows: 
 
 Years of service 
 
 Annuity 
 
 Monthly payment . 
 
 Payments are made by the City Paymaster on or about the first of each 
 month at his office, No. 83 Chambers Street, Manhattan. 
 
 If you prefer to have your checks mailed or collected by attorney, you can 
 arrange for the same with the Paymaster when you call for your first check. 
 
 As it is imperative that a correct record be kept in this office of your home 
 
 .address, I respectfully request that you notify me immediately of any change 
 
 therein. 
 
 Respectfully yours. 
 
 Secretary, Board of Education. 
 
236 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXI 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 APPLICATION FOR EXCUSE OF ABSENCE WITH PAY — 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 See Paragraph 6 on Next Page. 190 
 
 To THE Local School Board, District No : 
 
 Application is hereby made by 
 
 teacher in Public School No District No Borough oil 
 
 for excuse of absence with pay on the following dates 
 
 total days such absence having been caused by 
 
 Present annual salary $ Grade of class now taught 
 
 Previous absences in this school year, and absences in the preceding school year. 
 
 Days Excused with pay 
 
 August I, 190 , to last July .... 
 
 Other absences since last August . . . 
 
 Amount of said other absence for which pay has 
 
 previously been asked .... 
 
 {Signature of Teacher^ 
 (P.O. Address.) 
 
 physician's CERTIFICATE OF TEACHER'S ILLNESS 
 5Ef)is is to dcrtifg, That 
 
 of Public School , Borough of , was under 
 
 my professional care and was unable to attend school on any of the follow- 
 ing days: 
 
 The technical designation of this teacher's illness is 
 
 This certificate is intended as evidence in support of the teacher's claim 
 for pay during said absence. 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Date 190 Office 
 
FORMS 237 
 
 New York, 190 
 
 I hereby certify that the applicant's statements as to length of service and 
 number of days of absence are correct, and recommend that this application be 
 ( granted 
 ( refused 
 
 Principal, P. S. No. Borough of. 
 
 . ■ V this application, 
 
 disapprove ) 
 
 Date 190. 
 
 District Superintendent. 
 
 At a meeting of the Local School Board of School District No., 
 held on the day of 190 , this application was. . 
 
 Attest : 
 
 Secretary Local School Board, District No 
 
 Excerpt from By-Laws, Board of Education 
 
 Section 43. Subdivision 4. Teachers' absences from duty may be excused without pay 
 by the Local School Boards, on written application, indorsed by the principal and the Dis- 
 trict Superintendent. No such absence, however, shall be excused without the approval of 
 the Board of Superintendents. 
 
 5. Applications for excuse for absence with pay, in elementary schools, shall be made to 
 the proper Local School Board. Such absence may be excused with pay by the proper Local 
 School Board, subject to the approval of the Board of Superintendents, for any of the follow- 
 ing reasons; 
 
 (a) Serious personal illness. 
 
 (b) Death in the teacher's immediate family. 
 
 (c) Compliance with the requirements of a court. 
 {d) Quarantine established by the Board of Health. 
 
 Absence on account of the requirements of a committee of the Board of Education, of the 
 City Superintendent, of the Board of Superintendents, or of the Board of Examiners shall not 
 be considered absence from duty ****** 
 
 6. Applications for excuse with pay for absence caused by personal illness must be in- 
 dorsed by the principal and by the District Superintendent assigned to the school, and must 
 be accompanied by a physician's certificate. 
 
 7. No excuse for absence with pay shall be granted unless the application be made within 
 thirty days from the termination of such absence. No excuse for absence with pay shall be 
 granted in advance. No refund shall be allowed for absence exceeding ninety-five days in 
 any one school year. 
 
 Under clause {a), for each separate period of continuous illness, the rules regulating re- 
 funds shall be as follows : for an absence of one day, no refund ; for an absence of two days, 
 a refund of one-fourth of a day's pay ; for an absence of three days, a refund of three-fourths 
 of a day's pay ; for an absence of four days, a refund of one and one-half day's pay ; full pay 
 shall be granted for the fifth and succeeding days of absence, to and including the twentieth ; 
 half pay shall be granted for the twenty-first and following days of absence not exceeding the 
 ninety-fifth. 
 
 Under clause (5) , a refund not exceeding three days' full pay shall be allowed. 
 
 Under clause (c), in cases where the court duty concerns the administration of the 
 schools, full pay, in other cases, half pay, shall be granted. 
 
 Refunds under clause (d) shall not be granted for absences exceeding ten school days 
 within the space of one year. 
 
 No refund of full pay for more than sixteen days in the aggregate shall be granted to the 
 same applicant in any one school year, , ; 
 
238 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
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FORMS 239 
 
 XXIII 
 SUBSTITUTE'S CERTIFICATE 
 The Superintendent of Schools of the City of Minneapolis 
 '§tnh^ fetififS That 
 
 Is authorized to act as a Substitute Teacher in the Public Schools of Minneapolis 
 
 at a salary of ^ per day, while actually employed. ^ 
 
 This Certificate will expire June 15, 190 , unless previously revoked. '^ 
 
 Superintendent of Schools. 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 190 '£ 
 
 B^° No person will be allowed to substitute in the Minneapolis Schools 
 who does not hold an unexpired Certificate. 
 
 Read carefully " Important Information " on back of this card. 
 
 (over) 
 
 IMPORTANT INFORMATION 
 
 Substitutes are required to attend the meetings for their respective grades. 
 
 Send immediate WRITTEN notice to the Superintendent of any change in address or 
 telephone number. We must REFUSE to receive such notices by telephone. 
 
 You will find it greatly to your advantage to become acquainted with the principals of the 
 different schools. 
 
 As our school buildings are equipped with Northwestern telephones your certificate is of 
 no value unless you can be reached by that line. 
 
 When called in time you will observe the same hours as the regular teachers and report 
 at building twenty minutes before opening of school. 
 
 Report in person to principal and be SURE that your name and salary are correctly 
 registered. 
 
 Keep an exact account of your work, including building, room and grade, and amount 
 due. This is of value in case of error in payroll. 
 
 Pay day comes on the Friday following the last Tuesday of each month. Substitutes will 
 call for their checks, at the office of the Superintendent, on the Saturday morning following 
 each pay day, BUT NOT BEFORE. The office closes at twelve o'clock Saturday noon. 
 
 Please call for your checks promptly and thus prevent troublesome delays in closing the 
 office records for the month. (over) 
 
 XXIV 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 TRANSFER CARD FOR PUPIL LEAVING THE CITY 
 
 Indianapolis, I90 
 
 Name 
 
 Age Years Months. 
 
 Date of Vaccination 
 
 Has completed ^Grade Half. 
 
 No. days absence during current school year 
 
 Scholarship: General 
 
 English 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Principal. 
 
 Public School No. 
 
240 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXV 
 
 Department of Education, The City of New York 
 
 Application for ^license to teach in 
 
 Give grade of license Give subject or subjects, as, Give grade or kind 
 
 Common Branches, Latin, of school, as, Ele- 
 etc. mentary Schools 
 
 Leave blank this and the two following lines 
 Reg. Number 
 
 File Number NEW YORK, I90_ 
 
 Name Age last birthday 
 
 Write at least one Christian name and your Surname in full — No pet names 
 
 Residence — or 1 Permanent 
 
 Post-office Address j Temporary (until ) 
 
 Schools Attended 
 
 Give all schools. In each case give dates and length of attendance 
 
 Graduate of 
 
 Give, with dates of graduation, only schools or institutions above those of elementary or 
 
 grammar grades 
 
 Present position or employment. 
 
 Experience in Teaching Years, and Months, as follows : 
 
 Do not include practice teaching in normal or training schools. Mark substitute teaching as 
 
 such 
 
 Place^ From to Subjects 
 
 Place From to Subjects 
 
 Place From to Subjects . 
 
 Place From to Subjects 
 
 N.B. — Information for which there is insufficient room above may be written on the back of 
 this blank, beginning at the bottom. 
 
FORMS 241 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Mark with a references as to graduations and scholarship, with b those as to experience and 
 
 character 
 
 Name and AHHress 
 
 <c « « 
 
 (C C( « 
 
 « « « 
 
 Previous Examination. I made application for license in , . 
 
 Grade of license Month Year 
 
 Result. 
 
 The following lines are to be left blank by the applicant 
 
 "Written Examination 
 
 Oral Examination Final Standing. 
 
 Allowance made for outside experience years. 
 
 License —granted, under date 190 
 
 Grade Subjects Borough 
 
 (Minutes, ) 
 
 Secretary, Board of Examiners City Superintendent of Schools 
 
 First renewal 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools 
 
 Second renewal 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools 
 
 Made permanent , 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools 
 
242 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXVI 
 
 The District of Columbia 
 REPORT UPON OFFICERS AND TEACHERS 
 
 To the Superintendent of Schools : 
 
 Washington, D.C, 190. 
 
 Name School Grade 
 
 Teacher, Principal, Director, Supervisor, Special Teacher, Head of Department. 
 (Cross off all terms except the official title of person reported upon.) 
 
 Certificate held 
 
 Date of Appointment Salary this date 
 
 Graduate 
 
 (Name all schools issuing diplomas.) 
 
 Marks: A, admirable. E, excellent. VG, very good. G, good. F, fair. T, tolerable. 
 P, poor. V P, very poor. C, complete failure. H, highly commendable. S, satisfactory. ' 
 I, improving. D, deficient. O, no preparation whatever. 
 
 V G is the highest mark given until the fourth half year here, and G the highest until 
 the second. X, no opinion. Z, opinion unnecessary. 
 
 Instructing 
 
 Voice Fitness. in Scholarship for position 
 
 Manner Handwriting 
 
 Methods Blackboard 
 
 Questioning Results 
 
 Controlling 
 
 Self-control Ability to see what is going on 
 
 Class control Willingness to receive suggestions 
 
 Methods Ability to carry out suggestions 
 
 Educating ........... 
 
 Tact Scientific knowledge of children 
 
 Executive qualities General scholarship and culture 
 
 Disposition and character. Apparent native ability 
 
 Special strength 
 
 Special weakness 
 
 Specialties : To be reported on all elementary teachers. 
 
 Music Drawing Physical Culture Penmanship 
 
 General rating. 
 
 Remarks: Signed 
 
 Position 
 
 Every rating is with reference exclusively to the position now held. A duplicate is to 
 be kept on file. The original may or may not be seen by the teacher at his option. 
 Illustration : Manner, F, I, means fair but improving. 
 
 This report is due in January and in June upon all teachers not hitherto 
 V. G. or higher, twice consecutively . 
 
FORMS 243 
 
 XXVII 
 
 OFFICE OF THE 
 
 superintendent of instruction 
 
 Annual Report on Teachers' Standing 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., igo 
 
 TO PRINCIPALS: 
 
 Rule 44, Section VIII, of the Rules of the Board of Education provides as follows : 
 
 " For the proper grading as to merit, the Superintendent of Instruction shall direct the 
 principals of each of the public schools to render him at least three reports during each year 
 upon the standing and qualifications of each individual teacher, in such manner and upon 
 such printed blanks as he may find advisable for obtaining the fullest information in that 
 regard." 
 
 The principals will make these reports, required by the rule of the Board of Education, 
 during the first week of November, January and April of each year. It is intended to have 
 two of these reports in a brief form, and the last one in the form of a full statement. 
 
 You are requested to return to this office, on or before , a 
 
 full report of your estimate of the practical efficiency and the professional qualities of each of 
 the teachers of your school, including Kindergarten teachers, in accordance with the direc- 
 tions given below. 
 
 For a correct understanding of the brief headings of the columns, the following sugges- 
 tions are made : 
 
 A.— PRACTICAL EFFICIENCY 
 
 1. Management of Children. — This includes what is usually called the " discipline of 
 the room," and also the general influence of the teacher's management on the development 
 of character. Both the results and the methods of a teacher's management of the children 
 should be taken into consideration. There may be, on one side, good order not based on fear 
 of punishment, but brought about by a strong teacher's kindly influence over her pupils, and, 
 on the other hand, there majr be strict order attained by an unnecessary frequency of cases 
 of discipline, and a manifestation of caprice or unnecessary harshness. 
 
 2. Instruction, • — A teacher's power to impart instruction should be judged both by the 
 results accomplished, and by the educational value of her methods of teaching. The prin- 
 cipal should take into consideration the influence which her instruction has on the develop- 
 ment of the children's intelligence, interest, self-activity and progress. In case of the 
 Kindergarten teacher, principals will report, under the head of Instruction, her efficiency in 
 the educational work of the Kindergarten. 
 
 3. Attention to Details of School Business. —This includes the teacher's regularity 
 of attendance (tardiness), accuracy, and neatness of record work, promptness in required 
 reports, readiness to carry out directions (cooperation), the neatness of the room and similar 
 matters. 
 
 B.- PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES 
 
 4. Scholarship. — This includes the schooling received by the teacher, the general 
 information which she possesses and preparation for her special work. 
 
 5. Professional Interest and Zeal. — By this is meant the desire for self-improvement, 
 the habit of reading good literature and of using the means of self-culture, which, through 
 lectures and otherwise, the city offers. It includes professional progressiveness, attending 
 teachers' meeting, etc. 
 
 6. Personal Qualifications. — This report should show the general estimate which the 
 principal places on the value of the presence and assistance of the teacher as a member of the 
 faculty of the school. It includes the teacher's tact in dealing with parents and pupils, and 
 her general influence. 
 
 Kindly write on the other side of this paper in each column, opposite the name of the 
 teacher, the initial letter of one of the four words : excellent, good, moderate and unsatis- 
 factory — (e, g, m, u). 
 
244 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 7. Transfer. — Where a principal is dissatisfied with the work of a teacher and believes a 
 transfer is advisable, the letter " t " should be placed in the fourth column. In such case the 
 reason must be fully stated at the end of this report. No transfer should be indicated in this 
 report for any cause other than dissatisfaction on part of the principal with the work or man- 
 agement of the teacher. A principal should not recommend a transfer where the teacher, in 
 his opinion, is inefficient and should be discontinued. In such case the word " inefficient" 
 should be placed in the fourth column. 
 
 8. Promotion. — Where a teacher does exceptionally good work and excels, compared 
 with other teachers of the same grade, the principal shall designate her as worthy of promo- 
 tion by placing the letter " p " opposite her name, in the fourth column. If more than one 
 teacher is reported for promotion, the principal must indicate his preference by reporting 
 " p I," " p 2 "; otherwise the recommendation is void. 
 
 9. In addition to this general estimate expressed in marks, and made in regard to every 
 teacher, principals will send a detailed report on every new teacher that has been added to 
 their school by transfer or otherwise, since their report of a year ago. For this purpose they 
 will write on each of the enclosed blanks the name of one of their new teachers and state fully 
 their opinion of her practical efficiency and personal qualifications, under each of the six 
 topics explained above. They will place the special topic as a title above each of the state- 
 ments that are made concerning the new teacher. 
 
 Principals should add reports on such of their old teachers in regard to whom they wish to 
 change any of the opinions expressed in former years. 
 
 Principals who have been transferred or appointed to a school on whose teachers they have 
 not previously reported will send a detailed report on each teacher in their corps. As a rule 
 this special and detailed report need not be made in regard to those teachers on whom the 
 principal has reported fully in some previous year, except when such report is specially 
 called for by the Superintendent. 
 
 When making the returns that are hereby required, principals will place the names of all 
 the teachers on one blank and write and sign the following statement : " A detailed report on 
 
 the teachers in the above list was sent to the Superintendent in the year , and 
 
 I hereby confirm the report then made as being a correct expression of my opinion of the 
 present standing of these teachers." 
 
 Your attention is urgently directed to the necessity of making this report a candid state- 
 ment which is uninfluenced by any consideration except the wish to make it agree fully with 
 the facts. A principal becomes alone responsible for the presence of unsatisfactory teachers 
 in his school, if he fails to report frankly his estimate of their work and qualifications. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Superintendent. 
 
 _SCHOOL. 
 
 St. Louis,- 
 
 To the Superintendent of Instruction : 
 
 In accordance with Rule 44, Section VIII, of the Rules of the Board of Education, I here- 
 with present the following report on the standing of the teachers of my school, which is cor- 
 rect according to the best of my knowledge and belief. 
 
 Principal. 
 
 
 Practical Efficiency 
 
 Professional Qualities 
 
 Request 
 
 Names 
 
 Manage- 
 ment of 
 Children 
 
 Instruc- 
 tion 
 
 Attention 
 to Details 
 of School 
 Business 
 
 Scholar- 
 ship 
 
 Profes- 
 sional 
 Interest 
 and Zeal 
 
 Personal 
 Qualifica- 
 tions 
 
 for 
 Promo- 
 tion or 
 Transfer 
 
 I _ _ _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3- - -- 
 
 
 4 
 
 
FORMS 245 
 
 XXVIII 
 
 Age and Schooling Certificate, Revised Laws, Chap. 106, Sec. 32 
 
 Wijis CertifijB That I am the of 
 
 and that was born at , in the county of 
 
 , and state (or country) of , on the 190 
 
 and is now years months old. 
 
 Signature of father, mother, guardian, or custodian. 
 Worcester, Mass. 190 
 
 Then personally appeared before me the above-named , and 
 
 made oath that the foregoing certificate by signed is true to the best of 
 
 knowledge and belief. I hereby approve the foregoing certificate 
 
 of height ft. in., 
 
 complexion , hair , having no sufficient reason to doubt that 
 
 is of the age therein certified. I hereby certify that can read at 
 
 sight, and can write legibly simple sentences in the English language. 
 
 This certificate belongs to , and is to be surrendered 
 
 to whenever .leaves the service of the corporation or employer 
 
 holding the same; but if not claimed by said minor within thirty days from 
 such time, it shall be returned to the superintendent of schools, or, if there is 
 no superintendent of schools, to the school committee. 
 
 For the Superintendent of Schools. 
 Worcester, Mass 190 
 
246 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXIX 
 
 Date of Examination igo... 
 
 STATEMENT OF PHYSICAL HISTORY AND CONDITION OF APPLICANT 
 FOR APPOINTMENT AS TEACHER 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 (By Act of Board of School Commissioners, July 10, 1896) 
 
 A 
 
 FULL NAME 
 
 1 
 
 RESIDENCE 
 
 RACE- 
 
 -WHITE OR BLACK j 
 
 MARRIED OR SINGLE 
 
 1 SEX — MALE OR FEMALE 
 
 
 AGE 1 
 
 DATE OF BIRTH 
 
 1 WHERE BORN 
 
 I hereby agree to answer all questions correctly, to the best of my knowledge ; any wilful 
 deceit working as a forfeiture of my position. 
 
 Signature of Applicant. 
 
 Witness — Sup't of Schools. 
 
 
 applicant's 
 
 STATEMENT TO MEDICAL 
 
 EXAMINER 
 
 B 
 
 NAME IN FULL 
 
 1 WHITE OR BLACK 1 
 
 AGE 
 
 
 OCCUPATION 1 
 
 WEIGHT HEIGHT 1 
 
 Lbs. Ft. In. 1 
 
 FIGURE 
 
 Have you now or ever had any of the following diseases : 
 
 Apoplexy 
 Asthma? 
 Bronchitis? . 
 Cancer? . 
 Tumors? 
 Consumption? 
 Disease of Brain 
 Disease of Lungs 
 Disease of Heart 
 Disease of Liver 
 Piles? . 
 
 Fistula? 
 
 Disease of Urinary 
 
 Organs? 
 General Debility? 
 Gout? . 
 Insanity? 
 Jaundice? 
 Paralysis? 
 Pleurisy? 
 Pneumonia? . 
 Rheumatism? 
 
 Hysteria? 
 Neurasthenia? 
 Scrofula? 
 Ulcers? . 
 Varicose Veins? 
 Hemorrhage of 
 
 Lungs? 
 Spinal Disease? 
 Constant Cough? 
 Yellow Fever? 
 
 Have you been vaccinated? 
 
 Are you ruptured? 
 
 If so, is a truss worn? 
 
 Are you subject to headache, 
 vertigo, or any nervous or 
 muscular disease? 
 
 Do you have epilepsy or fits? 
 
