riAPIUAL TRAirilHG 
 
 FOR cormoH schools 
 
 ^^ 
 
Bnok n h 
 
 Copyright!^" 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 
 FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 
 FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 AN ORGANIZED COURSE IN WOOD-WORKING 
 
 BY 
 ELDRETH G. ALLEN 
 
 M 
 INSTRUCTOR IN WOOD-WORKING IN THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 
 EDITED BY 
 
 FASSETT A. COTTON 
 
 PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LA CROSSE, WIS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 1910 
 

 Copyright, 1910, by 
 Chakles Scribner's Sons 
 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 In preparing this book on ''Manual Training" the author has at- 
 tempted to be thorough rather than complete. No attempt has been 
 made to add anything new to the subject-matter, but only to arrange 
 well-known facts so that they will offer as systematic and complete 
 a course of study as is offered in any of the older organized courses. 
 
 The arrangement of the text as herein presented is the direct result 
 of five years' teaching the subject of wood- working to beginning 
 classes. This class work was preceded by a number of years of shop 
 work as a journeyman machinist and a factory foreman, as well as by 
 a four years' college course in science and engineering. 
 
 Help in preparing the text has been gleaned from so many fields that 
 it would be impossible to make direct mention of all who have given 
 valuable assistance. The author wishes, however, to acknowledge the 
 aid given by Mr. Charles E. Emmerich, principal of the Indianapolis 
 Manual Training High School, and Mr. Paul W. Covert, head of the 
 manual training department, who have allowed such freedom in the 
 conduct of classes that it has been possible to make all parts of the 
 work measure up to a class-room test. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due Mr. Otto Stark, head of the art depart- 
 ment of the Indianapolis Manual Training High School, for his earnest 
 and careful criticism of the models, drawings, and photographs. This 
 criticism has added much to the value of the text. 
 
 The final drawings from which the cuts were executed were 
 made by Mr. Edward Stark, of Indianapolis. 
 
vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The cover design is adapted from a drawing made by Mr. Warner 
 Carr in a prize contest in the art department of the school. 
 
 Cuts for Figs. 7, 7a, 70d, 145, 148, 148a, 149, 150, 151, 152 were 
 furnished by the Stanle}^ Rule and Level Company, New Britain, 
 Conn. 
 
 -The tools, photographs of which appear in the text, were loaned 
 by the Vonnegut Hardware Company, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 Other acknowledgments are made in the foot-notes. 
 
 E. G. Allen. 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind., 
 
 November, 1909. 
 
PAGE 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Preface • • v 
 
 Introduction • • •. ix 
 
 Notes to Teachers xv 
 
 Chapter I. — Wood-Working 1 
 
 General statement. — Product, material, and tool. — Ordering material. 
 — Marking dimensions. — Saws, how made. — Ripping and cross- 
 cutting. — Planes, kinds of. — Planing working face. — Grinding 
 plane bit. — Parts of planes. — Try square. — To make joint edge. — 
 Gauge. — End planing. — Rule, knife, and square. — Summary. 
 
 Chapter II. — The Lap Joint 25 
 
 Mechanical drawing. — The problem of the lap joint stated. — How 
 to lay out and make a lap joint. — To square around a piece. — Use of 
 back saw. — The chisel. — Making paring cut with chisel. — Summary. 
 
 Chapter III. — The Mortise and Tenon Type of Joint . 48 
 
 Statement of problem. — To lay out and make mortise and tenon joint. 
 — To cut a mortise with a chisel. — To remove the bulk of the stock in 
 a mortise with an auger bit. 
 
 Chapter IV. — Joints and Other Materials Used in Wood- 
 Work 57 
 
 Lap joints. — IMortise and tenon type of joints. — Butt joints. — ^Nliter 
 joints. — Dowel joints. — Methods of joining boards in the direction 
 of their widths. — Cleating. — Miscellaneous joints. — Nails. — Tacks. — 
 Hammers. — Standard wood screws. — Glue and gluing. 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 CiiAi'TKR V. — ^TooLS Grouped According to Their Use . 79 
 
 ^Irasuriiiji; and hiyiiiti; out tools: historical uoto. — Layinjii; out tot)ls. 
 — Try s(juaro. — Tables of board and bract' measure on the framing 
 S(juare. — The tee bevel. — To set bevel to (HF and 120°. — Cutting or 
 edge tools. — Saw. — Planes. — Chisels. — Gauges. — xVuger bits. — Bit • 
 braces. — Miscellaneous tools. 
 
 Chapter VI. — ^^^^ood Finishing . . 112 
 
 The object of wood finishing. — Painting and hard-wood finishing. — 
 The scraper and its use. — Sand-papering. — Selection of finishing ma- 
 terials. — Wood staining and coloring. — A few formulas for making 
 stains. — Fuming. — Wood filling. — Varnishing. — Brushes. — Wax fin- 
 ish. — Painting. — Care of finishing materials and the finishing outfit. 
 
 Chapter VII. — Some Essentials of Constructive Design 143 
 
 W^hat the designer must know if he is to get the best and most economi- 
 cal production. — Facts which the designer should know. 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Suggestions for a Course of Study in 
 Wood-Work 148 
 
 P.\RT I. For Seventh and Eighth Grades. — Problem 1. — 
 
 Problem 2. — Problem 3. — Problem 4. — Problem 5. — Bench hook. 
 
 Group 1. — Problems in working a piece of wood to three 
 
 dimensions. 
 Group 2. — Problems in lap joints with review of problems in 
 
 first group. 
 Group 3. — Problems in use of the mortise and tenon joint. 
 Part II. Course of Study for High School. 
 
 (jROUP 1. — Review of working to three dimensions, the lap and 
 
 the mortise and tenon joints. 
 Group 2. — A grouj) of suggestive problems. 
 Group 3. — A group of suggestive pictures. 
 
 Appendix 209 
 
 Index 213 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The child is both physical and spiritual, and education must, 
 therefore, consider both body and soul. Grace and beauty in form, 
 strength and health of body, and skill in execution, are all matters 
 that must be provided for in the course of study. The aesthetic and 
 hygienic phases of child life have been recognized, and when the 
 practical side receives the attention which it merits, head, hand, and 
 heart will become allies in education. Every child must be taught 
 to work, and to the degree in which the home neglects this part of 
 his education, the school must, whether it would or not, take up this 
 phase of his training and carry it to completion. The course of study 
 of the future will provide a complete system of manual training 
 through the grades and high school. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF WORK OF HEAD AND HAND 
 
 When this course is finally perfected it will be a complete adjust- 
 ment of the work of head and hand. All hand work will supplement 
 head work. All mere "busy" work, that is to say, work without 
 educative value, placed in the course of study to keep the children 
 quiet, will be eliiiiinated. Manual training, that is, work that will 
 put the children in possession of themselves and tend to fit them 
 for the work that they are likely to do in life, will have passed the fad 
 and experimental stage and will be part and parcel of the educative 
 process. 
 
 It may be that the so-called academic subjects, such as grammar, 
 geography, and arithmetic, will be taught more intensively, and that 
 fully as much time will be given to the hand work as is given to the 
 
X INTRODUCTION 
 
 former. The element of utility will determine almost wholly the 
 work chosen and the stress to be placed upon it. Children are easily 
 interested in doing things that are really worth while. Work that 
 becomes burdensome to either teacher or pupil loses much of its 
 educative value. It may be that in the schools of the future the 
 academic and manual departments will be carried on by different 
 teachers, capable of doing their own work well, but able to relate the 
 two lines of instruction. Until this can be realized, however, the 
 schools as at present organized must do what they can toward train- 
 ing the hand, and a little ingenuity on the part of the teacher can 
 bring surprising results from very meagre resources. 
 
 SOME PRACTICAL MANUAL TRAINING WORK 
 
 The following suggestions can be carried out in the grades, espe- 
 cially by teachers who are interested in any phase of manual or 
 industrial education. 
 
 The possibilities of drawing in legitimate directions are almost 
 unlimited. Accurate constructive work in drawing is of the highest 
 educative value, both in itself and for the aid it may render the other 
 subjects. The teacher who draws well and makes frequent use of the 
 blackboard out-distances all of her associates in the profession who 
 cannot draw. Every phase of nature study furnishes work in draw- 
 ing. Geography can be made doubly interesting and effective with 
 pencil and chalk. Arithmetic affords constant opportunity for con- 
 structive work. All teachers should learn to teach drawing, if for no 
 other reason than to be able to use it in other departments of school 
 work. 
 
 Then there is apparatus of all kinds to make, and home-made ap- 
 paratus is the very best kind. It not only gives the children excellent 
 drill in practical manual training work, but it supplies the school 
 with needed apparatus at the least possible cost. 
 
INTRODUCTION xi 
 
 One of the most valuable assets in a teacher's equipment is a set 
 of tools and the ability to use them. It is no mean accomplishment 
 to be able to design and construct a plain gate. It takes commend- 
 able skill to make a simple picture frame, and the different ways of 
 fitting pieces into perfect squares call for much practice. A square, 
 a saw, a hammer, a chisel or two, a brace and a bit will furnish an 
 admirable outfit. The making of a simple piece of apparatus, a box, 
 gate, fence, shelf, or frame for the boys may show the way. As simple 
 an equipment looking toward household industry may serve the same 
 purpose for the girls. There is the designing, cutting, and making of 
 simple garments, to say nothing of other activities in the home which 
 make their chief and lasting appeal to girls. All these and more may 
 be attempted, and may be made to supplement the work in the tradi- 
 tional subjects of study. Besides furnishing the very best of manual 
 training work, they add interest and charm to the older lines of study. 
 
 With intensive, interesting, complete work, based upon the home 
 life and industry, running through the grades, and the elimination of 
 all dead, mechanical work based upon tradition, there would be time 
 for much real manual training: bench work for the boys, much closer 
 to the trades than manual training in the high school, and sewing 
 and cooking for the girls. Such work carried through the grades 
 would make more intensive, efficient work possible, and would be the 
 means of attracting a larger number of pupils from the grades into 
 the high school. In the high school, work may be undertaken look- 
 ing toward higher, more systematic courses in college. 
 
 EDUCATION MUST BE INDUSTRIAL AS WELL AS ACADEMIC 
 
 The problem of education is industrial as well as academic. Of 
 the thirty-two million bread-winners in this country, some thirty 
 million must work with their hands. Education must, therefore, 
 exalt the dignity of labor; it must teach habits of industry; it must 
 
xii INTRODUCTION 
 
 give ability to apply one's self to the problem in hand; it must meet 
 the demand for accurate, skilfid work. Tlie scliool work must be 
 more practical tor the great army of children in the grades, four- 
 fifths of whom never reach the high school. 
 
 One great defect in school work in this coimtr}^ is that we have 
 assumed in both the grades and high school that all children are of 
 equal ability, and that their abilities lie in the same direction, when 
 neither assumption is true. We have not caught the notion of equal 
 opportunit}', and then gone about providing for the training of the 
 several abilities so as to fit men and women to meet the actual con- 
 ditions of Hfe. Education has aimed, and still aims, to train the 
 head, and not the head and hand. It has prepared for college in- 
 stead of for living. It has been too bookish — adapted only to those 
 who can follow a long educational career. It has trained men for the 
 careers of lawyers, preachers, doctors, teachers, and leaders, though 
 there are not enough of these positions to go around. It has pre- 
 pared the bosses, and has not thought of skilled labor in the ranks. 
 In this sense it has been practical, but it has not met the needs of the 
 common people, the overwhelming majority of whom must continue 
 to work with their hands. We must make more adequate provision 
 in our schools for the education of those who must begin early to earn 
 their living. 
 
 BOYS AND GIRLS SOON TO BECOME BREAD-WINNERS 
 
 One of the greatest criticisms that can now be made upon our 
 schools, city, town, and country, is that no tangible, vital relation exists 
 between school education and the other essential forms of education. 
 Since the home and the farm and the shop no longer train the chil- 
 dren efficiently, there is a greater call upon the school to take up the 
 work so cast off. But the school has not assumed the responsibility 
 nor met the new demand, and it cannot do so as at present organized. 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 The great majority of the children in school to-day will shortly need 
 to become bread-winners, and they will have to work with their hands. 
 They will take up every form of industry. The farm and factory 
 and mine and shop wil-l demand skilled labor. It is doubtful whether 
 the schools of town, city, or country are doing the best that can be 
 done for these children. No impractical thing, nothing that raises 
 impossible ideals and false hopes, nothing that belittles or ignores 
 honest work and lessens efficiency, should have time and place in 
 the schools. The nature and needs of the particular child must 
 determine what shall be done. 
 
 If this nation is to endure, all of the people must be educated. If 
 they are to be prosperous and happy, they must be intelligent, tem- 
 perate, industrious, skilful, and constantly employed. These quali- 
 ties come only with the right kind of education. They make for man- 
 hood and womanhood. 
 
 The proper introduction of manual and industrial training in the 
 grades and in the high school will be the means of keeping larger 
 numbers of boys and girls in the schools through both the grades and 
 the high schools. It will raise the average inteUigence in the country, 
 and will direct larger numbers of our young people toward the higher 
 institutions of learning. 
 
 So, in the way indicated, industrial training is to get a foothold in 
 the schools. Its development depends upon the teacher. It is a ques- 
 tion of the teacher's abihty to use the material at hand — material 
 furnished by the home life of the child and the industrial life of the 
 community. A consideration of experiences in the shop and on the 
 farm will furnish the very best opportunity for teaching the dignity 
 of labor, and for showing the advantages of farm life and other in- 
 dustries. It will open a way for showing how to proceed intelligently 
 in any occupation. The main thing is to teach the boy and girl how 
 to attack a problem and to carry it to a successful solution. And 
 they need to be taught that skilful execution is one of the chief 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 factors in success of any kind. From the stand-point of character- 
 building, it matters but little upon what problems pupils work, but 
 the attitude displayed and the habits formed as they attempt a 
 solution are matters of great moment. Intelligent attack, orderly 
 procedure, skilful execution, painstaking completion, habits of in- 
 dustry, good, honest work, respect for labor, the ability to do things 
 — these are the qualities that belong to real education. 
 
 THE WORK OFFERED IN THIS BOOK 
 
 The work offered in the following pages is intended for the boys 
 in the seventh and eighth grades, and the first and second years in 
 the high school. 
 
 It will be found valuable to teachers of these grades, both for its 
 method and its subject-matter. It is a course of study in wood-work, 
 particularly, for the boys of the grades named, while at the same 
 time it gives enough of method and device and direction to make 
 successful work possible without making it burdensome. It does not 
 presuppose on the part of the teacher special training in the manual 
 arts, but, on the contrary, brings to the untrained teacher the help of 
 a specialist, who furnishes in the following pages an abundance of 
 carefully graded problems that admit of solution in shops of simple 
 construction and equipment. Given a teacher of average ability, 
 and some appreciation of the meaning of the new movement in edu- 
 cation, and this book will quickly find its proper place in the industrial 
 development of the boys of the community. 
 
 F. A. Cotton. 
 
NOTES TO TEACHERS 
 
 Teachers should recognize the fact that the principles of peda- 
 gogy used in presenting the academic subjects are the basis of all teach- 
 ing, and that they should be applied to the teaching of industrial 
 subjects. 
 
 The first and indeed the greatest difficulty encountered in teaching 
 wood-work is to begin in such a way that the child will do a definite 
 thing and at the same time not be swamped in the number and variety 
 of tools and operations which he must use. To that end it will be well 
 to keep the following well-known facts in mind. 
 
 1. The work must be definite and must proceed from the simple 
 to the complex by easy and successive stages. 
 
 2. No work should be assigned to a child which it cannot do in a 
 reasonable time and with some degree of success. 
 
 3. One new fact or one new operation is all that should be included 
 in any assignment, and it is by no means necessary that every assign- 
 ment include something new. 
 
 At first the interest of the pupils is centred in the tool, for it is 
 new to them. The teacher who does not take advantage of the new- 
 ness of the tools to develop some little skill in their use and a knowledge 
 of the working parts, before the novelty is gone, places upon himself 
 and the pupil a dead load which must be lifted later. 
 
 In the beginning the child has no standard of accuracy. He does 
 not know the requirements of a working face or a joint edge, or when 
 a joint is well fitted, and such knowledge is difficult to get from a 
 book. 
 
xvi NOTES TO TEACHERS 
 
 Tlie class demonstration should furnish this infoi-mation. The 
 teacher should be careful, however, not to make a demonstration too 
 long, and should leave a sample of his own work where the pupil can 
 refer to it as a standard. 
 
 The knowledge and skill of the teacher should always be an in- 
 spiration to the class. 
 
 No pupil should be allowed to begin a piece of work, however 
 simple, until he has a clear statement of the problem. 
 
 The first four problems in the suggested course of study are ar- 
 ranged so as to centre the attention of the pupil on a single tool and 
 its use. The frequent references made to the main text call the at- 
 tention of the pupil to the fact that the first problems do not include 
 all that Is necessary for them to know. They will soon reahze that 
 they are enjoying a handicap and will not object to having it gradually 
 removed. 
 
 One of the most difficult problems for the teacher i,s to aid the pupil 
 in selecting a suitable article to make. As a rule, the pupil will want 
 to make something which requires much more time and skill than he 
 has. To begin a piece which the pupil is not able to finish leads to 
 discouragement and waste of time and material. On the other hand, 
 the work must be serious enough to call for his best effort and the 
 result must appeal to the pupil as being worth while. In the beginning 
 classes it is believed that the freedom of choice from a small group of 
 models or drawings will insure better class teaching and more direct 
 results than will come from the use of a larger group. 
 
 The subject of trees and their uses should be the object of outside 
 reading. 
 
 The growth of trees is considered in any complete work on botany. 
 
 l\iblications of the government department of forestry furnish 
 valuable information on the subject of forestry and lumbering. These 
 publications are fice. The encyclopaxlia will give much interesting 
 information on lumbering and any i)articular kind of tree. 
 
NOTES TO TEACHERS xvii 
 
 The school library or the shop reading-room should be supplied with 
 catalogues of builders and cabinet hardware and lists of lumber which 
 are on sale in the locality. 
 
 When all possible has been said, the text and the course of study 
 are but tools in the hands of the teacher, who is the master mechanic. 
 
 E. G. Allen. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING 
 FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Three ele- 
 ments of 
 wood- 
 work. 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 WOOD-WORKING 
 
 If we look at any piece of wood-work we see at once that it consists 
 of wood modelled or shaped to meet certain conditions. The wood, 
 the raw material, is changed by the use of the tool to meet the condi- 
 tion of the product. We have before us, 
 then, the three elements of wood-work — 
 the Product, the Material, and the Tool. 
 Try as we may, we cannot get away 
 from these three. We cannot do any 
 one thing in wood without bringing in 
 all three. The thoughtful wood-worker 
 — that is, the one who plans or designs . 
 the product and carries it through to 
 completion — must know certain funda- 
 mental things about the three elements 
 spoken of above. 
 
 The questions to answer are: Can 
 these facts be grouped into a systematic 
 whole so that each step in the process of construction will appear in 
 the proper relation to the others; and is there a fund of knowledge * 
 
 , . 1 1 • 1 General 
 
 that IS general which can be used m a modified form to solve any fund of 
 
 . , 1 1 o knowledge. 
 
 special problem ? 
 
MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Character- 
 istics of 
 wood. 
 
 Two kinds 
 of tools. 
 
 Dp finite 
 order of 
 proceed- 
 ure. 
 
 It will be the object of this and succeeding chapters to answer 
 these questions and finally to make such an arrangement of the facts 
 as will meet the needs of the several school grades in which the sub- 
 ject of wood-work may be taught. 
 
 Since wood is to be our material, we must get a piece of wood and 
 examine it to learn its most noticeable characteristics. If we look 
 at the wood closely, we shall see that it is made up of fibres that run 
 parallel. If we cut it with a knife, we note at once that it cuts much 
 more easily in the direction of the fibre than it does at right angles 
 to it. 
 
 If we wish to shape the piece of wood to meet any required condi- 
 tion, and look for the necessary tools with which to do it, we shall find 
 two types, or kinds, of saws and two kinds of planes, or at least the 
 parts of the saw and plane which cut the wood are made of different 
 shapes. One shape is made for cutting in the direction of the fibre, 
 or grain, and one at right angles to it. The nature of the change we 
 wish to make in the piece of wood will determine the kind of tool we 
 shall select. 
 
 Product, Material, Tool 
 
 Thus, from the very first we must consider the product, the material, 
 and the tool, and in the order named. Too much emphasis cannot be 
 put upon this order of procedure, the "product, the material, and the 
 tool. 
 
 Some will say, and, in fact, some proceed as though the product 
 were the last thing to be thought of. In the natural order of things 
 our desire or want leads to some particular thing, and with the defi- 
 nite end in view we start out to find ways and means of producing 
 what we want. The nature of the desire will determine the kind of 
 material and the tools to use. The order of procedure then is sim- 
 })ly this: State your problem — select your material — choose your 
 tools. 
 
WOOD-WORKING 3 
 
 Inasmuch as we are beginners in wood-work, our product must be 
 simple. It will, therefore, call for only a simple statement, will need 
 but little material, and will require the use of the most common tools. 
 
 Suppose we are working in a lumber yard and receive the fol- 
 lowing order: Send one piece of pine, two inches thick, four inches 
 wide, and two feet long. We have here the simplest problem that 
 we could have. It includes but one piece of wood and gives in 
 plain terms the necessary three dimensions. If the above order ^^j^^^ 
 included several pieces of different dimensions the statement given °^'^'^^, 
 
 '■ ^ complex. 
 
 would be too long and too complex to follow. Because of this com- 
 plexity the following form for writing an order for lumber has been 
 adopted : 
 
 Please send the following, Pine: , , 
 
 *' Order for 
 
 1 piece 2" x 4" x 10' — Read : two inches by four inches by ten feet. f'"' ^^ 
 
 *^ lumber, 
 
 12 pieces 2" x 4" x 16' — Read: two inches by four inches by sixteen feet. 
 10 pieces 1" x 12" x 14' — Read: one inch by twelve inches by fourteen feet. 
 
 The two small marks to the right and above the figures, 2, 2, 1, and 
 4, 4, 12, as ("), mean inches, and the one small mark to the right 
 and above the figures 10, 16, 14, as ('), means feet. If we notice care- 
 fully we shall see that the thickness of all the pieces is expressed by 
 the first figure, the width by the second, and the length by the third, 
 and that each one is placed in the proper column the same as the units, 
 tens, and hundreds that we wish to add. There are several reasons 
 for this form, but the best is that it is the one in common use among 
 lumbermen, and consequently will be better understood by any one 
 who may be called upon to fill the order. By designating the kind 
 of material at the head of each list we avoid the necessity of writing 
 it before each piece. 
 
 With the ability to state our problem we are ready to consider the 
 material and the tool. 
 
 We will proceed to fill the following order: Pine or Poplar: First 
 1 piece If X 4'' x 24'', finished to thickness, width, and length. We ^tTted."* 
 
MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Measuring 
 tools. 
 
 Divisions 
 or gradua- 
 tions on 
 ruler. 
 
 Mark or 
 lay out di- 
 mensions. 
 
 Material 
 left for 
 finishing. 
 
 must measure our lumber, and if we do not have such a piece in stock 
 we must cut it from a larger piece. The measuring instrument used 
 is generally the two-foot rule or the carpenter's square, shown in 
 use in Figs. 1 and la, respectively. 
 
 Each line on a ruler is called a graduation line. All of the lines are 
 
 referred to as the scale, and we 
 speak of the scale divisions, mean- 
 ing the number of parts into which 
 the ruler is divided. The rules 
 used in wood-working are gradu- 
 ated or divided into sixteenths, 
 eighths, quarters, and halves of 
 an inch, and into inches. 
 
 If we are to cut out a piece 
 of wood, we must measure it and 
 mark the measurements so that 
 we can cut quickly and accurately 
 without repeated measurements. 
 The piece we are to make is to be well finished, and in making 
 the first saw cuts some material must be left for finishing with tools 
 which cut smoother and better than does the saw. In the present 
 case, an eighth of an inch in 
 thickness, one-quarter of an 
 inch in width, and one-half 
 of an inch in length will be 
 sufficient material for finish- 
 ing. The rough dimensions 
 will be ir X 4^ X 2^'\ 
 These rough dimensions may 
 be marked out with the grain, 
 with a lead-pencil and rule, 
 
 as in Fig. 1. The thumbnail Fig. la— cross Lining with PencU and carpenter's square 
 
 Fig. I — Rough Lining with Pencil and Rule 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 Fig. 2 — Chisel-shaped 
 Teeth of the Rip Saw 
 
 is held against the edge of the board as a guide, the pencil is held 
 against the end of the rule, and both hands are moved along together 
 for the required distance. Cross lining is done with the pencil and 
 square held as in Fig. la. When the piece is laid out or marked out 
 we are ready to saw. 
 
 We have said before that saws are made in two ways — one for t^o kinds 
 
 •^ of saws. 
 
 cutting with the grain and one for cutting at right angles to it, or, as 
 they are called, the rip saw arid the hand or crosscut saw, respectively. 
 
 How can we tell one from the other? If we examine the saws Thenp 
 
 saw. 
 
 carefully we shall find that one of them has teeth 
 
 shaped like a row of chisels set one back of the 
 
 other, as in Fig. 2. 
 
 The face or front side of each tooth is at right 
 
 angles to the side of the blade. Inasmuch as the 
 teeth of this saw are made like a chisel, we will cut the wood 
 with a chisel and see in which direction of the grain it works best, 
 with the grain as at a (Fig. 3), or across the grain as at h (Fig. 3). 
 We find that the chip, or shaving, at a is smooth and clean 
 cut, while at b the 
 wood is split or bro- 
 ken. The test shows 
 that the saw with the 
 teeth shaped like the 
 chisel will cut best 
 with the grain. This 
 tool is the Rip Saw. 
 
 If we take a knife 
 and cut the fibre of 
 the wood at e and / 
 (Fig. 3), and then cut 
 between these lines 
 
 with a chisel, we again Fig. 3 — Chisel cuts illustrating the Cutting Action of the Saw Teeth 
 
6 
 
 IMANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Crosscut 
 saw. 
 
 Shape of 
 crosscut 
 saw teeth. 
 
 We 
 
 one 
 In 
 
 Fig. 4 — Shape of Hand 
 or Crosscut Saw Teeth 
 
 Set. 
 
 Bendinj; of 
 saw teeth. 
 
 Saw out 
 
 rouKli 
 
 stock. 
 
 get a smooth, clean cut, as at a, only at ri^^ht angles to the gi-ain. In 
 this latter cut two tools, the knife and the chisel, work together. 
 
 An examination of the handsaw or crosscut saw teeth (Fig. 4), will 
 show how tlie knife and the chisel may be combined so as to cut wood 
 at right angles to the fibre. 
 
 The saw teeth represented in Fig. 4 show that the point of the first 
 tooth (a) is on one side of the blade, and the 
 adjacent point (cr) is on the opposite side, 
 shall find the adjacent points alternating from 
 side to the other the entire length of the saw. 
 action, the point (/) will cut the fibre on one side 
 of the blade, and cr will cut it on the other; 
 each doing the work of the knife. The chip will 
 be carried out by the chisel-shaped end, as at a. 
 
 All saws are set, that is, the adjacent teeth 
 are bent in opposite directions, to make the saw 
 cut, or kerf, wider than the blade, in order to 
 
 ])revent the saw from 
 sticking in the wood. 
 (See Fig. 5.) Care 
 should be taken not 
 to confuse this bending with the shape 
 of tlie two types of teeth. 
 
 This will give us sufficient knowledge 
 to select the saws for the problem that we 
 are to solve. The wood has been marked 
 off or, as is usually said, is laid out, and 
 we are now ready to saw. 
 
 Place the large board on a convenient 
 
 rest. A pair of stands, one of which is 
 
 shown in Fig. 6, called Saw Horses, are 
 
 Fig. 6-starting the Rip Saw generally used. Take the rip saw in the 
 
 =^ asr .^ ^ 
 
 Fig. 5— Bending of Teeth 
 to Make Saw Cut or 
 Kerf Wider than the 
 Blade of the Saw 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 hand, with the first finger extending along the handle, as is shown in 
 
 Fig. 6; this extended finger lielps to hold the saw steady and to 
 
 guide it. Place the other hand on the board, letting the thumb 
 
 rest against the saw blade, to form a stop or guide until the cut is 
 
 well started. Grip the saw firmly, but not so rigidly that the muscles 
 
 are set and stiff. The cut should be made with 
 
 a long, steady stroke, and the saw should be 
 
 held square with the face of the board. To 
 
 do this the small square, about which we shall 
 
 learn more later, may be placed on the board 
 
 and the blade of the saw kept parallel with the 
 
 blade of the square. (See Fig. 6a.) The saw 
 
 cuts best when held at an angle of about 
 
 45° to the face of the board, as shown in 
 
 Fig. 6. - 
 
 The crosscut saw is held and squared the 
 same as the rip saw. (See Fig. 6a.) The first 
 stroke, however, should be back against the 
 teeth, that is, toward you, in order to prevent 
 the wood from splitting on the edge. Do not 
 bear down on a saw of any kind, and be sure to 
 take long, steady strokes. When the piece is sawed out we are 
 ready for finishing. 
 
 Our problem is to finish this piece of pine to the required dimen- 
 sions, If X 4'' X 2\ The order of procedure should be as follows : 
 
 (1) Measure the piece to make sure it is large enough to meet the 
 requirements. (2) Examine it carefully to see that there are no 
 flaws that will render it worthless after we have spent valuable time 
 upon it. (3) Select the best face. Hold it up and sight over it 
 both from the end and from the side, to see if it is warped or twisted, 
 or, as the carpenter would say, "To see if it is in wind." (4) Make 
 this face a true plane by planing. 
 
 starting 
 the rip 
 saw. 
 
 Squaring 
 tiie saw. 
 
 Fig. 6a — Squaring the Saw 
 
 Problem. 
 
 Order of 
 proceed- 
 ure. 
 
8 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Kinds of 
 of planes. 
 
 As has been said, we have two types of planes — one for cutting 
 in the direction of the grain (Fig. 7), and one for cutting at right 
 angles to it (Fig. 7a). How can we tell these two apart ? 
 
 Even a hasty glance at these two planes will show a marked differ- 
 ence. The cutting part of Fig. 7 stands much more nearly perpen- 
 dicular to the base of the plane than does that in Fig. la. The size 
 
 Fig. 7 — Plane for Cutting with 
 thie Grain 
 
 Fig. 7a — Plane for Cutting across the 
 Grain (Block Planet 
 
 Many 
 kinds of 
 planes. 
 
 Necessity 
 for two 
 kinds of 
 planes. 
 
 and general shape of the two are so different that the worker will 
 readily learn which one to use for the work in hand. 
 
 There are many forms and shapes of planes, but those forms 
 which we shall need to use in the solution of our problem are all that 
 we shall consider at the present time. 
 
 If we have ever done any close, accurate work with tools, we know 
 that tools for such work must be sharp, and that if they remain sharp 
 they must not be overworked by cutting out too much material at' 
 once, or by cutting into rough, dirty places. For this reason the wood- 
 worker has two planes very much alike, the principal difference being 
 that the cutting part of one plane is shaped for removing a large 
 amount of material without much care as to the condition of the 
 surface, while the cutting part of the other is siiaped to remove a 
 small amount of material and at the same time leave the surface of 
 the wood in a smooth, finished condition. 
 
 The cutting iron, or plane bit, for removing a small amount of 
 material is shaped as in Fig. 8. The plane bit for removing a large 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 9 
 
 amount of material is shaped as in Fig. 8a. If a deep cut should be shape of 
 made with a plane bit like the one shown in Fig. 8, set into the edge of 
 wood as in Fig. 9, the wood at a and b would be split or torn 
 from the body of the piece and leave rough, ragged edges. If we 
 
 rn 
 
 f — \ 
 
 (J 
 
 (J 
 
 Fig. 8— Plane Bit for 
 Removing a Small 
 Amount of Material 
 (Smooth Plane) 
 
 Fig. 8a— Plane Bit for 
 Removing a Large 
 Amount of Material 
 (Jack Plane) 
 
 Fig. 9 — Deep Cut with Smooth 
 Plane Bit 
 
 Fig. 10— Deep Cut with Jack 
 Plane Bit 
 
 Fig. 1 1 —Condition of Sur- 
 face After Cut, as Shown 
 in Fig. 10 
 
 cut with a bit like the one shown in Fig. 8a, set into the wood as in 
 Fig. 10, the shaving would be cut throughout the entire width and 
 the surface left uneven, as in Fig. 11, but clean cut. 
 
 We notice that the corners of the bit in Fig. 8 are slightlv rounded. 
 
 mi • • 1 • T 1 11 o ^ Jack plane 
 
 Ihis IS to 'prevent scratchmg. In short, the plane bit for doing rough and 
 
 I 1 T 7 T-.7 11 • i^ to smooth 
 
 work, the Jack Flane, has the cuttmg edge ground oval; while the plane. 
 cutting edge of the plane iron for doing smooth work, the Smooth 
 Plane, is ground straight across with the corners slightly rounded. 
 
10 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 The rounding of the corners of (he smooth plane is all done on the oil- 
 stone. 
 Lensthof Ordinarily in speakin"; of the kind of lilane the length of the base 
 
 planes. - i ^ ^ 
 
 or stock enters into consideration: 
 
 Smooth Plane, 5" to 10'' 
 Jack Plane, 12'' to 15" 
 Fore Plane, 18" 
 Jointer Plane, 22" to 24" 
 
 The Jack Plane is from 12" to 15" long only because this is a con- 
 venient length. The principal difference between it and other planes 
 is the shape of the cutting edge of the bit or cutting iron. 
 
 There is one more question about planes in general that concerns 
 us here. Why are some planes longer than others ? If we wish to 
 
 plane a surface like Fig. 12, 
 and use the short plane, we 
 can readily see that it will 
 follow the surface and make 
 it smooth, but it will not 
 make it straight. The waves 
 or larger inequalities will remain always the same. If we use a 
 long plane, as in Fig. 13, it will reach over the low places, ultimately 
 
 Short and 
 
 lout? 
 
 pianos. 
 
 Fig. 12— Irregular Surface Planed with Short Plane 
 
 General 
 statement 
 for use of 
 l)lanes. 
 
 _2_ 
 
 A^L 
 
 making the surface straight. 
 
 The following statements 
 with regard to the use of the 
 planes may be made: (1) Use 
 the smooth plane on small 
 pieces, on surfaces that have 
 previously been made straight by the use of a long plane, and on 
 surfaces that do not need to be made perfectly true. (2) Use the 
 roughing plane or Jack Plane to remove a large amount of material. 
 (3) Use the Fore Plane or the Jointer Plane for surfaces and edges 
 
 Fig. 13 — Irregular Surface Cut with Long Plane 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 11 
 
 that need to be very accurate. The bits for the fore plane and 
 jointer plane are ground the same as for the smooth plane (Fig. 8). 
 As the planes are used the names of the parts should be learned, ^ea™ 
 
 '■ '■ trade vo- 
 
 The trade vocabulary should also be learned as far as possible, more cabuiary. 
 by contact and necessity than by any actual drill in such terms. 
 
 With the knowledge we have of planes, we can now choose the 
 proper ones to use in filling our order. We have measured our piece 
 of stock, have examined it carefully and have made sure that there 
 are no cracks, knots, or other serious defects, and have chosen the 
 best face, page 7. 
 
 Planing the First or Working Face 
 
 The first or working face is very important, for it is the base of 
 all measurements, and mistakes made in this face will be carried 
 to all the other faces. The single face as a base of all measurements 
 makes use of a general principle which is very important in all work 
 which requires accurate measurements. A simple statement of this 
 principle is: In measuring, use as few starting-points as possible. 
 For example, if we are to measure from a to h, b to c, and c 
 to d (Fig. 14), and use a as a starting- 
 point to measure a — 6; 6 as a starting- 
 point to measure h — c, and c to measure 
 c — d, we shall have three chances to 
 make errors in measuring from a to d, 
 
 and every intermediate error will be added to every other; thus we 
 shall be constantly adding errors. On the other hand, if we measure 
 from a to b, from a to c, and from a to d, there will be but one chance 
 for mistake in each measurement, and any intermediate error will 
 not affect the measurement from a to d. Too much stress cannot be 
 put upon this principle. 
 
 After sighting across the face and marking the high spots with 
 a pencil, the Jack Plane should be used to remove the rough surface, 
 
 A rule for 
 measuring. 
 
 Fig. 14 — Measiu-e from as Few Points as 
 Possible 
 
12 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 How to 
 sharpen a 
 plane bit. 
 
 Shape of 
 
 cutting 
 
 edge. 
 
 Grind- 
 stone. 
 
 Oil-stone. 
 
 Principle 
 of cutting 
 edge. 
 
 o 
 
 K^ 
 
 K 
 
 then the smooth plane for finishing. The cutting iron, or plane bit, 
 should be sharp and very keen, so as to remove the material or stock 
 with the least effort, and at the same time leave the surface of the 
 I ' — wood in good condition. 
 
 To sharpen the bit, it should be 
 removed from all other parts of the 
 plane, as in Fig. 15. If the edge is 
 blunt, or has nicks in it, it must be 
 ground on a grindstone, as in Fig. 16; 
 Fig. is-piane Bit Ready for Grinding ^ rcpreseuts the plane bit; 6 the 
 
 grindstone, and the arrow the direction in which the wheel is turning. 
 
 When ground the bevel of the cutting edge should be, as in Fig. 17, a 
 
 straight line from 1 to 2, or 
 
 should he slightly concave, 
 
 as in c (Fig. 17). 
 
 The grindstone is 
 
 coarse and leaves a rough 
 
 burr, or feathery edge, 
 
 which must be removed. 
 
 This is done on the oil- 
 stone, as in Fig. 18. 
 
 Much care should be 
 
 taken to keep the bevel always flat on the stone, in moving the bit 
 
 from a to 6 (Fig. 18). Always avoid such a change of position as is 
 
 shown in a — b (Fig. 19). 
 
 The principle of the cutting edge of any tool is the same as the 
 
 principle of the wedge. 
 The thinner the wedge the 
 easier it is to drive it. But 
 the wedge as well as the 
 tool must be thick enough 
 to stand the strain of 
 
 Fig. i6 — Position of Plane Bit on 
 Grindstone 
 
 Fig. 17 — Correct Bevel 
 for Cutting Edge of 
 Plane Bit 
 
 
 -^--g'""':^y"^^~~v^ 
 
 Fig. i8— Correct Method of Oil-Stoning Plane Bit 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 13 
 
 being driven or pushed into the wood, or the material that is to be 
 spht or cut. From this it will be seen that in grinding a tool to be 
 used on hard wood the bevel would need to be more obtuse than for 
 cutting soft wood. If we have ground a tool to the bevel (1 — 2) 
 (Fig. 17), and oil-stone it. as a — h (Fig. 19), instead of having the de- 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 19— Incorrect Method of Oil -Stoning Plane Bit 
 
 /=\ 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 Rane Iron 
 Caa^ 
 
 r\ 
 
 Fig. 20 — Incorrect Oil-Stoning 
 Changes the Angle at the 
 Cutting Edge 
 
 sired bevel at the point, it would have a bevel as 1 — 2 (Fig. 20), which 
 would be too blunt to cut well. The prol:)lem of grinding the tool and 
 keeping it in order is one of the most difficult that the mechanic has to 
 solve. Skill in grinding comes only after continued use of the tool. 
 
 With the bit ground and made smooth on the oil-stone, we can 
 now proceed to put it into the plane. In 
 doing this, we find several parts the names 
 and uses of which it will be well to know. 
 The first part to be added to the bit is the 
 plane iron cap (Fig. 21). This should be 
 placed about one thirty-second of an inch 
 from the cutting edge. The object of this 
 cap is well shown in Figs. 22 and 23. If 
 the bit is set into the wood, as in Fig. 22, 
 without the cap, the shaving will slip up the bit as at a, and as 
 the bit advances into the cut the shaving will break farther and far- 
 ther ahead of the cutting edge, thus causing the wood to split in the 
 direction of the grain. This will leave a rough face, as at h. If the 
 
 f . 
 
 Fig. 21 — Plane Iron and Cap 
 
 SkUl in 
 grinding. 
 
 Plane iron 
 cap. 
 
 Use of 
 plane iron 
 cap. 
 
14 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 cap be added to the bit, set as directed above, and the bit set into 
 the wood, as in Fig. 23, when the plane advances the shaving will 
 strike the cap, as at c, and will be broken before it has leverage 
 
 Fig. 22 — Plane Bit Cutting without Cap 
 
 Fig. 23 — Plane Bit Cutting with Cap 
 
 enough to split ahead. The fibres will be cut and the surface of the 
 
 wood left smooth. 
 Double The bit without the cap is called the single bit, and with the cap 
 
 pune'iJon. IS callcd the doublc bit. 
 
