D 373 M75 opy 1 Volume XX July, 1920 Number 2 BULLETIN NO. 13 OF The New York State College of Forestry AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY Forestry for the Private Owner BY FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON Professor of Forest Engineering AND HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mall matter Wbn0*frap1* S 3 O co 1-1 0) M p Ph f=i Volume XX July, 1920 BULLETIN NO. 13 Number 2 OF The New York State College of Forestry AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY I) Forestry for the Private Owner BY FREDERICK FRANKLIN MOON Professor of Forest Engineering AND HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering Published Quarterly by the University, Syracuse, New York Entered at the Post Office at Syracuse as second-class mall matter Mis TRUSTEES OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE -OF FORESTRY Ex-Officio Dr. James R. Day, Chancellor Syracuse University Dr. John Huston Finley, Commissioner of Educa- tion Albany, N. Y. Hon. George D. Pratt, Conservation Commissioner. New York City Hon. Harry Walker, Lieutenant-Governor Binghamton, N". Y. Appointed by the Governor Hon. Alexander T. Brown Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. John R. Clancy k Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. Harold D. Cornwall Lowville, N. Y. Hon. George W. Driscoll Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. C C. Burns Watertown, N. Y. Hon. William H. Kelley Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. Lours Marshall New York City Mr. Edward H. O'Hara Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. H. P. Gould Glens Falls, N. Y. Officers of the Board Hon. Louis Marshall President. Hon. John R. Clancy. Vice-President lii] ■Bqg»MgNT« DIVISION FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY S3 AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY JAMES ROSCOE DAY, S. T. D., D. C. L., LL. D., Chancellor of the University. FREDERICK FRANKLIN" MOON", B. A., 1901 (Amherst) ; M. F., 1909 (Yale), Bean of the College; Professor of Silviculture. MAULSBY WILLET BLACKMAN, A. B., 1901 (Kansas) ; Ph. D., 1905 ( Harvard ) , Professor of Forest Entomology. EDWARD F. MCCARTHY, B. S., 1911; M. S. F., 1916 (Michigan), Professor of Forest Utilization. LEIGH H. PENNINGTON, B. S., 1907; Ph. D., 1909 (Michigan), Professor of Forest Pathology. JOHN WALLACE STEPHEN, B. A., 1907; M. S. F., 1909 (Michigan); M. Pd., 1915 (Michigan Normal College), Professor of Silviculture. CHARLES CHRISTOPHER ADAMS, B. S., 1896 (Illinois Wesleyan) ; M. S., 1899 (Harvard) ; Ph. D., 1908 (Chicago) ; Sc. D., 1920 (Illinois Wesleyan ) , Professor of Forest Zoology; Director of The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station. HARRY P. BROWN, A. B., 1909; A. M., 1910; Ph. D., 1914 (Cornell University) , Professor of Wood Technology. ROBERT CRAIG, Jr., M. S. F., 1910 (Michigan), Director and Professor of Forestry at the New York State Banger School. LAURIE D. COX, A. B., 1903 (Acadia College) ; S. B. in Landscape Architecture 1908 (Harvard), Professor of Landscape Engineering. HENRY R. FRANCIS, B. S., 1910 (Massachusetts Agricultural College), Professor of Forest Recreation LOUIS E. WISE, A. B., 1907; Ph. D., 19,11 (Columbia), Professor of Forest Chemistry. WARREN B. BULLOCK, A. B., 1899 (Laurence College), Professor of Forest Extension. [ iii ] iv ' Faculty EUSSELL T. GHEEN, B. S., 1912 (Pennsylvania State College) ; M. F., 1914 (New York State College of Forestry), Professor of Forest Extension. THOMAS LEROY HANKINSON, B. S., 1898 (Michigan Agricultural Col- lege) ; B. S., 1900 (Cornell University), Research Professor of Forest Ichthyology. REUBEN PARKER PRITCHARD, B. S., 1907 (Dartmouth) ; M. F., 1909 (Yale), Professor of Silviculture. CARL JOHN DRAKE, B. S., B. Ped., 1912 (Baldwin- Wallace) ; A. M., 1914 ( Ohio State University ) , Professor of Forest Entomology. CLARENCE EARL LIBBY, B. S. in Chemical Engineering 1916 (Univer- sity of Maine), Professor of Paper and Pulp Chemistry. ALFRED HUBERT WILLIAM POVAH, A. B., 1912; Ph. D., 1916 ( Michigan ) , Assistant Professor of Forest Botany. HIRAM LEROY HENDERSON, B. S., 1915 (Michigan), Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. CARL CHESWELL FORSAITH, A. B., 1913 (Dartmouth); A. M., 1914; Ph. D., 1917 (Harvard), Assistant Professor of Wood Technology. HAROLD CAHILL BELYEA, B. A., 1908; M. A., 1911 (Mount Allison University) ; B. Sc. F., 1911 (University of New Brunswick) ; M. F., 1916 (Yale), Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering. JAMES F. DUBUAR, A. B., 1914; M. S. F., 1915 (Michigan), Assistant Professor of Forestry at the New York State Ranger School. ALLAN F. ARNOLD (Landscape Architecture, Harvard 1904-1908), Assistant Professor of Forest Extension. WILFRED E. SANDERSON, B\ S., 1917 (New York State College of Forestry), Assistant Professor of Forest Extension and Director of Sophomore Summer Camp. ALVIN GOODNOW WHITNEY, A. B., 1907 (Dartmouth), Assistant Research Professor of Forest Zoology. RAYMOND J. HOYLE, B. S., 1907 (New York State College of Forestry), Instructor in Forest Utilization. Faculty ALVIN G. SMITH, B. S., 1915 (New York State College of Forestry), Field Assistant in Forest Investigations ; in charge of Syracuse Forest Experiment Station at Syraucse. GEOEGE R. JOHNSTONE, B. S. (Illinois); M. S. (Chicago), Instructor in Forest Botany. I. LAURANCE LEE, B. S., 1915; M. F., 1919 (Yale), Instructor in Wood Technology. DON M. BENEDICT, B. S., 1917 (Michigan), Assistant in Botany. WILFORD A. DENCE, B. S., 1919 (New York State College of Forestry) Research Assistant in Zoology. RUBY W. HOWE, Secretary to the Dean. WALTER W. CHIPMAN, B. S., 1893; A. M., 1904 (Wabash College), Assistant Treasurer. JOHN W. WEBBER, Bookkeeper. ELEANOR CHURCH, B. L. E., 1916 (Syracuse University), Librarian. EVALINA M. MARTIN, B. L. E., 1920 (Syracuse University), Reference Librarian. INDEX Page FOBEWOED. , 1-2 Chaptee 1: Introduction 3-14 What is Forestry? : 3 The Need of Forestry 4 I. On lands unsuited to agriculture 4 II. Forest crops are indispensable to civilization .....". 4 III. The indirect influences of the forest 5 IV. The value of forests to the individual owner 8 Possibilities of Forestry in New York 10 Original Forests 11 Present Conditions 11 Remedies 13 Chaptee II: The Woodlot 15-22 Importance 15 Woodlot Problems 16 Possibilities 19 Chaptee III: Tending the Woodlot 23-58 General 23 Soil ■. 23 Light 24 Moisture 24 Stocking. . . . 25 Important New York Trees 27 The Softwoods: White pine 27 Red spruce 28 Hemlock 28 Balsam fir 28 White cedar 28 Red cedar 29 The Hardwoods: White oak 29 Red oak 29 Black oak 29 Chestnut 30 Hard maple 30 Red maple 30 Yellow birch 31 Beech 31 Basswood 31 Butternut 32 Rock Elm 32 Hickorv 32 White 'ash 32 [vii] viii Index Chapter III — {Continued) : Tending the Woodlot — ( Continued ) : Pa S e Desirability of Different Species 33 Growth 34 Appearance of Individual Trees 36 Soil Conditions -36 Life History of a Forest 37 Forest Protection 39 Fire 40 Fire Damage > 40 Insects 41 Remedies 43 Sap-sucking Insects 43 Borers ; 43 Fungus Diseases 44 Grazing 46 Wind, Snow and Ice 46 Starting the Woodlot 47 Natural Regeneration 47 Improvement Cuttings 50 Cleanings 51 Thinnings 52 Pruning 55 Reforestation . 55 Aesthetic Considerations 58 Chapter IV: Harvesting the Woodlot 60-74 Reproduction Cuttings 60 Marking the Trees for Removal 63 Sawing to Bill 66 , Grading 66 Stacking and Seasoning 67 Cost of Manufacture 67 Brush Disposal 68 Regeneration. . . 69 Species to be Favored 70 Specific Recommendations 72 Zone B 72 Zone C 73 Zone D ' 73 Chapter V: Marketing Woodlot Products 75-102 Timber Estimating 75 Area 75 Timber Cruising 76 Sample Plot Method . . .' 78 Strip Survey Method 82 Timber Sales 88 Standing Timber 88 Stumpage Prices 91 Contract 92 Selling the Logs 94 Scaling . . , 95 Selling Sawn Lumber 96 Uses of Different Species 97 Index IX Chapter V — {Continued) : Marketing Woodlot 1'roducts — (Continued) : Page Summary 98 Community Marketing 99 1. Selling by paid agent 100 2. Selling through co-operative association 100 3. Selling stumpage to registered operators 101 Chapter VI: Results of Woodlot Management 103-114 Cost of Forestry 103 Aesthetic 103 Commercial 103 Regulation 104 Rotations 106 Financial Rotation 107 Cordwood 107 Pulpwood 107 Railway Ties, Telephone Poles, etc 108 Saw Timber : 108 Shortening the Rotations 109 Forests as Investments 110 Financial Returns 112 Summary 114 Bibliography 117-120 Appendix 121-152 Table 1. Surveyor's Measure (linear) 123 Table 2. Surveyor's Measure (square) 123 Table 3. Useful Equivalents and Converting Factors 123 Table 4. Doyle Log Rule 125 Table 5. Scribner Decimal C Log Rule 126 Table 6. Clark's International Log Rule 127 Table 7. Dimick's Adirondack Standard Log Rule 128 Table 8. Comparison of Log Rules 130 Table 9. Approximate Weight of Various New York Wood- land Products 131 Table 10. Volume Table, White Ash, in board feet 133 Table 11. Volume Table, Aspen, in cubic feet 134 Table 12. Volume Table, Aspen, in cords 134 Table 13. Volume Table, Basswood, in board feet 135 Table 14. Volume Table, Beech, in board feet 135 Table 15. Volume Table, Beech, in railroad ties 136 Table 16. Volume Table, Paper Birch, in cubic feet 136 Table 17. Volume Table, Paper Birch, in board feet 137 Table IS. Volume Table, Yellow Birch, in board feet 137 Table 19. Volume Table, Yellow Birch, in railroad ties. . . . 138 Table 20. Volume Table, Chestnut, in cubic feet 138 Table 21. Volume Table, Chestnut, in board feet 139 Table 22. Volume Table, Hickory, in cubic feet 139 Table 23. Volume Table, Hickory, in board feet 140 Table 24. Volume Table, Sugar Maple, in board feet 140 Table 25. Volume Table, Sugar Maple, in railroad ties.... 141 Table 26. Volume Table, Red, Black and Scarlet Oaks, in board feet 141 Table 27. Volume Table, White and Chestnut Oaks, in board feet 142 x Index Appendix — {Continued) : Page Table 28. Volume Table, Second Growth White Oak, in cubic feet 142 Table 29. Volume Table, Balsam Fir, in cubic feet 143 Table 30. Volume Table, Balsam Fir, in board feet 143 Table 31. Number of Trees per Cord, Balsam Fir 144 Table 32. Volume Table, Hemlock, in board feet 144 Table 33. Volume Table, Hemlock, in cubic feet 145 Table 34. Volume of Hemlock Board in cords per 1000 board feet 146 Table 35. Volume Table, Bed Spruce, in cubic feet 146 Table 36. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in cords 147 Table 37. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in board feet 147 Table 38. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in board feet 148 Table 39. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in standards 148 Table 40. Volume Table, Red Spruce, in standards 149 Table 41. Volume Table, Red Pine, in board feet 149 Table 42. Volume Table, White Pine, in board feet 150 Table 43. Converting Factors for Standing Trees 152 Principal Uses of New York Species 153 Applewood 155 Arborvitae 155 Ash 155 Aspen 156 Balsam fir 156 Basswood 156 Beech 157 Birch 15S Black cherry .' 158 Black walnut 159 Elm 159 Hemlock 160 Hickorv 160 Red oak 160 Sassafras 160 Spruce 161 Sugar maple 161 Sycamore 162 Tamarack 162 Willow . . . .' 163 White oak '..... 163 White pine . ; 163 Yellow poplar 163 Sample Timber Sale Contract 165 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. First growth forest of pine and hemlock. While the forest primeval is unexcelled for beauty, the forest under man- agement produces more timber and larger financial returns .... Frontispiece , Facing page Figure 2. First growth white pine. With the exception of the tulip tree the white pine is the largest tree in the eastern forests. Specimens have been found having a diameter of six feet and a height of 250 feet 28 Figure 3. Sugar bush in spring time. Since colonial times the hard maple or "sugar tree" has yielded large quantities of sugar. The early settlers followed the custom of the Indians in sugaring off the sweet sap 30 Figure 4. Second growth hardwoods forest in the sapling stage. Ordinarily the forester allows the trees to fight their own battles until. they are large enough to pay the cost of removal. In especial cases "cleanings" may be made 38 Figure 5. Abandoned wood road in second growth forest, hud- son highlands. By cleaning out old roads and trails as fire lines, the safety of forest property can be vastly increased. ... 41 Figure 6. A chestnut tree killed by the blight. This fungus disease introduced from China has practically exterminated the chestnut as a forest tree throughout the northeastern United States 45 Figure 7. Mixed hardwood forest immediately after an im- provement cutting. Dead, diseased, and undesirable specimens have been removed. Thus the total growing energy is concen- trated upon a few selected stems 49 Figure 8. Mixed hardwood forest five to six years after an improvement cutting. Eemaining trees have increased their growth in height and in diameter, since plant food, moisture, and sunlight have been made available in larger quantities. Seedling and sprout reproduction has come up beneath their shade 51 Figure 9. Group cutting in mixed forest. A clump of mature decrepit hardwoods has been removed. White pine reproduc- tion will be assured by the presence of seed trees of that species on the margin of the opening 55 Figure 10. Clear cutting in soft maple swamp. Owing to its excellent sprouting capacity, soft maple stands can be clear cut to advantage. A large mean annual growth is thereby secured 62 Figure 11. Portable saw mill. While the average portable mill is not as efficient as a fixed mill with modern band saws, good results can be obtained by careful management 68 [xi] xii Illustrations Facing page Figure 12. Logs piled in eollway ready for mill set up. By cutting, skidding, and hauling logs himself, the landowner can utilize idle time for help and teams, and insure minimum dam- age to young growth in felling 94 Figure 13. Scaling logs cut from a farm woodlot. The prac- tice of measuring or scaling logs can be most easily and accur- ately done as the logs are being skidded into the piles called railways 96 Figure 14. Second growth pine forest. Forests when properly protected against fire constitute investments similar to long term bonds. A planted pine forest will yield approximately 6 per cent per annum with maturity at forty to fifty years. . . . 113 INDEX OF PLATES Page Plate 1. Graphical representation of the growth of the New York State budget appropriations between 1910 and 1920. In 1910 the appropriations amounted to $38,300,000; 1912, $44,800,000; 1914, $53,800,000; 1916, $52,700,000; 1918, $73,300,000; 1919, $78,900,000; 1920, approximately $120,000,000 17 Plate 2. Outline map of the State of New York showing the loca- tion of the principal forest regions 18 Plate 3. Coppice forest under standards, showing where a few healthy trees of seedling origin have been left in the forest to provide some larger-sized logs and continued reproduction by seed 48 Plate 4. Improvement cutting. The removal of the diseased pine, the worthless dogwood, the dead tree in the foreground, the sup- pressed maple, the crooked and suppressed white oak and red oak will not only increase the growing space available but also greatly improve the growing condition of the stand 50 Plate 5. Cleanings. The removal of the four- individuals of unde- sirable species or character will give more room for the growth and development of the other components of the stand, whose desirability is characterized by more rapid growth and a higher technical value of products t . . . . 52 Plate 6. Thinnings. The purpose of a thinning is to seek the best development of the trees designed for the final harvest. The removal of the crooked-boled, large headed beech will give the tulip poplar on one side and the white ash on the other more room and growing space. The removal of the hopelessly sup- pressed hemlock, beech, and maples (in the right center) will divert to the desirable survivors an increase in food material, soil moisture and growing energy 53 Plate 7. Reproduction cutting. Before the cutting, and showing the trees of the less desirable character which are to be removed 61 Plate S. Reproduction cuttings. After the cutting, showing the seed trees left of desirable species and the reproduction increased both in size and amount '. . . 61 Plate 9. Logging lizard. A home-made sledge for skidding logs on the farm woodlot. Its low carriage enables one man to handle heavy logs with ease 64 Plate 10. Log making. Good log making is a requisite of good forest management. Avoidance of crook in cutting up a tree into logs saves a great deal of waste in stacking and sawing. . . 65 Plate II. Showing the method of computing the total area of a piece of woodlot to be estimated 77 Plate 12. Dot and dash system of tallying 82 [ xiii ] xiv Plates Page Plate 13. Sample tally sheet showing the tally, the number and the volume of the trees to be cut and those to be left 83 Plate 14. Sample tally sheet for estimate of large-sized woodlot by strip survey method 85 Plate 15. Details of methods of running strips on ninety-acre woodlot in Plate 11 86 Plate 16. Liberation cutting. The removal of the wide-spread- ing "wolf tree," the eighty-year old chestnut, will liberate the crowded and overtopped thirty-year old pine and greatly im- prove the condition of the forest growth 105 FOREWORD In spite of the books and bulletins which have been written about the farm woodlot, there is no type of forest property which elicits so many questions. Can the woodlot be made to yield a cash revenue ? How and when should it be cut ? How can a small amount of logs or sawn lumber be profitably handled ? These and countless simi- lar questions are being asked the New York State College of Forestry. In 1912 the College commenced taking stock of forest resources, planning to cover all of the State except the twelve Adirondack counties in which the State forests administered by the Conservation Commission are located. This work was continued during the summer seasons of 1913 and 1914. In the latter summer, four of the forty-five counties were covered by four post-graduate students working under the supervision of one of the faculty. Upon this reconnaissance a vast store of information was acquired regarding the condition and need of the woodland, the past and present treatment; the values of standing timber and manufactured products, logging and marketing costs, etc. In short, facts were gathered which would enable the College to answer intelligently and accurately the question, "What can I do to make my woodlot profitable V However, to complete such a survey takes a great deal of time in a state the size of New York ; consequently it seemed better to issue a general bulletin which would cover the main points in woodlot management as a progress report, pending the comple- tion of the statewide forest survey. The College of Forestry as a state-supported institution is endeavoring to render the maximum service to the entire State. By assisting the private owner to grow, cut and market his for- est products with the greatest ease and profit, the College feels it is doing much to solve the land problem in New York. For- estry will prove no panacea for all economic ills, but unless the 12,000,000 acres within the state that are unsuited to agricul- [l] 2 The New York State College of Forestry ture can be made to yield their maximum return, the permanent prosperity of the State is impossible. The real problem of the farm woodlot is not so much that it should and can be made the producer of a valuable and revenue- yielding material, timber, as it is the factor of disposing of this material at a profitable figure to the owner. In short, the prob- lem of woodlot forestry is mainly the problem of marketing its products. And marketing the products of the farm woodlot to advantage is just as important and is confronted with similar difficulties to marketing any of the other products of the farm. Given access to the means and methods of profitable marketing, it will be but a short time before every farmer will make his woodlot contribute to an important part of the revenue of the farm. Fuller utilization of its revenue-producing capabilities will mean an added knowledge of the cultural and silvicultural methods of woods management which we call forestry. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION What is Forestry ? Forestry is the raising of repeated forest crops from non-agricultural soils and the proper utilization of these crops. A lumberman who is clear cutting forest land is ordinarily not concerned with another crop of trees, and hence is not prac- ticing forestry. Neither should a wealthy estate owner who plants up ten fertile acres with pine trees think he is engaged in forestry. Such planting is " arboriculture", and should be considered landscape improvement. The forester, who is first of all an economist, insists that each acre of land should be put to its most profitable and best permanent use ; that trees should be grown only upon land which is too steep or too stony for tillage or too sterile for the production of field crops. Certain exceptions will immediately be thought of, e. g., the catalpa plantations of the Middle Western States, but the main prin- ciple holds true. The development of forestry to include the utilization and marketing of the forest crops is comparatively modern. Agri- culture for a long time concerned itself with crop production alone, but within the past decade it has expanded to include many phases of specialized manufacture and distribution of farm products. At present the formation of cooperative buying and selling associations is considered an important phase of the work of the Federal Department of Agriculture. The same principle holds in forestry. In addition to timber crops the forest may yield other valu- able products with whose management the forester is actively concerned. For instance, in the West, thousands of head of cattle graze upon the national forests, and the United States Forest Service derives nearly half its revenue from grazing fees. In continental forests the propagation and protection of game requires a large measure of the forester's attention, and the returns from shooting privileges constitute a considerable [3] 4 The New York State College of Forestry part of the average forest income. In this country the game question is receiving greater attention by the foresters each year, and the game supply of the future can he assured only by the intelligent cooperation of the men in charge of our forest areas. Thus forestry is concerned with all phases of forest production and distribution, and the field is constantly growing wider. The Need of Forestry The forestry problem in this country and in New York State is essentially one of economics. Land which can produce no other crops at a reasonable profit must be made to yield forest crops, since idle land is a detriment to the State at large as well as to the owner. Forestry is needed in New York for four principal reasons: I. There are large areas unsuited to agriculture which must be kept productive. Of the total land surface of the State (30,000,000 acres) about twelve million acres are unsuited to agriculture under present economic conditions. The forester insists that this land shall not lie idle but yield a revenue to its owner. There are in New York State to-day 4,400,000 acres of unimproved non-agricultural land within the farm fences. These constitute the big woodlot area of the State. The greater bulk of this land, say 4,000,000 acres, is capable of producing 200 board feet per acre per year, or an aggregate for the State of more than one billion board feet. The yearly lumber bill of New York, is around $125,000,000, of which more than $85,000,000 is sent and spent out of the State of New York. This money should be spent within the State for our own grown lumber, paying for our own labor and being deposited in our own savings bank. Forest crops solve this problem. II. The products of the forest are indispensable to our civi- lization. In spite of the increasing use of substitutes, steel, concrete, etc., wood materials possess properties which, for cer- tain purposes, make substitution impossible. Twice as much timber per capita is being used as was consumed thirty years ago. Furniture, flooring, books, newspapers, all depend upon the forest for their supply of raw material, and our transporta- tion systems which distribute coal, provisions, etc., would be Forestry for the Private Oivner 5 absolutely crippled without railway ties ,and telegraph poles. Under circumstances as they exist to-day a shortage in forest products would be felt almost as keenly as a famine in food- stuffs. Fernow* states that 95 per cent of the timber consumed goes into necessities, and that "from the cradle to the coffin" we are surrounded by the products of the forest. Proper care of the forest growth and close utilization of its products are matters of priine importance to each and every citizen of the State of ]Mew York. III. The indirect influences of the forest make them of incal- culable value. For many years the forestry movement in this State received the bulk of its support from a body of men and women who loved the woods and the lakes, who urged the pro- tection of forests and waters because they were beautiful and gave pleasure to countless nature lovers, and because uncon- sciously they felt that these influences were extremely valuable. To-day while affirming that the main arguments in favor of a vigorous forest policy in New York State are based on economic grounds, we also realize that these aesthetic and so-called indi- rect influences have a very high value, some of which may be readily expressed in dollars and cents. Climate Among these influences the importance of forest cover in moderating climatic extremes and in increasing the amount of precipitation are often cited. It is an experience common to anyone who lives in the country that upon a cold winter day it is always warmer within the forest than in the open fields, and during the summer season the forest canopy, by protecting the soil from the direct rays of the sun and keeping the ground shady and moist, keeps the atmosphere within the forest appre- ciably cooler. Thus large bodies of forest undoubtedly assist in rendering the climate more agreeable ; however, the effects of forest cover upon climate are necessarily local. Precipitation Concerning the influence of forests upon precipitation, the evidence is somewhat difficult to secure. Investigations carried Fernow, Economics of Forestry, chap. 2. (J The New York State College of Forestry on by European foresters have proved that large masses of for- est cover located upon mountain tops undoubtedly do increase the amount of snow and rainfall locally. Zon* believes that the amount of precipitation enjoyed by the states lying in the interior of this continent is dependent to a large degree upon the amount of forest cover situated across the track of prevail- ing winds. Run-off Concerning the influence of forest cover upon the run-off of rain and snow, the effect is much more readily demonstrated, since the sponge-like action of the tree canopy, trunks, root sys- tems, and finally the marvelous water-holding capacity of the forest floor is readily understood by the average citizen. From 25 per cent to 50 per cent of the water falling during a summer shower never reaches the ground, since it is intercepted by the leaves and branches and evaporated directly into the air. When an unusually heavy shower falls, or when the snow is melting in the springtime, other parts of the forest come into play. The humus, that organic layer composed of leaves and twigs lying on top of the soil, possesses great water-holding capacity, being able to contain several times its own weight of water. If the rain is sufficiently heavy to soak this layer completely, then the water collects upon the surface of the ground in the hun- dreds of miniature storage basins, surrounded by the buttressed tree trunks. Finally the deeply penetrating roots open channels into the sub-soil, where the water can seep to reappear days afterward, when all flood danger is passed. Briefly expressed, a cutover watershed, especially one from which the humus has been burned either by a slash-fire or by the sun's rays, resembles a tin. roof from which the water runs with great speed into the spout (stream) at the foot of the slope. A watershed well for- ested behaves like a roof covered with a heavy layer of sponges. Only the excess runs off immediately, leaving the balance to gradually drip into the spout (stream) and evaporate slowly into the air. Forests alone will not always control a bad flood situation, but a dense forest cover, together with many small * See Final Report- of the National Waterways Commission, p. 220. Appendix V. Washington, D. C, 1905. Forestry for the Private Owner 7 storage reservoirs along the course of the mountain torrents, have been found by the French foresters most efficacious in reducing the amount of flood damage. In short, it has been proven by the experience of foresters in Europe that the con- servation of water and the conservation of forests go hand in hand. They are interdependent problems. Recreation The recreational value of our national and state forests is one that has been by no means overlooked in the past and should certainly be considered in the future, because anything which benefits the health and strength of the citizens is in itself a tre- mendous asset to the State. In addition, the recreational value of the Adirondacks and Catskills yields very large cash returns to thousands of people in the form of railroad fares, wages to guides, hotel and camp employees, etc. It was estimated by the Conservation Commission, some years ago, that during an aver- age year, the sums expended in the Adirondacks by summer tourists, fishermen and hunters are upwards of $18,000,000. This is a large return, but by far the largest return is found in the increased vigor and courage which these citizens take back after their days or weeks of playtime spent in the life- giving Xorth Woods. However, some ardent advocates, of forest protection refuse 1o admit that the same piece of ground can conserve the run-off of life-giving water, can serve as a hunting and fishing ground for the tired desk or shop worker, a breeding place and haven for fish and game, and at the same time can yield a revenue in the form of timber crops. Plenty of evidence to prove that forest land need not be left in virgin condition to please the hunter and tourist is available both at home and abroad. The noted resorts of the German Black Forest are for the most part located in regions yielding handsome revenues from the sale of matured timber without in any way destroying the beauty of the mountain slopes nor the breeding haunts of the game. The national- forests in the same way serve the public as recreation grounds without being locked up' against proper cuttings. Viewed from all sides the forest areas are a priceless resource, and the state which does 8 The Neiv York State College of Forestry not adopt a far-sighted and liberal policy in the management of its non-agricultural lands falls far short of its full duty to the future citizens. IV. Forests are valuable to the individual owner and espe- cially to the owner of small wooded areas or woodlots. 