 Have you a cough, expectora- 
 tion, palpitation, or difficult 
 breathing? 
 
 Are you subject to dyspepsia, 
 dysentery, or diarrhoea? 
 
 Are you now under constant 
 care of a physician? 
 
 Who is your physician? 
 
 What was the last disease you were treated for and how long were you ill ? 
 
 (Physician — ) Is above history good, fair, or bad? ( 
 
 
 -) 
 
 
 C FAMILY HISTORY 
 
 Father . 
 
 AGE IF LIVING 
 
 CONDITION OF HEALTH 
 
 AGE AT DEATH 
 
 CAUSE OF DEATH 
 
 Mother . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brothers living 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sisters living 
 
 
 
 
 
FORMS 247 
 
 Do you now sleep or have you ever slept in the same room with one having consumption? 
 
 Did any of your grandparents, parents, brothers, or sisters ever have consumption or any 
 pulmonary or scrofulous diseases? 
 
 Have you any kidney disease? 
 
 If so, the urine should be tested. 
 
 Spec. Grav Albumen 
 
 Reaction Sugar 
 
 FEMALE 
 
 Is menstruation regular or healthy ? If not, state conditions and probable cause 
 
 Menopause. (Over it or not.) 
 
 How many children have you had? Date of last confinement? 
 
 Have you been left in poor health from previous labors r 
 
 {Physician — ) Are above answers good or bad ? ( ) 
 
 Signature of Applicant. 
 REPORT OF EXAMINING PHYSICIAN 
 
 Is respiratory murmur clear over both lungs? 
 
 Respiration per minute ? _ _ _ _ _ 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 Are there indications of lung disease? 
 
 C. 
 
 Is character of heart's action uniform and regular? .... 
 
 Are its sounds normal? 
 
 Are there any indications of diseased blood-vessels? .... 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 Is the pulse regular or irregular? . . 
 
 A. 
 
 B. . 
 
 
 
 Are there any indications of impaired or diseased vital organs? . 
 
 Hearing? 
 
 Sight? 
 
 
 
 Girth of chest |?"7""P'''"!'°" • " " ' !°- 
 
 ( Full mspiration . . . . m. 
 
 Girth of abdomen, 
 in. 
 
 Have you your average weight? 
 
 
 I have this day of , igo. _, examined the above person, and 
 
 find that the conditions present are such that the applicant's constitution is* 
 
 The application should bef 
 
 Approved: 
 
 Signature of Medical Examiner. 
 
 Sup't of Schools. 
 
 Committee on Manual 
 Physical Training 
 
 nual and \ 
 ining : ] 
 
 * State yi\ie)Cae.x first-class, unfavorable, or bad. 
 
 t Fill in accepted, rejected, <y[ postponed indefinitely. 
 
 REMARKS: 
 
 C. N. Kendall, Superintendent. 
 
248 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXX 
 
 WORCESTER PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 NOTICE OF PUPIL'S TRANSFER 
 
 (To be placed in the box of the school to which the pupil is transferred) 
 
 School 190 
 
 Name Grade 
 
 New Residence 
 
 Transferred to School, Grade 
 
 Principal 
 
 Given at 
 
 RETURN NOTICE OF PUPIL'S TRANSFER 
 
 Received at School 
 
 Name Grade 
 
 Date 1 90 
 
 Principal 
 
 Receiving Principal will detach this lower half and return PROMPTLY to issuing 
 
 Principal. 
 
 WORCESTER PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 PUPIL'S TRANSFER 
 
 (To be given to the pupil. Not valid until approved by the Superintendent) 
 
 Given at School 190. _. 
 
 To Age Grade 
 
 Parent or Guardian 
 
 Former Residence 
 
 Newr Residence 
 
 Last Attendance 190 
 
 Transferred to School, Grade 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Principal 
 
 Approved Superintendent of Schools 
 
 Received 190 
 
 Principal 
 
 Receiving Principal will return this PROMPTLY to Superintendent's office. 
 
FORMS 
 
 249 
 
 XXXI 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 APPLICATION FOR ADMISSION TO HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Family Name Given name 
 Applies for Admission to the 
 2. High School. 
 
 Residence 
 
 4. Date of birth- 
 
 Month Day 
 
 5. Name of parent (or guardian) 
 
 6. His business address 
 
 Month Day 
 
 Year 
 
 Borough 
 
 Borough 
 Age 
 
 Year 
 
 Years 
 
 Months 
 
 7. Date of applicant's last vaccination. 
 
 8. Graduated from what school 
 
 9. Date of graduation- 
 
 Year 
 
 Borough 
 
 Month 
 
 10. Other instruction (give dates)_ 
 
 11. Indicate course to be taken 
 
 Day 
 
 Year 
 
 12. Indicate foreign language you intend to study at the beginning of your 
 course — 
 
 13. Signature of applicant- 
 
 14. Signature of parent or guardian. 
 
 15. This pupil has completed the elementary course of study to the satis- 
 faction of the District Superintendent, and of the Principal 
 
 16. Signature of the Principal of P. S.__ 
 
 1 7. Assigned to year ^ class 
 
 -Section. 
 
 Principal of H,S.. 
 
250 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXXII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 ESTIMATE OF GRADUATING PUPIL'S ATTAINMENTS 
 
 Term ending | J^'^'^^'^y 1 190 
 l June J 
 
 Borough of 
 
 Name of pupiL 
 Date of birth_ 
 
 -District No. 
 
 -Residence- 
 
 -P.S.. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF PUPIL'S ATTAINMENTS 
 
 Note. — Satisfactory (" a," excellent; "h+," very good ; "h," good) 
 " Unsatisfactory ("c,"/otfr," " A," bad) 
 
 Class standing. 
 
 -Principal's estimate. 
 
 r I recommend 1 
 
 I I do not recommend J 
 
 Approved ] 
 Disapproved J 
 
 the said pupil for graduation from this school. 
 
 Principal 
 
 District Superintendent 
 
 Indicate ability by 
 
 a small letter in 
 
 this column 
 
 Put general esti- 
 mates in capitals 
 in this column 
 
 I READING 
 
 1. Amount of literature read in class during the term 
 
 now closingi 
 
 2. Power to interpret the. matter so read 
 
 3. Amount of literature memorized 
 
 4. Ability to read aloud accurately and intelligently 
 
 new reading matter 
 
 5. Power to give understandingly the substance of a 
 
 paragraph, after a single reading 
 
 6. Use of library books 
 
 7. Power to understand and explain the meaning of 
 
 words 
 
 8. Skill in the use of a dictionary 
 
 General estimate in this subject 
 
 II GRAMMAR 
 
 I. Ability to explain the meaning and grammatical 
 structure of sentences in the usual forms 
 
FORMS 
 
 251 
 
 Indicate ability by 
 
 a small letter in 
 
 this column 
 
 Put general esti- 
 mates in capitals 
 in this column 
 
 2. Ability to distinguish the language forms — words, 
 
 phrases, and clauses — to show their use and 
 force in sentences of ordinary difficulty, and to 
 classify them as parts of speech, etc 
 
 3. Ability to distinguish and give the various in- 
 
 • fleeted forms of ordinary words 
 
 4. Ability to use a text-book as a book of reference. 
 
 5. Power to use grammar to correct errors in the 
 
 pupil's own discourse oral and written 
 
 General estimate 
 
 Ill COMPOSITION 
 
 1. Skill in talking intelligently and grammatically 
 
 on subjects within the pupil's knowledge 
 
 2. Power to arrange his thoughts in order and to 
 
 write them grammatically 
 
 3. Ability to write from given data, letters correct in 
 
 both form and substance 
 
 4. Estimate of rapidity and legibility of handwriting 
 
 General estimate 
 
 IV SPELLING 
 
 1. Power and habit as a speller 
 
 2. Ability to write from dictation, paragraphs of ordi- 
 
 nary difficulty 
 
 3. Skill in applying rules for spelling to the inflected 
 
 and derived forms of words 
 
 General estimate 
 
 V MATHEMATICS 
 
 1. Power to use the four simple rules with reasonable 
 
 rapidity, employing the customary short methods 
 
 2. Ability to solve problems that involve fractions, 
 
 common and decimal 
 
 3. Power to solve ordinary problems, including in- 
 
 dustrial measurements, percentage, etc 
 
 4. Ability to analyze processes 
 
 5. Knowledge of the metric system 
 
 6. Ability to apply algebra and geometry to the 
 
 solution of problems 
 
 General estimate 
 
 VI MANUAL TRAINING AND DRAWING 
 
 1. Ability to draw freehand a simple group of objects 
 
 2. Ability to make a working drawing of a given object 
 
 3. Ability to make a design for application to a 
 
 given space 
 
 4. Skill in shop work 
 
 5. Skill in sewing 
 
 6. Skill in cooking 
 
 General estimate 
 
252 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 VII HISTORY 
 
 Knowledge of the time and sequence of events in 
 United States history 
 
 Knowledge of the main causes that have brought 
 our country to its present condition 
 
 Comprehension of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence, of Washington's farewell address, and 
 Lincoln's Gettysburg speech 
 
 Knowledge of the leading events in English his- 
 tory 
 
 General estimate 
 
 VIII CIVICS 
 
 Knowledge of the most important provisions of 
 the United States Constitution and of the organ- 
 ization of state and municipal governments . . . 
 General estimate 
 
 IX GEOGRAPHY (as completed in 7B) 
 
 1. Mastery of a school text-book 
 
 2. Knowledge of the important physical features of 
 
 the continents, of the United States, of New 
 York State 
 
 3. Power to locate the chief countries of the world, 
 
 their great cities and foreign possessions, and 
 to give and recognize their chief productions . . 
 
 4. Knowledge of the chief transcontinental and 
 
 ocean routes of commerce 
 
 5. Knowledge of the causes of dew, rain, snow, wind, 
 
 and other ordinary physical phenomena, and 
 
 knowledge of the relations of place to climate . 
 
 General estimate 
 
 X SCIENCE 
 
 1. Number of experiments performed by teacher in 
 
 science 
 
 2. Number of experiments performed by pupil in 
 
 science 
 
 3. Pupil's knowledge of such experiments 
 
 XI ELECTIVES 
 
 I. Character of work done in French, German, or 
 Spanish 
 
 Indicate ability by 
 
 a small letter in 
 
 this column 
 
 Put general esti- 
 mates in capitals 
 in this column 
 
 Note. — The rating of the pupil in column I should be made by the teachers of the graduat- 
 ing classes, under the direction of the principal, and the general estimates in column II should 
 be made by the principal. 
 
FORMS 253 
 
 XXXIII 
 
 [poster notice] 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 NOTICE TO PARENTS 
 
 SCHOOL REGISTRATION 
 
 All Public Schools will be open 
 FOR THE ADMISSION AND TRANSFER OF PUPILS 
 
 ON 
 
 WEDNESDAY, September 4, THURSDAY, September 5, 
 
 FRIDAY, September 6, 1907 
 
 From 9 A.M. to 12 M., and from i to 3 p.m. 
 
 RULES FOR ADMISSION 
 
 Children under six years of age will not be received except in kinder- 
 garten classes. Children under five years of age will not be admitted to 
 kindergarten classes until all older children have been accommodated. 
 
 Children who have never attended a Public School within The City of 
 New York must furnish a satisfactory Certificate of Vaccination. 
 
 Children born in The City of New York must furnish a certificate of date 
 of birth from the Department of Health. 
 
 Children born elsewhere must furnish a passport, or a baptismal certificate, 
 or other satisfactory evidence showing the date of birth. 
 
 Children who have been attending a Public School must apply to that 
 school for a Transfer Card before they can be admitted to any other school. 
 
 Transfer cards will be furnished only upon the Written or Personal 
 Request of the Parent or Guardian, stating the reason for such request. 
 
 Parents are requested to attend to the Transfer and Registration of their 
 Children on September 4, 5, or 6, from 9 A.M. to 12 M. and from I to 3 P.M. 
 
 By order of the Board of Education, 
 
 Egerton L. Winthrop, Jr., 
 
 President 
 William H. Maxwell, 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools 
 
254 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 ANNUAL BLANK B 
 
 XXX 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 
 
 Report of Pupils dropped from the Department of 
 
 For the Year ending_ 190 
 
 SICKNESS 
 
 SICKNESS IN FAMILY 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Fourth 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 by 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 15 M 
 F 
 
 16 M 
 F 
 
 17 M 
 F 
 
 l3 M 
 F 
 
 19 M 
 F 
 
 20 M 
 F 
 
 Total ^ 
 Total 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Ages 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 15 M 
 F 
 
 16 M 
 F 
 
 17 M 
 • F 
 
 18 M 
 F 
 
 19 M 
 F 
 
 20 M 
 F 
 
 Total ^ 
 Total 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 INABILITY TO DO THE WORK 
 
 TO GO TO WORK 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Fourth 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 by 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 etc. 
 Total ^ 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Ages 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 etc. 
 Total ^ 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Note to Principal. — Report the following departments : Mathematics, 
 J. M. Greenwood, Superintendent, 
 
FORMS 
 
 255 
 
 IV 
 
 KANSAS CITY, MO. 
 
 in the 
 
 .High School 
 ^Teacher 
 
 FAILING EYESIGHT 
 
 LEFT THE CITY 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Fourth 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 by 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 15 M 
 F 
 
 16 M 
 F 
 
 17 M 
 F 
 
 18 M 
 F 
 
 19 M 
 F 
 
 20 M 
 F 
 
 Total ^ 
 Total 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Ages 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 15 M 
 
 F 
 
 l5 M 
 
 F 
 
 17 M 
 F 
 
 18 M 
 F 
 
 19 M 
 F 
 
 20 M 
 F 
 
 Total « 
 Total 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 TRANSFERRED 
 
 UNKNOWN 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Third 
 Year 
 
 Fourth 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 by 
 
 Ages 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 Second 
 Year 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 etc. 
 Total " 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Ages 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 11 M 
 F 
 
 12 M 
 F 
 
 13 M 
 F 
 
 14 M 
 F 
 
 etc. 
 
 Total J" 
 
 M F 
 
 M F 
 
 Science, Language (Ancient and Modern), English, History, Sociology. 
 
 Principal. 
 
256 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXXV 
 Permit No 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 School District No 
 
 APPLICATION FOR NEWSBOY'S PERMIT AND BADGE 
 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 I hereby make application for a Newsboy's Permit and 
 
 Badge for , living at 
 
 I affirm that I am the (parent, guardian, custodian or "next friend") 
 
 of said boy, and that he is years of age, having been born 
 
 i8_-_, at in 
 
 Signature 
 
 Address. 
 
 Date , i90-__ 
 
 STATEMENT OF BOY 
 
 I hereby state that I am years of age, having been born , i8 
 
 at in 
 
 Signature 
 
 Address 
 
 Date , 190 
 
 SCHOOL RECORD OF BOY 
 I hereby certify that living at 
 
 according to the record of this school is years of age having been 
 
 born 18 , and that he is now in the grade. 
 
 Principal of School No.. . 
 
 Date , 190. __ 
 
 ^ Registered by ^^ 
 
 DEPARTMENToFfDUCATlON 
 
FORMS 
 
 257 
 
 XXXVI 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 Newark, N. J., 190 
 
 CHILDREN ON STREETS 
 
 The following named children were found by me loitering on the streets 
 and do not appear to be attending any school. 
 
 AGE 
 
 RESIDENCE 
 
 PARENT 
 
 -Precinct. 
 
 -Police Officer. 
 
 XXXVII 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 To the Chief Attendance Officer, Newark, N. J., igo 
 
 City Hall. 
 Dear Sir : — 
 
 It has been ascertained by me from various sources that the fol- 
 lowing named children of school age do not attend any school, or are illegally 
 employed. 
 
 Name 
 
 Residence Age Parent or Guardian Where Employed 
 
 Signed . 
 
 XXXVIII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 PAROLE AND PROBATION CARD 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 DATE 
 
 CONDUCT 
 
 PARENT'S SIGNATURE 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York, 190. 
 
 Principal 
 
 School No. 
 
258 APPENDIX D 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 CHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS 
 
 OF OHIO 
 
 " No child under the age of FOURTEEN years shall be employed in any 
 Factory, Workshop, Mercantile, or other Establishment, directly or indirectly, 
 at any time." (97 O. L., Page 321, Sec. i.) 
 
 " No child under SIXTEEN years of age shall be employed by, or be in the 
 employment of any Person, Company, or Corporation, unless such child shall 
 present to such Person, Company, or Corporation, an Age and Schooling 
 Certificate." 
 
 " An Age and Schooling Certificate shall be approved only by the SUPER- 
 INTENDENT OF SCHOOLS or by a person authorized by him." Sec. 
 4022-2 R. S.) 
 
 " An Age and Schoohng Certificate shall not be approved unless satisfac- 
 tory evidence is furnished by the last school census, the certificate of birth, 
 or of baptism, or in some such manner, that the child is of the age required 
 as aforesaid." (97 O. L., Page 321, Sec. i. Passed April 23rd, 1904.) 
 
 Age and Schooling Certificates can be obtained at the office of Clerk of 
 Board of Education, third floor, City Hall. 
 
 F. B! dyer, Supt. of Schools, Cincinnati. 
 
 XL 
 
 No. Attendance Report School. 
 
 Name Age Date 
 
 Parent Residence 
 
 Absent. Truant. Attending no school. 
 
 Last day attended Absent preceding week 
 
 Times a truant this term Parent written 
 
 Remarks : 
 
 Principal. Teacher. 
 
 (over.) 
 
 Investigation completed 190 
 
 Interviewed Father. Mother. Guardian. Pupil. 
 
 Reported to Principal 190 
 
 Pupil returned to school 190 
 
 Absent sessions. Truant sessions. 
 
 Cause for absence 
 
 Remarks : 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION _ 
 
 NEWARK, N. J. Attendance Officer. 
 
FORMS ^59 
 
 XLI 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 .190 
 
 School 
 
 TO THE ATTENDANCE OFFICER: 
 
 Please call at the residence of ^ 
 
 at No. and request 
 
 (father, mother or guardian) to call on me at this school as soon as possible 
 in reference to 
 
 Reason : 
 
 Principal. 
 
 (over) 
 
 Officer called on father, mother or guardian 190 
 
 Father, mother or guardian called 190. _^ 
 
 No. of times previously sent for 
 
 Remarks : 
 
 Attendance Officer. 
 (over) 
 
 XLII 
 I DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 S The City of New York 
 
 J Adm. Dis. Reg. No. 
 
 g 
 < 
 
 yA 
 
 Last Name 
 
 First Name 
 
 Residence 
 
 
 n 
 
 Name of Parent or Guardian 
 
 
 2; 
 
 Date of Birth 
 
 Age 
 
 >< 
 
 Country of Birth 
 
 When Vaccinated 
 
 
 Last Day School Attended 
 
 Year of Leaving 
 
 < 
 
 In what Grade were you when you left ? 
 
 Did you Graduate ? 
 
 'A 
 
 Occupation 
 
 
 Employer's Name 
 
 
 0i 
 
 Employer's Business Address 
 
 
 Subject: ist hour 
 
 2d hour 
 
26o APPENDIX D 
 
 XLIII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 The City of New York 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 New York, 190 
 
 This is to certify that I am the of and reside at No. in 
 
 the borough of that said is a child between the ages of eight and 
 
 sixteen years of age, viz., of the age of years, that he is in proper 
 
 physical and mental condition to attend school ; that I am unable to induce 
 said child to attend school, and am not now able to cause said child to be 
 instructed regularly at home by a person properly qualified to instruct said 
 child in reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geog- 
 raphy ; that said child is a persistent truant ; that I respectfully request that 
 said child be committed to a Truant School, or similar institution for confine- 
 ment, maintenance and instruction, according to law ; that I believe such a 
 measure necessary for the reformation and welfare of said child. In case of 
 transfer, I prefer the (Catholic Protectory) (Westchester Temporary Home). 
 
 Witness: .Father. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Guardian. 
 
 Note. — This declaration must be signed by the father, if living, after its import has been 
 thoroughly explained. 
 
