Class IR£_LAjO Book ■ W i % (kpigM i^>7 - COEmiGHT DEPOSIT. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY THE SAME AUTHOR The Prescription By O. A. Wall, Ph.G., M.D. 275 pages, 6x9, with illustrations. Price, cloth, $2.50. Fourth edition, completely revised, rewritten and enlarged. This is without doubt the best book on the prescription ever written. The subject is therapeutically, pharmaceutically, grammatically and historically considered. Lessons in Latin By O. A. Wall, Ph.G., M.D. 148 pages, 6x9 Price, cloth, $1.50. Second revised edition This is a valuable book for physicians, nurses pharmacists, and anyone who wishes to ac quire a knowledge of medical and pharma ceutical Latin. It is especially adapted for classroom as well as self-study. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY BY OTTO A. WALL, M.D., Ph.G. Professor of Materia Medica, Pharmacognosy and Botany in the St. Louis College of Pharmacy; Member of the Committee for Revision of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, 1880-1890 and 1890-1900; Second Vice-President of the Convention for the Revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1900-1910; Pre- siding Officer of the United States Pharmacopoeia Convention of 1910; One of the Authors of the "Companion to the United States Pharma- copoeia;" Author of "Lessons in Latin," "The Prescription," etc. FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED ST. LOUIS C. V. MOSBY COMPANY 1917 Copyright, 1917, By C. V. Mosby Company APR 17 1918 ©CLA494H40 3 Press of C. V. Mosby Company St. Louis PREFACE The object of this book is mainly to serve as notes on pharma- cognosy (Waarenkunde) for students in colleges of pharmacy, for students preparing for state board of pharmacy examinations, and for the everyday exigencies of the retail pharmacist. No student can listen to a course of lectures and derive full benefit therefrom unless he makes memoranda of the most salient features of the lectures. On the other hand, many teachers main- tain that while the student is making note of some fact or other, he will give superficial attention or miss altogether something else about which the lecturer is meamvhile speaking, so that the advantage of "taking notes" is offset by the information lost while taking them. This handbook is intended to take the place of notes which a diligent student might possibly write down for himself, so that during the lectures he can give undivided atten- tion to the words of the lecturer, and to the illustrations and specimens shown. This handbook also serves as a skeleton of the science of phar- macognosy, presenting only those main facts which a student should make an effort to remember, and around which he can later gather and arrange further knowledge that may be ac- quired in post-graduate study; irrelevant descriptions and illu- strations of plants from which drugs are derived, etc., are there- fore omitted, and the illustrations represent the drugs them- selves, as far as possible, in natural size, and are intended to take the place of a collection of drugs as nearly as possible. Histo- logical details that are not necessary in recognizing (crude) drugs are not made prominent, and many of the sections repre- sent the appearance that can be observed with the naked eye, or by aid of a simple lens magnifying from five to ten diameters, and by reflected light ; the structure which can thus be seen is sufficient to enable one to identify the drugs, and this is, there- fore, all that is necessary or of direct practical use in pharma- cognosy. 7 8 PREFACE As the description of a drug and its recognition by its physical characteristics is in no degree dependent on its recognition as "official" in a pharmacopoeia, no mention is made of its being "official" or merely "officinal;" in this regard this handbook applies equally well to any pharmacopoeia, or to all pharma- copoeias. As every student of pharmacy must have his pharma- copoeia, that is where he must seek the information whether a drug is official or not; the pharmacognosist, as a pharmacognosist, is not interested in this question; he is interested only in the ques- tion whether a drug occurs in the drug trade or not. The system adopted is based on the general principles of mod- ern pharmacognosy as established and first published in Europe by Schleiden and Berg, and in this country by Maisch; but in many details the arrangement is original. The numbering of the groups, and the short synopsis at the head of each group, has been found of great practical value and convenience in the actual work done with the aid of this system by the students in the author's own classes. The author submits the book to the kind consideration of the pharmaceutical public with the hope that it may contribute towards popularizing the study of pharmacognosy and lead many to become interested in this useful branch of knowledge. 