1. As a means of utilizing non-agricultural land True farming land is that which can be made to produce profitable food crops. There is on every farm in New York State, more or less land which will produce no other crop but timber, because it is rough, steep, stony, worn out, poorly drained, or too far back on the rear of the farm to be managed successfully. There is practically no land in the State which will not produce profitable and successful timber crops. 2. To meet the actual needs of the farm for wood material There is always a certain amount of repair work or construc- tion to do about any farm, fences to build, posts to set, fruit trees to be braced, out buildings and barns to be re-silled or re-floored. There are 167,000 farms in New York State each of which uses, on the average, the equivalent of 5,000 board feet of lumber per year for general repair and construction. This amounts to more than 800,000,000 board feet each year. All of this timber should be grown on the farm for home consumption, and in addition to the cash expenses saved thereby, there would also be saved to the agricultural population of New York State freight charges totaling up to enormous sums. In short, the natural source of all wood material used on the farm should be the farm woodlot. 3. To meet the demands of the farm and local fuel situation Between 1910 and 1915, due to the great improvement in state road construction and the increased efficiency of motor transportation, except in the more remote rural communities, coal, to a great extent, supplanted wood as a fuel in farm homes. The experience of county fuel administrators during the coal shortage of the war period, and the increasing cost of coal itself to the consumer, seems to indicate that in the future, its use as Forestry for the Private Owner 9 a fuel for homes in the rural communities will decrease con- siderably and that the use of wood fuel will come back. The natural source of wood fuel on the farm is of course the farm woodlot. 4. As a means of protection and regulation of the farm water supply A forest growth at and above the "spring under the hill," which supplies the farm with its drinking water, protects against its drying up, by the water storage powers of its forest floor in seasons of drought, and against its silting up and filling in, in times of heavy rains and floods. Thus an ever-abundant supply of water is conserved and its purity for use assured. 5. As a profitable means of utilizing labor during the winter months This is especially a consideration where the problem of keep- ing and utilizing good labor and help is important. The proper development of the farm woodlot offers the most satisfactory solution of this problem. 6. As a protection against winds The location of the farm woodlot can bear a very definite relation to and exercise a very beneficial influence over the personnel and activities of the farm and farm management. a. As a protection to buildings A narrow belt of woods properly located in between the farm buildings and the prevailing winds, will break the force of the wind, and to a great extent moderate their severity and tem- perature and add greatly to the comfort of the home and of the stock in the barns. Even in winter, when the hardwood trees are stripped of their leaves, such effect is very considerable. It is even greater in summer. b. As a protection to growing field crops While along the south and west sides of cultivated fields, the effect of neighboring forest growth, to a certain extent, is to shade out and retard the growth of planted crops, nevertheless 10 The New York State College of Forestry the beneficial effects of neighboring woodland growth quite over- balance this. The force of heavy, hot, drying winds is broken, and the soil of the cultivated field is protected from rapid drying out of the surface layers. The delicate plants of early truck crops can be protected against the blighting effect of cold north winds. Orchards, especially when heavily branched and heavily laden with a rapidly ripening crop, are protected against breakage and loss. c. As a protection to pastured stock Dairy herds, or fattening and young cattle, are kept in better condition, look better, and yield better returns, if they can have the advantage of tree shade in fly season, or in the heat of summer. It is not advisable to turn over the whole of the wood- lot for the pasturage of cattle. Such practice is very harmful to the best condition of the woodlot. Narrow fringes of a woods or tree growth along stream borders, ridges or pasture fences are more desirable and fully as efficacious. 7. As a means of increasing the attractiveness and value of the farm. Woodlands make the farm more attractive, more homelike and more desirable for purchase. The existence of a thrifty piece of woodland may add from one to three thousand dollars to the value of a farm for sale. Possibilities of Fokestky in ^Xew York Xew York is naturally a great forest-producing state, and its potential forest wealth is second only to its agricultural rich- ness. It is endowed with all natural factors which permit trees to germinate and grow successfully; soil, rainfall, climatic extremes and length of growing season are all favorable, and it is not surprising that in many parts of the kState when fires are prevented, the forest reclaims open fields and abandoned pastures with amazing speed. It is the artificial conditions arising from our rapidly growing civilization which have made such tremendous inroads upon the original. Forestry for the Private Owner 11 Original Forests Prior to the coming of the white man, the area which now constitutes Xew York was practically an unbroken wilderness, the only clearings being those occasionally found along the shores of the lakes or at strategic points, like the junction of streams, where Indian villages were located. The rest was a vast primeval forest."" From the remains of old stands of first growth timber, it is occasionally found possible to reconstruct a fairly accurate pic- ture of the forest which then covered the ground. Then, as to-day, the North Woods were covered with a mixture of ever- greens (spruce, balsam or hemlock) and hardwoods; the latter being largely beech, birch and maple. On Long Island, extend- ing up the Hudson and Mohawk Valleys and fringing the larger lakes, were stands composed of huge oaks and chestnuts, mixed with basswood, ash and tulip poplar, and liberally sprinkled with hemlock and pine. The two latter species, being unable to sprout from the stump, have practically succumbed to the century-long struggle against axe and fire, and as a consequence have largely disappeared from the mixture. Only the best sprouters have survived, while the more desirable species, in many places, have been completely exterminated. Upon the hilly lands in what now comprises the southern tier of counties was found the superb forest reaching up from Pennsylvania, in which hundreds of white pine were of leading importance. The softwoods, or evergreens, on account of the lightness and ease of working, were heavily cut. As a result we have the usual consequence of reckless forest management pursued over a long period, "the survival of tlie unfittest" (for use). Present Conditions It has been said of Xew England that had not trees been endowed bv Providence with a marvellous faculty of holding * Bertram, in his "Observations" (1750) concerning the forests of south- ern and central New York, says : "We observed the tops of the trees to be so close to one another for many miles together that- there is no seeing which way the clouds drive, nor which way the wind sets; and it seems almost as if the sun had never shone on the ground since the creation." 12 The New York State College of Forestry fast to territory in the face of the most terrific onslaughts, the country would be as hare as the plains. The same statement might be made of jSTew York with equal truth. Viewed as a menace by the early settlers, the splendid forests were attacked with fire and axe until the land needed for tillage was cleared. The practice of cutting and burning trees to clear the land persisted long after the need for such wholesale clear- ances had passed, and as a consequence local stringencies in forest products were early felt by the colonists. At present the forest land in New York is suffering from the wrong point of view. With the wealth of timber resources with which this country was originally endowed, it is not strange that the idea that our forests could not be exhausted became wide- spread. As a consequence, forest land was treated as a mineral lode, a resource to be stripped and then thrown aside instead of being handled as an area capable of yielding repeated crops. In fact, with forests as with agricultural land, minerals, animal life, etc., the very richness of this continent in all natural resources has been responsible for the spirit of lavish prodigality which marks their management. In the case of precious metals, coal, oil and gas, when the supply is gone, the tale is told, but with forests timely measures will secure a return of this resource. On account of the slowness of tree growth, these meas- ures should be begun long before the day of actual need. The forests of New York have suffered because it has been deemed unprofitable to manage them conservatively; because it was believed impossible to secure an annual or periodic revenue over a long period of years. In the early part of the past century, the small, privately owned timber lot supplied the needs of the owner and small local demands. With the building up of the vast railway systems and the development of superior merchandizing methods by the larger lumber corporations, it has been far easier for the small woodlot owner to buy the few thousand feet of Western or Southern lumber from a local dealer than cut, skid and saw the logs himself. When the timber upon the lot was mature, the stump age was generally sold for a song to a portable mill operator who skinned it regardless of its future conditions. Thus, the average farm woodlot in New York has been cut and recut; it has been burned and Forestry for the Private Owner 13 burned again; it has been grazed repeatedly till the diseased and undesirable specimens left standing could draw but little sustenance from the compacted and exhausted soil. After being used as the catch-all of the entire farm, it has been abused because it is not continuously productive nor financially profitable. This condition has its serious aspect, not only from the stand- point of unsound national and state economics, but because the timber supply of the future is in private hands. In the United States, three-fourths of the standing timber is privately owned (ten per cent being held in farm woodlots), while in New York State, two-thirds of the timber is in private hands. Since we are cutting timber three times as fast as it is growing, it is high time that steps were being taken to utilize the privately owned forest land, especially that portion owned in connection as farm woodlots or larger tracts owned by the farmers of the State and and nation. The successful practice of forestry by the small landowner must be assured if our children's children will have a good supply of wood obtainable at a reasonable price. Remedies How can the small landowner be induced to practice forestry to protect his woodlot; to cut his timber himself, or if sold, to have it cut according to silvicultural methods and not as the owner's grandfather cut ? The answer is, by making forests profitable. The average owner will not trouble himself about property that yields little or no income. Show him profit and suggest the right management and the progressive owner will soon fall in line. The owner of large areas of woodlot, which may have been previously producing no financial returns, will find little difficulty in marketing his forest crop, either as stump- age or manufacturing products, at a reasonable price. The owner of a few acres of woodland is not so fortunately situated. The amount of timber to be felled and sawed may not be large enough to furnish a mill set up, or if so, he may not have suffi- cient stumpage to saw car-lots of his best species. The usual result is that such stumpage and such small parcels of lumber are sold for a song. 14 The Neiv York State College of Forestry How can this situation lie remedied? By educating the pri- vate owner of timber lands in New York concerning the present and future value of his holdings, and by direct assistance in marketing his forest crops. Since its establishment, the College has endeavored through grange and club lectures, bulletins and circulars to reach the public and inform them concerning the value and possibilities of their forest property. In addition, upon the four Experiment Stations being oper- ated by the College in different parts of the State, problems common to each particular region are being worked out so that specific replies may be given to questions which may be asked. Finaliy it is the aim of the College, through its Extension and Utilization Services, to assist the small owner and manufacturer of forest products in marketing his wares with the greatest amount of profit. If profit can be assured, probably little fur- ther inducement will be necessary. It is the aim of the College to make every acre of non-agricultural land within the State yield a good return to its owner, and to render its return to the State by supplying opportunities for labor to citizens of the future, and, at the same time, supply repeated crops of timber, material absolutely indispensable to our civilization. With practically one-tenth the total population of the nation situated within the boundaries of New York, with a perfect net work of steam and electric lines, with the canal system pro- viding splendid facilities for the transportation of heavy freights, the problem of economically marketing and distribut- ing the products of the woodlot should not be difficult. How- ever, custom and lack of knowledge must be overcome. The farmers and small owners must be made to realize that woodlot activities will solve the labor problem during the winter months, and in addition, will supply farm timbers, sills, fence posts; that the farm w T oodlot will yield a handsome return upon the capital value it represents. Then, and not until then, will the private owner be actually interested in the practice of forestry. CHAPTER II THE WOODLOT Importance. The forest products obtained from the farm woodlot and small timber lots owned by members of the rural population are vastly more important than is generally believed. Moreover, with the steady decrease in the forest area and amount of standing timber throughout the State, their relative size and importance is rapidly increasing. In the United States, as a whole, it is estimated that nearly 200,000,000 acres, out of the 54:5,000,000 acres of forest land (containing 10 per cent of the national timber supply) are contained within the farm woodlots. According to the census of 1900, $109,000,000, and in 1910, $195,000,000 was received from the sale of woodlot products. In 1910, in eight out of twenty of the eastern states, woodlot products were con- sidered as one of the three leading crops and sources of revenue of the farms. The increase in values between 1900 and 1910 may not indicate enlarged interest or greater exploitation of the woodland owned in connection with farm property, since a part of this difference was doubtless due to cuttings for the purpose of clearing lands for agriculture. It is nevertheless true that the value of woodlots and their products will show a decided relative increase during the next generation owing to the rapid decrease of the national timber supply. In Xew York it is estimated by the Conservation Commis- sion* that out of the approximately thirty million acres of land area, 4,400,000 acres are held as woodlots. No figures regard- ing the income now being derived from this area are available, but judging from results obtained in certain parts of New Eng- land, were economic forestry practiced upon this portion of the farm holdings, and in addition were the seven millions of acres of land fenced, but unimproved and idle,f put under forest "Bulletin 9 — Woodlot Forestry — published by N. Y. Conservation Commission, 1913. f Abstract U. S. Census 1910. p. 307. [15] lt> The New York State College of Forestry management, the income of the farmers and small landowners of New York would be increased by several million dollars each year. Areas in Germany, France and Switzerland, similar in character and supporting tree growth of the same genera, but different species, pines, spruces, fir, etc., are yielding from two dollars to four dollars per acre per year net revenue. A tithe of this income would make a large difference to the income of the State especially when it is realized that the State is sending outside its boundaries each year for wood products, the sum of $85,000,000, and when it is appreciated that for each dollar that is paid for stumpage, approximately four dollars is paid in wages to convert the raw material, the tree and the log, into the finished product. Whenever such facts as the above are cited, objections like, "Oh, yes! but it takes forty-five to fifty years to grow a tree," or, "The income from forest land never will amount to much," etc., etc., are heard. In view of the fact that the sum of all city, county and state indebtedness amounts to approximately $47.50 per acre, that the cost of running the State Government has increased from $42,000,000 in 1909 to $120,000,000 for 1920 during the past nine years, that a direct tax to supplement the insufficient revenue of the State is necessary, the State of New York and its citizens can by no means afford to overlook any source of steady revenue however small, especially when this possible revenue means more income to the property owners, more wages to labor, larger receipts to transportation companies — in short, statewide prosperity. The permanent prosperity of New York State is absolutely dependent upon the proper use of its land, both tillable and non-agricultural, and realizing that such development takes time, a proper land policy begun now is positively necessary. Such a policy, however, can only be inaugurated after the completion of a state-wide survey and land classification so that the possibilities, whether agricultural or forest, of each acre within the State may be definitely recorded. Woodlot Problems. On account of the range of climatic conditions and the forest types resulting therefrom found within New York State, the forest problems are many and varied. 2 <=> ■- 1 o a © oS O 7-, «©• £ to* £ l-l .2 °" EL W5 d el CO -* se- © &H £ CD05 • • in .[_... t- eOC5 o4 CDIO C5CO CM'* ©G0rHO5r-f"tf.q5DOOT-j ■^'^OSC^cNCOOJ^OrHt^cdodcdi-^T-i I I I I II I ■tfioio©oooo5cq^cocorH©5©co CN © •*" r-i rH r-i ■*' CO 6 CO r-i •*' CO S- © *IS« SI 13 a (>j (U "5 te - ^ „r£ £ p 4> k^iboi £3 Cd°o) ■■h ni 1— 1 co fi o d ci .£3 © rt ° 43 Ma a eS eS *h _ GO O ^ s -s fcn T3 3 *> s a ^ o m 5 a> o be a, ■S3 pis A o.fc! E- 3 2 w g j 0.5 54 The New York State College of Forestry In a sprout hardwood forest, if an early cleaning which would cut out all but three to five of the best sprouts per clump were out of the question, it would be possible to let the dozen or more sprouts per stump grow untouched until the smaller were large enough to make fence posts or small cord- wood. Then a thinning could be made in which all but two or three of the tallest and straightest stems growing from a single stump were cut away allowing them to utilize all the growing energy of the wide-spreading root system. This process could be repeated every five to eight years, and it is claimed that instead of taking forty-five to fifty-five years to grow chestnut railroad ties, such thinnings, by reducing competition and forc- ing growth into a fewer number of selected stems, has produced the same size material in ten years less time. The same idea, with approximately the same result, can be carried out in any sprout forest. In a pine or spruce stand, thinnings are frequently needed, as nature often sows the seed much too thickly for rapid growth. While it is true that splendid knot-free timber is produced as a result of close sowing or planting (natural pruning being started at an early age owing to the speed with which the lower branches interlace) too close planting is' a drawback. In dense pine or spruce thickets, a cleaning would be very advantageous in shortening the struggle for existence. If neither time nor money is available, the forest may be left until bucket stock or pulpwood size is attained, and then a thinning can be made. With these two species, a cutting called the "French Method" can be used. This consists in going over the forest at say from twenty-five to thirty-five years and selecting from the 600 to 800 stems which are found upon an acre, 250 or 300 specimens which are the tallest and straightest and making the best growth. These 250 are picked to form the final crop. All trees interfer- ing with these selected specimens are cut away to hasten their growth, but the trees which are not competing or hindering them are allowed to remain as it is never wise to open too large holes in the canopy nor to expose too much of the forest floor at one time, as growth will he severely checked. Not more than 20 to 25 per cent of the trees should be removed at any one time. In order to keep the forest producing timber at its maximum Figube 9. Geottp Cutting in Mixed Forest. A clump of mature decrepit hardwoods has been removed. White pine reproduction will be assured by the presence of seed trees of that species on the margin of the opening. Forestry for the Private Owner 55, capacity, the forest floor should be kept "dark," i. e., a minimum of light should be permitted to reach the soil beneath the trees, since light brings weeds and grass, which tend to rob the trees of plant food and moisture. A similar operation may be performed every five to ten years until the final harvest. The material removed at the first thin- ning may just pay for the cost of removal, but each succeeding thinning should show an increased return, while the financial gain in shortening the rotation, in growing barn boards or first grade saw timber in fifty-five years, instead of seventy, will abundantly repay the cost. Pruning Whether or not it is desirable or profitable to remove green branches to make clear lumber is a mooted question. In certain parts of Massachusetts, mill owners cutting in second-growth pine affirm that artificial pruning undoubtedly produces loose knots in the lumber sawed from such trees, owing to the rapid drying out of the knot inside the tree. The Forester at Baltimore attempted to obviate this draw- back by cutting off with an axe the lower limbs of his young pines, leaving a stub six to eight inches long. Four or five years later, men were sent through this area again cracking off these stubs, now dead and dry, with the poll of the axe. The annual rings laid on thereafter were free from knots, and the more gradual drying out of the knot, as well as the speed and economy with which this form of pruning could be accomplished, makes it sound feasible and possibly profitable. Reforestation* While the artificial starting of forests has been quite popular in New York with a certain type of land owners, farm owners, as a rule, do not plant up large areas with seedlings or trans- plants. Most of them already own more or less woodland, and quicker returns may be obtained by improving the mature wood- lot, which has already a certain amount of forest capital standing upon it, rather than by starting a new forest which * Stephen, John W., Making Best Use of Idle Lands in New York. Cir- cular 19, New York State College of Forestry. 56 The New York State College of Forestry will not yield cash returns for some years. However, in com- mon with other permanent land owners, reforestation offers to the farmer an admirable solution for the problem of idle land. The points in favor of reforestation are as follows: 1. It puts the idle land to work. The census of 1910 proved that there were 7,000,000 acres within ISTew York State inclosed within fences which the owners themselves declared to be idle. Assessing such land at $5.00 per acre, the total capital of the New York farmer invested in idle land amounts to $35,000,000, which, at 4 per cent, is capa- ble of earning $1,400,000 per year. The permanent pros- perity of any state or nation can only be secured by the full and proper utilization of all resources, and the planting of lands now unproductive would in a comparatively short time change them from liabilities to assets. 