 The District Superintendent is directed to inform the parent emphatically 
 to the effect that if the parent should become convinced that the child, after 
 a period of confinement in a truant school or other institution, will regularly 
 attend school and conform to the rules of discipline and if the parent believes 
 that he is able to enforce attendance and good conduct he may apply to the 
 District Superintendent for the child's parole, as this is a matter exclusively 
 between the parent and the educational authorities : that the parent should 
 not apply to any other person for such parole, and on no account as a client, 
 apply to any lawyer or other person claiming to have influence in securing a 
 parole, nor pay any fee to any such person. The Board of Education will not 
 recognize or deal with any attorney in a parole case. 
 
FORMS 261 
 
 XLIV 
 [postal card] 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 The City of New York 
 
 Evening School New York, 190 
 
 You are hereby notified that your son 
 
 aged years, has been absent from 
 
 Evening School sessions during the past week. Under the 
 
 Compulsory Education Law, he is required to be regular in his attendance 
 and correct in conduct. This matter should receive your immediate attention. 
 
 Principal. 
 
 Chapter 671, Laws of 1894, as Amended 1903, Section 3: 
 
 Every boy between fourteen and sixteen years of age, who is engaged in any useful 
 employment or service in a city of the first class and who has not completed such course of 
 study as is required for graduation from the elementary public schools of such city, and who 
 does not hold either a certificate of graduation from the public elementary school or the pre- 
 academic certificate issued by the regents of the university of the state of New York or the 
 certificate of the completion of an elementary school issued by the department of public in- 
 struction, shall attend the public evening schools of such city, or other evening schools offer- 
 ing an equivalent course of instruction, for not less than six hours each week for a period of 
 not less than sixteen weeks in each school year or calendar year. 
 
 XLV 
 NOT VACCINATED 
 
 Holyoke, Mass., igo 
 
 To the Superintendent of Schools : 
 
 I hereby certify that 
 
 residence is not a fit subject for vaccination. 
 
 Signed 
 
 Laws of Massachusetts, 1894 ; Chapter 515, Section 2 : All children who shall 
 present a certificate signed by a regular practicing physician that they are unfit subjects for 
 vaccination shall not be subject to the provisions of Section 9 of Chapter 47 of the Public 
 Statutes excluding unvaccinated children from public schools, and all children upon such a 
 certificate shall be exempted from the provisions of this act, and the parents and guardians 
 of such children shall not be liable to the penalties imposed by Section i of this act. 
 
262 APPENDIX D 
 
 XLVI 
 [postal cards] 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 rgo 
 
 TO EMPLOYER OF 
 
 This child has left school with the necessary record to enable h to 
 obtain a certificate of employment from the Board of Health in accordance 
 with law. The child's name cannot be discharged from the register of the 
 school until the principal has been assured that he is actually employed. 
 Will you kindly return this card properly filled out over your signature ? 
 Your prompt attention to this request will facilitate the keeping of correct 
 records, and will save the child the inconvenience of an investigation by the 
 attendance officer. 
 
 The Compulsory Education Law requires that this child between 14 and 
 16 years of age shall be employed or at school. If he should be dis- 
 charged by you, will you kindly notify me of the fact at once ? 
 
 Principal School No. 
 
 .190 
 
 This is to certify that I have this day taken into my employ . 
 
 The business i&. 
 
 Employer. 
 Place of employment 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOL No. 
 
 BOROUGH OF. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
FORMS 
 
 263 
 
 XLVII 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 REPORT OF DJRECTOR OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 Newark, N. J., 190 
 
 To THE City Superintendent, 
 
 Dear Sir : — I herewith respectfully submit my report of the work of the 
 
 Attendance Department for the month ending 190 
 
 No. of cases of Truancy reported by Principals 
 « <• « « Absence " " " 
 
 (c <i i< <i Attending no school reported by Principals 
 it it « « Truancy, etc., reported by Principals of other schools 
 « <i « « Xruancy, etc., reported by Police 
 " " " " " " " through other sources 
 
 Visits to Schools, Homes, Stores and Factories by Director of Compulsory 
 Education 
 " " Public Schools by Attendance Officers 
 " " Other " " " " 
 
 " " Homes " " " (a) On account of Truancy 
 
 (b) " " " Absence 
 
 (c) " " " Attending 
 
 no school 
 Parents warned by Director of Compulsory Education by letter 
 " personally warned by Director of Compulsory Education 
 " " " " Attendance Officers 
 
 Legal notices served 
 
 Truants returned to public schools by Attendance Officers 
 Absentees " " " " " " " 
 
 Non-attendants placed in public schools by " " 
 
 Truants, absentees, etc., returned to other schools by Attendance Officers 
 Children found on the street and taken home by Attendance Officers 
 
 " " " " " " " to school by " " 
 
 No. of parents summoned to Police Court 
 No. of prosecutions of Parents and Guardians 
 " " " " " " " with conviction, (a) Fined 
 
 (b) Paroled 
 No. of prosecutions of Truants 
 " " " " " with conviction, (a) Sent to City Home 
 
 (b) Sent to State Reforma- 
 tories 
 (c). Paroled 
 No. of Truants recommended for Ungraded Schools 
 " " " transferred to " " 
 
 Transfer cards investigated by Attendance Officers 
 
 No. of children between the ages of seven and twelve years excused from at- 
 tending school by reason of physical or mental incapacity or other causes 
 No. of cases investigated for Police Department 
 " " permits and badges issued to newsboys 
 
 Signed 
 
 A. B. Poland, Superintendent. 
 
 Director of Compulsory Education. 
 
264 APPENDIX D 
 
 XLVIII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Case o£ 
 
 Hearing on 
 
 Office of District Superintendent 
 
 Districts 
 
 190 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 I have the honor to report upon the case of 
 
 age ,a pupil of Residence 
 
 Complaint was made on 190 , by 
 
 Summons was issued to accused and to the persons in parental relation, viz. : 
 
 and [ 
 
 There were present at the hearing on 190 
 
 From the evidence produced, including the school record, the work of the 
 attendance officer, and the testimony given, I am convinced that the said 
 child is 
 
 and I therefore recommend that the said 
 
 be 
 
 All the papers in the case are herewith transmitted. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 District Superintendent. 
 RECOMMENDATION OF ASSOCIATE CITY SUPERINTENDENT 
 
 Associate City Superintendent. 
 190 
 
FORMS 
 
 265 
 
 XLIX 
 
 CiTV AND State of New York, ) 
 
 > SS»' 
 County of New York, ) 
 
 , being duly sworn, deposes and says that he resides at 
 
 No. in the Borough of in The City of New York, and that he is one of the 
 
 attendance officers of said city, duly appointed under the provisions of an Act entitled, " An 
 Act to Provide for the Compulsory Education of Children," Chapter 671 of the Laws of 1894, 
 as amended. 
 
 That is the person in parental relation to to wit, the of said 
 
 That said is a child between the ages of eight and sixteen years, to wit, 
 
 years and months, and is, and at all times hereinafter mentioned was, as deponent is 
 
 informed and verily believes, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school. 
 
 That since the day of .190 , said child, as deponent is informed by the 
 
 school authorities and verily believes, has not been regularly attending upon instruction in 
 
 accordance with the provisions of said Compulsory Education Law, but on of the. 
 
 school days from said day of 190 , to 190 , said child has been a 
 
 truant from instruction. 
 
 That on 190 , deponent notified the of said child that said child was 
 
 not attending upon instruction, and informed the said of those provisions of said 
 
 law which require persons in parental relation to a child between the ages of eight and six- 
 teen years to cause such child to attend upon instruction. 
 
 That from said day of- 190 , to the day of 190 , said 
 
 has neglected to comply with said law, and has failed to cause said child to regularly attend 
 upon instruction in accordance with said law, said child having been a truant from instruc- 
 tion, as deponent is informed by the school authorities and verily believes, during the whole 
 of said period except- 
 
 Deponent further says that said has not presented to the school authorities proof 
 
 by affidavit that he is unable to compel said child to attend upon instruction in accordance 
 with said law. 
 
 Sworn to before me this — 
 day of 190 
 
 Attendance Officer, 
 
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266 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 No. 11 SAINT LOUIS BOARD 
 Annual Report of the Evening 
 
 Table I 
 AGES OF PUPILS 
 
 Table II 
 OCCUPATION OF PUPILS 
 
 No. 12 years old 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 Total 
 
 Average age 
 
 (see note) 
 
 Girls 
 
 Boys 
 
 From the Four Quarterly 
 Reports 
 
 Total 
 
 Average number belonging . . 
 Average daily Attendance . , 
 Per cent of Attendance . , 
 Average No. Pupils to Teacher 
 Average No. Teachers . . . , 
 
 Cases of Tardiness 
 
 Times Readmitted 
 
 Times Absent 
 
 Total 
 
 Apprentices 
 Bakers . . 
 Barbers 
 Barkeepers 
 Basketmakers 
 Blacksmiths 
 Bookbinders 
 Boxmakers 
 Bricklayers 
 Brushmakers 
 Butchers . . 
 Cabinet Makers 
 Candymakers 
 Carpenters 
 Carriagemakers 
 Cash Boys 
 Cigarmakers 
 Clerks . . 
 Coppersmiths 
 Dentists . 
 Druggists . 
 Engineers . 
 Engravers 
 Errand Boys 
 Factory Boys 
 Finishers . . 
 Foundry Boys 
 German Schools 
 Glassworkers 
 Grocers . . 
 Gasfitters . . 
 Harnessmakers 
 Hucksters . • 
 Ironworkers . 
 Jewellers . 
 Laborers . 
 Machinists . 
 
 Total 
 
 Masons . . 
 Manufacturers 
 Mechanics 
 Millers . , 
 Moulders 
 News Carriers 
 Office Boys 
 Painters . 
 Photographers 
 Plasterers . 
 Plumbers . 
 Porters . . 
 Printers 
 Saddlers . 
 Shoemakers 
 Store Boys 
 Tailors . . 
 Teamsters 
 Tinners 
 Tobacconists 
 Trunkmakers 
 Waiters 
 Whiteners 
 Miscellaneous 
 No occupation 
 Total Males 
 
 FEMALES 
 
 Dressmakers 
 
 House Girls 
 
 Laundresses 
 
 Milliners . 
 
 Nurses . . 
 
 Saleswomen 
 
 Seamstresses 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Total Females 
 Total . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 F. Louis Soldan, Superintendent. 
 
FORMS 
 
 267 
 
 OF EDUCATION 
 
 School for the Year ending. 
 
 189 
 
 Table III 
 BIRTHPLACE OF PUPILS 
 
 Table IV 
 CHARACTER OF ATTENDANCE 
 
 Saint Louis 
 
 Missouri (without St. Louis) 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Other States of the Union 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Other Parts of Great Britain 
 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Other Foreign Countries . 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 ( Whole Number of School Days, bd) 
 No. of pupils who attended 60 nights . 
 
 Total Number of Pupils 
 Total Number Registered 
 
 50 
 
 " to 60 
 
 40 
 
 " to 50 
 
 30 
 
 " to 40 
 
 20 
 
 " to 30 
 
 ID 
 
 " to 20 
 
 less 
 
 than 10 
 
 d 
 
 NAMES OF PUPILS 
 
 WHO MERIT DIPLOMAS FOR PUNCTUAL 
 
 ATTENDANCE, DILIGENCE IN STUDY, 
 
 AND CORRECT DEPORTMENT 
 
 Note. — In making out the Average 
 Age in Table I. 
 
 ist. Multiply the number of pupils 
 given by the corresponding age. 
 
 2d. Add up. 
 
 3d. Divide the sum of products by 
 the total number of pupils. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 Principal 
 
268 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 LI 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 OFFICE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 
 Park Avenue and Fifty-Ninth Street 
 
 To the Attendance Officers of the City of New York, or any one of them, and to the , 
 
 Truant School 
 
 WHEREAS, a child between eight and sixteen years of age, namely, . 
 
 years, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school, has been charged on the 
 
 affidavit of an Attendance Officer, with being an habitual truant from instruction upon 
 
 which he is lawfully required to attend, insubordinate or disorderly during h attendance 
 upon instruction, irregular in school attendance; 
 
 AND WHEREAS, reasonable notice and an opportunity to be heard have been given to 
 said child and to the person in parental relation to said child, and said person has pre- 
 sented proof by affidavit that he is unable to compel said child to attend upon instruction 
 
 and has given h consent in writing to have said child committed to the Truant School, 
 
 or to an Orphans' Home, or similar institution authorized by the Compulsory Education Law, 
 
 namely, for A PERIOD OF TWO YEARS, and agrees to accept the rules and 
 
 regulations of the Board of Education of The City of New York in regard to the confinement, 
 discipline, instruction and discharge of said child; 
 
 AND WHEREAS, the charges of said Attendance Officer have been established to my sat- 
 isfaction by the records of Public School and the evidence adduced before me ; 
 
 NOW, THEREFORE, pursuant to the authority vested in me by said Compulsory Edu- 
 cation Law is hereby ordered to attend the and be confined and main- 
 tained therein under such rules and regulations as the school authorities may prescribe for A 
 PERIOD OF TWO YEARS. 
 
 AND THESE ARE TO COMMAND YOU, the Attendance Officers of The City of New 
 
 York or any one of you, to convey to the said institution the said for confinement, 
 
 maintenance and instruction with a view to h improvement and restoration as provided by 
 the Compulsory Education Law. 
 
 New York, 190 
 
 S o 
 
 City Superintendent 0/ Schools. 
 
 
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FORMS 
 
 269 
 
 LII 
 WEEKLY REPORT RECREATION CENTRE NO. 
 BOROUGH OF 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 Report of Recreation Centre No. 
 
 for the week ending 
 
 190 
 
 REGISTRATION : Boys. 
 
 Girls, 
 
 Total, 
 
 NOTE.— In rating teachers on this sheet the abbreviations should be used as follows: 
 Meritorious: A (highest grade), B+, B. Non-meritorious: C (inferior), D (deficient). 
 
 When the principal's estimate of a teacher's ability to instruct or to discipline is less than 
 B, a detailed report is required. 
 
 The principals are to report upon the work and attendance of all teachers, regular and 
 special (except substitutes), who have been employed during any portion of the term. 
 
 Monday, 
 
 Tuesday, 
 
 Wednesday, 
 
 Thursday, 
 
 Friday, 
 
 Saturday, 
 
 Aggregate, 
 Average, 
 
 Boys. 
 
 NAMES 
 
 The names of teachers are 
 to be written in alphabetical 
 order, surnames first. Oppo- 
 site each name, place the sub- 
 ject taught. 
 
 Present 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 Girls 
 
 TEACHERS 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 Absent Late . 
 
 Total. 
 
 -Dis. 
 
 RATING 
 Inst_ 
 
 Signed. 
 
 Principal 
 
2/0 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
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 No. of 
 
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 Service 
 
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 Service is Required 
 
 (Indicate whether a.m. or 
 
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FORMS 
 
 271 
 
 LIV 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, The City of New York 
 
 190. _. 
 
 PUBLIC LECTURES 
 
 Borough of Report of 
 
 For day 
 
 Centre visited 
 
 I. REMARKS AS TO BUILDING: 
 
 (a) Is auxiliary stairway necessary; if so, was it open and lighted? 
 (3) External advertisements of lecture : 
 
 1. Bulletin boards and lecture placards; 
 
 2. Transparencies on building or adjoining lamp posts; 
 
 3. Lecture lanterns or lamps at entrance; 
 
 (c) Heating, lighting, and cleanliness of building and surroundings ; 
 
 (d) Equipment of centre, piano, lantern, screen, platform, pointer, signal; 
 II, REMARKS AS TO JANITOR: 
 
 Refer to cooperation of Janitor and Local Superintendent and the general cleanliness of 
 the building. 
 
 III. REMARKS AS TO OPERATOR AND LANTERN: 
 (Promptness, accuracy, neatness, care of lantern.) 
 
 IV. REMARKS AS TO LOCAL SUPERINTENDENT IN CHARGE: 
 
 (His manner of introducing lecturer; his executive and disciplinary ability, and system; 
 spirit shown in his work; personality, etc., etc.) 
 V. REMARKS AS TO THE CENTRE VISITED: 
 
 (Nature and size of audience; general atmosphere; interest and attention manifested; 
 orderliness; general character of neighborhood, etc.) 
 VI. REMARKS AS TO LECTURE AND LECTURER: 
 
 I. Presence, manner, etc. 2. Presentation of subject. 3. Nature and character of 
 
 illustration. 
 
 Respectfully submitted. 
 
 Inspector of Lectures. 
 
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2/2 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 LV 
 PROGRAMME FOR MANUAL TRAINING 
 Half- Year Beginning igo- 
 
 .School Centre. 
 
 
 8:45 to 10:15 A.M. 
 
 10:30 to 12:00 A.M. 
 
 1:30 to 3:00 P.M. 
 
 Day 
 
 School 
 
 Room 
 and 
 Class 
 
 Grade 
 
 and 
 Quar. 
 
 No. 
 
 School 
 
 Room 
 and 
 Class 
 
 Grade 
 
 and 
 Quar. 
 
 No. 
 
 School 
 
 Room 
 and 
 Class 
 
 Grade 
 
 and 
 Quar. 
 
 No. 
 
 Monday 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 "Wednesday 
 
 Thursday 
 
 Friday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LVI 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 PUBLIC LECTURES 
 
 Course of_ 
 
 REPORT OF LECTURER 
 lectures on 
 
 at 
 
 beginning- 
 
 -; ending- 
 
 What was the general character of your audiences ?_ 
 
 Mention any evidences of responsiveness on the part of your auditors- 
 
 Was any reading done in connection with the course ?_ 
 
 What books were suggested for reading 
 
 Was any opportunity for questions and quiz afforded after the lecture ?_ 
 
 Was any examination held > 
 
 Give your opinion of the general effect of this course. 
 
 If the lectures were illustrated, in what manner ?_ 
 
 New York,. 
 
 .190- 
 
 Lecturer 
 
FORMS 273 
 
 LVII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 OFFICE OF THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 
 P. S. Bor. Kgtner's name 
 
 Report of Kindergarten Mothers' Meetings for the year ending. 
 
 DATE OF TOPICS PRESENTED BY WHOM 
 
 1. Oct 
 
 2. Nov 
 
 3. Dec 
 
 4. Jan 
 
 5. Feb 
 
 6. Mar. 
 
 7. Apr 
 
 8. May 
 
 9. June 
 
 1. Star most successful topics. 
 
 2. Special features introduced. 
 
 3. Do you circulate books * among mothers ? Name any of special interest. 
 
 4. Is "telling a story" a feature of each meeting ? 
 
 5. How have mothers assisted in the meetings ? 
 
 6. Has a Union or Club been organized ? How does it work ? 
 
 7. Approximate number of visits in the homes of the children. 
 
 8. Results of home calls in special instances. 
 
 9. Suggestions for future work. 
 
 * Note the following helpful books on the Library and the Supplemental Lists. 
 
 Fundamentals of Child Study, Kirkpatrick, (See p. 146 in Library L 
 
 The Education of Man, Froebel, " 134 " 
 
 Mother Play, Mottoes and Commentaries, Froebel, " 149 " 
 
 Montaigne's Views on the Education of Children, Rector, _ " 145 " 
 
 Leonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi, " 144 " 
 
 Studies of Childhood, Sully, " 146 " 
 
 Place of the Story in Early Education, Wiltsie, " 149 " 
 
 BOOKS ON THE SUPPLEMENTAL LIST (1906) 
 
 The Child, Tanner, (See p. 13) 
 
 How to Tell Stories, Bryant, " 11 
 
 BOOKS ON THE SUPPLEMENTAL LIST (1907) 
 
 Notes on the Early Training of Children, Malleson, " ? 
 
 Mother Stories, Lindsay, " ? 
 
 More Mother Stories, Lindsay, " ? 
 
 St.) 
 
274 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
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 Fiction , . 
 
 Juvenile Fiction 
 
 History 
 
 Biography . 
 
 Travel 
 
 Poetry 
 
 Literature . 
 
 Philosophy 
 
 Science 
 
 Art . . , 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 V •J" 
 
 S f^i 
 
FORMS 275 
 
 LIX 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS IN RECREATION 
 CENTRES 
 
 1. The principal has entire charge of the centre and failure on the part of any teacher to 
 accept instructions or obey orders should be reported to the superintendent in charge. 
 