 The bit and cap are now ready to be placed in the stock. See B, 
 
 Fig. 24— Plane Stock, Bit and 
 Clamping Iron Removed 
 
 Fig. 25 Complete Plane Ready for Use 
 
 Principal Fig. 24. Tlic wliolc basc of the plane, including the hantlle, is generally 
 
 j^iYiie."^ referred to as the .s/or/v of the plane. The bit should bo placed in the 
 
 stock, cap up. Care sliould always be taken not to strike the cutting 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 15 
 
 edge on any of the iron parts of the plane. Shp the clamping cap (D) 
 (Fig. 25) under the screw (F), and push down the clamping lever (E) 
 (Fig. 25). The screw (F) may be adjusted so that when the clamping 
 lever (E) is pushed down the bit will be held firmly in place. Hold 
 the plane as in Fig. 26; move the adjust- 
 ing lever (A) (Fig. 24) until the cutting 
 edge of the bit is parallel with the face of 
 the stock. Turn the adjusting nut (C) 
 (Fig. 25) until the bit is drawn above the 
 surface of the stock, then turn it slowly or 
 gradually downward until it cuts the re- 
 quired shaving. A very thin shaving is 
 all that is needed. The tendency is to 
 cut the shaving too thick and to remove 
 too much stock from the working face. 
 To test this face use the Try Square 
 (Fig. 27). The square should be held as in 
 Fig. 28. The beam (Fig. 27) is held up to 
 avoid the tendency to place it against the 
 irregular unfinished edge. The square in 
 this position is used only as a straight-edge. 
 
 The 
 
 Fig. 26 — Adjusting the Plane Iron 
 
 -Scale 
 
 > 
 
 Blade. 
 
 Beam. 
 
 Fig. 27 — Try Square 
 
 face should be tested 
 every two or three strokes of the 
 plane. The object is not to re- 
 move material or stock, but to 
 make the face a perfect plane. 
 By holding the work toward the 
 light one can readily see whether 
 or not the blade of the square 
 touches the wood across the 
 entire face. Tests should be 
 made every inch or two the 
 
 Adjusting 
 the plane. 
 
 Cut thin 
 shavings. 
 
 Parts of 
 try square. 
 
 Try square 
 used as a 
 straight- 
 edge. 
 
16 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Test work 
 often. 
 
 Car- 
 penter's 
 square as 
 straiplit- 
 edse. 
 
 entire leii<;tli of (lie i)ie('e. Sight across the f'aee from end to end, 
 
 Mark 
 
 workinK 
 
 face. 
 
 to make sure the face is straight. 
 
 If the piece is short it may be 
 tested with a straight-edge, as 
 in Fig. 29. The long blade of 
 the carpenter's square is a good 
 
 Fig. 29 — Carpenter's Square Used as 
 Straight-Edge 
 
 Fig. 28 — Try Square Used as Straight-Edge 
 
 straight-edge for such a test. 
 
 When the face is finished it should 
 
 be marked, for, as we have said, it 
 
 is to be used as the base for all measurements. This face is now 
 
 said to be jointed and ma}' })e marked No. 1, or with a corner mai-k 
 
 spoken of later. 
 
 To Make a Face at Right Angles to Face No. i 
 
 Tr.v square 
 used as a 
 square. 
 
 Squaring 
 edge. 
 
 Test the edges adjacent to No. 1 with the try scjuare, as in Fig. 30, 
 holding the beam of the square against face No. 1 . Select the best 
 edge, or the one most nearly square with No. L Sight over this edge 
 to see if it is straight. If not, plane the high places until it is, then 
 plane and test as in Fig. 30, until the blade of the square rests on the 
 wood across the entire surface. Tests should be made often, every 
 two or three strokes of the plane, as was done in face No. 1, for on 
 this edge the object is not to remove stock, but to make an edge 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 17 
 
 Joint edge. 
 
 Fig. 30— Testing Edge for Squareness 
 
 at right angles to the working face. In testing with the try square 
 it should never be slid down the piece, for if the face of the beam 
 is tipped at an angle the blade will be also, and will not give a true 
 test. The square should be lifted free from the surface and set down 
 carefully every inch or two. 
 
 When the edge is made straight and 
 at right angles to No. 1 it is called the 
 joint edge, and may be marked No. 2. 
 Or instead of marking these two faces 
 No. 1 and No. 2, a good way to mark 
 them, and one in common use, is shown 
 in a — h (Fig. 31), the line a — h indicating 
 the faces that have been jointed. Only 
 these two faces should be marked, and 
 these should always be marked. 
 
 We now have the working face and the 
 joint edge and can proceed to face No. 3. The 
 first step was to get a true plane ; the second 
 step to make a true plane at right angles to 
 the first. The third step is to make a plane 
 at right angles to the first and at a given 
 distance from the second face. The best way to make the third step 
 is to mark the exact dimensions by drawing a line on No. 1 at the 
 given distance from No. 2. For making such a line parallel to the 
 grain and parallel to a marked edge or face, the marking gauge, 
 Fig. 32, is used. 
 
 The single lines on the beam of the gauge are called graduations, 
 while the whole set of lines is called the scale, the same as in any 
 rule. The marking point, or the spur (Fig. 32), should be sharp- 
 ened to an obtuse wedge shape, as in c (Fig. 33). The spur thus 
 sharpened will make a very shallow line, though one which is easily 
 seen. 
 
 Use square 
 carefully. 
 
 Fig- 31 — Corner Marks Show 
 Working Face and Joint Edge 
 
 Making 
 third face. 
 
 Parts of 
 marking 
 gauge. 
 
18 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Setting the 
 gauge. 
 
 Keep head 
 of gauge 
 on a 
 marked 
 face. 
 
 In setting the gauge it should not be assumed that the scale 
 on the beam is correct, for when the spur is sharpened it is not 
 likely that the point will come at the zero mark on the scale. We 
 may, however, assume that the scale is nearly correct. The head 
 may be set to the required dimension and the set screw turned 
 lightly against the beam. Then with a separate scale, as in Fig. 34, 
 
 Set Screw or Thumb Screw. 
 
 Scale. 
 
 ~ II 
 
 III 
 
 Beam, 
 
 Head. 
 Fig. 32 — Marking Gauge 
 
 Fig- 33— Method of 
 Sharpening Spur 
 for Marking Gauge 
 
 the measurement may be tested and the head brought to the proper 
 dimension by a light tap on the bench. The set screw is then made 
 tight and the measurement checked by measuring again to make 
 
 sure that the head has 
 remained in position. 
 The screw (c) and the 
 slot (.s') (Fig. 32) are 
 for clamping the spur 
 and holding it in posi- 
 tion as well as to allow 
 it to be removed for 
 sharpening. 
 
 In making a line 
 with the gauge the head 
 should always he held against a marked edge or face. The face of the 
 beam from which the spur projects is made oval (a) (Fig. 32), 
 and should alwa3^s be placed in contact with the surface upon which 
 
 Fig. 34 — Setting the Gauge to Exact Dimensions 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 19 
 
 gauge line. 
 
 the line is to be made (Fig. 
 35). The hand should be 
 placed on the gauge as in 
 Fig. 36, the thuml) being 
 placed directly back of the 
 spur. The oval face of 
 the beam admits turning so 
 that the spur may be made 
 to cut a deep or a shallow 
 
 line. When the line is made ^'^- ^S-Positlon of Gauge for Making a Line 
 
 it should be exactly parallel to the joint edge, or face No. 2. 
 
 To test the line, place the head of the try square against face No. 2, 
 
 or joint edge, as in Fig. 37, and 
 slide it along the edge, keeping close ^estin 
 
 o / 1 o trill iL'e 
 
 watch of the gauge line and the 
 
 corresponding graduation on the 
 
 square. The line should be straight 
 
 and uniform 
 
 throughout 
 
 the entire 
 
 length of the 
 
 piece. If the 
 
 ends are to 
 
 be planed 
 
 to length it 
 
 must be 
 
 done before 
 
 the third 
 side is jointed. (See end planing at the end 
 of chapter.) 
 
 The above conditions all met, we can now ■ pianing 
 
 plane the third face. If we follow the line on ^gne '^wTa the xrj^sfu^f fac? ^"^' 
 
 Fig. 36 — Holding the Gauge for Making a Line 
 
the llllt 
 
 20 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 face No. 1 the tliinl vd^o will be straight, and if we scjuare with 
 face No. 1 we shall have filled all the required conditions. 
 Splitting' In planing to a gauge line we should always plane to the centre 
 
 of the line, for in setting the gauge (Fig. 34) the centre of the spur, 
 or marking point, is placed in the centre of the required scale grad- 
 uation, therefore the centre of the line will mark the required dimen- 
 sion. This is what the wood-worker calls splitting the line (Fig. 38). 
 
 If the line is made 
 shallow the corner 
 of the piece will be 
 left in good con- 
 dition. Frequent 
 
 Fig. 38— Splitting the Line with Plane ^^^^ ShOUid be made 
 
 of the try square, 
 as was done in making the joint edge. (See Fig. 30.) The last shav- 
 ing should split the line and leave the third face square with the 
 working face, or No. 1. 
 Thefburth The fourth and last surface is made square with the joint edge 
 (face No. 2) and at the required distance from No. 1 , the working face. 
 This will involve no new feature except that we can make a line on 
 faces Nos. 2 and 3, which will do away with the necessity of using the 
 square so much. 
 
 End Planing 
 
 If the ends of the piece are to be planed to an exact length, the 
 end planing should generally be done before the third side is planed. 
 End planing is not easy, however, and we shall learn in the succeed- 
 ing chapters that in many cases it can be dispensed with altogether or 
 left until later. The workman should use his own judgment, and he 
 must know the purpose for which the piece is to be used. 
 
 To plane the ends of a piece of wood to exact dimensions we must 
 first make careful measurements of the length and mark those meas- 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 21 
 
 Fig- 39— Correct Way to Lo- 
 cate Point with Knife and 
 Rule 
 
 Fig- 39a — Incorrect Method of Locat- 
 ing Point with Knife and Rule 
 
 urements with exact lines. To measure and mark those exact Hnes, 
 we shall have to use the rule, the knife, and the square. 
 
 When making an exact measurement the rule or scale should 
 be placed edgewise on the piece to be measured, as in Fig. 39, and 
 never as in Fig. 39a, 
 for in the latter case 
 the scale lines will be 
 so far from the face 
 of the piece that the 
 measurements can- 
 not be located accu- 
 rately with the knife 
 point. The mark made by the knife point should be so small that a 
 line drawn through it will entirely erase it. Note Fig. 396 and Fig. 
 39c. The knife should always be used 
 for making careful measurements, for 
 the pencil makes too large a mark. 
 The knife used in making lines should 
 be ground as in Fig. S9d. The point 
 should be sharp but ground at an ob- 
 tuse angle, as at b (Fig. 39(i). A knife 
 thus ground will make a positive 
 shallow line. It will spread the fibres of the wood so that the centre 
 of the line may be easily seen and worked to. The 
 knife ground as in c (Fig. 
 39d), is so thin that it sinks 
 too deep into the wood. The 
 fibres are not spread apart, 
 the line is not so easily seen 
 as is the one made with the 
 , ^ .. obtuse blade. The centre is not visible and is so far 
 
 Fig. 39d —Knife 
 
 pomt for Making ^^yr^y fi-oni the visible part of the line, as C (Fig. 39e), 
 
 Rule, knife, 
 and square 
 
 1 
 
 Correct 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Incorrect 
 
 Line + Point 
 
 
 Line + Point 
 
 Fig- 39b — Correct 
 Line and Point 
 
 Fig. 39c — Incorrect 
 Line and Point 
 
 
 Fig. 396- 
 
 B, Correct Line; C, In- 
 correct Line 
 
 Knife 
 point for 
 makiuf; 
 lines. 
 
22 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Makinj? 
 line with 
 knife and 
 square. 
 
 that it does not mark the required dimensions. From this it will 
 be seen that the point of the knife for making lines is a very im- 
 portant thing in accurate wood-work. 
 
 With the measurements made and located by a small mark of the 
 knife point and the knife properly ground for making a line, place 
 the point of the knife in the mark, put the head of the try square 
 
 "l 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 w 
 
 
 Wmf 
 
 
 
 
 ^ M 
 
 
 i^ -w/ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Wi 
 
 ^^^^H 
 
 WmJ 
 
 
 
 ^'-. 
 
 
 ■r 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 ^^^I^M 
 
 
 m 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 Fig. 39f— Putting Knife and Square in Position to 
 Draw Line 
 
 Fig. 39g- 
 
 Knife and Square in Position for 
 Drawing Line 
 
 Fig. 39h— Drawing the Line 
 
 on face No. 2, or the joint edge as in Fig. 39/, push the square up to 
 the knife (Fig. 39^), and draw the line as in Fig. 39/i. Turn the piece 
 from you, place the point of the knife in the end of the line just drawn, 
 
WOOD-WORKING 
 
 23 
 
 \J 
 
 
 Fig. 39i — Putting Knife and Square in Position for 
 Drawing Line on Edge 
 
 Fig- 39J — Knife and Square in Position for Draw- 
 ing Line on Edge 
 
 Fig. 39k — Piece Lined for End Planing 
 
 put the head of the square on face No. 1, or the working face, Fig. 39i, 
 push the square up to the knife as in Fig. 39j, and ch*aw Hne across 
 the joint edge. 
 
 When the piece is ready for squaring, the ends and third face will Piece laid 
 be marked, or laid out, as in Fig. 39/:. It will, however, be best to endpian- 
 
 . . ing. 
 
 saw close to the end line before planing. 
 We must learn early that the saw is the 
 best tool for removing large amounts of 
 material. If the end sawing is clone care- 
 fully with a saw that has fine teeth it will 
 take but a few strokes of the plane to 
 bring the end to the line and make it smooth. Before planing 
 cut off or bevel the corner as at a (Fig. 39Z). 
 The object of the bevel is to prevent split- 
 ting the wood when the plane cuts off the edge 
 of the piece. 
 
 The Block plane, made especially for end 
 planing is shown on page 8 (Fig. 7a), though a 
 good, sharp, smooth plane may be used to ad- 
 vantage especially on hard wood and large ends. 
 The try square should always be used to test the ^'s- ^^'i'^d'pifninr*"^'' ^°' 
 
24 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Planinir 
 iiwiinst 
 block. 
 
 squareness of the end as it was in testing the joint edge (page 
 17) (Fig. 30). The squaring should be done both from the 
 
 ^-^v^:^^^nK 
 
 Fig. 39m — Block Back of Piece in Vise for End 
 Planing 
 
 joint edge and the working face. 
 If there is not enough stock to 
 make a bevel large enough to pre- 
 vent the edge from splitting, a 
 separate piece may be clamped in 
 the vise back of the edge as in 
 Fig. 39m, and the planing be done 
 across both pieces. Or the planing 
 
 mav be done from both edges toward the centre. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 The first piece finished, we have learned the following: 
 
 Elements of wood-work and their order — Problem, Tool, Material. 
 
 How to write an order for a bill of lumber. 
 
 General facts about the saw. 
 
 How to tell the crosscut saw from the rip saw. 
 
 Kinds of planes — some of their uses — the names of the parts — how to care for 
 
 and adjust them. 
 Measuring from a single startiiig-j)()int. 
 .Joint edge and working face. 
 Planing a surface. 
 
 Use of try square as a straight-edge and as a square. 
 Carpenter's gauge — the parts and how to use it. 
 Planing a piece of wood to given dimensions. 
 The knife and square for making lines across the grain. 
 
 We are now ready for more advanced work. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE LAP JOINT, WITH SEQUENCE OF DRAWINGS AND TOOLS 
 NECESSARY FOR QUICK, ACCURATE PRODUCTION 
 
 Material Required : Pine or poplar, 2 pieces 1^/' x If' x 5''. 
 
 One-half the thickness of the first piece is to be cut out If' from 
 the end, back. The centre of the second piece is to be cut out so as 
 to receive the end remaining on the first piece after cutting out one- 
 half the thickness of the material, as ordered above. The two pieces 
 must fit perfectly, two sides of the first being level or flush with two 
 sides of the second. The small end of the first must be even or flush 
 with one edge of the second. The other end of the first must extend 
 back on the opposite side 3f'. When completed the joint resembles 
 the capital letter ''T." 
 
 The above is one of the most simple, as well as the most common 
 ways of joining two pieces of wood; but if one were not familiar with 
 such a joint it is doubtful if the statement 
 of the problem would be sufficient to give 
 a clear idea of what is wanted; though 
 the attempt has been made to state the 
 problem as clearly as possible in words 
 alone. For such a simple problem, a 
 photograph or a perspective drawing, as 
 in Fig. 40, will assist very much in giving 
 an idea of the general shape. Or we might 
 make use of illustrated description, as was 
 
 25 
 
 Written 
 statement 
 of prob- 
 lem not 
 sufticient. 
 
 Fig. 40 — Picture or Perspective Draw- 
 ing of Lap Joint 
 
26 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Photo- 
 graph not 
 sufficient 
 statement 
 of problem. 
 
 Mechani- 
 cal draw- 
 ing the 
 lansruaKe 
 of the me- 
 chanic. 
 
 done in giving tlie names of the parts of the plane, Figs. 24 
 and 25, page 14. Even for a single joint, these methods are cum- 
 bersome, and it is obvious that they are limited to very simple 
 problems. 
 
 If we had an article of wood-work involving many joints and 
 pieces, as in Fig. 40a, either method would be altogether inade- 
 quate, for, while we can see at 
 a glance the shape of the ob- 
 ject and the various parts, the 
 exact size and the way of 
 uniting them cannot be shown, 
 for many of the most import- 
 ant details are concealed from 
 view. This being the case, it 
 \\\\\ be necessary for us to have 
 a more definite as well as a 
 general way of stating our prob- 
 lems. 
 
 If we go to the factory or 
 
 workshop we shall find a picture 
 
 and word language in general use 
 
 which, though simple in princi- 
 
 p\e, is capable of being used to 
 
 express the most complicated 
 
 problem of construction. Some 
 
 knowledge of this language is 
 
 necessary for the designer or the workman who would go beyond 
 
 the first step in design or construction. This language is Mechanical 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Our prol)lem for the next few pages will be to learn the funda- 
 mental principles of this language, in order to state the present 
 problem correctly and definitely. 
 
 Fig. 4oa — A Photograph Does Not Give Details of 
 Construction 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 27 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 
 
 Fig. 41 — Perspective Draw- 
 ing or Picture of Block 
 
 The mechanical drawing is distinguished from the photograph or 
 perspective drawing, in that it does not give the whole object in one 
 view or picture. It must have two or more views. For example 
 Fig. 41 is the perspective, or picture, of the same 
 object which is represented by a mechanical draw- 
 ing in Fig. 41a. The difference between these 
 two methods of expression is that in Fig. 41 the 
 object is looked at from one point, as in Fig. 42. 
 But in Fig. 41a the object is viewed not from one 
 point but from many points, and always in parallel 
 lines, as in the direction of the arrows (E) (Fig. 43). 
 The object or the eye is moved in such a way that 
 
 each point is viewed by itself. From the positions 
 E, E, E, etc., only the elements of side (^1) will be 
 seen. From F, F, F, etc., we get the elements of B. 
 The positions E, F, G, 
 as well as any other po- 
 sitions from which the 
 object may be viewed, 
 are always at right an- 
 gles to each other. 
 
 Any one can see that 
 Fig. 41 represents an 
 object having three di- 
 mensions. It is not so easy to see that Fig. 41a 
 represents the same object, or that it gives more 
 exact information than does Fig. 41. In Fig. 41a the lines are 
 given in their exact length and the surfaces in their exact sizes; 
 while in Fig. 41 some of the lines and surfaces are viewed at an 
 angle and appear shortened. 
 
 Fig. 42— Block Viewed from One Point 
 
 Fig. 4 1 a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Block 
 Shown in Fig. 41 
 
 Difference 
 between 
 mechanical 
 and per- 
 spective 
 drawing. 
 
28 
 
 MANUAL TllALNINC; FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 The prob- 
 lem of me- 
 chuiiicul 
 drawing. 
 
 Plan and 
 elevation. 
 
 Fig. 43 
 
 -Block Viewed from Many Points and Always in Parallel 
 Lines 
 
 The methcxl of vicnving the object, and of placing and interpreting 
 the different views, are the difficult problems of mechanical drawing, 
 
 and in fact are the basis 
 of the whole subject. 
 
 Our problem now is 
 to understand the three 
 fundamental parts of me- 
 chanical drawing: 
 
 (.4) The view points. 
 
 (B) Placing of the 
 views. 
 
 (C) Interpreting the 
 meaning of each view. 
 
 If an object stands on 
 its natural base, as the 
 cylinder in Fig. 44, the 
 view we get from the direction of the arrows (C) will be the Plan, 
 and the view from the direction (D) will be the Elevation. 
 
 If we consider a cube, as in Fig. 43, where there is no natural 
 
 base, any side may be taken 
 as a base and the views 
 made accordingly. 
 
 The plan and the ele- 
 vation are always at right 
 ^viewld7?om°the augles to cach 
 other and 
 represent the horizontal and 
 the vertical views respec- 
 tively. What we really see 
 in the direction of the 
 arrows (C) (Fig. 44) is a 
 circle, as in Fi<2:. 45. From 
 
 Fig. 44 — Viewing Cylinder to Get Plan 
 and Elevation 
 
 Fig. 46 — Cylinder 
 Viewed from the 
 Side 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 29 
 
 Elevation 
 
 the direction of the arrows (D) we see an object as represented in Fig. 46. Placing 
 As Fig. 45 and Fig. 46 now stand there is no relation between them, and eieva- 
 and unless the mechanic has followed all that has been said about the proper re- 
 
 1- 1 1 • 11111 1 • lations. 
 
 cylmder the two views thus placed would not suggest one to him. 
 If we place the views as in Fig. 47, the plan directly above 
 the elevation and joined to it by dotted lines, and make 
 the agreement that we will always place the views of a 
 drawing in the same relation, the mechanic will see at 
 a glance that the two views represent a cylinder. 
 
 Fig. 48, Fig. 49, and Fig. 50 are the pictures, or per- 
 spective drawings, of the objects which are represented 
 mechanically in Fig. 48a, Fig. 49a, and Fig. 50a, re- 
 spectively. 
 
 We note as these three objects are represented here 
 that the elevations are the same, while the plan of each 
 is different. If we turn Fig. 48 in either direction, but 
 leave it upon the same base, neither the plan nor the 
 elevation will change, for the object is symmetrical. If we turn 
 Fig. 49 upon its base to the position of Fig. 51, the mechanical 
 drawing will be as in Fig. 51a. If turned as in Fig. 52, the drawing change of 
 will be as in Fig. 52a. If Fig. 50 is turned as in Fig. 53, the mechan- 
 ical drawing will be as in Fig. 53a. 
 
 We see from this that while the plan has been turned at an angle 
 it is the same as before and has no added lines, while the elevation 
 
 Fig. 47 — Plan 
 and Elevation 
 of Cylinder in 
 Proper Re- 
 lation to Each 
 Other 
 
 Similarity 
 of eleva- 
 tions. 
 
 \ie\v point. 
 
 Fig. 48— Perspective 
 Drawing of Cylinder 
 
 Fig. 49 — Perspective 
 Drawing or Pictiire 
 of Block 
 
 Fig. 50 — Perspective 
 Drawing of Triangu- 
 lar Prism 
 
30 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Elevation 
 
 elevation. 
 
 Elevation 
 
 Fig. 48a— Mechanical 
 Drawing of Cylinder 
 
 Fig. 49a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Block 
 
 Fig. 50a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Triangu- 
 lar Prism 
 
 Fig. 51— Picture of 
 Fig. 49 in Different 
 Position 
 
 Fig. 52 — Picture of 
 Fig. 49 in Changed 
 Position 
 
 Fig. 53 — Picture of 
 Fig. 50 in Changed 
 Position 
 
 Fig. 51a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Fig. 49 in 
 Position of Fig. 51 
 
 Fig. 52a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Fig. 49 in 
 Position of Fig. 52 
 
 Fig. 53a — Mechanical 
 Drawing of Fig. 50 in 
 Position of Fig. 53 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 54 — Picture of Perspective Drawing of 
 a Rectangular Block 
 
 has changed. It is, therefore, evident that there may be a number of 
 elevations of the same object. 
 
 In practice, the first view made is the one which will give the most The first 
 
 view. 
 
 information; that is, the object is viewed at right angles to the most 
 important surface. 
 
 Placing the Different Views 
 
 In Fig. 54 there are two end elevations (C) and (D); two side 
 
 elevations (A) and (F), and a top and 
 
 bottom plan (B, G). If we make the 
 
 plan (B) (Fig. 54a), then the front side 
 
 elevation (A) will be below and the 
 
 back elevation (F) will be above, the 
 
 right end elevation will be (C) to the right, and the left end ele- 
 vation will be (D) to the left. 
 
 In other words, the position of the view tells which part 
 
 of the object is repre- 
 sented by it. The right 
 end to the right, the 
 left end to the left, 
 the front elevation be- 
 low the plan, and the 
 rear elevation above the 
 plan. These facts are 
 fundamental and 
 
 should always be re- 
 Fig. 54a — Mechanical Drawing Showing Different Views of Rect- i j 
 angular Block Shown in Fig. 54 memDereCl. 
 
 r 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 Showing Invisible Lines 
 
 is a block with a round hole in it. 
 
 Fig. 55 
 !h a 
 of the block from the end has told us the hole is there, and 
 
 From the end Dotted 
 such a hole would be visible, but from the side it is not. The view 
 
32 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 o 
 
 L I 
 
 while the block is not transparent, 
 we can imagine it is and represent 
 the invisible sides of the hole with 
 dotted lines, as in Fig. 55. Fig. 56 
 shows a block in which the hole 
 does not pass entirely through. 
 Lines which are invisible from any 
 view point are made dotted in that 
 view. 
 
 The object in Fig. 57 is repre- 
 
 Fif- 55 — Dotted Lines Fig. 56 — Dotted Lines 
 
 in Elevation Show Locate Hole Which .... -p^. _ 
 
 Where Hole Would Does Not Pass En- SCntcd mechamcallv m h 12,. 57a. 
 
 Be if We Could See It tirely Through Piece ^ & 
 
 Plan 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Fig. 57 — Perspective Drawing of Rectangu- 
 lar Block with a Rectangular Hole 
 
 Fig. 57a — Mechanical Drawing of 
 Fig. 57 
 
 The Number of Views Necessary 
 
 In Fig. 54a B gives the length and width, .4 and F the length 
 and thickness, and C and D the width and thickness. Any two 
 of the views would give the necessary three dimensions. In practice, 
 no more views are made than are necessary. There must always 
 Two views bc two vicws, for a single view can give but two dimensions. If 
 necessary, either end, face, or side is different from the corresponding end, 
 face, or side, then more than two views may be necessary to avoid 
 confusion. 
 
THE LAP JOINT ' 
 
 33 
 
 Scale of Drawings 
 
 In all of the above consideration of mechanical drawing it is 
 assumed that the drawing is the size of the object. It is evident 
 that the usefulness of such drawings will be limited. We therefore 
 make them to suit our convenience, as, for example, one-half size, one- 
 quarter size, etc. Or, if the object is small, the drawing may be larger 
 than the object itself. The size of the drawing in relation to the 
 object is called the scale. We can choose any scale we like, but hav- 
 ing once chosen, the same scale must be followed throughout. The 
 scale may be written in two ways, either by writing ''Scale half size," 
 ''Scale quarter size," etc., or 6''=!' (read six inches equals one foot), 
 4''=1' (four inches equals one foot), etc. The scale is only for the 
 use of the draftsman. The mechanic should never measure a drawing 
 to get a dimension; but use the dimension given. No drawing is com- 
 plete which is not accompanied with full dimensions carefully and 
 plainly written. 
 
 Writing 
 scale on 
 draw- 
 ings. 
 
 Dimensions on Mechanical Drawings 
 
 The dimensions on a mechanical drawing always give the full writing 
 
 ^ ./ o dimen- 
 
 size of the object, regardless of the scale. 
 
 In order to give the dimensions a positive beginning and end- 
 ing, the figures giving the 
 dimensions are placed in the 
 centre of a dash line, as in 
 Fig. 58 and Fig. 58a. At 
 the ends of the line are 
 placed arrow heads, (x, y) 
 (Fig. 58a), the points of 
 which mark the exact limits 
 of the dimensions called for by the figure in the line. The dimension 
 
 sions on 
 drawings. 
 
 Fig. 58— Dimensions Given on the Picture or Perspective 
 
34 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 To avoid 
 confusion 
 of lines. 
 
 Correct 
 and incor- 
 rect di- 
 mension 
 lines. 
 
 
 Fig. 58a— Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 58, with Complete Dimensions 
 
 The sum of 
 a series of 
 dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 Writine of 
 fractions. 
 
 line should always be parallel to the line or opening, the dimension 
 of which is given by the figure at its centre. 
 
 In order to avoid confusion with other lines, the dimension lines 
 should be placed outside of the drawing wherever it is possible to 
 do so. If outside of the drawing, dotted lines should lead out to 
 
 ^ ^., jjb the points of 
 
 -rthe arrow 
 ]. heads as at x, 
 I y (Fig. 5Sal 
 
 A dimension 
 line should 
 never be a 
 
 continuation of any line in the body of the drawing, as at a, h (Fig. 
 59), but should be placed either up within the drawing, as at a\ 6' 
 (Fig. 59a), or what is still better, outside of the drawing, as at a\ 
 b' (Fig. 59a). 
 
 Several dimensions may be placed 
 in a series, as in Fig. 5%. The 
 mechanic should never get dimensions 
 by measuring the drawing, and if a 
 series of dimensions are given, as in 
 Fig. 596, the sum of the series must 
 be given as shown. Figures must be 
 made plainly and never less than one- 
 eighth of an inch in size. 
 
 Fractions must always be written 
 with a straight dividing line, as U, 
 never with a slanting line as ^^/le. 
 The latter fraction may be read in 
 two ways, lA or 
 assurance that either 
 mistakes. 
 
 *- iT-Ji^ 1 1 
 
 a D 
 
 3caie l"-2" 
 
 Fig. 59 — Incorrect Placing of Dimension Line 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a' 
 
 *- iC- 
 
 b" 
 
 Scale 1"- 2" 
 
 Fig. 59a— Correct Placing of Dimension Line 
 
 1 a 
 1^> 
 
 3cale 1' 2" 
 
 Fig. 59b — The Sum of a Series of Dimensions 
 Must Be Given 
 
 with equal 
 is correct. This would lead to many serious 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 60 — Incorrect 
 Position of Deci- 
 mal Points 
 
 A whole number and a fraction should be written as l^^, so that 
 the dividing line comes opposite the centre of the whole number. 
 The figures in a mechanical drawing should be written perpendicu- 
 lar, as I, or horizontal to the right, as w. 
 
 In writing the marks that mean inches and feet, or any other write aii 
 symbol, care should be taken to put them in their proper places and carefuiiy. 
 to make them of proper size; for example, 1^'', or 1^', or 11', or 10'. 
 If they are written carelessly, as l^il, or llll, or 10||, we should not 
 know what was wanted, for the symbol might be taken for a figure. 
 
 Symbols should always be placed in the right 
 position with reference to the figures with which 
 they go. If the symbol for inches in the fraction Y 
 were written |-„ the two small lines would have 
 no more significance than would a decimal point 
 placed at a in Fig. 60. 
 
 In short, every symbol, figure, or part of a me- 
 chanical drawing says but one thing, and, if correct, 
 cannot be made to say more or less than the idea it is meant to convey. 
 
 The Problem of the Lap Joint 
 Stated 
 
 We are now able to state our 
 problem and proceed at once 
 with the more simple forms of 
 construction. Figs. 61 and 61a 
 will be readily recognized as 
 the perspective and mechanical 
 drawing, respectively, of the lap 
 joint that we have attempted 
 to order in other ways on page 
 25. Fig. 61a is all the state- 
 Fig. 6i-Perspective^Drawmg^of Lap Joint with ^^eut of the problcm that We 
 
36 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Combine 
 parts for 
 planing. 
 
 General 
 problem. 
 
 Measuring 
 line. 
 
 need. In il we liavc given every dimension niid (Ik kind of material 
 to be used. We note tluit the joint is made of two i)ie('es of |)()phir 
 eaeii 1^" x If'xo". If we order our stoelv, or material, all in one 
 piece and make it to the required thickness and width before we cut 
 
 ^ 5- ^ it in two,' we shall be al)le to make 
 
 both pieces with but one handling of 
 t the tools. As in ordering the first 
 '^ piece we will allow one-eighth of an 
 -^ inch in thickness and width, and one- 
 half of an' inch in length for finishing. 
 I ^ The mill order for the stock will be : 
 f Poplar (or Pine) —1 piece— If' xl|"x 
 
 *— If — ^ — 1 f — >k— If — ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 3' 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5" 
 
 i 
 
 T 
 
 lOi". 
 
 J 
 
 SCflLC 2'' a"* 
 
 How to Lay Out and Make a 
 Lap Joint 
 
 Fig. 6ia 
 
 Mechanical Drawing of 
 Lap Joint 
 
 The first step, planing the stock to 
 the required dimensions, is merely a re- 
 view^ of the first problem, pages 1 to 20, 
 inclusive. The end planing may be omitted and the piece left one- 
 half an inch too long. The reason for this omission will appear as 
 the work progresses. ' 
 
 The problem now is, how shall we proceed to make Part 1 and 
 Part 2 (Fig. 616), from a piece as shown in No. 1 (Fig. 61c), with the 
 least amount of work, and at the same time be sure that we shall 
 have a w^ell-macle joint when each part is finished? 
 
 This is a general problem and we may omit the dimensions because 
 the method of laying out the joint will be the same for all dimensions. 
 
 The ends of the piece are rough and uneven, as they were left 
 by the saw. It will therefore not be possible to make accurate 
 measurements from the ends. In such cases we make a line near 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 37 
 
 the end from which all measurements are made, as a — a^ (No. 2, 
 Fig. 61c). This we call the measuring line. 
 
 Read carefully the use of the Rule Knife and Try Square for 
 making lines (pages 22 and 23) (Figs. 39/ to 39j, inclusive). 
 
 Fig. 6ib — Perspective Drawing of the 
 Parts of the Lap Joint 
 
 To lay out Part 1 (Fig. 616), from a—cr (No. 2, Fig. 61c). Measure 
 the required distance and draw to h — 6^ (No. 3). 
 
 With the beam of the square on face No. 1, draw h — c and h' — c^ 
 on face No. 2 and face opposite (see No. 4, Fig. 61c). With the gauge 
 set for the requiied thickness and the head of the gauge on face No. 1, 
 draw c — d (No. 5, Fig. 61c) to the end, d — d^ across the end, and cP — 
 c^ on the face opposite No. 2. 
 
 This gives lines bounding the piece to be cut out of Part No. 1 
 (Fig. 616). To locate the length of part No. 1, measure the required 
 distance from a — a' (No. 6, Fig. 61c), and square the lines e — /, / — g, 
 g — h, and h — e around the piece. 
 
 To lay out 
 part No. 1. 
 
38 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Nol 
 
 No. 5 
 
 No 2 
 
 No. 6 
 
 No 3 
 
 Ho. 7 
 
 Nq4 
 
 Fig. 61C-N0S. I to 8 Inclusive Give Successive 
 
 Steps in Laying Out and Making Part i of Lap Joint ^ 
 
 To Square Around a Piece 
 
 tne line e~f, and proceed to draw the line as 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 39 
 
 in Figs. 39i and 39j, page 23. To draw g — h, turn the piece from 
 you and proceed as before, except that the head of the square must be 
 against face No. 2, as in Fig. 62. Draw the hne h — e. With the 
 beam of the square on face No. 1, 
 h — e and / — e must exactly meet 
 at the point e; if not, a mistake 
 has been made. The worli should be 
 checked, the mistake found and cor- 
 rected. 
 
 The accuracy of all work depends 
 upon the accuracy of the lines. 
 
 We are now ready to remove the 
 part X (No. 6, Fig. Glc)- To do 
 this we shall need two new tools, the 
 bench hook (Fig. 63), and the back saw (Fig. 65). The bench hook Bench 
 
 " V t hook. 
 
 is used to hook on the edge of the bench, as in Fig. 64. The end 
 
 Fig. 62 — Drawing Line on Fourth Face of 
 Piece 
 
 Fig. 63 — Mechanical Drawing of Bench Hook 
 
 Fig. 64 — Bench Hook on Edge of Bench 
 
 piece (h) holds the hook from slipping on the bench. The piece 
 (a) is to push against while sawing or chiselling, and the base (c) 
 prevents the top of the bench from being sawed or cut by edge 
 tools. 
 
 The back saw (Fig. 65) is a saw with a thin blade and small Back saw. 
 teeth, made for accurate smooth sawing. The teeth are shaped 
 
40 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 starting 
 the saw 
 
 flit. 
 
 nearly like those of the crosscut saw (Fig. 4, page 6). A slight change 
 is made in their shape, so that the saw will cut with the grain 
 as well as across it. 
 
 The blade of this saw is so thin that it is not stiff enough to stand 
 
 being pushed into the wood For 
 this reason the stiffening piece (B) is 
 placed on the back. The saw gets 
 its name from this back piece. 
 
 With the above knowledge of the 
 bench hook and back saw, we can proceed to cut out x (No. 6, 
 Fig. 61c). 
 
 Place the piece on the bench hook, as in Fig. 66. Place the hand 
 and saw on the piece, as in Fig. 66a. Hold the thumb against the 
 
 Fig. 65— Back Saw 
 
 Fig. 66 — Piece Placed on Bench Hook 
 Ready for Sawing 
 
 Fig. 66a — Hand and Saw in Position for 
 Starting Saw Cut 
 
 blade until the cut is well started. The first stroke of the saw 
 should be back against the teeth and toward the body of the piece. 
 This backward stroke of the saw is to prevent splitting at the edge 
 where the fil)r(' would have no support if the saw were pushed 
 forward. Keep the saw in a slanting position until the cut has 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 41 
 
 reached the opposite corner (Fig. 666). Saw on the hnes b — c and 
 b^ — c^ to c and c'^ (No. 7, Fig. 61c), so as to leave a square shoulder. 
 If care has been taken to make a line with the knife ground as di- «pii;t'ng 
 
 " the line 
 
 rected in Fig. 39d (page 21) it will be easy to split the line, leaving ^'^^ ^^^ 
 one-half of the line on the shoulder we wish to keep. 
 
 This last statement is very important, for if the cut is made 
 as directed the face of the shoulder will not require any further 
 finishing. 
 
 There are two ways of cutting to the lines c- — d, d — d\ and 
 d^ — c\ If the wood is soft and straight grained the stock may be split 
 out with a chisel, as in Fig. 67. If we are working in hard or cross- 
 grained wood, it is much better to saw out the stock, as in Fig. 67a. 
 To split out the stock will require the use of two new tools, the 
 chisel and the mallet. The mallet and its use will be considered in 
 the next chapter. 
 
 The Chisel 
 
 The chisel is ground and oil-stoned exactly as the plane bit f^^Hl''' 
 (Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, pages 12 and 13> To test the ^^isei!" 
 sharpness of the chisel, put a piece 
 of soft wood in the vise and cut 
 the corner across the grain. If 
 the cut is smooth the chisel is 
 sharp. If the fibres are pushed 
 together, making the surface of 
 the cut rough, the chisel should be 
 sharpened. 
 
 The size of the chisel is designated 
 by the width of the cutting edge, 
 as i'', l'\ ¥\ etc., ranging by eighths 
 up to one inch and in quarter inches 
 
 from one to two inches. ^'^- 66b-Cut St^tecL^^Position of Hand on 
 
42 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Bevelling 
 to lines. 
 
 If the stock is to be chiselled out, cut out all but about one-sixteenth 
 of an inch of it, then bevel both edges to the centre of the lines, leaving 
 the centre of the piece high, as in Fig. 676. Pare down the centre, as 
 
 Fig. 67 —Splitting Out Stock with Chisel 
 
 in Fig. 67c, and test the face, or cheek, of the chiselled cut with the 
 square, as in Fig. Q7d. The face, or cheek, of the piece should be 
 
 even with the centre of the lines across the 
 entire face, and should be square with the 
 marked face. 
 
 Making a Paring Cut with a Chisel 
 
 Fig. 
 
 676 and Fig. 67c both show the 
 
 method of holding the chisel when it is 
 
 desired to make a careful cut. The handle 
 
 of the chisel is gripped with one hand. The 
 
 thumb of the other hand is placed on top of 
 
 the blade and the forefinger below resting 
 
 against the piece. The chisel is worked as 
 
 a lever with the thumb and forefinger as a 
 
 fulcrum. This gives the workman perfect control of the cutting 
 
 st'ock"^""^ edge of the chisel and is called the Paring Cut. If the stock is 
 
 sawed out, as in Fig. 67a, the cheek should be tested with the square, 
 
 as in Fig. 67d, and merely the rough fibres pared off with the chisel. 
 
 Fig. 67a — Sawing Out Stock 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 67b — Bevelling Edge to Line 
 
 Part 1 may now be cut from Part 2 (No. 8 of Fig. 61c). In this 
 case half the Hne should be left on Part 1, as that is the permanent end 
 we are cutting. 
 
 To lay out Part No. 2, turn the piece so that the face opposite '^"^[''^ °"^ 
 Face No. 1 is up (No. 1, 
 Fig. 68). If the end is not 
 square, a measuring line 
 (i—P) should be made, as 
 was a — cr, Part 1, page 38, 
 Fig. 61c. From the meas- 
 uring line (i — P) measure 
 to the required distance 
 and make line k — k^ 
 with the square, as the 
 lines were drawn in 
 Part 1, No. 3, Fig. 68. 
 Place Part No. 1 on 
 Part No. 2 so that the 
 shoulder on No. 1 
 comes exactly to the 
 centre of line k — k^ 
 
 (see No. 4, Fig. 68), and draw line m — nf (No. 5, Fig. 68), using the edge l^/^lf^°^'^ 
 
 of Part No. 1 as a square. This method of °^ «."r«''"- 
 
 ^ position. 
 
 locating a line is called the method of 
 superposition. 
 