2. The appearance of the property is greatly improved, thereby adding to its market value in case of sale. Any one experienced in real estate realizes that an attractive woodlot or young plantation is infinitely preferable both in appearance and cash value to a rocky slope or a creek bottom subject to overflow. Appearance as well as real estate value and future cash value are all improved by planting up such sites. 3. Plantations will at the end of the rotation show a profit in excess of 5 per cent compound interest, even based on present timber prices. Forestry is essentially economic and the financial results of planting non-agricultural land in older countries compare quite favorably with other long term investments. In fact every per- manent owner of land will find the appearance, the present and future sale value of his property increased by planting forest seedlings.* * Land should be cheap and the planting costs should be kept moderate from $7 to $10 per acre if the above return is to be obtained. For further information regarding planting, see Circular 19, New York State College of Forestry. Forestry for the Private Owner 57 Another phase of forest planting that could well be adopted by the woodlot owner is underplanting. It has already been shown that where natural regeneration is incomplete, following the cutting out of a woodlot, desirable species may be introduced by planting young seedlings or transplants in groups in order that the proper mixture be obtained. The same idea can be carried out in youiiger stands, especially those of sprout origin. In this way new blood in the form of coniferous stock may be introduced in run down woodlots. While two-year-old seedlings will serve in an open field having sod of only moderate thickness, three- to four-year- old transplants are required where the sod is thick or the trees overhead may suppress the planted material. In addition the old trees on an area to be underplanted are likely to absorb a great deal of moisture through their wide spreading root systems. Thus for several reasons the hardier, stockier transplant is more desirable. As a rule it is hardly safe to attempt underplanting if more than 0.6 of the surface is already covered by trees. Pine transplants may be used in the larger openings while spruce, Norway or native red spruce can stand more shade. The former species require less moisture than the latter. This phase of underplanting would consist of planting 300 to 500 evergreen transplants (depending upon the ground cover and amount of shade) in among the hardwoods, placing the plants in groups five to six feet apart each way, or five to six feet from the nearest sprout.* Thus a complete stand could be secured at a minimum cost, for the young hardwood sprouts will furnish sufficient side shade to stimulate height growth, and could be removed with a brush hook when they threaten to choke out the conifers. Experiments have been made with this type of underplanting, and it has been found that each plant costs about three-quarters of a cent in the ground. Six hundred per acre would cost $4.50, and the subsequent cost of labor, brushing out around the ever- * The farmer possessing the land, the time, the equipment, etc., should handle his woodland so as to make it yield. He is in an unusually good situation to grow desirable timber crops at a minimum of expense. 58 The New York State College of Forestry greens would still bring the cost considerably below that of a pure plantation, and a mixed forest of highly desirable species would be the result. In this, as in all other operations con- nected with getting a forest started and bringing it to maturity, if the crop idea is kept in mind, there should be no difficulty in understanding and carrying out the necessary steps. Aesthetic Considerations The foregoing recommendations of the trees to be favored when cuttings are made were based upon economic considera- tions—that forests are owned and managed primarily for reve- nue. Frequently, however, forest owners are found who own their woodland primarily for beauty, and to such, the above recommendations might not directly appeal — though all well- kept mature forests are beautiful. Estate owners often select trees for their form, for their foliage, flowers, etc., and to such, the classification of dogwood as a weed-tree would seem prepos- terous. Between these two extremes there is a mean which owners may strike by handling certain portions of their estate as a producing forest, while the parts along the drives and walks, or those visible from the house, can be kept in their natural state. For adding to the appearance in winter, evergreen trees should be favored. Pines and spruces have already been recom- mended for their technical value and rapid growth, but as an ornamental tree, hemlock is probably superior to the other two conifers, on account of its graceful foliage. Economically, it is not strongly recommended on account of its slow growth, yet in proper locations, its presence in the mixed forest is to be desired. In spring, no tree can surpass the dogwood in beauty, and in prominent situations its presence and reproduction may well be encouraged. In the fall, a variety of trees appear to their best advantage from an aesthetic viewpoint. Scarlet oak, red maple, pepperidge (Nyssa sylvatica) and beech all add to the color of the woods. Other species with graceful form like the elm can be encouraged for year-round charm, especially along roadways or to frame an attractive view. Such trees as the above may be spared and encouraged with but little financial loss in many cases, but in each instance there should be a clear differentiation Forestry for the Private Owner 59 in the mind of the owner, which items of expense should be charged to economic forestry and which to landscape improve- ment. Under ordinary circumstances, however, pruning is an inten- sive operation quite beyond the reach of the average woodlot owner. If pruning a nearby piece of woodland will add to its attractiveness, it may well be pruned. As a general proposition, it is better to charge the cost of such an operation against "landscape improvement" rather than against "forestry." CHAPTER IV HARVESTING THE WOODLOT While it has been said that no tree ever dies a natural death, nevertheless there comes a time in the life of every piece of woodland when it should be harvested to avoid loss. Its height growth may have ceased, its volume growth may have greatly diminished, there may be an unsually large number of dying trees ; or an unusual demand for lumber may make it desirable to reap the mature trees while the prices are high (since the forest crop, being imperishable, may be held back until the market conditions are right). In deciding to reap the forest crop, two points should be kept in mind: 1. Unless of pronounced agricultural value, the woodlot should be cut in such a manner as to keep it producing forest materials of the best kind. If the land is compara- tively level and fertile, it may be cleared and planted to field crops as needed because sound economics demand that. If sufficient tillable land is already owned, it may be allowed to remain as a woodlot. 2. The amount and approximate value of the woodlot products should be known before the cutting is started. Reproduction Cuttings While foresters group cuttings made for the purpose of start- ing new growth under several heads, for the sake of simplicity, they will all be treated as belonging to one of two classes : 1. Clear cuttings, followed either by natural or arti- ficial reproduction. 2. Harvest by repeated cuttings. 1. In the case of clear cuttings under intensive management, large areas are often cut clear with the exception of from five Note. — Concerning the methods of estimating the amount and value of forest products, see Chapter V. [60] Forestry for the Private Owner 61 Plate 7. Reproduction Cutting. Before the cutting, and showing the trees of the less desirable character which are to be removed. Plate 8. Reproduction Cuttings. After the cutting, showing the seed trees left of desirable species and the reproduction increased both in size and amount. 62 The New York State College of Forestry to twenty seed trees per acre which are allowed to remain in order to seed up the cut-over areas. Or, alternate strips may be cut clean, the uncut strips supplying the desired seed trees. In woodlot management, however, clear cutting on a large scale is hardly desirable, except in the case of maple swamps being handled for cordwood or vigorous young sprout hardwoods which can also regenerate from the stumps. The plan of remov- ing the final crop during several winters by successively thin- ning the stand is much more beneficial as far as the soil is concerned, and fills in better with the regular farm work. How- ever, in the case of an old, badly mutilated woodlot where all but a few score trees per acre have been cut, where seed produc- tion is slight, and the soil is too compact for easy regeneration, clear cutting followed by planting with the desired species is the best solution. 2. The method of "repeated cuttings" is the best method of harvesting the woodlot when all the needs of the average owner are considered, for: It permits the woodlot work to be distributed over a number of seasons, rather than rushing it in one season. It allows the sale of limited quantities of timber to the local market. It supplies a sustained income. It gives work to horses and men during the winter season when other farm work is slack. Thus while silviculturally other methods of reproducing the forest crop might be more desirable, the plan of harvesting the largest trees or mature groups of trees (these groups will have to be made quite large in the case of light-demanding species) will prove the most practicable from an economic standpoint. It is true in forestry as in agriculture,, only those methods should be recommended which are practical and financially sound. Consider then the problem of starting with a mature woodlot of average condition (for cuttings in immature stands, see Chapter III), and it should be realized that much more can be done with a mature woodlot even though somewhat run down than is often appreciated. Figure 10. Clear Cutting in Soft Maple Swamp. Owing to its excellent sprouting capacity, soft maple stands can clear cut to advantage. A large mean annual growth is thereby secured. Forestry for the Private Owner 63 Marking the Trees for Removal Having decided upon logging the woodlot during a given winter, the land should be looked over during the fall before the snow has fallen, and the points of attack selected. It may be necessary to start the cuttings at several points which in the course of a few seasons will merge. The ripe timber which is no longer increasing rapidly in volume, or may even be deteriorating in quality, should be marked for removal. It is quite common to blaze these trees with a marking axe, and to be on the safe side, a stencilled marking hatchet may be used. If the trees are blazed twice, once about four feet from the ground and again six inches above the ground, it is easy to detect the removal of unmarked trees. As previously stated, much of the neglect and present small value placed upon the woodlot results from the poor financial yield obtained from the sale of its products. This is almost entirely due to the inefficient methods of marketing adopted in disposing of them. Woodlot owners, and even experienced por- table mill operators, often commence cutting without any idea of whether the market is glutted or empty ; whether hemlock or oak is in greatest demand; whether inch stuff or dimension material is needed. In most cases, the lumber is sawed in the dimensions which are easiest for the sawyer, and as a conse- quence, there is often a large pile of material left on hand at the end of the season which could have been readily sold had it been sawed in some other size. In forestry, as in agriculture, the difference between profit and loss often lies in the way the products of the soil are marketed. Study the market before marking the trees. Many small forest owners, ignorant of lumber markets and prices, will claim that such a marketing problem is beyond them. However, it will take only a little time and a few letters, and the difference in cash returns will repay the effort many times over.* * The Utilization Service of The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse maintains a selling list by which it endeavors to bring together the producer and consumer of forest products. If this is not sufficient assistance, the College of Forestry stands ready to send out trained for- esters to inspect woodlots within the State and to make recommendations concerning their management and marketing. 64 The New York State College of Forestry In some cases, undoubtedly the shortage in labor, teams, equipment, etc., may make it impossible for an owner to do his felling, skidding, etc., himself. It may be necessary for him to let out all or part of these operations. In such cases, there should be a written agreement concerning the methods to be used by the contracting party, rate per thousand board feet for piling, skidding, hauling, sawing, etc. ; even then it is valuable for the owner to know the value of the final product, the cost of each operation and the margin of profit upon each step. In an ideal case, the steps from the stump to the mill at least would be carried on by the owner or his employees, and thus a satisfactory check could be kept upon the work. Low stumps could be cut, as the woodsmen's saying, "One foot in the butt is worth four in the top," holds approximately true. The crowns above the portion of the trunk suitable for saw-logs should be utilized as far as possible. Posts, props, cord wood, etc., should be cut from the tops not only for the greater revenue that will be derived but also because closer utilization of the top wood means the removal of a large part of the inflammable material, rendering fires less likely, and far less severe if they do occur, and also will make natural regeneration more certain. In felling the trees, care should be taken that the stump is low (not higher above the ground than a distance equal to the Plate 9. Logging Lizard. A home-made sledge for skidding logs on the farm woodlot. Its low carriage enables one man to handle heavy logs with ease. Forestry for the Private Owner 65 diameter of the tree is a very good rule to follow) ; that the undercut is sufficiently deep to avoid a bad splintering of the butt log; and that the trees are dropped so as to cause a mini- mum of damage to the young growth. Carelessness in "bucking up" the tree into log lengths often causes considerable loss, and the felling crew should be watched to be sure that the trunk is cut into proper log lengths which will yield a maximum of timber. It is customary to allow two to four inches extra in log lengths to provide for checking on the ends of lumber, but to cut from seven to nine inches over the proper length means unnecessary waste. In addition, the log lengths should be measured off with regard to crooks in the trunks, as often much waste in slabbing is caused by a crook in the middle of a log. With proper super- vision all these can be secured, and in case any of the cutting and skidding are done by contract, penalties for gross careless- ness should be provided. Plate 10. Log Making. Good log making is a requisite of good forest management. Avoidance of crook in cutting up a tree into logs saves a great deal of waste in slabs and sawing. The sawing may be arranged for, either at a nearby stationary mill, or, if the season's cut is sufficiently large, a portable mill may be brought to the woodlot. Ordinarily a job of from 50,000 to 75,000 feet will warrant bringing in a mill. If a single woodlot will not supply this amount, several adjoining owners may arrange to cut their timber at the same time, and this will make it worth while for the mill owner to. "set up." 3 6Q The Neiv York State College of Forestry Unless the stumpage owner has had unusual experience, it is better for him to hire an experienced sawyer, since sawing by an inexperienced man is a slow operation and results in reduc- ing the grade of much good lumber. If the owner desires to provide winter work for his teams and employees, he can agree to fell, buck, skid and haul logs to the sawmill at a fixed price per thousand board feet. This will insure careful felling and avoid injuring young trees, since the "brush" and saplings of to-day are the timber trees of to-morrow. It is not only necessary to manufacture lumber with care, to see that the machinery is properly adjusted, that no "thick and thin boards" are sawed, etc., but the treatment after sawing is equally important if the full profit is to be derived from the woodlot products. Sawing to Bill In the first place, it is imperative to know just what amount of lumber to saw of each dimension. Some portable mill own- ers, as soon as they have estimated the contents of a piece of woodland, will attempt to sell the timber before they have even purchased it, and the most successful operators always dispose of the majority of their stumpage before they start to saw. This permits them to make out a list or bill of the amount of timber of each size and species for the guidance of the sawyer. Such foresight insures the sale of all the timber at a good price, since just the sizes in demand will be turned out. A livays saw to bill. Grading Another point frequently overlooked by the average owner is the matter of grading. In addition to poor sawing, lumber manufactured at a small mill usually brings a lower price than the same material sawed at a large mill, because it is not graded. All sorts, conditions and sizes are usually lumped together, with the result that the price usually offered for ungraded mill run is just about what the poorest in the pile is worth. In one case, where lumber of a species commanded $24 per thousand board feet, mill run, the operator received as high as $40 per thousand for his better grades and raised the average price per thousand for that species over $30. Grading pays. Figure 11. Portable Saw Mill. While the average portable mill is not as efficient as a fixed mill with modern band saws, good results can be obtained by careful management. Forestry for the Private Owner 67 Stacking and Seasoning By the inexperienced, piling and seasoning are regarded as unimportant parts of the process of lumbering, yet as much money may be lost by careless piling as in any other part of the business, since poor piling means the reduction in strength and quality, and in some cases where rot sets in, there may be total loss. Free circulation of air is necessary for proper seasoning, so the piles must be placed upon a site having good air drainage, and each board in the pile should be slightly separated from its neighbor to permit the gradual evaporation of water. Ordinar- ily, about one-half the weight of wood is water, and full season- ing reduces the shipping weight as well as adding to the strength and freedom from warping. Cheap piling is poor economy. Cost of Manufacture Manufacturing costs of the various steps in lumbering a woodlot in different parts of New York will, under normal labor conditions, average as follows (depending on local conditions*) : Per M. bd. ft. Felling and sawing into log length $1 25 — $1 75 Skidding ( hauling to mill ) „ 1 50 2 50 Sawing 5 0— 6 00 Piling 75— 1 00 Hauling (depending on distance) 4 00 — 6 00 Total $12 50— $17 25 After the saw timber has been skidded, the top wood should be worked over. In some parts of the State, the tops and stand- ing cull timber may be sold at a given price per acre to the owner of a small gasoline "buzz" mill. In such cases, the price is fixed, depending on the amount and quality of material left and upon the local demand for cordwoocl. In most cases, however, the owner will either have the work done by day labor or pay a given price per piece for the manu- * On account of unusual labor conditions it is difficult to obtain figures for the various steps in manufacture which will hold true for any length of time. The above costs were gathered in March, 1920. 68 The New York State College of Forestry facture of the various products. These prices will range as follows : Ties: Hewing— Firsts $0 35— $0 55 Seconds 25— 30 Hauling 15 Switch ties: Hewing 1% cents per. running foot Cordwood: Cutting and stacking $2 to $3 per four-foot cord Pulpwood In regions where pulp mills are located, such species as poplar, spruce, balsam and hemlock can be most profitably mar- keted as pulp bolts. The cost of production in these regions range as follows: Poplar : Cutting $1 25— $2 25 per cord Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 00 per cord Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord Spruce and balsam: Cutting $1 25— $2 25 per cord Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 25 per cord Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord Hemlock : Cutting 1 50 — 2 50 per cord Peeling and piling 1 75 — 2 50 per cord Hauling 3 50 — 4 50 per cord Hemlock bark 18 00 per cord On account of the tremendous shortage of pulp stock that pre- vails at present, such products as the above can be marketed at a splendid profit. In fact, many of the -largest spruce operators of New York and JSTew England have for the past few years been turning all of their timber, large and small, into pulp, finding that product much more profitable than saw timber. Close utilization of small timber is proving financially desir- able to the largest timber owners, and in the case of the small owner, the sale of such material as posts, cordwood, roller stock, etc., may pay the entire logging costs, leaving the saw timber as "velvet." Above all,, such close utilization leaves the woodlot in better shape from the standpoint of appearance, ease of regen- eration and diminished fire risk. Brush Disposal When the last saw logs have been skidded, there is usually a large accumulation of branches, hollow butts, smashed tops, etc., Forestry for the Private Owner 69 cumbering the ground. To clear up this debris is an important problem, since slash of this kind is not only a bad fire menace, but often prevents both seed and sprout regeneration. Good management demands that the ground be cleared as soon as possible. The longer and straighter sticks can be used for fence posts and props, while the shorter pieces may be used as orchard props, stakes, etc. Hollow butts, large limbs, crooked trunks, etc., may be sawed into cord and stove wood. Ordinarily such an operation will leave comparatively little material behind that will long be inflammable, since the smaller hardwood brush becomes soggy after a few winters. In the case of clear cuttings in hardwoods, or where heavy stands of pine, spruce or hemlock have been cut the heavy brush remaining constitutes a more complex problem. Hardwood tops are often piled in windrows and burned in the spring when the ground is too moist to permit the spread of fire. The question of whether to burn or merely pile the brush is a matter for each owner to decide, depending upon the condi- tions which obtain in his own woodlot. They all, however, increase the logging cost, the prices for brush disposal ranging from twenty cents to fifty cents per thousand board feet of lum- ber cut. This expenditure must be considered as a form of insurance, as the remaining timber is rendered more safe and the forest as a whole is, in the long run, much more productive. Regeneration The idea underlying forest management is to raise repeated crops of the most valuable timber upon soils unsuited to agricul- ture. Thus the aim of harvesting mature timber is not only to obtain revenue from selling the forest products, but also to make room for the young seedling which will produce the next crop of timber. If the starting of new growth is not secured by the cuttings, the operation, from a forestry point of view, has not been a complete success, no matter how much revenue has been obtained. If the land is level and fertile it may be wise to clear cut, pull the stumps and add the area to the tilled or pastured lands, but on the typical New York farm, the woodlot now largely occupies land unsuited to tillage or pasture. Inten- sive forestry practice demands that cuttings be timed according 70 The New York State College of Forestry to the seed production of the species to be favored. However, in ordinary woodlot management it is necessary to plan the logging with regard to local market conditions and the labor situation upon a given farm. The reproduction resulting may not be so successful, but a little assistance later on will generally give the kind of regeneration desired. (See Cleanings, p. 51.) Species to be Favored To specify in a general publication the exact trees each pri- vate owner should favor upon a given site is an extremely difficult proposition. It depends not only upon the section of the State in which the woodland is located, but upon the ques- tion of site, such as soil and moisture conditions, elevation, topography, etc., and upon local demand as well. Specific rec- ommendations can be made only after a careful examination made upon the ground, but general suggestions can be made which should prove helpful. Species possessing the best qualifications should be favored during the harvest either by leaving a sufficient number of seed_ trees and cutting out nearby trees of lesser value quite heavily or by underplanting these species after the mature timber is removed. The more desirable qualifications would be as follows : 1. Species common to the site and region should be encouraged, and native trees should be given preference over foreign trees in planting. While it is true that in certain parts of the State either pine or spruce, for instance, will thrive, it is safe to say that, as a rule, the species found in larger numbers are generally better suited to the region. (This rule does not always hold, however, since in certain cases of two species, the more valuable may have been most heavily cut, and so may have largely disappeared from the region. Yet it would grow and flourish if planted. An excellent instance of this state of affairs is furnished by the absence of pine in the Hudson highlands.) Forestry for the Private Owner 71 2. Trees should be both fast growing and technically valuable. Certain species like the white oak, for instance, yield timber of great value and beauty, yet its slow growth (estimated at about one inch in diameter for each ten years) makes it unde- sirable as the principal tree in a woodlot. 3. Species favored should be comparatively free from insect and fungous attack. While it is true that practically no species is entirely immune, yet certain ones succumb much more readily than others. The chestnut, while fast growing and technically valuable, should not be favored throughout its range on account of the chestnut blight — Endothea parasitica — which is proving so fatal to this species. In the same way, mixed plantations of red and white pine are to be preferred to pure white pine plantations until the outcome of the white pine blister rust can be predicted. 