 2. Differences of opinion may be submitted in writing to Miss Whitney, district superin- 
 tendent in charge of vacation schools, playgrounds and recreation centres. 
 
 3. It is the duty of principals and teachers to be present in the recreation centres during 
 the entire time they are in session. They are not permitted to leave during this time, nor to 
 spend any of it in office work. 
 
 4. All teachers must understand that they are to work for the success of the centre as 
 a whole and not confine themselves to their specialty, and should be willing at all times to 
 assist in whatever department the principal may assign them. 
 
 5. Principals and teachers are not assigned for a stated period at any one place, but are 
 continued according to the work accomplished, and may be transferred or have their services 
 discontinued at any time. 
 
 6. Principals may call a meeting of their teachers at any time, not during recreation cen- 
 tre period, if said meetings do not conflict with meetings called by the superintendent or 
 supervisors. 
 
 7. Take a complete inventory of all gymnastic apparatus and all other materials immedi- 
 ately, and again at the end of the season, with condition of each piece, as usable, needing 
 repair, damaged irreparably. 
 
 Mats and bucks should be put under shelter during a rain, and also at night. 
 
 8. A leader should be placed in charge of all loose material, such as ring-toss, etc. Take 
 his name and address, and make him feel the responsibility resting on him. 
 
 9. Use judgment in selecting places for certain games {e.g., ring-toss in a narrow alley 
 that can be used for nothing else), and never allow any boy or set of boys to use any game over 
 a specified time if others are waiting to use it. This refers especially to basket-ball; never 
 allow indiscriminate practice. 
 
 10. Make an effort toward organizing sections or clubs of six to ten boys each, placing as 
 leader, whenever possible, one of the members of the representative team of last year, and 
 have certain times for each team to exercise on the apparatus, play basket-ball, and go to the 
 library for reading or quiet games and to the club room. Make two lists of their names, one 
 to be posted in a conspicuous place, the other for the leader of the club or team. Fix the 
 exact time for this club to have the exclusive use of certain places, games or apparatus, and 
 try to keep them together for from forty minutes to two hours, and from night to night 
 throughout the season. Under no circumstances should an immoral boy be selected as a 
 leader. Have a star or some letter for the leaders' shirts, so that they may be easily distin- 
 guished from the other boys. 
 
2/6 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 11. No dangerous exercises are to be given nor is apparatus to be used without a teacher 
 or responsible leader. 
 
 12. While the gymnastics are going on, the assistant or athlete, if not directly engaged, 
 should make a tour of the diflerent yards to see that everything is in order, and when the 
 athlete is in charge of the games the gymnast or assistant should do the same. 
 
 The success of the principal in a recreation centre will be judged more by his ability as 
 an organizer than by the production of a champion team or by his personal ability as a per- 
 former. There will be a contest of representative teams during the last week of the season, 
 and later, probably, contests of head gymnasts, assistants, and athletes. 
 
 13. The principal is required to call the attendants of the recreation centre together and 
 give them a five or ten minutes' talk. 
 
 14. In every well-managed recreation centre there should be a leaders' class of from six 
 to forty boys, who have a definite time to meet for review of the week's programme or for 
 conference, when they should be taught how to handle their classes, keep them moving, and 
 keep them interested and in line. 
 
 When the hour for apparatus, marching, and free work arrives, the principal or head 
 gymnast blows a whistle and lines up all the boys. The command " Leaders, step out," is 
 then given, when all the leaders step six paces to the front, and the sections are formed, put- 
 ting, if necessary, two, three or four leaders in one section, but appointing one leader only to 
 take charge of each section. The apparatus has been roped or chalked off from the rest pf 
 the playground, and no one is allowed within certain limits unless in some section. No sec- 
 tion should ever contain more than ten boys. After telling the leader of each section to which 
 piece of apparatus to march his class, the head gymnast gives the command, " To the appara- 
 tus, march," when the leaders march their sections opposite the pieces of apparatus assigned. 
 The head gymnast now blows the whistle, and all begin work immediately. Between fifty and 
 two hundred boys are now exercising at the same time on different pieces of apparatus, so 
 placed that the several sections do not interfere. 
 
 Some sections get through the given exercises quicker than others, but the leader keeps 
 them moving by reviewing the exercises they did not get so well. At the end of about ten 
 minutes the whistle is blown three times. The leaders immediately stop whatever movement 
 they may be doing, and put in the closing exercises, which is always an easy, quick move- 
 ment, repeating it a dozen times, if necessary — e.g., if in the first series, the squad on the 
 vaulting bar puts in the continuous run under and back in very quick time ; on the parallels, 
 the bicycle run across, stiff arms, following each other quickly ; on the horizontal bar, jump 
 for bar, swing off for distance ; on the buck, ordinary straddle vault over in fast time. The 
 same order is followed on all the apparatus for about one and a half to two minutes. The 
 whistle now blows twice and the squads march to the next piece of apparatus assigned them, 
 and line up ready for exercise. At one whistle all sections begin work, and so on. 
 
 At the close of the schedule time the sections line up one after the other, each behind its 
 leader, forming one class, and commence a run for five or ten minutes, forming different fig- 
 ures, when they are dismissed. If it is the time for them to leave the playground, the leaders 
 may continue the run to the street ; if not, ranks are broken, and they go to free play or 
 whatever else the programme calls for. 
 
 15. The age limit for all gymnastic, basket-b^l, and other contests is fifteen years ; the 
 weight limit is one hundred and fifteen pounds. If any boy over these limits is encouraged 
 to try for the teams, the principal will be held responsible. 
 
 City Superintendent of Schools. 
 
FORMS 
 
 277 
 
 LX 
 
 EVENING RECREATION CENTRE 
 
 Location New York 
 
 LITERARY CLUB PROGRAM 
 
 Club. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Date. 
 
 .(Boys or Girls) 
 
 Business 
 
 Roll Call 
 
 Secretary's Report 
 Treasurer's Report 
 Reading of Next Program 
 Election of New Members 
 
 P.M. 
 
 9- 
 10. 
 
 Election of Officers 
 Report of Committees 
 Unfinished Business 
 New Business 
 Adjournment 
 
 Room No. 
 
 Subject 
 
 Literary Critique 
 
 Essay 
 
 Oration 
 
 Recitation 
 
 Extempore Dialogue_ 
 Mock Trial 
 
 Speaker 
 
 Dramatics_ 
 
 Journal 
 
 Study 
 
 Subject 
 
 Discussion. 
 
 Lecture or Address. 
 
 Debate Resolved. 
 
 .Affirmative 
 
 Negative 
 
 Discussion. 
 
 Decision of 
 Judges 
 
 Secretary 
 
 .Principal of School 
 
 .Club Teacher 
 
2/8 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 LXI 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Vacation School No.. 
 
 Date of Excursion 
 
 Place 
 
 EXCURSION REPORT 
 
 No. of Boys 
 
 No. of Girls 
 
 Excursion Leader 
 
 Vacation School Principal 
 
 Do you consider the excursion successful ?_ 
 Give reason for your answer 
 
 LXII 
 
 Note. — This blank, properly filled out, is to be forwarded to Miss E. E. Whitney, District 
 Superintendent, at the close of each week during the season. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 The City of New York 
 
 Statement by days of the number of persons using bath during the week 
 
 beginning Sunday, 190 , and ending Saturday, 190 
 
 P. S. No.__ Number of baths 
 
 Number of bathers that may be accommodated at any one time ; 
 Boys' bath Girls' bath Total 
 
 
 MORNING 
 
 AFTERNOON 
 
 EVENING 
 
 Sunday 
 
 BOYS 
 
 GIRLS 
 
 BOYS 
 
 GIRLS 
 
 BOYS 
 
 GIRLS 
 
 Monday 
 Tuesday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thursday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Friday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saturday 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morning Attendant 
 
 Afternoon Attendant. 
 Evening Attendant 
 
 .Present. 
 
 .Abs. 
 
 _Late. 
 
 Principal. 
 
FORMS 279 
 
 LXIII 
 
 New York, , 190 
 
 REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE BANDMASTER 
 
 AT THE 
 
 Roof Playground No Borough of 
 
 For the Week Ending 
 
 Name of Bandmaster 
 
 Number of Assistant Musicians 
 
 Number of Selections Played Each Night 
 
 Time Spent in Playing Each Night 
 
 Character of Music 
 
 Service of Band . _ — _ . 
 
 (Here state whether satisfactory or not) 
 
 Requirements of Contract Filled 
 
 (Signed)- 
 
 Principal. 
 
 LXIV 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 
 
 190 
 
 To THE Parent or Guardian : 
 
 a pupil in the. School 
 
 has been found to be suffering with 
 
 and in accordance with the regulations of this Board is sent home for medi- 
 cal care. 
 
 Please call the attention of your physician to the case. Further attendance 
 at school is prohibited until complete recovery. 
 
 Board of Education, 
 
 Medical Inspector No. , 
 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
280 APPENDIX D 
 
 ^ . T.- • , LXV 
 
 To the Principal : 
 
 Please fill out the accompanying blank and return to me as soon as pos- 
 sible after April 1st, not later than April 15th. 
 
 The information is to be used in making up returns to the State Superin- 
 tendent of Schools. 
 
 Please answer every question without fail. 
 
 Number of pupils registered in \ SP""g ^"d summer terms* 
 I Fall and winter terms 
 
 3. Average number attending I SP"ng ^nd summer terms . . . _._ 
 
 ( Fall and winter terms . . . . 
 
 4. Number different pupils registered from April i, 1906, to April i, 1907 
 
 9. Have you a flag ? 
 
 13. Numberof male teachers employed during I pnnga 
 
 ( Fall and winter terms . 
 
 14. Number offemale teachers employed during I P"^ & 
 
 ( Fall and winter terms . 
 
 15. Number of teachers who have been examined and certificated as 
 
 required by law 
 
 16. Number of teachers who are graduates of Normal or Training Schools 
 
 17. Number of teachers who hold State certificates — 
 
 19. Number of teachers who have attended Summer Schools for Teachers 
 
 33. Number of boys pursuing grammar school studies ? . Girls ? 
 
 34.**Number of boys physically incapacitated for doing common school 
 
 work? Girls? 
 
 35. Number of boys mentally incapacitated for doing common school 
 
 work? Girls? 
 
 38. Number of pupils conveyed ? 
 
 42. Have you a library ? 
 
 43. Number of volumes in this library 
 
 44. Were these books provided mainly through the efforts of pupils ? . 
 
 45. Value of all schoolroom and schoolyard improvements made during 
 
 the past year and NOT paid for from town appropriations ? . 
 
 46. Was your school an active branch of the School Improvement League ? 
 
 47. Was instruction in physiology with regard to the evil effects of nar- 
 
 cotics and stimulants on the human system given in your school ? 
 
 49. How many different teachers were employed in your school ? . . 
 
 50. How many teachers were continued in the same school for the year ? 
 
 51. How many had previous experience ? 
 
 * If summer terms are maintained include record of attendance in spring 
 
 term ; also combine fall and winter terms. 
 
 ** Deaf, blind, cripples, sick. 
 
 Portland, Maine. 
 
FORMS 
 
 281 
 
 LXVI 
 
 CITY OF CLEVELAND 
 
 TEACHER'S ABSTRACT FROM DAILY REGISTER 
 
 FOR MONTHLY REPORTS. 1907-1908 
 School. Grade 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 FILL ALL THE BLANKS, USING INK 
 
 For the Several Months Ending 
 
 Whole Number Registered, less the Number of Trans- 
 fers to other Rooms 
 
 No. remaining as stated in Last Report 
 
 For September, use Number remaining at close of sec- 
 ond week 
 
 ACCESSIONS 
 
 No. entered during the month {Neiu Pupils) 
 
 No. of Pupils reentered 
 
 No. received by Transfer from other rooms in this 
 house 
 
 LOSSES 
 
 No. withdrawn, either temporarily or permanently 
 
 No. lost by Transfer to other rooms in this house 
 
 (All the items above include both boys and girls) 
 
 Does your Transfer Record (see reverse page) corre- 
 spond with those of teachers to or from whom 
 transfers have been made? 
 
 ( Boys 
 
 No. remaining at date < Girls 
 
 ( Total 
 
 CHANGES FROM DISTRICT TO DISTRICT 
 
 No. of Pupils received from other Districts within the 
 city on account of transfer or removal 
 
 (These pupils are also included in item [i] under Ac- 
 cessions as heretofore.) 
 
 No. of Pupils withdraivn on account of transfer or re- 
 moval to other districts 
 
 (These pupils are also included in item [i] under 
 Losses as heretofore.) 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 Whole No. Days Attendance 
 Whole No. Days Absence 
 Whole No. Cases Tardiness 
 
 Per cent of Daily Absence — based on number be- 
 longing 
 Total Monthly Enrolment, Boys 
 Average number belonging. 
 Average Daily Attendance, " 
 Average Daily Absence, " 
 
 Total Monthly Enrolment, Girls 
 Average number belonging, " 
 Average Daily Attendance, " 
 Average Daily Absence, " 
 
 Total Monthly Enrolment, Boys and Girls 
 Average number belonging, " " " 
 Average Daily Attendance, " " " 
 Average Daily Absence, " " " 
 
 No. Days your School has been in Session this Month 
 
 SS^ Note. — To be kept on file in the Principal's office. 
 
282 APPENDIX D 
 
 LXVII 
 Truancy Report 
 
 History of Child 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Name of child. 
 Residence 
 
 Date of birth_ 
 
 Place of birth 
 
 Name of parent. 
 
 (Indicate stepfather or stepmother) 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Physical condition- 
 
 Home conditions. 
 
 Number of children in family Boys Girls. 
 
 Influences tending to truancy . 
 
 Schools attended during past five months. 
 Last grade attended 
 
 Attendance past five months : Present days. Absent days. 
 
 Previous school history 
 
 Attendance officer. 
 
 -1 90 
 
 District Superintendent. 
 
 Note. — This report is to be made out in duplicate; the original to be sent to the office of 
 the Associate City Superintendent with commitment paper, the duplicate to be kept on file in 
 the office of the District Superintendent. 
 
FORMS 
 
 285 
 
284 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 
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FORMS 
 
 285 
 
 LXX 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON CHILD 
 
 PROPOSED FOR AN UNGRADED CLASS 
 
 P.S._ 
 
 Borough_ 
 
 Name_ 
 
 Address. 
 
 Age_ 
 
 _Grade_ 
 
 Precocious — normal — altricious (for race and sex) 
 
 Home conditions Nationality 
 
 School attendance — . _ 
 
 Cause of any irregularity. 
 
 Health. 
 
 General appearance. 
 Psychical rate 
 
 General intelligence- 
 Disposition 
 
 Habits 
 
 Psychical field- 
 Efficiency 
 
 _Behavior_ 
 
 Variances from normaL 
 Observation 
 
 .Attention. 
 
 Oral expression. 
 Number 
 
 .Reading. 
 
 -Hand-work. 
 
 -Memory 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Special tastes 
 
 Any other information- 
 
 Date. 
 
 .190 
 
 Principal. 
 
286 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
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FORMS 287 
 
 LXXII 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE 
 OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 CLASS ATHLETICS 
 
 CLASS ATHLETICS is a device by which every boy, physically fit, may enter 
 any athletic event and, if he does his best, feel that he is helping his class to win, 
 even though he may not be good in the event in which his class is entered. In 
 this form of athletics, a trophy is won, or a record is made, not by the individual ^ 
 record of a boy, but by the average of the individual records of the boys in a class. 
 This plan has been tried in several boroughs of this city, and it has met with 
 marked success. In many large schools practically every boy has entered, arous- 
 ing great interest in athletics. 
 
 Trophies will be awarded in this borough by the P. S. A. L. for the best class 
 records in Standing Broad Jump, Pull Up, or " Chinning," and Running; one each 
 for sth, 6th, 7th, and 8th year classes. 
 
 The records are found as follows : 
 
 Jumping. The class is taken by the teacher, or some one assigned by the prin- 
 cipal, to the yard, the street, a vacant lot, or any suitable place. It is better to line 
 the boys up in the order in which they are to jump, as it prevents confusion. Each 
 boy jumps, taking three jumps if he wishes, and his best jump is recorded. The 
 class record is found by adding the individual records, and dividing by the num- 
 ber of boys entered. 
 
 Pull Up. An inclined ladder is ideal for the pull up, or a bar may be fitted 
 into a doorway, or the horizontal bar in the gymnasium may be used. The boy 
 must pull himself up till his chin is over the bar, and then lower himself the full 
 length of his arms. This he does as many times as he can. He must not touch 
 the floor with his feet when he lowers himself. The number of times he pulls him- 
 self up is his record. The class record is found as above. 
 
 Running. The distances are: sth year, 40 yd.; 6th year, 50 yd.; 7th year, 
 60 yd. ; Sth year, 80 yd. There is a difficulty in taking the individual records of 
 boys. In many schools four or five hundred boys will run. Long before the 
 records of any such number of boys can be taken, most stop watches will give out. 
 On this account the following method has been adopted : 
 
 The boys are lined up in the order in which they are to run. The timer, who 
 acts also as starter, stands by the finishing line, his watch in his left hand and his 
 handkerchief in his right. When ready, he slowly raises his handkerchief, then 
 waves it downward with a quick motion, at the same instant starting his watch ; this 
 is the signal for boy No. i to start and for No. 2 to step up to the starting line. As 
 boy No. I nears the finishing line, the timer raises the handkerchief slowly as a 
 ■warning to No. 2, and at the instant No. i crosses the finishing line, the handker- 
 chief is again quickly waved downward, No. 2 starts and No. 3 steps to the start- 
 ing line. In the same way every boy is started, and as the last boy crosses the 
 finishing line the watch is stopped. The record is found by dividing the elapsed 
 time, as shown by the watch, by the number of boys that race. 
 
 If an ordinary watch is used, start the first boy when the second hand is over the 
 sixty mark, and proceed as before. 
 
288 APPENDIX D 
 
 GENERAL REGULATIONS 
 
 For any class to enter for a trophy, not less than 80% of the enrolment for the 
 month in which the record is taken, must take part. The number taking part 
 must not be less than eight. 
 
 Events will occur as follows : Standing Broad Jump, in the fall ; Pull Up, in the 
 winter ; Running, in the spring. 
 
 Records are to be sent in for : 
 
 Standing Broad Jump, not later than December ist. 
 
 Pull Up, not later than March ist. 
 
 Running, not later than June ist. 
 
 Distances for Running : 5th year, 40 yd. ; 6th year, 50 yd. ; 7th year, 60 yd. ; 8th 
 year, 80 yd. 
 
 Jumping must be from a line. Many schools cannot have a " take off" without 
 considerable inconvenience. 
 
 In Class Athletics the P. S. A. L. places no restrictions upon the boys except- 
 ing physical fitness. 
 
 In jumping give the record in feet and inches, carrying the inches out to ten- 
 thousandths. Carry out other records in the same way. This is to prevent ties. 
 
 When the records are all in, the three classes having the best records will be 
 finally tested by the P. S. A. L. If the record then made is better than any record 
 sent in, the trophy will be awarded to the class making this record. If, however, 
 this record is not as good as some not included in the three selected, then the 
 classes will be tested in the order of their records, until one is made that is better 
 than any not tested. 
 
 The trophies are perpetual. They are in the form of a shield, a brass tablet 
 being put upon each, showing what school won it at each competition. This 
 school will hold it until it is won by some other school. The school winning a 
 trophy will receive an engraved certificate which becomes its property. It is hoped 
 that souvenirs can be given to each member of winning classes. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Have class trials occasionally before taking final records. They will arouse 
 interest in the contests. 
 
 Encourage the boys to practise by themselves in the yard, on the street, at home, 
 ■ or elsewhere. 
 
 ,. Write the boys' names upon the blackboards, if you have the space ; if not, vwite 
 the names upon a sheet of paper and pin it up. Enter the boys' records as they 
 ' bring them to you. 
 