 With the head of the square on Face 
 No. 1 draw the lines k — 0, k' — o' and 
 m — n, uv — ir half-way across Face No. 
 2 and the face opposite. With the head 
 of the gauge on Face No. 1, and with 
 it set exactly, as it was in making the 
 lines c, d, etc. (No. 5. Fig. 61c), draw 
 
 Fig. 67c — Paring Centre Down to Side Lines 
 
 Fig. 67d— Testing Surface of Chisel Cut 
 with Try Square 
 
44 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 5 
 
 No. 7 
 
 m' k' 
 
 No. 8 
 
 No. 10 
 
 Fig. 68 Nos. X to 10. Inclusive. Fig. 68 Show the Successive Steps in Making Part 11 of Lap Joint 
 
 the lines n~o and n^-o^ (No. 7, Fig. 68). This gives us the 
 boundary for the piece R to be cut out of Part 2. 
 
 ct 
 
 To remove R (No. 7, Fig. 68), saw to the lines k~k\ etc. . and m~7n^ 
 c. (as m No. 8, Fig. 68), just as we cUd to shoulder line b-^b% etc' 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 45 
 
 Fig. 68a — Removing Stock from Part II of Lap Joint 
 
 (pages 40 and 41, Figs. 66, 66a, and 666), being very careful to leave one- 
 half of each line on the body of the piece. Read carefully the rule for 
 sawing to the line, page 41. 
 R is cut out with the 
 chisel, as in Fig. 68a, b}^ 
 turning the stock in the vise 
 and chiselling to the centre 
 from each side. Bevel to 
 the lines and leave the cen- 
 tre high, as in Fig. 686. 
 Pare centre level with lines 
 and test with the try 
 square, as in Fig. 68c. The 
 head of a square must be 
 on a marked face. Cut 
 the ends to length and Part No. 2 is finished. Now, if we place the 
 
 two parts end to end, so that the 
 
 working faces are adjacent, as in 
 
 Fig. 69, we 
 
 note at 
 
 once that 
 
 cuts are 
 
 made from 
 the opposite sides. The reason for this will 
 be evident if we note how both were laid 
 out. In drawing the lines c, d, etc., and the 
 hues ??, 0, etc., the head of the gauge was 
 always on Face No. 1 and the gauge re- 
 mained at the same setting. That is, the 
 part cut out of Face No. 1 was measured 
 exactly the same as the part left, when the 
 
 . „ , , ■ n F«g- 68c— Testing Chisel Cut with 
 
 piece was cut irom the opposite face. Try square 
 
 Fig. 68b— Cut Pared to Line Centre High 
 
46 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Reasons 
 for leaving 
 a long end 
 on part 
 Kg. 1. 
 
 Now, if WO \nit Part 1 and Part 2 together, as in Fig. 69a, the 
 shoulder on Part No. 1 will fit against Face No. 2, and Face No. 1 on 
 each piece will he adjacent and come even or flush with each other. If 
 the work has been properly done, the parts will fit together closely, 
 but one should be able to force them together with the hands. If 
 we refer to No. 2, Fig. 61c, page 38, we shall see that in making the 
 
 rncE/iol 
 
 TftOE.VAoX 
 
 r 
 
 I TaceNoS // TaceNoS 
 
 Part No 2 PartNoI 
 
 Fig. 69 — Parts Nos. i and 2 in Original Position 
 
 Fig. 69a — Parts of Lap Joint Put Together, Showing 
 Relation of Faces 
 
 Fig. 69b— Lap Joint Parts Put Together, 
 Showing Projecting End (B) 
 
 measuring line a — a^ the end of Part 1 was made one-eighth of an inch 
 longer than it should be. When put together the end of Part 1 will 
 project beyond Part 2, as in Fig. 696. This is a general practice in 
 all mills. When opportunity offers, look at doors and window-sash 
 as they come from the mill. One reason for leaving the end long is to 
 make sure that the end when finished will come even or flush with the 
 adjacent face. Another reason is that in chiselling or sawing the face 
 (a, Fig. 69) the wood is likely to be more or less split at the end. 
 
THE LAP JOINT 
 
 47 
 
 Still another is that it is much easier to square the end to the re- 
 
 quired length when it is supported between the shoulders of the other to re- 
 
 '■ move the 
 
 the f'e pro- 
 
 jecting end 
 of part 
 No. 1. 
 
 piece. To remove 
 projecting end, bevel the 
 edge (B, Fig. 695) with 
 the chisel, as in Fig. 69c, 
 then with a small smooth 
 plane or block plane held 
 at an angle of about 45° 
 to the face of the part, 
 as in Fig. Q9d, plane the 
 end flush with the adjacent face. This will complete the joint. 
 Various types and applications of this joint will be found on 
 pages 58 and 59. 
 
 Fig. 69c — Bevelling Projecting End with Chisel 
 
 Fig. 69d — Planing Projecting End 
 with Block Plane 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 We have learned the following in Chapter II : 
 
 That the method of stating the problem used in Chapter I could be used only 
 for simple problems. 
 
 The necessity of a better method of stating the problem. 
 
 The principles of mechanical drawing and some of the uses of such drawings. 
 
 Laying out and making a Lap Joint. 
 
 Bench Hook — How to use it. 
 
 Back Saw — How to use it. 
 
 Chisel — Some of its uses and how to care for it. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 
 
 Tenon and 
 mort isc 
 defined. 
 
 Mechani- 
 cal state- 
 ment of 
 of prob- 
 lem. 
 
 Combina- 
 tion of 
 parts in 
 mill order. 
 
 Jointing 
 the stock. 
 
 The example of this type of joint will be the Through Mortise and 
 Tenon (Fig. 70). 
 
 The Tenon is the extension on Part No. 1 and the Mortise is the 
 hole into which the Tenon fits (Part No. 2). 
 
 The complete mechanical statement of the problem, that is, the 
 mechanical drawing, is given in Fig. 70a. From the mechanical 
 
 drawing we learn that the stock 
 called for is Pine or Poplar: 
 2 pieces 1^" x If x 5''. 
 
 Inasmuch as these two pieces 
 are alike, and when in one piece are 
 not too large to handle easily, we 
 can save considerable time by 
 ordering the stock in one piece and 
 working both to thickness and 
 width at the same time. Allow- 
 ing one-eighth of an inch in both 
 width and thickness and one inch 
 in length for finishing, the order 
 for the stock will be : Poplar or Pine : 1 piece If x 1|'' x 11". To make 
 this piece to the required dimensions we have again a review of the 
 first problem (pages 1 to 20, inclusive). 
 
 After jointing the above piece, that is, after working it to the 
 
 48 
 
 Fart ho. 2 
 
 Part ho 1 
 
 Fig. 70- 
 
 -Perspective Drawing of Through Mortise 
 and Tenon Joint 
 
THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 49 
 
 required dimensions, it will still be to our advantage to lay out and 
 cut the mortise and tenon before cutting the piece in two. 
 
 To Lay Out a Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 This is a general problem the same as the last and the dimensions 
 may be omitted. It will be 
 well at this point to read again 
 the use of the laying-out tools 
 in the last chapter. 
 
 Draw measuring line a — a^ 
 (No. 1, Fig. 705) about three-six- 
 teenths of an inch from the end. 
 From a—a^ measure tha required 
 length of Part No. 1 and draw 
 g—f, f — /, i — h, and h — g. For a 
 cutting-off line allow one-quarter 
 of an inch for sawing and squar- 
 ing the ends, and draw the line 
 k — /, / — m, m — /, I — k. These 
 lines will enable us to exactly 
 locate the mortise and tenon. 
 Measure from a — ci^ the required 
 dimension and draw the shoulder 
 
 line for the tenon c — h, h — e, e — d, d — c (No. 2, Fig. 706). Measure 
 from k — I and locate the end lines for the mortise n — o and p — q. 
 (No. 2, Fig. 706.) These lines are to be made on Face No. 2 and 
 the face opposite, but are not to be drawn beyond the limit of the 
 mortise, because they would remain in the material and be visible 
 in the finished piece. To locate n^ — o^ on the face opposite No. 2, 
 when drawing the line n — o make a small mark (v, No. 2, Fig. 706) 
 on the edge of the piece. Place the knife in this cut the same as if it 
 
 Fine orPbiolar 
 Scale 2'- 3" 
 
 7oa — Mechanical Drawing of Through Mortise 
 and Tenon Joint 
 
 Measuring 
 line. 
 
 End lines. 
 
 Shoulder 
 line for 
 tenon, 
 
 To locate 
 end lines 
 of mortise. 
 
50 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 To draw 
 side lines 
 for mor- 
 tise and 
 tenon. 
 
 were the end of a line, brino; the square in position for making a Hne 
 on Face No. 1, and make a small point at ir; v- may also be used 
 as the end of a line to locate n^ — o^\ p- — q^ may be located exactly 
 opposite p — q in the same way. 
 
 Set the gauge to the required dimensions and with the head on 
 
 J f 
 
 rio.2 
 
 Mo. 3 
 
 Fig. 7ob— Nos. i, 2, and 3, Fig. 70b, Show Successive Steps in Laying Out Through Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 Face No. 1 draw R — s (No. 3, Fig. 706) to the end, s — s' across the end, 
 s^ — R^ back to the shoulder line on face opposite No. 2. Without 
 changing the sotting of the gauge connect the mortise lines at n^) and 
 n" — p^ (No. 3, Fig. 706), add the thickness of the tenon to the setting of 
 
THE MORTISE AND TEN(3N TYPE OF JOINT 
 
 51 
 
 the gauge as it was used in marking the last Hues, and with the head of 
 the gauge on the same face draw t — u, ii—u^, u- — f, the same as we 
 did R — s, etc., and join o — q and o" — g^ 
 
 We now have Hues giving the exact boundaries of the mortise and 
 tenon. Because of having made the hues R^s, etc., and n— p, etc., with 
 one setting of the gauge, and t — u, etc., and q — o, etc., with another 
 setting, but from the same face, we know that the thickness of the 
 tenon and the width of the mortise are exactly the same. 
 
 Saw out X — X (No. 3), using the back saw to cut with the grain as Removing 
 well as across it. No chiselling should be done on the shoulders and but 
 very little on the faces of the tenon. The end should be bevelled as in 
 Fig. 70c. The bevel allows the tenon to enter the mortise and prevents 
 the end from catching in the sides as it is pushed into it. 
 
 The next step is 
 the only new op- 
 eration — that is, to 
 remove the stock 
 from the mortise. 
 There are two ways 
 of removing the 
 bulk of the stock. 
 It may be bored 
 out with a bit or 
 
 it may be chiselled out. In the case in hand, where the wood is 
 soft and the piece not large, the chisel is probably the best tool to use. 
 
 To Cut Out a Mortise with a Chisel 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sides or 
 teuoii. 
 
 Removing 
 stock from 
 mortise. 
 
 Fig. 70C — Mortise and Tenon Ready to Cut Apart 
 
 Choose a chisel at least one-sixteenth of an inch smaller than the choice of 
 width of the mortise to he cut. Be sure that the chisel is sharp. The 
 mallet comes into use here again. The mallet is a round or square- 
 shaped hammer made of hard, heavy wood (Fig. 70d), and is used to maiiet. 
 
52 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Reasons 
 for using 
 a mallet. 
 
 Start ini; 
 the chisel 
 cut. 
 
 The end 
 
 rut. 
 
 drive the chisel into the stock. The weight of the mallet imparts 
 a great force to the chisel, even with a light blow, while a hard 
 blow with a light carpenter's hammer nearly splinters the chisel 
 handle and does not sink the chisel deep into the wood. Consequently 
 
 the carpenter's hammer is 
 never used for driving a 
 chisel. The chisel should 
 be started in at the cen- 
 tre of the mortise with a 
 light cut, as at a, No. 1, 
 Fig. 70e. The cut should 
 be a little deeper with 
 each stroke and brought 
 up to about one-six- 
 teenth of an inch of the 
 end line of the mortise 
 with the flat side of the 
 chisel toward the line, as 
 at h, No. 1, Fig. 70e. 
 With the chisel, as at d, No. 2, drive it into the wood. The 
 slanting position, as well as the bevel, will advance the chisel 
 toward the part already cut. This raises the chip, as at c, No, 2, 
 
 Fig. 7od — Types of Mallets 
 
 -Choel 
 
 a 
 
 ' w-77'' 
 
 Nol 
 
 
 No 2 
 
 K 
 
 ' r^ 
 
 nTil:; ! J 
 
 Chisel. 
 
 No. 3 
 
 Fig. 7oe — Nos. i, 2, and 3, Fig. yoe, Show Positions of Chisel in Cutting Mortise 
 
THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 
 
 53 
 
 and forces considerable material out of the mortise. With the chisel 
 still held in the position d, No. 2, take cuts about three-sixteenths of 
 an inch apart until within one-sixteenth of an inch from the end line of 
 the mortise. Then turn the chisel, as at e, No. 3. The last cut should 
 be square with and parallel to the end of the mortise. Split the chip 
 through the centre, as in Fig. 70/. Trim the sides of the mortise, as in 
 
 Fig. 70g. This 
 
 trimming will 
 
 allow more free- 
 dom for the chisel 
 
 as well as let all 
 
 loose chips fall out 
 
 easily. Do not dig 
 
 or pry out the 
 
 chips, but make 
 
 another series of 
 
 cuts w i t h the 
 
 chisel, held as at 
 
 d, No. 2, Fig. 70<?. 
 
 Split the chips and 
 
 trim the sides of 
 
 the mortise the 
 
 same as in the 
 
 first cut. 
 
 These two se- 
 ries of cuts should 
 remove, or at least cut, the stock to the centre. Turn the piece in 
 the vise and repeat all the above operations on the opposite side. 
 When completed these cuts will leave a rough hole through the 
 piece. There should be from one-thirty-second to one-sixteenth of 
 an inch of stock between the hole and the sides and ends of the mor- 
 tise (Fig. 70/i). To remove the remaining stock, j^lace the piece in 
 
 Fig. 7of- 
 
 -Splitting the Chips with the 
 Chisel 
 
 Fig. 70g — Trimming Sides of 
 Mortise with Chisel 
 
 Splitting 
 the chips 
 and trim- 
 ming sides 
 of mortise. 
 
 Chisel from 
 both sides 
 to the 
 centre. 
 
54 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Finishing 
 the mor- 
 tise. 
 
 Chisel to 
 the centre 
 from e.ach 
 side. 
 
 Get the 
 best litrlit 
 possible. 
 
 Fitting till- 
 mortise 
 and tenon. 
 
 the vise and hold the chisel as in Fig. 70l Bevel to the lines on both 
 sides. Pare the ends to the centre with a chisel at least one-sixteenth 
 of an inch smaller than the width of the mortise, and extend the 
 
 I bevel in the end from each side to the centre (Fig. 70j). 
 The piece will then be as in Fig. 70/v. Pare the ends 
 and sides until they are a true ]:)lane and the lines have 
 been split on both sides. The chisel cut should always 
 be to the centre from each side. If the cut is made 
 through from one side to the other, the wood will 
 be split on the side toward which 
 the chisel is cutting, for there will 
 be no support to the fibres on that 
 side. To test the surface the edge 
 of the chisel may be used as a 
 Rough-Cut straight-edge the same as the trv 
 
 Mortise o o . 
 
 square is used in making a working 
 face. (See Fig. 70Z.) Care should be taken to 
 make all corners square. 
 The manner of hold- 
 ing the piece in the vise 
 while chiselling depends 
 so much on the position 
 
 of the light that no general rule can be given, 
 except to say that the lines on the piece and 
 the cutting edge of the chisel must be seen at all 
 times. A little experience will lead to the best 
 method under the existing conditions. 
 
 When the mortise is finished, cut the two pieces 
 
 iipiu't, square the ends, and saw to the required 
 
 length. Push the tenon into the mortise. It 
 
 should require a light blow with the hammer to 
 
 L?n7s^o7ase° ^"' forcc thc tcuou thc last quarter of an inch. Face 
 
 Fig. 7oi — Bevelling to Side Lines of 
 Mortise 
 
THE MORTISE AND TENON TYPE OF JOINT 55 
 
 No. 1 on each piece should be adjacent and the shoulders of the pianing 
 tenon should fit against Face No. 2 of the mortise piece. The end tenon. 
 of the tenon will extend three-sixteenths of an inch beyond the face of 
 
 the mortise piece, because 
 
 all measurements have 
 
 been made from measur- 
 ing line a — a" No. 1, 
 
 (Fig. 70b, page 50), which 
 
 is three-sixteenths of an 
 
 inch from the end. Plane 
 
 this extending end flush 
 
 with the face, as was done 
 
 with the lap joint, page 
 
 47, Figs. 69c and Q9d, and 
 
 the joint is finished. 
 As stated on page 
 
 51, there are two ways 
 
 of removing the bulk of the stock of the mortise — chisel 
 ling it out, as given above, and boring it out with an auger bit. 
 
 Fig. 7ok- Sides 
 and Ends of 
 Mortise Pared 
 to Lines with 
 Centre High 
 
 Fig. 7ol — Chisel Used as Straight-Edge to 
 Test Side of Mortise 
 
 To Remove the Bulk of the Stock in a Mortise with an Auger Bit 
 
 This operation brings into use two new tools — the auger 
 bit and the brace. These are tools for making a round hole 
 in wood. The bits range in size, by sixteenths, from one- 
 quarter of an inch to one inch, with special bits for larger 
 holes. The size of the bit is always stamped on the stem 
 or shank, as 4, 5, 6, etc., meaning j\, ^%, ^%, etc. The 
 brace is a handle by means of which bits of all sizes are 
 forced into the wood. More will be said about bits and 
 braces in the chapter on tools. 
 
 To remove the required stock, select a bit about ono- 
 
 1 f •!! •!• -iiri ^^- 7' — Stock 
 
 sixteenth ot an mch less m diameter than the width oi the Rough cut 
 
 from Mortise 
 
 mortise to be cut, and bore holes as close together as pos- with Auger 
 
 The size 
 of an 
 auger bit. 
 
 Selection 
 of bit. 
 
56 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Borin? 
 
 throuKli 
 the stock. 
 
 squarin? slblc (Fig. 71). To bc sure that the bit will 2:0 straidit through the 
 
 the bit. \ o / & & o 
 
 piece and come out between the lines on the opposite side, place the 
 
 try square on the piece, as in Fig. 71a, 
 and hold the bit parallel to the blade of 
 the square. Line the bit frcnn the side 
 also. The bit should not be forced en- 
 tirely through the piece from one side or 
 it will split the wood as it comes through. 
 When the point or spur comes through 
 turn the piece over and finish the hole 
 from the opposite side. Or if a block 
 is placed back of a piece, as in Fig. 716, 
 it will take the pressure and prevent 
 splitting. When the holes are drilled the 
 remaining portion of the stock is removed 
 the same as when roughed out with a chisel. 
 The cutting out of the mortise is all 
 that is really new in this chapter. The 
 chief object of the chapter is to show the 
 necessity for carefully planning and lay- 
 ing out a piece before the cutting tools 
 are used, and incidentally to emphasize 
 
 Object of 
 work. 
 
 Fig. 71a— Squaring Auger Bit with 
 Try Square 
 
 again the correct choice of tools for a given piece of work. 
 
 Fig. 71b— Boring into Block 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 JOINTS AND OTHER MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 The mechanical elements given in the previous chapters are the Mechani- 
 basis of all mechanical work. Stated briefly again, these elements ments. 
 are: (1) Knowledge of the problem with ability to state it accurately. 
 (2) Knowledge of available material. (3) Skill in selecting and using 
 the available tools. If we have followed carefully the steps given 
 in the last three chapters and have done enough of the work to have 
 in mind the method of procedure, it will not be difficult to use the 
 knowledge we have gained in the solution of other mechanical prob- Adjust- 
 
 1 1 c 1 • • merit nec- 
 
 lems, even though a great deal of adjustment is necessary to meet essary. 
 the requirements of the problem under consideration. 
 
 The object of the following chapter is not to give a complete course object of 
 
 chapter. 
 
 in the various methods of joining wood, but to give briefly some of the 
 most common forms of wood construction, including a few of the 
 materials other than wood that are used in wood-work. A few tables 
 and general facts are given which are intended to show the usual 
 method of purchasing materials. 
 
 The joints given on pages 58, 59 and 60 are drawn both in the 
 perspective, or picture, and in the mechanical drawing. On pages 60 
 and 62 the joints are drawn only in the perspective, while on pages 
 64 and 65 only the mechanical drawings are used. The object of 
 using both methods of drawing is to give the beginner power men- 
 tally to see the mechanical drawing from the object or picture, the 
 necessary faculty for producing the mechanical drawing, and to see the 
 
 57 
 
58 
 
 MAXl'AL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Half hi]) 
 tee joint. 
 
 End lap 
 joint. 
 
 Middle lap 
 joint. 
 
 perspective from the mechanical drawing, a very useful faculty in 
 working from the mechanical drawing to produce the required object. 
 
 On pages 58 and 59 are given a number of modifications of the 
 lap joint. Figs. 72 and 72a are the perspective and mechanical draw- 
 ings respectively of the Half Lap Tee Joint considered on pages 35 to 
 37, inclusive. This joint is used for joining framework on large tim- 
 bers and on drawer supports, stays, etc., in cabinet work. Figs. 73 
 and 73a, the End Lap Joint, may be used in corner construction, as 
 is shown in the figure; or it may be used in joining pieces end to end 
 as in 74. When made long, as in 74a, it is used as a timber splice. 
 For this latter purpose the joint is made in many different ways. By 
 referring to the subject, ''Building," in any good encyclopaedia, a 
 number of such splice joints will be found. 
 
 The Middle Lap Joint, Figs. 75 and 75a, is used in framing where 
 one piece crosses the other and the thickness of the joint is not more 
 than the thickness of one of the pieces of which it is made. 
 
 Fig. 72 —Perspective Drawing of 
 Half Lap Tee Joint 
 
 Fig. 73 
 
 Perspective Drawing of End 
 Lap Joint 
 
 Fig. 74 — Perspective Drawing 
 of Splice Joint 
 
 Fig. 72a — Mechanical Drawing of 
 Half Lap Tee Joint 
 
 Fig. 
 
 73a — Mechanical Drawing of 
 End Lap Joint 
 
 Fig. 74a — Mechanical Drawing 
 of Splice Joint 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 59 
 
 Fig- 75 — Middle Lap Joint Fig. 76 — Half Dove-Tail Joint Fig. 77 — Dove-Tail Joint 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 / i 
 
 - \ / i 
 
 Fig. 75a — Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 76a — Mechanical Drawing of Fig. 77a— Mechanical Drawing of 
 
 Middle Lap Joint Half Dove-Tail Joint Dove-Tail Joint 
 
 Fig. 78 — Brace or Angle Joint 
 
 Fig. 78a — Mechanical Drawing of Brace or Angle Joint 
 
 Fia;s. 76 and 76a, Fip;s. 77 and 77a are forms of the Dove-Tail Dove-taii 
 
 , . . joint 
 
 Joint. They are also modifications of the Lap Joint and are made to 
 withstand a tension or pull as well as a compression or push. Figs. 
 78 and 78a represent the Brace Joint. They are used for bracino; or Brace 
 irammg at an angle. 
 
 A number of the mortise and tenon type of joints are given on 
 page 60. 
 
 Figs. 79 and 79a are the Through Mortise and Tenon Joint, the Mortise 
 construction of which was given in detail on pages 46 to 56, inclusive, foints? 
 
60 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Fig. 79 — Through Mortise and 
 Tenon Joint 
 
 Fig. 80 — Slip Mortise and Tenon 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 81 
 
 -Blind Mortise and Tenon 
 Joint 
 
 TT 
 
 Fig. 79a — Mechanical Drawing of 
 Through Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 Fig. 80a — Mechanical Drawing of 
 Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 Fig. 8ia — Mechanical Drawing of 
 Blind Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 Fig. 82 
 
 -Slip Mortise and Tenon 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 82a Mechanical Drawing of 
 Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint 
 
 Fig. 83— Brace Joint 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 61 
 
 This form of joint is used in framing, where the end of the tenon will 
 not make an unsightly scar on a finished surface. 
 
 The Slip Mortise and Tenon Joint (Figs. 80 and 80a) is used on siipmor- 
 
 tise and 
 
 window-screen frames, wmdow-sash, door frames, etc., where the tenon. 
 
 edges are not visible. The Blind Mortise and Tenon Joint (Figs. 81 BUnd mor- 
 
 . ^ I'll • 1 ^^^^ ^'^'^ 
 
 and 81a) is made m many forms and is used more than any single tenon. 
 
 form of joint yet considered. As shown in the cut,, this joint is used 
 
 for end framing. If made, as in Fig. 79, with the tenon blind, that is, 
 
 entirely concealed within the cross-piece, it is used in place of the 
 
 Through Mortise and Tenon. The Blind Joint is used on chairs, 
 
 tables, cabinets, desks, and, in fact, on nearly every form of cabinet 
 
 work. Figs. 82 and 82a show a form of the Slip Joint (Fig. 80), the 
 
 use of which is suggested by the drawing. Fig. 83 is a Brace Joint, joint. 
 
 Butt Joints 
 
 Joining at right angle. Fig. 84 is the Plain Butt Joint used in rough Rane butt 
 work and is held by nails or screws. Fig. 85 is a Rabbeted Joint, used 
 a great deal in making drawer corners where it is not desirable to have Rabbeted 
 
 . ... . joint. 
 
 the end grain of the side piece show. Fig. 86 is a modified form of Fig. 
 85. It is used for the same purpose as Fig. 85 and also for box cor- 
 ners. Fig. 87 is a Housed Joint, used where Figs. 85 or 86 would not Housed 
 
 .7 . joint. 
 
 give the required strength and where the projecting ends are not objec- 
 tionable—for example, watering troughs — and if bolted, as shown at A, 
 Fig. 87, it is used on large vats and tanks. Fig. 88 is a matched Matched 
 
 " ' "^ ^ _ " _ corner. 
 
 corner, used mostly for box corners. Fig. 89 is the Dove-Tail, used 
 
 for box corners, drawer corners, etc., where considerable strength is Dove-tau. 
 
 required. It is a difficult joint to make by hand. 
 
 Miter Joints 
 
 The Miter Joint is used where it is not desirable to have the end 
 grain show at all. It is not a strong joint, and the only differences in 
 the forms of it are made in order to get a better fastening. 
 
62 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Plain 
 miter 
 joint. 
 
 Feather 
 or spline. 
 
 Fig. 90, the Plain Miter Joint, is held together by nails and glue, 
 and is used mostly for small picture-frame woi-k. Figs. 91 and 92 
 show other methods for fastening the miter joints. A, Fig. 91, is a 
 strip of wood set in grooves between the two pieces. This inserted 
 })iece is called a feather or a spline, and the grain should be placed in the 
 direction of the arrow to prevent splitting. B, Fig. 92, is merely a 
 
 Fig. 84— Plain Butt Joint 
 
 Fig. 85— Rabbeted Joint 
 
 Fig 86— Gain Joint 
 
 Fig. 87— Housed Joint 
 
 Fig. 88— Matched Joint 
 
 Fig. 89— Box Dove-Tail 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 90 — Plain Miter 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 91— Miter Joint Fast- 
 ened with Spline 
 
 Fig. 92 —Miter Joint with 
 Mortise and Tenon 
 
[ATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 63 
 
 Fig. 94— Butt Dowel Joint 
 
 Fig. 93 — Miter Joints Used as 
 Box Corners 
 
 Fig. 95— Edge Dowel Joint 
 
 tenon. A, Fio;. 93, shows the miter used as a box corner with the Miter 
 
 ^ joint for 
 
 spHne placed in a different position ; B shows a common method of box cor- 
 reinforcing a miter joint in a box or drawer corner. 
 
 Dowel Joints 
 
 Figs. 94 and 95 are examples of the Dowel Joint. The round pin 
 used as a fastening device is called a dowel. Fig. 94 is not a strong 
 joint and is used onh^ on small or cheap work. Fig. 95 is a common 
 method of uniting two pieces edge to edge or in the direction of the 
 width. Such a joint is usually set in glue, and if well made it is a 
 good joint. 
 
 Method of Uniting Boards in the Direction of Their Width 
 
 Fig. 96 is an Edge Butt Joint. If well glued in softwood this makes Edge butt 
 a good, strong joint, but if the pieces are long it will be difficult to keep 
 them in line without the use of some such device as that shown in 
 
64 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Rabbeted Figs. 98 aiicl 99, or the Dowel Joint, Fig. 95. Fig. 97 is the Ral^beted 
 
 edge joint, t • i 
 
 Joint. The comer cut (A) is called the rabbet. This joint is usually 
 set in glue and is used on backs of desks, bookcases, etc. Fig. 98, the 
 Feather or Spline Joint, is not much used, but may be used in place of 
 the joint shown in Fig. 97 or 99. Fig. 99 is the Matched Joint, 
 and is used more than all of the other forms of the same type. 
 It is used for flooring, wainscoting, table tops, side pieces for 
 cabinets, etc., and in fact in all places where it is necessary to 
 unite edges. 
 
 Spline 
 joint. 
 
 Matched 
 joint. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 -i>*» > 
 
 M 
 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 96— Edge Butt 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 97— Rabbeted 
 Joint 
 
 Fig. 98— Feather or 
 Spline Joint 
 
 Fig. 99 —Matched 
 Joint 
 
 Side 
 cleats. 
 
 Cleating 
 
 Strips of wood used as A, Figs. 100, 101, and 102, page 65, are 
 called cleats. As used in Figs. 100 and 101, the cleats are to prevent 
 warping and to reinforce the butt joints between the boards. They 
 are fastened with nails or screws, as in Fig. 100. Fig. 101, 
 Endcieat.s. End Clcatlng, is not so strong as is Fig. 100, but the cleats 
 are out of the way and do not increase the thickness of the 
 piece. This form of cleating is used on drawing-boards, cake 
 boards, etc. Fig. 102, Cabinet Cleating, shows a method of fast- 
 ening the top on a cabinet, holding the end of a shelf, and for drawer 
 supports, etc. 
 
 On small work, where cleats, as shown in Fig. 102, would look out 
 of place, a good substitute for the cleat is the screw and screw-eye, 
 
 Cabinet 
 cleating, 
 
 Screw-eye 
 substitute 
 for cleat. 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 65 
 
 
 \1 
 
 V « • '" Y 
 
 . . . . |, 
 
 A ■> ■^ - -\ 
 
 
 
 
 ® ® ® 
 A 
 ® ® © 
 
 1 1 
 
 Fig. 100 — Side Cleating 
 
 Fig. loi — End Cleating 
 
 P i 
 
 ■),. '_ ii. 
 
 Fig. I02 — Cabinet Cleating 
 
 .tis) 
 
 Fig. 103 — Screw and Screw Eye 
 Substituted for Cleating 
 
 ClK-=^ 
 
 Fig. 104 — Screw and Screw Eye 
 Substituted for Cleating 
 
 Fig. 105 — Screw and Screw 
 Eye 
 
 Fig. 105, used as is shown in Figs. 103 and 104. If used with a 
 Housed Joint (Fig. 87, page 62) the screw-eye in place of the cleat 
 makes a good, strong joint. 
 
 Miscellaneous Joints 
 
 Fig. 106, is a form of corner joint which can be used in large Las screw 
 boxes. The screws used are of the lag screw type, Fig. 122, page 74. corne°r!^ 
 Fig. 107 is a dowel joint reinforced with a carriage bolt (B). This is a Rein- 
 
 • • forced 
 
 good joint for a portable bench. By removing the nut on the bolt dowei 
 the joint may be taken apart easily. 
 
 Fig. 108 is a form of the Mortise and Tenon Joint and is also easily Keyed 
 taken apart. The joint is a good one for small furniture that is to be 
 moved often. A is called the key, and the joint is called the Keyed 
 Joint. 
 
66 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 In the first part of this chapter brief mention was made of devices 
 other than joints for holding pieces of wood together. Joints alone 
 may be sufhcient in simple pieces where there is no strain upon them, 
 
 >. . 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 :\ 
 
 
 ".'.c.'- 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 Fig. io6— Lag-Bolt Joint for Large Box Corners 
 
 Fig. 107 — Reinforced Dowel Joint 
 
 Most cotii- 
 moii inetli- 
 oris of 
 fastening 
 wood. 
 
 but if we wish i(^ build large or strong articles, merely placing the 
 joined parts togethei- will not give the required strength. It -will be 
 necessary, therefore, to hold the parts in place 
 by some other means. In some cases these other 
 forms of fastenings will give sufficient strength 
 without the joint at all. The most common 
 methods of fastening pieces of wood together are 
 hy means of nails, screws, and glue, which we 
 will now consider. 
 
 Nails 
 
 Cut nails. 
 
 Ak_ 
 
 Fig. io8 — Keyed Joint 
 
 At one time all nails were made by hand by 
 the blacksmith. This was a slow process and 
 gave way to the machine-cut nails, as shown in A and /i, Fig. 109. 
 B is the common nail, with a large head, foi- use on large, rough work, 
 while A, as is seen in the cut, has a much sniall(*r head, one that will 
 
MATERLVLS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 67 
 
 not leave a large scar. For this reason .4 is called the finishing cut tin- 
 nail and is used for delicate finishing work. These nails are wedge nans. 
 shaped, and care must 1)C taken in driving them or they will split the 
 wood. Cut nails are now practically out of the market, ^^'e shall, 
 therefore, not consider them further, but shall consider the wire nail 
 with which we are all familiar. 
 
 The wire nail is made by upsetting a head on the end of a piece of wirenaiis. 
 steel wire. It is much better than the old cut nail in that it is round 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 T~V 
 
 u 
 
 Fig. 109— Cut Nails 
 
 Fig. no — Types of Wire Nails 
 
 and will not split the wood, and by being the same size through- 
 out the entire length it holds into the wood much better. Wire nails 
 are made in very many sizes and shapes to meet a great number of size of 
 different conditions. The common or standard nail {E, Fig. 110) 
 is made in a number of sizes, a table of which follows. In des- 
 ignating the size of standard nails the word ''penny" preceded by a order for 
 
 " " . . nails. 
 
 number is used as, 2 penny, 3 penny, 4 penny, etc. In writmg an 
 order the word penny is abbreviated by the letter ''d," and is 
 
68 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 written 2d, 3d, 4d, etc., but read 2 penny, 3 penny, 4 penny, etc. 
 The following is a table of sizes and lengths of the standard wire nails: 
 
 TABLE OF NAIL SIZES AND LENGTHS 
 
 Size 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 
 4d 
 
 
 ^^(] 
 
 6d 
 
 7d 
 
 8d 
 
 9d 
 
 lOd 
 
 12d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length in inches 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 If 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 
 2* 
 
 2| 
 
 3 
 
 3i 
 
 
 Size 
 
 * IGd 
 
 20d 
 
 30d 
 
 40d 
 
 50d 
 
 60d 
 
 
 
 Length in inches 
 
 3^ 
 
 4 
 
 4* 
 
 5 
 
 5i 
 
 6 
 
 Wire fin- 
 ishing 
 nails. 
 
 Size of 
 brads and 
 how to 
 order 
 them. 
 
 Escutch- 
 eon pins. 
 
 Clout and 
 
 trunk 
 
 nails. 
 
 D, Fig. 110, is a wire finishing nail with a small head and a slim 
 body, which corresponds to the cut finishing nail. A, Fig. 109. C, 
 Fig. 110, is a brad. The brad has a head made somewhat different 
 from the head of the finishing nail and is smaller in diameter. Brads 
 range in length from f' to 2^', and the diameter is given by the number 
 of the wire from which they are made. The larger the number the 
 smaller the brad. Brads are used on very small, delicate work. An 
 order for brads is written as follows: -f No. 19, f No. 20, or 2^'' No. 
 12, etc. B, Fig. 110, is a special box nail. A is an escutcheon pin, 
 usually made of brass, and is used for putting on small hinges, catches, 
 locks, curtain hangers, etc. The sizes of escutcheon pins range in 
 length and diameter according to the use made of them. F is a 
 standard nail with barbs on it to make it hold better. The clout nail 
 (B, Fig. Ill) is made of soft iron, so that it can be clinched without 
 breaking, as in C, Fig. 111. A, Fig. Ill, is a trunk nail. It is made 
 the same as the clout nail, with the exception that it has a round 
 instead of a flat head. The clout nail is usually galvanized to prevent 
 rust, and ranges in length from ^" to V by a difference of ^" to the size, 
 and may be had longer than 1". 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 69 
 
 Tacks 
 
 y 
 
 d 
 
 While tacks are of.no value in fastening pieces of wood, they are 
 indispensable in upholstering work „ r r 
 
 of all kinds. A table of sizes and 
 lengths is given below. The size of 
 tacks is given by the word ounce, 
 preceded by a number, as 1 ounce, 
 2 ounces, 3 ounces, etc. The word 
 "ounce" has the usual abbreviation 
 (oz.). Tacks may be bought loose by 
 the pound or in small boxes. 
 
 There are so many sizes and 
 special makes of nails and tacks that 
 we should consult a dealers' catalogue 
 
 Size of 
 tacks. 
 
 Fig. Ill— Trunk and Clout Nails 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF 
 
 STANDARD 
 
 SIZES OF CUT TACKS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length in inches 
 
 3 
 
 1 li 
 
 3| 
 
 1 is 
 
 4 
 1 6 
 
 n 
 i B 
 
 1 (1 
 
 1 B 
 
 1% 
 
 IB 
 
 u 
 
 1 1 
 i 6 
 
 t 2 
 
 1 r, 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 B 
 
 n 
 
 15 
 1 B 
 
 IB 
 1 B 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 Size in ounces 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 "^4 
 
 
 
 
 
 in order to learn what will best meet the special recjuirements when 
 doing a piece of work out of the ordinary. There are no general 
 rules governing the selection of nails; they must be selected accord- 
 ing to the requirements of the work in hand. 
 
 Hammers 
 
 There are many sizes and shapes of hammers. The common claw 
 hammer (Fig. 112) is the one most used by the wood-worker. Ham- 
 mers are catalogued as follows: 
 
 Sizes of hammers: Nos. 1, 1^, 2, 3. 
 
 Size of 
 hammer. 
 
70 
 
 MANUAL TRAININC; FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Bell-faco 
 and i)laiK'- 
 face ham- 
 mers. 
 
 Driving a 
 naii. 
 
 Witli- 
 (Iraw hit; 
 u nail. 
 
 Fig. 112 — Types of Hammers 
 
 Weights, without handle: No. 1, 1 lb. 4 oz.; No. U, 1 lb.; No. 2, 
 13 oz.; No. 3, 7 oz. 
 
 Hammer No. 2 — 13 oz. — is a ccjiiveiiient size for general use. Fig. 
 112, a, is a plane-face hammer and h is a bell face. Tl]£ bell-face 
 
 hammer usually has a better 
 balance, or as the mechanic 
 would say, it is hung better 
 than the plane face. 
 
 The hole in which the 
 handle is placed is called the Eye 
 of the hammer. Hannners hav- 
 ing the eye extended, as those 
 in Fig. 112, are called adze-eye 
 hammers. Hammers made with 
 the adze-eye hokl the handU^ 
 better than does the hammer made with- 
 out it. The first cost of the adze-eye ham- 
 mer is more, but the handle holds so much 
 better that they are the most economical. 
 When driving a nail the hammer should 
 be held by the end of the handle and the 
 arm should swing from the shoulder instead 
 of from the elbow. The proper use of the 
 hammer is an art which is learned only l)y 
 experience. 
 
 To withdraw a nail it should be pulled 
 in a straight line. A nail properly with- 
 drawn will not be Ixnit. To withdraw a 
 nail, place a block under the head of the 
 hammer, as in Fig. 1 1 3. The block will keej) 
 the pull straight and will prevent the ham- 
 mer from marring the surface of the work. Pig 113 -withdrawing waii 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 71 
 
 Hammer marks on the surface of the work should be avoided. Naii set. 
 The oval face of the hammer will set the nail level with the surface 
 of the wood, but if it is desired to set the head below the sm'face, the 
 nail set (Fig. 114) should be used. The point of the nail 
 set is cupped and has sharp edges, as is shown in the 
 sectional view (A, Fig. 114). To sink the head of the nail 
 below the surface or, as is u;sually said, to set the nail, 
 
 Fig. 114— Nail Set 
 
 Fig 115 — Toe Nailing 
 
 the nail set is placed on the head and struck a 
 sharp blow with the hammer. The sharp edge 
 of the nail-set point will prevent it from slipping 
 off the head of the nail. When a nail is driven 
 obliquely, as in Fig. 115, it is said to be toed. 
 Such nailing is spoken of as toe nailing. 
 
 Toe nail- 
 ing. 
 
 Standard Wood Screws 
 
 Wood screws are of two general types, flat head and round fuu ami 
 head. (Fig, 116.) They are made of brass and steel. To prevent rust- head' 
 ing and to improve their appearance, steel screws are blued, galvanized, 
 or copper plated. Both steel and brass screws are nickel plated. Brass Finish of 
 will not rust and is plated only to improve its appearance. Steel screws 
 are blued by heating highly polished screws until they turn blue. 
 The heating covers the screw wit*h a coating of iron oxide. Galvaniz- 
 ing is merely zinc plating. 
 