4. The trees to be favored should furnish products which are and will be in demand in that particular locality. Just as raising fruit in a wheat country often means difficulty in disposing of the products, so may the sale of pulpwood in a box shook district often present difficulties. It is not possible to foresee the market demands at the end of the rotation, but the past demands and present industries may be taken as a guide. From the above rules each owner can form a general idea of which species to reproduce and which species to eliminate from his woodlot by means of skillful cuttings. Where clear cuttings are practiced, five to ten seed trees per acre of the proper kind may be left so that their seed may fill the cut-over area with a thicket of young seedlings. Where group cuttings are made the situation is more difficult. All groups of reproduction of the right kind found on the ground at the time the cuttings are made should be freed, i. e., have a circle of surrounding trees cut away to permit more light to reach them; occasional seed trees should be left, especially near large holes made hj the removal of some large individuals, and lastly, inferior species, especially those of great reproductive vigor, should be 72 The New York State College of Forestry heavily cut in order to handicap them as much as possible. (Sometimes such trees may be only good for cordwood which furnishes a very small margin of profit, but will be found worth while to remove on account of the more valuable mixture that will be obtained.) As a rule, such measures will produce a splendid mixed forest which may need only an occasional light cleaning to produce the proper proportion of valuable species.* In certain cases it may be that the species to be favored are the only ones that are readily salable in the form of saw timber. Then the only solution will be to cut and sell the saw timber, and at the same time turn as many of the inferior and compet- ing trees into ties, poles, props and cordwood as the market will absorb, taking care to open up occasional fair-sized holes in the canopy. With the proceeds derived from the cordwood, 400 to 500 seedlings per acre of the best species can be planted in groups beneath the holes in the canopy which would introduce the desired proportion in the woodlot. Specific Recommendations Zone B. Throughout the Hudson Valley and Lake regions, (map, p. 18) chestnut, until fifteen years ago, would have been the best species to favor. On account of the rapid spread and disastrous effect of the chestnut blight, however, any efforts to favor this species are vain and other species should be favored during the cuttings. Red oak as a dominant tree is the best hardwood substitute for chestnut, while other valuable trees like tulip poplar and -basswood, and particularly white ash, though rarely found in considerable numbers, should be encouraged in this region as much as possible in mixture. In practically all parts of this region, owing to repeated clear cuttings and fre- quent fires, the vitality of these sprouts has been greatly reduced. The introduction of softwoods which can thrive with less food and moisture will in time greatly improve the forest. As introduced species in this region red and white pine, pre- ferably in mixture rather than pure white pine, on account of * Foreign forestry practice has conclusively proven the value of mixed forests. They are freer from disease than pure forests, less subject to windthrow and produce a larger yield than pure forests. In most cases a woodlot of several good species in mixture is more desirable than a pure forest. Forestry for the Private Otvner 73 the blister rust, should be encouraged. In forty years, yields estimated to amount to more than 25,000 board feet to the acre can be expected. Except in sheltered locations with plenty of surface moisture in the surface layers of the soil, spruce should not be planted in this region. Hemlock on moist sites would do very well in this region and would probably show a much faster growth than many of the hardwoods. Ordinarily it is difficult to underplant hardwood stands successfully if more than 40 per cent of the ground is covered by the tree crowns. Owing to shade and severe competition for food and moisture, the seed- lings are likely to die. The comparative value of hardwood forest versus the coni- ferous forest shows a superiority of the latter. The natural reproduction of hardwoods is attained easier and at consider- ably less expense, but only on the very best sites and situations will the financial returns be as good as that from a coniferous forest. Zone C. In the foothills of the Adirondacks and Catskills, and in the portion of the State extending from the heads of the Finger Lakes to the Pennsylvania line (Zone C upon the map), beech, birch and hard maple are the dominant trees at present, with pine and hemlock occurring in the mixture. The two latter species have been more heavily cut in the past on account of their greater value. None of the above hardwoods are par- ticularly fast growing, nor are their products in as great demand as the softwoods. White ash, basswood, red oak (wherever it is found), yellow birch and sugar maple are the trees to favor. If underplanting, either in mature forests or after cuttings, can be done, white pine, Norway spruce, and possibly European larch, in the larger openings could be used. Throughout the spruce regions of the Adirondacks and Cats- kills (Zone D), spruce is the tree to be favored (diagram), and all hardwood stands containing an understory of spruce should have the big spreading maples, beeches, etc., removed as soon as possible in order to permit the increased growth of the more valuable evergreens. In the larger part of this region, spruce is now the most important tree, and on account of the high development which the paper or pulp industry has reached, it 74 The Neiv York State College of Forestry will probably continue to be the economic tree for some genera- tions.* White and red pine can also be favored, particularly on drier situations. In some portions of this region, poplar stands are found of greater or less area which have seeded in following a fire. These are temporary types, and in time, will be crowded out by other longer lived and more tolerant trees. ^Nevertheless, poplar can be made a very profitable tree crop and one that can be success- fully managed by a small landowner. Owing to the habit of sprouting from the roots, a light cutting in a stand of poplar results in an almost instantaenous crop of "suckers" which in a short time produce trees large enough to make excelsior or pulp bolts, etc. A few years ago, the writer visited a woodlot near Stony Creek, ]STew York, from which the owner was deriving a periodic income equal to approximately five dollars per acre per year. Every five years it was his custom to cut over this lot, removing the largest trees, the amount of growth which had been added in the meantime ranging from four to five cords. Such an intensive operation and the high cash yield was made possible by the proximity of his woodlot to a local excelsior plant which created an unusually good demand. Another smaller type within the limits of the spruce area might be mentioned, viz., the pure white pine stands found in Warren county along Lake George and in certain parts of the St. Lawrence valley. On account of the great suitability of the soil for this valuable species, and because of the presence of sufficient seed trees in most cases, natural regeneration is easy. Protection against fire and grazing is all that is required to grow pine forests in such favored districts as the country sur- rounding Chestertown, for example. Throughout this pine belt, terrific loss would be sustained were the blister rust to get beyond control, but at present white pine is the tree to favor. * On account of the market situation on paper and pulp products which has obtained since 1915 spruce is now extremely high. A recent quotation for peeled spruce bolts being $18 per cord delivered at the mill, Glens Falls, N. Y. While undoubtedly this price will subside somewhat when war conditions and prices no longer prevail, yet the startling advance made by pulp wood in the past few years ($10 per cord nine years ago) gives some idea of the prices that may be obtained for forest products in the near future. CHAPTER V MARKETING WOODLOT PRODUCTS To the discerning landowner, it is evident that proper marketing methods will solve most of the financial problems pertaining to soil management. Successful crop production is largely a matter of putting the right crop on the right soil and securing sufficient intelligent labor to bring it to maturity. The majority of the money (aside from a disastrous season) is made or lost in selling the crop. A similar situation obtains regarding the woodlot. Explicit information may be obtained regarding the best species to favor, how to cut and how to protect the woodlot, but if, through poor marketing methods, the balance sheet at the end of the opera- tion shows no profit, forestry will be practiced by few land- owners in ISTew York. If a good return can be secured from timber growing, plenty of men will be found ready to care for their woodland, for profit is the best incentive. It has long been the opinion of the writers that too much stress in forestry has been laid upon the productive end. Timber Estimating The first step in marketing the lumber standing uj3on a wood- lot is to find out how much there is to sell (both area and volume should be ascertained as accurately as possible). Trite as such advice may sound", it is true that countless woodlot owners have sold all of the timber on their woodland without having the faintest idea regarding the amount or value. If a farmer adopted the same plan with his other crops, e. g., of selling a bin full of potatoes or apples without inquiring the market price or even without measuring the number of bushels, he would be considered worse than foolish, yet instances of lump sales of standing timber are too numerous to record. Area While it is upon the unit of thousands of board feet or cords or markets that the price is fixed, yet a knowledge of the approx- [75] 76 The New York State College of Forestry imate area which the woodlot occupies is decidedly helpful, since an estimate showing the average number of board feet per acre is comparatively easy to obtain. (See Sample Plots, p. 78.) Considering the fact that farmers deal with land continually, it is surprising how little some of them know regarding the area in their timbered lands.* An irregular piece of land can have its contents approxi- mately ascertained by means of rectangles and diagrams, methods which are well within the limitations of any owner. (See diagram.) An acre contains 43,560 square feet, and equals 160 square rods or 10 square chains. A square 208 feet on a side contains approximately an acre, as does a circle having a radius of 118 feet. In but few cases is an actual survey with compass or transit and chain necessary. Practically every rural section has its own surveyor who can do this work if required. Timber Cruising The actual measurement of standing timber is called "cruis- ing," and while long experience is needed to obtain accurate results, even a novice may obtain a fair idea of the amount, species by species, by following directions. Practically all methods of measuring standard trees are based on the plan of measuring a certain part of the woodland, say 5 to 25 per cent, and assuming that the remainder will average approximately the same. It should be Jcept in mind that the smaller the woodlot the larger must -be the percentage measured in order to strike a good average. In but a few cases, e. g., where the woodlot is very small and the individual trees extremely large and valuable is it necessary to measure all the trees. * The writer on one occasion was estimating the timber on a woodlot and asked the owner how many acres it contained. He commenced with the total area of the farm taken from a deed 75 years old and by deducting field after field announced that there should be 15 acres in the woodlot. Careful chaining proved that it contained 29.9 acres. In view of the superior quality of the timber in the woodlot such an error would have meant a loss of hundreds of dollars on a per acre valuation. Forestry for the Private Owner 77 o 78 The Neiv York State College of Forestry Two methods of timber estimating are used by foresters. They may be called : I. The sample plot method. II. The strip survey. I. In the sample plot method the area of the woodlot must he Tcnoivn quite accurately The steps would be as follows: 1. Lay off a number of sample plots in average timber, the number depending on the size of the woodlot, either square (208 feet on a side) or round (radius 118 feet). 2. Measure the diameter of all the trees upon the plot, breast high, i. e., 4^ feet from the ground. In regular forestry work, this is done by means of an instrument called a tree caliper, but for a single woodlot, this dimension may be obtained by finding the girth of the tree 4^ feet above the ground and dividing by 3 1/7. An idea of the average height may be obtained by ocular estimate, or a ten-foot pole may be leaned against the tree, and the number of poles' length the tree will contain will give a rough idea of the height. (For evergreens the total height should be estimated, while for hardwoods only the part which will make saw logs is usually computed.) 3. The measurements are entered into a record or tally where similar measurements may be grouped together for further computation. 4. From a volume table, one for each species of tree, showing the contents in board feet or cubic feet of average trees of a given dimension and height, the contents of each tree standing upon the sample plot may be obtained. (See Appendix, Volume Tables and Their Use.) Their sum ' will give the stand per acre, and the average of all the sam- ple plots, multiplied by the number of acres in the entire woodlot, would give the contents of all the standing timber. (In a fifty-acre woodlot it would be wise to take ten to twenty sample plots and their average would be multiplied by 50 to get the entire stand.) Forestry for the Private Owner 79 In case only a rough estimate is needed, the contents of a sample acre may he obtained as follows : 1. Lay off a circle with a radius of 118 feet — 1 acre. 2. Count all the trees within this circle. 3. Select a tree having average diameter either by guess, or measure all the trees and compute average diameter. Sample tree should be normal in form. 4. Estimate number of 16-foot logs the tree will yield, expressing odd lengths in fractions of 16-foot logs, e. g., a tree yielding 36 feet of used length would be considered a 2% log tree. 5. Estimate top and bottom diameters inside the bark of this used portion, add and divide by two to find mean diameter. 6. Compute contents of sample tree by this rule of thumb: (Mean diameter — 60) X8/10 = contents in board feet of aver- age 16 -foot log. This figure multiplied by 2% (if stick 36 feet could be cut) will give contents of average tree. To illustrate, a tree 60 feet tall contains a 36-foot stick of saw timber which is 24 inches at stump and 16 inches at top inside the bark. Mean diameter equals 20 inches. Then (400—60) X 8/10 = 282 board feet contents of average 16-foot log. 282 X 2% gives 634 board feet as the contents of the tree. 7. Multiply contents of average tree by number of trees standing on the acre plot to find stand per acre. Where the woodlot is small, up to five acres, it is desirable to estimate every tree separately. . It is to be remembered that a timber estimate is comparable to the process of stock taking or inventory in any business, and that thought and care in propor- tion to the value to be expected is justified from a business standpoint. A notebook or sheet of paper is prepared somewhat similar to the following diagram or schedule. (See page 80.) The estimator sizes up the first tree and guesses how many logs can be sawed out of its main stem. Suppose this tree to be a sugar maple with about thirty-three feet of clear length and above that heavy branching. Allowing for the stump, there is about thirty feet of merchantable length or one sixteen-foot log and one fourteen-foot log. By looking at the tree carefully, the estimator decides that the diameter inside of the bark at the top of the first or butt log is sixteen inches, and at the top of the second log is thirteen inches. These figures are entered into the proper columns, as shown in the diagram, and the estimator proceeds to the next tree, where the same process is repeated. 80 The New York State College of Forestry ja tooowo O rHrti-lrHlM a "3.2 ^ fl ©a fee t> o e- < UJ -2 J CO co o CO o CD o sS o CO o O o 3T © z: ^ CO CO. 'sr > » a • 3 o • « * • • • • • • a • • • J © > c— o o o o CO o c- o o o CO o C3> s9 o o 21 — o« ^r s9 c* m — ^^ ^r CO V en en > • « » • • • 3 u • • • • *-• E « a « • « • • a » • • s UJ < UJ o 2! c- ^ - oi C^ oe "St ^ >- LU 3 • • • % • • o * • »• • • • » « • • * CJ in ^1- o o o o CO S3 cO o Cxi 02 CO cv Cn2 o cO o CO © z: co O x2 v9 - O * U co ^ — > UJ —J * • • y y • « « • e « • S UJ LU o _2 III J co s9 CO CO CO > < UJ 6 CO lO ^ ci — — — cv» * • * • • « • • • • « » • _i o 0* o Cn2 CO o 6 z: — C4 — — CNJ >- UJ —I « • • • , « • £ 5g£ ^9 r~ oo o> o — C>? CO r}- lO sS i- CD CJ o 84 The Neiv York State College of Forestry (In small woodlots it might be well to find the area in acres first, and then obtain the average stand per acre by measuring all the trees on a strip which will total 20 to 50 per cent of the area. The strip being one chain wide, ten chains advance means one acre actually meas- ured. ) The tally may be kept in the "cut" and "leave" form already illustrated. This form has the great advantage of showing the amounts of timber that will be left on the ground to form the nucleus of another crop of timber some five, ten or fifteen years later. The form in which the tally sheet is ruled should be harmon- ized with the form of the volume table to be used. If the volume table shows a tabular statement of tree volumes by diameters and total heights, for example, the tally sheet should be pre- pared so that the trees will be tallied in the same units. If by diameters and log lengths, the tally sheet should follow that form. Accompanying is illustrated a sample of the tally sheet which follows the first-mentioned form. The contents of the individual trees are computed by using the figures obtained from a volume table for that species and the contents of the average sample acre found by adding the contents of all trees, and dividing by the number of acres meas- ured — then the contents of the whole woodlot are obtained by multiplying the number of board feet of each species upon the sample acre by the number of acres in the piece. To illustrate: To cruise the woodlot outlined in Plate 11 the steps would be as follows : 1. Find the acreage of piece by chaining boundaries and computing contents. 2. Starting at some point a little distance in from one of the corners, start a line across the woodlot (using a com- pass if one is available; if not, keeping the line straight by sighting on a row of trees ahead), taking care that the lines run up or down the hill and not along the slope. (Stands are heaviest on benches and in the valley, while the size of the timber decreases as the top of a high slope is Forestry for the Private Owner 85 III > *i E IS i < o UJ UJ Cl s < > X UJ ^ f- < ^ C cc s ^ ^ & ^| — N l >-
    - ee ul a < _3 CO 1— da UJ x § 8 10 UJ a. f x: UJ -J g 8 8 s o o Hi 1— UJ X 8 00 t- ^9 UJ Z> cc ui 1 01 § \0 m r o UJ CQ 5 UJ !* O s & 8 LU si cc < 1L 1— LU X _) 8 8 £ 5? X O O LU X < 8 g S 8 v9 tr- CO O - a CO 86 The New York State College of Forestry approached. Only by measuring both the good and poor portions can a fair average be obtained.) 3. Make out a tally sheet (following form in Plate 14). D. B. H. means diameter breast high, 4^ feet from the ground. ) / /OS ch \ 1 IPS c/7 \ /s>e ch \ /9.0 ch. J /S6 cfl \ Plate 15. Details of methods of run- ning strips on ninety -acre woodlot in Plate 11. 4. The diameters of all trees over six inches in diameter standing upon a strip sixty-six feet wide are obtained. The total and used heights (amount that will make saw logs or pulpwood) of six to eight trees of each species is obtained. Forestry for the Private Owner 87 5. The contents of the trees of each species arc obtained by using the volume tables in appendix. 6. Divide the number of board feet of each species by 8.25 (82.5 chains were run, and since ten chains of linear distance mean one acre actually measured, 8.25 acres were actually estimated). This result will be the number of board feet of each species which an average acre, would contain. r j 7. Multiply these results by 90.8, the total acreage, to obtain the total stand. In the woodlot in question it was found that the following amounts standing on the acre measured: Pine Hemlock Maple Beeeb Basswood Miscel- laneous- Elm, cnerry 1,208 bd. ft. 2,542 bd. ft. 6,958 bd. ft. 3,274 bd. ft. 1,142 bd. ft. 1,477 bd. ft. Dividing each of these amounts by 8.25 would give the fol- lowing results: Amount in Board Feet Upon an Average Acre Pine Hemlock Maple Beecb Basswood Miscel- laneous , 143.4 300.1 826.3 388.8 135.6 175.4 Multiplying each result by 90.8, the number of acres in the woodlot, the total would be as follows: Contents in Board Feet op John Thompson, Woodlot . , Pine Hemlock Maple . Beecb Basswood Miscel- laneous 13,020. 27,249 75,028 35,303 12,313 , 15,926 Total, 17S,839 board feet. With figures like the above available the owner of the stump- age is in an excellent position to bargain with any possible purchaser. 88 The New York State College of Forestry Timber Sales When the amount of standing timber has been ascertained, an excellent beginning has been made, hut the deal has by no means been put through. The value of the stumpage must be ascertained and then a purchaser found, either for the standing timber or for the manufactured material. Moreover, he must be induced to pay a fair price, one that will show a reasonable profit to the grower, for, contrary to the accepted belief, it does cost something to grow timber when the interest on the land, taxes, etc., are all figured in. Standing Timber A very common way in the past has been to sell the land and timber together, or the timber upon the stump, either to a mill owner who manufactured the lumber himself, or the land and stumpage were sold to a middleman — timber buyer — who in turn disposed of the lot to a mill operator at a considerable advance in price. In either case the land and timber or simply the stumpage was bought for as little as possible, the ignorance of the owner concerning the amount and value of his trees and the value of the manufactured product causing him very often to accept a ridiculously low price. By educating the small for- est and woodlot owner regarding values and markets and thus enabling him to reap a large measure of the profit himself, the State College of Forestry feels that it is not only fulfilling its obligations to the citizens of New York, but is rendering the land problem much easier of solution by making tree culture upon the non-agricultural areas popular and profitable. In the past, the difficulty in the way of the small timber owner who desired to market his products direct to the consumer lay, not only in his ignorance of markets and values, but also in the limited amount of each species he had for sale. A man possessing one-half million feet ready for the axe could doubtless find a purchaser for all his material. To the owner of twenty acres of woodland, where some of the more valuable species may yield con- siderably less than carload lots, the problem of finding a profitable market is one rather difficult to solve. The best Forestry for the Private Owner 89 answer seems to be in local sales or some form of coopera- tive marketing.* (See p. 99.) In certain cases owners of adjoining or nearby woodlots can plan to log and saw at the same time. The larger cut thus obtained will permit the securing of a selling agent or at least enable a better bargain to be driven. While the actual felling and skidding operations and the hauling of the sawn lumber are parts of the manufacture of lumber which the landowner should do with his own teams and labor, if possible, there are many cases where it cannot be done. In a busy dairy farm, for example, there may be little if any spare time in the winter, and besides the equipment may be lacking. In such cases true farm economy may demand the selling of the standing trees at a fair price rather than the pur- chasing of equipment and carrying on the work with unskilled, hired labor. In such a case the aims should be: 1. To get a fair price for the timber. 2. To see that the purchaser removes the mature, defective and un- desirable trees without injuring the young growth and that the woodlot is left comparatively free from slash and with fire risk at a minimum. Regarding prices, the value of any standing timber depends upon; 1. Species — whether in demand or not. 2. Condition — size and soundness. 3. Situation — distance from mill or railroad. Even the most desir- able timber will bring but a small price if the logging and hauling charges eat up the bulk of the sale price. All of the above must be taken into consideration in fixing a price per thousand on the stump. In regions where there is a great deal of woodlot logging the average price received for standing timber can usually be obtained by inquiry among neighbors. Usually there is an accepted rate — maximum and minimum— for the various species, depending upon the hauling distance. In such a case it * At the present, on account of the extreme demand for lumber of all sorts, it is possible in certain parts of the State to sell such species as ash, maple, etc., cut into logs and loaded on cars. This is extremely simple marketing for species needed, but whether it will continue after the present demand subsides remains to be seen. 90 The New York State College of Forestry is merely a question of setting a fair price and holding out until that price is obtained. The writer once estimated a woodlot owned by a city man ■ for which the sum of $300 had been offered for all of the timber it contained. A day and a half spent in marking the over-mature chestnut, oak and hemlock disclosed that there was about 100,000 board feet of timber contained in trees which had practically ceased growing and should be removed for the good of the stand. On account of the large size of the timber and the proximity to market, a price of $10 per thousand was set. When the owner reported this sum to the would-be purchaser, he stated in emphatic terms that "he always knew foresters were a crazy lot, but as a special concession he would give $450 for the marked trees," about one-third of the stand. The offer was refused. In a few weeks he raised it to $600, then to $800, and finally paid $1,000 cash for one-third the timber,, all of which he had nearly bought for $300. It pays to know how much the timber is worth. In some parts of the State reliable estimators are to be found who make a business of cruising woodlots at a certain rate per day. If such men are available, care should be taken to select a man who is truly expert and one who has no business relations with the possible purchaser.* The safest and most satisfactory way, however, is for each owner to compute the value of his products, check this figure against all reliable data and then hold until the minimum price is received. Such computations are extremely helpful whether or not the services of an expert are enlisted, as errors may be detected by the second computation. * The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse is willing and ready to give general advice free of charge concerning the methods of cut- ting, protecting the woodlot, etc., but it does not feel justified in sending out members of the staff for the sole purpose of valuing timber land. Ordi- narily, however, the College can direct interested owners to reliable and experienced men who can advise them regarding the amount and value of their forest products. Forestry for the Private Owner 91 Stumpage prices The steps in figuring the stumpage values of the various species might be outlined as follows: From the selling price of the manufactured product deduct : The cost of felling and skidding the logs. The cost of sawing. ...... The cost of stacking. The cost of hauling lumber. Freight charges. And in addition, 20 to 25 per cent of the manufacturing and selling cost for the logger's profit. The remainder should be the price which the timber should command standing on the stump.