 A woman should not be afraid to take hold of this form of athletics. It is not how 
 far the boys can jump ; it is getting them to want to jump. This a woman can do 
 as well as a man, perhaps better. 
 Send all records and communications relating to Class Athletics to 
 
 Assistant Director Physical Training, 
 
 Jamaica, N.Y. 
 
 Principals will confer a favor by giving a copy of this circular to teachers having 
 boys' or mixed classes. 
 
FORMS 
 
 289 
 
 LXXIII 
 
 ST. LOUIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 VACCINATION BLANK 
 
 Parents who wish their children vaccinated at the school are requested to 
 fill out and sign this blank and return it to the principal of the school. Please 
 read the explanation on the back of this notice. 
 
 Si. Louis, 
 
 / desire, and hereby authorize, thai tny child, be vaccinated by 
 
 the Physician of the Board of Health at his next call at the School. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 LXXIV 
 MEDICAL REPORT UPON DEFECTIVE PUPIL 
 
 New York 
 
 Special Examination 
 
 Name 
 
 Physical Condition 
 
 Blood 
 
 Eyes 
 
 Ears 
 
 Teeth 
 
 Palate 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Asymmetry- 
 Forehead 
 
 Facial Appearance- 
 Bodily Deformity — 
 
 Temperament 
 
 Nerve Signs 
 
 Posture 
 
 Comment : 
 
 P. S.,- 
 
 Dist.- 
 
 DATE- 
 
 Age 
 
 Motor Control 
 
 Promptness 
 
 Inhibition 
 
 Coordination- 
 Prehension — 
 Enunciation- 
 Gait . 
 
 Abstract Mentality 
 
 Attention — _ 
 
 Comprehension 
 
 Judgment: Reason 
 
 Number Work 
 
 Memory 
 
 School Record 
 
 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
 
 Recommendation : 
 
290 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 
 
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FORMS 
 
 291 
 
 LXXVI 
 VOUCHER SCHEDULE 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION) 
 
 OF 
 
 The City of New York 
 
 To. 
 
 as Comptroller of the City of New York 
 
 190 
 
 For Deductions appearing on 
 
 Roll 
 
 In favor of 
 
 P. S. No. 
 
 Amount of roll 
 
 Deduction for Absence 
 Deduction for i per cent 
 Total Deduction 
 
 CREDIT 
 
 Public School Teachers' Retirement Fund 
 
 I have examined this claim and 
 certify that it is correct as to facts, 
 calculations, and extensions. 
 
 Bookkeeper, Board of Education. 
 
 Chap. 466, Laws 1901, 
 Sec. 1092, as amended by 
 Chap. 56i, Laws of 1905. 
 
 It is hereby certified, That the deduction from the salaries of teachers, etc., 
 
 as above specified, 
 
 amounting to dollars, 
 
 have been examined and audited, and are chargeable to the appropriation for 
 the year 190 , entitled General School Fund, Borough of Queens, and it is 
 further certified that said deductions are in conformity with the By-Laws and 
 Regulations of the Board of Education and The Greater New York Charter. 
 
 Dated, " 
 
 Auditor of the Board of Education. 
 
 New York, iqo 
 
 Received of 
 
 Comptroller, Warrant No 
 
 for the sum of 
 
 Certificate of Auditor of Accounts 
 
 Department of Finance 
 
 Auditing Bureau 
 
 igo 
 
 I hereby certify to the Comptrol- 
 ler that I have examined, audited, 
 revised, and settled this account 
 
 for the sura of $ 
 
 The warrant is correctly drawn 
 and payment should properly be 
 made from the fund shown thereon. 
 
 Auditor of Accounts 
 
292 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 LXXVII 
 VOUCHER SCHEDULE 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION fTo 
 
 OF -I 
 
 The City of New York [Address 
 
 190 
 
 For SUPPLIES. (Contract.) 
 
 I have examined this claim and certify 
 that it is correct as to calculations and 
 extensions, that the prices are reason- 
 able and just, and that no claim for the 
 work or supplies done or furnished under 
 the date mentioned in the above claim 
 has heretofore been presented or paid. 
 
 Examiner, Board of Education, 
 
 Chap. 466, Laws 
 1901, Sec. 10, 226, 
 1072, 1076, 1099, 
 iioo, 1139, 1145. 
 
 It is hereby certified, That the accompanying bill of. 
 
 amounting to 
 
 dollars, 
 
 has been examined and audited, and is chargeable to the appropriation for 
 igo-- to the Department of Education, entitled Special School Fund, 
 SUPPLIES, Borough of Manhattan; and it is further certified that the 
 annexed bill is in conformity with the By-Laws and Regulations of the 
 Board of Education and The Greater New York Charter, 
 
 Dated. 
 
 Auditor of the Board of Education. 
 
FORMS 
 
 293 
 
 LXXVIII 
 
 ORIGINAL 
 
 Register No 
 
 {Contractors not to use this space.) 
 
 This official billhead must be used for the presentation of all claims against the Board 
 of Education. The Bureau of Audit and Accounts will furnish copies on application. All 
 accounts must be rendered in duplicate. Original and duplicate bills, with the original 
 order attached, to be mailed to Department of Education, Bureau of Audit and Accounts, 
 Park Avenue and sgth Street, New York City. 
 
 .I90- 
 
 The Board of Education of The City of New York, 
 To Dr. 
 
 Address 
 
 Borough of- P. S. 
 
 Order No. 
 
 I hereby certify that the work done, materials supplied, or services rendered, as speci- 
 fied in this bill, has or have been actually performed, supplied, or rendered in accordance 
 
 1 contract, 1 
 
 with X agreement, V and that the prices or charges for the same are reasonable and 
 
 ( accepted estimate, ) 
 not in excess of current or market rates. 
 
 Work and materials 
 inspected and approved : 
 
 Approved : 
 
 Inspector. 
 190- - - 
 
 Deputy Supt, School Buildings 
 
 Supt. School Buildings 
 iga - - 
 
294 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 S§ 
 
 
 ii'SSK. 
 
 ^^K 
 
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 § g CQ fa fa 
 
 3 2 £ 2 
 
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FORMS 
 
 295 
 
 3 
 
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 EDUCATIONAL 
 School 
 
 SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL 
 ACTIVITIES 
 
 
 Evening 
 
 Schools 
 
 Elementary 
 
 Principal 
 Regular Teachers 
 Special Teachers, Cooking 
 Special Teachers, Sewing 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 Evening 
 
 Schools 
 
 High 
 
 Principal 
 Regular Teachers 
 
 
 
 
 Lectures 
 
 Salary of Lecturers 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Vacation 
 Schools 
 
 Supervisors 
 
 Principals 
 
 Teachers 
 
 
 z 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Vacation 
 
 Play- 
 Grounds 
 
 Supervisors 
 
 Principals 
 
 Teachers 
 
 
 
 Open-Air 
 
 Play- 
 Grounds 
 
 Principals 
 Teachers 
 
 
 ?^ 
 
 •al Schc 
 nth 
 
 Play- 
 Grounds 
 M. &B. 
 
 Principals 
 Teachers 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 3 
 
 Evening 
 
 Recreation 
 
 Centres 
 
 Principals 
 Assistants 
 
 ' 
 
 
 P- 
 
 Evening 
 Roof Play- 
 Grounds 
 
 Principals 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Pay of Musicians 
 
 
 
 
 Baths 
 
 Teachers of Swimming 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
296 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 'i9 
 
 3 2- 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8- 
 
 
 1— ' 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 I—' 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
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 INCIDENTAL AND GENERAL 
 
 AMOUNT 
 
 
 f 
 
 EXPENSE FUND 
 
 
 
 3 S- 
 
 Printing and Binding Board Minutes 
 Printing and Binding Annual Reports 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 p 0, 
 
 Printing and Binding Manuals and 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Directories 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Printing Examinations Papers 
 Printing Blanks 
 Printing Specifications 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Printing General 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Blank Books 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stationery 
 
 
 
 
 Admi: 
 Mod 
 
 Stamps, Sta., Env., and Cards 
 Telephones 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 nistration 
 Incide 
 
 Messenger Service 
 Carfares 
 Supper Bills 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Travelling Expenses 
 
 
 
 7\ 
 
 *— • 
 
 Typewriters 
 
 
 
 
 p' 
 
 Typewriters repairs 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 Com. of Emp. not procured through 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Civil Service 
 
 
 
 
 £. 
 
 Medical Expenses 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Judgments 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Interest on Claims 
 
 
 
 
 2^ 
 
 Legislative Expenses 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 p. 
 
 Board of Horses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FORMS 
 
 297 
 
 LXXXII 
 
 EXAMINATION RECORD 
 
 Pupil's Name. 
 
 Age when Admitted. 
 
 Name of School. 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Pupil's Residence. 
 
 Date of Graduation. 
 
 I 3 years 
 S 4 years 
 (§ 4th year 
 
 Caesar 
 Ele. Comp. 
 Prose Comp. 
 Sight Prose 
 Cicero 
 Grammar 
 Virgil 
 Sight Poetry 
 
 1ST YEAR 
 
 Xenophon 
 ^4 Homer 
 w Grammar 
 O Ele. Comp. 
 Sight Prose 
 Sight Homer 
 
 jj. 1st year 
 
 ^ 2d year 
 
 w 3d year 
 
 ^ 4th year 
 
 jD 1st year 
 
 g 2d year 
 
 § 3d year 
 
 4th year 
 
 „ Ele. Algebra 
 P Interm. " 
 g Plane Geom. 
 jd Solid Geom. 
 < Adv. Algebra 
 Trigonom. 
 
 >H Ancient 
 
 oi 
 
 o English 
 
 ^ American, 1 
 ^ with Civics j 
 
 Biol. Ele. 
 g Chemistry 
 w Phys. Geog. 
 ^ Botany, Adv. 
 
 Zoology, Adv. 
 
 ^ Element. 
 ^ Advanced 
 j^ Mechan. 
 
 Stenography 
 Typewriting 
 Bookkeeping 
 Com'l Geog. 
 Economics 
 
298 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 S < 
 
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 13 
 
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 6 
 
 
 
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 No. 
 
 
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 11 
 
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 10 
 
 Amount 
 Due 
 
 
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 4 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Salary 
 
 or Maximum 
 
 Amount 
 Earnable in 
 
 Time 
 
 Covered by 
 
 this 
 
 Pay-Roll 
 
 
 3 
 
 Annual 
 Salary 
 
 
 8 
 
 Position 
 
 or 
 
 Grade of 
 
 Class 
 
 
 H / 
 
 s 
 < 
 
 
 
FORMS 299 
 
 IN PREPARING PAY-ROLLS, PRINCIPALS ARE REQUESTED TO OBSERVE 
 THE FOLLOWING: 
 
 I. — All names shall conform exactly with the license held. Principals should inspect the 
 licenses of newly appointed teachers and substitutes before names are entered on the roll. 
 
 2. — The column headed "Position or Grade of Class" shall be filled in so as to indicate 
 clearly the nature of the service rendered, such as 
 
 (a) Principal, Supervision (wholly), Supervision and Teaching, Supervision and Clerical, 
 Clerical (wholly). Clerical and Teaching, Regular Teachers, Kindergarten Teachers, 
 Manual Training Teachers, Substitute Teachers (absence), Substitute Teachers 
 (vacancies). Special Teachers, Additional Teachers. 
 
 (b) And in the cases of teachers of classes, the sex of each class shall be indicated clearly 
 as Boys, Girls, Mixed, particular care being taken with regard to mixed classes. 
 
 3. — The column headed " Annual Salary " shall show the annual rate or rates during the 
 
 calendar month covered by this roll, including additional compensation to teachers of 
 boys' and mixed classes. 
 
 4. — The column headed " Monthly Salary or Maximum Amount Earnable in Time Covered 
 
 by this Pay-roll" shall show, for full employment, one-twelfth of the annual rate; and 
 for fractional service, on the basis of thirty days per month, except for per diem teachers, 
 who are paid per diem rates for actual service. 
 
 5. — The column headed " Time" shall show, for regular teachers, the time for which remu- 
 
 neration is provided, e.g. i mo., 10/30 mo., 1/30 mo., etc., and for per diem teachers the 
 time of actual service expressed in days and fractions of a day, e.g. 10 days, 5 1/2 days, etc. 
 
 6. — The column headed " Absence " shall show all absence for the appropriate period pre- 
 
 scribed in the scheme of payment of salaries laid down by Section 57 of the By-Laws of 
 the Board of Education. Said absence shall be expressed in "Days," " Hours," and 
 " Minutes." 
 
 7. — The column headed " Cause of Absence " shall show clearly the cause of all absence. 
 
 8. — The column headed " Deductions, Retirement Fund, Absence " shall show the amount 
 
 to be deducted for all absence, except the particular cases excepted under the By-Laws, 
 based upon a deduction of one-thirtieth of the monthly salary for each of said days of 
 absence. 
 
 9. — The column headed " Deductions, Retirement Fund, Percentage" shall show " One per 
 
 cent" of the amount shown in the column headed "Monthly Salary or Maximum 
 Amount Earnable, etc.," except that the deduction in no instance shall exceed $30.00 
 per annum ($2.50 per month). 
 
 10. — The column headed (10) " Amount Due " represents the difference between the amount 
 
 shown in the column (4) " Monthly Salary or Maximum Amount Earnable," etc., and 
 the sums of the columns (8) " Deductions, Retirement Fund, Absence " and (9) " Deduc- 
 tions, Retirement Fund, Percentage"; hence the footing of column (4) shall always 
 equal the sum of the footings of columns (8), (9), (10). 
 
 11. — " Signatures" should in form agree exactly with the name as printed or written. The 
 
 names in columns (i) and (11) should conform exactly with the license. 
 
 12. — The column headed " Package Number" shall show the number of the package from 
 
 which the checks enumerated in the next column (13) have been used. 
 
 13. — The column headed " Check Number " shall show the serial number of the checks used. 
 
 14. — In the space headed " Spoiled " shall be entered the package number and check number 
 
 of any checks spoi.ed or unfit for use. Spoiled checks shall accompany the pay-roll. 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 To avoid errors all computations should be made by inspection of the " Tables of Teachers' 
 Salaries"; fractions of one-half cent or over being considered as equivalent in final totals to 
 an additional cent; fractions of less than one-half cent to be dropped. 
 
 In reporting substitute service, the dates and the cause of such service shall be indicated, 
 — cause to be expressed by the name of the regular teacher for whom such substitute service 
 was rendered or by the words " New Class" or " Vacancy." 
 
 Pay-rolls cover calendar months {see Subdivision 5 of the By-Laws); Deductions for 
 Absence on each roll cover the period froin the sist day of the preceditig tnonth to the 
 20th day of the current month, inclusive, with certain exceptions {see, Sectioti J7 of the 
 By-Laws) . 
 
300 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 2 fjtreba Qltxtitu, That of the. 
 
 .Sessions, 
 
 required to be held by the By-Laws, from and after the 
 
 day of 190 , the date of our last Report, 
 
 to and including the day of 190 
 
 .he following Sessions have been omitted for the reasons stated, viz. : 
 
 Date Session Cause Authority 
 
 ^nO 5 ftirtljer Certifg, That I have duly reported hereon all absences and 
 the causes thereof, and also each case of the violation, by any Teacher in this 
 school, of any of the By-Laws and Regulations of the Board of Education of 
 The City of New York; and that the Teachers and others named and desig- 
 nated herein have actually and personally performed service for the periods 
 for which remuneration is provided. 
 
 Principal. 
 
 It is hereby certified that the within pay-roll, 
 
 amounting to 
 
 dollars, 
 
 has been examined and audited, and is chargeable 
 to the appropriation for igo to the Department 
 of Education, entitled 
 
 GENERAL SCHOOL FUND 
 and that the within pay-roll is in conformity with 
 The Greater New York Charter and the By-Laws 
 and Regulations of the Board of Education of The 
 City of New York. 
 
 Auditor of the Board of Education 
 
 of The City of New York. 
 
 Dated 
 
 AUDIT 
 
 Names 
 
 
 
 Licenses 
 
 
 
 Cards 
 
 
 
 Deductions 
 
 
 
 Additions and 
 Extensions 
 
 
 
 Certifications 
 
 
 
 Checks 
 
 
 
 Entered 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FORMS 
 
 301 
 
 [back of folder] 
 
 ORIGINAL 
 
 TEACHERS' PAY-ROLL 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL 1, GIRLS' DEPARTMENT 
 For 1 90 
 
 
 SALARIES 
 
 RETIREMENT FUND 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 Absence 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 Borough of Manhattan 
 
 GENERAL SCHOOL FUND 
 
 Account of 190 
 
 E ijttrfig Certtfg, that the above amount of $ has 
 
 been truly paid, without deduction, to the parties named in the within 
 Pay-Roll, and that the signatures of the teachers on this Pay-Roll are 
 correct and were written in my presence. 
 
 .190 
 
 .Principal. 
 
302 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 LXXXIV 
 
 ROOMS, ETC., REQUIRED IN THE PROPOSED ANNEX, 
 
 ADDITION, BRANCH, OR NEW BUILDING 
 
 Location of the building_ 
 
 District No. 
 
 -Borough of_ 
 
 Number of Schools that should be placed in this building, 
 Number of principals 
 
 Designation of grades and sex to be taught in one of said schools,- 
 Designation of grades and sex to be taught in the other of said schools,- 
 
 THE CLASSROOMS SHOULD BE APPORTIONED AS FOLLOWS: 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Rooms 
 FOR Boys 
 
 Number of 
 
 Rooms 
 FOR Girls 
 
 Number of 
 
 Rooms for 
 
 Boys and Girls 
 
 Eighth and seventh years 
 
 
 
 
 Sixth and fifth years 
 
 
 
 
 Fourth and third years 
 
 
 
 
 Second and first years 
 
 
 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 
 
 
 The classrooms on the_ 
 assembly rooms 
 
 OTHER ROOMS 
 
 Auditorium 
 
 Gymnasium 
 
 Cooking Room 
 
 Workshop 
 
 Science Room 
 
 Bath 
 
 Playground 
 
 -and- 
 
 _floors should be convertible into 
 
 WHERE SITUATED 
 
 Date. 
 Date_ 
 
 -Signature- 
 
 Superintendent, 
 
 Approved 
 
 City Superintendent. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Superintendent. 
 
 New York. 
 
FORMS 
 
 303 
 
 
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 a! 
 
 
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 No. of 
 Stories 
 
 b 
 
 H 
 > 
 
 r 
 
 en 
 
 
 c! 
 
 
 5 
 w 
 
 
 Materials 
 
 
 No. of 
 Class Rooms 
 
 
 No. of 
 Sittings 
 
 
 Building 
 Surface No. 
 1000 sq. ft. 
 
 
 Sidewalk, etc. 
 Surface No. 
 1000 sq. ft. 
 
 
 No. of 
 Boilers 
 
 
 No. of 
 Furnaces 
 
 
 No. of 
 Engines 
 
 
 No. of 
 Dynamos 
 
 
 No. of 
 Pumps 
 
 
 No. of Fans 
 
 
 Gymnasium 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 c: 
 w 
 
 C/3 
 
 
 Lecture Hall 
 
 
 Roof Play 
 Grounds 
 
 
 Baths 
 
 
 Laboratories 
 
 
 Cooking 
 Room 
 
 
 Workshop 
 
 o 
 
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 tra. 55 
 
304 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 
 
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FORMS 
 
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306 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
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FORMS 307 
 
 XC 
 SCHOOL TERM, 1907-8- 
 
 No. ^ igo 
 
 Worcester Consolidated Street Railway 
 
 This is to certify that the bearer, 
 
 residing at is a pupil in regular 
 
 attendance at the School, and may travel on 
 
 school tickets. 
 
 Principal. 
 
 Approved, Supt. of Schools. 
 
 Approved, Treas. W. C. S. R. 
 
 ■ Certificate must be presented at Railway Office when tickets are purchased. 
 
 I hereby agree to use the above-mentioned school tickets in going to and from school only, 
 on such days as the school may be in session, and within reasonable time of the beginning 
 and closing of school. 
 