 The sizes of screws are designated by the length in inches and 
 
72 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Order for 
 screws. 
 
 a number which refers to the diameter. Each length of screw 
 is made in several different diameters, as is shown by the table 
 of standard screws given below. 
 
 Screws are usually sold in boxes contain- 
 ing one gross, but may be bought in bulk 
 by the pound, or in small quantities by the 
 dozen. From the table of standard sizes, 
 given below, and from the facts mentioned 
 above, it is evident that an order for 
 screws must give the following information: 
 Quantity wanted. 
 Length. 
 
 Number (diameter of screw). 
 Type (round or flat-head). 
 Finish (bright, blued, galvanized, copper- 
 Fig. ii6-Types of Wood Screws P^'^ted Or uickel-plated). 
 
 TABLE OF STANDARD SCREW SIZES AND LENGTHS 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 1// 
 4 
 
 r 
 
 i" 
 
 r 
 
 I" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 1" 
 
 U" 
 
 H" 
 
 1|" 
 
 2" 
 
 2i" 
 
 2i" 
 
 2|" 
 
 3" 
 
 3i" 
 
 4" 
 
 4i" 
 
 5" 
 
 6" 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 IG 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 If) 
 17 
 18 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 If) 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 
 IG 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 
 18 
 20 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 73 
 
 An order for screws is written as follows: 5 gross — |'' — number 
 10 — Flat-Head, Blued Steel screws. The order is usually abbreviated 
 as follows: 
 
 5 gr.— J"— No. 10— F. H. Blued Steel screws. 
 
 25 boxes— ly'— No. 12— R. H. Gal. Steel screws. 
 
 2 doz. — 1^' — No. 8 — F. H. Brass screws, etc., etc. 
 Screws are used for fastening pieces of wood together usually use of 
 
 '^ >- o -^ screws. 
 
 where more strength and better work are wanted than can be obtained 
 
 Fig 117— Fastening with 
 Screw 
 
 Fig. 118 — Countersunk 
 Screw Head 
 
 Fig. 119 — Rose 
 Countersink 
 
 by the use of nails, and for fastening locks, hinges, catches, etc. 
 As is the case in all construction, the problem in hand must deter- 
 mine the screws to use. 
 
 If two pieces are to be fastened, as in Fig. 117, or in any other way, Fastening 
 
 ... T-iiiiii i^y means 
 
 the hole A m the piece correspondmg to B should be large enough of screws. 
 
74 
 
 MANUAL THATXINd VOM COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Counter- 
 sinkinff 
 the flat- 
 head 
 screw. 
 
 Counter- 
 sink. 
 
 ■ /Q 
 
 l() allow (lie screw to pass (lirough easily, though not loosely. If the 
 screw is screwed into the \)\vrv R it will wedge itself into that piece 
 and will not ch-aw I) up to B. \( the wood is hard, or likely to spht, 
 
 a small hole, as C, piece D, 
 should be drilled, into which the 
 screw may be screwed. 
 
 The head of a flat-head screw 
 is always set into the wood, as in 
 Fig. 118. This is called counter- 
 sinking the screw head. A tool 
 called the countersink (Fig. 119) 
 is used to bore out the place for 
 the head of the screw. There 
 are several types of countersinks, Init the one given in Fig. 119, the 
 Rose countersink, is the one in most general use. The counter- 
 sink is held in a brace and is turned the same as an auger bit when 
 
 Fig. 120— Head of Round-Head Screw. Stands 
 Above the Surface 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. 121 — A, Correct; B, Incorrect Screw-Driver 
 Point 
 
 Fig. 122— Lag Bolt or 
 Screw 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 75 
 
 drilling a hole. The head of the round-head screw is left above the 
 surface of the wood, as in Fig. 120. 
 
 The Screw-Driver, the tool used for driving, that is, screwing the screw- 
 
 .- . . driver. 
 
 screw into the wood, is, like all other tools, made in a great variety 
 of special shapes and sizes. The most essential featvu'e of a screw- 
 driver is that the end of the blade fit the slot in the screw to be suape 
 
 of screw- 
 driven, as in .1, Fig. 121, and never as in B. If a screw-driver driver 
 
 , . ' '^ ' _ point. 
 
 slips out of the screw slot and marks the head of the screw, the point 
 is probably not formed correctly. 
 
 One other type of screw, the lag screw (Fig. 122), is of much use to Lag screw. 
 the bench worker. This screw ranges in sizes from 1^'' to 12'' in length, 
 and from ^\" to f' in diameter, with special sizes to order. As is 
 shown in the cut, it has a square head and is driven with a wrench. 
 The lag screw is used where great strength is needed. 
 
 Glue and Gluing 
 
 Most commercial glues are of two kinds — animal glue and fish glue. Animai 
 Animal glue is obtained from bones, hoofs, horns, and scraps of hides — giue. 
 the refuse of the large slaughter-houses and tanneries. Fish glue is 
 taken from the scales, spawn, and intestines of fish — the refuse of the 
 large fisheries. Both kinds of glue are placed on the market in the 
 form of hard, brittle bars and cakes broken to small dimensions and 
 packed loose in boxes and barrels. 
 
 To Prepare Glue for Use 
 
 Both animal and fish glues are prepared for use in the same wa}^ 
 Place the required amount of hard glue in the inner pot of a double 
 boiler — the regular commercial glue-pots are best for this purpose — 
 pour over the glue a small amount of cold water and allow it to soak 
 until soft. Heat by placing the pot in the hot-water jacket of the 
 
76 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 glue-pot. The dish containing the glue should never be placed directly 
 over the fire, for fear of burning, nor should the glue be kept in hot 
 water for a long time. Continued heating will decompose the gelatine 
 and render the glue valueless. When the glue is thoroughly dissolved, 
 enough water should be added to make it to the consistency of thin 
 syrup. Glues prepared in this way should always be used hot, for as 
 soon as they commence to cool they begin to set; that is, they 
 commence to get hard. 
 
 Directions for Gluing 
 
 All i)arts to be glued must be fitted and ready for placing in the 
 
 final position. Each part should be marked so that it may be put into 
 
 Holding position ouickly. All clamps and holdinq devices should be adjusted and 
 
 devices '■ . . . 
 
 for gluing, ready fo)' placing in position. When all is ready, glue should be applied 
 in a thin coating over all the surfaces that are to be joined. When 
 the glue is on the parts, place them together quickly, put the 
 clamps or other holding devices into place, and draw them up 
 until all the surplus glue is squeezed out of the joints. The 
 clamps must be left in position until the glue is thoroughly hard. 
 This will require several hours, varying according to the size of the 
 pieces glued. 
 
 Liquid Glues 
 
 There are a numl)er of glues on the market in a liquid form, which 
 are prepared ready for use. If but a small amount of gluing is to be 
 done, the liquid is more convenient than the hot glue, and its use is 
 recommended. Tlic liquid glues are, however, more expensive, require 
 a longer time to set, and are more affected by excessive moisture than 
 are the hot glues. 
 
MATERIALS USED IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 77 
 
 Sizing with Glue 
 
 When gluing end gi'ain with either kind of ghie, a thin coat should 
 be applied and allowed to soak into the wood and harden before the 
 final gluing is attempted. If the glue is applied and the joint put to- 
 gether at once the glue will draw back into the pores of the wood 
 and will be of no service in the joint. This dressing with thin glue is 
 called sizing. 
 
 Glue joints will not stand excessive heat or moisture and are Effect of 
 likely to give way under a heavy blow, but if reinforced with screws moisture 
 or other fastening devices the glue adds materially to the strength of a 
 joint and is indispensable in good cabinet work. 
 
 Tools Used in Gluing 
 
 Fig. 123 shows the appliances that make up the ordinary gluing Means of 
 
 n r^i • heating 
 
 outnt. ulue-pots are heated by any convenient means — on a stove, giue. 
 
 Fig. 123— Gluing Outfit. Photograph Showing Glue-Pot, Glue Brush, and Clamps 
 
78 
 
 .ALVNUAL TUAINlNd FOR CXhMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Bruslifs 
 for glue. 
 
 Hand and 
 bar clamp. 
 
 over a ga8 flanu^, by steam, etc. If a larf>;e amount of gluing is to be 
 (lone, a permanent heating arrangement should be provided. Speeial 
 brushes are made for use in ghie. The bristles must be very securely 
 fastened in order to stand the heat and uioisture. Round-point 
 brushes with bristles fastened with wire are good. On small work a 
 splinter of wood is often a very convenient glue brush. 
 
 Clamps are of two general types, the hand clamp and the bar 
 clamp. The wood hand clamp is for small work, and ranges in size 
 according to tlie following ta})le: 
 
 Length of jaw iii inches 
 
 7 
 
 8h 
 
 10 
 
 \2 
 
 U 
 
 1(1 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 Opens in inches . 
 
 4 
 
 -ij 
 
 Gi 
 
 7 
 
 7^ 
 
 9^ 
 
 10 
 
 m 
 
 Bar clamps are for large work and range in size up to five feet, 
 with special arrangements for larger sizes. A dealers' catalogue will 
 give more detailed information and should always be consulted when 
 buying supplies (jf any kind. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 
 
 In the first three chapters we have learned considerable about 
 tools and the reasons for choosing certain types for doing particular 
 things. The object of this chapter is to give additional facts about 
 tools, and to group the knowledge that we have gained, so that we can 
 enlarge the field of our work. 
 
 Measuring and Laying-Out Tools 
 
 Measuring and laying-out tools are so closely related that a number 
 of them are used for both purposes, and for that reason the two sub- 
 jects will be considered under one heading. 
 
 Measuring in its various forms is as old as trade or barter. Linear Historical 
 measure, the kind with which we are now concerned, has been based 
 on many different objects, and even at the present time there are 
 several standards in use in the various countries. 
 
 Some of the first objects used as a basis for measurements were the 
 parts of the human body. When Noah was commanded to build the 
 Ark he was told to make it three hundred cubits long, fifty cubits 
 wide, and thirty cubits high. A cubit was the length of the forearm 
 from the elbow to the end of the middle finger. At other times the 
 nail, the hand, and the finger were used, and even at the present time 
 we have the foot as a name at least coming to us from those remote 
 times. When such standards were in use one wonders whose arm was 
 used as a basis for measuring, the arm of the one who was buying or of 
 the one who was selling. 
 
 79 
 
 note. 
 
80 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 According to the new ''Intermitioniil Encyclo])a3dia/' the following 
 law was in force" in Oerniany in the sixteenth century: 
 
 "To find the jeiirrth of a food in tlic right and lawfnl wav, and according to 
 scientific, usage, you shall do as follows : Stand at the church on vSunday and bid 
 sixteen men to stop, tall and small ones as they happen to pass out when the 
 service is finished; then make them put their left feet one behind the other, and 
 the length obtained shall be a right and lawful rood to measure and to survey the 
 land with and the sixteenth part of it shall be a right and lawful foot." 
 
 As trade grew more definite standards were required, and gradually 
 such standards were fixed by law. In 1814 the United States Govern- 
 ment had a standard scale made in England and brought to Washington 
 to be used as a copy from which other scales could be made. This was 
 Troughton called the Troughton scale because a man by the name of Troughton 
 made it. It was not until 1856, however, that all the States were pro- 
 vided with standard weights and measures. 
 
 A very interesting history of the weights and measures of the 
 United States is given in the "Report of the United States Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey for 1890," Appendix 18, pp. 736-8, and for a general 
 history of weights and measures see ''The Evolution of Weights and 
 Measm'es and the Metric System," by William Hallock, published by 
 The Macmillan Company, New York. 
 
 For many years lumber has been sold by the board foot. Now a 
 board foot of lumber is one inch thick and a. foot square. Consequently 
 the standard of measure for all wood-work is the foot. The form of 
 measure most used by the wood-worker is the two-foot rule, which for 
 convenience in carrying has been made to fold together. Rules are 
 designated as twofold, fourfold, sixfold, etc., according to the num- 
 ber of parts of which they are made, and are spoken of as six-inch, one- 
 foot, two-foot rules, etc., according to their length. Wooden rules are 
 usually graduated, that is, marked off into sixteenths, eighths, quarters, 
 halves, and inches. The best wooden rules are l)ound on the edges 
 with brass to prevent wearing. Nos. 1 and 2, Fig. 124, show the two 
 
 scale. 
 
 Historical 
 references. 
 
 Rulers. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 81 
 
 and four fold rule, respectively. If made of wood, the measuring tool 
 
 is usually called a rule, if made of steel it is called a scale. Steel scales steei 
 
 are used for accurate work. The blades of both the try square 
 
 Fig. 124 — Types of Rulers 
 
 and the framing square are graduated and serve as the steel 
 scales generally used by the bench worker. The correct way of 
 using the rule or scale for locating a measurement is given on page ^ ^ea^ifi 
 21, Figs. 39 and 39a. 
 
 measure- 
 ment. 
 
 Laying-Out Tools 
 
 The gauge, the knife, and the pencil are the tools most used for 
 marking out measurements. 
 
 Gauge. — The parts of the gauge are given on page 18, Fig. 32. andfts"^*' 
 For the correct way of using and adjusting the gauge, see pages 18 and "®^- 
 19, Figs. 33 to 37 inclusive. The gauge is used only for making 
 lines with the grain parallel to a marked surface. 
 
 Knife. — The correct way of using and sharpening a knife for The knife 
 
 ,.,... -r^. . ajid its 
 
 makmg Imes is given on page 21, Figs. 39 to 39e, inclusive. See also use. 
 ''Squaring Around a Piece," pages 22 and 23, Figs. 39/ to 39^, 
 inclusive. 
 
 A medium-size pocket-knife is good for making lines, but it is 
 better to have a special knife that may be used exclusively for that 
 
82 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 The pencil 
 as a layiiiK 
 out tool. 
 
 Fig. 125— Sloyd Knife 
 
 purpose, such as the one shown in Fig. 125. Such a knife is called a 
 Sloyd knife. This knife is also especially designed for whittling. 
 
 The knife and the gauge 
 are always used where 
 accurate measurements 
 are required. 
 
 Pencil. — The pencil, 
 as a tool for laying out work, has been previously considered on page 4, 
 Figs. 1 and la, for laying out the first rough lines. It is used where 
 accuracy is not required and for several special operations. For 
 example, if we wish to bevel or round an edge or a corner (Figs. 126 
 and 126a). and should lay out the work with the knife or gauge, as in 
 Fig. 127, it would be necessary to bevel or round to the line A in 
 order to remove line E. To 
 cut back to A would be the 
 same as working without a line. 
 For the reasons given above. 
 
 Fig. 126— Bevelled Edges on Block 
 
 Fig. 126a — Round Edges on Box 
 
 Abuse of 
 pencil. 
 
 it will be evident that the pencil should be used for laying out bev- 
 elled and round edges and corners. The pencil may be used against a 
 straight-edge and square the same as the knife, but for rough work 
 which needs (jnly to have a good appearance it may be used as in Fig. 
 128. The tendency among beginners is to abuse the use of the pencil. 
 Joint parts and pieces whence accuracij is required must not be laid out 
 tcilh the pencil fur tjie line is too coarse. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 83 
 
 Try Square 
 
 The try square, the squaring tool most used by the bench worker, 
 has been described and its use as a surface-testing and squaring tool 
 explained (pages 15, 16 and 17, Figs. 27, 28, and 30); while the use of 
 
 Fig. 127— Incorrect Method of Lay- 
 ing Out Bevelled and Round Edges 
 
 Fig. 128- 
 
 -Edge Lining for Round and Bevelled 
 Edges 
 
 the square as a straight edge for marking lines is shown on pages 
 22 and 23, Figs. 39/ to 39j, inclusive. For testing a gauge line with 
 the square, see page 19, Fig. 37. 
 
 For squaring an auger bit, see page 56, Fig. 71a. 
 
 Framing Square. — While the framing square is a tool used mostly 
 by the carpenter and builder, it is also of much use to the bench 
 worker. The ordinary framing square is made with one blade 24'' 
 long and one 16'' long. It is usually graduated on one side in ^V, jV'', cradua- 
 i , i , i , and 1 , and on the other side in iV", ~l/, etc. The framing framing 
 square is used as a straight-edge, as shown in Fig. 29, page 16. 
 When used for squaring a board or cross lining the framing square is 
 used as in Fig. la, page 4. 
 
84 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Use of 
 taljlt's of 
 board 
 measure. 
 
 .,,,,|,|,|,|,|,|,|,|,|,|,|,||,pyr 
 
 10 
 
 I'l'I'I'I'l'ITI'l 
 
 l"'l3'TI'|a''l'''i;'' 
 
 •,4 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 31 54 57 60 18 
 
 3154 38J& 4243 4667 5091 53.IB 5940 *3M klSt 7ZI2 7637 8061 8438 3 
 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 4b 48 51 54 57 60 £4 
 
 ■¥ 
 
 I I III I III I I 
 
 iM I I I ri I I n I I 
 
 jA 
 
 M 
 
 "I I I II 
 
 Fig. 129 — Framing or Carpenter's Square —Showing Brace and Board 
 Measure 
 
 Tables of Board and Brace Measure on the 
 Framing Square 
 
 Fig. 129 shows one side of a framing square on which are 
 given the tables of Iward and brace measure. 
 
 Board Measure. — As has been said before, lumber is 
 sold by the square foot, and the unit of measure is a board 
 V X 12" X 12''. On the long blade of the square (Fig. 129) 
 is given a table by the use of which one can read directly 
 the square surface of any board 8, 10, or 14 feet long and 
 from 2 to 24 inches in width. Some squares have tables 
 giving 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15 feet. Such a table in- 
 cludes nearly all the lengths of lumber usually carried in 
 stock in a lumber yard. 
 
 To get the square surface of a board by the use of the 
 table, refer to the figure 12, which marks the twelve-inch 
 graduation on the outside scale of the long blade; under 
 12 will be found 8, 10, 14, the lengths of lumber for which 
 the table is made. Find the number in this column 
 giving the length of the board, follow the same line of 
 figures to the right or left until directly under that number 
 of the outside scale graduation, which gives the width of 
 the board. The figure at the left of the line will give 
 the whole number of square feet and the one at the right 
 gives the fractional parts of a l)oard foot in twelfths. 
 
 Example No. 1 : Find the board feet in a board V x 
 4" X 8'. 
 
 _ b 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 85 
 
 Find 8, the length in feet of the board, in the first column under 
 12 of the out-side scale graduation. Follow with the finger the same 
 line of figures until directly under the 4 of the outside scale graduation. 
 We find 2 to the left and 8 to the right of the line. The 2 is board feet 
 and the 8 is y% of a board foot. The board I" x 4" x 8' has 2i\ board 
 feet. 
 
 Example No. 2: How many board feet in a })oard V x 16'^ 
 X 14'? 
 
 Under 12 find 14. Follow the same line of figures until under 
 16 of the outside scale division. We find the board contains 18t\ 
 feet. 
 
 Example No. 3 : Find the board feet in a board 2" x 4" x 10'. The 
 table given on the square is for boards one inch thick. A board two Lumber 
 inches thick will have twice as many board feet as a board one inch one inch 
 
 . . thick. 
 
 thick. A board three inches thick will have three times as many feet, 
 etc. 
 
 Rule. — For boards that are more or less than one inch thick, find 
 the board feet in the usual way and multiply the table figures by the 
 thickness. It is coming to be the general practice, however, to quote Lumber 
 prices for thickness of less than one inch by the square feet in surface, one inch 
 thickness not considered. 
 
 Example No. 4: Find the board feet in a board 1" x 12'' x 8'. 
 
 We can see at once that if a board is twelve inches wide, every special 
 foot in length will be a board foot, and the board will have 8 board 
 feet. 
 
 Example No. 5: Find the board feet in a board 1" x 6" x 12'. 
 Twelve feet is not given in the table, but if we figure the square surface 
 of the board we find that it has six board feet. 
 
 A board 1" x 9" x 12' has 9 square feet; and a board 1" x 17" x 12' 
 has 17 square feet. That is, a board 12 feet long has as man}^ square 
 feet as it is inches wide. For this reason the twelve-foot length is not 
 usually given in the table on the square, for the outside scale gradua- 
 
86 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 t^se of 
 
 brace 
 
 measure. 
 
 tions are really a table of widths of which 12 is the given length 
 in feet. 
 
 Brace Measure. — On the short blade of the square (Fig. 129) will 
 be found numbers H % gS? etc. These figures give equal distances on 
 two sides of a frame, as A and B, Fig. 130, while the number imme- 
 diately to the right of each of these figures gives the corresponding 
 length of the brace C. 
 
 For example, 2I 33.94 means that if A and B are each 24 
 inches long, the brace C will be 33.94 inches long. Or if A and 
 B are each 39 inches the figure to the right of I9, that is, 55.16 — 
 gives the length of the brace C, etc. 
 
 The use of the table is limited to the lengths given, and, with the 
 exception of 24 30, A and B are equal. 
 
 The Tee Bevel 
 
 The bevel (Fig. 131) has. a beam {A, Fig. 132) corresponding to the 
 beam of the try square, and a blade {B) which may be set to any 
 required angle and held in place by the set-screw (C). When the bevel 
 is set at any angle it is used the same as the try square. The head is 
 placed agiiijist a marked edge and the blade is used as a straight-edge 
 
 Fig. 130 Corner and Brace 
 
 for dra\ving lines. 
 
 Setting the Bevel 
 
 If we wish to get the angle of a brace, 
 as C, Fig. 130, and we know the length 
 of A and B, lay off A and B on 
 each part of the frame, place the beam 
 of the bevel on either part, and adjust 
 the blade to the extremity of A and 
 B. If C is longer than the blade of 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 87 
 
 the bevel, place a straight-edge along the line of C and set the 
 blade to the face of it. 
 
 If A and B are equal and the angle E is a right angle, the 
 blade may be set to any two points at equal distance from the corner, 
 and the angle of C will be obtained for any length of A and B. 
 
 Fig. 131— Tee Bevel 
 
 Fig. 132 — Setting Bevel to an Angle of 45° 
 
 For example, if we wish to get the angle of any or all of the braces setting 
 
 bevel to 
 
 given in the table on the square (Fig. 129), except 24 30, we could angle of 
 place the head of the bevel on either blade of the square and set the 
 blade as in Fig. 132. If the bevel is set in this position and the beam 
 is moved either way on the blade of the square, the blade of the 
 bevel will always mark equal scale divisions on the two blades of the 
 square. The angles D are angles of 45°. 
 
88 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Compasses 
 
 General 
 facts 
 about 
 angles. 
 
 Angle of 
 one degree 
 defined. 
 
 CircMim- 
 rcrciicc of 
 circle used 
 to meas- 
 ure angles. 
 
 To Set the Bevel to 60° and 120° 
 
 This will bring into use a new tool, the compasses * (Fig. 133.) The 
 
 compasses are used for drawing the circumferences of circles and for 
 
 spacing off equal measurements. y1 is a set-screw which clamps the 
 
 leg to the wing (F) and holds it in place when set to the required 
 
 dimensions. To set the compasses place the 
 point on the scale, as in Fig. 134, bring the 
 points as nearly to the scale dimensions as you 
 can, quickly clamp the set-screw, then turn the 
 nut (B, Fig. 133) either way as required. 
 This will either draw or release the spring (C). 
 The nut and spring are a convenient means 
 of accurate final adjustment. 
 
 Before we can lay out and obtain definite 
 angles we must know certain facts about angles 
 in general. If from any point, as 0, Fig. 135, 
 we draw 360 lines so as to make all the spaces 
 between the lines, as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, etc., 
 equal, then each one of the angles between these 
 lines is an angle of one degree. That is, an angle 
 
 of one degree is one of 360 equal angles which 
 
 can be drawn about a jioint. According to 
 
 this definition, if we draw a circumference 
 
 of a circle about the point 0, Fig. 135«, 
 
 we can measure on that circumference just 
 
 360 one-degree angles. Knowing this fact, 
 
 if we can divide the circumference of a circle 
 
 into any equal number of parts then we can 
 
 easily find the number of one-degree angles 
 
 which may be measured by each part. 
 
 * J'lie large, rather poorly constructed tool used by the ear|)enter is ealletl the eom- 
 I)asses, while the delicate, well-made tool used by the draughtsman is called the dividers. 
 
 Fig- 133— Compasses 
 
 Fig. 134— Setting Compasses to 
 Dimensions 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE SO 
 
 For example: Draw a circuiiiferciu'e of a cii'clc al)()ut 0, Fig. to meas- 
 135o; without changing the setting oi the cunipasses space on the cir- of 6o°an<i 
 cumference just ch'awn. We find that the circumference of the circle 
 is divided into just six equal divisions. From what we have learned 
 about the one-degree angle we know that through each of these 
 
 Fig. 135— Laying Out 
 One-Degree Angles 
 About Point O 
 
 Fig. 135a — 360 One-Degree 
 Angles Will Cut the Cir= 
 cumference of any Circle 
 
 Fig. 135b — Circumference 
 of Circle Used to Measure 
 Angles 
 
 divisions ^ of 360, or 60 one-degree angles may be drawn. This 
 knowledge will enable us to lay out almost any angle. 
 
 We cannot set the bevel to an angle drawn on paper. Rut if we 
 joint the edge of a board and with the gauge draw a line parallel with 
 the joint edge, as A — B, Fig. 136, we can set the bevel to any angle 
 drawn on the board, having one of the sides parallel to A — B. 
 
 To lay out a 60° angle on the 
 board, with the compasses draw a part 
 of any circumference, as D — E; with- 
 out changing the compasses place one 
 point at D, the point where E — D 
 cuts A — B, and draw a line cutting 
 E — D, as at A'. Through this point 
 (A^) draw C — 0. Angle D — — C is an angle of 60°, for, as we have 
 learned, it is I of all the one-degree angles that can be drawn about 0. 
 
 It is easy to show that B — — C is an angle of 120°. To set the 
 bevel at 60° place the beam along the edge of the board parallel to 
 A — and set the blade along C — 0. To set bevel to 120°, place 
 the beam on the edge parallel to — B and the blade along — C. 
 
 Fig. 136 — Laying Out Angles of 60° and 120° 
 
90 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Cutting or Edge Tools 
 
 The split- 
 wedge. 
 
 Obtuse 
 cutting 
 wedge. 
 
 Acute 
 
 cutting 
 
 wedge. 
 
 In the first three chapters of this book we learned that because 
 of the nature of wood it was necessary to have the cutting edge of wood- 
 working tools made to do certain kinds of work. In giving this in- 
 formation it was assumed that the tools at hand were made correctly; 
 but with continued use tools become dull and change their shape. If 
 we examine a number (A tools we shall find many shapes and angles 
 that do not seem to embody the principles given. In order to keep 
 tools sharp and give them the best shape for doing any kind of work, 
 it is necessary to know a few of the mechanical facts involved while 
 the tool is performing the cutting operation. 
 
 The object of this chapter is to give additional information about 
 tools which will enable the workman not only to select tools but to 
 shape and use them in such a way that they will do the most efficient 
 cutting. A few experiments with a pocket-knife will give us a good 
 understanding of some of the reasons why cutting edges of tools are 
 made and used as they are. 
 
 For example, if we start a cut on the end of a piece of wood, as in 
 Fig. 137, the edge of the blade does a little cutting 
 at first, but as the cut advances the wood is split 
 ahead of the edge and the action of the blade is 
 that of the splitting wedge. The only bearing of 
 the wood upon the knife is at ^. As a result of 
 this wedging the fibres are torn apart leaving a 
 splintered rough surface. If we start a cut, as in 
 Fig. 137a, and advance into it holding the knife so 
 that the fibres are severed by the cutting edge, the surface (A) will be 
 comi:)aratively smooth and the knife can be made to follow more 
 nearly the required direction. 
 
 If the sides of the cutting edge are made long and the angle between 
 them very acute, so that one side of the blade may be held nearly flat 
 
 Fig- 137— Knife Used as 
 Splitting Wedge 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 91 
 
 on the surface A, Fig. I37b, the cut will be made with less exertion, 
 the surface A will be much smoother, and the knife may be con- 
 trolled more easily. 
 
 The longer the bearing the blade has on the surface (A Fig. 1375) 
 the more efficient 
 it is as a cutting 
 tool, providing, of 
 course, that the 
 edge has sufficient 
 strength to with- 
 stand the strain. 
 For this reason the 
 chisel is ground only 
 on one side. A few 
 cuts with a sharp chisel will show that it cuts smoother and is much 
 more easily controlled than is the knife. 
 
 If we place a knife on a piece of wood at right angles to the fibre, The shear- 
 as at A, rig. 13/c, and advance it mto the cut to the position B, 
 always keeping the knife at the same angle and giving it only a forward 
 motion, it will jiot cut nearly so well as it will if placed in the position 
 A, Fig. lS7d, and advanced to B with a shding or shearing cut. 
 
 Fig. 137a — Thick, Obtuse 
 Cutting Edge 
 
 Fig. 137b— Thin, Sharp Cutting 
 Edge 
 
 JZHL 
 
 B-' /J'i7 
 
 Fig. 137c— Straight Cut 
 
 Fig. I37d— Shearing Cut 
 
92 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 CiittiiiK 
 across the 
 grain. 
 
 The paring cut of the chisel, page 43, Fig. 67c makes use of this fact. 
 For cutting across the grain the knife hekl as A, Fig. 137e, is 
 much less efficient than one held as at B, the same figure. 
 
 By making cuts with the knife 
 at various angles and i)ositions, it 
 will be found that the manipulation 
 of the tool has quite as much to 
 do with the efficiency as does its 
 shape and sharpness. With the 
 above facts in mind, we are ready 
 Fig. 1376 -Cross-Grain Cutting for A cousideratiou of the edge tools. 
 
 N urn her 
 of twill 
 anrl iitim- 
 Ul'T of 
 
 points. 
 
 The Saw * 
 
 We have learned to select the crosscut and the rip saw, and also 
 that for hard and soft wood and for rough and smooth cutting, 
 different shapes and styles of tools are necessary. Saws ofTer no 
 exception to this general fact. 
 
 Saws are catalogued and are spoken of as being a certain number 
 of inches long and as having a given number of teeth or points to the 
 inch. The number of teeth are always one less than the number of 
 points per inch. 
 
 Saws with large teeth will cut faster but require more strength to 
 push them. The teeth are weaker and the surface of the cut is rougher 
 than is the case with small teeth. The teeth of the rip saw are usually 
 larger and of a different pitch or angle than those of the correspond- 
 ing crosscut saw. They generally range from three and one half to 
 eight i)()ints to the inch for a 26" saw, while the crosscut saw teeth 
 range from four to twelve points. Some of the special back saws 
 have as many as sixteen points to the inch. 
 
 * .Many of the fads .-ihout saws <iivon in tliis cliajitor aro taken from " Disston's 
 Hand liook on Saws." Fig.s. 1;^7p, 14;i, 14.V/, 144, 1 11'/, and 144/; aro copied direct. By 
 jjorini.ssion of Henry Disston «& Sons, saw makers. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 93 
 
 Set 
 
 All saws, with the exception of the very finest back saws, and 
 some special saws, are set — that is, the adjacent teeth are bent in op- 
 posite directions in order to make the cut, or kerf, wider than the thick- 
 ness of the blade. (See Figs. 138, 141, and 142.) The set or bend in 
 the teeth should never extend into the body of the 
 blade for fear of cracking or otherwise weakening it. 
 The saw should always be set before it is sharpened. 
 
 We find again, as with the other tools, that there 
 are many commercial forms of saw sets, as the tool 
 for setting the saw is called. Figs. 139 and 139« 
 show the forms of saw sets generally used by the 
 mechanic who wishes only to keep his own tools in 
 order. A few minutes' actual work with the saw set will be sufficient 
 to give one an understanding of how to operate it, but it takes con- 
 siderable experience to get the best results. 
 
 Fig. 138 ^The Set of 
 the Saw Teeth Makes 
 the Kerf Wider than 
 the Blade 
 
 Saw sets. 
 
 Filing the Saw 
 
 All saws are sharpened by filing 
 rigid either by clamping in 
 a special vise, as in Fig. 
 140, or between two boards 
 in the regular bench vise, as 
 in Fig. 140fl. 
 
 The saw must always 
 be held firmly, so that 
 when cutting the file will 
 produce a solid grinding 
 sound. The file that 
 screeches and screams is 
 
 The blade of the saw is made ciamping 
 
 the saw for 
 filing. 
 
 Fig. 139 — Saw Set 
 
 Fig. 139a — Saw Set 
 
94 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 merely being worn out and is not doing good work. All saws should 
 be filed from the handle toward the point. 
 
 Fig. 140— Special Saw Vise 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 140a — Saw Clamped in Bench Vise between Boards 
 
 Rip Saw 
 
 After setting, the teeth of the rip saw are filed square across the 
 blade— that is, at right angles to the blade both horizontally and 
 Filing. vertically. If the adjacent teeth are filed from opposite sides, as C 
 and D, Fig. 141, the cutting edge will be given a slight bevel which 
 will make each tooth cut with a shearing action, thus increasing 
 the ease and efficiency of the cut, as is shown by the experiment with 
 the knife, Fig. 137d, page 91. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 95 
 
 Fig. 141 is a true mechanical drawing, with the exception that in 
 the plan (B) the perspective is added, in order to show more clearly 
 the set in the teeth and ,^ 
 
 the effect of filing from / '. 
 
 both sides. The angle 
 (F, Fig. 141) at the 
 point of the tooth is 
 changed by changing 
 the direction of the line 
 (G), the advancing edge 
 of the tooth being always 
 the same. For hard- 
 wood sawing the angle 
 (F) is more obtuse and 
 the teeth are smaller 
 than for sawing soft 
 wood. 
 
 The Crosscut Saw 
 
 The general shape of 
 the crosscut saw and the 
 reasons for making it 
 
 as it is are given on pages 5 and 6, Figs. 3, 4, and 5. The 
 adjacent teeth of the crosscut saw are filed from opposite sides. 
 The file is held at right angles to the vertical face and at an angle of 
 about 45° to the horizontal. The angle is measured between the 
 handle of the file and the handle of the saw. In Fig. 142, A 
 shows the side elevation and B the plan of a crosscut saw. D 
 is the file in the horizontal position, while C and C^ are the positions 
 of the file when looked down on from above. 
 
 Fig. 137e illustrates an experiment showing that the advancing 
 
 -Filing Rip Saw 
 
 Filing 
 
 Slant of 
 teeth. 
 
9() 
 
 MAx\UAL TRAINING 1^X)R COM.MON SCHOOLS 
 
 Special 
 shapes 
 of teeth 
 
 Filing for 
 hard aiul 
 soft wood 
 cutting. 
 
 edge of a crosscutting tool is more efficient when it has a certain 
 amount of sUmt in the diixn-tion of the cut. In order to take advan- 
 tage of that fact the advancing edges of the crosscut saw teeth are 
 made, as a rule, at an angle of about 60°. For example, teeth shaped 
 
 as in Fig. 143 cut 
 better than those 
 shaped as in Fig. 
 143a. This lat- 
 ter form of tooth 
 strikes the fibre 
 of the wood 
 square at right 
 angles and breaks 
 rather than cuts 
 out the shaving. 
 A saw thus filed 
 is likely to stop 
 (juickly in the 
 stroke and either 
 be broken or 
 buckled. There 
 is more strain on 
 the teeth and 
 they will not hold 
 the set or the 
 
 edge so well. For these reasons the advancing edge of the tooth is 
 seldom changed, l)ut the angle (B, Fig 143) is always changed by 
 changing the direction of the line (C). 
 
 If the points of the saw teeth are too acute they will not stand the 
 strain of hard-wood sawing. Consequently the shapes of the points of 
 the teeth are made according to the work to be done. Figs. 144, 144a, 
 and 1446 are the mechanical drawings of a single tooth, showing the 
 
 Fig. 142 — Filing Crosscut or Hand Saw 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 97 
 
 effect on the shape of the point when the angle of the back face of the 
 tooth (B) is changed. A tooth shaped as in Fig. 144, faces A and 
 B equal, is for soft wood, as in Fig. 144rt, B at an angle less than 
 A, is for medium hard- wood and for general cutting, and a tooth 
 
 Fig. 143 — Usual Shape of Saw 
 Teeth for Crosscutting 
 
 Fig. 143a — Teeth Filed too 
 Straight on Front Face 
 
 N 
 
 Fig. 144 — Shape of 
 Saw Teeth for 
 Cutting Soft 
 Wood 
 
 Fig. 144a — Shape of 
 Saw Teeth for 
 General Cutting 
 
 Fig. 144b — Shape 
 of Saw Teeth for 
 Cutting Hard 
 Wood 
 
 shaped as in Fig. 1446 is for hard- wood cutting. The effect on the 
 point of the tooth produced by the change in the angle of the edge (5) 
 is easily seen in the drawing. 
 
 It will also be noticed that face A is the same in each case. 
 
 Special Saws 
 
 Back Saw. — This saw has been used in the joint work and is 
 shown on page 40, Fig. 65. The teeth of the back saw are about 
 the same angle as those of a regular crosscut or hand saw, but are 
 much finer, 
 
 Mitei' Saiv. — ^This is simply a long, heavy back saw, as shown in the 
 miter-box (Fig. 145), and is used for very accurate crosscutting. The 
 teeth are not generally set, but the feather-edge left by the file is suffi- 
 
98 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Miter box. 
 
 Compass 
 saw. 
 
 cient to make the kerf of the saw wider than the blade, for the saw is 
 seldom used on any but well-seasoned lumber. The miter saw is held 
 in a special frame or miter-box. (Fig. 145.) This box holds the saw 
 perfectly true, either square across the piece to be cut or at an angle of 
 
 45° either way from the centre. 
 The saw leaves the surface of the 
 wood in such a smooth condition 
 that no further finish is necessary 
 for joining the sawed surfaces. 
 The compass saw (Fig. 146), 
 
 Fig. 145 — Miter Saw and Box 
 
 Fig. 146a — Turning or Web Saw 
 
 Fig. 146 
 
 Fig. 146b — Coping Saw 
 
 Coping 
 saw. 
 
 Turning or thc tumiug or web saw (Fig. 
 
 web saw. 
 
 14G«), and the coping saw 
 (Fig. 1466), are all made for 
 cutting to curved lines and for 
 special cuts where the other 
 
 Ko.y-hole 
 saw. 
 
 Fig. 147 — Nest of Saws 
 
 saws will not work because of their size and shape. Fig. 147 shows a 
 
 nest of saws which fit the sanu^ handle 
 are used as compass and key-hole saws. 
 
 the smaller blades of the set 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 99 
 
 Selecting a Saw 
 
 In selecting a saw care should be taken to choose one that is well 
 hung — that is, one which is in good balance. The handle should fit the 
 hand, and when making a cut it should be easy to hold to the line. 
 Spring the blade and see that it bends evenly in proportion to the width 
 from the tip to the butt. The thinner the blade the better, if it is 
 stiff enough to "stand the strain of cutting. A new saw should be well 
 set and sharpened, and one should always take a cut with it before 
 buying. 
 
 Planes 
 
 The planes most used have been considered at some length on sharpen- 
 pages 8 to 10, Figs. 7 to 13, inclusive, and grinding and oil-stoning, 
 pages 12 and 13, Figs. 15 to 20. The parts of the plane, their use, and The parts 
 their adjustment were considered on pages 13 to 15, Figs. 21 to 26. use of. 
 
 Special Planes 
 
 The wood-worker of a few years ago who did an3^thing more than universal 
 the most common work had to have a whole set of special planes, con- ^ ^"^^' 
 
 Fig. 148 — Universal Plane 
 
100 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 sisting of rounds, hollows, beading, rabbeting, matching, antl many 
 others. Planes have been im])roved so much recently, however, that 
 a single plane stock provided with special cutters will take the place 
 of all the others. Such a plane is called a universal plane and is shown 
 
 Fig. 148a— Universal Plane Set to Cut Moulding 
 
 Fig. 148b— Universal Plane, Special Setting 
 
 Circular 
 jilane. 
 
 in Figs. 148, 148o, 1485. The figures show the same plane set for 
 
 different operations. 
 
 The above universal plane is very elaborate, probably too elaborate 
 
 for ordinary use : but planes may be obtained for doing an}^ one or any 
 
 group of operations, such as hollows, 
 rounds, matching, rabbeting, etc. 
 
 Universal and special planes are 
 always accompanied w^ith full direc- 
 tions for adjusting and using, which 
 are much better than can be given 
 
 here. 
 
 Fig. 149— Circular Plane 
 
 The Circular Plane (Fig. 149) is a 
 plane with a thin steel base, which 
 may l)e made concave or convex, to work on either a concave or a 
 convex surface. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 101 
 
 Fig. 15b— Spokeshave 
 
 Fig. 151— Spokeshave 
 
 The spokeshaves, two types of which are shown in Figs. 150 and ^po^^- 
 
 151, are in reahty planes, but are not generally considered as such. 
 
 As is shown in the cuts, the bits are set in a very short stock, which 
 
 enables them to 
 
 cut on an irreg- 
 
 ular surface. 
 