* A stumpage price for a pine stand seventy years old would be computed in this fashion : 1. The average price paid for mill run pine delivered at the plants of several nearby consumers could be obtained either by cor- respondence with, the possible purchasers • or from the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse. This is at present about $50 per M. Bulletin No. 1, Wood-using Industries of New York, published by the College, gives the average prices delivered for the year 1910. A letter to the Utilization Depart- ment of the College will bring the current prices. 2. Freight charges could be computed by ascertaining the rate per hundred pounds to the nearest mill, say 12% cents per hun- dred, and multiplying by 2800, the air dry weight of 1000 board feet of pine obtained from table on p. 131. The freight charges in this case would be $3.50 per M. 3. The average manufacturing costs might be obtained by inquiry in the locality in question. If information is lacking, the aver- age cost (say $15 per M) might be used. 4. For profit and selling expense, the fourth of a moderate, and one-fifth of a high, manufacturing cost should be added to the charges. In this case $15.00 = $3.00* 5, 5. Cost of hauling logs, say three miles, from woods to sawmill, $6.00 per M. 6. Cost of skidding, $2.50 per M. 7. Cost of felling and bucking, $3.50 per M. > * The allowance for a profit is perfectly legitimate since supervision and selling costs must come out of this item. The above amount is none too large since in addition extraordinary expenses and losses of various kinds must be paid from this sum. Many mill operators will not touch a wood- lot unless the purchase price will show them a minimum profit of $2.50 per M. 92 The New York State College of Forestry 8. The selling price of the timber at the mill minus the sum of the various charges equals the stumpage price which the owner should receive, e. g. : Price received f . o. b. mill for white pine $50 00 Mill costs, freight charges, etc... $21 50 Logging costs 12 00 $33 50 Stumpage price 16 50 $50 00 $50 00 In December, 1919, the following statement was obtained as the approximate prices of sawn lumber f. o. b. mill run, prevail- ing throughout the latter part of that year : Per M. Per M. Hemlock $55 00 75 00 75 00 70 00 40 00 40 00 Ash Cherry $65 00 Oak 70 00 Maple 75 00 Elm 40 00 50 00 40 00 A stumpage value computed in this way may still be too low, as the unusual quality of the standing timber — its large size and freedom from knots — may command a price considerably above the average. However, a woodlot owner with such a price per thousand in mind would be in an infinitely better position than a man who merely accepts a lump sum for all the timber the operator wishes to cut from his woodlot without having the faintest idea of whether there are 100,000 or 400,000 board feet of standing timber and whether the operator is going to obtain a profit of three dollars or eight dollars per thousand for his trees. Such a price might be considered the rock bottom figure and the asking price might be set considerably higher. Contract Having fixed upon a minimum price, a bargain may be struck. However, if the would-be purchaser refuses to pay the price, it would be wise to hold out, since the condition of even mature timber does not greatly deteriorate in two to three years, and by that time the prices doubtless would have advanced still further. One advantage of the forest crop is that it can be sold when the price is right, and "holding over" two or three years Forestry for the Private Owner 93 will not cause appreciable deterioration or depreciation as in the case of most farm crops.* When the sale has been made, a contract, or at least a written agreement, should be drawn up. In this instance, the services of a lawyer are likely to be helpful, as the loss of a few thousand board feet will amount to more than the fees for drawing up such a simple document. Such a contract or agreement should include the following points: 1. JSTone but marked trees shall be cut. Double stump- age shall be charged for unmarked trees which the chopper removes. It is quite a common trick for choppers to "lodge" a marked tree in an unmarked tree of good size in order to fell the big one. Foresters always blaze a. tree to be removed about four feet from the ground and again upon the stump, preferably using an initialled marking axe or hatchet. After the operation is finished it is quite simple to check up the unmarked trees removed. 2. All timber felled shall be paid for at a given price per thousand, whether removed or used, the owner to do the scaling. This will mean greater care in felling to pre- vent breakage. 3. The log rule to be used in measuring the logs should be specified (see Appendix). 4. Reasonable care shall be used in felling and skidding trees that no unnecessary damage be done to the reproduc- tion. If there are large groups of fine young saplings which carelessness might irretrievably injure, a penalty of so much per tree damaged should be included if possible. 5. Low stumps and closely used tops should be demanded. This clause not only provides for larger rev- enue, but also leaves the lot in much better condition. 6. The question of brush disposal should be provided for. In case the full price demanded for the stumpage can- * In regions where there is little woodlot logging and little competition among buyers, it is not wise to hold out for too stiff a price. If the opera- tor cannot get stumpage for his mill he may move some distance away, in which case there might be no opportunity for a sale for some time to come. A fair price and a fair profit should be the aim. 94' The New York State College of Forestry not be obtained, the operator may agree to pile and burn the brash, which operation is worth from twenty cents to fifty cents per thousand. This will save the owner that much labor and expense later on. 11. Payment of stumpage price should be stipulated either in advance or in installments as fast as the timber is cut and before it is removed from the property. In case of a financial failure or breach of contract, the material is still in the owner's possession. 8. The purchaser should agree to use all care regarding forest fire, and to extinguish at his own expense all fires which may occur during the operation. 9. In case of dispute each party may select a referee, who will choose a third, and the majority decision of these three men shall be binding. Other clauses may be included to cover special cases, but a contract or agreement drawn up to cover the above points will usually prove satisfactory, and the owner will find his wood- land left in good growing and reproducing condition when the operation is finished. Selling the Logs Where equipment and labor for logging are available, but the forest owner has neither the inclination nor the time to super- vise the sawing and marketing, he may agree to deliver logs from the stump to the mill, receiving a contract price for them ; the price should vary according to the species and the quality of the timber. While in certain parts of the country logs are graded, the experience necessary to grade accurately several thousand logs is rather beyond the average owner. If the tim- ber to be sold is of extra size and quality, it would be much easier and simpler to add five dollars to eight dollars per thou- sand to the stumpage price obtained by deducting logging costs, etc., from selling price. (Page 92.) In case of extremely large and fine timber, to secure an experienced estimator might be money well expended. (The oldest and largest trees are sometimes the most defective, however, so that size alone may not be a safe criterion.) Figure 12. Logs Piled in Rollway Ready for Mill Set Up. Bj' cutting, skidding and hauling logs himself, the landowner can utilize idle time for help and teams, and insure minimum damage to young growth in felling-. Forestry for the Private Owner 95 By fixing a fair price per thousand for his forest products, the average owner will be assured of a good return, provided he knows how much he has to sell. This information may be ob- tained either from a "cut and leave" estimate of the standing timber or by measuring the contents of the trees after they are felled and cut into log lengths. This process of measuring logs is called "scaling" and may be performed either in the woods as fast as the trees are felled and cut into log lengths or a scaler may be stationed at the mill rollway. In either case, each log should be marked for identification so that it will not be meas- ured again. Scaling The contents of logs in board feet are obtained by the use of a scale rule, a flat hickory stick usually tipped with metal upon which numbers are stamped or burned.* The stick is applied to the small end of the log and the diam- eter is measured to the nearest inch (i. e., a log 9.4 inches is scaled as a nine-inch log; one 9.6 as a ten-inch log) inside the hark. The contents of the log are then read from the stick, which shows, for instance, how many board feet are contained in a log nine inches at the small end and twelve feet long. (The ordinary scale rule reads from six or eight inches to thirty- six inches in diameter, and even log lengths from eight to twenty feet.) Such measurement sounds extremely simple, and so it would be if each log were perfect in form and free from defects. In practice, however, wide experience is needed to be a good scaler, since proper allowance must be made for interior defects, judg- ing only from exterior signs. Unless the timber is unusually defective, the ordinary over-run will make up for average defects. Logs usually saw out from 10 to 25 per cent more lumber than the log scale gave them. This difference is known as the over-run. In some cases, a lump deduction from the total scale is made for hidden defects, so that by scaling each log as * In case it is not possible to obtain a scale stick, an ordinary yardstick may be used and the dimensions of each log recorded in a book. On reach- ing home the contents according to the proper log rule may be worked out by the use of the tables in the Appendix. 96 The Neiv York State College of Forestry sound and then throwing off from 5 to 20 per cent of the volume in board feet, depending upon the age and condition of the timber, a fair allowance may be made. Which scale or log rule to use in measuring timber is a point which should be clearly agreed upon, preferably in the contract. There are approximately two score log rules in the United States, and some show from 15 to 25 per cent more or less than others. In the Adirondacks, the Adirondack market or Stand- ard is customarily used — a log nineteen inches in diameter and thirteen feet long being taken as the unit or standard. This is considered to contain about 200 board feet, and the ratios of three markets to the cord and five markets to the thousand are commonly accepted.* For Central ISTew York, the Scribner rule is quite widely accepted, and yields comparatively good results. While quite liberal on small logs, its value for sticks over twenty-eight inches in diameter is rather conservative, yet with the sawing practice of the average portable mill, its figures give a close idea of the sawn lumber obtained. Two log rules called the International and Champlain are conceded to be more nearly correct mathe- matically, yet the board foot contents they give would be rather difficult for a portable mill to secure. All in all the Scribner rule will give fair and just results. Selling Sawn Lumber In certain cases owners of good-sized woodlots may wish to carry a lumbering project through from stump to market. In such instances actual selling of the manufactured lumber is the part likely to cause the greatest difficulty to the average man since the manufacturers and lumber dealer generally buy from mill operators or jobbers who have been in the game for years and who are thoroughly acquainted with markets, freight rates, prices, discounts, etc. (The Utilization Department of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse, publishes each month a * These ratios only hold true for logs running from 18 to 24 inches in diameter. Five standards of smaller logs will not saw out a thousand board feet, i. e., it takes 13.7 standards of eight-inch logs to yield 1,000 board feet of sawn lumber. Figure 13. Scaling Logs Cut From a Farm Woodlot. The practice of measuring or scaling logs can be most easily and accurately done as the logs are being skidded into the piles called rollways. Forestry for the Private Owner 97 Utilization Bulletin in which are listed amounts and sizes of various species which the owners throughout the State desire to buy or sell. This bulletin is distributed to a wide clientele of consumers and manufacturers of lumber, and frequent sales are made in this way. Any citizen of the State may avail himself of this selling service by writing the Utilization Department, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.) Uses of Different Species The first question which confronts an owner is what are my products to be used for ? Will they furnish material for build- ing purposes or can they be most profitably marketed as pulp stock, etc. ? In the Appendix will be found a list of the prin- cipal uses to which the more common woods of New York are put. Having learned the forms in which the various species to be cut reach the market, the next step is to get in touch with the nearest pfoducer of these articles. A list of manufacturers of wood products may then be consulted and those nearest home written to first, since the nearer the market the less will be the freight rate. A brief business-like letter should be written stating that there is for sale so many thousand board feet of hemlock, so much maple, etc., etc., giving the maximum and minimum log diameters and a general idea of the quality of the logs, how much will run clear, etc. The price could either be set or an offer asked. In any case, the seller should have clearly in mind the minimum price he will accept. Such an inquiry should be started before even the felling is commenced and certainly before the logs are sawed, since very often, better prices may be obtained by sawing the logs in the sizes desired. (This is especially true if grading is done at the mill.) Upon the receipt of an offer, the credit and standing of the would-be purchaser should be investigated if a large sale on credit is contemplated. 98 The New York State College of Forestry Another point worth remembering is to keep a second possible purchaser in view in case the first withdraws his bid while the lumber is in transit.* Summary To summarize the steps necessary to dispose profitably of woodlot products by the private owner, the steps would be as follows : 1. Inspect the woodlot and mark the mature and undesirable trees for removal. 2. Ascertain the approximate amount of each species to be har- vested by means of a "cut and leave" estimate. Arrangements for sawing, piling or any of the other parts of the logging job which are to be done on contract should be concluded at this time, and the cost and specifications should be set down in writing. 3. From list of "Uses" the articles and products made from each species may be learned. 4. By writing to four or five of the nearest and largest manufac- turers found in a list of manufacturers and consumersf, a sale may be made to the consumer direct and the full "deliv- ered price" obtained rather than selling first to a jobber. In writing to these manufacturers, a brief business-like letter should be the rule, typewritten, if possible. The amount of each species should be stated, the size of the logs, and the quality, stating that the material will be "sawed to hill." Upon the receipt of an offer or the acceptance of the quoted price, terms should be arranged and the sawing may be then safely started, with the assurance that all the material will be sold, and the maximum profit assured the owner of the timber. * A prominent portable mill operator, after several disastrous experi- ences with small manufacturers, makes it a point to arrive at the point of delivery when the car is opened. On several occasions, unscrupulous pur- chasers wired him that "after partially unloading the car it was found that the grades were not up to standard and they were holding the shipment awaiting his instructions." In such cases he had induced them to accept the shipment by reducing the price several dollars per thousand, which was exactly what they had planned. After several such experiences the mill operator if possible kept two purchasers on the string for each ship- ment and was present when the car was opened. In case this trick was tried he would order the car resealed and ship it to the other customer rather than suffer the loss. t See Wood Utilization Directory of New York State, Technical Publica- tion No. 6, Vol. xvii, No. 5, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y, 1917. Forestry for the Private Owner 99 Community Marketing The above plan for disposing of woodlot products may be more difficult than it appears, or at least it will take more time than the brief description suggests. Men not of a business turn of mind or owners of small lots upon which only limited amounts of timber stand may find certain obstacles in the way of direct or individual marketing to the consumer. The diffi- culty of marketing small amounts of valuable species has been previously referred to, and a man having 6,000 board feet of black cherry and 8,000 feet of white ash may have a rather hard time in finding a purchaser at a good figure. To such owners, the idea of group or community or cooperative marketing, in one of its various phases, would be most welcome. This idea of pooling the interests of several or several score producers of farm and garden crops is not a new one. It has long been dis- cussed, and at present countless instances of creameries and fruit organizations, purchasing associations, etc., managed upon a cooperative basis with striking success can be cited. The recent victory of the ]STew York farmers in obtaining a living price for their milk proves what can be done if the producers will only assist each other. Timber, being a soil product, could and should be marketed through the same machinery, and being a non-perishable crop, has decided advantages when once the markets and values are known. What forms of community cooperation will help the small woodlot owner in marketing his forest products direct to the consumer with a maximum of profit ? Several schemes may be outlined, one of which might fit the conditions in a given com- munity. They represent possible solutions to the marketing question which for some years has engaged the attention of foresters.* For large forest owners, or men able and ready to market their own products the process has been previously described. For owners of small tracts and men who have neither the time nor the ability to earch out markets for their woodlot products, the following methods of selling direct to the consumer with maximum profit might be suggested: * Cooperative Marketing of Woodlot Products. Proceedings of Society of American Foresters, 1914, Vol. 9, p. 303. 100 The New York State College of Forestry 1. Selling by paid agent. If several men would cut over their woodland at the same time by pooling their output, they would have enough material for sale to warrant the hiring of a man who would sell their products on commission. In such a case, the College would be entirely willing to advise the owners, regarding the prevailing prices, would carry a list of the timber for sale upon its regular monthly list and would advise regarding the best methods of adver- tising the material, etc. The selling agent in this case should be a man who is acquainted with the lumber business (if such can be found who will work on commission), and his selling commission on the yield of several woodlots would make it worth his while to undertake the sale and 3 to 5 per cent commission, depending upon the demand for the species, would be fair. One plan that has been suggested is to have the County Agent act as the business manager for the farmers he serves, and devote more of his time to the selling end, both of field and forest products. In fact, it is quite possible to foresee that the farm bureau could be developed into a rural cham- ber of commerce, promoting the business end of farm management. The Farm Bureau agents in this State are, as a rule, thoroughly trained in science, and the general principles of forest management can be easily grasped by such a body of men. The ISTew York State College of Forestry at Syracuse has offered in the past, and now offers full cooperation, in assisting all Farm Bureaus to grow and market the products from the farm woodlots of the State, in order that the rural population may derive the maximum financial returns. 2. Selling through cooperative associations. In many parts of the State, cooperative associations are rapidly coming into existence. These associations represent various degrees of effi- ciency and cooperation. In some instances they exist solely for purchase, supplying members with seed, fertilizer, feed, "etc., at reduced rates, obtaining a discount through wholesale purchases. Forestry for the Private Oivner 101 Other associations sell as well as buy for their members, and to an organization like this, it is but a step from selling potatoes and fruit in the fall to selling cordwood, railroad ties and lumber in the winter months. The selling of woodlot products, it is true, requires a little different knowledge, but a man with the requisite business experience to market successfully a car- load of apples could soon pick up the methods of marketing five carloads of basswood and twenty carloads of maple, etc. The College of Forestry gladly offers its assistance to managers of such cooperative associations in finding desirable markets. The Grange in some parts of the State is the strong cen- tral organization and the best medium for undertaking such a cooperative marketing project. The idea of com- munity woodyards has been put forward where men could deliver a few thousand board feet of lumber in the log ; to have the logs sawed, the lumber graded and sold to his credit. This same idea works excellently with fruit and potatoes, and since the entire energy of the land owner is devoted to growing, and the marketing is done by experts, the best results in gross yield and financial profits may be obtained. The College of Forestry for the past eight years has been actively cooperating with the State Grange in its educational campaign, and believes that this organization, so rapidly increasing in influence, can materially aid the forestry cause within the State by assisting in the market- ing of woodlot products. A profitable woodlot means a deeper interest in good forestry practice. The above mentioned schemes may seem rather too advanced for certain communities, yet it is simply extending to the wood- lot owner the cooperative marketing idea launched with such success by the fruit growers of the West, and now being adopted by fruit and truck growers in this State. Both plans simply mean broadening the scope of organizations now in existence; the further perfecting of machinery now in actual operation. 3. Selling stumpage to registered operators. Yet another plan may seem more feasible in the immediate future. No man begrudges paying a fair wage nor fair compensation for services 102 The New York State College of Forestry actually rendered. The chief objection against the present inef- ficient scheme of marketing foodstuffs and woodlot products is that there are too many profits paid to men who do little or nothing. A legitimate charge for the manufacture and sale of a stand of chestnut poles, for example, would not be begrudged provided the land owner felt confident that the man doing the cutting and selling was both capable and honest. At the present time, there are several graduates of the College of Forestry, or trained foresters of other schools, who are operat- ing portable saw mills within the State. With the understand- ing that these men must, in every instance, cut the woodlots with the idea of a future crop in mind (or explicitly tell the owner that the method he has in view is straight lumbering rather than forestry) ; must properly dispose of the brush, and most important of all, must pay the owner a fair price per thousand for his standing timber, the College will recommend to woodlot and small forest owners the members of such a select class of operators. This in reality is not direct, personal marketing, yet is a plan providing for more profitable yields from the woodlot, and at the same time should in a few decades mean far better forest crops upon the non-agricultural portions of New York farms. Whichever of the above schemes is used, or if an entirely original marketing plan is used, the really important thing is to cut and market the timber from the farm woodlot with a definite object in view. This should be to produce tree crops of increasing technical value as time passes, and at the same time, to have the financial yield from the non-agricultural por- tions of the farms of New York steadily appreciated. !NTo state or nation can permanently prosper that does not care for its soil and both forestry and agriculture separate, yet interdepen- dent, must be practised to the full if the Empire State is to flourish during the coming generations. CHAPTER VI RESULTS OF WOODLOT MANAGEMENT Cost of Forestry Woodland owned in connection with a farm or country estate is ordinarily managed with one of two ends in view — either : Aesthetic, the beautifying of the property through the pres- ence of forest growth; or Commercial, the raising of timber for profit where successive crops of trees are grown primarily for the cash proceeds received from their sale. It is undoubtedly true that any grow- ing forest is attractive, and so adds to the appearance of the property, but, in the latter case, the species are selected and favored solely with technical value in mind. In both instances the land growing the trees and the trees themselves represent capital which if not invested in forest land could be invested in bonds, mortgages, etc., and then would be yielding a cash return. If a grove or park forest upon an estate is maintained for its beauty alone, the pleasure derived must be worth the income that might be obtained from the investment of the forest capital it represents. Usually it is worth many times that sum and the owner would often rather lose his house than his woodland, since the former could be rebuilt in a year, while the trees could not be replaced in a century. According to the same reasoning, a woodlot should yield its return principally in valuable forest products, and since it is a piece of soil needed for utilitarian purposes, it should be ranked as a producing portion of the farm and its income carefully computed. The largest immediate return from woodland is obtained by destructive lumbering; by cutting the woodland clean, and then abandoning it to fire and weeds, for several decades. Such management is comparable to the system of land tillage often referred to as "Soil Mining," cropping the land year after year with no thought of putting anything back in the form of manures or fertilizers, a system which destroys both local and [103] 104 The Neiv York State College of Forestry national prosperity in the long run. Both of these systems of land management unfortunately have been far too widely prac- ticed in the United States and in New York. Both were unde- sirable enough when vast stretches of virgin forests and enor- mous areas of new land were then available for, when the old lands were stripped and exhausted the lumberman or farmer could move to a new region. At present, this country stands at the threshold of a new era. The period of free land has passed, the end of the virgin forests is in sight, and each state, each individual, must develop every resource with a shrewd eye to the future. Just as conservative agriculture means a smaller present income owing to money spent for fertilizers, etc., so does the practice of forestry mean reduced present profit for the purpose of increasing future returns.