 (To be signed by student) 
 
 Book No. Issued 
 
 XCI 
 
 [To be written in ink] 
 
 REPORT OF PUNISHMENT* 
 
 . (Name) (Age) (Residence) 
 
 Date of Punishment 190 
 
 The Teacher will please write an answer to the following questions : 
 
 1. For what offence was the pupil above named punished ? 
 
 2. What is his (or her) general character ? 
 
 3. What do you know of the home influence surrounding h ? 
 
 4. What other means have you employed for h reform ? 
 
 5. Were h__ parents consulted before you resorted to corporal punish- 
 ment ? 
 
 6. Has._.he ever been referred to the Principal of the school or to the 
 Superintendent ? How many times? 
 
 7. What instrument was used ? 
 
 Indianapolis. Teacher. 
 
 Note. — This blank is to be filled out in duplicate and sent to the Principal's office at the 
 close of the day on which the punishment was inflicted. Punishment should not be inflicted 
 in school hours, nor in the presence of other pupils. 
 
 1 Corporal punishment should never be given in a school for pupils of normal character. — ^Au, 
 
308 APPENDIX D 
 
 XCII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Officb of the City Superintendent of Schools 
 Park Avenue and 59TH Street 
 
 TO THE PRINCIPALS OF PAROCHIAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS 
 THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
 
 The State Superintendent of Public Instruction requires of me, in my annual 
 report to him, certain information concerning Parochial and Private Schools. In 
 order that I may furnish such information and at the same time obtain from you 
 data required by the Compulsory Education Law, please fill out the blanks in this 
 report and return it to me as soon as your school closes for the school year ending 
 July 31, 190 . 
 
 The information asked for is not for publication, but is to be used in ascertain- 
 ing the summary for all schools. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Cify Superintendent 0/ Schools. 
 
 ANNUAL report OF THE PAROCHIAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS 
 
 (Not including Colleges, Incorporated Academies or Seminaries) 
 For the year commencing August i, 190 , and ending July 31, 190 , to the City 
 Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 1. Name of school ,=;:;,=.= 
 
 2. Location , 
 
 3 . Borough 
 
 4. Number of pupils of your school who did not attend the public schools dur- 
 
 ing any portion of the year 
 
 g. Number of different pupils, over five and under eighteen years of age, regis- 
 tered as having attended your school some portion of the school year. 
 Boys. ; Girls ; Total 
 
 6. Has an accurate record of their attendance been kept, as required by Sec- 
 
 tion 6 of the Compulsory Education Law ? 
 
 7. Number of children over eight and under fourteen years of age, residing in 
 
 the city, attending your school during the year. Boys ; 
 
 Girls ; Total 
 
 8. Average daily attendance of children over eight and under fourteen. 
 
 Boys ; Girls ; Total 
 
 9. Number of children over fourteen and under sixteen years of age, residing 
 
 in the city, attending your school during the year. Boys ; 
 
 Girls ; Total 
 
 10. Number of days your school was actually in session 
 
 11. Has the instruction given in your school been substantially equivalent to 
 
 that given to children of Hke age in the public schools of this city? 
 
 12. Is there a kindergarten in your school ? 
 
 13. Number of kindergarten pupils 
 
 Principal. 
 Dated. 
 
FORMS 
 
 309 
 
 XCIII 
 ADDRESSED TO CITY LIBRARIAN 
 
 [postal card] 
 
 Portland, 
 
 .190 
 
 Pupils of thc_ 
 
 School will soon call at the Portland Public Library for information on the following subject: 
 
 Teacher. 
 
 XCIV 
 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO 
 
 Manual Training Department. 
 
 Name, 
 
 _School, 
 
 . School. 
 _ Grade. 
 
 Beginning.. 
 
 jqo_ 
 
 , Teacher. 
 
 
 FIRST YEAR 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 _7_ 
 
 _8_ 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Working Periods 
 Times Absent . 
 Deportment . . 
 Application . . . 
 Work Completed 
 Quality of Work 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TO THE PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS 
 
 Your interest and cooperation will greatly enhance the value of the work undertaken by 
 this department. 
 
 This card will be sent to you for inspection at the end of each month. It may be kept one 
 week and should then be returned to the Manual Training teacher. 
 
 A " Working Period" is two hours once a week. 
 
 The figures following " Work Completed " refer to the course of study. 
 
 Deportment, application, and quality of work are either satisfactory or unsatisfactory, as 
 indicated by the letters S or U. 
 
310 APPENDIX D 
 
 xcv 
 
 «^n.b. — every blank on this paper must be filled 
 
 Cincinnati, 190 
 
 To the Board of Education of the School District of the City of 
 Cincinnati: 
 
 Gentlemen : — The undersigned propose to perform 
 
 for your Board the following work, according to plans and specifica- 
 tions, on file in the Office of Superintendent of Public School Buildings. 
 
 also certif that no person is interested in this 
 
 proposal except whose name subscribed. 
 
 will furnish all material and do all labor required under the 
 
 heading No. 
 
 (Write here the branch of work) 
 
 in the specifications for a new school building to be erected on 
 
 In consideration of said Board taking action upon this and all other 
 bids for this work, not later than two months after opening of the 
 same, and in further consideration of the treatment for all bidders for 
 this work alike in this respect, and for other good and valuable con- 
 siderations, further agree that this bid shall remain open and 
 
 continuing up to the time when said Board shall take final action upon 
 
 the same, at which time, if this bid is accepted will within 
 
 five days after receiving notice of the acceptance of said bid, enter 
 into said contract in writing for said work, with a Bonding Company 
 as surety, to the satisfaction of said Board, to faithfully perform said 
 contract according to said plans and specifications, and promptly to 
 pay all damages accruing to said Board by reason of the failure or 
 refusal of the undersigned to enter into said contract aforesaid. 
 
 No. 2 
 
 EXCAVATIONS 
 
 Excavations as per Plans and Specificatior 
 Extra Excavations, per cubic yard 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 LIMESTONE MASONRY 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both %_ 
 
 Extra Limestone Masonry, per perch, in the wall $_ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
FORMS 311 
 
 CONCRETING AND CONCRETE STEEL WORK 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $ 
 
 Extra Concreting, per cubic yard 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 CUT STONE WORK 
 
 Material Labor 
 
 Bedford (Ind.) Buff Oolitic Limestone, $ $ , Both $. 
 
 Blue Rock-Castle Free Stone $ , $ , Both $. 
 
 ^ Olive Rock-Castle Free Stone $ ,$ , Both ^_ 
 
 ' Stone $ , $ , Both $. 
 
 Additional for. 
 Deduct for 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 TERRA COTTA WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $ 
 
 Noi 5 Additional for $ 
 
 Deduct for $ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 CAST AND WROUGHT IRONWORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $. , Both $ 
 
 Uo. 6 Additional for $ 
 
 Deduct for. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 IRON FENCE WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $ 
 
 No. 7 Additional for $ 
 
 Deduct for. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 METAL LOCKERS 
 
 Material $ , Labor ^ , Both $. 
 
 No. 8 Additional for , $- 
 
 Deduct for. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
312 
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 BRICK MASONRY 
 
 Material 
 
 No. 9 
 
 Gray Pressed Brick $. . 
 
 Red Pressed Brick $.. 
 
 Buff Pressed Brick $.. 
 
 Mottled Pressed Brick $_. 
 
 Steel Blue Clinker Brick __$_. 
 
 Additional for 
 
 Additional for 
 
 Deduct for 
 
 Labor 
 
 , Both$. 
 
 , Both $. 
 
 , Both;^. 
 
 , Both $_ 
 
 , Both;?- 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 PLASTERING 
 
 No. 10 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 Additional for Rock Plaster $. 
 
 Additional for King's Windsor Cement $. 
 
 Deduct for $- 
 
 Material $ 
 
 Noi 11 Additional for_ 
 Deduct for 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 FIRE PROOFING 
 
 _, Labor $ , Both $ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 CARPENTER WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both ^ 
 
 Additional for Weather Strips, Chamberlin $, Stanfield $ 
 
 No. 12 Additional for. $ 
 
 Deduct if Burlap is used for Wainscoting in place of wood $ 
 
 Deduct for $ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 PAINTING AND GLAZING 
 
 , Labor $ '. , Both $ 
 
 No. 13 
 
 Material $ 
 
 Additional for $ 
 
 Deduct if Burlap is used for Wainscoting in place of wood $ 
 Deduct for '. $ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
FORMS 313 
 
 BURLAP DECORATIONS 
 
 Material $ , Labor ;^ , Both 
 
 Uoi 14 Additional for 
 
 Deduct for 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 ROOFING AND METAL WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 No. 16 Additional for $. 
 
 Deduct for $. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 PLUMBING AND GAS PIPING 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both 
 
 Additional for 
 
 No. 16 Additional for. 
 
 Deduct for 
 
 Deduct for 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 TILE WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both 
 
 No. 17 Additional for 
 
 Deduct for. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 MARBLE AND SLATE WORK 
 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 No. 18 Additional for $. 
 
 Deduct for S_ 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 No. 19 „ ,.^ 
 Quality. 
 
 BLACK BOARDS 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
314 APPENDIX D 
 
 OUTSIDE CEMENT WORK AND DRIVEWAYS 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 No. 20 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATING 
 Material $._ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 No. 21 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 FINISH GRADING, SODDING, AND TREES 
 Material $ , Labor $ , Both $. 
 
 No. 22 
 
 Additional sodding, per yard $ 
 
 * 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 COAL SCALE 
 
 No. 23 Material ;? , Labor $ , Both $ 
 
 * 
 
 Bidder must sign here 
 
 Explanations and remarks may be written here or upon an extra 
 sheet to be attached hereto : Bidders will take notice that they are 
 required to sign both their bid and guaranty. 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF A SCHOOLMEN'S CLUB^ 
 
 1 — The name of this Club shall be " The Federal Schoolmen's Club." 
 
 2 — Its object shall be to promote acquaintance among its members 
 
 and to hold stated meetings for the discussion of questions of 
 educational interest. 
 
 3 — The membership is limited to sixty, of whom not more than fifty 
 
 shall be chosen prior to November i, 1907, and of whom not 
 more than two-fifths shall come from any one of the following 
 four classes, viz. : — 
 
 1. Colleges and universities. 
 
 2. Public schools not of collegiate rank. 
 
 3. Private schools not of collegiate rank. 
 
 4. Unclassified, consisting of persons who are now or who 
 have been engaged otherwise in educational work. 
 
 4 — Charter members shall be enrolled April 13, 1907. Thereafter, 
 
 members shall be selected in the following manner : Applicants 
 or nominees for membership shall be certified by at least two 
 members. They may be voted upon by ballot in order of appli- 
 cation after the expiration of not less than thirty days. Two 
 negative votes in the Board of Governors shall defeat the pres- 
 entation of the name to the Club, and the name shall not be 
 submitted again within one year. Three negative votes at any 
 regular meeting of the Club shall defeat the candidate for a 
 period of not less than two years. 
 
 5 — Every applicant for membership must agree in writing to take 
 
 such part in the proceedings as the President on behalf of the 
 Programme Committee may request upon not less than ten 
 days' notice. 
 
 6 — The membership fee shall be two dollars. The annual fee shall 
 
 ^ Slightly modified for publication. Among other provisions is one designed to extend the 
 membership beyond the District of Columbia. 
 
3l6 APPENDIX E 
 
 be eight dollars, in full payment of all dues, cost of collations, 
 dinners, speakers, and miscellaneous items, and shall be pay- 
 able in October or at or before the next regular meeting follow- 
 ing election to membership, pro rata as certified by the Board 
 of Governors. 
 
 7 — Absence for seven successive meetings without written excuse 
 
 shall constitute resignation. 
 
 8 — There shall be seven meetings each year, to be held on the sec- 
 
 ond Friday of October, November, December, January, Febru- 
 ary, March, and April. The annual meeting shall be held in 
 March, and the April meeting shall be open to ladies. 
 
 9 — A member may invite one guest to any meeting, for whom he 
 
 shall pay one dollar and a half for a dinner or one dollar for a 
 collation. On ladies' night, a member may invite more than 
 one guest. The Programme Committee may invite not exceed- 
 ing two guests as speakers, payable by the Club. 
 
 10 — The Government of this Club is vested in a Board of Governors 
 
 to consist of seven members. 
 
 11 — The Board of Governors shall be chosen originally by ballot 
 
 upon the thirteenth day of April, 1907. The members thereof 
 shall draw lots for terms of one, two, three, and four years. 
 Thereafter, they shall be elected for terms of four years or less 
 as may be determined at the annual meeting. In the event of a 
 vacancy in the Board, it shall elect a member to hold office 
 until the following March meeting. 
 
 12 — The Board of Governors shall be at once an Executive Committee, 
 
 a Membership Committee, a Ways and Means Committee, and 
 the Trustees of the property of the Club. It shall report 
 annually. It shall hold a monthly meeting, at which a majority 
 shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. It 
 shall appoint, to serve during its pleasure, a Secretary and a 
 Treasurer. It may remove any member of the Club by unani- 
 mous vote for cause. The certificate of the Chairman of the 
 Board of Governors, attested by the Secretary, as to the stand- 
 ing of a member shall be final. 
 
 13 — The Club shall have a President and an Auditor of Accounts, 
 
 both to be elected annually in the regular meeting in March. 
 
 14 — The President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, and two members to 
 
 be elected at the annual business meeting in March shall con- 
 
CONSTITUTION OF A SCHOOLMEN'S CLUB 317 
 
 stitute a Programme and Entertainment Committee, which shall 
 meet monthly. 
 
 15 — All officers shall be members of the Club. The President, 
 
 the Auditor, and the two elected members of the Programme 
 and Entertainment Committee shall not be eligible for 
 reelection. No man shall hold two offices at the same time. 
 
 16 — The President shall be Toastmaster during his term of office. 
 
 Whenever absent he shall designate a member of the Pro- 
 gramme Committee to act in his place. 
 
 17 — At the monthly meeting preceding the annual meeting, the Club 
 
 shall elect by ballot a Nominating Committee of four (one from 
 each class of members) to propose names for Officers, Boards, 
 and Committees. In each instance, the Committee shall propose 
 two names ; but no member shall be nominated to more than 
 one office by the Committee. This provision does not preclude 
 other nominations by members of the club. 
 
 18 — Upon recommendation of the Board of Governors, this Constitu- 
 
 tion may be amended after thirty days' notice by a majority 
 vote of the whole membership upon ballot. For the purpose of 
 transacting any other business, twenty-one members shall con- 
 titute a quorum. 
 
X 
 
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APPENDIX G 
 
 A REAL SUPERINTENDENCY 
 Additional Statement by the Chairman 
 
 Senator Burkett. I wish to suggest to the subcommittee, in addi- 
 tion to what Senator Dolliver has just spoken of, that I have here in a 
 late number of the magazine, School Education, an article entitled " A 
 Real Superintendency," by Prof. A. W. Rankin, of the College of Edu- 
 cation, University of Minnesota. It is not a very long paper and deals 
 with the efficiency of school boards and on the question of the advisa- 
 bility of some other method of managing schools. If there is no 
 objection, I will ask that it be put in the record right after what Senator 
 Dolliver has said about omitting the board. 
 
 Senator Carter. I suppose from what has been said that it deals 
 with the inefficiency of school boards. 
 
 Senator Burkett. Yes. 
 
 The paper referred to is as follows : — 
 
 a real superintendency 
 
 Prof. A. W. Rankin, College of Education, University of Minnesota 
 
 The more scientific instruction becomes in the public schools, the 
 more professional the supervision, the more technical the administra- 
 tion, the more serious is the question of the relations of the school 
 boards to the management of the schools. It is safe to say that 
 boards of education are, as at present organized by law, a menace 
 to the interests of the schools. Good men on school boards are 
 well aware of this. The responsibilities placed upon them are such 
 as ought to be assumed only by experts in education. It takes a 
 very uninformed or a very presumptuous member of a school board 
 not to realize that the law makes it incumbent on him to decide many 
 things which ought to be in the province of the superintendent of 
 schools, and so placed by law. The selection of teachers, the choice 
 
 319 
 
320 APPENDIX G 
 
 of plans for school buildings, the matter of text-books, the hours of 
 school work, the course of study, the number of children to a teacher, 
 examinations for promotion, the kind of janitor work, the kind of 
 seats, times of vacation, the length of the school year, qualifications 
 of teachers, methods of instruction, dismissal of incompetent teachers, 
 transfer of teachers, all these and others are really technical matters 
 which demand professional skill in the management. When you 
 come to think of it, there isn't much which a member of a board of 
 education may legitimately do, except to employ a superintendent and 
 let him organize things, and let him go if he cannot make good. 
 
 The present condition of things is unsatisfactory because it gives 
 opportunity for brash men to harass superintendents and to stand in 
 the way of progress. Possibly the lawmakers expect that boards will 
 always delegate professional management to experts whom they may 
 hire for that purpose, but the result in practice tends to lose to the 
 schools the advancement made in education. It is a town poor 
 in cranks that cannot get one on the school board. This one man 
 can do more from his advantageous position to keep back advancement 
 than five superintendents can counteract. Even if the town is fortu- 
 nate in possessing a superintendent strong enough to carry the schools 
 with one or more school-board members on his back, there is a great 
 loss of energy in doing such a feat. It is not a wholesome spec- 
 tacle, either for gods or men, and young men looking on decide that 
 as for them they will never have anything to do with schools. 
 
 The present condition also affords an opportunity for superintendents 
 to dodge responsibility. Probably a superintendency is not a good 
 place for one to develop the power of initiative. A man in it has to 
 wait on the actions, the prejudices, the whims, and the stubbornnesses 
 of others. He excuses his failures to himself and to others by the fact 
 that he can do only what his board permits. 
 
 The community, too, either judges the superintendent unfairly, or it 
 gets into the habit of looking to the wrong source for reforms. There 
 has almost never been a school board which has put good schools 
 where bad ones have been. The most they ever do is to get out of the 
 way and let some superintendent do it for them. If, however, the com- 
 munity makes the mistake of looking to the school board for advance- 
 ment in school work, they look a long time, and advancement never comes. 
 
 It would be much better if laws were so framed that superintendents 
 be given " original jurisdiction " in the matters which are professional. 
 
A REAL SUPERINTENDENCY 32 1 
 
 Think how slight has been the advance in school architecture. The 
 essential unit of a school building is the schoolroom, and that is just 
 about the same now that it was fifty years ago. Seating of rooms 
 has changed very slightly, if at all, for the better. If such matters 
 could be turned over to school men there would be great prospect of 
 improvement. I am sure that all men who ought to be on boards of 
 education would welcome the change. Those who would object are 
 the very ones who have no business on the board of education. 
 
 Senate document, Jan. 28, 1908. Proceedings of District Committee. 
 Hearing on bill (Senate 4032). (Committee unanimously recom- 
 mended omitting the board of education from the local machinery of 
 government in the District of Columbia.) 
 
APPENDIX H 
 
 PENSIONS 1 
 
 Some years ago, a worthy clergyman was invited to make an appear- 
 ance in a city of a State where the citizens had the right to choose by 
 ballot whether they would have the sale of intoxicating liquors prohib- 
 ited or licensed. Our good friend was to offer the opening prayer to 
 the Almighty, invoking His blessing upon the occasion. As he walked 
 upon the platform in that local option community, he approached the 
 chairman of the gathering and queried : " I don't want to give offence 
 to these good people ; are they for or against ? " 
 
 It was an ancient Greek philosopher who portrayed man as a 
 charioteer trying to drive two horses, a white and a black, a good and 
 a bad, and it was the Master of mankind (whose bidding we shall yet 
 do, whether we will or no) who said, " Let your yea be yea and your 
 nay nay." Let us be for or against this proposition of public pensions. 
 
 There are four general models for pensions : (i) the State-granted pen- 
 sions, (2) the State-aided pensions, (3) the State-required pensions, and 
 (4) the State-protected pensions. The military pensions of this great 
 country of ours are examples of the State-granted pensions. Great 
 Britain has long been heavily loaded with pensions of this character^ 
 granted for various reasons, and, I fear, pretexts. Pensions by State 
 aid are well known in this country and in Europe. Every society, 
 every municipality, every nation that engages in creating and maintain- 
 ing pensions of this character, has a different plan. I have been very 
 much interested in examining the different plans prevailing in Belgium, 
 Germany, France, and Australia to see whether there is a principle 
 common to them all ; and it seems to me that there is such a principle. 
 A State-aided pension is payable out of fiinds saved from individual 
 wages, reenforced by a State grant. A system of State-aided pensions 
 involves several features : first, a society, a corporation, or any kind of 
 
 1 Excerpts from address before the Treasury Branch of the United States Civil Service 
 Retirement Association, January 20, 1907, Washington, D.C. 
 