 Fig. 150 shows a 
 
 tool with a screw 
 
 adjustment for 
 
 depth of cut. 
 The Router 
 
 Plane, one form 
 
 of which is shown in Fig. 152, is convenient for cutting or smoothing 
 
 the bottom of a gain or groove. Such planes are used a great deal 
 
 for cutting out equal depths of 
 stock for inlaying — that is, for 
 setting in pieces of wood of dif- 
 ferent kinds from the one with 
 which we are working. A good 
 example is parquetry flooring. 
 
 Special planes are made for 
 almost every kind of work. Ref- 
 erence to a dealers' catalogue will 
 usually give the desired infor- 
 Fig. 152— Router Plane uiatiou about auy plane needed. 
 
 Chisels 
 
 Chisels are listed or catalogued according to their size and length. The size 
 
 o of chisels 
 
 As stated before, the size of a chisel is designated by the width of the 
 cutting edge, and ranges from one eighth inch to one inch, by eighth 
 inches, as Y, Y, f, Y, etc., and from one to two inches, by quarter 
 inches. 
 
102 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Tang and 
 
 socket 
 
 chisels. 
 
 Square and 
 bevelled 
 edge 
 chisels. 
 
 T.vi)e; 
 cliisi'l 
 
 of 
 
 Fig. 153— Tang Chisel 
 
 
 Fig. 154 — Socket Chisel 
 
 Chisels are called tang or socket chisels, according to the way in 
 which the handles are fastened to the blades. The tang chisel has 
 an end which fits into the handle, as in Fig. 153. The socket chisel has 
 an end into which the handle fits, as in Fig. 154. 
 
 Both the tang and the socket chisels 
 are manufactured with blades having 
 square edges, as in Figs. 153 and 154, or 
 with bevelled edges, as in Figs. 155 and 
 156. The bevelled edge 
 chisel presents the bet- 
 ter appearance, seems 
 to be hung better — 
 
 that is, to have the better balance — and is more easily ground and oil- 
 stoned, because it has less grinding surface on account of the corners 
 having been cut away. The bevelled edge chisel costs a little more 
 than the square edge. 
 
 Paring, Firmer, and Framing Chisels. — According to their use, 
 chisels are designated as paring, firmer, and framing chisels. The 
 paring chisel is a large, thin-bladed chisel used mostly for light work, 
 and should not be driven into the cut by a mallet. The firmer chisel 
 is somewhat heavier and shorter than the paring chisel and is driven 
 into its cut by a mallet on light work. The framing chisel is a short, 
 
 heavy chisel made to stand 
 driving with a mallet, and for 
 this reason the handle is 
 usually protected by a ferrule, 
 
 Fig. 155— Tang Chisel with Bevelled Edge 
 
 as is the handle of 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 All three of the 
 above-m e n t i o n e d 
 
 chisels are made either with square or bevelled edges and with tang or 
 socket for holding the handle, although the tang does not hold the 
 
 Fig. 156— Socket Chisel with Bevelled Edge 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 103 
 
 handle of the chisel as well as the socket. All chisels are ground and sharpen- 
 oil-stoned the same as the plane bit (pages 12 and 13, Figs. 16 to 20, a"rf/a test 
 inclusive). For test of sharpness, put a piece of soft wood in the vise ness. 
 and cut it across the grain. As stated in the second chapter, the cut 
 should be smooth. 
 
 Special cuts and operations with chisels have been considered as special 
 follows: Chiselling end of lap joint, page 42, Fig. 67. Paring cut, page operations. 
 43, Fig. 67c. Bevelling to line, page 43, Fig. 676. ChiselUng mortise, 
 pages 51 to 55, Figs. 70e to 70^, inclusive. 
 
 All chisels are ground with more or less bevel at the cutting edge, 
 according to the nature of the material they are to cut and the kind of 
 work to be done. 
 
 Gouges 
 
 Gouges (Figs. 157 and 158) are chisels the blades of which are 
 curved. They are designated as tang, socket, paring, firmer, and 
 framing gouges, the same as are the flat chisels. 
 
 If the gouge is ground on the outside (Fig. 158) — that is, on the con- outiwe 
 
 c • • 11 1 • 1 1 c ^'^*^ inside 
 
 vex surface — it is called an outside-ground gouge. If ground on the ground 
 
 . , „ gouges. 
 
 mside, or concave surface 
 (Fig. 157), it is called an 
 
 Fig. i57-Insi(le-Ground Gouge iuside-grOUUd gOUgC. 
 
 The size of the gouge size of 
 is the length of a 
 straight line across the 
 corners of the cutting ^. o r> * ., r< 
 
 *5 Fig. 158— Outside-Ground Gouge 
 
 edge, and ranges from 
 
 one-eighth of an inch to one inch, by eighths of an inch, and from one 
 
 to two inches, by quarter inches. 
 
 The curvature of the blade of a gouge is called the sweep, and sets sweep of 
 of gouges are made in three sweeps — flat sweep, middle sweep, and 
 full or quick sweep. For the flat sweep it takes eighteen gouges 
 
 gouges. 
 
104 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 To obtain 
 any sweep. 
 
 of any size to complete a circle. For the middle sweep it takes six, 
 and for the full or quick sweep it takes three. This is theoretical. 
 The gouges will, in reality, vary slightly from this owing to the diffi- 
 culty of getting them correct.* But they will be near enough so that 
 the following diagrams (.1, B, C, Fig. 159) may be used to obtain 
 approximateh' the size and shape of any gouge in any set. For 
 example, to obtain the shape and size of a gouge in the flat sweep 
 with as a centre (^4, Fig. 159), and a radius 5.9'' long, draw an 
 arc, as G — F, so that the cliord of the arc will be 2''; the arc will 
 be the shape or curvature and the chord will be the size of the 
 two-inch flat sweep gouge. If we measure down the radii — G 
 and — F t<^ the points where they are If" 
 apai't, and, with as a centre, draw another arc 
 through the points, the arc will be the shape and 
 the chord will be the size of the If gouge. In 
 the same way, with as a centre, we can draw 
 an arc at the points where the radii — F and 
 0-G are 1^, H", 1", ¥, 
 etc., apart and thus obtain 
 the curvature and size of 
 all gouges in the set. 
 
 For the middle sweep, 
 proceed the same way, only 
 the first radius will be 2" 
 long, and for the full or 
 quick sweep the first radius 
 will be 1.15" long. 
 
 As stated above, these 
 measurements are only 
 ap})r()ximate, Init are close enough to give valuable aid in ordering 
 gouges. 
 
 * Iiif(jriii;itiou ubtuined from Mack iV: Co., Rochester, New York, tool makers. 
 
 1,15 R/»p.us 
 Fig. 159 — Cuts Show Method for Getting Sweep of Gouge 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 105 
 
 Corner Chisels 
 
 A corner chisel (Fig. 160) is a chisel with the blade made in such a 
 way as to form a right angle. It is convenient for cutting corners in 
 mortises and similar openings. 
 
 Fig. 1 60 — Corner Chisel 
 
 Auger Bits 
 
 The form of the auger bit in most common use is shown in Fig 161. 
 Such bits usually come in sets of thirteen, ranging in size from one- 
 quarter to one inch, by sixteenths — that is, i", f/, i'\ ^\'\ \", etc. 
 The size of the bit is the 
 size of the hole that it 
 bores, and is marked on 
 the shank (h, Fig. 161) as 
 
 11^ 1 
 
 Fig. 161 — Common Auger Bit 
 
 Size of 
 auger bitf 
 
 Fig. 162 — Expansive Bit 
 
 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., meanmg 
 
 4 'f 5 " 6 " Jl " %J' pf p 
 llT 7 ITT > 17 J ITS" J 16 J clL. 
 
 Bits for boring holes 
 larger than one inch may 
 be obtained; but an ex- 
 pansive bit (Fig. 162) is a very efficient tool with wider range of use- 
 fulness and will cost much less than sets of bits over one inch of the 
 type shown in Fig. 161. The cutter («) of the expansive bit shown 
 in Fig. 162 may be adjusted and held in any position by the screw, 
 thus regulating the size of the hole to be bored. The expansive bit 
 is usually made in two sizes, the smaller size boring holes from f^' to 
 If, and the larger size from |'' to ?>" . Each size is provided with two 
 lengths of cutters. 
 
 The Irwin Bit. — In recent years the form of bit shown in Fig. 161 
 
 Expan- 
 sive bits. 
 
 Solid 
 centre 
 stem bits. 
 
106 IMANUAL TRAINTNG FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 has been inucli improved upon by the type shown in Fig. 163. The 
 chief feature in the added efficiency of this bit is that the single twist 
 offers less resistance to the shavings by giving more room for them to 
 
 carry up out of the hole. 
 These bits are known 
 under the trade name of 
 
 Fig. 163 — Irwin Solid Centre Stem Bit 
 
 ''The Irwin Car Bit," or 
 the solid centre stem bit and range in size the same as the other bits. 
 
 To Sharpen an Auger Bit 
 
 xibs. Auger bits are sharpened by filing. The nibs (a and b, Fig. 161), 
 
 are alwa3^s filed on the insicie. To file them on the outside would 
 decrease the diameter of the bit at the point and thus the diameter of 
 the hole, which in turn would prevent the bit from entering the 
 wood. The lips — that is, the cutting edges— are filed on the under 
 surface, the edge being made the shape of a chisel. The screw (c) at 
 the centre of the bit, which draws it into the wood, is called the 
 
 Spur. spur. Care should be taken not to injure the spur, for the efficiency 
 of the bio depends upon it. 
 
 Special Bits 
 
 The larger dealers carry in stock a variety of l)its suitable for almost 
 any form of work. A few special types are given below. 
 
 Fostner Bit. — The Fostner bit, shown in Fig. 164, is a bit made 
 without the spur. It leaves the bottom of the hole flat, a great ad- 
 vantage in some holes that are not to be bored entirely through. 
 Another feature is that the bit ^^ 
 
 will cut with any portion of the ^3 ^^——^^^^—'^^ ^^— 
 face overlai)pihg an edge, as shown Fig. 164 -Fostner Bit 
 
 in Fig. 165. This is a con- 
 venience in removing the stock from a mortise or any other recess in 
 the wood. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 107 
 
 Gimlet Bit. — The gimlet bit (Fig. 166) is made in sizes ranging 
 from s\" to ^", by a difference in size of -^". This type of bit is good 
 for boring small holes; but in boring into small pieces one must be 
 careful not to split the wood. The 
 tapering end, unless very sharp, 
 wedges its way into the bore, and 
 tends to split the piece. 
 
 Another and generally speak- 
 ing a better type of gimlet bit is 
 shown in Fig. 167. This form of 
 bit is not so likely to split the wood and is much easier to sharpen. 
 It ranges in size the same as the other gimlet bits. 
 
 Fig. i6s — Special Cuts with Fostner Bit 
 
 Size of 
 gimlet bits. 
 
 Fig. 1 66 —German Gimlet Bit 
 
 Fig. 167— Morse Gimlet Bit 
 
 Fig. 168 shows a twist drill. While it is made for boring metal, it Twist driu. 
 is very convenient for boring small holes in wood. It has the advan- 
 tage of being stronger and giving a wider range of sizes than the 
 regular gimlet bits. It ranges in size from No. 1 to No. 60. No. 1 is 
 a little smaller than one-ciuarter inch, while No. 
 60 is too small for any form of wood-work. The 
 successive sizes vary by a small fraction of an 
 inch. Any of the braces described below will hold a twist drill not 
 less than one-quarter inch in diameter. For smaller diameter a brace 
 like the one shown in Fig;. 1696 is used. 
 
 Fig. 168— Morse Twist Drill 
 
 Bit Braces 
 
 All of the bits mentioned above are driven to their work by means 
 of a brace, the most general form of which is shown in Fig. 169, 
 though there are many modifications of this simple form. 
 
108 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Ratchet-Brace 
 
 Fig. 169a shows a ratchet-brace. The ratchet which is placed at 
 a is an arrangement which enables one to drive a bit where it is not 
 possible to make a complete revolution of the brace. This result is 
 accomplished by means of two dogs or pawls, which may be made to 
 
 Fig. 169— Plane Brace 
 
 Fig. 169a— Ratchet-Brace 
 
 catch in a notched wheel. When both pawls are resting in the notches 
 the brace works the same as the simple brace. (Fig. 169.) By turning 
 a collar at a one or the other of the dogs may be raised and held out 
 of the notch. If we wish to drive a bit into a corner where the brace 
 will not make a complete turn, one pawl may be left in the notch and 
 the other raised. A forward motion of the brace drives the bit. A 
 
 backward motion leaves the bit 
 stationary, while the pawl, 
 which is in the notches, slips 
 back and takes its place in an- 
 
 Fig. 169b — Breast Drill ii , i i j. i • j.1 
 
 other notch ready to drive the 
 bit foi'ward on the forward stroke. The usefulness of such a brace 
 is self-evident. 
 
 Universal Angular Brace 
 
 Fig. 170 shows a universal angular brace. This brace is for 
 boring into corners or at any angle. 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 109 
 
 Bit Stop 
 
 A, Fig. 171, shows a convenient stop attachment for any size bit. 
 By means of the clamping screw (B) the attachment may be clamped 
 
 in any position on the shank of the bit. 
 This enables the workman to bore a 
 hole, or any number of holes, to any 
 required depth. 
 
 Fig. 170 — Universal Angular Brace 
 
 Fig. 171— Bit Stop Attaciied to Bit 
 
 Miscellaneous Tools 
 
 The draw-knife (Fig. 172) is in reality a chisel, though not usually 
 classed as such. The blade is sharpened flat on one side hke the 
 chisel, while the handles are made for pulling rather than for driving 
 or pushing. The draw-knife is used for rather rough modelling and 
 for cutting to a straight line 
 when the cut is made on the 
 edge of the board. 
 
 Hammer. — The hammer, 
 its use and construction, 
 have been considered on 
 
 page 70, Figs. 112a and b, Fig. 172 -Draw-Knife 
 
 and Fig. 113. 
 
 Nail Set. — For nail set, 
 see page 71, Fig. 114. 
 
 Sa^ew- Driver. — For screw- 
 driver, see page 74, Fig. 
 
 Fig. 172a — Draw-Knife, Handles Down to Protect -i oi 
 
 Cutting Edge 1.^1. 
 
no MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Dressing 
 t lie grind- 
 stone. 
 
 Wasliita 
 and Ar- 
 kansas 
 stones. 
 
 Oil for 
 stone. 
 
 Screw Countersink. — For screw countersink, see page 73, Fig. 
 119. 
 
 Grindstone. — The use of the grindstone, for grinding edge tools, 
 has been considered on page 12, Fig. 16. As is stated, a represents 
 the tool, h the stone, and the arrow the direction in which the stone 
 is turning. The relation between the direction of the stone and the 
 cutting edge of the tool is usually as stated, but for beginners it is 
 safer to put the tool on the other side, where there is no danger of its 
 catching. 
 
 The grindstone for wood-working tools should be medium soft and 
 coarse. This will cut fast and give a reasonably good surface to the 
 cutting edge of the tool. Water should always be used on a gruid- 
 stone to wash out the crumbled parts of the stone and metal. If the 
 surface of the stone becomes gummed or out of shape it nmst be 
 dressed. A convenient method of dressing a stone is to use a gas-pipe 
 over a rest the same as a turning tool. There are several forms of 
 commercial stone-dressers which are easy to use. However, stone- 
 dressing should be done by the older workmen. 
 
 Oil-Stone. — All grinding on the grindstone should be followed by 
 whetting on an oil-stone. The principle of whetting has been given 
 on pages 12 and 13, Figs. 18, 19 and 20. 
 
 The best oil-stones are known as the Washita and the .Arkansas 
 stones. These are natural stones quarried and cut to the requu'ed 
 shapes. The stone is hard, with a very fine grit, w^hich gives an unusu- 
 ally fine edge to the tool. For ordinary wood-working it is not neces- 
 sary to have so fine or so expensive a stone. 
 
 India Oil-Stone. — ''India Oil-Stone" is the trade name given to 
 an oil-stone manufactured in the United States. It is made of emery 
 held together by a cement. This stone is very efficient and is reason- 
 able in price. 
 
 When in use, the surface of the oil-stone should be covered with a 
 thin layer of the best grade of lubricating oil — not the heavy cyUnder 
 
TOOLS GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR USE 111 
 
 oil, hut a, Ihiu oil without umcli gum. One should always guard 
 against the use of too much oil, for the dirty oil-stone is the worst 
 source of grime around a bench. 
 
 Oil-stones are made in many shapes and sizes. The two sizes and 
 shapes in most constant use, however, are given in Figs. 173 and 174. 
 
 Fig. 173— Common Shape for Bench Oil-Stone Fig. 174— Oil-Stone Slip 
 
 the oil- 
 stone. 
 
 To true the face of an oil-stone, rub it over a flat piece of No. 1| Totme 
 sand-pa])er. 
 
 Oil-Can. — All shops should be provided with a sufficient number 
 of oil-cans. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 WOOD FINISHING 
 
 ^YooD finishing is a trade all by itself. It is seldom that the work- 
 man who does the wood-work does the finishing also. It will, therefore, 
 . be the object of this chapter to give only enough about wood finishing 
 to enable the amateur to finish well the articles of wood-work spoken of 
 in this volume and similar articles which these may suggest to him. 
 
 The Objects of Wood Finishing 
 
 The first and real object of wood finishing is to protect the wood 
 mus°n)e ^^"^^^^^ moisture, dirt, and weather. All wood should be well dried or 
 seasoned, geasoncd, as the drying process is called, before it is used in any kind 
 of construction. But, no matter how well it is seasoned, if moisture 
 comes in contact with the wood it will be absorbed, the wood will 
 expand, and when the moisture again dries out the wood will contract. 
 If this expansion and contraction takes place at all it will cause cracking 
 and weakening, and if continued it will cause a general letting go of all 
 the joints to the utter ruin of the article of wood-work. If dirt of any 
 kind comes in contact with the unprotected surface, the wood is at 
 once covered with a grime that cannot be cleaned off. Consequently 
 it will be seen that the first object of finishing is to protect the wood. 
 Another object of wood finish, and indeed of almost as much im- 
 portance as the one just mentioned, is to add beauty to the manufact- 
 ured article. Any really good wood finish will meet both requirements. 
 
 112 
 
WOOD FINISHING 113 
 
 Painting and Hard-Wood Finishing 
 
 Painting protects the wood by covering it with a coating of material 
 which conceals the surface entirely and has come to be used almost 
 entirely on work which must withstand the elements. The beauty 
 of painted wood-work is all in the paint. 
 
 Hard-wood finishing is a term used to designate the form of wood 
 finishing generally used on interior house work, cabinet work, etc. 
 Unlike painting, this form of wood finishing seeks to bring out the 
 natural beauty of the wood, and by the use of transparent coverings, 
 such as varnish, shellac, waxes, oils, etc., seeks also to protect the 
 wood. This latter form of wood finishing is of most concern to the 
 amateur, and therefore will be considered first. 
 
 Hard-Wood Finishing 
 
 The first and most important requirement in hard-wood finishing condition 
 is that the surface of the wood be put in proper condition to receive 
 the finish. This means that the surface must be free from all defects, 
 such as scratches, nail-holes, shaky knots, irregularities in the surface, 
 and many others, which experience w^ill teach us to observe. 
 
 To obtain the required surface on the wood, great care should be 
 
 Fig. 175— Plain Straight- Fig. 175a— Concave and Fig. 175b— Swan-Neck 
 
 Edge Scraper Convex Scraper Scraper 
 
 taken. First, a very sharp, smooth plane should be run over the whole Piane the 
 surface and, so far as possible, all defects should be removed. In case 
 of knots or cross grain, where the plane will not work well, a scraper is 
 
 surface. 
 
114 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 used. The scraper is a thin piece of saw steel of convenient size to 
 manipulate well. Figs, 175, 175a, and 1756 show the forms most 
 used. 
 
 Flat 
 scraper. 
 
 Convex 
 and con- 
 cave 
 scraper. 
 
 Swan- 
 neck. 
 
 Fig. 176— Making Straight Edge on Scraper 
 
 The Scraper and Its Use 
 
 The scraper, though a useful tool, is likely to be pressed into service 
 too freely by an amateur. Any attempt to remove a considerable, 
 amount of stock with a scraper will result in failure, so far as finish 
 
 is concerned, for it is impossible to 
 guide the scraper in such a way as 
 entirely to prevent inequalities in 
 the surface which mar the finish. 
 The scraper is, however, a very effi- 
 cient tool if properly used, and is 
 indispensable in all forms of cabinet 
 work. To do effective work, the 
 scraper must be sharp. The sharp- 
 ening of a scraper is learned only by 
 experience. A few suggestions are 
 offered, however, in order to give the 
 beginners a start. The shape of the 
 cutting edge of a scraper should be 
 ground to meet the requirements of 
 the surface to be scraped. For flat 
 surfaces, use a scraper as in Fig. 175; 
 f(jr convex and concave surfaces, use 
 one as in Fig. 175a, while for mould- 
 ings and various parts of irregular curves, the swan-neck scraper is to 
 l)e used (Fig. 1756). The entire edge of the swan-neck is sharpened, 
 and when scra]Ding the part of the edge wliich most nearly fits the 
 surface should be used. 
 
 Fig. 176a Testing Edge of Scraper with 
 Try Square 
 
WOOD FINISHING 
 
 115 
 
 To Sharpen the Scraper 
 
 Fig. 176b — Draw-Filing 
 Scraper 
 
 The irregular-shaped scrapers can seldom be sharpened by grinding, 
 
 because of the shapes, and the amateur will find it difficult to grind 
 
 even the straight-edge scraper. When one has sufficient skill to grind 
 
 the ordinary tools properly, scraper- 
 grinding will solve itself. In the 
 meantime filing is probably the best 
 way for a beginner to sharpen a 
 scraper. 
 
 To sharpen a straight-edge scraper, 
 place it in the vise and; with a fine file, 
 file the edge straight, as is shown in 
 Fig. 176. To make sure that the edge 
 is straight, test it with the blade of 
 
 the try square, as in Fig. 176a. The edge of the scraper should also 
 
 be square with the face. When the edge is straight and square, 
 
 place the file across it as in Fig. 
 
 1766, and pass the file from end to 
 
 entl two or three times. This is called 
 
 draw-filing. After this operation a very 
 
 fine burr will be found on each edge. 
 
 Remove the scraper from the vise and 
 
 oil-stone it flat on each side, as in Fig. 
 
 176c. Then oil-stone it square on the 
 
 edge, as in Fig. 176c^. When the edges 
 
 are sharp and square, replace the scraper 
 
 in the vise, and with a screw-driver or 
 
 gouge, or, what is still better, a butcher's 
 
 steel, turn a sharp burr by passing the steel across the edges with 
 
 considerable pressure. (Fig. 176e.) This burr forms the cutting 
 
 edge. 
 
 Fig. 176c— Oil-Stoning Flat Side of 
 Scraper to Remove Feather-Edge 
 
 Filing the 
 scraper. 
 
 Sharpen- 
 ing 
 
 straight- 
 edge 
 scraper. 
 
 Draw- 
 filing. 
 
 Oil- 
 stoning. 
 
 Turning 
 the edge. 
 
116 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 When the scraper is but sHghtly (killed the last operation is all 
 that is required to renew the edge. A little practice will enable one to 
 
 ?^P;3| 
 
 
 ^^^^ flUMWi'illl 
 
 |#^ 
 
 "^VH 
 
 p«« 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 gHK», <Hsvo^i|^H 
 
 Fig i76d — Oil-Stoning Edge of Scraper 
 to Make Sharp, Square Corners 
 
 Fig. i76e — Turning Edge of Scraper with 
 Butcher's Steel 
 
 sharpen a scraper so that it will cut a good, clean shaving, rather than 
 merely scrape, as its name might indicate. 
 
 Position of 
 scraper. 
 
 How to Use the Scraper 
 
 To make a cut with the scraper, grip it in both hands and place it on 
 the wood with a slant in the direction of the cut. (Fig. 177.) The slant 
 
 should be sufficient to make the burr, 
 which was made in sharpening, grip 
 the wood and cut a shaving on the 
 forward stroke of the scraper. When 
 the exact position or slant is found 
 it must be carefully maintained 
 throughout the entire stroke, for, 
 like other tools, the cutting edge of 
 
 Fig. 177-Correct Way of Holding Scraper tllC SCrapCr mUSt be held intO the CUt. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 
 
 117 
 
 The tendency among beginners is to rock the scraper — that is, to Rocking 
 start it at the proper slant, as at B, Fig. 177a, and constantly change scraper, 
 the slant through the entire cut and end as at C, Fig. 177a. Such 
 use of the scraper is of incorrect wsinoNs 
 
 no avail. It should be l^' ' 
 
 held rigidly on the 
 cutting edge through- 
 out the entire stroke. 
 It may be pushed or 
 pulled, the only re- 
 quirement being that 
 it be held properly. A 
 piece of old sand- 
 
 ^ ^ Fig. 177a — Correct and Incorrect Positions of Scraper 
 
 paper laid over the 
 
 face of the scraper, with the sand down, will give a good grip and 
 
 prevent burning the fingers. 
 
 Sand-Papering 
 
 When we are sure that it will not be necessary to do any more 
 cutting with edge tools, and not until then, we can use sand-paper when to 
 to finish a piece of wood. The grit left in the pores of the wood paper" " 
 by the sand-paper will take the edge off the tool almost as effec- 
 tively as will a grindstone. When sand-paper is used it should be 
 treated as a tool, which it really is, and should be handled just as 
 carefully. 
 
 Sand-prfper is numbered according to the size of the grains of size of 
 sand used on the surface. The numbers begin with 00 (double paVr. 
 nought), which is the smallest, and range as follows: 00, 0, |, 1, 
 1-2", 2, 2^, 3. Commercial packages of sand-paper contain one ream, 
 in sheets 9" x 11'', though most dealers sell any number of sheets 
 desired. 
 
118 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 How to Use Sand-Paper 
 
 paptT 
 under 
 liaiid. 
 
 held 
 the 
 
 Sand- 
 paper 
 t)lock. 
 
 For the first sanding of a piece of lumber the coarse sand-paper is 
 used, though it is seldom necessary to use Nos. 2^ and 3, for they 
 leave such deep scratches that it takes a great deal of sanding with 
 finer paper to remove them. 
 
 If sand-paper is held under the hand, as in Fig. 178, it will follow 
 the exact shape of the surface. If we attempt to sand-paper on or 
 near an edge, it will drag the corners and spoil the neat, sharp lines 
 
 by making them rounding; and if we 
 examine the surface of the paper we 
 shall find that most, if not all of the 
 cutting has been done by the spots upon 
 which the fingers or the parts of the 
 hand rested. This means a waste of 
 paper and time as well as a poor piece 
 of work. To overcome all of the above 
 difficulties the sand-paper block, as 
 shown in Fig. 179, is used. 
 
 The sand-paper is cut into strips and 
 drawn over tlie sharp edges of the block, as in Fig. 180. The sharp 
 edges prevent the paper from slipping. The face of the block, over 
 which the paper is drawn, should be perfectly straight, flat, and 
 smooth, so that every p^rt of the 
 paper will come in contact with the 
 surface of the wood. Sand -paper 
 thus held will not follow the small 
 depressions in the surface, but will 
 cut only on the high spots, gradually 
 bringing them level. The i)aper can- 
 not drag the edges because it is held up l)y the blocl<. In fact, the 
 block gives one perfect control of the cutting of the sand-paper and 
 
 Fig. 178— Incorrect Way of Holding 
 Sand-Paper 
 
 Fig. 179— Sand-Paper Block 
 
WOOD FINISHING 
 
 119 
 
 [ 1 
 
 179a — Mechanical Drawing of Sand-Paper Block 
 
 makes it an efficient tool. The paper, however, should never be tacked 
 or nailed to the block, for it is necessary to renew it often and tack- 
 ing takes too much time, besides spoiling the block. 
 
 In general, sand-papering should be done parallel to the grain of sand- ^_ ^^ 
 the wood, and, indeed, . the grain. 
 
 carefully so. Careless . .-, 1- ,-^. 
 
 cross-grain strokes with 1 / \ ■ 
 
 the paper will cause 
 scratches, which show 
 plainly when the wood 
 
 is finished, and the better the finish the more they show. A tendency 
 of the beginner is to stand at one side of the piece to be sanded and 
 pass the paper across and back in front of him in moon-shaped curves. 
 
 Such sanding leaves a scratchy, bad sur- 
 face. The sand-i)aper should always be 
 pushed straight forward and pulled straight 
 back. Great care must be taken when cross 
 and straight grain pieces come together — 
 as, for example, the corners of a picture 
 frame — that the stroke be not carried over 
 from the straight to the cross grain. 
 
 To make a round edge on a i^iece of ^"^"'^ 
 
 ~ i nai)ei 
 
 wood, or to round a box corner, as in Fig. 
 
 126a, page 82, shape it as nearly round as 
 
 possible with the plane, then hold it in the 
 
 vise and draw a piece of sand-paper back and forth across the edge, 
 
 as in Fig. 181. The final sanding, however, should l)e done with the 
 
 grain, as before stated. 
 
 Much more might be said about sand-papering. More elaboi-atc 
 blocks for holding the paper are often made, and many other devices are 
 often resorted to. But a little experience will serve to call attention 
 to the foregoing fact as well as to suggest many additional ones. 
 
 papermj 
 
 round 
 
 edges. 
 
 Fig. 180— Sand-Paper Held on Block 
 
120 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Selection of Finishing Materials 
 
 Necessary 
 steps in 
 wood fin- 
 ishing. 
 
 Fig. i8i— Rounding an Edge with Sand-Paper 
 
 AMicn the surfac(3 of the wood is in proper condition to receive the 
 stains and varnishes, the selection of these materials is a matter of 
 considerable importance. Suitable material can be selected only 
 when the workman knows all the surrounding conditions of use. It 
 will, therefore, be possible to give 
 only a few general principles of wood 
 finishing, and the wood-worker must 
 make the application to the work 
 in hand. A general statement of 
 the steps in wood finishing may be 
 made as follows: 
 
 1. Preparation of the wood to 
 receive the finish. 
 
 2. Decide color of finish, and if 
 
 it is not to be the original color of the wood, select suitable stains or 
 colors and apply to the wood. 
 
 3. Note carefully the texture of the wood. If the fibres are close 
 together and the pores are so small that they cannot be seen with the 
 unaided eye, then the final finish may be applied at once. If, however, 
 the fibres are coarse and the pores are large, it will be necessary to fill 
 them with some substance which will make them level with the surface 
 of the wood and prevent the finishing material from being absorbed 
 into the wood. This method of closing the pores is called wood 
 filling. 
 
 4. The application of the final finishing materials. 
 
 The first step in the process of wood finishing given above has 
 been considered, and, as was stated, it belongs pro]ierly to the work 
 of the cabinet maker; but inasmuch as this step includes the place 
 where the cabinet maker lets go and the finishing begins, the subject 
 has been given a middle place. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 121 
 
 Wood Staining and Coloring 
 
 The second step in the process of wood finishing, that of staining 
 and coloring, is one that has recently taken on great variety, and many 
 very beautiful tones and shades have been produced. On the other 
 hand, almost anything painted, smeared, or daubed over the surface 
 of the wood will change the appearance, and some one can always be 
 found who will call it beautiful. The object of the best finishers is, ^^^^^1°^^ 
 however, to bring out the natural beauty of the wood rather than finishers. 
 to add mere color as striking effect. To do this the coloring matter 
 must be as nearly transparent as is possible to make it. Nearly every 
 color manufacturer has a special make of colors prepared ready for 
 use which are claimed to possess all the virtues and none of the faults 
 of such materials. In general, however, coloring materials may be 
 classified as follows: 
 
 1. Oil stains — that is, color pigments dissolved in oil: linseed 
 oil, benzine, naphtha, and turpentine, etc. 
 
 2. Spirit stains— that is, colors, generally aniline, dissolved in 
 spirits, usually alcohol. 
 
 3. Water stains — that is, colors of any kind dissolved in water. 
 
 Oil Stains 
 
 Oil stains made of pigments dissolved or ground in linseed-oil are 
 more like paints than like stains. They are easily made and easily 
 applied to the wood. They do not raise the grain of the wood, as do 
 the spirit or water stains. There are, however, several objections to objections 
 them. The first and great objection is that they are so opaque that stains. 
 they cover the natural beauty of the wood. Another objection is that 
 they do not penetrate the wood deeply and any scratching or marring 
 of the surface reveals the unstained wood beneath. Any defacement 
 is very hard to remove. About the only remedy is to remove all the 
 
122 MANUAL TRAIXINd FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 (iiiisli fntiii ( lie suii'ncc and i-('!iiiisli ; l)u( cn'cii llicii in I lie end we have 
 tlu' same opaijuc colorin*;' toi' the wood, 
 vohitihoii Stains made of the Hdit vohitile oils, such as naphtha, benzine, 
 
 stains. " ' . 
 
 etc., are ahiiost wholly different from those made from the heavy oils. 
 They s])i-ead over the sui-face easily, adhere to the wood, penetrate 
 deeply without raising the grain, and are very transparent if wiped of^' 
 with a cloth or a piece of waste while the stain is still wet. 
 
 Spirit Stains 
 
 Spirit stains are usually made of aniline color dissolved in alcohol. 
 They are easily made. All that is necessary is to mix the required 
 color in alcohol until the desired shade is obtained. The spirit stains 
 are easily applied, are transparent, and penetrate the wood deeply. 
 But on the whole they are so little better than the water stains that it 
 does not pay to use them, because of the difference in cost, which is 
 the difference between the cost of alcohol and water. Spirit stains are 
 applied the same as are the water stains. 
 
 Water Stains 
 
 Objections Water stains have the great disadvantage of raising the grain more 
 
 sSs.""' than any of the others. This requires additional sand-papering to 
 
 bring the surface of the wood back into condition to receive the final 
 
 finishing materials. This additional sanding, however, is not lost, for 
 
 it brings out the grain and enhances the beauty of the wood. The 
 
 opening of the pores makes it possible for the filler to enter deeper and 
 
 get a better hold on the wood. So the one disadvantage becomes an 
 
 advantage to the final finish. 
 
 Afivan- Water stains are transparent, penetrate the wood deeply, and are 
 
 water ycry inexpcusive. Added to these facts the ease with which they are 
 
 made and used, we have a very desirable article, one that the beginner 
 
WOOD FINISHING 123 
 
 may experiment with in a way that the cost of other stains would pro- 
 hibit in most cases. However, water stains are not held in general 
 favor by professional finishers. 
 
 Water stains are made of both aniline colors and from colors and Anaune 
 
 mi 1 • • •!• • colors. 
 
 dyes which are not anihnes. The one great objection to amlme stams 
 has been that they fade quickly. This objection is now largely over- 
 come, partly by improvement in the colors themselves, and partly by 
 
 adding to them a fixing material called a mordant — that is, a material Amor- 
 
 1 • 1-111 '^'""• 
 
 which seeks to unite both with- the coloring matter and with the wood, 
 
 or, chemically speaking, has an affinity for both, or, as the dictionary 
 
 says, makes the color bite the wood. The alkalies and acids are most 
 
 used as mordants. 
 
 The objection to the iDigment colors is that thev are opaque, and, pigment 
 
 " . . colors. 
 
 with the one exception, that of Vandyke brcjwn,* they have in the main 
 given way to the aniline stains. Vandyke brown is such a beautiful 
 transparent brown that it answers every purpose for a brown color in 
 every shade. 
 
 W^ater stains may be applied with a cloth or swab, because the to apply 
 mordant used with the stain will destroy a brush in time. It is, how- stains. 
 ever, much more easily applied with a brush, and, as a cheap one does 
 just as well as an expensive one, it is well to use the brush. The stain 
 should be applied quickly, the only requirement being that the surface 
 be entirely covered. Before the stain has time to dry the surplus must 
 be wiped off with cloth or waste and the surface rubbed till the color 
 is uniform. If the color is too light, put on two, three, or even more 
 coats until dark enough. If too dark, a damp cloth rubbed over the 
 surface will take up some of the color. 
 
 The same stain applied to two different kinds of wood, or even to 
 ■ two samples of the same kind of wood, will not produce the same effect. Make a 
 
 '- \ sample 
 
 Consequently the beginner should finish a satisfactory saiiij^le of the finish- 
 
 * Vandyke brown is a bituminous earth. It is mined mostly in Germany, tliough .some 
 comes from Belgium and Holland. It is washed free from dirt and is ready for use. 
 
124 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 wood before attempting to apply the finish to the whole article. The 
 beginner should not be easily discouraged, as it may, and probably will, 
 take several attempts to get the required results, but anything which 
 is worth having is worth working for. When the required results have 
 been obtained with even one process the rest are comparatively easy, 
 for we shall then know what to look for. We should always remember 
 the finish may l^e the crowning glory of a good piece of construction or 
 the utter ruin of the same piece. 
 
 No attempt is made here to give a complete list of stains. It is 
 believed that a few standard colors is all that a school should carry 
 in stock, and if some pupils want other colors let them provide them 
 for themselves. From the stand-point of economy, the teacher should 
 mix his own water stains. Another good reason for so doing is that if 
 the stains are made in the shop there is not that air of mystery which 
 always surrounds a commercial product. 
 
 Uses of the Different Kinds of Stains 
 
 In general, it may be said that the heavy oil stains may be used 
 on woods which have little or no natural beauty, as in cases where it 
 is desirable to protect the wood, rather than to bring out the beauty. 
 
 Volatile oil stains, spirit stains, and water stains are used when 
 color only is wanted. They in no way protect the wood. 
 
 A Few Formulae for Making Stains 
 
 BROWN 
 
 Vandyke brown — 2 pounds. 
 
 Caustic potash or caustic soda or concentrated l3^e — 2 ounces. 
 Water — 2 gallons. 
 
 Boil until reduced onc'-half in volume. This makes a concen- 
 trated solution, but it may be dihited by adding water to it when 
 
WOOD FINISHING 125 
 
 used. It is a very useful stain and one that works well in the hands of 
 a novice. The color may be shaded from a mere hint of brown to 
 almost a black. 
 
 BLACK 
 
 Nigrocine — any amount. 
 
 Bichromate of potash dissolved in water. 
 
 Add the bichromate until there is no trace of blue left in the 
 mixture. Then dilute with water to the required shade of black. 
 
 To prepare the bichromate for use, pulverize the crystals, place 
 them in water, always having undissolved crystals in the bottom of the 
 dish. Let stand at least twenty-four hours. Shake occasionally so 
 that as much as is possible of the bichromate will dissolve. It is 
 best always to keep such a solution on hand. 
 
 Mix the nigrocine in a small amount of the bichromate solution 
 until all lumps are dissolved; then add the remainder. This makes 
 a good stain, with a wide range of shades of black. 
 
 BLACK 
 
 Extract of logwood — 1 pound. 
 Bichromate of potash crystals — 5 ounces. 
 Water — 1 gallon. 
 
 Boil to one-half the volume. This will make almost an ebony 
 black. Add water to get the lighter shades. 
 
 DARK OR FOREST GREEN 
 
 Add a very small amount of aniline green to the desired amount of 
 the above logwood black. 
 
 MOSS GREEN 
 
 Aniline green dissolved in water. (Soft or distilled water is best.) 
 
12G lAIANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 aiaiio(;anv stains (1'X)h all kinds of wood) 
 
 Bismarck brown — dissolved in hot soft or distilled water until 
 the desired color is obtained. 
 
 The stain given above will cover nearly the whole range of the so- 
 called mission stains. The materials are very common and are inex- 
 pensive; they can l^e obtained from any large paint dealer or ordered 
 through any druggist or merchant who deals in paints and oils. 
 
 TO darken mahogany 
 
 CAU- 
 TION. 
 
 liny oil 
 stains 
 n-iifly 
 mixffl. 
 
 Color of 
 filler. 
 
 Covpfinff 
 stains 
 with var- 
 nish. 
 
 To give mahogany a rich, dark tone, rub it with a diluted solution 
 of caustic soda, caustic potash, or concentrated lye. It takes several 
 minutes for the color change to take place, as it is caused by a chemical 
 action on the wood. The solution must be very dilute or too dark 
 a color will be obtained. Apply to wood with a swab and wipe off 
 with a cloth. 
 
 Caution. — Great care should he taken in handling the stronger alka- 
 lies spoken of above. Do not get the solution on the hands; it will 
 decompose the skin and the nails and make the hands very sore; and 
 it is a rank poison. Bottles or dishes containing the solution should he 
 marked "Poison.'^ 
 
 If only a small amount of stain is to be used, or if oil stains are 
 wanted, it is probably best to buy the ready-mixed stains, for it is not 
 easy to make oil stains or to get the best materials. 
 
 It will not be necessary to use a colored filler with any of the stains, 
 the formula) of which are given above, for the filler will take up enough 
 of the stain to color itself. 
 
 The black and the lirown stains given above may be varnished with 
 shellac varnish for the first coat. But the green and the mahogany 
 stain should first be covered with a thin coat of linseed-oil, or some 
 oil varnish, for they are so soluble in alcohol that the color picks up 
 
WOOD FINISHING 
 
 12" 
 
 on the brush to such an extent that a few (Uppings will so color the 
 varnish as to spoil it. 
 
 Staining may also be done by adding coloring matter to the filler, 
 l)ut in general this is. not as satisfactory as staining before the filling 
 is done. 
 
 FUMING 
 
 Very beautiful colors may be obtained on some woods by placing 
 them in a tight room or box in which are placed several open cUshes 
 of ammonia. Mahogany, oak, and chestnut take on an especially 
 beautiful color, which may be waxed or filled and varnished as for 
 other stains. 
 