* It means foregoing present profits by leaving seed trees and young fast-growing trees and often the reinvesting of a portion of the income in 'a profitable business. Let it not be thought that forestry, the management of non-agricultural soils for repeated tree crops costs nothing. It does, but it means putting aside one dollar to-day and reaping ten at the end of the rotation. Regulating the Cut In countries where forest management has long been prac- ticed, the height of the forester's ambition is to make his forest "normal." That is, by carefully calculated plans carried out over a period of years, eventually the forest may, for the given rotation and soil, possess exactly the right proportion of age classes; may have exactly the right amount of growing stock and may be producing just the right amount of new wood (increment) each year. The process of transforming an abnor- mal into a normal forest by means of proper cuttings is called regulation. * Continental experience proves that in a well-managed forest not only does the amount of timber steadily increase but the quality improves all of the time. A record for the last half of the past century for the State for- ests of Saxony showed that while the amount cut per year doubled during that period, not only did the forest capital increase 16 per cent but the amount of the crop which yielded saw logs increased from 11 to 54 per cent. The gross income increased 234 per cent and the net revenue over 80 per cent. Economics of Forestry, p. 49, by Dr. B. E. Fernow. Forestry for the Private Owner 105 The above strict interpretation of a normal forest has little importance for the average woodlot or small forest owner in this country. For such a man, regulation means limiting the cut to the growth, and while the increment should be made as great as possible, yet the presence of age classes in exact amount is beyond his possibilities. JSTor in practice is it always desirable to cut an equal amount each year. In years of high prices it may be good financial management to cut heavily, and then do no cutting whatever for several years. In practically every case, the amount cut by the small owner should be largely governed by market conditions, and occasionally when the cut of timber really mature is limited, it may be necessary to remove some sticks not quite mature in order to obtain an amount sufficient to make a sale possible. As a rule, the amount cut in a year or decade should not exceed the amount grown in that period. In the typical woodlot, the first step in the way of building up a rundown stand would be to remove the over-mature and diseased, decrepit specimens. This might be done primarily for the purpose of harvesting the old veterans before they com- pletely decay, yet such a cutting would serve to increase the increment as a result of replacing old, slow-going trees with young, thrifty reproduction and by giving more light to the middle-aged and young trees remaining. In addition a sanitary Plate 16. Liberation Cutting. The removal of the wide-spreading "wolf tree," the eighty-year old chestnut, will liberate the crowded and over- topped thirty-year old pine and greatly improve the condition of the forest growth. 106 The New York State College of Forestry cleaning would result, since the removal of diseased trees would check the dissemination of fungus spores, etc. Such a prelimi- nary cutting could be followed from time to time by periodic cuttings in which the mature trees could be taken out singly or in groups. However, the owner should use some plan whereby he cuts no more than the amount laid on during the period, unless he desires to add to his increment by planting. Roth* advises dividing the woodlot into, say, ten cutting areas and removing about one-fourth the total volume from each area each year, and at the end of the tenth year plot number one could again be cut over. Such a plan would give a fixed annual cut, and by favoring the faster growing species, and occasionally planting up openings with rapid-growing conifers, the increment could be further increased. The above method would provide a system of harvesting the forest crops, but a check should be provided regarding the amount of growth. After the first cutting has removed the old vet- erans, the average yearly growth of the remainder could be found by dividing the number of board feet standing upon an acre by the average age of the stand obtained by felling several aver- age trees and counting the rings. This result would be a highly conservative idea of the volume which the forest could produce each year. By insisting that the periodic cuttings recurring, for instance, every five years, should not remove more than five times the amount of the average annual growth, so computed ( t0 total r a^e th ) overcutting will be prevented. Such a check, while rough, will doubtless serve for a few periods, and by that time the increment should have markedly increased when a more exact method might be required. Rotations The length of time elapsing from the beginning of a forest until the time the crop is harvested is called the rotation. The length of this period is determined by several factors. In some instances it is desired to cut the forest at a time when it can best reproduce itself. This is called the Silvicul- tural Rotation. * Forest [Regulation, by Filibert Roth, p. 159. Forestry for the Private Oivner 107 Or the forest crop may be harvested when the net return — the final cash yield less the value of the land, planting costs, etc., computed at compound interest up to the time, will be the highest possible interest rate on the investment. Financial Rotation On account of the laws of compound interest, a certain forest crop may yield 5i/o per cent compounded at sixty years, but owing to the rapid increase of the sum represent- ing the planting cost, land value, taxes, etc., during the next thirty years, by the time ninety years is reached the investment might not yield more than 4 per cent. In most cases of woodlot management, it is the technological rotation — the time necessary to produce material of a given size — that is of prime importance. For reasons given below, the private owner in this country will be compelled to grow the smaller sized timber, as he cannot afford to wait a long time for his dividend, nor can he afford the low interest rate on his forest investment which a long rotation demands. The states and the federal government alone will be able to grow large timbers, and the coming generations will be com- pelled to use much smaller timber and of decidedly inferior quality compared with what we use to-day. According to Roth,* the following rotations would hold for some of the principal products : Cordwood. Rarely grown as a crop in itself. The bulk of cordwood now coming upon the market is from the tops and branches left after a lumbering operation. (Throughout the lower Hudson valley where cordwood for the brick yards has been an important crop for many years, it was customary to clear out the sprout hardwoods every twenty to twenty-five years.) Pulpwood. Of late years, trees of all sizes have been turned into pulp on account of the extreme demand for paper stock. Native spruce or balsam fir from plantations can probably be cut at fifty to sixty years with best results. There are indica- * Forest Eegulation, by Filibert Roth, p. 109. 108 The Neiv York State College of Forestry lions that the European or Norway spruce may grow more rapidly than the native species, thus somewhat shortening the above rotation. European larch and Scotch pine will probably yield pulp stock in thirty to forty years. Railway ties,, telephone poles, etc. The rotation necessary to produce these products varies widely with the species. Chestnut was considered to produce its best yields, both financially and from the standpoint . of largest tie production, at about fifty-five years,* while white cedar poles may take 150 years. Red oak, which will probably supplant chestnut as the tie tree of the East will take a few years longer, about sixty to sixty-five years. Saw timber. The saw timber now coming upon the market was produced at no cost and the American lumberman has been harvesting the growth of centuries. (One authority estimates that it took 200 to 250 years to produce the average tree fur- nishing lumber for the market to-day.) European experience proves that when forest crops are grown artificially, large-sized timber largely disappears as the cost of production (figured upon a compound interest basis) is excessive. For saw timber, Rotlrf estimates that twelve inches breast high will prove the minimum diameter for saw timber, and naturally the time to produce a tree of this size will vary accord- ing to species and site quality. The range would be as follows :$ J/0 years or less: Poplar, soft maple and elm on moist fertile lands. 40-60 years: White ash, red oak, chestnut, elm, basswood and white pine (for box and barnboard stock). 60-80 years: Red pine, white pine ( for interior trim, etc. ) , hickory and tulip poplar. * Forest Service Bulletin No. 53, Chestnut in Southern Maryland. t Forest Regulation, p. 111. t To produce saw timber even on the best sites early thinnings would be highly desirable in order that undue competition could be reduced as soon as possible. Forestry for the Private Owner 109 Trees like red spruce, hemlock, beech, birch and hard maple would take anywhere from 90 to 120 years to reach saw log size, and the average woodlot owner would not start out with the idea of growing such a long-time crop as any of the above. As single trees or small groups in the stand, such species might be encouraged for sake of variety, but for saw purposes, etc., the major crop should be composed of the faster growing species. Shortening the Rotations The time element in the past has been one of the greatest drawbacks to the practice of forestry by the individual, for the average owner has felt that only the State or corporations like water companies and pulp companies having a continuous exist- ence could afford to wait for the harvest. If methods of forest management can be instituted which will shorten the rotation so that the investor starting early may receive some returns during his life or at least have a handsome return accrue to the next generation, the practice of forestry by the individual land owners will be much more widespread.* Other factors which have worked against private for- estry are the limited negotiability of half-grown timber in the average community and the danger from fire. With each passing year the effect of the educational campaign advocating the proper protection of our forest areas is becoming more apparent and before very long, a large part of this risk will be eliminated, since individuals and com- munities will strive together to stamp out the fire danger. Concerning negotiability, the decrease in amount of certain kinds of stumpage is causing a marked apprecia- tion in values of standing timber. In certain parts of this State where markets are unus- ually good, half-grown pine timber, for instance, can be readily sold at a fair price, since far-seeing men realize the * The present system of taxation, whereby a crop of trees maturing at fifty years has paid an annual tax every year of its existence, has also deterred many from acquiring land for forestry purposes or from holding on to cutover land. During the New York Legislative sessions of 1919 a series of bills aiming to improve this condition were introduced, but did not pass beyond the committee stage. Another effort is being made during the present session (1920) to lighten the tax load which forest land bears under present conditions. 110 The New York State College of Forestry future value of such seedling land. When forests are both safe and negotiable, they will be rated much higher as good, long-term investments, yielding a fair revenue. Rotations may be shortened by suiting the species to the site and by early and frequent thinnings which will permit all the available growing energy to be utilized by the marketable trees only. As far as financial considerations are concerned, these thinnings should furnish cash income quite a few years prior to the main harvest. (This is along the same lines as growing corn or beans between the rows of immature apple trees in a young orchard. ) Another method having possibilities is, when starting a plan- tation, to plant several hundred extra trees like balsam or spruce per acre, and after ten or twelve years, remove the extra trees and sell them for Christmas trees. Several land owners are trying this plan at present, but as yet no definite figures are available. Granting, however, that such an operation were located reasonably close to the cities and larger centers of popu- lation, where there is a definite demand for Christmas tree stock, and where the factor of transportation will not consume the larger bulk of the profits, returns of from $200 to $250 per acre net are indicated with reasonable surety on rotations extending over ten to twelve years. Forests as Investments Aside from the lack of negotiability of forest land and stand- ing timber, and the risk, the uncertainty of returns, both as to time and rate per cent, have prevented men of large means from managing forests as real investments. In this country, as in England and on the continent, there is a certain amount of prestige attached to the ownership of large landed properties, yet most of the largest forest owners have bought either for game parks or on speculation, and the idea of managing forest land for the purpose of obtaining a continuous or periodic income has been grasped only by a few foresighted men. The question of how much can you expect such an investment to yield is one that must be answered before forest management, on the basis of sustained yield, becomes general. Undoubtedly good stands of timber of the right species well-located as to rail- roads or drivable streams, are good investments, since the value Forestry for the Private Owner 111 of standing timber, especially in the East, seems certain to rise steadily during the next generation. The purchase of lands for speculative purposes, however, will hardly aid in right use of non-agricultural areas. Paper and pulp concerns, water companies, etc., will doubt- less buy and manage land for sustained yield when they are convinced that such management is profitable. What interest rate can forests yield, and how much should they be expected to return ? In security markets, the more secure an investment, the smaller is the return, as a rule, and ordinarily long-term invest- ments do not pay as high a rate as short term notes. Forest land, as previously stated, is not an absolutely safe investment at present, nor is it readily sold, but both of these undesirable features are decreasing from year to year. The forest resources of Germany pay a constant revenue of 3 per cent per annum on a capital value of $180 per acre,* and this rate per cent may be taken as the minimum in this country, with the possibility of "extra dividends" due to increased stumpage values. The planting of cheap land to pine has been recommended as a good investment, but one naturally of long duration. The Massachusetts State Foresterf claims that plantations of white pine in that state will yield 5 per cent compound interest, based on 1911 stumpage prices. This figure could then be taken for a maximum. As a general rule, it may be said that the State and federal governments will be justified in practising forestry even though the direct financial returns are no more than 2^ to 41/2 per cent. The private owner will not be content with such a small return, consequently must shorten his rotations by every means possible. In Europe, gross income ranging from four dollars to twelve dollars, and net revenues from two dollars to seven dollars per acre per year were received, before the war. Owing to the wide difference in labor and transportation costs, uncertain demands and unstable market conditions which obtain in this country, it is impossible to draw any parallel from these figures. However, it is an aboslute certainty that money now shrewdly invested in * Economics of Forestry, by Dr. B. E. Fernow, p. 50. t Forest Mensuration of White Pine. Mass. State Forester, Boston, Mass., 1911. 112 The New York State College of Forestry forest lands or forest plantations will show an excellent return at the end of the rotation, and every owner of land nnsuited to agriculture should set his idle land to work with the same zeal that he shows in keeping his spare cash always employed. Financial Returns It can be definitely shown that the financial returns from investments in forest production approximate those from other forms of investment enterprise, and that forestry can earn between 6 and 7 per cent on the capital invested. Three types of planting are taken as illustration, pure white pine, pure red pine, and an equal mixture of red and white pine. The figures at the basis of this computing were furnished by Prof. K. 0. TIawley and O. W. Pfleuger, of the Yale School of Forestry, and are the results of ten years' experience in planting and active forestry practice for the water company at New Haven, Conn. For the purpose. of calculation, the interest rate of 5 per cent was adopted arbitrarily. Such rate is slightly in excess at present of that offered by savings bank mortgages and other long-time investments. Basis of Calculation Plantation Estimated Yield per Acre in Board Feet Estimated value per 1,000 board feet at cutting 50 years 40 years 42,000 37,000 37,000 28,000 25,000 25,000 $20.00 20.00 Red pine and white 20.00 Costs* Establishment and planting $15 . 00 per acre Treatment for white pine weevil ( on pure white pine only) expended annually fifth to tenth y ear .50 per acre Cleanings, third year . 50 per acre Protection . 20 per acre per year Value of the laud devoted to forestry, apart from timber 10 . 00 per acre Taxes on forest land apart from the timber . 20 per acre per year Eate of interest used in calculations 5% Yield tax on the timber apart from the land at time of rotation 15% * Based on 1920 prices for the same grade of timber. Figure 14. Second Growth Pine Forest. Forests when properly pro- tected against fire constitute investments similar to long term bonds. A planted pine forest will yield approximately 6 per cent per annum with maturity at forty to fifty years. Forestry for the Private Owner 113 Plantation Net income per acre at end of rotation Rate of interest earned by the investment Net annual return per acre above 5% interest cost 50 years 40 years 50 years 40 years 50 years 40 years $315.70 273.74 273.74 $233.86 209.56 209.56 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.9 6.6 6.6 1.52 1.31 1.31 1.93 1.74 lied pine and white pine in equal mix- 1.74 It will at once be seen that fifty-year rotation for pure white pine yields $81.8-1 actual cash return more than a forty-year rotation. But it costs $208.60 more to raise fifty-year-old white pine than forty-year stock, hence the forty-year rotation earns at a rate of interest 0.4 per cent more than the fifty-year rotation. Similarly in the pure red pine and the mixed red and white plantation for a fifty-year rotation, there is shown an actual cash receipt of $64.18 greater than for the forty-year rotation. But here again, due to the smaller cost of producing forty-year-old trees, the forty-year rotation shows an earned rate of interest 4- per cent greater than for the fifty-year rotation. A comparison of the pure white pine with the pure red pine and with the mixed plantation shows an excess of $41.96 cash receipts in the fifty-year rotation and $24.30 in the forty-year rotation. The rate of interest earned on that investment is also better by 0.3 per cent for the pure white pine. It is thus demonstrated that the returns capable from pro- ducing timber in plantations makes such enterprises from a financial standpoint quite comparable with other forms of investment. It is to be remembered that the foregoing estimate is based on present prices. Every indication seems to point out the fact that prices for standing timber on the stump, i. e., stumpage values, will increase so that greater returns than those noted above might be expected. It may be asked how great a value of land can be allowed in forest production. Forestry only concerns itself with lands unsuited for agriculture. Hence the value of the lands devoted to forest production can not be placed at a very high figure. 114 The New York State College of Forestry From a trial of various values, the following values for land were computed as the highest values for forest land that can be allowed without loss, when taxed at a twenty-mill rate, interest figured at 5 per cent. Fifty-year rotation Forty-year rotation White pine $23.15 20.80 20.80 $27.40 24.10 Red pine 24.10 SUMMARY Undoubtedly, the raising of tree crops is an indispensable part of the nation's land program, and both the State and the private individuals should be encouraged to keep in forest every acre of non-agricultural soil. Such a movement will not only enrich the owner, but, by providing additional supplies of raw material to woodworking establishments, paper plants, etc., will add enormously to the income of skilled workmen, trans- portation companies, etc., and ultimately will add enormously to the income and prosperity of the whole State. Forestry no longer appeals for support on sentimental and aesthetic grounds alone. It is a movement essentially economic, and the right use of lands unsuited to agriculture is absolutely essential to the permanent prosperity of the country at large. The State itself should embark in the business of timber produc- tion, since it can afford to grow large timber on long rotations which the small owner can not do on account of the length of the rotation required and the fact that he must obtain a larger return for his invested capital. ]STot only should the State itself grow timber, but it should render all possible help to the small owner of non-agricultural land in order that he may grow and market repeated crops of valuable timber at a good profit, for no state is any more prosperous than its land-holding and operating element. Every acre of land within ISTew York State should be put to its best permanent use. Land that is level and fertile should be tilled and planted to field crops. Land too steep or too stony for tillage should be kept growing repeated crops of timber in Forestry for the Private Owner 115 order that future generations may have supplies of an indis- pensable product and the owners may receive revenue from all their land. The farmer or small woodlot owner is in the best position of all private individuals to practice forestry for the following reasons : 1. He owns the forest land in connection with tilled land, which produces an annual revenue. 2. He has the ordinary equipment in axes, saws, horses, stone boats, sleds, etc. 3. He has the time for woodlot improvements. On only small percentage of farms is the winter season completely filled. During slack periods in the winter, improvement cuttings can be made, while underplantings can be accom- plished to the vast improvement of the woodlot before ploughing time in the spring. 4. In many cases, an organization is in existence — either the Grange or the County Bureau — which should assist him in marketing his products with a good profit. The Wood Utilization Service of the College of Forestry is glad to act as a clearing house for the sale of the stumpage and manufactured products owned by the citizens of the State. From every standpoint forest owners of this type should prac- tice forestry. Briefly summarized, the points to be kept in mind are as follows: 1. The land in the woodlot represents capital as well as the tilled fields. It should be treated as a producing por- tion of the farm. 2. Forest management is merely good business sense applied to a crop of trees. It plans to grow as much valu- able timber in the shortest time possible. 3. The cuttings should aim to favor the best species, hence firewood and fence posts should be secured where removals will do the most good rather than where it is easiest to load on the sled. 4. Fires and grazing should be prohibited. Both reduce the dividends from the woodlot. 116 The Neiv York State College of Forestry 5. The profit in the entire transaction lies in properly marketing the products of the woodlot. The same energy and business sense should be used in selling a crop of timber as in selling a crop of fruit or potatoes. Trees will not spoil while waiting and will grow while the owner sleeps. The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse, as the Institution founded by the State for instruction and research in forestry, offers its cooperation to every land owner and citizen of the Empire State in order that the problem of the right use of land may be solved for the benefit of the present and succeed- ing generations. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berry, James B. Improving the Farm Woodlot. Bulletin, Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga., Circular 31, November, 1916. Blackman, M. W., and Ellis, W. 0. Some Insect Enemies of Trees and Ornamental Shrubs. Bulletin No. 6, vol. xvi, No. 26, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1916. Bray, William L. The Development of Vegetation in New York State. Technical Publication No. 3, vol. xvi, No. 2, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1916. Brown, Nelson C. The Hardwood Distillation Industry of New York State. Technical Publication No. 5, vol. xvii, No. 1, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1917. Brown, N. C, and Tryon, H. H. Wood Utilization Directory of New York State. Technical Publication No. 6, vol. xvii, No. 5, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y., 1917. Cary, Austin.. A Manual for Northern Woodsmen. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1919. Cheyney, E. G., and Wentling, J. P. The Farm Woodlot. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1914. Ferguson, John A. Farm Forestry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1916. Fernow, B. E. Economics of Forestry. Thomas V. Crowell & Co., New York, 1902. Foster, J. H. Marketing White Pine in New Hampshire. New Hamp- shire State College of Agriculture, Extension Bulletin No. 3, Durham, N. H., 1914. Foster, J. H., and Millen, F. H., and Krausz, H. B. Farm Forestry. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, Bulletin 42, College Station, Texas, 1917. Foster, J. FI. Plan for Better Forest Management of Woodlands. Pro- ceedings of American Foresters, July, 1914. Frothingham, E. H. The Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in the Eastern United States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 481, Washington, D. G, 1917- Graves, Henry S. Forest Mensuration. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1910. Graves, Henry S. Principles of Handling Woodlands. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1914. Graves, Henry S., and Ziegler, E. A. The Woodsman's Handbook. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletin 36, Washington, D. C, 1910. Graves, Henry S. National Forests and the Farmer. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1914. [117] 118 The New York State College of Forestry Graves, Henry S. The Practice of Forestry and the Private Owner. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. Graves, Henry S. Private Forestry. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 129, Washington, D. C. Graves, Henry S., and Fisher, K. T. The Woodlot. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 42, Washington, D. C, 1903. Hawley, R. C. Forestry in Southern New England. American Forestry, January, 1920. Hawley, R. C, and Hawes, A. F. Forestry in New England. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1912. Jones, R. C. Farm Forestry in Virginia. Virginia Geological Commis- sion, Office of the State Forester, Bulletin No. 12, University of Vir- ginia, Charlottesville, Va., 1917. Lamb, G. N., and Kratjsz, H. B. Industries Using North Carolina Farm Timber. North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, Extension Circular No. 73, Raleigh, N. C, 1918. Lovejoy, P. S. The Segregation of Farm from Forest Land. Journal of Forestry, October, 1919. Mattoon, W. R., and Barrows, W. B. Measuring and Marketing Woodlot Products. U S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 715, Washington, D. C, 1916. Moon, F. F. Cooperative Marketing of Woodlot Products. Proceedings of American Foresters, July, 1914. Moon, F. F. The Book of Forestry. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1916. Moon, F. F., and Brown, N. C. Elements of Forestry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Moon, F. F. Forest Conditions of Warren County, New York. New York Conservation Commission Bulletin No. 6, Albany, N. Y., 1911. Pinchot, Gifeord. The Primer of Forestry, Part I: The Forest. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 173, Washington, D. C. Pinchot, Gifeord. The Primer of Forestry, Part II: Practical Forestry. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 358, Washington, D. C. Rosenbluth, R. Woodlot Forestrv. New York Conservation Commission Bulletin No. 9, Albany, N. Y./ 1913. Roth, Filibert. Forest Regulation. Michigan Manual of Forestry, vol. 1, F. Roth, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1914. Stephen, J. W. Making Best Use of the Idle Lands in New York. New York State College of Forestry, Circular 19, vol. xvii, No. 25, Syracuse, N. Y, 1917. Stephen, J. W. Basket Willow Culture in New York State. New York State College of Forestry, Circular 18, vol. xvii, No. 24, Syracuse, N. Y, 1918. Smith, H. A. The Farm Woodlot Problem. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1914. Tillotson, C. R. Care and Improvement of the Woodlot. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 711, Washington, D. C, 1916. Forestry for the Private Owner 119 Totjmey, James W. Seeding and Planting. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1918. Zon, Raphael. Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investiga- gations. Appendix V, Final Report of the National Waterways Com- mission, p. 226, Washington, D. C, 1905. Reforesting Waste and Cutover Land. New Hampshire For- estry Commission, Bulletin IV, Concord, N. H. The Reforestation of Cutover and Idle Lands in New York. New York State College of Forestry Circular 2, vol. xiii, No. 1-a, Syra- cuse, N. Y, 1913. Hints for the Woodlot Owner. New York State College of For- estry, Folder 3, Syracuse, N. Y., 1913. Wood Utilization Service. New York State College of Forestry, Folder 8, Syracuse, N. Y, 1916. Forest Mensuration of White Pine. Massachusetts State For- ester's Office, Boston, Mass., 1911. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE PUBLICATIONS The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber. Farmers' Bulletin 744. Machinery for. Cutting Firewood. Farmers' Bulletin 1023. Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms. Farmers' Bulletin 745. What the Farm Contributes Directly to the Farmer's Living. Farmers' Bulletin 635. Uses of Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. Farmers' Bulletin 528. The Ashes: Their Characteristics and Management. Department Bulletin 299. The Commercial Hickories. Forest Service Bulletin 80. Scrub Pine. Forest Service Bulletin 94. Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. Department Bulletin 153. The Status and Value of Farm Woodlots in the Eastern United States. Department Bulletin 481. How to Pack and Ship Young Forest Trees. Forest Service Circular 55. How to Transplant Forest Trees. Forest Service Circular 61. Black Locust. Forest Service Circular 64. Black Walnut. Forest Service Circular 58. Norway Spruce. Forest Leaflet 12. Red Cedar. Forest Leaflet 20. Protection of Forests from Fire. Forest Service Bulletin 82. Making Woodlands Profitable in the Southern States. Farmers' Bulletin 1071. 120 The New York State College of Forestry STATE PUBLICATIONS ON FARM FORESTRY Circulars or bulletins on various phases of farm forestry have been pub- lished by many of the States. No attempt is made here to list these pub- lications. Applications from those desiring information about them should be addressed to the following: New Hampshire — Forestry Commission, State House, Concord, N. II. Maryland — State Forester, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. West Virginia — Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Morgan- town, W. Va. Kentucky — State Forester, Old State House, Frankfort, Ky. Tennessee — State Forester, State Geological Survey, Nashville, Tenn. North Carolina — State Forester, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. ; Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Raleigh, N. C. South Carolina — Director of Extension, Clemson College, S. C. Georgia — Department of Forestry, Agricultural College, Athens, Ga. Florida — Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Gainesville, Fla. Alabama — Director of Extension, Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. Mississippi— Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Miss. Louisiana — Superintendent of Forestry, Conservation Commission, New Orleans, La.; Director of Extension, Agricultural College, Baton Rouge, La. Texas — State Forester, College of Agriculture, College Station, Texas. APPENDIX [121] TABLES TABLE 1 Surveyor's Measure (Linear) 1 link = 0.01 chain = 0.66 foot = 7.92 inches 100 links = 1.00 chain = 4 rods = 66.00 feet 80 chains = 1.00 mile = 320 rods = 5,280 feet TABLE 2 Surveyor's Measure (Square) 1 acre — 160 square rods = 10 square chains = 43,560 square feet. 40 acres = a square whose side is 1,320 feet = 80 rods, 20 chains or *4 mile in length. 640 acres = 1 square mile or a square whose side is 1 mile. TABLE 3 Useful Equivalents and Converting Factors* Equals One cubic foot of round timber One cord (fuel wood averaging 5" or less at middle diameter of sticks) , size of pile 4x4x8' One cord (fuel wood averaging 6" or more at middle diameter of sticks) , size of pile 4x4x8' One cord spruce pulp wood One telephone pole 7" (diameter at top)x 30' One telephone pole 9" (diameter at top)x 30' One standard railroad tie 6 x 8" x 8' One railroad tie 7 x 9" x 8' One post 6" (in diameter) x 7' One standard cord stacked wood 6 board feet 333J board feet 500 board feet 550 board feet 60 board feet 100 board feet 30 board feet 35 board feet i board feet 90 cubic feet * Taken from "The National Forest Manual" 1915. [123] ±24 The Neiv York State College of Forestry APPLICATION OF LOG RULES Scale only the sound material in each log. First scale the log as sound, taking diameter measurements inside of the bark at the small end of the log, and the length to the nearest even foot. Disregard the excess allowed for trimming length. With the diameter and length gotten, look up the board foot values for the corresponding dimensions in the tabulated log rule accepted for use on that job. This gives the gross scale for the log. If there is no defect, the gross scale automatically becomes the net scale. If defect is present, scale the defective portion as if it were a log, and look up its board foot value. Deduct this figure from the gross scale of the log to get the net scale. Only net scale values should be entered into the tally book. In a properly conducted scale, each and every log should be sepa- rately examined. Forestry for the Private Oivner 125 TABLE 4 Doyle Log Rule Co vtents in Board Feet Top diameter — LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET 6 8 10 12 14 16 6 1.5 3.4 6 9 13 18 24 30 37 45 54 63 73 84 96 108 121 135 150 165 181 198 216 234 253 273 294 315 337 359 383 408 433 459 486 2.0 4.5 8 12 18 24 32 40 50 60 72 84 ' 98 112 128 144 162 180 200 220 242 264 288 312 338 364 392 420 450 480 512 544 578 612 648 2.5 ' 5.6 10 16 22 31 40 51 62 76 90 106 122 141 160 181 202 226 250 276 302 331 360 391 422 456 490 526 562 601 640 6S1 722 766 810 3.0 6.8 12 19 27 37 48 61 75 91 108 127 147 169 192 217 243 271 300 331 363 397 432 469 507 547 588 631 675 721 768 817 867 919 972 3.5 7.9 14 22 31 43 56 71 87 106 126 148 171 197 224 253 283 316 350 386 423 463 504 547 591 638 686 736 787 841 896 953 1011 1072 1134 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400 441 484 529 576 625 676 729 784 7 8 . . ... 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 841 900 961 1024 1089 36 37 38 1156 39 1225 40 1296 126 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 5 Sceibner Decimal C Log Rule Contents in Board Feet Top diameter — LENGTH c inches 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 6 5 5 10 10 10 20 20 7 5 10 10 20 20 30 30 8 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 9 10 20 30 30 30 40 40 10 20 30 30 30 40 60 60 11 20 30 40 40 50 70 80 12 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 13 40 50 60 70 80 100 110 14 40 60 70 90 100 110 130 15 50 70 90 110 120 140 160 16 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 17 70 90 120 • 140 160 180 210 18 80 110 130 160 190 210 240 19 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 20 110 140 170 210 240 280 310 21 120 150 190 230 270 300 340 22 130 170 210 250 290 330 380 23 140 190 230 280 330 380 420 24 150 210 250 300 350 400 450 25 170 230 290 340 400 460 520 26 190 250 310 370 440 500 560 27 210 270 340 400 480 550 620 28 220 290 360 440 510 580 650 29 230 310 380 460 530 61-0 680 30 250 330 410 490 570 660 740 31 270 360 440 530 620 710 800 32 280 370 460 550 040 740 830 33 290 390 490 590 690 780 880 34 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 35 330 440 550 660 770 880 980 36 350 460 580 690 810 920 1040 37 390 510 640 770 900 1030 1160 38 400 540 670 800 930 1070 1200 39 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 40 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 Forestry for the Private Owner 127 TABLE 6 International Log Rule Contents oe Logs in Board Feet* Top diameter — LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET inches 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 10 10 15 20 20 25 30 7 15 15 20 25 30 35 45 8 20 25 30 35 45 50 60 9 25 30 40 50 55 65 75 10 30 40 50 60 70 85 95 11 40 50 65 75 90 105 115 12 50 65 75 90 105 125 140 13 60 75 90 110 130 145 165 14 70 90 110 130 150 175 195 15 80 105 125 150 175 200 225 16 95 120 145 170 200 230 260 17 105 135 165 195 225 260 295 18 120 155 185 220 255 295 330 19 135 175 210 250 290 330 370 20 150 195 235 275 320 365 410 21 170 215 260 305 355 405 455 22.i 185 235 285 340 390 445 500 23 205 260 315 370 430 490 550 24 225 285 345 405 470 535 600 25 245 310 375 445 510 580 650 26 265 335 405 480 555 630 705 27 290 365 440 520 600 735 765 28 310 395 475 560 645 790 825 29 335 425 510 605 695 845 885 30 360 455 550 645 745 905 950 Based on Sawkerf of one-eighth inch. 128 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 7 New York Standard Dimick or Glens Falls Rule* Diameter in Inches FEET 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 .009 .01 .02 .03 .04 .00 .07 5 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .07 .08 6 .01 .02 .03 .05 .06 .08 .10 .02 .02 .04 .05 .08 .10 .12 8 .02 .02 .04 .06 .09 .11 .14 9 .02 .03 .05 .07 .10 .12 .15 10 .02 .03 .05 .08 .11 .14 .17 11 .03 .03 .06 .08 .12 .15 .19 12 .03 .04 .06 .09 .13 .17 .20 13 .03 .04 .07 .10 .14 .18 .22 Diameter in Inches FEET 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 '.-.. 11 12 13 .09 .11 .13 .15 .17 .19 .22 .24 .26 .28 .10 .13 .16 .18 .21 .24 .26 .29 .31 .34 .12 .15 .18 22 !25 .28 .31 .34 .37 .40 .14 .18 22 !25 .29 .33 .36 .40 .43 .47 .17 .21 .25 .29 .33 .37 .42 .46 .50 .54 .19 .24 .29 .33 .38 .43 .48 .52 .57 .62 .22 .27 .33 . .38 .44 .49 ,55 .60 .66 .71 Diameter in Inches FEET 17 18 19 20 21 22 4 .25 .31 .37 .43 .49 .55 .02 .68 .74 .80 • .28 .35 .42 .48 .55 .62 .69 .76 .83 .90 .31 .38 .46 .54 .62 .69 .77 .85 .92 1.00 .34 .43 .51 .60 .68 .77 .85 .94 1.02 1.11 .3S .47 .56 .66 .75 .S4 .94 1.03 1.13 1 .22 .41 5 .52 6 .62 .72 8 .82 9. . .93 10 1.03 11 1.13 12 1.24 13 1.34 * A Dimick Standard is accepted as the equivalent of a log thirteen feet long and nineteen inches inside the bark at the smaller end. Forestry for the Private Owner TABLE 7— {Continued) 129 Length Diameter in Inches feet 23 24 25 26 27 28 4 .45 .57 .68 .79 .90 1.02 1.13 1.24 1.36 1.47 .49 .62 .74 .86 .98 1.11 1.23 1.35 1.48 1.60 .53 .67 .80 .93 1.06 1.20 1.33 1.46 1.60 1.73 .58 .72 .86 1.01 1.15 1.29 1.44 1.58 1.73 1.87 .62 .78 .93 1.09 1.24 1.40 1.55 1.71 1.86 2.02 .67 5 83 6 1 00 7 1.17 8 1.34 9 1.50 10 1.67 11 1.84 12 2.00 13 2.17 Diameter in Inches FEET 29 30 31 32 33 34 4 .72 .90 1.08 1.25 1.43 1.61 1.79 1.97 2.15 2.33 .77 .96 1.15 1.34 1.53 1.72 1.92 2.11 2.30 2.49 .82 1.02 1.23 1.43 1.64 1.84 2.05 2.25 2.46 2.66 .87 1.09 1.31 1.53 1.75 1.97 2.18 2.40 2.62 2.84 .93 1.16 1.39 1.63 3.86 2.09 2.32 2.56 2.79 3.02 .98 5 1.23 6 1.48 7 1.72 8 1.97 9 2.22 10 2.46 11 2.71 12 2.95 13 3.20 Diameter in Inches FEET 35 36 37 38 39 40 4 1.04 1.30 1.56 1.83 2.09 2.35 2.61 2.87 3.13 3.39 1.10 1.38 1.66 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.76 3.04 3.31 3.59 1.17 1.46 1.75 2.04 2.33 2.62 2.92 3.21 3.50 3.79 1.23 1.54 1.85 2.15 2.46 2.77 3.08 3.38 3.69 4.00 1.30 1.62 1.94 2.27 2.59 2.91 3.24 3.56 3.89 4.21 1.36 5 1.70 6 2.04 7 2.39 8 2.73 9 3.07 10 3.41 11 3.75 12 4.09 13 4.43 130 The Neiv York State College of Forestry EH H S Q a "X o M m EH Z H EH (5 O U S.S oS e3 iNCMC0C0OI>WTtl^00rHC000©N"tfiX>©iH-*t>©-'*t>rHlOO5e0t--^lNlNCOCO©CO''tfCO"*t>rHt-totot-SOtoCO t-C0iHO5t>l>00©COt-i-lt-C0i-l©O5O5©C0CO©tolNO5t-«OtoCO00rHTt< i-IC^COCO-*L^OOOC»ONC010t-050CC0CCOOOOCO>nrH«0'* rHCO iHrHHHrHiMIMIMlNCOCOCOTt < -*"*10»05D | iOCOt-t-0000 O r-i Blodgett or New Hamp- shire 010CO-#COOOiMCOCOe5t-CCt-l-OMt--C005t-t-COI>05'*l>NOOtOTtl'HH CMCOTt©TtHrHto©to©5Tj<©Tt00O5O5© H S be O J cci Z/l -*05COlOC005rt H ® 'Si O Q Tf05CD10C005-*rHOl-H'*05COlCCD05TtlrHOrH-*l05CD»CC005"HHl-IOrHTtl r H(NM^i»GO©C4-tf©C5CMtoQOlNCD©"*00INOO-'tf©OCOTfiOCOCO THCMeO-tftotOt-O5i-i-*to00i-H-tfGO©COt-©to©Tr00©torH0000©t-OCO rtHHrtHrtrtriHHNNNNNNNMNNMMOSMMMM Forestry for the Private Owner 131 CO Li >> ■ oooooooooooooo ■© ■ • . . £ cj SE oooooooooooooo • © • • • • ■j oqeoc»o_tNt-TH«ewc3scNc»Min .° ft 3 B cj CJ _; OCOOOOOOC'OOC'OO •© • ■ • • _o oooooooooooooo •© • • • • O 2 M^O^rtTH05-*CSt>Ot>00 0_Tti .[-.... •* cfio iot« ■*"•* -*io io ■* \d bb" ;■* ; ; ; ; « >> • OOOOOOOOOOOOOO .©•••• 2 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO -O • • ■ • "j l>l»©rHCirHt-lO©0»Cl©lO© -CJ • • ■ • wMcoco^^"^iot>iO'*co«Dco ;•* ! . i . 03 Q P 0) a o a CJ .; oooooooooooooo • © • • ■ ■ O K CN 2 oooooooooooooo • © • • • • Q J — CDCC10 00t^tti>o*i^cci>i>oo"coio !■>!!!! 5 Q • oooooooooooooo ■© • • • • O ■< 2 oooooooooooooo ■ © • • • ■ ■j corHO_caoqoo-in .t- . . . . s 02 ■El o a EH H H H ft Q 00 a _; OOOOOOOOOOOOOO •© • • • • rH CJ 2 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO .©.... ■j »ocr. cicooc ace co© coco ©th -co • • • • t>©oo©^aJt>co©©c»©©"© .ad " " ' ' Q P5 O a rH t— 1 T — 1 pa o o H H Q • ©oooooo©©©©©©© .©.... © 2 ©o©©©©©©©©©©©© .©.... "j t>0>iHMeO©©CN©©Nr-l©10 -CM • • • • i-T -~cc©"T-Tood©T-Ko 'co ' 03 .2 CM rHrH Hrl HH 'a • ©©©o©ooo©o©©©© .©.... o i-H cj ? 2 ©©ooccocoooo©© •©••■• •j iHint-Nin©N©t>c»O500-*c)0 .©.... TH©(NM©(NTHM'*cNiHV'*ad [ tH" III" o rH rH rinrtriHnHHHHri T-l O M j i-<"eH U • ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©o©o© y •O 2 ©©©©©©©©ooooooo©©©©© ■j lOHCDt-CBCnc^CCCOHHKCCO&OO M 3 W J t-t < mmmmmnwwVwwcoVnnmnnnm !3 a ■ ©©©©©©©©©©©©©© ■©.... p CJ u O 2 ©©©©©©©o©©o©©© •©..-. 2 Oi rl H+3 C n ^ IB h *H ^i .ft a fl £ £ c pquoHHH " '. '. u '. u . . • d • s S" te k. +■ O" &^ JH Z2 '3 r- ,2 * o3cd'3r- : n " "^ ® 8S5ft ft'cS.^ CJ wpqWW , 02 tD , 3 cd t2 co>i-i p o fl» ^ u cd g q; 3 2 .2 •2 2 « § «!§!* c« " ® .2 ^ '3 £5 „. fH U)^ m S ? fi 2 eg .rH u -3 sb a S22 ■n 02 0) 0) r,+3 ^ CS §£^ s 2 B " ° S ft m « g - "ft £+-' •" a> "S, cs B lib I Si; 38 oj ■« .q 02 "O flu fe . r© "O H H H a) S o -Q B o 3" _ cj 5 . © m fl 3 M 03 -B3 fcOO 02 « .3 aj CJ rB •» A CJ d hB H &H o £ o 132 The New York State College of Forestry APPLICATION OF VOLUME TABLES A volume table, unlike a log rule, only applies to the given species for which it was made. Hence for every species represented in the field tally sheet a separate table must be consulted. The tally sheets should be to- tallied for all diameters, species and height classes and divided by the num- ber of acres actually covered to get the average number of trees per acre in each class. If the tally has been made by diameters alone, a secondary study should be carried out on a requisite number of trees in each species to get the average height class for each diameter width in the species. Consult a volume for each species for the volume of a tree represented within each class on the tally sheet. Multiply this volume value, which is the average value for a tree of that class, by the number of trees repre- sented in each class in the tally. Total all values within each species. Total for all species. This will give the stand per acre. Forestry for the Private Owner 133 Sterrett, 1915. TABLE 10 Volume Table — White Ash Eastern States: Based on 475 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in inches NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 2 2% 3 3% 4 4% 5 S 32 43 51 69 9 37 50 60 80 10 42 58 70 91 11 49 6S 80 100 12 57 78 93 120 140 13 66 90 110 130 160 14 77 100 120 150 180 200 230 15 90 120 140 170 200 230 260 16 100 130 160 190 220 260 290 17 120 150 180 210 250 290 330 18 170 200 240 280 320 370 19 190 230 270 320 360 420 20 210 250 300 360 410 470 21 230 280 340 400 460 520 22 260 310 380 450 510 590 °3 290 350 420 500 580 660 24 380 460 550 650 740 25 420 510 610 730 830 26 460 570 680 810 920 27 510 630 760 890 1020 28 560 690 840 980 1130 29 760 920 1070 1240 30 830 1010 1170 1360 134 The Neiv York State College of Forestry TABLE 11 Volume Table — Aspen Marston, Frothingham, 1906 Maine: Based on 362 trees Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET inches 30 40 50 60 70 SO 90 6 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.5 6.0 7 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.5 7.0 8.5 8 5.5 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 11.5 13.0 9 7.0 8.0 9.5 11.0 12.5 14.5 16.5 10 9.5 10.5 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 jl 13.5 15.0 17.0 19.0 21.5 25.0 12 16.5 18.0 20.5 23.0 26.5 30.0 13 21.5 24.0 27.0 31.5 36.0 14 25.0 28.5 32.0 37.0 43.0 15 28.0 32.0 37.0 43.0 51.0 ' 16 37.0 43.0 50.0 59.0 17 43.0 49.5 57.0 68.0 18 49.5 57.0 66.0 76.0 19 56.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 20 04.0 74.0 84.0 95.0 TABLE 12 Volume Table — Aspen Marston, Frothingham, 1906 Maine: Based on 362 trees Merchantable Volume in Cords* D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET inches 30 40 50 00 70 SO 90 6 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 S 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.15 9 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 10 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.22 11 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.27 12 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.33 13 0.24 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.40 14 0.27 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.48 15 0.32 0.36 0.41 0.48 0.57 16 0.41 0.47 0.56 0.66 17 0.47 0.54 0.63 0.75 18 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.84 19 0.71 0.80 0.94 20 0.81 0.91 1.05 * Converted from the original table in cubic feet on the basis of 90 cubic feet (solid) to the cord. Forestry for the Private Owner 135 TABLE 13 Volume Table — Basswood Frothingham, 1915 U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 285 Lake States: Based on 319 trees D.B.H. ob in inches- S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28. 29 30 Volume in Board Feet • — ■ Scribnee Rule NUMBER OP 16-FOOT LOGS 16 17 IS iy 2 21 23 26 31 38 30 36 44 53 63 75 89 100 120 2% 43 53 60 70 80 94 110 130 150 170 190 210 240 270 300 340 380 60 69 79 90 100 120 140 160 180 210 240 270 300 340 3S0 420 470 520 570 620 680 740 S00 3% 100 110 130 150 170 190 220 250 280 320 360 400 450 500 560 620 680 750 820 890 970 130 140 160 180 200 230 260 290 330 370 420 470 520 580 650 720 790 870 960 1040 1130 4% 220 240 270 300 340 380 430 480 540 600 670 750 830 920 1010 1100 1190 1290 TABLE 14 Volume Table — Beech Frothingham, 1915 U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 285 Michigan : Based on 285 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet D.B.H. ob in NUMBER OP 16-FOOT LOGS inches 1 iy 2 2 2y 3 3 3V 2 4 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 25 29 35 42 50 32 36 42 50 60 75 47 52 61 74 92 120 150 180 220 67 77 91 110 130 160 190 220 260 290 330 370 400 440 490 530 87 100 120 140 170 200 230 270 310 350 390 430 470 520 570 620 110 130 150 170 200 230 270 310 350 400 450 500 560 610 670 740 170 200 230 270 310 360 410 460 510 570 640 710 780 870 136 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 15 Volume Table — Beech Waha and Cheever, 1903 New York: Based on 485 trees Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties Dana, 1907. TABLE 16 Volume Table — Paper Birch Maine-New Hampshire: Based on 445 trees Merchantable Volume i> Cubic Feet D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREI in feet 50 60 70 SO 90 6 5.2 6.8 8.9 11.2 14.0 17.2 20.0 5.9 7.8 10.2 12.8 15.9 19.5 23.4 28.0 33.0 38.9 6.7 9.9 11.5 14.5 18.0 21.8 26.3 31.5 37.3 44.0 51.0 7.8 10 . 4 13 . 3 16.5 20.4 24.6 29.5 35.3 42.1 49.7 57.5 7 12.2 S 15.3 9 18 8 10 22.8 11 27.5 12 33.0 13 39.6 14 47 4 15 55 8 16 60.0 Forestry for the Private Owner 137 TABLE 17 Volume Table — Papek Birch Maine-New Hampshire: Based on 445 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 40 50 60 70 80 90 6 18 24 32 40 50 64 7S 22 28 38 48 60 73 88 106 126 26 34 45 57 72 88 106 127 150 177 206 30 40 52 67 85 104 124 148 176 207 242 280 320 35 46 60 76 95 117 141 169 201 236 276 320 366 7 52 68 86 108 132 160 191 226 266 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 310 17 360 18 412 * Converted from the original, Table 16, in cubic feet. TABLE 18 Volume Table — Yellow Birch H. C. Belyea, 1919. St. Lawrence Co., N. Y. : Based on 351 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet ■ — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in inches 10 11 12 1.3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 36 41 47 54 61 68 76 84 93 102 112 123 135 148 162 177 193 210 229 250 NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 1% 43 48 53 60 67 75 84 95 108 121 136 150 169 186 206 223 243 264 286 310 336 55 60 66 75 86 97 107 123 139 157 177 198 222 245 271 296 324 351 382 420 •152 2% 72 80 95 106 122 140 158 175 200 224 254 285 317 350 385 418 452 500 549 598 3 3% 145 168 166 198 193 229 217 262 246 300 281 345 317 392 357 445 400 496 441 550 495 621 538 678 590 750 645 830 710 920 775 1050 138 The Neiv York State College of Forestry TABLE 19 Volume Table — Yellow Birch Walia and Cheever, 1903 New York: Based on 941 trees Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties D.B.H. ob inches Number of standard ties, 7" x 9" x 8' D.B.H. ob inches Number of standard ties, 7" x 9" x 8' 12 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 99 6 13 23 6 14 24 7 15 25 7 16 26 8 17 27 8 18 28 9 19 29 9 20 30 9 21 Chapman, 1912. TABLE 20 Volume Table — Chestnut Pike Co., Pa.: Based on 222 trees Merchantable Volume of the Trees in Cubic Feet D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 30 40 50 60 70 3 0.8 1.7 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.8 6.0 7.6 , 9.6 *4;<3 5.4 6.5 7. 7 9.5 12.2 15.2 18.6 23.1 27.9 i2i6 15.0 18.4 22.0 26.6 30.8 35.3 40.0 44.7 50.4 56.9 63.4 4 1. •> 3! 4 2 2 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 Forestry for the Private Oivner 139 TABLE 21 Volume Table — Chestnut Pike Co., Pa.: Based on 222 trees MERCHANTABLE VOLUME IN BOARD FEET* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OP THE TREE IN FEET 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 10 15 19 25 34 45 IS 24 32 42 54 70 26 33 41 52 70 88 110 139 168 200 230 57 69 85 107 133 160 186 215 246 277 314 356 400 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 155 176 200 230 260 300 18 • 340 19 20 385 440 * Converted to board foot values and extended from the original, Table 20, in cubic feet. Boisen, 1910. TABLE 22 Volume Table — Hickory Eastern States: Based on 365 trees Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT OP THE TREE IN FEET 40 50 60 2.4 3.2 70 SO 90 6 1.3 1.9 1.8 2.5 3.1 4.0 5.1 7 S 2.6 3.4 4.2 5.3 6.5 8.0 9 3.6 4.6 5.8 7.0 8.4 10.2 10 4.8 6.1 7.4 8.9 10.7 12.5 11 6.3 7.8 9.4 11.3 13.2 15.5 12 7.S 9.5 11.6 13.7 15.9 18.4 13 11.7 14.2 16.7 19.4 22.3 14 17.0 19.7 22.8 26.1 15 19.5 22.6 26.1 26.1 30.0 29.5 16 33.9 17 29.4 33.9 38.2 IS 32. S 37.6 42.5 140 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 23 Volume Table — Hickoey Eastern States: Based on 365 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT OF THE TREE IN FEET 40 6 9 13 19 27 36 46 50 60 70 80 90 6 7 8 9 9 13 18 25 34 45 56 70 12 16 22 32 42 54 68 85 103 119 15 20 28 38 50 65 81 100 119 138 161 184 206 26 34 46 60 76 94 116 138 159 184 208 234 42 55 10 71 11 90 12 108 13 132 14 158 15 180 16 17 208 236 18 265 Converted from the original, Table 22, in cubic feet. TABLE 24 Volume Table — Sugar Maple Frothingham, 1915 Lake States: Based on 27S trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in inches NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 1 1% 2 2% 38 3 3% 4 8 20 25 31 9 23 30 40 50 10 28 37 47 62 76 94 11 34 43 59 76 93 110 12 40 50 70 91 110 135 170 13 57 82 110 130 160 190 14 65 95 130 155 190 220 15 73 110 150 180 220 250 16 83 120 170 210 250 290 17 93 140 190 240 280 330 18 100 160 220 270 320 380 19 180 240 300 370 430 20 200 270 340 410 490 21 220 300 380 460 550 22 250 340 420 520 620 23 370 470 580 690 24 410 520 640 770 25 460 570 710 840 26 500 630 780 930 Forestry for the Private Otvner 141 TABLE 25 Volume Table — Sugar Maple Waha and Cheever, 1903 New York: Based on 296 trees Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties D.B.H. ob inches Number of standard ties, 7" x 9" x 8' D.B.H. ob inches Number of standard ties, 7" x 9" x 8' 12 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 20 5 13 21 6 14 22 6 15 23 6 16 24 7 17 25 8 18 26 10 19 Volume Table TABLE 26 Red, Black and Scarlet Oaks Peters, 1905. Connecticut and New York: Based on 441 trees Volume IN BOARD Feet* D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OP THE TREE IN FEET inches 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 r r 20 29 39 51 63 77 24 34 46 61 77 96 114 134 156 29 39 54 74 93 115 136 161 187 216 249 285 325 369 417 45 65 88 110 134 166 189 219 254 292 335 3(80 429 481 104 127 155 185 218 252 294 338 386 436 491 547 247 285 335 385 438 493 555 614 * Converted to board foot values from the original table in cubic feet. 142 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 27 Volume Table — White and Chestnut Oaks Peters, 1905. Connecticut and New York: Based on 293 trees Volume in Board Feet* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET . 40 50 60 70 80 90 6 20 24 29 29 39 51 63 34 46 61 77 39 55 73 93 45 65 88 110 104 131 8 9 ■. 10 11 77 96 115 135 156 12 93 114 136 161 185 13 134 161 189 217 14 157 188 218 256 15 217 255 292 16 249 294 331 381 17 285 325 327 371 374 419 423 IS 469 19 365 417 465 525 20 415 463 520 591 * Converted to board foot values from the original table in cubic feet. TABLE 28 Cordwood Volume Table fob Second Growth White Oak Peters, 1905. New York : Based on 349 trees Cordwood Volume IN C dbic Feet* D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET inches 20 30 40 50 60 9 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.8 1.4 2.3 3.4 4.8 'i'.i 1.8 2.7 4.0 5.7 7.7 3.2 4.S 6.6 9.0 11. S 15.3 19.6 24.6 3 4 5.. . 6 5.7 7 7.9 8 10.6 9 10 13.6 17.3 11... 22.6 12 28.0 13 14 32.2 37.2 15 42.0 * These volumes include all of the tree that can be utilized for cordwood down to a diameter of one inch. A cord made up of mixed diameters, is considered to contain 80 cubic feet of solid wood, and the values from this table can be directly converted to cords by dividing by 80. Forestry for the Private Owner 143 TABLE 29 Volume Table — Balsam Fir Zon, 1914. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55. New York: Based on 947 trees D.B.H. ob in inches 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1G 40 Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 50 4.0 5.1 6.8 8.9 11.2 13.6 60 5.9 8.0 10.4 13.0 15.6 18.3 21.1 70 9.1 11.9 14.8 17.6 20.9 24.5 28.4 32.9 37.8 80 16.6 19.8 23.6 27.7 32.2 37.5 43.2 TABLE 30 Volume Table — Balsam Fir Zon, 1914 (curved), New York: Based on 947 trees n lERCHANTABLE VOLUME IN BOARD FEET HOLLAND Rule* D.B.H. ob in HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET 40 50 60 70 SO 6 10 13 19 25 12 15 22 29 37 46 "it 26 34 43 52 61 71 "29 39 49 60 71 82 99 120 132 7 8 9 10 55 11 64 12 81 13. . . 94 14 115 15 131 16 151 * Table obtained by converting cubic foot volumes to board feet, by use of con- verting factors offered by Zon, U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55, page 55. 144 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 31 Number of Trees per Cord Zon, 1914. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 55. Balsam Fir Maine and New York: Based on 2171 trees Number op Trees per Cord D.B.H. ob in HEIGHT OF TREE IN PEET inches 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 200 111.1 62.5 125 62.5 41.7 29.4 45.5 30.3 22.2 23.8 17.5 14.7 4 5 22.2 16.7 13.3 11.2 9.5 8 12.8 10.4 8.8 7.3 6.0 9 10.1 8.4 7.0 5.8 4.9 10 8.3 6.4 5.8 4.9 4.2 6.8 5.6 4.9 4.1 3.6 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.1 13 3.5 3.1 2.7 14 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.2 TABLE 32 Volume Table — -Hemlock Frothingham, 1915. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 152. Lake States: Based on 534 trees Volume in Board Feet ■ — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in incbes HEIGHT OP TREE IN FEET 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 14 22 2£ 37 4€ 56 6E 7f 13 22 32 41 53 65 77 90 110 120 140 160 180 200 220 20 29 40 52 64 78 95 110 130 150 180 200 230 260 290 330 360 390 430 470 500 540 570 25 35 47 60 76 94 110 130 160 180 210 240 280 310 350 380 420 460 510 550 590 640 680 30 40 52 67 84 100 130 150 180 210 240 280 310 350 390 440 490 530 580 640 690 750 800 75 93 110 140 160 190 220 260 300 340 380 430 480 540 600 660 720 780 850 920 240 280 320 360 410 470 520 580 650 720 790 870 940 1030 Forestry for the Private Owner 145 H. C. Belyea, 1919. TABLE 33 Volume Table — Hemlock St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 950 trees 146 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 34 Volume Table — Hemlock Bark Frothingham, 1915. Vermont, Appalachian Region: U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 152. Based on 682 trees D.B.H. ob in inches Volume of Bark in Cords Volume of bark Volume of bark per 1000 b. f.— Scribner 10 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 '0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.47 0.50 3 5 11 2 9 12 2 8 13 2 3 14 1.9 15 1 6 16 1 3 17 1 2 18 1 i 19 1.0 20 9 21 8 22 8 23 0.7 24 0.7 25 0.6 26 0.6 27 0.5 28 0.5 29 0.5 30 0.4 TABLE 35 Volume Table — Bed Spruce H. C. Belyea, 1918. St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 1260 trees Merchantable Volume in Cubic Feet D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 50 60 70 80 90 100 8 6.5 8.0 11.0 14.5 18.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 29.5 32.5 36.0 39.0 11.0 14.0 17.5 22.0 27.0 31.5 36.0 40.0 44.0 48.0 52.0 56.0 60.0 14.0 17.5 22.5 28.0 33.5 38.5 43.5 48.5 53.5 . 58.5 64.0 69.0 74.0 79.0 84.5 90.0 97.0 103.0 58.0 63.0 68.5 73 . 78.0 83.0 89.0 95.0 102.0 109.0 116.0 9 jO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 90.0 96.0 21 102.5 22 109.0 23 116.0 24 . . 123.5 25 132.0 Forestry for the Private Oivner 117 TABLE 36 Volume Table — Red Speuce H. C. Belyea, 1918. St. Lawrence Co., New York: Based on 1260 trees Merchantable Volume in Cords* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 50 60 70 80 90 100 S 0.03 O.OS 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.11 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.40 0.43 0.07 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.67 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.31 0.37 0.43 ' 0.49 0.54 0.59 0.65 0.71 0.77 0.82 0.88 0.95 1.00 1.08 1.14 0.64 0.70 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.92 0.99 1.05 1.13 1.21 1.28 9 'i l l l l l i 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 00 07 14 21 23 29 24 37 25 47 * Converted from original table in cubic feet on the basis that 90 cubic feet (solid) equals one cord. Murphy, 1917. TABLE 37 Volume Table — Red Spruce New York: Based on 1507 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 50 60 70 80 90 100 8 34 43 55 68 82 97 110 120 140 160 180 41 53 67 82 97 120 135 150 170 190 220 250 270 300 320 48 67 78 96 110 130 160 180 200 230 260 290 320 360 400 440 490 540 75 90 110 130 160 180 210 240 270 300 340 380 420 470 530 580 640 100 130 150 180 200 230 270 300 340 380 430 480 540 600 670 740 9 ,10 11 140 12 170 13 200 14 230 15 260 16 300 17 340 18 19 380 430 20 480 21 540 22 600 23 24 670 750 25 840 148 The New York State College of Forestry Murphy, 1917. TABLE 38 Volume Table — Red Spkuce New York: Based on 1507 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 1 iy 2 2 2% 3 3% 4 4V2 5 8 19 24 30 36 42 32 36 41 47 54 60 67 75 43 49 56 65 74 84 95 110 120 130 140 56 64 72 81 91 100 120 130 150 160 180 200 210 "73 85 98 110 130 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 290 320 . 350 380 410 'ioo 120 130 150 170 190 210 230 260 290 320 350 380 410 450 480 'i.60 180 200 220 250 270 300 340 370 410 450 490 530 580 "230 260 290 320 350 390 430 470 520 570 620 680 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 410 19 450 20 500 21 550 22 600 23 660 24 730 25 800 Murphy, 1917. TABLE 39 Volume Table — Red Spkuce New York: Based on 1507 trees Merchantable Volume in Standards — DlMICK 's Rule* D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 50 60 70 80 90 100 8 0-20 0.20 0.37 0.44 0.52 0.60 0.69 0.77 0.86 0.95 1.05 0.27 0.36 0.44 0.54 0.64 0.74 0.84 0.94 1.06 1.18 1.31 1.43 1.55 1.69 1.83 0.32 0.41 0.50 0.62 0.74 0.86 0.99 1.12 1.26 1.40 1.57 1.73 1.90 2.08 2.27 2.47 2.66 2.85 0.56 0.70 0.83 0.97 1.12 1.28 1.44 1.62 1.80 2.00 2.22 2.44 2.67 2.90 3.14 3.39 0.92 1.07 1.24 1.42 1.61 1.81 2.03 2.26 2.51 2.77 3.04 2.32 3.61 3.92 9 10 11 12 13 14 1.36 15 1.55 16 1.76 17 1.99 18 2.23 19 2.49 20 2.78 21 3.08 22 3.39 23 3.72 24 4.06 25 4.42 * A Dimick Standard is equal to the volume of a log thirteen feet long and nineteen inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end. Forestry for the Private Owner 149 Murphy, 1917. TABLE 40 Volume Table — Red Spruce New York: Based on 1507 trees D.B.H. ob in inches 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Merchantable Volume in Standards — Dimick's Rule* 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.22 0.26 NUMBER OF 16-FOOT LOGS 1% 2 2y 3 3 3y 3 4 4% 0.22 0.2! ) 0.37 0.24 0.3: 5 0.42 0.47 0.28 0.3f I 0.47 0.55 0.66 0.32 0.4: $ 0.53 0.63 0.75 0.36 0.4? I 0.60 0.72 0.85 0.98 0.41 0.5: ? 0.66 0.80 0.95 1.10 0.46 0.5J i 0.73 0.89 1.06 1.23 1.41 0.51 0.6J 5 0.81 0.98 1.17 1.36 1.56 0.7" 0.89 1.08 1.29 1.50 1.71 ().7 r r 0.97 1.18 1.41 1.64 1.81 0.8.' $ 1.05 1.29 1.54 1.80 2.07 1.14 1.40 1.68 1.96 2.17 1.22 1 ■'"' 1.51 1.64 1.77 1.92 2.07 2.22 1.82 1.98 2.14 2.32 2.51 2.70 2.14 2.33 2.53 2.74 2.96 3.19 2.48 2.69 2.92 3.16 3.41 3.68 2.39 2.59 2.81 3.05 3.31 3.60 3.90 4.20 * A Dimick Standard is equal to the volume of a log thirteen feet long and nineteen inches in diameter inside the bark at the small end of the log. Woolsey, 1905. TABLE 41 Volume Table — Red Pine Minnesota: Based on 964 trees Merchantable Volume in Board Feet — Scribner Rule D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT CLASS OF THE TREE IN FEET 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 55 62 76 90 106 123 70 82 98 112 132 153 176 202 229 85 102 122 144 168 193 220 250 282 317 355 396 105 126 150 178 208 240 275 311 349 390 433 480 530 584 147 177 210 246 284 323 370 417 468 523 582 646 715 790 867 951 1041 11 12 13 14 15 16 383 17 435 18 490 19 551 20 616 21 685 22 755 23 830 24 905 25 986 26 1075 27 1166 150 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 42 Volume Table — Virgin Growth White Pine New York Conservation Commission. New York State Merchantable Volume in Board Feet D.B.H. ob in TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREES IN FEET inches . 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 8 20 28 34 41 50 58 66 74 83 93 100 23 31 39 47 58 68 79 92 106 •121 130 27 35 44 54 66 79 93 110 130 150 160 180 30 39 49 61 74 88 106 125 145 165 180 205 34 43 54 68 82 98 120 140 160 180 200 230 40 50 62 78 91 109 130 150 175 195 220 250 46 58 71 88 100 120 140 160 190 210 240 270 49 9 63 10., 77 11 94 12 110 13 130 14 155 15 175 16 205 17 230 IS 260 290 20 210 235 260 280 300 325 21 290 310 330 360 22 320 340 360 395 350 375 400 435 24 380 405 430 470 25 470 510 26 510 556 27 550 600 28 590 645 29 630 690 30 670 740 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39.. 40 41 42 Forestry for the Private Owner TABLE 42 — {Continued) 151 Merchantable Volume in Board Feet D.B.H. ob in inches TOTAL HEIGHT OF TREES IN FEET 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 53 68 56 72 60 77 9 10 83 89 96 103 110 11 100 110 120 125 130 12 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 13 140 155 170 180 190 200 210 14 170 185 200 210 220 230 240 15 190 210 230 240 250 265 280 16 220 240 260 270 280 300 320 17 250 270 290 305 320 340 360 18 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 19 310 335 360 380 400 425 450 20 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 21 390 415 440 465 490 520 550 22 430 445 480 510 540 575 610 23 470 510 500 545 530 580 565 620 600 660 635 700 670 24 740 25 550 595 640 680 720 760 800 26 600 645 690 735 780 830 880 27 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 28 700 755 810 865 920 975 1030 29 750 810 870 930 990 1055 1120 30 810 875 940 1005 1070 1135 1200 31 870 940 1010 1080 1150 1220 1290 32 930 990 1090 1165 1240 1315 1390 33 1000 1070 1085 1165 1170 1260 1250 1340 1330 1420 1410 1505 1490 34 1590 35 1140 1245 1350 1435 1520 1610 1700 36 1220 1330 1440 1530 1620 1720 1820 37 1530 1630 1730 1830 1930 38 1630 1730 1830 1730 1835 1940 1830 1940 2050 1940 2055 2170 2030 39 2170 40 '. 2290 41 1920 2020 2040 2150 2160 2280 2290 2415 2420 42 2550 152 The New York State College of Forestry TABLE 43 Converting Factors for Standing Trees* Cubic Measure to Board Measuref (Values curved) D.B.H. ob in inches One cubic foot is equiva- lent to : D.B.H. ob in inches One cubic foot is equiva- lent to : 6 4.50 board feet 5.00 board feet 5.25 board feet 5.50 board feet 5.60 board feet 5.70 board feet 5.80 board feet 5.90 board feet 6.00 board feet 6.10 board feet 6.15 board feet 17 6.20 board feet 7 18 6.25 board feet 8 19 6.30 board feet 9 20 6.35 board feet 10 21.. . 6.40 board feet 11 25 6.45 board feet 12 26 27 6 50 board feet 13 6 . 55 board feet 14 28 6.60 board feet 15 29 6.65 board feet 16 30 * Frothingham, U. S. Dept. Agriculture Bulletin 152. t These values were used in these tables converting from cubic feet to board feet. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL USES OF NEW YORK SPECIES ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY [153] WOOD USED BY SPECIES APPLEWOOD Canes Umbrella handles Handles Vehicles Planes Whips Rules Tobacco pipes Saw handles ARBORVITAE '(Northern White Cedar) Boat bottoms Shiplap Boat decking Siding Dairymen's supplies Signal devices Ice cream freezers Silos Interior finish Tanks Roof tanks Yachts Row boats ASH Aeroplanes Keyboards Axles Ladders ( rounds ) Baseball bats Machinery (frames) Baskets Machinery (rods) Billiard rails Mouldings Boats Neck yokes Bolsters Novelties Boxes Organs (frames) Bread slicing machines Panels Brick moulds Piano tops Broom handles Pickets Butter packages Pick handles Butter tubs Plow beams Cabinets Plow handles Car construction Plugs (for paper) Casing Poles (vehicles) Chairs Porch swings Cheese boxes Pump rods Crates Refrigerators Cultivators Rings Desks Rollers (farm machinery) Drafting tables Sash Fence Seeder thills Finish Ships Fixtures (store, office) Siding Flooring Signaling devices Fork handles Single trees Furniture Sleds (hand) Hames Snow shovel handles Handles (toy shovel) Sofas Hayracks Souvenirs Hoe handles Tables Hoops Tackleblock shells Ice boxes Threshers [155] 156 The New York State College of Forestry ASH — (Continued) Toilet tanks Wagon poles Toilet seats Wagon (coasters) Tongues Wash trays (frames) Trunk slats Wash tubs (frames) Trunk strips Whiffletrees Turnery Window frames Vestibules ( ears ) ASPEN Boxes Packing cases Cheese boxes (heading) Sheathing Crates Pulp Excelsior BALSAM FIR Boxes Millwork Cheese boxes (heads) Sash Crates Trim Dairy supplies Wood pulp Doors BASSWOOD Agricultural implements Drills Automobiles (parts) Dumbwaiters Bank fixtures Elevators Baskets Engraving boards Beehives Excelsior Berry baskets Feeders Billiard table beds Filing cabinets Boats Flooring Boxes Furniture Bread boards Go-carts Brooms Graders (peach) Brushes Grain hoppers Business wagon bodies Grass seeders Butter ladles Guitars Cameras Hand sled tops Candy buckets Hayracks Cars Hobby horses Casing Incubators Caskets Indian clubs Ceiling Ironing boards Chairs • Kitchen cabinets Checkers Kitchen tables Cheese box heading Lard tubs Children's blackboards Lawn furniture Children's sled tops Mandolins Cigar boxes Medicine cases Clocks Moulding Clothes baskets Music cabinets Clothes pins Novelties Corn planters Packing boxes Crates Pails Curtain stretchers Panels Doubletrees Pastry boards Dowels Patterns Drawer bottoms Pencils Forestry for the Private Owner 157 Pianos Piano players Picture frames Printers' cabinets Eefrigerators Rulers Scientific instruments Seed cabinets Shoe trees Shoe lasts Shop patterns Show cases Shredders Siding Silos Singletrees Skids Sleeve boards Sleigh bodies Spools Stackers Agricultural implements Auto-seat frames Bobbins Boxes Brick molds Broom handles Brushes Built-up panels Burther blocks Butter dishes Butter tubs Cable reels Cars Chairs Chair bottoms Chair rods Cheese boxes Clocks Clothes pins Coat hangers Coops Crating Dowels Drafting tables Electrotype plates Farm machinery Filing cabinets Fixtures Furniture Grain doors Hames Handles Hand sleds BASS WOOD— {Continued) Stanchions Store fixtures Threshing machines Tool boxes Toys Trays (egg) Trunks Tubs Turnery Velocipede seats Wagons Wagon boxes Wardrobes Washboards Washing machines Well buckets Wheelbarrows Window frames Woodenware Yardsticks BEECH Ironing boards Ladders Lawn swings Musical instruments Novelties Pails Panels Pianos Pipe organs Printers' cabinets Pulleys Pump handles Pump buckets Refrigerators Rope reels Sash Sectional bookcases Show cases Skates Sounding boards Stanchions Stepladders Tables Tie plugs Trunks Tubs Wardrobes Washing machines Washboards Weighing machines Wheelbarrows Window screens Woodenware 158 The New York State College of Forestry BIRCH Agricultural implements Baskets Boat finish Bobbins Bookcases Boxes Broom bandies Broom heads Brush backs Built-up panels Buffets Butter boxes Butter molds Cabinets Cameras Canes Car finish (vestibules) Carvings Casing Ceiling Chair rods Cheese boxes (hoops) Clocks (turnery parts) Couch frames Crating Desks Dowels Dumbwaiter cars Electrotype bases Fixtures (exterior parts) Flooring Furniture Games Harvesters House trim (veneral) BLACK Baskets Beds Boat finish Bookcases Brushes Bushel crates Butter dishes Cabinets Camera boxes Card trays Cars (finish) Casing Caskets Chairs (posts, rounds) Clock cases Coffins Collar trays Counters Desks Interior finish Kodaks Lawn mowers Mantels Mirror backs Moulding Office fixtures Panels Paper plugs Parlor furniture Partitions Peavey handles Picture frames Plumbers' woodwork Pulleys Refrigerators Sash pins Screen frames Settees Shoe pegs Shoe trees Show cases Sofas Spool heads Swings Store fixtures Umbrella handles Tables Tackleblock shells Thresher parts Toys Tubs Wall fixtures Woodenware CHERRY Doors Dowels Dressers Flasks Flooring Electrotype blocks Engraving blocks Glove stretchers Handle ( brush ) Interior finish Kodaks Last blocks Level blocks Level sticks Library furniture Machine boxes Moulding Musical instruments Office fixtures Forestry for the Private wner 159 Panels Partitions Passenger cars Patterns Piano actions Piano cases Piano players Piano raiis Pipe organ (cases, actions) Road machines (cabs, boxes) Sash School furniture Settees BLACK CHEERY— (Continued) Shoe lasts Siding Spindle stock Spoons Store fixtures Swings Switchboards Tables Table drawers Table legs Trim Woodenware BLACK WALNUT Air-gun stock Benches Billiard cues Bookcases Brush backs Bureaus Cabinet work Canes Card tables Carpet sweepers Case work Caskets Chairs Chair legs China closets Chiffoniers Clock cases Coffins Couches (legs) Desks Doors Electrical appliances (bases,) Embalming boards Fixtures (exterior parts) Fixtures, office Agricultural implements Banana baskets Baskets (bottoms, covers) Boxes Bushel crates Chairs Cheese boxes (heads, hoops) Cigar boxes Cradle bows Crating (posts, corners) Couch frames Feed tables Fixtures Fruit cases (handles, hoops) Furniture (frames, drawer bot- toms, ends) ELM Fixtures, store Furniture Gunstocks Inlaid work Interior finish Machine boxes Moulding Novelties Organ cases Parquetry flooring Pianos Piano actions Piano benches Piano cases Piano players Picture frames Pipe organs Sideboards Side tables Stools Tool boxes Umbrella handles Vehicles Woodenware Grain drills Grape trays Handles Harvesters Hayracks Instruments, musical Laundry appliances Machine construction Mowers (poles) Planing mill products Reapers (poles) Refrigators Rockers Sash Ships Sporting goods 160 The New York State College of Forestry ELM — {Continued) Toys Vehicle poles Trunks (slats) Whiffletrees Tubs Woodenware HEMLOCK Agricultural implements Flooring Baskets Furniture Blinds Gates ( picket ) Boxes Instruments, musical Cars Machines Construction Patterns Crates Sash Dairymen's supplies Ships Doors Sporting goods Fencing ( pickets ) Vehicles Flasks Wood pulp HICKORY Agricultural implements Mallets Automobile wheels Machines Baskets Neckyokes Boats Printing Buggy shafts Refrigerators Buggy spokes Rounds Canes Shoe shanks Car construction (grab handles) Singletrees Chairs (rounds) Spokes Doubletrees Sucker rods Eveners Trunks Gates (pickets) Vehicles Handles Wagon tongues . Instruments ( tripods ) Woodenware Ladders RED OAK Agricultural implements Moulding Boats Musical instruments Boxes Laundry appliances Car construction Machine construction Caskets Patterns Coffins Picture frames Clocks (cases) Plumbers' woodwork Crates Pumps (platforms) Elevators Refrigerators Interior finish Sash Fencing ( pickets ) Ships Fixtures Signs Flasks Scientific instruments Flooring Vehicles Furniture Woodenware Gates SASSAFRAS Novelties Souvenirs Rustic mementoes Woodenware Forestry for the Private Owner 161 SPRUCE Agricultural implements Aeroplanes Ballup sleepers Boats Boat oars Bowling alleys Boxes Bungs Cable reels and spools Cameras Car sheathing Crates Doors Elevator platforms Farm machinery Fiber board Fixtures, backing Fixtures, linings Fixtures, office Fixtures, store Flag poles Flooring Furniture ( hidden parts ) Guitars Hay presses Ice boxes Keyboards Kodaks Ladder sides Mandolins Match cases Mouldings Moulding flasks Musical instruments Novelties Organ pipes Patterns Piano backs Piano benches Piano cases Piano ribs Piano sounding boards Pipe organs Player actions Eefrigerators (inside partitions) Scaffolding Ships Shiplap Silos Skids Spars Tanks Vehicles Woodenware Wood pulp SUGAR (Hard) MAPLE Agricultural implements Balls Baseball bats Baskets Bedroom furniture Billiard cues Billiard tables Blueprint frames Boat finish Bobbins Bobsleds Bowling alleys Boxes Brewers' chips Broom handles Brush backs Brush handles Butcher blocks Butter ladles Butter moulds Cameras Canes Car finish Car flooring Carpet sweepers Castor rollers 6 Ceiling Chair bottoms Chair rods Checkers Children's wagons Clothespins Coat hangers Corn planters Corn shellers Cot frames Croquet balls Croquet mallets Cultivator handles Curtain poles Desks Dishes Doors Dowels Dominoes Drill frames Dumbwaiters Electrotype blocks Elevators Ensilage cutters Factory trucks Feeders 162 The New York State College of Forestry SUGAR (Hard) MAPLE— (Continued) Fixtures Plumbers' woodwork Flasks Porch swings Folding camp chairs Potato mashers Flooring Pulleys Furniture Pumps Games Pump buckets Go-carts Racks Grain drills Refrigerators Grain separators Road rollers Grass seeder frames Rules Guitars Sash Hames Separators Handles Shade rollers Hay presses Shoe forms Indian clubs Show cases Interior finish Signs Kitchen cabinets Skids Kodaks Sleighs Ladders Spool barrels Lasts Spoons Lawn mowers . Steering wheels Mallets Tanks Mangle rollers Tanning drums Map rollers Talking machines Medicine cabinets Tenpins Merry-go-rounds Threshers Moulding Toys Musical instruments Towel racks Novelties Type cabinets Office fixtures Umbrella handles Organs Vehicles Paddles (boat) Wagons Parasol handles Washboards Partitions Washing machines Parquetry flooring Wash tray covers Patterns Wheelbarrows Pianos Woodenware Piano bridges Wood type Piano players Yardsticks Plow beams SYCAMORE Boxes Furniture Crates Planing mill products Desks ( backs ) Siding Drawers (backs, sides) Trim Flooring TAMARACK Boat floors Millwork Boat stringers Moulding Boxes Planing mill products Ceiling Ships Crates Siding Finish Trim Flooring Forestry for the Private Owner 163 WILLOW Baskets Berry boxes Boat scoops Aeroplanes Agricultural implements Athletic goods Boxes Car construction Caskets Coffins Clocks Crates Elevators Interior finish Fencing (pickets) Fixtures Flasks Flooring Furniture Gates Handles Harvesters Moulding Agricultural implements Automobile bodies B acking ( pictures ) Blinds Boat flooring Boxes Buckets Burial boxes Ceiling Clocks Doors Elevators Feeders Flooring Foundry flasks Frames Furniture Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Fruit crates Packing cases - Vegetable crates WHITE OAK Musical instruments Laundry appliances Machine construction Patterns Picture frames Plow beams Plow handles Plumbers' woodwork Pumps (platforms) Refrigerators Rollers (land) Sash Ships Signs Spokes Scientific instruments Threshing machines Vehicles Woodenware WHITE PINE Matches Moulding Office fixtures Passenger cars Patterns Porch columns Pumps Refrigerators Sash Ships Siding Silos Store fixtures Tanks Threshers Trunks (boxes) Tubs Vehicles Woodenware YELLOW POPLAR Aeroplanes Automobile bodies Billiard tables Boxes Buggy bodies Brushes ■Cabinets Cars (finish) Ceiling Chairs Cigar boxes Drills Elevators Excelsior 164 The New York State College of Forestry YELLOW POPLAR— {Continued) Furniture Pool tables Instruments, musical Pumps Instruments, professional Refrigerators Interior finish Sash Merry-go-rounds (horses) Ships Packages Vehicles Patterns Woodenware Plumbers' woodwork SAMPLE TIMBER SALE CONTRACT AGREEMENT entered into this day of between _ -.. of , county of _ _ , state of _ :.._ , herein- after called the seller, and _.. _ _...., of _..._ , county of _ _ state of - , hereinafter called the purchaser. WITNESSETH: Article 1. The seller agrees to sell to the purchaser, upon the terms and conditions hereinafter stated, all the living timber, marked or designated by the seller, and all the merchantable dead timber, standing or down, estimated to be board feet, more or less, on a certain tract of land, situated on lot number , township of , county of _ _ , state of ...., and located on the farm belonging to the seller, and about one mile southeast of his farmhouse. Article 2. The purchaser agrees to pay the seller the sum of dollars ($ - ) per thousand board feet in accord- ance with the following schedule of prices: White oak $ per M. b. ft. Red oak $ per M. b. ft. Hard maple $ per M. b. ft. Hemlock $ per M. b. ft. White pine $ per M. b. ft. Article 3. The purchaser further agrees to cut and remove said timber in strict accordance with the following conditions: 1. Unless extension of time is granted, all said timber shall be cut, paid for and removed on or before 2. All timber shall be scaled by the Scribner log rule, and measured at the smaller end, along the average diameter inside of the bark. 3. The maximum scaling length of logs shall be sixteen feet; greater length shall be scaled as two or more logs. Upon all logs an additional length of four inches shall be allowed for trimming. Logs overrunning this allowance shall be scaled not to exceed the next foot in length. 4. No unmarked timber of any kind shall be cut, except (name species). 5. Stumps shall be cut so as to cause the least possible waste; stumps [165] 166 The New York State College of Forestry of trees up to sixteen inches in diameter not higher than twelve inches above the ground and those of trees above this size at a distance above the ground not greater than three-fourths of their diameter. 6. All trees shall be utilized in their tops to the lowest possible diameter for commercially salable material. 7. Young trees shall be protected against unnecessary injury; only dead trees and the less valuable kinds may be used for construction purposes in connection with lumbering operations. 8. Care shall be exercised at all times by the purchaser and his .em- ployees against the spread of fire, and the purchaser will be held responsible for fires starting from logging operations. Article 4. It is mutually understood and agreed by and between the parties hereto as follows: 1. All timber included in this agreement shall remain the property of the seller until paid for in full. 2. In case of dispute over the terms of this contract, final decision shall rest with a reputable person to be mutually agreed upon by the parties to this contract; and in case of further disagreement, with a board of three persons, one to be selected by each party to this contract and a third to be a State or Government representative. In witness wheeeof the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands and seals this day of .'. , 19.... Witness : LIBRARY OF CONGRESS