 322 
 
PENSIONS 323 
 
 trusteeship ; second, the members of the fund who are to be eligible to 
 its benefits ; third, the wage deductions ; and fourth, the various kinds 
 of State additions. The State-required pension involves but one idea 
 — that the wage-earner or salary-saver must be a contributor to the 
 fund to the benefits of which he is eligible. This form of pension is 
 well known in America. As a supplement to retirement half pay, it is 
 admirable, — it is ideal. The State-protected pension is purely volun- 
 tary in so far as its contributors are concerned. What the State does 
 for the fund is to enforce the contracts and to protect the property. 
 
 Now, historically, the eldest of all these devices is the one that is not 
 generally attainable here in America. ^ It is the straight service pen- 
 sion payable out of Government taxes. Next in age is the State-pro- 
 tected fund. Historically, this form of pension is about as old as life 
 insurance. After that, we have the State-required pension ; and, lastly, 
 and most complicated of all, the State-aided pension system. 
 
 We are not here to-night to advocate any special kind of pensions. 
 Any kind of pension is more helpful to its beneficiary than none at all. 
 There seem to be four fundamental questions : — 
 
 First. What is the right of old age against the income of the work- 
 ing world ? 
 
 Second. What is the right of the working world against the man 
 invalided by old age ? 
 
 Third. What is the special right of the aged Government employee 
 against society organized as Government ? 
 
 And, Lastly, What is the right of Government against the superan- 
 nuated employee ? 
 
 When we show what these four rights are, we lay the foundations for 
 a pension system. 
 
 Pensions have been aptly termed " the endowment of old age." It 
 is an interesting phrase that focalizes the light upon a certain result of 
 the modern form of industrial society. Time was, time has always been 
 until now, — and by "now" I mean the last quarter of a century, — 
 when the man of years was the master of all younger men. To the 
 man growing old, every kind of power has gravitated. He has been the 
 magnet for property, for office, for knowledge, for service, and for 
 influence. To him, younger men have been hands and feet ; to them, 
 he has been the fountain of inspiration, of counsel, and of authority. 
 
 1 New Jersey has it for teachers ; and there are a few other instances. 
 
324 APPENDIX H 
 
 Books and machines have destroyed most of this ancient prestige of the 
 old man. Out of the printed book the young man acquires rapidly 
 what the old man formerly learned through decades. With his supe- 
 rior physical activity, the young man, versed in books, overmasters 
 the old man in all manner of occupations and professions. By educa- 
 tion, we have subjugated time and destroyed the value of years of 
 experience. Still worse for the old man is the case of the young man 
 with the machine, for, in the fearful pace of modern industrialism, a 
 man of fifty is usually too inattentive, too weak, to hold resolutely and 
 successfully every minute for ten or twelve hours every day at work 
 amid the throbbing and pounding of machinery. Modern industrialism 
 has returned mankind to the barbarism before civilization began," to the 
 day when the strong young man by violence forced his way to the 
 supremacy of his group or tribe. "No old men need apply" is written 
 over the doors and windows of modern industrial society. 
 
 In such a state of affairs as this, men who are advancing in years 
 have three possible remedies. These three, however, are not all of 
 them open to all old men. 
 
 The first remedy is for every man, as he goes forward through life, to 
 accumulate property against the days of old age, that is, in popular par- 
 lance, "to save money." "Thrift " is a great catch-word, but thrift is 
 sometimes impossible, sometimes sinful, and sometimes fruitless. In 
 this civilization, for men in certain stations, in certain relations, or in 
 certain conditions, thrift is impossible. Before men in Federal service, 
 I need not discuss this proposition. I mean the thrift based on the 
 maxim of the men who have acquired property, to this effect, 
 " Save one-half," " Save one-third of your income." And thrift is 
 sometimes positively sinful. The father with a small income and large 
 family, who deliberately, out of fear for his own old age, refuses to help 
 a brilliant son or daughter to a thorough education, and prefers to 
 deposit monthly twenty-five or fifty dollars in a savings bank, sins 
 against that youth and against society, and destroys his own better 
 nature. Hoarding for an old age that may never be realized is a sin 
 of the civilized and a sign of decadence. It is the noble virtue of pru- 
 dence become a vice. We all know instances in which the heirs of the 
 hoards of such old men have been ruined by undeserved windfalls; 
 and we know still more instances in which the children and other 
 relatives of such men have been made miserable by the presence of 
 these misers. 
 
PENSIONS 325 
 
 And thrift is sometimes fruitless. It is much easier to lose property 
 than to accumulate it. 
 
 The second remedy against the poverty of old age is " to die in 
 harness." Some men never grow old, but this fortune of keeping one's 
 health beyond seventy, beyond eighty even, this greatest fortune that 
 can come to men, is also the rarest. The man of will can drive himself 
 so that he never knows the turn of the hill and the down grade. We 
 read of him every day. " He was not feeling very well," say the news- 
 papers, "but exposed himself to the bad weather and contracted 
 pneumonia, and, of course, died." This is the formula. It is the 
 pace that kills the old men of will-power.^ These old men rise and eat 
 breakfast and go to their work one day too often, and the register of 
 the dead records their end. For thousands every year, it is the door of 
 escape from ignominious dependence in old age upon relatives or the 
 public. 
 
 The third remedy is that which we have under discussion here 
 to-night, and refers to a special class of superannuated persons. Our 
 question, therefore, takes this form : What are the rights of those sur- 
 vivors of a former generation who could not save as against the present 
 working world ? Many say, " None." Some say, " The poorhouse." 
 Others say, "Private charity." Let me ask two other questions: 
 "What is this present world ?" And, "Who are these survivors ?" 
 Despite appearance, this present world is not the creation of to-day. 
 It is not born anew with each sunrise. It is ancient, more ancient 
 than recorded history. The dead have left this present world to us as 
 their legacy. Lincoln and Webster and Washington, Morse and Steph- 
 enson and Whitney and Watt, Thackeray and Shakespeare, and Dante 
 and Vergil, Langton and Solon and Moses, Luther and Paul and 
 Socrates and Abraham, built this world and gave it to us. Every 
 forefather has made his contribution. This American civilization, 
 which carries us all, whether President or magnate or clerk or pauper, 
 is precisely the most complicated and uncomprehended product that 
 mankind has yet evolved. And the old man sitting among us is the 
 symbol of our debt to all the dead, remembered and unremembered. 
 He is our legacy, our benefactor, our link to the past, our pilot into 
 the future, our best asset ; and who are we younger men to judge him ? 
 
 1 This may be stated physiologically and anatomically. The man who survives in the 
 sedentary life must have strong internal organs (usually by inheritance) and relatively weak 
 external muscles. Will power is health of the nervous system at its centers. 
 
326 APPENDIX H 
 
 Perhaps this old man sitting among us has not saved his money; 
 perhaps he is guilty of that modern sin of " not having a dollar " ; per- 
 haps, vifithout succor, he would die in a few days of starvation, to put 
 it at its worst. Perhaps he has a thousand dollars in a bank. Has he 
 no rights until he has spent every one of those dollars ? These are the 
 old men, who have transmitted this civilization to us, adding to it their 
 part. They have handed down to us improved this State and Govern- 
 ment, this Church and Religion, this School and Education, this Property 
 and Business, this Culture and Occupation, this Home and Family, which 
 together make our characteristic Americanism. But perhaps some 
 special old man is not worthy of a State endowment. Most of his 
 contemporaries have gone the way of the flesh. His witnesses are 
 dead. God sends his rain on the just and on the unjust alike. He lets 
 the wheat and the tares grow together until the time of the harvest. 
 Old age had its youth and prime of manhood, did its work, and is 
 approaching the bar beyond the veil for judgment. Our business is 
 that we judge not lest we be judged.^ I have seen too much of life to 
 know anything before or beyond my personal experience : the rest is 
 opinion. Even one's own experience is often to be distrusted. 
 
 Let us be optimists enough to admit that no total sum that will ever 
 be paid by organized society for the relief of men invalided by old 
 age will ever equal what society actually owes to them as a body, and 
 let us ignore the question of individual merit. We have better uses for 
 our own time than in trying to judge our betters. 
 
 The second question is. What is the right of society against the old 
 man ? It is a bitter thing to say that the dislodgment of senescent 
 men from their places of power has been a process coincident with the 
 progress of mankind in wealth, in peace, in knowledge, and in morals ; 
 but it appears to be the truth. One might almost say that civilization 
 is a device for the prompt detection and conviction of approaching 
 senility. Society needs at the post of service the best available man. 
 Modern society denies the ancient doctrine of vested rights in special 
 offices, and uses these maxims: "Due for value received;" '■^Qiiid 
 pro quo ; " " What can you do now ? " Because these maxims prevail, 
 we are progressing now in single decades farther than the ancient 
 world progressed in centuries. But this progression is too often at 
 great cost to individuals. Because the senescent man should step 
 
 1 The Greek word used here by Jesus is kolv^io, which means, " cut apart " and set aside, 
 that is, condemn. Distrust opinions was the theme of Socrates. 
 
PENSIONS 327 
 
 down, it does not necessarily follow that he should step out. Even if 
 he should step down and out from the world of the day's work, it by 
 no means follows that he should be cut off as an outlaw from the 
 world of wealth. It may be that he has not received back from that 
 world all that he gave it ; he may not have received full wages for his 
 services and product. The right of society to displace the old man 
 who can no longer do his work well is conditioned and limited by the 
 disposition of society to maintain this old man in honorable retirement. 
 A civilized society of abundant general wealth that permits faithful old 
 men to disappear in an undeserved poverty through the invalidism of 
 old age is less human than were the barbarian tribes and hordes of other 
 times. It is guilty of an unreflecting savagery that perverts the moral 
 sense of youth and childhood, for whose best good adult manhood is, 
 of course, working. What I mean is that it is harmful for our boys and 
 girls to see old age neglected. We need to learn a lesson from a people 
 upon the other half of the globe, the Chinese. 
 
 Our third question was. What is the special right of the Federal em- 
 ployee against society organized as Government ? Has he any right to 
 any kind of pension ? What is a Government clerk? He is a man (or 
 she is a woman) who surrenders all his heart and all his intellect to the 
 will of the legislature. He is an intelligent and devoted servant of the 
 public will as expressed by that legislature. He has left the sphere of 
 liberty, has abandoned business with its opportunities, has accepted a 
 schedule of hours and of duties, and has enlisted as a willing soldier in 
 the army of the common good. He is one of the finest products of 
 historic civilization and is absolutely necessary to its preservation.^ 
 
 ^ In the year 1739 in France there were certain thousands of men operating the Govern- 
 ment of Louis XVI in nation, in province, and in village. Then came the terror of the 
 French Revolution that cost the lives of over a million of people. Came next the Directorate. 
 Napoleon followed as Consul, First Consul, and as Emperor. More millions perished in his 
 mighty wars. With him came the code Napoleon. The Hundred Days followed and the 
 Exile. Then at Waterloo fell the great rebel against things that were. Louis XVIII was 
 succeeded by Charles X. In 1830 Louis Philippe, the elected constitutional monarch, the 
 bourgeois king who sent his own boys to the public schools, came to the throne. With plebeian 
 common sense, he made inquiries in Versailles, in Paris, in every city, town, and village, as 
 to who had been operating the Government through these forty years. The deep ocean knows 
 nothing of wind, wave, and storm ; it knows only the Arctic and Tropic currents that flow in 
 masses through it. What plain Louis Philippe found was that through these forty years the 
 old Government clerks of 1789 had been dying off and the younger ones had been growing 
 old, and lads had been entering the service. He found hundreds and thousands as ready to 
 work for Louis Philippe as they had worked for Charles and for the Emperor and for the 
 Louis whom the Revolution had guillotined. Why ? Were they traitors ? No ; they 
 
328 APPENDIX H 
 
 Somewhere between 63 and 70 years of age, the Government clerk 
 probably needs to give up daily regular active work ; that is, he needs 
 to retire. Of course, he needs an income. According to American 
 representative democracy, both its theory and its practice, this Govern- 
 ment clerk has either saved a respectable property or purchased an 
 annuity. According to the same theory and practice, he has been paid 
 " a living wage " and no more. These two theories are obviously con- 
 tradictory, but it has not yet been the ambition of American democracy 
 to avoid contradictions. As a matter of fact, the senescent clerk has 
 received only " a living wage," and has not saved either $35,000 worth 
 of property or purchased an annuity of $1200 a year, its equivalent. 
 On the contrary, he has married a wife, reared and educated several 
 children, and lived honorably and charitably as a good citizen. 
 Whether he has earned $1000 or $2500 a year, he has needed every 
 dollar for necessary expenses. He has probably purchased life insur- 
 ance to protect his wife and children in case of his death, but he has 
 hesitated to buy an annuity policy to protect himself. He has tried to 
 shut his eyes to the inevitable, hoping to die in harness, and often he 
 realizes his hope. But surely, some good business man thinks — he 
 doesn't say it, because he never advertises his exact fortune — " He 
 might have saved a few hundred dollars, have invested it wisely, and 
 acquired a modest competence. See what I have done. I began with 
 nothing, saved something, and see my hundred thousand or million, or 
 whatever amount I have," and then he recalls some Government 
 employee who has invested or speculated successfully and left the 
 service. Those who lose remain. Any statistician knows, most of you 
 
 worked for Government, for the peace and order of society ; they were the eye and hand of 
 the Government. 
 
 There is an old man, a war veteran, a municipal clerk, who has been in a certain city hall 
 for thirty years and more ; he has seen three different city halls on that same spot. He has 
 seen Republicans and Democrats and Independents sit in authority in the mayoralty and in 
 the city council. For those thirty years, he has opened the vaults with his own key to the 
 city treasury and drawn its warrants ; and I have heard amateur politicians, suddenly elevated 
 to office, discuss the removal of that old man who knows everybody and everything about 
 that city hall. Some day this old man will disappear, but there is not political power enough 
 in that city to remove him before he himself or the death angel fixes the hour of his going. So 
 long as he lives, in respect to his office, he is the Government. Instances of this character 
 are familiar to you all. The Government clerk is indispensable. He lays the track, he 
 furnishes the coal, he oils the engines, and he takes orders whether the train shall run east or 
 west. He is obedient and loyal within the limits of honor to the powers that be, and is silent. 
 Because he has renounced his own will that he may serve the higher will of organized society, 
 and because he listens to all and speaks with caution, his advice is sought by all the wise. 
 
PENSIONS 329 
 
 know better than I, for many of you are past masters at figures, that to 
 get together $35,000 in the course of twenty-five years, one must save 
 at least $600 a year to draw compound interest, and most of you know 
 better than I the cost of house rent, of provisions, of clothing, and of 
 medical service here. All of you know better than I how few men in 
 Government employ who invest a thousand dollars to make ten 
 thousand ever see the thousand dollars again. 
 
 No, the Government clerk, whatever be his department, is at work 
 from 9 to 4.30 o'clock at a desk, with a brief lunch period. He has no 
 time to go among the business houses and to learn the ways of the 
 world, and discover how not to lose a thousand dollars. He has more 
 important business than trying to make money. His business is to 
 help carry on this Government. The best use he can make of his 
 money is to spend it wisely, for the present good of himself, his wife, 
 and his children. In this respect, his position is the same as that of 
 nine out of ten of other American men. 
 
 Our conclusion, therefore, is this, that it is especially difficult for 
 Federal employees to save much money. I am not now speaking of 
 saving a few hundred dollars for a rainy day. That should be a matter 
 of religion. In this community, on the roof top of America, it is right 
 for him to give his children all the advantages that his income permits. 
 The Federal employee is, therefore, shut in to the third remedy against 
 poverty due to the invalidism of old age, which is some form, any 
 form, of a pension. 
 
 The fourth question is. What are the rights of the Government against 
 the superannuated employee ? I have tried to establish foundations now 
 for two propositions: first, the Government has no right to continue 
 to employ him to the detriment of the service ; second, the Government 
 has no right to unload him upon the world. And yet our American 
 democracy in Nation, in State, and in municipalities is doing both of 
 these things, the first to its injury, and the second to its disgrace. 
 From this dilemma there is but one way of escape. This way saves 
 the honor of civilized society by doing justice to the old men. 
 
 At this point, it is necessary to make certain reservations. Society 
 has no right to put a man of fifty into Government office and to expect 
 that at sixty-eight he will be retired on half pay. The pension of a 
 Federal employee is by no means a mere old-age pension. It is an 
 honorable means of retirement from long and satisfactory service. It is 
 not a minimum allowance to keep life in the body. It is a fair stipend 
 
330 
 
 APPENDIX H 
 
 to give to old age leisure with dignity, that the old man may be able to 
 counsel the younger man wisely and without bitterness as he reflects 
 upon life. It is a deferred dividend earned in more laborious days, and 
 it is paid that old age may be prolonged to an unhastened natural term. 
 Such a pension makes old age itself seem more honorable in the eyes 
 of the multitude. 
 
 The answer to the fourth and last of our questions is that when 
 human society, organized as Government, is ready to retire upon a reason- 
 able fixed income the invalided old man of long service, then it has the 
 right to remove and to retire him. Such, in a general way, seems to 
 me the main line of argument for Civil Service pensions, whatever be 
 their kind. But this argument is too logical to be wholly complete, 
 and there are certain reasons for establishing a compulsory pension 
 system for all persons in the Federal service that were not included 
 in this summary. Some of those reasons are well worthy of our 
 consideration. 
 
 In twentieth-century America, the State is the one universal social 
 institution, controlling us all without exception. Founded upon a new 
 device, the written constitution, inspired by the democratic faith of 
 equality of opportunity, American Government represents the fnost 
 powerful 7nethod yet discovered by men for the protnotion of civilization. 
 It may, indeed, be true, as our foreign critics say, that American democ- 
 racy is government by amateurs ; even harsher criticisms may be true ; 
 but the substantial fact shines out that here under the direction and 
 protection of democratic legislatures, courts, and executives, humanity 
 has prospered beyond its experience anywhere else in human history. 
 American democratic Government represents the climax in social thought 
 and practice ; but it does not represent perfection. The presence of 
 employees no longer capable of performing competent service, and block- 
 ing the way of better men, is a notable imperfection. The time will 
 yet come when Government service will present conditions that will 
 attract to it in all departments the best talents and only the best talents. 
 One of those conditions is security against poverty in old age. Another 
 is relief from pressing regular work one knows one can no longer do 
 well, by retiring upon a pension. 
 
 There is another consideration that should appeal to our national 
 pride. Ours is one of the great nations of the world. Some call it the 
 greatest nation, that remains to be proven. Shall we not do as well by 
 those who operate this Government for us as other nations do for their 
 
PENSIONS 331 
 
 public servants ? National self-respect should lead us not merely to 
 follow but also to improve upon the examples of other nations. 
 
 A third consideration, that has already been before the members of 
 this association, concerns the operation of the Civil Service system since 
 the memorable year of 1883. For nearly a century, our best publicists 
 had been urging the importance of divorcing the executive service as 
 completely from politics as the judicial is divorced. For nearly a cen- 
 tury, practical politicians had been saying to their betters, " You talk 
 too much ; this is our affair ; " but the day came when the thinkers had 
 converted enough persons to create a right public opinion, and the 
 Civil Service was reformed. The result of this reform was to make the 
 service a profession for life. 'Now, every worthy member of a profes- 
 sion is clearly entitled to live by it and to die in it.^ When active 
 service ends, he may justly claim maintenance for past deserts. To 
 complete Civil Service reform, there must be devised a way to honor- 
 able retirement as well as a way to honorable admission. We have put 
 our hands to the plough and must finish out the furrow. 
 