 Sand-Papering After Staining 
 
 It is best to allow all stains to dry at least twenty-four hours before 
 sanding down the fibres raised by them, and this is especially true 
 with the water stains. When 
 the stains are first applied the 
 fibres are up out of their 
 natural position, but at the end 
 of a day the water has evapo- 
 rated, the surface is dry, the 
 fibres have settled back to a 
 normal position, and the extra 
 sanding only tends to bring 
 out the grain. Sanding over a 
 stain should be done with fine 
 paper, about No. ^, for most 
 cabinet surfaces. 
 
 Sand-paper should not be 
 held over the sand-paper block for sanding either the stain coat or the 
 final varnish. While the surface of the wood has been planed, scraped, 
 
 Time to 
 
 sand- 
 
 papcT. 
 
 Fig. 182 —Sand-Papering Stain or Varnish Coat 
 
 HoldiiiK 
 the sand- 
 paper. 
 
128 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 and sand-papered before the finish was appHed, and is supposed to l)e 
 in prime condition, tliere are always slightly raised places which will be 
 rubbed through if the block is used, for it will hold the sand-paper out 
 of the low places and catch the high ones, thus rubbing the finish ofT 
 in spots. 
 Protecting The paper should be cut in small pieces and folded three or four 
 
 tlR- corners . 
 
 and edges, tuiics, SO that the edgcs will be straight and stiff. This will make the 
 paper hold up square into the corners and over the edges, and if held 
 as shown in Fig. 182 the flexibility of the hand will allow the paper 
 to follow evenly the exact contour of the surface. The stained sur- 
 face should be rubbed perfectly smooth. The color will be somewhat 
 rubbed out, but it can be renewed after the filler has been applied. 
 
 Wood Filling 
 
 As stated before, if the fibres of the wood are coarse and open, as 
 in oak, or if the pores are open, as in mahogany, then the wood must 
 be filled — that is, some substance must be rubbed into the pores and 
 Object of between the fibres to make the surface level. If filling is not done^ the 
 varnish will draw back into the pores and openings and will pile up on 
 the closed spots, giving the work a blotchy, pitted surface. The only 
 way to remove such blemishes is to sand-paper the high spots and add 
 varnish until the low places are even, a process which is very expensive 
 both in material and labor. For a long time, however, this was the 
 only way known to finishers, but some one finally thought of first 
 putting some substance into the pores then adding the varnish. Vari- 
 Materiais ous pastcs and llqulds are now used as fillers, among which are com- 
 ing fiikrs. pounds made with corn-starch, whiting, plaster of Paris, and silex. 
 Corn-starch is a vegetable compound, but does not set hard enough and 
 is also likely to decompose after a time. Whiting and plaster of Paris 
 Silex. set like chalk, are porous, and do not hold to the wood well. Silex is 
 at the present time the king of materials for the body of filler mixtures. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 129 
 
 Silex is a name given to a group of rocks, some, but not all, of which 
 may be ground into small, irregular granules. When mixed with the 
 ingredients given below, these needle-like particles penetrate deeply 
 into the pores of the wood and the mixture becomes almost as hard as 
 stone, thus making a hard surface over which to apply any final finish. 
 If silex cannot be obtained it is better to buy a filler mixed ready to Test of 
 be used. To test silex, put a little in a drop of oil and rub it over a 
 piece of glass. It should feel decidedly gritty. If possible, it is best 
 for a teacher to mix his own filler, for there is not only some financial 
 gain, but also the gain of knowing what is being used. Moreover the 
 pupil is given a chance to learn the careful preparation of the 
 materials. 
 
 Formula for Silex Filler 
 
 Light turpentine japan — 2 parts. 
 Linseed-oil — 1 part. 
 
 Measure carefully and put these ingredients together, add silex, 
 a little at a time, being careful to mix thoroughly as each part is added 
 (thorough mixing makes a good filler). Add silex until the mixture is 
 of the consistency of a good, thick paste ; then add a small amount of some ex- 
 
 ., . Mi/^ii-fi • r ^ • ^ periment- 
 
 japan varnish or turpentme until the nller is or the consistency or thick ing neces- 
 paint. A little experimenting will be necessary at first. If the filler 
 dries out granular, more oil should be added; if it takes too long to 
 dry, add more japan varnish. If color is needed, add a little of the coloring 
 color used in the stain, though of course the color must be thoroughly 
 mixed in a small amount of oil before it is added to the bulk of the 
 liquid or there will be lumps of color. 
 
 Filler is usually applied with a brush, but on small work it may be cau- 
 rubbed over the surface with a cloth or a piece of waste. (All cloth 
 or ivaste used for wiping filler or in any other mixture of linseed- 
 oil should be carefully gathered up and burned, for it will take fire 
 
130 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 in a few hours because of a chemical action called spontaneous com- 
 hustion.) 
 wipiui.' oil Filler .should l)e allowed to .stand on the wood until the wet, glossy 
 
 appearance takes on a dead, dry look. This usually takes from twenty 
 to thirty minutes, according to the amount of linseed-oil used in the 
 mixture — the more oil the longer the drying necessary. When fairly 
 well dried the suiplus filler must be rubbed off the surface. The 
 older workman can do a good piece of work with excelsior, but the 
 beginner shoukl use only cloth or waste. In wiping off the filler, 
 the w^iping should be done as much as possible across the grain. Rub 
 lightly at first, then as the filler gets harder and the cloth more satu- 
 rated with filler considerable pressure may be used, thus forcing the 
 filler into the pores. The final rubbing should be done carefully and 
 with a clean cloth. Great care must be taken to leave the pores and 
 the spaces between the fibres even with the surface with little if any 
 ToreiiiovL- filler left on the surface. A small, fiat stick should be used to take 
 comers. the filler out of the corners. No filler should be left overnight without 
 Time for first having been rubbed down. After being properly rubbed the 
 dry. filler should stand from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, or until 
 
 the oil has hardened. If the final finishing materials are placed over 
 the filler before it is thoroughly dry, the filler will dry out in time, will 
 shrink in c hying, and thus cause the varnish to crack. The little fine 
 cracks so often seen over the surface of finished wood is caused In' the 
 drying of the filler after the varnish was applied. 
 
 san.1- The final operation of filling is to rub the surface well with fine sand- 
 
 papering . ,, ir-ii TCI"' 1 1 
 
 the filler, paper m order to remove all surplus filler. It this is not done the 
 finish will be cloudy, and if any considerable amount of filler is left on 
 the surface it will cleave ofi', leaving an unsightly hole in the finish. 
 It will be seen from the above that filling is a vital part of good wood 
 finishing. 
 
 stainiiiir • Wlulc tlic last nihbitiu- and sanding of tlic fillci" coat is being done 
 
 over tile 
 
 iii'er. the stain is likely to be riil)betl, streaked, and j)resent a thin, washed- 
 
WOOD FINISHING 131 
 
 out aj)i)oai"uii('('. The fouiKlation of t\\v slain is left, however, and 
 the even, pure tone may be Ijroug'lit l)a('k by bmshinji; stain ()\'er the 
 surface and quickly wiping off with a cloth. 
 
 \Mth the final stain coat thorouohly dried, which will take at least 
 twenty-four hours, we are ready for the last step in the finish, that of 
 varnishing. 
 
 Varnishing 
 
 The author is well aware of the fact that varnishing cannot be 
 learned from a book. It seems simple, indeed, to take a brush and 
 cover the surface of a piece of wood with a liquid, but varnishing is more 
 than a mere smearing of the surface. It is the final step in the process 
 of making a useful, permanentlv beautiful article, and requires much 
 care and patience. \''arnish is defined as a resinous material dissolved Definition 
 
 ,..,,.,, , 1 ■ -n i' °^ varnish. 
 
 in a liquid, which, when exposed to the air, will evaporate or become 
 hard by chemical action, leaving the resincjus material spread in an 
 even coat on the surface over which it has been painted. This defini- 
 tion sounds simple, but in reality the composition of most varnishes is 
 very complicated, and a great variety of materials and j^rocesses are 
 used, the detailed discussion of which is not within the scope of a book 
 like this. To those who wish to go further into the subject a good 
 encyclopaedia and a list of reference books in subject-matter will 
 give valuable aid. 
 
 While, as stated above, the composition of varnish is complicated, 
 there are, however, a few fundamental facts which even an occasional 
 user of varnish must know if he does any successful varnishing. 
 
 Varnishes may be divided into two general classes: 1. Oil var- on and 
 
 • 1 o CI • -x • 1 spirit var- 
 
 nishes. 2. bpirit varnishes. nishes. 
 
 Oil varnishes are further divided into two distinct groups: 1. 
 Fat-oil varnishes. 2. Volatile-oil varnishes. 
 
 The fat-oil varnishes are made l:)y dissolving a resin in an oil which 
 hardens by chemical action when exposed to the air. The body of 
 
132 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Varnish 
 materials. 
 
 Tliinners. 
 
 Volatile 
 oils. 
 
 Shellac- 
 varnish. 
 
 the oil nMiiains in the varnish; it adds materially to the lustre and 
 helps to set or fix the varnish. 
 
 Linseed-oil is the fat oil most used in the manufacture of varnish. The 
 best resins are ambef , anime, copals, sandarac, resin, and kauri. The prop- 
 erties of these materials may be learned by referring to an encyclopaedia. 
 
 Varnishes made with fat oils and resins are too thick to spread 
 well and must be thinned with some thin liquid. They dry slowly and 
 materials are added to make them dry more rapidly. The process of 
 manufacturing the fat-oil varnishes is so complicated that the finisher 
 always buys them mixed ready for use. 
 
 The volatile-oil varnishes are made with a resin or gum dissolved 
 in an oil which evaporates when exposed to the air and in so doing does 
 not change the chemical composition. These oils do not add to the 
 varnish but merely act as solvents for the resin and gum. Turpentine 
 is classed with the volatile oils; it also has some of the properties of 
 the fat oils in that it evaporates and leaves a resinous residue which 
 helps to fix the varnish. The oils which belong exclusively to the 
 volatile oils and are much used in the manufacture of varnish are the 
 coal oils — naphtha and benzine. There are others, but these will 
 suffice to call attention to the type. 
 
 Spirit varnishes are made by dissolving gum, resin, or lacs in some 
 kind of spirits. The spirits act merely as a solvent; they evaporate 
 very quickly leaving the dissolved substance as a varnish coat. No 
 thinners or driers are needed other than the body and the solvent. 
 The spirit varnishes are easy to mix, and the finisher often mixes his 
 own varnish. There is but one kind of spirit varnish that is in common 
 use and that is shellac varnish. 
 
 Shellac varnish is made by dissolving lac in alcohol. Lac is a 
 resinous material which exudes from the sides of a very small scale 
 insect that lives mostly on the banyan-tree. Shellac is put on the 
 market, after being cleaned, in thin flakes and slabs. The varnish has 
 a good base and is much used. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 133 
 
 A general statement of the various kinds of varnish may be made General 
 
 facts about 
 as follows: varnish. 
 
 The oil varnishes are bought mixed ready for use. The fat var- 
 nishes are likely to become thick and need thinning before they can be 
 used. They are heavy and hard to apply, though they are usually the 
 best and most expensive kind. 
 
 Volatile-oil varnishes are also bought ready to use. If left in an 
 open dish the solvent evaporates very quickly. 
 
 The spirit varnish, shellac, may be mixed by the finisher to good 
 advantage. It also evaporates rapidly from an open vessel. 
 
 There are many substitutes for the better varnish materials, and substi- 
 the only way for an inexperienced person to get good material is to get besfvar- 
 it from a trustworthy dealer and be willing to pay a fair price for teriais. 
 an article that is marked pure and bears the name of a reliable manu- 
 facturer. 
 
 Commercial packages are usually marked with full directions how 
 to use the varnish which they contain. 
 
 What has been said with regard to oils, spirits, resins, etc., is in- 
 tended merely to put the amateur finisher on his guard so that he may 
 appreciate the fact that varnishing is a serious business. With this 
 understanding, we can now assume that the workman is supplied with 
 a varnish which is in good condition to be applied to a piece of wood- 
 work. 
 
 Brushes 
 
 The next thing the finisher must do is to select a suitable brush, and 
 as the selection of a brush depends entirely upon the use to be made of 
 it, only a few general rules can be given. Brushes are made of both 
 bristles and camel's hair. Either kind may be used as a varnish brush, Kind and 
 
 size of 
 
 though the camel's hair is best for fancy work. Round, oval, or flat brushes, 
 brushes in all sizes may be obtained. The size of the brush should be 
 in proportion to the size of the work, but it should be large enough to 
 
134 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 enable the workman to c()\'er the surface quickly so that an even coat 
 
 may be applied before the varnish begins to dry. Do not try to be too 
 
 economical in purchasing brushes. A good brush will do better work 
 
 c:iTc of and last longer than a cheap one. When through with the brush wash 
 
 brushes. ..... i • i • , 
 
 It ui the thmner used m the varnish you have been using and wrap it 
 in an oiled paj^er. Do not try to use a brush that sheds bristles or 
 hair on your work. Clean shellac brushes in borax water; or common 
 baking soda will do if borax is not at hand. 
 
 Applying the Varnish 
 
 ^^'ith the siu'face of the wood well filled and the filler well dried, we 
 are ready to apply the varnish. If the varnish coat is. to have a perfect 
 surface the wood must be thonjughly sealed, so that it will not be 
 possible for the varnish to draw back into the pores. The filler will 
 not do this if a slow-drying varnish is used. For that reason one or 
 two coats of shellac are applied to the wood first. This varnish 
 (described on page 132) sets in a few minutes and is thoroughly hard in 
 six or seven hours. It has a good, hard gum and will seal the wood 
 against either water or varnish. All dust must be wiped from a pieee 
 of wood that is to be varnished. 
 Applying Shcllac must be kept in an earthen or dass dish, and is aiDiDlied with 
 
 shellac ... . ' . 
 
 varnish. an oval brush vaiying in size according to the extent of the surface to 
 be varnished. A wire should be drawn across the top of the shellac 
 dish so that the surplus shellac wiped off the Inrush will fall back into 
 the can. (See shellac dish, finishing outfit, page 141.) Care should 
 be taken not to have the shellac too thick or it will not spread well. 
 The brush should not contain too much shellac, and the attempt 
 should not be made to cover too much surface with one filling of 
 the brush. Shellac di-ies so quickly that the first brushing is all 
 that is possible; to do, for subsequent ])rushing will only deface the 
 first coat. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 
 
 135 
 
 Do All Varnishing Parallel to the Grain 
 
 The laps should be made along a straight line parallel to the grain, 
 as in Fig. 183, rather than across the grain, as in Fig. 183(;. The 
 dark parts show where the shellac has been applied. Shellac that 
 feels dry to the hand is not always dr}-. Three or four hours at Time for 
 
 " . shellac to 
 
 least should elapse between coats, and, if rubbnig or sandnig is to be dry. 
 
 done, the shellac should dry at least six or seven hours, and even a 
 
 longer time is better. A slight fuzz or roughness usually comes up sand- 
 
 on the wood when the first coat of shellac is applied. 
 
 be sanded very lightly with No. 00 or No. sand-])aper, care being 
 
 taken not to rub through 
 
 the shellac. 
 
 That should shellac "^ 
 
 Fig. 183 — Correct Way to Apply Varnish 
 
 Applying Fat Oil and Other 
 Slow-Drying Varnishes 
 
 As stated above, all dust 
 must be removed from the 
 surfaces before the varnish is 
 applied. This should be 
 done with a damp cloth so 
 that the dust will not be left 
 flying in the air. The room in 
 which the varnishing is done must also l^e entirely closed and free from 
 dirt, for any dust which settles on soft varnish sticks to it, and as it 
 usually takes several hours for the heavy oil varnishes to dry, a small 
 amount of dust in the air will cause serious trouble in that amount 
 of time. The temperature should not drop below 65° F., for if the 
 varnish is chilled before it is clry it will not harden. 
 
 Varnish should be applied much the same as shellac spoken of 
 alcove. The stroke of the brush should always be parallel to the 
 
 183a — Incorrect Way to Apply Varnish 
 
136 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 grain of the wood. In the case of the slow-drying varnishes, surplus 
 varnish can be removed by added brushing, provided that brushing be 
 Blisters in clouc at oncc. If too mucli vamisli is put on in one coat it will blister 
 and dry thicker in some spots than in others. One should also be 
 careful not to spread the varnish too thin. 
 
 Watch all edges. When the brush is dragged over an edge it is 
 likely to shed considerable varnish, which will drizzle down and dry in 
 unsightly streaks that will be hard to remove. If the varnish is not 
 to be rubbed; two or three coats will make a good surface. 
 
 Sanding and Rubbing 
 
 After all the filling and shellacking it is seldom possible to have 
 
 a perfect surface when the final varnish coats are finished. When 
 
 sufficient varnish has been applied so that there is little danger of 
 
 Sand- rubbing through, it will be necessary to sand-paper until all the 
 
 varnish. pits ui the vamish are removed. The sanding is done with the 
 
 paper folded and held in the hand, as in rubbing the stain coat. 
 
 (Page 127, Fig. 182.) Great care must be taken not to rub too hard 
 
 over the edge or at the ends of the stroke, for if the varnish is 
 
 rubbed through it will cause an unsightly spot which will be difficult 
 
 to remove. 
 
 steel wool. Steel Wool may be used as a substitute for sand-paper. It is 
 
 composed of fine steel threads merely rolled together in a bundle and 
 
 held in the hand as is the sand-paper. Steel wool is sold in one-pound 
 
 packages. It cuts much faster than the sand-paper and docs not have 
 
 the same tendency to scratch. It is, indeed, very efficient in its work, 
 
 but, since it cuts faster, more care must be taken not to rub through 
 
 the varnish. The one ol)jcction to it is that an occasional steel sliver 
 
 gets into the hand. 
 
 Rubbing When the surface is level and all the scratches and defects are out 
 
 ston?' the final finish is put on by rubbing with pumice-stone and oil. The 
 
WOOD FINISHING 137 
 
 oil most in use for rubbing is especially prepared for that purpose, Rubbing 
 though linseed-oil may be used. If a dull finish is desired, the rubbing 
 is done with pumice-stone and water. For most work the oil is put in 
 one dish and the pumice-stone in another ; the rubbing pad, which con- Rubbing 
 sists of a special felt pad or a tight roll of burlap, is first dipped into the 
 oil, then into the pumice-stone, and is rubbed over the surface the 
 same as sand-paper. The condition of the surface may be seen any to see 
 
 1 •• 11 111- ,•/ T J iii condition 
 
 tmie by wipmg a small spot and lookmg at it at an angle toward the of finish, 
 light. When the required finish is obtained the oil should be carefully 
 removed at once or it will soften the varnish. The chief requisite of 
 good rubbing is extreme care. The following is a general statement 
 of the things to do and those not to do : 
 
 1. Be sure that the varnish is thoroughly drv before doing any General 
 
 ,,. T- (• • ^ ^ •!! statement 
 
 sanding or rubbing. It is a waste oi time and material to hurry a 
 finish by not giving it time to harden. The varnish should be hard 
 enough to resist the action of the thumb nail before it is hard enough 
 to rub. 
 
 2. Always rub with the grain. 
 
 3. Be careful not to rub through the varnish on the edges and 
 corners. 
 
 4. To see condition of finish, remove the oil from a spot and look 
 at it at an angle toward the light. 
 
 5. When finish is done, clean the oil or water from the surface 
 quickly so that it will not injure the varnish. 
 
 6. Burn all waste or rags with oil on them, as they will take fire by 
 chemical action. 
 
 This will complete a standard finish, one which will add both 
 beauty and protection to the finished article. Ability to apply such 
 a finish will mean ability to apply any finish. 
 
 Many do not think the polished surface beautiful and have sacrificed 
 protection for mere beauty, which only lasts for a short time ; though 
 there are some dull finishes that do very well on some kinds of work. 
 
13S MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON 8CII00LS 
 
 Uiik'ss s|)('('i;il pi'ovisions nic iimdc il is mIihosI iiii])()ssil)lr ((» uso 
 slow-diyinii; \-Mriiisli for school work, chiclly hocausc the dust settles 
 into it too much. 
 
 Shellac Finish 
 
 The wood is put into couihtion hy ])laning, scraping, sanding, and 
 if necessary it is stained and filled exactly as for the standard var- 
 nish gi\'en al)()ve. Three or four coats of shellac are applied (one 
 each day), and the sanding and rubbing are done the same as the 
 standard varnish, though as a rule the rubbing is only sufficient to 
 produce a smooth surface without a polish. 
 
 Egg-Shell Finish 
 
 The dull egg-shell finish is nuide by simply allowing the last coat 
 of the shellac ^'arnish as applied above to remain without sanding or 
 rubbing. 
 
 While the shellac is not as good as some of the other varnishes for 
 the final finish, it has the advantage of drying so quickly that dust 
 will not stick to it in ten or fifteen minutes after it is applied. This is, 
 indeed, a great feature where the work is to be done in the open shop. 
 The shellac finishes are much more durable, sanitary, and protect the 
 wood much better than the wax finishes given below. If any of 
 the commercial finishes are used, the directions on the packages should 
 be followed. 
 
 Wax Finish 
 
 The only really good thing about wax finish is that it is easily ap- 
 plied. On some kinds of wood, notal)ly oak, it gives a beautiful dull 
 tone. The beauty, however, is very fleeting, for it will not withstand 
 water or wear. It does not protect the wood for it does not harden well, 
 and much of the dust which settles on it is rubbed into the wax, causing 
 
WOOD FINISHING 139 
 
 tlie surface to become grimy in a very short time. \\'hen all is said, 
 there is Httle about a wax finish to recommend it. It does not prevent 
 the stain from coming off in any fabric which may be placed upon it. 
 As a floor finish, it is used a great deal because the worn spots are easily 
 refinished. The wax is composed of beeswax dissolved in turpentine, composi- 
 Ihe turpentme acts merely as a solvent or a thmner, and only a sui- wax. 
 ficient amount is added to make the wax thin enough to spread. 
 Twenty per cent, of resin is sometimes used to make the wax harder. 
 
 Hot turpentine is a better solvent for the wax than cold, but one 
 must be extremely careful that the turpentine does not take 'fire, as 
 it is very inflammal)le and when hot gives off a gas which is also apt 
 to take fire. The heating should always be done in a double boiler, 
 like a glue-pot or a rice cooker. 
 
 The wax is applied bv brushing o\'ei- the surface with a stiff brush, to apply 
 
 _ _ _ wax finish. 
 
 or it may be rubbed on with a cloth; in any case the rubbing should 
 be continued until the wax is well rubbed in and all the surplus is off 
 the surface. It will not be necessary to fill waxed surfaces, for the 
 wax will work into the wood. Wax may be used on some of the first 
 problems, but do not deceive 3^ourself int(3 thinking that you have a 
 real finish. 
 
 Painting 
 
 As stated at the beginning of the chapter on finishing, painting 
 covers the wood and does not attempt to show any of its natural 
 beauty. The chief object is to protect the wood, and the only beauty 
 is in the color of the paint used. The best paints are made with a coinposi- 
 compound of lead or zinc as a base, linseed-oil as a solvent, turpentine pai'nt! 
 as a thinner, and various compounds as driers. The different colors 
 are made by adding different-colored i)igments which have been ground 
 in oil, or if the dry color is used it is best to work it thoroughly with 
 oil. This will avoid color lumps in the paint. Some of the very best 
 coach paints have a little varnish mixed with them, for it gives the 
 
140 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Applying 
 paint. 
 
 Time for 
 paint to 
 dry. 
 
 Care of 
 brushes. 
 
 paint a hard, glossy surface which is very durable. The surface of 
 the wood does not need to be in as good condition for painting as it 
 does for varnishing. Filling is not necessary, though all nail heads 
 s^hould be covered and all nail holes should be filled with putty. 
 The putty is pressed into the holes with a flat putty-knife made es- 
 pecially for that purpose. It is done after the first or what is called 
 the prime coat of paint has been applied, for it will not stick if put 
 on the bare wood. It is well to remember this when puttying in 
 window glass. 
 
 Paint is applied with a brush the size of which varies according to 
 the size of the surface to be covered. The brushing should be done 
 parallel to the grain, and care should be taken to make the laps even 
 and the coat of paint of uniform thickness. Do not try to carry too 
 much paint in the brush at one time, for it will run out, waste the paint, 
 and make a slovenly piece of work. Water should not come in contact 
 with paint before the paint has time to dry. Each coat of paint should 
 have ample time to dry before the next is added. If the coats are 
 piled one on the other too rapidly, or the paint is too thick when 
 
 applied, blisters or bubbles will 
 appear on the surface as the 
 paint dries. Brushes should al- 
 ways be washed in turpentine 
 and all paint carefully removed 
 before they are put away. 
 
 There are so many cheap, worth- 
 less paints on the market that one 
 should always be careful to buy 
 of a reliable ])aint dealer and be 
 willing to pay a I'easonable price 
 for an article marked pure lead or 
 zinc i^aint and stamped with the 
 Fig. 184-Box for Finishing Materials Hamc of a reliable manufacturer. 
 
WOOD FINISHING 141 
 
 For outside work that must withstand water there is nothing better 
 than a good white-lead paint. 
 
 Care of Finishing Materials and the Finishing Outfit 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties about finishing in the school or 
 home shop is the care and handling of the finishing materials. It is 
 seldom possible to have a special room for such work, and in many 
 cases there is not sufficient space for a special table. Even if such 
 places are provided they are likely to become mere gathering places 
 which lead to general confusion. Brushes will be changed from 
 one color to the other, materials will be wasted, and the teacher will 
 not have as good an opportunity to watch the work as he will if each 
 pupil worked alone at his own desk. In an effort to solve these per- 
 plexing problems in a large high-school, an outfit has been provided 
 for each teacher having finishing work in charge. This outfit con- 
 sists of a box 14'' wide, 20" long, and 14'' high, outside dimensions. Finishing 
 (See Fig. 184.) It is made of f" poplar. The top is 2" deep on 
 the inside and is provided with loops for holding brushes, etc. 
 Fig. 184a is a frame placed in the 
 bottom of the box for holding the 
 ffiiishing dishes, which consist of 
 one can of shellac, one can of brown 
 stain, one can of black stain, one can 
 of wood filler, one bottle of bichro- 
 mate of potash crystals in water " pig. i84a-Tray for rVnishing box 
 
 ready for mixing black stain. 
 
 A few other special colors are kept in a general stock and are 
 made up when needed. The black and the brown give such a 
 wide range of tones that the special colors are seldom used. The 
 student is not allowed to handle the general stock of materials. 
 He is given what he needs for the particular- finish and is held 
 
 outflt. 
 
142 MANUAL TRALNING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 responsible for its careful use. The fiiiisliing is all done at the indi- 
 vidual bench, which makes it easy for the teacher to place the 
 responsibility for careless work. This plan has proved very suecess- 
 
 Fig. 184b— Varnish Dish* 
 
 ful. The object is to give a general idea of wood finishing with 
 ability to handle a few standard materials. 
 
 ♦Varnish Dish flesignod by Mr. Paul W. Covert, head of the Manual Training Depart- 
 ment of the Indianapolis Manual Training High School. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 
 
 In the preceding chapters a number of facts about the manipulation 
 of tools and materials have been given. The problems considered 
 were ready-made and fully stated, and the work was purely mechani- 
 cal. It is time now to give some attention to the statement of new 
 and original problems. 
 
 The ''EncyclopsecUaBritannica" says: ^'The object of construction object of 
 
 construe- 
 
 is to adapt, and combine fit materials in such a manner that they shall tion. 
 retain in use the disposition assigned to them." From this statement 
 of the object of construction, the object of Constructive Design may be object of 
 stated as the selecting of the fit materials and designating the com- uv^fdesign. 
 bination which will meet the requirements of construction. 
 
 As one example of constructive design which will embody the ideas 
 of construction and fitness stated above, let us consider the develop- 
 ment of a chair. 
 
 The requirements of a chair are : 
 
 1. Strength to hold us up when we sit on it. 
 
 2. To furnish a comfortable place to sit. 
 
 3. It must be in keeping with the surroundings. 
 
 If we are living in a rough, temporary logging camp and wish a 
 place for the men to sit at the dining table, a bench, as in Fig. 185, 
 will answer all requirements. It is strong, is reasonably comfortable 
 for a short sitting, and is in keeping with the makeshift surroundings. 
 If, however, a settler living in the neighborhood of such a camp would 
 make a bench or chair for a general living or eating room, some care 
 
 143 
 
144 ]\IANUAL TRAINING FOR COIMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 in const iTR'tioii, us in Fig. 180, would \)v more in ivceping with the 
 l)ci'mancnt home. But even this would not bo as comfortable or 
 inviting for an evening lounge before a glowing fireplace as would a 
 
 Fig. 185— Chair Suitable for Temporary 
 Camp 
 
 Fig. 186 — Chair or Bench Suitable for Permanent 
 Pioneer Home 
 
 chair with a back, as shown in Fig. 187. If a sheepskin, tanned 
 with the wool on, were thrown over the seat and back of such a 
 chair it would compete in comfort and strength with the fancy leather- 
 cushioned Morris-chair shown in Fig. 188, or with any other chair for 
 
 Fig. 187— Easy Chair for 
 Pioneer Home 
 
 Fig. 188— Modern Morris-Chair 
 
SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 145 
 
 that matter. Yet one would not want to place a rough chair covered 
 with sheepskin in a well-arranged country or city home where even a 
 few of the modern furnishings are used. It is easy to see why there is 
 something about the Morris-chair that will always give it a place in 
 refined surroundings, a place which cannot be given to any of the other 
 chairs shown. One w^ould not be likely to choose a straight-backed 
 chair, like the one shown in Fig. 189, in which to sit for an evening to 
 
 read a favorite book. But the same chair at a 
 
 writing-desk or at a dining-table, where the back 
 
 is not used for the support of the body, would 
 
 answer the purpose much better than would 
 
 the Morris-chair. 
 
 Considered by itself, the chair shown in Fig. 
 
 190 is not at all pleasing. The 
 
 back is too short, or, in other 
 
 words, it is out of proportion 
 
 with the other parts of the chair. 
 
 Or, as the artist would say, the 
 
 chair is out of harmony with 
 itself. If the same chair is placed in a crowded 
 restaurant where space is a very important considera- 
 tion, and it can be seen pushed under the table, as in 
 Fig. 191, the short back does not seem so nmch out of 
 place. The lack of proportion in the individual piece is largely over- 
 come by the requirements of service. No position and no service 
 consideration could, however, overcome such a lack of symmetry as 
 is shown in the chair, Fig. 192. The round and the square legs on the 
 same chair and the showy turned brace in combination with the 
 square ones are serious defects. For strength and comfort the chair 
 might do as well as the one shown in Fig. 189, but the elaborate con- 
 struction and the lack of harmony in the parts would make the chair 
 seem old and out of place in a logging camp or a permanent home. 
 
 Fig. 189— Straight-Back 
 Dining-Room Chair 
 
 Fig. 190 — Low-Back 
 Chair for Special Use 
 
146 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Fig. 191 — Chairs Placed Under Table to 
 Save Space 
 
 It is thus seen that a lack of fitness as well as a lack of beauty or 
 good workmanship excludes an article from service. What is meant by- 
 fitness would be clearly shown if we should put the bench made for 
 a logging camp (Fig. 185) into an elaborate home, or the Morris- 
 chair, with its leather cushions, in 
 a blacksmith-shop. If we try to 
 make a chair merely an object of 
 beauty to be looked at and not 
 used, then again we have missed 
 the object of chair construction 
 and cannot find a suitable place 
 for the product. 
 
 What has been said about the 
 construction of a chair ma}' be said 
 about any other construction. 
 Between the extreme ideas of service, as is shown in the bench (Fig. 
 185), and the attempt at over-ornamentation, as in Fig. 192, there 
 is a great field of design which seeks within the 
 limits of service to make the product as beautiful 
 and pleasing as the surroundings will warrant. 
 
 What the Designer Must Know if He is to Get 
 the Best and Most Economical Production 
 
 The designer must know the use to be made 
 of the article he is to design and if possible the 
 j^lace in which it is to be used. He must know 
 the available materials. There is no general list 
 of construction materials which can be obtained 
 everywhere. The good designer or the careful 
 workman, (hough he is to make but a few pieces, will acquaint 
 liiuLself with the materials carried in stock by the dealers in his 
 
 Fig. 192— Chair Out of 
 Harmony with Itself and 
 All Surroundings 
 
SOME ESSENTIALS OF CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN 147 
 
 locality. Special materials or even standard materials which must 
 be ordered special, cost much more than materials ready in stock. 
 The designer should know how to combine and join materials both for 
 strength and for beauty. He should know the tools to be used and the 
 ability of the workman who is to use them. Otherwise he will be 
 likely to demand too much or too little. The beginner will learn much 
 about tools and combinations by referring to the chapters under those 
 headings. 
 
 Facts Which the Designer Should Know 
 
 The standard height of the seat of a chair of the dining-room 
 type is 18^'. Rockers and chairs with deep seats are made lower. 
 
 The standard height of a writing-desk, office desk, or library table 
 is 30''. 
 
 The standard height of a work-bench intended for the use of an 
 adult is 34''. 
 
 The standard height of a piano bench is 20". 
 
 Tabourets are usually made 18" high, though the height varies 
 according to the use lo be made of them. 
 
 Sheet music is about 12" x 14". A music cabinet should be at least 
 one inch wider and deeper on the inside. 
 
 Bookcases are from 10" to 12" deep inside. 
 
 An umbrella-holder is from 24" to 26" high, from the bottom of 
 the pan to the top of the cross-rails. 
 
 The weak point in a chair is where the seat rails are fastened 
 to the back legs. 
 
 The distance between the shelves of a magazine stand should be 
 greatest at the bottom, and should decrease by three-quarters of an 
 inch between each pair of shelves from the bottom toward the top. 
 
 Hall trees are usually made from 70" to 72" high over all, the hooks 
 being from four to eight inches lower. 
 
CHAPTER VTII 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 Part I. For Seventh and Eighth Grades 
 
 The object of the first work is to l^ecome familiar with the common 
 tools — to learn how to adjust them, how to use them to the best 
 advantage, and to gain some skill in their use so that the student can 
 gradually do better and more efficient work. As stated in the first 
 chapter, the most simple problem the student can have is shaping 
 a piece of wood to three dimensions. To do this he must know the 
 following : 
 
 1. How to measure with a ruler or scale. 
 
 2. How to saw to a line. 
 
 3. How to plane. 
 
 4. How to use the try square as a straight-edge and as a square. 
 
 5. How to use the gauge. 
 
 (). How to use the knife and try square for making lines. 
 
 The operations in the proper order irill he (is folloirs: 
 
 1. Make working face and mark it. 
 
 2. Make joint edge and mark it. 
 
 3. Use gauge to make lines parallel to a marked face. 
 
 4. Measure length. 
 
 5. Draw lines across the grain witli knife and square. 
 
 6. Saw close to line. 
 
 7. End planing. 
 
 148 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 149 
 
 8. Planing third side. 
 
 9. Planing fourth side. 
 
 A hasty glance at this outline or through the first chapter will 
 show that, although the problem is a simple one, it involves a number 
 of tools and operations all of which are new. To make it easier we 
 will first do just a part of this problem. 
 
 Problem No. i 
 
 Poj^lar or Pine: 1 piece Y ^ ^" ^ -■!"; made to thickness and 
 width only. 
 
 Read the first three pages of the first chapter. Note carefully 
 what is said on page 3 about writing an order for a piece of lumber. 
 
 The piece for the first problem is cut for us I" x SV' x 24V', miu order 
 
 . „ .,..,, ; - ' for stock. 
 
 SO we can omit for a tmie what is said about the saw on pages 
 4, 5, 6, and 7. 
 
 The first thing to do is to measure the stock to make sure that selecting 
 
 1*11 • stock. 
 
 we have enough material, and to examine it carefully to see if there 
 are any defects, such as cracks, knots, etc., which will make it unfit 
 for use. 
 
 The first work to be done on the piece is to plane a flat, true working 
 surface, which is called a working face. (Read "Planing the First or 
 Working Face," pages 11 to 16 inclusive.) 
 
 Select the best surface, hold it up to the eye, and sight across it 
 to see if it is straight and flat. If it is not flat, plane the places which 
 are high and which cause the unevenness. The teacher will select 
 the plane to do this piece, but in time the pupil must learn to select 
 his own plane. 
 
 To learn how to put the parts of the plane together, the names Parts of 
 
 . . . plane. 
 
 of the parts, their use, and how to adjust them, read '^\djusting 
 Plane," pages 13, 14, and 15. 
 
 To plane the piece to dimensions, follow the general directions 
 given on page 16 to Entl Planing, page 20. 
 
know. 
 
 150 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 In general, the })iece to be planed should be held against the 
 bench stop on top of the bench, and the whole stock or base of the 
 plane should rest on the piece that is being planed. 
 
 What we Fwm the text and in making the first piece tve should learn : 
 
 should 
 
 1 . To write the order for the material. 
 
 2. To measure the material to see if we have enough. 
 
 3. To examine the material to make sure that it has no serious 
 defects. 
 
 4. To make the working face and joint edge and test them with 
 the square. 
 
 5. To set the gauge and to draw lines with it. 
 
 6. To make the. third and fourth faces. 
 We should become very familiar with these tools and operations 
 
 and with the methods of doing the work, for we shall use them in every 
 piece of wood- work that we do. 
 
 Problem No. 2 
 
 Using the To get practice with the gauge, take the piece just made and 
 
 draw lines I" apart on the working face parallel to the joint edge. 
 Note carefully what has been said about the gauge and its use on 
 pages 17, 18, and 19. Check each line as directed on page 19, Fig. 37. 
 
 Be sure that the linos are imiform and accurate to the extreme 
 ends of the piece. 
 
 When the working face is lined, turn the piece over and make 
 the same lines on the face opposite. T(^st each line as before and see 
 if the first lining cannot be improved upcjn. 
 
 gauge. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 151 
 
 Problem No. 3 
 
 Use the same piece as for Problems Nos. 1 and 2. Make eight lines Making 
 entirely around the piece I" apart, eight f apart, and eight ^^ apart, the grain.' 
 These lines are to be made with the knife and square across the width 
 of the piece. 
 
 Read carefully what is said about the rule, the knife, and the 
 square on pages 21, 22 and 23. 
 
 Remember : When testing for squareness with the square always 
 keep the head or beam against a marked face. In making the 
 lines as directed above, great care should be taken to make the lines 
 check accurately around the piece. 
 
 Problem No. 4 
 
 Use the same piece as in making Problems Nos. 1, 2, and 3. The 
 piece will now be marked off or laid out as in Fig. 193. The problem 
 is to saw off the blocks marked out in the last piece. 
 
 Place the piece to be sawed upon the bench-hook and with the 
 back saw saw off the blocks. Read carefully what it said about the 
 back saw and its use on pages 39, 40, 41 and 42. 
 
 The blocks should be sawed, leaving one-half of the line on the splitting 
 large piece. This is called splitting the line with the saw. Fig. 194 saw. 
 shows a saw cut made 
 part way across the 
 piece, showing the re- 
 lation of the saw cut 
 and the hne. 
 
 After each cut test the end of the piece with the square, both Test after 
 from the working face and the joint edge. If the cut has not been 
 made straight, note the error carefully and make a great effort to 
 avoid it on the next cut'. 
 
 Fig. 193 — Problem No. 4 Marked Out Ready for Sawing 
 
152 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 LanRuaKC 
 
 of tllC Itll'- 
 
 cluuiif. 
 
 Fig. 194 Showing Saw Cut Splitting the Line 
 
 Keep all the blocks numbered and note the improvement as the 
 
 work progresses. 
 
 In the first cutting with the saw you will often find that you saw 
 
 off the line in the same direction every 
 time. It is best, therefore, to start 
 each cut on the corner between the 
 marked face and the joint edge, so 
 that the test will show where the 
 error is being made. A known fault 
 is more than half corrected. Do not 
 be content until you can measure, 
 
 ])lane, make lines with the gauge and knife, and saw to the line with 
 
 the back saw. 
 
 Problem No. 5 
 
 Problem No. 5 is to make a bench-hook similar to the one used in 
 Problem No. 4 or to the one shown in the picture. (Fig. 195.) 
 
 The statement 
 of three dimensions 
 of each part of the 
 hook will not be 
 sufficient, for such 
 a statement will 
 not tell how the 
 parts ar(! fastened 
 together. We can- 
 not m e a s u r e a 
 drawing as shown 
 
 in Fig. 195 because we are looking at the piece at an angle and the 
 lines appear shortened. Th(» mechanic, liowever, makes use of a 
 woi'd and picture language which may ))e used to state any mechan- 
 ical i)roblem. We will use that language to state the problem of the 
 
 Fig. 195 — Bench-Hook 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 153 
 
 beiicli-h(x)k, hut to make it easier we will separate the ])arts, as in 
 Fig. 195o, aiul consider each piece b)^ itself. 
 