 Another consideration is extremely practical. A man for any reason 
 incompetent is always a danger. The fact that once he was competent 
 does not relieve the situation. The danger may concern financial affairs 
 or confidential relations, or the transmission of orders involving life, 
 death, peace of mind, property, or whatever it may be. The American 
 people, our rulers, have a right to be relieved of that danger. 
 
 Still another consideration is extremely practical. Most young men 
 and women, when they enter Government service, think that before 
 long they will find something better in the world of freedom, and most 
 of them at first have but comparatively small demands upon their salaries 
 from others. Youth foresees nothing and is oversanguine. Youth dis- 
 likes prudence and compulsion. The very clerks who can best afford 
 a trifling one or two per cent reduction from their salaries most object 
 to it.2 No voluntary annuity or retirement fund or association can be 
 successful in accomplishing all the legitimate objects of old-age pensions. 
 
 A sixth consideration is this. The voluntary pension association is 
 
 1 This should be granted even by those who will not grant that only the immoral should 
 he in poverty. 
 
 ^ The two bills introduced into Congress in 1907-1908 both adopted i^ per cent as the basis. 
 Civil service pensions of this character are certain to come in the National Government. In 
 the interim, Great Britain is proceeding to old-age pensions upon Government basis. Both 
 countries are behind Germany in this necessary development, necessary because of our 
 present economic regime. 
 
332 APPENDIX H 
 
 but a type or an inducement to the compulsory fund. It sets a good 
 example.^ It may serve one generation or two generations ; but as the 
 service becomes wholly professional, the demands grow greater. There 
 is need of Government regulation and protection, which at last come. 
 
 Another consideration is that there is absolutely no conflict between 
 straight service pensions payable by Government out of taxes and 
 pensions payable out of funds derived by deductions from salaries. 
 One does not preclude the other. Either may exist without the other. 
 The one does not lead to the other. In the State of New Jersey, for 
 example, there are many teachers drawing two pensions, amounting to 
 their full salary, and they do not get a dollar more than they earned 
 through thirty faithful years. They will not live long enough to be 
 paid in full for all that in their prime they did for intelligence, efficiency, 
 and morality, where they taught school. Their good fortune has added 
 a most desirable public respect for the calling of the teacher. 
 
 An eighth consideration is that what the railroads and banks and the 
 States can do the Government should be willing to consider. This 
 nation has more than a quarter of a million executive service employees. 
 It is an army of workers of singularly high quality, and yet certain 
 great industrial corporations are apparently more thoughtful for the 
 welfare of their employees and for the success of their business than is 
 this governmental corporation, our nation, by far the greatest financial 
 enterprise in the world. 
 
 A few months ago, a wag of a cartoonist presented two pictures of 
 Niagara Falls fifty years hence. One of these pictures represented the 
 Falls as perfectly dry, with the water turned aside for mighty power 
 plants and factories ; the other represented the Falls with the water 
 pouring with terrific power down the old channels, — for the benefit of 
 wealthy tourists who had paid the price for the stopping of all the plants 
 and factories. 
 
 In the spiritual world of America, we have the counterpart of the 
 physical phenomena of Niagara Falls. Political democracy is a tre- 
 mendous flood, a cataract, that may be harnessed for the uses of man. 
 We are harnessing that flood with our congresses, our legislatures, our 
 councils, our party conventions. We are building up most com- 
 plicated systems of courts and of offices to convert the will power of 
 democracy to the welfare of man. Throughout America, we are 
 
 ' Unless it becomes insolvent, as in the case of The Teachers' Aid and Annuity Association 
 (white) in the District of Columbia. 
 
PENSIONS 333 
 
 endowing childhood and youth with the heritage of civiUzation. 
 Unfortunately, we meet resistance ; but what we do, let us do with the 
 utmost good will. Compulsory education is compulsory endowment of 
 youth with knowledge. This compulsion is applied in democratic 
 fashion by democratic methods. 
 
 In the same way, it will probably be necessary for the general welfare 
 to endow those indispensable agents of the democratic will, the em- 
 ployees of the Government, with annuity rights by compulsion ; and in 
 their old age, they will gratefully acknowledge that the general social 
 mind as expressed in the law creating the pension system was wiser 
 than that of those individuals who may have opposed it. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Supplement to Appendix III, Libraries, Our Schools, pp. 376-379 
 
 5. Psychology and Child Study. 
 
 Dynamic Factors in Education. Also, The Linguistic Factor in Educa- 
 tion. O'Shea. 
 Aspects of Child Life and Education. Hall. 
 Growth and Education. Tyler. 
 Educational Psychology . Thorndike. 
 Psychology : General Introduction. Judd. 
 
 6. Physiology and Hygiene. 
 
 The Semi-Insane and the Semi-Responsible. Grasset. 
 
 Les Enfants Anormaux. Binet and Simon. 
 
 Sleep : Its Physiology , Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology. Menacelne. 
 
 Medical Inspection of School Children. Mackenzie. 
 
 Principles of Breeding : A Treatise on Thremmatology. Davenport. 
 
 Text-book of Psychiatry : A Psychological Study of Insanity. Mendel. 
 
 7. School Management and Instruction. 
 
 Classroom Management. Bagley. 
 The Continuation School. Jones. 
 The School and Its Life. Gilbert. 
 Pupil Self Government. Cronson. 
 The New Education. Palmer. 
 School Education. Mason. 
 Management of a City School. Perry. 
 
 8. History and Theory of Education. 
 
 The Educative Process. Bagley. 
 
 Philosophy of Education and Psychologic Principles of Education. Home. 
 
 Text-book of the History of Education. Monroe. 
 
 A History of Higher Education in America. Thwing. 
 
 A Theory of Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education. Chancellor. 
 
 334 
 
INDEX 
 
 Age of separation in classes, 99. 
 
 Apparatus, school, 78 et seq. 
 
 Appointment, to superintendency, 25; 
 ways to secure, 25-26 ; by State board 
 examinations, 183 ; of janitors, clerks, 
 and engineers, 53; of teachers to 
 eligible list, 186. 
 
 Architect, school, 7 ; duties of, 10 ; need 
 of, 52, 65. 
 
 Architecture, 61-64, 83-86. 
 
 Archives, to be kept faithfully, 11 ; in 
 charge of secretary, 51. 
 
 Assembly hall, uses of, 60 ; equipment 
 of, 85. 
 
 Athletics, in city schools, 176 ; for all in- 
 dividuals, 177. 
 
 Attendance officer, 7, 172; women as, 
 
 137- 
 Attendance records, see Appendix. 
 Attorney, duties of, 50. — -- 
 
 Baldwin, J. Mark, quoted, in n. 
 
 Blackboards, 64 ; slate or better, 79. 
 
 Board of education, city, if appointive 
 should be large, if elective small, 16 ; 
 powers of, 16-19; corruption in, 17; 
 should have power to levy taxes, 18 ; 
 should be a corporation, 18 ; its com- 
 mittees, 18 ; not to interfere in details, 
 19; officers of, 49; better boards 
 needed, 181; open letter to. Appen- 
 dix A. 
 
 Board of education. State, distinguished 
 from board of examiners, 4 ; correlate 
 of legislature, 5; election by ballot, 
 5; desirable, 5; modes of selection, 
 S ; lay control, 7 ; powers of, 7-9 ; 
 officers of, 7 ; election at large at spe- 
 cial election, 8 ; appointive board 
 larger than elective, 8 ; authority over 
 local board, 9 ; as trustees of private 
 
 benefactions, 9 ; a corporation, 9, 15 ; 
 removal of members by State super- 
 intendent, 10 ; should not be partisan, 
 13 ; its members educators, 14 n. 
 
 Board of examiners, certificates issued by, 
 10 ; janitors appointed by, 53 ; State, 
 182 ; as text-book committee, 185. 
 
 Board of supervision, 29, 188. 
 
 Book-cases, 83. 
 
 Books, see Library and Text-hooks. 
 
 Business, its struggle with property for 
 control of the State, 2 n. 
 
 Business agent, of board, 51. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, quoted, 21. 
 
 Cabinets, folding leaf, 80. 
 
 Centralization, the argument for, 11. 
 
 Certificates, term of beginners, 46 ; edu- 
 cation for, 192. 
 
 City, population of, 13 ; public opinion 
 in, 19 ; school system, 25 ; variety of 
 schools within, 39; no provision for 
 reserving school land within, 141 ; the 
 unsolved problem of civilization. Ap- 
 pendix A. 
 
 City normal school, 193. 
 
 City system of the future, 38, 106. 
 
 Civil service principles, selection of jani- 
 tors by, 55. 
 
 Classes, special, 143. 
 
 Clerks, to be appointed by examining 
 board, 53. 
 
 Clubs, need of children's, 172 ; mothers', 
 168 ; parents', 167 ; teachers', 177. 
 
 Co-education, in State universities, 21; 
 arguments for and against, 100-107. 
 
 Comenius, Johan Amos, quoted, 13, 
 
 23. 74- 
 Commissioner of Education, United 
 
 States, 3 ; proposition to make. Secre- 
 tary of Department of Education, 3 n. 
 
 335 
 
336 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Construction, pitfalls in, 6i; should be 
 fire-proof, 63. 
 
 Convention, Constitutional, 6. 
 
 Correlation of School and Home, 157; 
 reasons for, 165. 
 
 County, its decline in importance, 12. 
 
 Course of study, to be made by super- 
 intendent, 10; programme of, 149 ; 
 requires sufficient books, 89; by 
 grade or subjects, 152. 
 
 Curriculum, its extent, 23, 130 n. 
 
 Daily programme, 148 ; see Appendix. 
 
 Democracy, and individual liberty, 1 ; 
 needs experts, 5 ; and lay control, 7 ; 
 distrusted in the East, 8 ; does not 
 vest authority in experts, 37 ; criticised 
 in United States Senate, Appendix G. 
 
 Departmental teaching, 71-77. 
 
 Desks, 82. 
 
 Economic society, its present condition, 
 
 "3- 
 
 Economy, in running expenses of large 
 buildings, 66. 
 
 Education, a social institution separate 
 from Government, 15-17; its extent 
 at public cost, 22; its ideals and 
 evidences, 22 ; as a continuum, 37 ; 
 for life, 38 ; not yet a learned profes- 
 sion, 47; compared with law, 47; as 
 a process, 48 n. ; an internal change, 
 161. 
 
 Education as a profession, 178; com- 
 pared with law and medicine, 192 n. 
 
 Educator, as member of school board, 5 ; 
 as superintendent, 180. 
 
 Eligible lists, 186. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, quoted, 48. 
 
 Engineers, to be employed by business 
 manager or architect, 52 ; desirability 
 of pensions, 55 n. ; to be selected by 
 civil service principles, 55, 56. 
 
 Equipment, 78 et seq. 
 
 Evening lectures, 139 ; director of, 140. 
 
 Evening schools, 114 ; teachers of day 
 and, 115 n.; trades to be taught in, 
 118; opening exercises, 119; class 
 programmes, 120; text-books for, 
 117 n. 
 
 Examinations, well postponed, rsS; for 
 standardizing schools, 160; by State 
 board, 183. 
 
 Fatigue, loi ; levels of, 106 n. 
 Favoritism, in teachers' examinations, 
 
 184; 
 Fire extinguishers, 80. 
 Flags, flagpole, 81. 
 Flowers, as school equipment, 79. 
 Froebel, Heinrich, quoted as to process 
 
 of internal change, 161. 
 
 Globes, as school equipment, 79. 
 Goethe, Johann W. v., quoted, 48 n. 
 Government, educational enterprises of 
 
 National, 2-5. 
 Groups, desirable separation of pupils 
 
 into, 104-105. 
 
 Heating engineer, importance of, 53. 
 
 Hierarchy, the educational, 7; best ap- 
 proved, 29. 
 
 High schools, general or specialized, 
 108. 
 
 Illiteracy, 23. 
 Immorality, 23. 
 Individuals, education of, 103. 
 Inefficiency, 23. 
 
 Janitors, to be employed by business 
 manager or architect, 52; objections 
 to political appointment of, 54 ; assist- 
 ants to, 54, 55 ; civil service appoint- 
 ment of, 55 ; salary schedule, 55 ; de- 
 sirability of pensions, 55 n. ; Juvenile 
 Court, the, 136. 
 
 Jesus, quoted, 127 n. 
 
 Lawyers, control State, 5; as attorney 
 to board of education, 7. 
 
 Laymen, control of school by, 7 ; com- 
 mon sense of, 86 ; also. Appendix A. 
 
 Library, 63 ; should consist of, 86 ; two 
 kinds of, 92. 
 
 Lighting, 61 ; for evening classes, 84. 
 
 Loyalty, an essential in the creation of 
 the professional spirit, 196. 
 
 Luther, Martin, quoted, 58 n. 
 
INDEX 
 
 337 
 
 McAndrew, William, quoted, 14 n. 
 Manual Training, equipment, 81. 
 Maxwell, William H., report, 18 n. 
 
 107 n. 
 Meals, serving of, in schools, 61. 
 Medical inspector, 66 ; duties of, 170. 
 Mothers' Clubs, 168. 
 Mulcaster, Richard, quoted, 47 n. 
 
 National Bureau of Education, 2. 
 Nature, credit due to, 103. 
 Nietzsche, Friedrich, quoted, 145 n. 
 Nomination to office, 7. 
 Normal schools, 191. 
 North, the, too dependent upon private 
 philanthropy for higher education, 21. 
 Nurses, school, 171, 
 
 Office, qualifications for, 7 n. 
 Organization, of school, 70-77. 
 
 Parents, opposed to " special " classes, 
 112; as teachers of atypical children, 
 136 ; and school reports, 155. 
 
 Parents' organizations, 167. 
 
 Paul, quoted, 127 n. 
 
 Penitentiary, an educational institution, 
 8. 
 
 Pension, period, 44; janitor's, 57; 
 teacher's, 188 ; municipal, igo ; argu- 
 ments for. Appendix H. 
 
 Philanthropy, compared with public 
 enterprise in education, 20; its true 
 function, 21 ; not higher than public 
 duty, 24. 
 
 Physician, as medical inspector, 7. 
 
 Principal, as leader, 33; advantages of 
 power for, 35, 36 ; resented as super- 
 numerary, 36; should know every 
 child, 42; duties of, 66; suitable office 
 for, 67 ; is the school, 68 ; schedule 
 of salary, 69 ; license of, 70. 
 
 Private schools, to be inspected by 
 State officers, 8. 
 
 Profession, education as a, 43 ; honor 
 in, 87 ; contrasts in, 192 n. 
 
 Promotion, by ability not by age, 108. 
 
 Property, controls the State, i. 
 
 Psychogenetics, evolution of mental 
 functions, 102. 
 
 Public opinion, its final importance, 19 ; 
 
 ways of affecting, 170, 
 Pupil, the, 98 ; grading of, 108 ; need of 
 
 paid work for, 114; the defective, 
 
 124-127. 
 
 Race stocks, 108 n. 
 
 Records, value of, 146; prescribed, 153; 
 must be translated for parents, 154. 
 
 Reform schools, 8 ; need of, 133 ; buildings 
 for, 135 ; physicians as heads of, 136. 
 
 Report, of superintendent to board, 10; 
 of pupil, 154. 
 
 Reviews, should be frequent and cover- 
 ing short periods, 159. 
 
 Rousseau, John Jacques, quoted, 136 n., 
 165 n. 
 
 Sabbatical year, n. 44. ^ — —, 
 
 Salary, minimum, 9 ; principles govern- 
 ing, 42 ; schedule recommended, 43 ; 
 maximum should be before not after 
 best years of service, 44; of begin- 
 ners', 44 n.; of officers, 49; janitors' 
 schedule, 55 ; teachers' schedule, 
 Appendix F. 
 
 Scholarship, record of, 153. 
 
 School, a social institution, indepen- 
 dent of State, 5; its various forms, 
 22 ; freedom of endowed, 24 ; failure 
 to understand nature of, 33 ; two op- 
 posing types of, 34; how graded and 
 classified, 39 ; advantage of large city, 
 39 ; limits in size of, 58 ; general con- 
 ditions of American, 58; some ac- 
 cepted requirements, 59; elementary 
 grades in, 64; rank of, 69; schemes 
 for organizing, 70-77. " 
 
 School district, 13. 
 
 Schoolhouse, kind of building deter- 
 mined by use, 37 ; required rooms, 
 41 ; advantages of large school, 42 ; 
 importance of good buildings, 52; 
 competitive plans, 52; heating, 56; 
 construction, 60-65; standard ele- 
 mentary, 116; the norm, 142. 
 
 Schools, general and special, need of, 
 113; trades in, 118; admission to 
 special, 126; parental, 130. , 
 
 Schools for defectives, 123. 
 
338 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Secretary, 7; duties of, 50; as keeper of 
 minutes, 11 ; not a clerk for individual 
 members, 50. 
 
 Secret societies, among pupils, 174. 
 
 Separation of sexes, 107. 
 
 Shades, 83. 
 
 Shakespeare, William, quoted, 24 n. 
 
 Social institutions, 163. 
 
 Societies, public education, 168, for 
 educators, 177; secret, 174; constitu- 
 tion for. Appendix E. 
 
 Society, its institutions, i ; present rapid 
 development, 5 ; Constitution of, 6 ; 
 future institutions of, 6; majority 
 control of laymen, 7 ; claims of, loi. 
 
 South, the, has but few cities, too depen- 
 dent upon private philanthropy, 20. 
 
 Special schools, no, 143. 
 
 Stairways, 61. 
 
 State, defined, i ; the individual in the 
 free democratic, i ; its modes and 
 forms, 2; decentralization and cen- 
 tralization, 4; lawyers in control of, 
 6. 
 
 State institutions, freedom of, 24. 
 
 State normal school, 191. 
 
 Stenographers, to be appointed by ex- 
 amining board, 53. 
 
 Subjects, needing directors, 31. 
 
 Summer schools, 137. 
 
 Superintendent, securing the office of, 
 25 ; report of, 27 ; affairs under con- 
 trol of, 28 ; essentials to success, 
 29 ; as educator, 35 ; assistants classi- 
 fied, 187 ; as interpreter between teach- 
 ing force and public, 180. 
 
 Superintendent, State, 5; mode of ap- 
 pointment, 6 ; subordinates to be 
 nominated and controlled by, 7 n. ; 
 to name heads of new universities, 
 8 n. ; powers of, 9; subordinates 
 required, 10. 
 
 Supervision, should be vertical, 31 ; of 
 
 high schools, 31 ; in relation to teacher 
 and superintendent, 31 ; never to 
 replace teaching, 32. 
 Supplies, furnished by State, 91. 
 
 Taxation, how apportioned, 9. 
 
 Taxpayers, temporary interests not 
 important, 42. 
 
 Teacher, as independent authority, 34 ; 
 promotions in salary, 42 ; importance 
 of scholarship in, 43; bad year's 
 record not always fair, 45 n. ; removal 
 after continued failure, 46; depart- 
 mental, 71 ; as disciplinarian, 74 ; 
 of defectives, 127; right of appeal, 
 196. 
 
 Teachers' council, 194. 
 
 Teaching, as a profession, 190, 192, n. 5, 
 
 Telephone, desirable connections, 80. 
 
 Text-books, purchased by whom, 87; 
 most classes lacking in, 89; cost of 
 loan outfit, 91 ; listing of, 185-187 ; 
 for evening schools, 117. 
 
 Transportation of pupils, 65. 
 
 Truant officers, see Attendance officers. 
 
 Types, of children, 131 ; variations from 
 normal, 132. 
 
 Uniformity, economy of, no; of high 
 schools, 108; social support of, 112. 
 
 Universal school, purpose of the, 166. 
 
 University, State, control by school 
 authorities, 8 ; compare with private, 
 20, 24 n.; endowed, freedom of, 
 24 n. 
 
 Values, in an age of wealth, 129. 
 Ventilation, 63. 
 
 Ward, Lester, F., quoted, 192 n. 
 Waterloo, for each one, 180. 
 Wealth, of nation, 129. 
 World, of the child, 98. 
 
 General Note. — For omitted topics, vide Index, Our Schools, to which Our City 
 Schools is, in part, a supplement. 
 
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