 Let us take any l)art, say the base piece (.1, l\. l[)oa), and look 
 straight down on 
 the top of it. We 
 shall see what is 
 shown in .1, Fig. 
 1956. All the lines 
 we can see will be 
 shown in their true 
 length, because we 
 are looking straight 
 at them. We could 
 measure such a 
 drawing crosswise 
 and get the width, 
 
 and lengthwise and ^'^- '^Sa-Parts of the Sench-Hook 
 
 get the length. The holes for the 
 fastening pins are also shown in their 
 true positions. The width and length 
 of the piece and the position of the 
 pinholes are not all we want, for we 
 must also know the thickness. 
 
 We cannot, however, get the thick- 
 ness from the top view — we must look 
 at an end or an edge. If we turn the 
 piece so as to see the left edge we 
 shall see what is shown in B, Fig. 
 1956. The dotted lines C and D 
 show where the pinholes would be 
 if we could see them. 
 i95b-Top^and^E^ge^ View of Base of Inasuiuch as B Is the drawlug of 
 
 Fig. 
 
154 iMANUAL TRAlNINd FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Measuring 
 the draw- 
 
 Dimen- 
 sions on 
 drawing. 
 
 Reading 
 the draw- 
 ing. 
 
 = «»! 
 
 tli(> loft edge of the l)ase, we will place it at the left side and join it 
 to the base with the dotted lines E and F, so that we shall always 
 know the relation between the two drawings. 
 
 We could now measure the view B crosswise to get the thick- 
 ness, and lengthwise to get the length. The width and the position of 
 the pinholes are obtained from A. That is, by measuring both views 
 we could get all the information desired. But if every one who 
 used a drawing were compelled to measure it, it would take too much 
 
 time and lead to a great many 
 mistakes. For these reasons the one 
 who is making a drawing writes the di- 
 mensions on it, as is shown in Fig. 195c. 
 Fig. 195c is a complete mechanical 
 drawing of the base-board of the bench- 
 hook. To write an order for the stock 
 or material in the base we must find 
 the thickness, width, and length on the 
 drawing. As said before, the thickness 
 will be found on an end or an edge 
 view. Look at the upper end of the 
 edge drawing . (Fig. 195c.) We find f 
 marked in a line which has an arrow- 
 head on each end. This means that 
 it is f between the points of the ar- 
 row heads. The dotted lines leading 
 up to the arrows-heads mean that the distance between the arrow- 
 heads is iho distance between the points from which the dotted 
 lines start. 
 
 Read carefully: '' Dimensions on Mechanical Drawings," pages 33 
 and 34. 
 
 At the end of the drawing we find Ff written within a dash line 
 which also ends in arrow-heads, the dotted lines at the points of 
 
 i< 5 
 
 >* 
 
 o 
 
 Q-\¥^ 
 
 
 1¥ 
 
 
 JT- 
 
 Fig. 195c — Complete Meciianical Drawing 
 of the Base-Board for Bench-Hoolt. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 155 
 
 which come to the edges of the board. This means that 5" is the 
 width of the board. 
 
 In the same way the 10" written in the hne at the side is the 
 length. Find the arrow-heads and the dotted hnes which lead up to 
 them the same as for thickness and width. 
 
 The order for the stock or material in the base-board will be 
 written as follows : 1 piece ^' x b" x 10'^ The position of the pinholes 
 is shown by the figures, arrow-heads, etc., and may be easily read 
 from the drawing. 
 
 Fig. 195<i gives a complete mechanical drawing of the cross-pieces 
 
 and the fastening pins, the remaining _ , ^ , 
 
 parts of the bench-hooks. These draw- 
 ings are the same as for the base piece, 
 except that the right end is shown in- 
 stead of the left, and because of that, 
 the end view is to the right of the top 
 view. 
 
 From the drawings we can read the 
 dimensions and write the order for the 
 entire stock as follows: 
 
 1 piece Y X ^\" X 5''— From A, Fig. 195d 
 
 1 piece I" X lY X 41''— From B, Fig. 195(i 
 
 4 pieces Y dowel rod 1|" long— From C, Figs. 195c? and 195c. 
 
 1 piece f X 5" x 10"— From Fig. 195c 
 
 Such an order gives us a very definite problem. The dimensions 
 
 given in the order are, however, the finished dimensions. We must 
 
 allow some extra material to be cut away in making a finish. From 
 
 the above order for the cross-pieces we learn that they are the same 
 
 thickness and width, and together make a piece only 9|" long. It will 
 
 be easier for us to work these two iDieces to dimensions in one piece, combina- 
 tion of 
 and cut them to length, for it will save handling the tools for at least similar 
 
 " pieces. 
 
 one whole operation. 
 
 
 ■-,* A. 
 1 
 
 ^ 44" -> 
 
 
 i^s'^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 \^-( 
 
 ~\ g'pOWELFOP C 
 
 "chanical Drawings j)e(;ail 
 1 for Bench-Hook o^^^^^^ 
 
 Fig. igsd — Complete M< 
 of Cross-Pieces and Pii 
 
156 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Mill order. 
 
 Lilies for 
 end cuts. 
 
 After groiij)ino; the first two pieces and 
 finish, the mill order for stock will be: 
 
 1 piece 1" X H" x 10'' 
 1 piece I'' dowel rod 8'' 
 
 allowing 
 
 material for 
 
 1 piece I X 
 
 5^ X 10 
 
 1956 — Cross-Pieces of Bench-Hook, Planned and Laid 
 Out Ready for Sawing to Lengths 
 
 To make the first piece of the bench-hook ivill he merely a review of 
 the first problem. (Read carefully the steps in making the first }:)roblem 
 on pages 149 and 150.) When tlie four faces are planed, lay out the 
 
 pieces as shown in Fig. 
 195e. 
 
 The lines A B C D 
 are made entirely around 
 the piece with the knife 
 and square, the same 
 as in the fourth ])roblem. 
 Saw to these lines, leav- 
 ing one-half the line on the piece you wish to keep. The two lines 
 {B and C) in the centre are made because it is usually not possible, 
 when sawing free hand, to saw both sides of the cut smooth and square 
 until we have had considerable practice in using the saw. If sawed 
 carefully the ends will not need any further finish. 
 
 The stock for the base piece will be rough sawed and machine planed 
 to i" X 5|'' X lOi''. This allows ^/ in thickness, i" in width, and ^'' in 
 length for finishing. 
 Plane the work- 
 ing face and joint 
 edge and mark 
 them as in any 
 other piece. Then 
 lay out with gauge, 
 knife, and square, 
 
 1 • ,1 • lii Fig losf — Base Piece of Bench-Hook Laid Out Ready 
 
 markmg the Wltlth ^ "" for End Planing 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 157 
 
 and length, us is sliown in Fig. 195/. The end phming should be d(jne Kmi 
 before the third side is finished. (Read carefully what is said about End 
 Planing on pages 21, 22, 23, and 24.) Before planing to the end lines it 
 will be best to saw off all but a very small amount of the surplus stock. 
 Until we are able to use the saw accurately, it will be best for us to make 
 a second line very close to the first and saw to the centre of the second 
 line the same as in making the other saw cuts. The saw cut should 
 be made so close to the end line that three or four strokes of a sharp 
 plane will finish the end, making it smooth and to the line. Use 
 either a block plane or a regular smooth plane. (See Figs. 7 and la, 
 page 8.) 
 
 When the ends are planed, finish the third and fourth faces. Putting on 
 
 cross- 
 
 This will finish the cross-pieces and the base to the required dimensions, pieces. 
 
 The dowel pins are bought in long pieces ready made to diameter 
 and need only to be cut to the required length. 
 
 When the stock is all finished to the required dimensions, mark 
 the centre of the pinholes on the cross-pieces. 'The dimensions will 
 be found in A and B of Fig. 195c?. Lay a cross-piece into position 
 on the base-board and clamp both in the vise so that the centre mark 
 for one of the holes is above the vise jaws. With a half-inch bit bore 
 a hole entirely through both pieces. Place a block back of the pieces 
 in the vise to bore into to prevent splitting as the bit comes through. 
 (See Fig. 716, page 56.) (For general information about bits, how to 
 tell the size, etc., see pages 105, 106, and 107.) 
 
 x\fter boring the hole and before removing the pieces from the vise, 
 place a pin in the hole to hold the pieces in place. Turn the piece in 
 the vise and bore the other holes in the same way. 
 
 The space between the end of the short piece and the edge of the 
 board is left either to the left or right, according to whether a right or 
 left-hand person is to use the hook. 
 
 After the holes are made, remove the pins from the holes, put glue 
 on the under side of the cross-pieces and on the pins, then clamp 
 
158 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 them in place, as is shown in Fig. 195g. The clamp should be left in 
 
 })osition for at least twenty-four hours, when the hook is ready for use. 
 
 In making the bench-hook the new things we have learned are: 
 
 1st. How to state a simple problem by the use of the mechanical 
 
 drawing. 
 
 2nd. End planing. 
 3rd. Something 
 about boring. 
 
 4th. What the 
 dowel pin is and one of 
 its uses. 
 
 We have reviewed 
 measuring and lining, 
 })laning and sawing. 
 Select one of the 
 problems in the following group for the next exercise. 
 
 Fig. I95g — Cross-Pieces on Bench-Hook Glued 
 and Clamped 
 
 Sharpen- 
 ing 
 tools. 
 
 Screw or 
 nail box. 
 
 Detail 
 order, 
 
 Group I 
 
 Read carefully what is said about sharpening the plane bit on pages 
 12 and 13. Practice oil-stoning the bit, but do not grind it until later. 
 
 Fig. 196 is a nail or screw box for a bench. From the picture we 
 can see that the pieces required will be as follows: 
 
 Two side pieces. 
 
 Three cross-pieces. 
 
 One bottom piece. 
 
 From the mechanical drawing of these parts (Fig. 196a) we can get 
 the dimensions and write the detail order as follows: 
 
 PINE, POPLAR, OR ANY OTHER SOFT AVOOD 
 
 2 pieces f x 1 1" x 10'' side pieces 
 
 3 pieces f '' x 1 1'' x 3'' cross-pieces 
 
 1 piece f' x 3|" x 10'' bottom piece 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 159 
 
 The side pieces and the cross-pieces are all the same thickness Miuorfier. 
 and width, and when combined are only 29'' long. Such a piece is 
 not too long to handle easily and we can get the stock in one piece. 
 Plane to thickness and 
 width, then- cut to length. 
 
 If we make that com- 
 bination and allow iV' in 
 thickness and ^ in width, 
 and y' for every end cut, 
 the mill order will be as 
 follows : 
 
 1 piece // X 2'' x 30|''. 
 Iff 
 
 Fig. 196 — Nail or Screw Box 
 
 1 piece ^\" X Zl" x 10 
 
 To make 
 side and 
 cross- 
 pieces. 
 
 Plane the combined side and cross-pieces to thickness and width. 
 Lay out the length by marking entirely around the piece with the 
 knife and try square. (See cross-pieces for bench-hook, page 156, 
 Fig. 195e.) If the end cuts are made carefully with a sharp back 
 
 saw, it will not be 
 necessary to plane the 
 ends of the three cross- 
 pieces and will take 
 but a few strokes of a 
 sharp plane to finish 
 the ends of the two 
 side pieces. Do the 
 end planing against a 
 block, as shown on 
 page 24, Fig. 39??2. 
 
 To make the bot- to make 
 
 ^ . bottom 
 
 torn, make the work- piece. 
 ing face and joint edge ; 
 saw and plane the 
 
 10 
 
 -^: ^ § V 
 
 -^1' 
 
 k- 
 
 ilk 
 
 Fig. 196a — Mechanical Drawing of Nail Box Parts 
 
ICO MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Assembly 
 firawias,'. 
 
 Putting 
 the box 
 together. 
 
 Sand- 
 papering 
 the box. 
 
 V r-T^ — 
 
 'Xit 
 
 JJjX. 
 
 \h 
 
 
 IT 
 
 Fig. 196b — Assembly Drawing of Nail Box 
 
 ciuls to length. (See base-board for bench-hook, page L56, Fig. 195/.) 
 After the ends are squared plane tlie bottom to thickness. The 
 width may hv left until the bottom is nailed into place on the box. 
 Then it is planed even or flush with the sides of the box. 
 
 Fig. 19 06 is the 
 mechanical drawing of 
 the entire box, show- 
 ing how the parts are 
 })ut together. Such a 
 drawing is called an 
 assembly drawing. 
 
 To assemble the 
 box, mark with a good, 
 sharp pencil the posi- 
 tion of the cross-pieces 
 on the side pieces. The position of the brads may be located by a 
 dot made with the gauge. Careful, uniform nailing will give even a 
 rough box a neat, workman-like appearance. 
 
 First nail side and cross-pieces together, using J'' No. 18 brads. 
 (See page 68 for l:)rads and how to order them.) When side and 
 cross-pieces are nailed, nail one side of bottom. Square side pieces 
 with end of l)ottom and nail the other side and the centre, as shown 
 in the drawing. (Fig. 1966.) Set the nails below the surface of the 
 wood. (See nail set and its uses, page 71.) Plane bottom flush with 
 side pieces. Sand-paper the entire outside of the box (see pages 118 
 and 119), using No. 1| sand-paper over a block, as shown in Fig. 180, 
 page 119. Care should be taken when sand-])apering not to round the 
 corners and edges. 
 
 When the box is finished write the name on the inside of one of tlu^ 
 end })ieces. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 161 
 
 String Reel 
 
 Fig. 197 is the picture of a string reel that may be used for a kite 
 string, a fish line, a chalk line, etc. From the picture we can see that 
 the wood required will be as follows: 
 
 Two side pieces. 
 Three cross-pieces. 
 Two handle pieces. 
 
 From the mechanical drawing of the parts (Fig. 197«) we can get Detau 
 the detailed stock order as follows: 
 
 2 pieces f '' x J" x 8'' side pieces 
 
 3 pieces Y ^ I4" ^ '^Y cross-pieces 
 
 2 pieces f '' x f x 1^' handle pieces 
 
 To save handling so _*=*-:=»v miu order. 
 
 many pieces, we can com- 
 bine the two side pieces, (^T^T^ 
 
 the three cross-pieces, and VJ--^s4 \^~~^-^=*-^'"^^^^^-^ ^^^ ^ 
 
 the two handles. Making 
 this combination, and 
 
 11 • 1 // • i 1 • 1 F'e- 197— String Reel 
 
 allowing iV 11^ thickness, 
 
 ~^-" in width, and ^ for every end cut, the mill order will be: 
 
 1 piece -iV X \" x 8^' 
 
 1 piece iV' X If x 10^'' 
 
 2 
 
 1 piece f X f X Z\ 
 
 Plane all pieces to thickness and width. Saw side pieces to length, side pieces. 
 leaving one-half the line on the piece you wish to keep. (Note how 
 the cross-piece on the bench-hook was laid out. Page 156, Fig. 195e.) 
 With the compasses (see page 88, Fig. 133) lay out the round ends, 
 saw to the liries with the coping saw, or cut to line with a knife. (For 
 the coping saw, see page 98, Fig. 1466.) Sand-paper all surfaces 
 
162 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Cross- 
 pieces. 
 
 Makiii}? 
 
 round 
 
 edges. 
 
 Handle 
 pieces. 
 
 with Xo. I5 sand-paper drawn over a block. (For sand-papering, 
 see pages 118 and 119.) 
 
 Saw off the centre cross-piece. Before the end cross-pieces are 
 
 -^. ^i" 
 
 r 
 
 5]D 
 
 3i' 
 
 -^ i<z ^ 
 
 !* 4"3f 
 
 j_r(o)-'™ 
 
 Fig. 197a — Detail Drawing of Parts of String Reel 
 
 sawed apart, draw a half-circle on the ends. Plane the corners down 
 to this line, as shown in Fig. 197c, then plane the remaining corners to 
 the line and finish l\v clamping one end in the vise and drawing a strip 
 
 of sand-paper over 
 the edge, as in Fig. 
 181, page 120. 
 
 Saw the pieces to 
 exact length. It 
 will not be necessary 
 to i)lane the ends. 
 Make a circle on the 
 end of the handle 
 ])iece, plane the 
 corners to the circle, 
 then i)lane the re- 
 PTj I maining corners. 
 
 Finish round with 
 
 Fig. 107b — Assembly Drawing Showing How the Parts of String ,., i ,^ ,,^^„ c ,,,, +„ 
 
 Reel Go Together ^^an( l-JJapei . baW tO 
 
 
 -I- I 
 
 -^k- 1'^— >|'^ 
 
 JLL 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 163 
 
 length, clamp in vise and bore a hole large enough for a No. 12 round- 
 head screw. 
 
 Fig. 1976 is a mechanical drawing showing how the parts are put Assembly 
 
 ^ o o i- drawing. 
 
 together. If we remember that the lines which 
 cannot be seen are shown as dotted lines, the 
 drawing will not be hard to understand. 
 Use i" No. 17 brads. (See page 68.) 
 Fasten the handles on with 21" No. 12 round- 
 
 Fig. 197c — End Cross- -, ■, /oi i-m \ 
 
 Piece Laid Out for hcad scrcws. (bce page 72.) 
 
 Rounding Edges i i • 
 
 When the piece is finished write the name 
 carefully on the flat side of the centre cross-piece. 
 
 Problems 
 
 No. 1. Write the detail order for the stock in a box 6" deep, 8Y 
 wide, and 12" long, outside dimensions, all the stock to be Y thick. 
 The box is to be constructed the same as the nail or screw box (Fig. 
 196), with the end pieces set in the same distance from the end of 
 box. 
 
 No. 2. ]\Ieasure a window-sash or a screen frame and write a detail 
 order for the stock. 
 
 Remember that in the detail order no stock is allowed for finishing. 
 
 Group 2 
 The Lap Joint 
 Problem No. i 
 
 The first prohlern in this group will be the half lap joint, the picture 
 of which is shown in Fig. 40. From the experience we have had with 
 reading a mechanical drawing in the first group we can read at once 
 the statement of the problem as given in the drawing. 
 
 Begin with ''The Problem of the Lap Joint" stated, page 66, and 
 make a lap joint as instructed. Follow closely the method of laying 
 
161 AfANUAL TRAINING FOR C()I\IM()N SCHOOLS 
 
 Detail and 
 assembly 
 drawing 
 together. 
 
 Special de- 
 tail draw- 
 
 Reading 
 the draw- 
 ing. 
 
 out (lie joint and the use of the tools. (Pji^(>s '3i) to 47, inclusive.) 
 St'V(M"aI now tools and ojx'rations arc used in this joint, and it will 
 rtMjuii'c careful attention to master tlieni. 
 
 Problem No. 2 
 
 Each member of the class will make a lap-joint frame as in Fig. 198. 
 In Group No. 1 we made a drawing of each piece separatel)^ and the 
 assembly drawing to show how the pieces were put together. This 
 method takes too much time and space, so the mechanic usually 
 makes only the assembly drawing and puts in the dimensions of each 
 piece, as they occur in the drawing. If any part of a piece is compli- 
 cated, the drawling of that part is often set out by itself as is the 
 corner of the picture-frame (Fig. 1986), and the detail chmensions of 
 the part thus set out are omitted in the assembly drawing. 
 
 The number of parts and figures 
 so near together do not need to 
 confuse the beginner, and will not 
 if' he remembers that the frame is 
 made of single pieces of wood, all 
 of which have thickness, width, and 
 length. 
 
 To read the mechanical draw- 
 ing for the picture-frame and write 
 the detail order for the material, 
 select any piece, say the side strip 
 (.1, Fig. 198r/); the thickness will 
 l)e found on some part of the draw- 
 ing (Fig. 198«), where the end or an 
 edge of the side piece is shown, 
 as, for example, at the top of the 
 edge view we find the thickness to 
 be ^'' 
 
 Fig. 198— Lap-joint Picture-Frame ^^ 8 ' 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 165 
 
 The width we shall find where a flat side or an end of the 
 piece is shown, as at the top of the face view we find If' to be 
 the width. 
 
 The length will be found on the face or an edge view. Thus we 
 have found the three dimensions of the side strij), and since there are 
 two of them the order for them will be : 
 
 2 pieces f x If x 12f 
 
 In the same way find the dimensions and write the order for the 
 remaining parts of the frame. In doing this note the arrow points 
 and figures carefully to make sure that they mark the desired 
 dimensions. 
 
 Write the mill order for stock, allowing material for finishing, miu order. 
 and combine the parts to save time in working to dimensions. Do not 
 make any combination ... h''^ . 
 
 I !. 
 
 .1 >^i^ 
 
 
 i.. 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 of parts which are 
 longer than 30". 
 
 When the materials 
 are at hand, plane all 
 to thickness and 
 width. Lay out and 
 cut to length, allowing 
 -f on each projecting 
 end for finishing, after 
 the pieces are put to- 
 gether, the same as in 
 making the lap joint. 
 
 No end planing 
 should be done until 
 the parts are put to- 
 gether, for the ends of 
 all the pieces are either covered or are backed up by some other 
 piece so that end planing is made easy. 
 
 End plan- 
 
 Fig. 198a— Mechanical Drawing of Lap-joint Frame 
 
166 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Corner 
 joints. 
 
 Assem- 
 
 l)linK 
 
 frame. 
 
 Bevel 
 edges. 
 
 i^f^rts'^ 
 
 Fig. 198b — Detail of Picture-Frame Corner 
 
 Sand- 
 Ijapering. 
 
 The lap joint for the corners of the frame is given in the detail 
 drawing of the corner (Fig. 1986), and is called an end lap joint. (See 
 
 page 58, Figs. 73 and 73«.) 
 
 Lay out the joints the same as 
 part No. 1 of the lap joint, Problem 
 No. 1, group 2. (See pages 37, 38, 
 and 39.) If the material for the 
 joint is cut from the working face in 
 the end pieces, it should be cut from 
 the opposite face for the side piece. 
 (See page 46 for the reason.) Be 
 sure to keep all working edges and 
 faces marked, and use them as directed in laying out all lines with 
 square and gauge. 
 
 Saw to all lines both across and with the grain, leaving one-half 
 the line on the part you wish to keep. No chiselling of surfaces should 
 be necessary. 
 
 When the parts are made, put a little liquid glue on the joint sur- 
 faces and nail together with f' No. 17 brads. 
 
 Glue top strips into position. Use clamps as for bench hook, see 
 page 158, Fig. 195y. Let the clamps remain on the pieces at least 
 twenty-four hours. When dry, remove clamps and nail the strips 
 from the back with V No. 17 brads. This will help hold the glued 
 joints. 
 
 To im]:)rove the appearance, cut a small bevel all the way around 
 the edge. The bevel is not shown in the mechanical drawing, but 
 should be |'' on the face and g" on the edge. (Note what is said on 
 page 82 about laying out bevelled and round edges. Lay out the 
 bevel -ines with a sharj), hard })encil. Plane to the lines with the 
 smooth plane, cutting tlie ends from the edges toward the centre to 
 avoid splitting the corners. 
 
 Sand-paper all outside surfaces with sand-paper drawn over a block. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 167 
 
 The lines should be straight, the bevel uniform, and the corners sharp 
 and square. 
 
 Finish the frame to match the picture to be put into it. Finish. 
 
 See Chapter VI for wood finishing. 
 
 The picture and the glass are held in place by a thin piece of board 
 or pasteboard fastened on the back. 
 
 By slightly modifying this frame it may be made as a print General 
 
 "^ . . . " - . , statement. 
 
 frame, or the same corner jomts may be used on a wmdow-screen 
 frame. 
 
 The following problems will furnish further application of the 
 principles learned thus far, and will introduce a few new tools and 
 operations, which will be explained as they are used. 
 
 Each pupil should do at least two of the smaller problems or one 
 of the larger ones, including the shelf, or pupils may choose a problem 
 of their own similar to these, provided they make a drawing of each 
 part, giving all the necessary dimensions, and one showing how the 
 parts are put together, as was done in Group No. 1. 
 
 Begin each problem by writing a detail order for the material or 
 stock. 
 
 Write a mill order allowing material for finishing. Group similar 
 parts in the mill order when it will aid in getting the stock to the 
 required shape. Be sure, however, to add enough material to allow 
 for extra cutting. Usually I" for every end cut will be enough. 
 
 Never lose sight of the necessity of doing careful work. 
 
 Lay out all parts and check them in some way before cutting. 
 
 Alwa3'S measure and make lines with the proper tools and in the 
 proper way. 
 
 Windmill Made of Soft Wood 
 
 The only new oi)eration is cutting the bevel on the fan pieces. Fan 
 
 ^ . piece. 
 
 which will be done after they are planed to dimensions and the middle 
 laj) joint made at the centre. As shown l3y the i)icture and the 
 
168 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Fig. 199 — Windmill Made of any Light, Soft Wood 
 
 mechanical drawing;, the bevel 
 is made diagonally across the 
 corners, opposite diagonals 
 being used on opposite ends 
 of each piece. Lay out the 
 fan pieces with a sharp pen- 
 cil by drawing the lines A A, 
 (Fig. 1996) A" each side of 
 the corner. Connect these 
 lines with a diagonal line 
 across the ends. Draw the 
 Be sure to use opposite cor- 
 
 lines B B as shown in the drawing. 
 
 ners when laying out the ends of each piece, 
 
 AMien all the lines are laid out, clamp a piece in the vise and saw 
 to all the Unes A A, then saw to the lines B B. Finish the sawed 
 surface with a chisel and sand-paper. 
 
 U 
 
 e — ^ 
 
 1^'"'' 
 
 r-t 
 
 i^r^ 
 
 EhDVicworKuDPtR 
 
 Fig. 199a Mechanical Drawing of Windmill 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 169 
 
 Assemble the parts as shown in the drawing 
 
 Make the length of 
 the standard to meet 
 requirements. 
 
 Wall Rack 
 
 Make the wall rack of 
 soft wood, but choose the 
 kind of wood and the 
 ^pln/^fc finish to meet the re- 
 
 f'or 'sawing quirementS of SCrvice. Fig. 200- Wall Rack 
 
 I4i 
 
 J 
 
 i t 
 
 WZr 
 
 lap View 
 1 65:" 
 
 TV 
 
 TKOMT VIEW 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 0: 
 
 
 
 _ _ _ — _ _ ^-; 
 
 ;©• 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 ®; 
 ®! 
 
 ■ - 8" " 
 
 
 
 
 A^ ,. 
 
 
 
 _^L 
 
 -^ 
 
 -101 
 
 ■-^^ 
 
 — V-, 
 
 END VIEW 
 
 I 2 3 4-36 
 
 SCALE IN mCHES 
 Fig. 200a — Mechanical Drawing of Wall Rack 
 
170 :\IANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 iMakiii 
 curves on 
 
 Tilt' only new feature is the curves nuule at the to]j of the end 
 
 sidVp]e"ces. piccBS. The curves are made after the end pieces have been cut to 
 
 dimensions and arc merely to give the rack a more pleasing appearance. 
 
 Such curves must be laid and cut out carefully or they will not 
 
 look well. 
 
 First, lay the curve out on a ])iece of thick |)aper or card-board. 
 Cut it out and trace with a pencil on the end pieces. Saw to the line 
 with a coping saw. (See page 98.) Finish curves with spokeshave 
 (see page 101), and with sandpaper drawn over a block. Assemble the 
 parts as shown in the drawing. 
 
 Doll Cradle 
 
 The cradle is made of soft wood and finished with the mahogany 
 stain (see page 126) to make it bright and attractive. This cradle is 
 
 Bevel. 
 
 Fig. 201— Doll Cradle 
 
 made for a doll twelve inches long. You may change the dimensions 
 to fit the doll that is to use it. 
 
 The new feature in the doll cradle is the use of the bevel to lay 
 out the slanting lines on the end pieces. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 171 
 
 Order the stock. Plane the end and side pieces to the largest 
 dimensions. Use the compasses (see page 88) to lay out all the curves 
 indicated in the drawing. 
 
 Lay out the lines- on one of the head pieces as shown in Fig. 2016. Head 
 
 piece. 
 
 With the beam of the bevel (see page 87) on B, set the blade to the 
 
 line A. Then, 
 r 15:?:- Jj*l^v&.4-' with the bevel 
 
 '^^ "Ml ^ised the same as 
 
 
 a 
 
 I RAP 
 
 /l^ — 
 
 <T> 
 
 1 
 
 t^la^fi'^ 
 
 Hi 
 
 I a square, draw all 
 
 I the other slanting 
 
 -j^ lines on the head 
 
 I and foot pieces. 
 
 Saw to the 
 
 curved lines with 
 
 the coping saw 
 
 (see page 98) and 
 
 to the slanting line 
 
 with the back saw. 
 
 Fasten side and end pieces 
 
 together as incHcated; then care- 
 
 ->u> 
 
 "-^ 
 
 bling 
 parts. 
 
 ^ 
 
 jTi KAP 
 
 Fig. 20 1 a — Mechanical Drawing of Doll Cradle 
 
 Fig. 20 lb — Bevel Laid Out on End Piece 
 
 fully plane the bottom edge of the side pieces square with the bot- 
 tom of the end joieces. 
 
 Nail the bottom to the sides and screw through the bottom to 
 hold the rockers. 
 
172 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 TF 
 
 TT 
 
 Fig. 202 — Tool or Knife Tray 
 
 12" 
 
 
 'IT 
 
 \' i; 
 
 Top View 
 
 Fig. 2023 — Mechanical Drawing of Knife Tray 
 
 V 
 
 -K j ! ! : 1 
 
 ii:\ ~. — 
 
 ■ ErsD view. 
 
 ^_± 
 
 -X 
 
 A- ^ 
 
 V'^p 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■ ■ 1 N^ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 I^ 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 202b — Detail of Centre Piece of Tray 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 173 
 
 Tool or Knife Tray 
 
 The drawings of the tool or knife tray (Figs. 202, 202a, and 
 2025) give a full statement of the problem. The dimensions given 
 are for a knife tray. If 3'()u want to make a tool tra}', copy 
 the drawings and change the thickness of the wood and the other 
 dimensions so as to make it strong and large enough to meet your 
 requirements. 
 
 The corner curves are marked with compasses and cut out with 
 the coping saw the same as the other curves. 
 
 To cut the hand hole in the centre-piece, mark the position of the 
 hole with the gauge and compasses. Bore holes with a V auger bit to 
 make the end curves. Saw to the side lines with the compass saw 
 (see page 98). Finish the edges and break the sharp corners of the 
 hole with sand-paper, as in Fig. 181, page 120. 
 
 Assemble the box as shown in the drawing (Fig. 202r/) and finish 
 to meet the requirements. 
 
 The Shelf 
 
 All pupils should design and make a shelf. A shelf is usually object of 
 made to occupy some special place and to hold some particular 
 object or objects. The mechanical requirements are that the shelf 
 be large enough to fill the space and strong enough to hold the 
 objects to be placed upon it. 
 
 Fig. 203 shows a shelf which meets the mechanical requirements, 
 except, perhaps, that the square corners of the bracket — that is, the 
 pieces which support the shelf — are in the way. In that case the 
 bracket could be cut off, as in Fig. 203«. In both cases we have a 
 strong shelf which can be made to any reasonable size; but should 
 we care to give them a better place than in the barn or shed ? 
 
 There is, indeed, something lacking when we consider either use and 
 shelf for a place in the home. In other words, they meet all of the 
 
174 MANUAL TRAININC FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Bracket 
 curve. 
 
 Bevelled 
 edges. 
 
 Various 
 curves and 
 their uses. 
 
 requireiiients of a shelf but do not meet the r('({uin'iiieiits of a 
 piece of furnitiiro. 
 
 To make the shelf meet the reqiurements of a piece of furniture 
 
 we must not take away any 
 of its usefulness. 
 
 Suppose we make the 
 change in the l^racket as sug- 
 
 gested in Fig 2036 or 
 
 as 
 
 Fig. 203 — Shelf Which Meets All Mechanical Requirements 
 
 shown in the mechanical 
 drawing. (Fig. 203c.) The 
 curves seem to add strength 
 to th(^ bracket as compared 
 to the straight lines in Fig. 
 2()3rt. 
 
 The dotted lines in the end 
 view of the mechanical draw- 
 ing (Fig. 203c) suggest curves 
 which might be made in place 
 of the one used. 
 
 The slight bevel on the 
 lower edge of the shelf and the 
 small curve in the back-board 
 seem to add something pleas- 
 ing that is not found in the 
 shar}), unbroken lines of the 
 other shelves. Thus, in mak- 
 ing a piece of furniture out of 
 a mere shelf we have added 
 lines and curves which make 
 it pleasing to look at and at 
 the same time have not taken away any of the reciuirements. 
 The ends of the side pieces of the string reel (Fig. 197) are rounded 
 
 Fig. 203a Shelf with Corners of Bracket Cut Off to 
 Save Space 
 
 Fig. 203b -Shelf Suitable for a Piece of Furniture 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 175 
 
 to keep the string from catching. The ends of the cradle (Fig. 201) 
 are rounded to break the sharp corners and allow for added height. 
 The handle hole in the centre piece of the tool box (Fig. 202) has a 
 mechanical value as a handle, and for that reason does not ap]iear 
 
 Fig. 203c — Mechanical Drawing of Shelf, without Dimensions 
 
 out of place or ill-shaped. The curves and bevel on the shelf give General 
 
 . . statement. 
 
 variety to the straight lines. In general, it may ])e said that, if 
 added hues or curves are a true decoration, we must feel that to 
 remove them would take something away from the usefulness of the 
 object. 
 
 The problem is to make a shelf to meet your own requirements. The prob- 
 Make a drawing of all the parts; put in all dimensions and order 
 the stock, as in the previous problems. 
 
 Problems 
 
 Lumber is sold by the square foot. A board one inch thick and 
 one foot square contains a board foot of lumber. 
 
 To get the number of board feet in any piece of lumber, multiply 
 the thickness expressed in inches by the width and length expressed 
 in feet. 
 
170 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Problem No. i 
 
 How many board feet of lumber in a board 1" x 6'' x 12'? Rewrit- 
 ing the problem and expressing the width — 6'' — in feet, we have V x 
 I' X 12', Multiplying the thickness, width, and length, we have 6 
 board feet as the answer. 
 
 Problem No. 2 
 
 How many board feet in a board 2" x 4'' x 10'? Reducing the 
 width to feet, we have 2" x ^' x 10'. Multiplying the thickness, width, 
 and length, we have 6§ board feet as the answer. 
 
 Problem No. 3 
 
 How many board feet in a board ^" x 7" x 9'? 
 
 Note. — It is becoming a general custom to quote prices of lumber 
 less than an inch in thickness by the square feet of surface. In that 
 case the square feet obtained by multiplying the width in feet by the 
 length in feet will be the number of board feet required. 
 
 Problem No. 4 
 
 How many board feet of lumber in the following bill of lumber? 
 3 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' 
 2 pieces 1" x 5" x 12' 
 5 pieces |" x 3" x 9' 
 
 Problem No. 5 
 
 Measure the floor in a room at home or at school and figure the 
 cost of the lumber if the flooring costs $00.00 per 1,000 feet. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 177 
 
 Group No. 3 
 
 The first problem in the group will be to make the through mortise Mortise 
 and tenon joint given in Chapter III, pages 48 to 56, inclusive. joint. 
 
 All pupils are to make this joint. 
 
 Follow carefully each step as it is given. Note particularly the 
 method of laying out the joint. 
 
 Cut the mortise with a chisel, but note the use of the auger bit for 
 removing the surplus stock from the mortise. 
 
 This type of joint is used in all manner of construction and is very 
 important, consequently it should be given close attention. 
 
 Clothes Hanger and Tie Rack 
 Problem No. 2 
 
 Make of hard or soft wood and finish to meet the requirements of 
 service. 
 
 Each pupil should make either the clothes hanger or the tie rack. 
 
 DcTAiL or Hook. 
 Fig. 204 — Mechanical Drawing of Clothes Hanger 
 
 The mechanical drawings give a full statement of the problems, state- 
 Write the detail and mill orders for materials. Figure the amount of problem. 
 
178 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 General 
 ilirectioiis 
 
 lumber and the cost at the market price in j^our locality. Lay out 
 and cut the mortise before the edges are bevelled, in order to have a 
 square edge to work from. The mortise should be laid out on both 
 
 ^iis 
 
 ^ 
 
 Jiit 
 
 ?[ ^ 
 
 — i J i- 
 
 i-_- 
 
 Scale: pans 
 
 -1- 
 
 1" 
 
 -i 
 
 Detajl or Projecting At^m 
 Fig. 205 — Mechanical Drawing of Tie Rack 
 
 sides of the base piece. (Note how the mortise was laid out on both 
 sides of the piece on pages 49 and 50.) Make all lines for bevelled 
 edges with a pencil. (See page 82.) 
 
 Remember that to look well all bevelled edges must be made 
 
 straight and uniform. 
 
 A Set of Balances 
 
 Make of either hard or soft wood and finish to protect the wood. 
 
 The set of balances, the mechanical drawing of which is given 
 (Fig. 206), is not a toy but a useful instrument which may be used 
 in a school laboratory. If reasonable care is taken in making them 
 the balances will weigh accurately to a centigram. 
 
 The. scale pans are made of the pressed tops of tin cans such as 
 are used on paint cans. 
 
 The wire by which the pans are suspended is oi-dinaiy galvanized 
 iron wire about the size of that used for a telephone. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 179 
 
180 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Counter 
 poise. 
 
 Pivot- 
 bearing. 
 
 The screw hooks can be obtained at any hardware store. 
 
 The nuts on the ends of the balance arm are for a counter poise, 
 and by turning them in and out the pointer may be made to stand at 
 the zero point. Any ordinary nut will do. 
 
 Cut the wood round, almost to the size of the hole in the nut. 
 Screw the nut on. It will cut its own thread. 
 
 Fig. 206a is a detail drawing of the i)ivot-bearing for the balances. 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 2o6a — Detail of Pivot-Bearing for Balances 
 
 After sawing out the j^lace (B, Fig. 20G«) for the bearing post, take a 
 stroke of the saw where the cuts meet at C to make the corner sharp. 
 
 Cut out a piece of tin as wide as the balance arm (ordinary house 
 shears will cut tin) and of the required length. Fold the tin as at D, 
 Fig. 206a, and flatten the fold with a hammer but not enough to break 
 the metal. Spread out the two parts of th(> tin as in E. The sliarj) 
 fold will make a crease in which the metal bearing (F) will fit. 
 
 Fis a piece of steel (a broken knife blade will do) driven into a saw cut. 
 
 All other details are i>iven in the drawings. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 181 
 
 Umbrella Stand 
 
 To make the umbrella stand (Fig. 207) order materials as usual. 
 Make all parts to the required dimensions, being careful to make and 
 mark a working face and joint edges on all pieces. 
 
 Lay out the mortises on the working face and joint edges, for Toiay 
 those faces are made especially square and 
 
 Fig. 207 — Umbrella Stand 
 
 To lay out 
 tenons. 
 
 accurate. 
 
 First locate and make the end lines of all 
 the mortises; then set the gauge and make the 
 lines on one side of all the mortises. Add the 
 thickness of the mortise to the first setting of the 
 gauge and draw all the lines for the second side. 
 Be sure to keep the head of the gauge on the 
 working face and the joint edge. Locate and 
 draw the shoulder line of all the tenons. 
 
 Make all the lines on one side of all the tenons. 
 Reset the gauge and make all the lines on the other side. Remove 
 stock for mortises with auger bit. (See pages 55 and 56.) Use a Tomake 
 
 , . • •! 1 1 • -r-i- "^ 1 mortises. 
 
 bit stop Similar to the one shown m lig. 1/1, page 109, or make a 
 stop of a block of wood. 
 
 When all mortises are bored, cut to the line with a chisel as in 
 making the through mortise and tenon joint. (See page 54, Figs. 70h, 
 70i, and 70/.) 
 
 Be sure to make the sides of the mortises straight. Test by 
 standing the edge of the chisel against the sides and note if the 
 chisel is square with the face of the piece. 
 
 When the mortises are all made, make the tenons. Saw the lines to make 
 
 tenons. 
 
 with the grain first; the reason for this will be evident. Then saw 
 the shoulder lines. If care is taken in sawing, very little chiselling 
 will be necessary. 
 
 Assemble the parts as shown in the drawing. (Hue two of the 
 
182 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 ki|'>k- 
 
 t 
 
 CO 
 
 X. 
 
 m 
 
 SloO 
 
 lOi' 
 
 r 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 3' 
 
 
 > 1 !y 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ts^ 
 
 
 W- Is ^ 
 
 :^i-- 
 
 e^' 
 
 t*- I ^ -H 
 
 Fig. 207b — Detail of Joint A, Umbrella Stand. Lower 
 Corner Identical with Exception of Tenon 2 J" wide 
 and 3" cross piece. 
 
 fi^^ 
 
 LtT 
 
 
 .__.J^.,.-_;? II II 
 
 -1: ^ 
 
 •^J 
 
 ._L 
 
 Fig. 207a — Mechanical Drawing of Umbrella Stand 
 
 Fig. 207c— How to Lay Out and Make Pan 
 for Umbrella Stand 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 183 
 
 sides together first; when in the clamp, test to make sure they are 
 square. The next day glue the cross-pieces between these two sides 
 and test for squareness again. Clean of! all surplus glue with a damp f^^/Xl'"^ 
 cloth or waste before it hardens. When the glue is hard, put in the ^'"^' 
 bottom, as shown in the drawing. Scrape, sand-paper, and finish to 
 meet the requirements of the wood and service. Make a shallow How to 
 
 ^ make metal 
 
 metal pan for the bottom, as shown in Fig. 207c. Take a fiat piece ^^''- 
 of copper, zinc, or galvanized iron, lay out the size of the bottom with 
 a knife or pencil, as shown in A, Fig. 207c. Slit the corners A B C D. 
 Clamp a block on both sides of the metal and bend up the edges, as 
 in B, Fig. 207c. Bend the metal at the corners around the sides and 
 solder to hold any water that may run from a wet umbrella. 
 
 Group No. 4 
 
 The problems should be fully stated, the materials ordered, and 
 the costs figured, the same as in the preceding groups. 
 
 The pupil should begin to grind his own chisels, and when skil- j^g"' ^""'^" 
 ful enough to do good chisel grinding he may begin to grind his 
 plane bits. (See '^ Grinding Plane Bit," pages 12 and 13, Figs. 15 to 20.) 
 
 Learn the difference between the crosscut and the rip saw and J;'iecTsl''ws. 
 the reasons for the difference. (See pages 5 and 6.) 
 
 Each pupil should make at least one article in the group from 
 rough lumber, doing all the rough sawing and planing. (See page 4, 
 Figs. 1 and la, for laying out rough dimensions, and pages 6 and 7, 
 Figs. 6 and 6a, for starting the rip and the crosscut saw.) 
 
 Tabouret 
 
 In making either of the tabourets (Figs. 208 and 209), or any sub- • 
 stitute, we must take into consideration the plant which is to be placed 
 upon it and the place which it is to occupy in the room. Neither of 
 
184 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 12" 
 
 "B", 
 
 s-to '^ --- ) A 
 
 ^i 
 
 (X) 
 
 SIfl--- 
 
 T 
 
 1. 
 
 >-.. 
 
 (D 
 
 in 
 
 _y 
 
 Fig. 2o8a — How to Lay Out an Octagon 
 
 Fig. 2o8 — Tabouret 
 
 Fig. 2o8b Detail of Cross Lap Joints 
 "A" and "B" Fig. 208 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 185 
 
 the tabourets given would be suitable 
 for a wide-spreading plant, for the 
 plant and stand would be top-heavy. 
 
 Scales 
 
 The scales (Fig, 210) are a useful 
 article and will weigh accurately to 
 five grams. The pivot-bearing is 
 made the same as the j^ivot-bear- 
 ing for the balances (Fig. 206fl). The 
 sliding weight on the arm is a block 
 of wood which weighs one gram. It 
 slides on a galvanized iron wire about 
 the size of a telephone wire. The 
 weight pan (B) is made from a tin 
 can top, which is also hung on a small 
 galvanized-iron wire. 
 
 A block of lead is fastened to the 
 bottom of the scale pan to make a 
 counter poise for the long arm. All 
 other details are given in the drawing. 
 
 f 
 
 "Tioo e> 
 
 General 
 informa- 
 tion. 
 
 _-Y- 
 
 Fig. 209 — Tabouret 
 
 Saw Horse 
 
 The saw horse (Fig. 211) may be made to meet almost any require- 
 ment. The mechanical drawing is a complete statement of the horse 
 as it is given. 
 
 The Loom 
 
 Figs. 212, 212a, 2125, 212c, etc., give the drawings of a small loom. Good ciass 
 This is a very efficient loom and is a good problem for a group of 
 pupils to make for a class that is studying textiles. 
 
186 ■ MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 187 
 
 The assembly drawings seem rather comphcated, but a glance at 
 the detailed parts will show that while there are a number of pieces 
 they are very simple and will build up rapidly. 
 
 The slats (.1) on the heddle (Fig. 212c) are made straight on the Heddie. 
 edges and nailed into position. A piece of No. 1| sand-paper is folded 
 
 1^ — 
 
 24' 
 
 _^l5l<- 
 
 D 
 
 ^|€- 
 
 ^3r- 
 
 ^^r- 
 
 Fig. 211 — Saw Horse 
 
 with the sand out and is drawn back and forth between the slats. 
 This will round and smooth the corners as at B. 
 
 To make the batten (Fig. 212c?) make a line with the gauge in the Batten. 
 centre of the cross-pieces. Mark the places for the nails with the 
 dividers. To prevent splitting, clamp the top cross-piece firmly in the 
 vise and drive in the nails. Remove the piece from the vise and nail 
 crosswise, as at C, D, etc., Fig. 212c?. Clamp the piece in the vise 
 again, with the nail points up, and straighten the nails either with the 
 hand or a pair of pliers. Then clamp the lower cross-piece in the vise 
 and drive the nails into it. 
 
188 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 i8U 
 
 Fig. 212a — Cross-Piece "F." One Piece 
 
 
 
 
 -1* 
 
 nW)" [ 
 
 13a 
 
 Fig. 212b— Upright "E." Two Pieces 
 
 Leap Weight ^ 
 
 ULJUUULJUUUULJUUUULJUUUUUU 
 
 SLATS il X 8 
 SPACE ^ 
 SLATS 5AriDFAPERED 
 r IM CErSTCR TO WIDTH 
 or ^" 
 
 ■r'[D;i 
 
 im^ 
 
 B A 
 
 Fig. 2I2C — Detail of Heddle for Loom 
 
190 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 C D 
 
 I 42 
 
 4 2 Tin (Sails ^, on Centers 
 
 ELEVATIOM 
 
 Fig. 2 1 2d — Detail of Batten 
 
 
 I HOLE 
 
 .1 
 
 o 
 
 End View. 
 
 '^" 
 
 -^ 
 
 Fig. 2126 — Detail of Shuttle 
 
 ^1 ;<--^^ii" 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 11)1 
 
 T 
 -I* 
 
 ■I3i- 
 
 -*T^ li"^ 
 
 o 
 
 G 
 
 < — 
 
 15^ 
 
 . 
 
 > 
 
 ^/ 
 
 1 
 
 
 y. 
 
 "M(0 
 
 ] 
 
 ^•■12 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ve*' 
 
 
 
 
 
 '•A 
 
 Fig. 2i2f — Side Piece of Loom. Two Pieces 
 
 I HOLES. 
 Fig. 2i2h — Warp and Carpet Rolls. Two Pieces 
 
 A canvas is tacked on to the carpet roll 
 and leads up to the front end of the loom. 
 The warp is fastened to a slat across the 
 end of the canvas and the carpet is thus <_ 
 
 *- i "^ 
 
 .4 
 
 
 
 led back to the roll. (7 G, Fio;. 212, shows ■ F T IT 
 the direction of the canvas. ' -^ ''- 
 
 J. 
 
 -^ 
 
 MS ; i 
 
 When the loom is finished a little studv F»g- 2i2g-End Pieces -a,' 
 
 -' "B," "C." and "D*' 
 
 will enable one to set it up and weave on it. 
 
192 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Part 2. For the High-School 
 
 General The woi'k ill the higli-school can take on at once the more serious 
 
 consideration of tlie probkuii, the material and the tool. If the wood- 
 work began with the seventh grade and has followed through the 
 several groups given in the outline for the grades, a few weeks' review, 
 following closely the sequence of tools and operations given in the 
 first three chapters of the general text, will aid the pupils very much 
 in taking up the larger and more complicated forms of construction. 
 On the other hand, if the wood-work begins in the high-school it will 
 be necessary to begin with the simple forms of construction suggested 
 in the outline for the grade work, the pupil doing enough work in 
 each group to become familiar w^ith the several necessary steps. 
 In many cases, however, the problem may be made larger, more 
 individual choice may be allowed, and the progress may be much 
 faster because of the greater strength and ability of the pupils. 
 
 In the foUowing outline for the high-school course, it is assumed 
 that the grade work has been completed. 
 
 Group No. I 
 
 All pupils should do the first three problems in this group. 
 
 Problem No. i 
 Review Make a piece to the three dimensions similar to the one ordered 
 
 making 
 
 piece to on page 3. 
 
 three di- . 
 
 mensions. Write the detail and mill order. 
 
 Lay out and rough saw the stock as directed. 
 Note carefully the difference between the crosscut and the rip 
 saw, and the reasons for the difference. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 193 
 
 Follow carefully the sequence of operations. order of 
 
 procedure. 
 
 Measure stock. 
 
 Examine stock. 
 
 Make working face. 
 
 Make joint edge. 
 
 Plane ends. 
 
 Make third and fourth faces. 
 
 Take each tool as it is used, adjust it, and study the use of 
 its parts. 
 
 Learn to select and sharpen the plane and chisel according to the 
 use to be made of them. 
 
 Follow carefully all directions for laying out and testing Hnes and 
 surfaces. 
 
 Problem No. 2 —The Lap Joint 
 
 Saw the stock from the piece made in the first problem. Review 
 
 Study the method of stating the problem by the mechanical 
 drawing. 
 
 Make a mechanical drawing of the separate parts of the mark- 
 ing gauge, putting in all necessary dimensions. Make an assembly 
 drawing of the gauge without dimensions. 
 
 Make the Lap Joint as directed on pages 35 to 46, inclusive. 
 
 Study the uses and care of the chisel. 
 
 Read what is said about "Cutting or Edge Tools," on pages 90, 
 91, and 92. Take a knife and make the cuts to prove what it said. 
 
 Problem No. 3— The Through Mortise and Tenon 
 
 Make the mortise and tenon joint as directed on pages 48 to 56 Review 
 
 1* n 'If !• in mortise 
 
 mclusive. Saw material from the piece made m the first problem. and tenon. 
 Note carefully the method of laying out the joint. 
 Chisel the material from the mortise. 
 
194 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Pay particular attention to the manner of holding the chisel For 
 the paring and the vertical cut used in chiselling the sides and end 
 of the mortise (i)age 54, Figs, 70;", and 70j). 
 
 Use me- 
 chanical 
 judgment. 
 
 What to 
 make. 
 
 Statement 
 of prob- 
 lem. 
 
 Order for 
 stock. 
 
 Group No. 2 — A Group of Suggestive Problems 
 
 When beginning any problem, study the parts, note which require 
 accuracy and which do not need to be so carefully made. For exam- 
 ple, the joints in the umbrella stand (pages 181 and 182, Figs. 207, 
 207a, etc.) and the two sides of the legs against which the cross-pieces 
 fit should be very accurate. It is not so necessary that the legs be ex- 
 actly the same size so long as they look alike when placed in position. 
 
 The side pieces mvist all be the same length between the shoulders, 
 but a slight difference in thickness will not detract in the least from 
 the value of the piece of furniture. 
 
 In other words, use mechanical judgment — take all the time 
 necessary to make an article which will meet every requirement of 
 service, but do not take time to do unnecessary work. 
 
 Many of the problems given in the grade work will be suitable for 
 high-school work. 
 
 The best article to make is something for which the pupil feels 
 a })ositive need, either for the home or for the school. All pupils 
 will not want to make the same thing, neither will all want to make 
 articles suggested in the different groups. 
 
 When the mechanical drawing is not given, a complete drawing 
 should ])e made with all dimensions carefully and plainly written. 
 As a rule, a pupil can make any article for which he can make a 
 complete drawing. 
 
 Continue to write full detail and mill orders and to figure the cost 
 of all material. 
 
 Examine the articles of wood-work about tlie home and school and 
 note how they are put together. 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOODA\'ORK 195 
 
 Read carefully Chapter VII, on " Const ruetive Desi<j;n." 
 In connection with finishing any article, ivixd Chapter VI. 
 
 Plate Rack 
 
 The plate rack is developed much the same as the shelf 
 (pages 173, 174, and 175, Figs. 203 to 20Sc). It is designed to ^^l^ll'^^ 
 support certain articles and to occupy a certain space. Mechanically ^*^*^ ™''' 
 it must be large and strong enough to meet both requirements. As 
 a piece of furniture, it must be pleasing in shape and the finish 
 must be in harmony with, the surroundings and the nature of the 
 wood. 
 
 The accompan3^ing pictures (Figs. 213, 213«, 2136, etc.) will give 
 some suggestions as to the general form and shape of a plate rack. 
 
 Before making a plate rack, find out w^hat dishes are to be placed f ''^^fg'"" 
 in it. Measure carefully the space on the wall which the rack is to '■'^''''• 
 occupy. If you can, look at a number of plate racks and see how they 
 are put together. 
 
 The back looks best if put into the side pieces with rabbeted 
 joints. (See page 62, Fig. 85.) The shelves are housed into the 
 side pieces and fastened with screw-eyes and screws. (See page 65, 
 Figs. 103, 104, and 105.) 
 
 Design and make a j^late rack to meet your own requirements. 
 
 Suggestions for Box Making 
 
 Boxes may be made in an almost unlimited number of ways and 
 to meet an ec^ual number of requirements. It is seldom that any 
 great number of pupils would want to make exactly the same kind 
 of box. It is therefore left for each pupil to make a mechanical 
 drawing and to put in all needed dimensions for any box he wishes 
 to make. 
 
196 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Fig. 2 1 3— Plate Rack Which Meets All Mechanical Requirements 
 
 Fig. 213a — Plate Rack Which Meets the Mechanical Re- 
 quirements as Well as Those of a Piece of Furniture 
 
 Fig. 213b — Combined Shelf and Plate Rack 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 197 
 
 Figs. 214 and 214a give some general suggestions in box con- General 
 struct ion. In cases where the cover and the bod^ of the box are made tions. 
 the same width and length, as in Fig. 
 214, the box may be made in one solid 
 piece and the cover sawed off — this 
 insures a good fit for the cover. 
 
 In the case of larger boxes, where 
 there is danger of the cover warping, 
 the parts of the side pieces which re- 
 main with the cover may be screwed 
 to it from the under side, as in Fig. 214«. 
 
 Boxes of this type may be made almost any size from a glove 
 box to a large tool box. 
 
 Fig. 214— This Box May Be Made In 
 Various Sizes 
 
 Fig. 214a — Box Cover, Showing Method of Fastening 
 Strips Underneath 
 
 Shirt-Waist Boxes 
 
 Figs. 2146 and 214c show forms of shirt-waist boxes which are 
 easy to construct and at the same time make an attractive piece of 
 furniture. 
 
 If used as a seat, such boxes are generally made eighteen inches 
 
 high. 
 
 The covers are cleated underneath to prevent warping. 
 
198 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Fig. 214b — Shirt-Waist Box Corners Fastened with i"-2" Lag 
 Screws 
 
 Fig. 214c — Combined Shirt-Waist Box and Seat 
 
 Fig. 2i4d -Metal-Bound Tool Box for Small Tools. Made of Soft wood 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 199 
 
 Tool Boxes 
 
 Figs. 214c? and 214e show the same I30X shut antl o})en. The metal Metai 
 
 1 !• 1 11' 1 bound 
 
 bmdmgs on the edges and corners are used a great deal m trunk con- box. 
 
 struction and make it possible to build a strong box from very thin 
 
 material. 
 
 The box is nailed or screwed together with a j^lain butt joint 
 
 (see page 62, Fig. 84), 
 
 the corners are then 
 
 bound with either 
 
 sheet iron, galvanized 
 
 iron, or brass. 
 
 To bend the metal 
 
 for the corners, make 
 
 a line on it with a 
 
 pencil or knife. 
 
 Clamp it between two 
 
 boards with the line along a straight-edge, bend the metal part way 
 
 down with the hands. Lay a board on it and strike the board with 
 
 the mallet, thus bending the metal to a sharp, square corner. Do not 
 
 strike cUrectly on the metal with a hammer or a mallet, for that 
 
 will make dents in it. 
 
 A great variety of strong, 
 useful boxes may be made 
 with this form of construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Tool and Repair Tray 
 
 Fig. 2146 — Metal-Bound Tool Box— Open 
 
 Fig. 215 — Tool and Repair Tray 
 
 Fig. 215 is a tool and re- 
 pair tray made of soft wood, 
 and may be fastened with nails or screws, or may be metal bound 
 like the last box. 
 
200 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
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A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 201 
 
 Tabouret 
 
 HEIGHT 18' 
 HEXAGON TOP 
 
 Fig. 217 — Tabouret. Hexagon Top 
 
 DETAIL or LEG 
 
 .^a_j 
 
 Fig. 217a — Mechanical Drawing of the Tabouret shown in Fig. 217 
 
202 MANUAL TRAININC; I'OR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 Such ;i 1)()X should he made Ion*;' cnou.^h (o cai'i'v a saw of ordhiaiy 
 length. 
 
 Utility Bench 
 
 TIk^ ])ui)ils sh(nild make a complete drawing of the utility bench and 
 ])ut in all dimensions. Make size and shai)e of bench to meet require- 
 ments. 
 
 Tabouret 
 
 Figs. 217 and 217« are the perspective and mechanical drawings 
 respectively, of a tabouret which is suitable for a large, wude-spreading 
 plant like a palm or fern, etc. 
 
 Group 3. A Group of Suggestive Pictures 
 
 Figs. 218, 219, 220, and 221 suggest various articles. The pupil 
 choosing to build one of them should make a mechanical drawing of it, 
 select the kind of wood to be \ised, and make all dimensions and 
 joints to meet requirements. 
 
 TOP 16 XIG' HEIGHT 19' 
 Fig. 218 
 
 TABLE 
 
 TOP 2'V SQUARt 
 HEIGHT 29' 
 
 Fig. 219 
 
 nAGAZIMC KACK 
 
 HEIOHT AO' 
 
 WIDTH le' 
 DEPTH 10" 
 
 Fig. 220 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 203 
 
 fc 
 
 MJ 
 
 TABOURCT 
 
 OCTAGON SHAPE TOP 
 
 H EIGHT 19" TO'P' 135 ACROSS TL AT 3 
 
 riAGAZiME: "Rack 
 
 HEIGHT 4-0" WIDTH 16* 
 DCFTH 10" 
 
 Fig. 221 
 
 Fig. 222 
 
 4 
 
 DETAIL OF KEYED 
 JOINT 
 
 DOUBLE SCALE 
 
 Fig. 222a 
 
204 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 MAGAZINE KACK 
 
 HEIGHT 45" 
 WIDTH 16" 
 DEPTH lOi' 
 
 oz 
 
 : O 
 
 Fig. 223 
 
 mTc. 
 
 ALL JOINTS AKE MORTISE 
 AND TEMOn. SHELVES 
 ARE TASTEMCD IM WITH 
 if X 2' LAG B0LT5 
 SLATS gxl' STOCK. 
 
 .t£343 6 9 12 
 
 SCALE IM IMCHCS. 
 
 Fig. 223a 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 205 
 
 Magazine Racks 
 
 Figs. 222 and 223 are magazine racks either of which makes a 
 useful and ornamental piece of furniture. Pupils will supply all needed 
 dimensions and draw detail of all joints. The shelves should be 
 farthest apart at the bottom and the space between each pair of 
 shelves should decrease by ^' toward the top. 
 
 Why should there be any difference in the distance between the 
 shelves? Look at doors, bookcases, etc., and see if you can answer 
 this question. 
 
 Piano Bench 
 
 The piano bench (Fig. 224) may be made with a hinged top and a 
 place for music made by putting in a bottom board between the side 
 and end pieces. 
 
 Make a complete drawing, giving detail of parts, etc. 
 
 Fig. 224 — Piano Bench — Top 15" x 36". Height 20" 
 
 Library Table 
 
 The library table (Figs. 225 and 225a) may be made to meet 
 almost any requirements of service. The standard height of a table 
 is thirty inches, and if the top measurements are kept in the ratio 
 
206 .ALVNILVL TRAINING l-Oll (X)MMON SCHOOLS 
 
 of two ill width (o three in l(>iijj;th the table will always he in good 
 pr()j)ortion. 
 
 The bottom brace (.1) should be ])laeed two-thirds of the distance 
 from the top of the table down. 
 
 The tendency is to make a table of this kind larger than it should 
 
 Fig. 225— Library Table 
 
 Detail or Shelf 
 
 AMP 
 
 Mortise & Tenoms on Lcgs 
 
 ZW^ 
 
 DtTAIL or CORMCR &BKACC 
 
 ^ BRACES FASTENED AT. X-X' 
 
 r, WITH I i' WOOD SCREWS 
 
 1 Z 3*56 9 12 
 
 SCALE IN INCHES. 
 
 Fig. 225a— Mechanical Drawing of Library Table without Dimensions 
 * All joints :ire inortiso and tenon. H(>i<!;lit of table ;50" 
 
A COURSE OF STUDY IN WOOD-WORK 
 
 207 
 
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208 MANUAL TRAINING FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 be for the space it is to occupy and to make the legs too large and 
 clumsy. 
 
 Look at tables and note the methods of fast(uiing top to side pieces. 
 See detail of putting in joints. Then study the place you are going to 
 put the table and make a complete drawing. 
 
 In all such constructions one should give careful attention to lay- 
 ing out the work. Lay out all parts and check them before cutting. 
 Mak(^ the fi-ame of the table before the top is glued; then fasten 
 the top in place. 
 
 Morris-Chair 
 
 In Fig. 226 the drawings do not make a complete statement of the 
 problem; they only give the general dimensions. The pupil should 
 make complete detail drawings and i)ut in all dimensions. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 A summary of the course in wood-work may be given as follows : 
 
 General Divisions of the Subject-Matter 
 
 1. Problem. 
 
 2. Material. 
 
 3. Tools. 
 
 Order of Procedure 
 
 1. State Problem. 
 
 2. Select ^Materials. 
 
 3. Choose Tools. 
 
 Problems are stated either by mill order or mechanical drawing. 
 ^Materials are chosen to meet the recjuirements of the article in which they 
 are to be used. 
 
 Order of Tool Work 
 
 1. ^Measuring and Lining. 
 
 2. Sawing. 
 
 3. Planing. 
 
 4. Chiselling. 
 
 5. Boring. 
 
 6. Special Tools and Operations. 
 
 Order of Exercises 
 
 1. Cutting Stock. 
 
 2. (retting Working Face. 
 
 3. Getting; Joint Edge. 
 
 4. End Planing. 
 
 5. Planing to Width. 
 
 6. Planing to Thickness. 
 
 Joinery 
 
 1. T>ap Joints. 
 
 2. Mortise and Tenon Joints. 
 
 3. Butt Joints. 
 
 209 
 
210 APPENDIX 
 
 Design 
 
 Design all articles for a special purpose. Construction, shape, and finish 
 are determined by the purpose for which the articles are to be used. 
 
 Wood Finishing 
 
 1. Planing. 
 
 2. Scraping. 
 
 3. Sand-papering. 
 
 4. Staining. 
 
 5. Filling. (All open-grain woods.) 
 
 6. Varnishing or Painting. 
 
 Equipment for Grade Work 
 Bench 
 
 One of the most necessary parts of a wood-working outfit is a strong bench 
 equipped with a good vise. Neither the bench nor the vise should be elaborate. 
 Rapid-acting metal vises are, to be sure, a convenience but by no means a 
 necessity. For the first two years a vise with wooden jaws and a metal 
 screw will answer the purpose very well. If a metal vise is used, the jaws 
 should be faced with wood to keep the edge tools from being dulled by striking 
 against the metal parts. 
 
 Unless carving is to be done there is little need for a tail vise on the bench. 
 There are a great many benches on the market made especially for manual- 
 training schools, and, as a rule, it would be better to buy ready-made benches. 
 There is, however, no reason why a good bench cannot be made at home, and 
 if it is equipped with a strong vise it should answer every purpose. 
 
 Tool Equipment for Each Pupil 
 
 If possible, each pupil should be equipped with a two-inch plane bit and 
 one j", one f ", and one |" chisel, which he must keep sharp and be otherwise 
 personally responsible for. 
 
 Tool Equipment for Each Bench— To Be Used by All Pupils Who Work 
 
 at the Bench 
 
 One 12" Metal Ruler. (The ruler should be graduated into sixteenths, 
 eighths, quarters, halves, and into inches, and should not have any other 
 graduations, such as tenths, twelfths, etc., for die extra lines are sure to lead to 
 mistakes in measurements.) 
 
APPENDIX 211 
 
 One No. 6 Slovd Knife. 
 
 One 8" Try Square. 
 
 One 8" ^Marking Gauge. 
 
 One 12" Back Saw. 
 
 One 9" Smooth Plane Stock Using a 2" Bit. 
 
 One 6" Screw-Driver. (Champion or equally good.) 
 
 One No. 2 Round Hickory :Mallet. 
 
 One No. 2 ^ladole Hammer (Bell Face). 
 
 One Bench Hook. 
 
 One Bench Brush. 
 
 One Oil-Stone may be used by the pupils working at two benches. 
 
 General Tools for a Class of Twenty-four Grade Pupils 
 
 Three 20" Ten-Point Hand or Crosscut Saws. 
 Three 22" Eight-Point Rip Saws. 
 SLx Plane Auger Bit Braces, 8" Sweep. 
 One Ratchet Brace, 8" Sweep. 
 
 Three Each, i". A", |" , iV", \", and ••" Solid Centre-Stem Auger Bits, 
 Dowel Lengths. 
 
 One Expansive Bit — Small Size. 
 
 Two 14" Jack Planes— 2" Bit. 
 
 One Key-Hole Saw . 
 
 Two 14" Turning or Web Saws. 
 
 Six Coping Saws. (Use heavy special blades.) 
 
 Six Spokeshaves. 
 
 Three 12" Half-Round Wood Rasps. 
 
 Six Flat Wood Scrapers. 
 
 Six Nail Sets. 
 
 Four 24" Carpenter Squares. 
 
 Six 8" Compasses. 
 
 Six Adjustable Block Planes. 
 
 Three Screw Countersinks. 
 
 Six Tee Bevels. 
 
 One 10" Monkey Wrench. 
 
 Three Oil Cans. 
 
 One Draw^ Knife. 
 
 Two Each, \", |", V, and f" Middle Sweep Gouges. 
 
 One Dozen 12" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 
 
 One-Half Dozen 14" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 
 
 One-Half Dozen 18" Wooden Hand-Screw Clamps. 
 
 Use a ready-made cold glue. 
 
212 APPENDIX 
 
 High-School Equipment 
 
 The bench for hiiih-school work should be lar^e and stronij;. It should 
 have a heavy top and solid vise. A metal vise with wood-faced jaw will be 
 better than the wooden vises, but it is not necessary to have an elaborate vise. 
 
 Individual Tools 
 
 The in(livi(hial tools should be the same as for the grade work, with the 
 exception, perhaps, of one additional plane bit. 
 
 Bench Equipment 
 
 The bench equipment should be the same as for the grade work, with the 
 addition of a 14" Jack Plane Stock for each bench. 
 
 General Equipment 
 
 To the general equipment of the grade work should be added : 
 
 Two 24" Jointer Planes. 
 
 One Universal Plough Plane, with attachments. 
 
 One Miter-Box and Saw. 
 
 One-Half Dozen Three-Foot Adjustable Cabin et-Makers' Clamps. 
 
 One-Half Dozen Five-Foot Adjustable Cabinet-^Makers' Clamps. 
 
 One (ilue-Heating Outfit (kind and size determined bv the nature and 
 amount of work to be done). 
 
 One Cirindstone. The size of which will depend nn the motive power 
 available. 
 
 The above outfit of tools is sufficient for doing good work. It would be 
 possil)le in many cases to get along with fewer tools and with some kinds of 
 work it would be necessary to have more. 
 
 In general it is best to buy very few tools to begin witli and add to them as 
 occasion recpiires. 
 
 Always buy good tools. Poor tools are high at any j)rice. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Angle or brace joint 59 
 
 Angles, how to measure them . . . S7, 88, 89 
 
 Angular ))race, universal 109 
 
 Appendix 209 
 
 Assembly drawings (see course of study) 
 
 IGO, 1()2, 164 
 
 Auger bits — 
 
 Bit stop 109 
 
 Braces 107-109 
 
 Kinds of 105-107 
 
 Sc|uaring the bit 56 
 
 To bore stock from mortise with . . 55-56 
 
 Back saw 39-40 
 
 How to use 40-41 
 
 Balances 178 
 
 Bench 210 
 
 Tool equipment for 210-212 
 
 Utility bench 200 
 
 Bench hook 39 
 
 How to make 153-158 
 
 Used in sawing 40 
 
 Bevel (see tee bevel) — 
 
 To bevel edge 82 
 
 To cut bevel for end planing 23 
 
 Bit stop 109 
 
 Black stain 125 
 
 Blind mortise and tenon joint 61 
 
 Block plane 8 
 
 Board measure 84 
 
 Examples in 84-85 
 
 Boring 55-56 
 
 Box dove-tail joint 61 
 
 Boxes — 
 
 Nail or screw box 198 
 
 Shirt-waist boxes 197 
 
 Suggestions for making boxes 195 
 
 Tool boxes 199 
 
 Brace joints 59, 61 
 
 Braces for auger bits 107-109 
 
 21 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Brads 68 
 
 Brown stain < 125 
 
 Butt joints — 
 
 At right angles 61 
 
 Edge butt ()3, 64 
 
 Care of finishing materials 141 
 
 Carpenter's scjuare — 
 
 Board and brace measure 84-86 
 
 Graduation 83 
 
 Used as straight-edge 16 
 
 Used for cross lining 5 
 
 Chair 207 
 
 (See constructive design) 
 Chisel- 
 Beveled and square edge 102 
 
 Firmer, framing, and paring chisel 102 
 
 Paring cut with 42-47 
 
 Sharpening 41 
 
 Size of 41 
 
 Test for sharpness 41 
 
 Chiselling — 
 
 Lap joint mortise 45 
 
 Lap joint tenon 41-42 
 
 Protecting end of lap joint tenon . . 47 
 
 Through mortise 51-55 
 
 Circular plane 100 
 
 Clamps — 
 
 Bar or cabinet maker's 78 
 
 Hand screw clamps. 78 
 
 Saw clamps 94 
 
 Cleating 64 
 
 Clothes hanger. 177 
 
 Clout nails 68 
 
 Common auger bit 109 
 
 Compasses — the parts of and how to u.se 
 
 them 88-89 
 
 Compass saw 98 
 
 Constructive design, es.sentials of 143 
 
 Coping saw 98 
 
 3 
 
214 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Corner chisel 105 
 
 Countersink 74 
 
 Course of study — 
 
 Part I. Seventh and eightli grades 
 
 Object of the work and general 
 
 statement 148 
 
 Prot)lem No. 1 149 
 
 Problem No. 2 150 
 
 Problem No. 3 151 
 
 Problem No. 4 151 
 
 Problem No. 5 152 
 
 Group 1 158-163 
 
 Doll cradle 170 
 
 (ieneral problems 176 
 
 Lap joint 163 
 
 Picture frame 164 
 
 Shelf 173 
 
 Tool or knite trav 173 
 
 Wall rack ' 169 
 
 Windmill 167 
 
 Group 2 — 
 
 Balances 178 
 
 Clothes hanger 177 
 
 Loom 185 
 
 Saw horse 185 
 
 Scales 185 
 
 Tabourets 183-185 
 
 Tie rack 178 
 
 Umbrella stand 181 
 
 Part IL For high school — 
 Group 1 — 
 
 Problem No. 1 192 
 
 Problem No. 2 193 
 
 Problem No. 3 193 
 
 Group 2 — 
 
 Library table 206 
 
 Magazine rack 203-204 
 
 Morris chair 207 
 
 Piano bench 205 
 
 Plate rack 195 
 
 Repair tray 199 
 
 Shirt-waist boxes 197 
 
 Suggestions for making l)oxes. . 195 
 
 Suggestive pictures 202 
 
 Tabourets 200-203 
 
 Tool boxes 199 
 
 Utility bench 200 
 
 Crosscut saw 95-97 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Design 210 
 
 (See also constructive design.) 
 
 Doll cradle 170 
 
 Dove-tail joint G3 
 
 Dowel joint 63 
 
 Dowel joint reinforced 65 
 
 Drawing (see mechanical drawing). 
 
 (See also perspective drawing.) 
 Draw-knife 109 
 
 Edge — 
 
 To bevel 82 
 
 To make round 82 
 
 Edge tools, j)rinciplesof 90 
 
 Egg-shell finish 138 
 
 End lap joint 58 
 
 End planing 20-24 
 
 Equipment (see appendix) 138 
 
 Escutcheon pins 68 
 
 Examples: board measure 84-85 
 
 Facts the designer should know 147 
 
 Feather or spline joint 62, 64 
 
 Filling (see wood filling). 
 Finishing (see wood finishing). 
 
 Finishing outfit 141-142 
 
 Firmer chisel 102 
 
 Formula for making silex filler 129 
 
 Formulte for making stains 124-127 
 
 Fostner bit 106 
 
 Framing chisel 102 
 
 Framing square (see carpenter's square). 
 Fuming 127 
 
 Gain joint 62 
 
 Gauge, bit 109 
 
 Gauge (see marking gauge). 
 
 Gimlet bits. 107 
 
 Glue — 
 
 Brushes for 78 
 
 Clamps for 78 
 
 Kinds of 75 
 
 Liquid glue 76 
 
 Pot for 77-78 
 
 Sizing with 77 
 
 To prepare for use 75-76 
 
INDEX 
 
 215 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gluing — 
 
 Directions for 7(5 
 
 Tools for 77 
 
 Gouges 103-104 
 
 Graduations on scales and rulers 4 
 
 Grain, fibres of wood 2 
 
 Sawing with or across 5 
 
 The effect of, on the shape of tools . . 2 
 
 Grinding plane bit 12 
 
 Grindstone 12, 110 
 
 Group (see course of study). 
 
 Half lap joint 35,58,59 
 
 Hammers 69-70 
 
 High-school course of study 192 
 
 Housed joint 61 
 
 Inches, symbol for 3 
 
 Individual tools for work bench 210-212 
 
 Jack plane 8, 9, 10 
 
 Joinery 209 
 
 Joint edge, making, marking, testing. . 16-17 
 
 Jointer plane 10 
 
 Jointing stock defined 48 
 
 Joints — 
 
 Brace joints 59, 60, 61 
 
 Butt joints 61,62,63 
 
 Dove-tail 59,61 
 
 Dowel 63,66 
 
 Housed 61 
 
 Keyed 65 
 
 Lap 25,58,59 
 
 Matched 62,64 
 
 Mortise and tenon 48, 56, 59, 60, 61 
 
 Rabbeted 64 
 
 Spline or feather 62, 64 
 
 Keyed joint 65 
 
 Key-hole saw 98 
 
 Knife — 
 
 As a laying-out tool 81-82 
 
 Sloyd knife 82 
 
 To make lines with 21-23 
 
 lyag bolt or screw 75 
 
 Lag bolt used on box corner 65 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lap joint — 
 
 Statement of problem 25, 35-36 
 
 To lay out and make 36-47 
 
 Types of 58-59 
 
 Laying out dimensions — 
 
 By method of superi)osition 43 
 
 By use of gauge 17-19 
 
 By use of knife 21-23 
 
 By use of pencil 4, 8 
 
 By use of try square 83 
 
 Tools for 74 
 
 Library table 206 
 
 Lines (see laying out dimensions). 
 
 Lumber, order for 3 
 
 (See also board measure.) 
 
 Measurements — 
 
 To locate with knife and rule .... 21 
 
 To make or lay out 4, 20-23 
 
 Use of gauge 18-19 
 
 Use of knife 21 
 
 Use of square 22-23 
 
 Mechanical drawing — 
 
 Compared with the |)hotograph and 
 
 perspective drawing 27 
 
 Dimensions on drawings 33-35 
 
 Elevation 28-31 
 
 Invisible lines 31-32 
 
 Language of the mechanic 26 
 
 Necessity of 25-26 
 
 Number of views necessary 32 
 
 Placing of views 31 
 
 Plan 28-31 
 
 Principles of 27-35 
 
 Problem of lap joint stated by . . 35-36 
 Scale of drawings 33 
 
 Miter joint 61-63 
 
 Mortise and tenon joint — 
 
 Perspective drawing of 48 
 
 To lay out and make 49-57 
 
 Types of 40 
 
 Nail set 71 
 
 Nail or screw box 159-160 
 
 Nail,'^ 
 
 Kinds of 66-69 
 
 Order for 67-68 
 
 Size of 67 
 
 Table of sizes and lengths 68 
 
216 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Oil stain 121 
 
 Oil-stone llU-111 
 
 Use of 12^13 
 
 Order — 
 
 Detail order for lumber 155 
 
 Mill order for lumber 3 
 
 Method of writing for brads 68 
 
 Method of writing for lumber 3 
 
 Method of writing for nails ()7-68 
 
 Method of writing for screws 72 
 
 Method of writing for tacks ()9 
 
 Painting 113, 13!)-14() 
 
 Paring chisel 1U2 
 
 Paring cut with chisel 42, 43 
 
 Pencil— 
 
 For laying out rough dimensions. . . . 4-5 
 For laying out round and beveled 
 
 corners and edges 82 
 
 Piano bench 205 
 
 Picture frame 1(54 
 
 Plain butt joint (31 
 
 Planes — 
 
 Adjusting 15 
 
 Block plane 9 
 
 Grinding 12 
 
 Jack plane 8 
 
 Kinds of 8-10 
 
 Length of 10 
 
 Oil-stoning 12-13 
 
 Principal parts of 13-15 
 
 Shape of bit 9 
 
 Smooth ])lane 9 
 
 Special planes 99 101 
 
 Use of, general statement 10-11 
 
 Problems, general 
 
 Rabbeted joints — 
 
 At right angles (il 
 
 Edge ral>beted joints (54 
 
 Repair tray '. 199 
 
 Rip saw 5-7, 94-95 
 
 Router 109 
 
 Ruler — 
 
 (Iraduatioiis on 4 
 
 Kinds of SO SI 
 
 Used for laying out rough diiiii'M- 
 sions 4 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sand-paper and its use 117-119 
 
 Sand-paper l)lock 118-119 
 
 Saw— 
 
 Clami) 93-94 
 
 Filing and setting 92-97 
 
 (leneral facts about size antl shape 
 
 of teeth 92 
 
 Hand and cross-cut saw, how made (i 
 
 Rip saw, how made 5 
 
 Sawing, rule for splitting line 41, 152 
 
 Saw set 93 
 
 Scale, linear measure — 
 
 Dimensions on the 4 
 
 Of mechanical drawing 33 
 
 Trough ton scale 80 
 
 vScales for weighing 1 85 
 
 Scraper — 
 
 How to use 1 1(5-117 
 
 Kinds of 113 
 
 Sharpening 114-116 
 
 Screw-driver 74 
 
 Screw-eye used as substitute for cleat . . 64-65 
 Screws — 
 
 Countersinking head 74 
 
 Fastening with 73-74 
 
 Finish of 71 
 
 Kinds of 71 
 
 Order for 72-73 
 
 Size of 71-72 
 
 Table of standard sizes and lengths . 72 
 
 Use of 73 
 
 Sharpening plane bit 12-13 
 
 vShelf, design of 173 
 
 Shirt-waist boxes 197 
 
 Silex 129 
 
 Slip mortise and tenon joint (51 
 
 Socket chisel .' 102 
 
 Special saws 97-98 
 
 Spirit stains 122 
 
 Spokeshave 101 
 
 Square (see carpenter's square and also 
 try square). 
 
 Squaring saw cut 7 
 
 Starting saw cut 6-7 
 
 Summary — 
 
 First chapter 24 
 
 Second chni)ter 47 
 
INDEX 
 
 217 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tables — 
 
 Board and brace measure 84 
 
 Lil)rarv table 206 
 
 Of standard nail sizes 68 
 
 Of standard screw sizes 72 
 
 Of standard tack sizes 69 
 
 Square table 202 
 
 Tabouret 183-184, 201-205 
 
 Tacks- 
 Order for 09 
 
 Table of sizes 69 
 
 Tang chisel 102 
 
 Through mortise and tenon joint, how to 
 
 lay out and how to make 48 
 
 Tie bevel, the parts of and how to use 
 
 it 86-89 
 
 Tie rack 177 
 
 Toe nailing 71 
 
 Tool or knife trav 173 
 
 Tool boxes " 199 
 
 Tool equipment 210-212 
 
 Tools — 
 
 Edge tools, principle of 90-92 
 
 Grouped according to use 79-111 
 
 Miscellaneous 109-111 
 
 Necessity for two types 2 
 
 Troughton scale 80 
 
 Trunk nails 68 
 
 Try square — 
 
 Parts of 15 
 
 Testing chisel cut 43 
 
 Testing gauge line 19 
 
 To square auger bit 56 
 
 To square around a piece 38-39 
 
 Used as straight-edge 16, 22-23 
 
 Used as a square 16-17 
 
 Turning or web saw 98 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Umbrella stand 181 
 
 Universal angular brace 109 
 
 Universal plane 99-100 
 
 Utility bench 200 
 
 Varnish — ■ 
 
 Applying 134, 135 
 
 Brushes 133-134 
 
 Definition of 131 
 
 Dish 142 
 
 General facts about 133-137 
 
 Kinds of 131-132 
 
 Sanding and rubbing 136-137 
 
 Shellac varnish 134-138 
 
 Vocabulary learned 11 
 
 Wall rack 169 
 
 Water stain 122 
 
 Wax finish 138-139 
 
 Windmill 176 
 
 Wood filling 128 
 
 1. Materials 128 
 
 2. Object of 128 
 
 Silex filler 129 
 
 To apply filler 129-131 
 
 W^ood finishing — 
 
 Care of materials 141-142 
 
 Hard wood 113 
 
 Materials and how to use them . 120-142 
 
 Painting 113 
 
 Sand-papering 1 17-119 
 
 Scraper and its use • 114-117 
 
 Wood grain or fibre 2 
 
 Wood staining 121-122 
 
 Wood-working — general statement of 
 problem 1-2 . 
 
FFB 
 
One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 013 824 671 1