0. A. Wall. St. Louis, 1917. PHARMACOGNOSY INTRODUCTION The medical profession is divided into two branches: physicians who prescribe for the sick, and pharmacists who dispense the medicines. This division of labor has existed for thousands of years, probably because experience has taught that this arrange- ment is better and safer than when the same person prescribes and dispenses also. To heal the sick has always been the aim of the medical profes- sion. Healing the sick presupposes an organism which is endowed with life, and the physician must study both the organism and its environments in order that he may intelligently treat any depar- ture from health. Certain rudimentary studies are necessary for all learned men, whatever their professions may be. These studies are comprised in the phrase, "good, common school education" (better still, "col- legiate education"), and include the "three R's," grammar, his- tory, geography (including physical geography), physics or nat- ural philosophy and the rudiments of the Latin language. The studies of special interest to the medical profession are- Physics — Chemistry — Microscopy Organism f Structure : Anatomy. in \ # j Coarse. Health (Action: PHy*iology{ Microseopical (Hlstology) . f f Coarse. Organism I Structure: Pathological ^ atom y j M i croscopica i f Disease ) Action: Pathology. [ Treatment : Pharmacology. FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES Physics or Natural Philosophy treats of the mechanical laws and molecular forces. There is no absolute line of distinction be- tween this study and — 11 12 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Chemistry, which treats of the atomic constitution of matter and explains the composition of all material things and the changes that may take place in the atomic combinations. Microscopy is not, strictly speaking, a science, but rather an art, because it teaches the use of the microscope and its various accessories, but the knowledge it imparts is not of use only to the medical profession, but is of equal value to every scientist and of interest to every educated person. These three studies may be called the foundation on which is to be built up the superstructure of a thorough scientific educa- tion in any department of physical sciences. SPECIAL STUDIES Anatomy teaches the structure of living organisms ; human anatomy treats of the organs and structure of the human body. There is no sharp limit between "coarse anatomy" (structures that can be seen with the unaided eye) and "microscopical an- atomy," or "histology," (requiring the use of the microscope) and this division is one mainly of convenience. Histology treats of the microscopical or cellular structure of living organisms. Human histology, therefore, treats of the cel- lular elements and tissues of the human body. Physiology treats of the processes of life — healthy organisms ; in health the various cells, tissues and organs act harmoniously together. In youth assimilation of food exceeds waste and the organism grows until it reaches maturity; then for a time as- similation and waste balance each other, until age approaches, when Avaste gradually gains over assimilation, the tissues lose their vigor and a gradual decay sets in which finally results in death from old age. This is the healthy, normal destiny of the living organism. Histology and physiology are so intimately related to each other that it is impossible to treat of one without speaking of the other, and the two branches of study are therefore usually taught together. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 13 When^he normal harmony of action in the body is disturbed, we call t*he resulting condition "disease." Pathological Anatomy is the study of the changes that are pro- duced in the normal anatomy by the processes of disease; some of these changes are macroscopic and can be seen with the un- aided eye, while the changes in the minuter structures, as in cells or tissues, require the aid of the microscope for recognition ; this latter is generally referred to as "cellular pathology." Patho- logical anatomy is the anatomy of the body in disease. Pathology bears the same relation to pathological anatomy that physiology has to normal anatomy. It describes the actions of the organs or tissues in disease. Any or all of these branches of study may be subdivided or specialized according to the needs of the physician. The physician must know the human body in health so that he may recognize those departures from the normal that constitute sickness. He is thus enabled to make a diagnosis, i. e., he can say what is the nature of the abnormal or diseased condition. The prognosis is the foretelling of the probable course of the disease. But the object of all study on the part of physicians and phar- macists is to cure the patient, and the treatment of disease requires a knowledge of — Pharmacology, the science of remedies and remedial measures. It is a comprehensive term and in its widest sense includes the study of everything that has, or is supposed to have, or that can have any influence in curing disease in every possible aspect ; an inquiry into the efficacy or meffieacy of prayers or laying on of hands is as legitimately within the scope of pharmacology as a study of the source, preparation or action of calomel or quinine. The term Materia Meclica is often used as a synonym for pharma- cology, but a fairer distinction of the term would limit its appli- cation to material things, to "medical materials." T.he term "pharmacology" is frequently applied wrongly to a study of the action of drugs and medicines, which latter study is properly named "pharmaco-dynamics. " Pharmacology demands a knowledge of several important sub- sidiary branches of knowledge. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Theoretical. Pharmacology (Materia Medica) [Theoretic; Chemistry i Practical. ( Zoology. Pharmacognosy I Botany. [ Microscopy, f Theoretical. Pharmacy { Praetical . _ _ .1 General I Pharmaco-Dynamics >~ . , [Therapeutics. While anatomy, physiology, pathology, etc., are of more inter- est to the physician, a general knowledge of these studies is also nece'ssary for the pharmacist so that he may more fully under- stand those branches of the medical science which more closely concern him. A student of pharmacy should acquire at least as much knowledge on these subjects as can be obtained from the careful study of some good college physiology, which treats of these subjects in a simple, plain and compendious manner. The scheme of studies enumerated under Pharmacology is of direct and great importance to the pharmacist, even more so than to the physician, with the single exception of pharmaco-dynamics, which is of greater importance to the physician and of subordinate use to the pharmacist. Chemistry and Microscopy we have already considered. In colleges of pharmacy these studies are not only of as general a nature as in technical schools, but are taught with additional special reference to the pharmacists' work. Medicines are material substances, which may either be taken into the system or applied locally, and which, when in contact with living tissues, can alter the action of cells or tissues in such a manner as to cure disease. What may at one time and in one dose be a medicine, may under other circumstances or in a dif- ferent dose prove to be a poison. Medicines are prepared from organic or inorganic materials. We often read the sign "Drugs and Chemicals." Chemistry, as taught in colleges of pharmacy, treats of the general science, and of the individual inorganic and synthetic chemicals that are used as medicines. Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs; drugs are the organic substances used in medicine and in the arts in the crude form in which they are brought into trade. Pharmacognosy HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 15 teaches us how to recognize or identify drugs and how to deter- mine their quality. Drugs are of either animal or vegetable origin. A study of animal drugs, requires some knowledge of zoology, but as the animal drugs are of subordinate value or importance, zoology need not be studied to any great extent. Vegetable drugs are of vastly greater importance and therefore a knowledge of Botany is necessary to an understanding of pharmacognosy. The pharmacognosist must be able to recognize the part of plant which constitutes the drug, and he must not only be familiar with its coarse but also with its microscopical structure, and the value of a study of microscopy for the pharmacognosist cannot be exaggerated ; in fact, pharmacognosy in the modern sense is an im- possibility without a knowledge of microscopical technologj^ and of the cellular constitution of plants, or structural botany. Pharmacy is the science, art and business of preparing, com- pounding and dispensing medicines. Pharmacists constitute a learned profession because they must study a wide scope of sciences or studies in order to qualify themselves for their calling; pharmacy as a profession is not inferior to medicine, and the medieval arrogant conceit of a pharmacist being "ye hande- mayden," or "ye cooke" of "ye physician" ceased to have sense or meaning centuries ago. The tendency of modern times is spe- cialization, and the pharmacist is a specialist in the medical pro- fession in the same sense as the surgeon, the oculist, the gyne- cologist or any other specialist; the specialist is not superior, neither is he inferior, to the general practitioner, but they all belong to the same profession, with equal honors, each working in his particular sphere, doing his special work for the ameliora- tion and cure of pain and sickness. Pharmacy is an art because theoretical knowledge alone will not make a man a good pharmacist but he must have acquired the necessary manipulative skill in laboratory work and in dis- pensing. We have therefore a branch of theoretical pharmacy or of the Principles of Pharmacy, and another of Practical Phar- macy or Pharmaceutical Laboratory Work. Pharmacy in its dealings with the public is a business, subject to the commercial laws that govern and control business in all other directions. 16 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Business tact and talent are therefore as necessary as theoretical and practical professional training, to insure success. Pharmaco-Dynamics treats of the actions or effects of reme- dies, of the power or force or influence of all remedial measures. General pharmaco-dynamics treats of the action of groups of medi- cines, as for instance of cathartics, antiperiodics, tonics, etc., while special pharmaco-dynamics treats of the actions of individual medi- cines, and enables us to choose the particular one remedy or com- bination of remedies that seems to be most appropriate in any given case. Pharmaco-dynamics investigates the action of remedies on the healthy as well as on the sick body, so that the action of a remedy may be understood in all possible bearings. The application of all the knowledge of the physician for the purpose of giving relief or of curing disease in the case of the in- dividual patient is Therapeutics, a branch of pharmaco-dynamics that treats of the use of remedies in the concrete individual cases that a physician is called to attend. Therapeutics is the culmina- tion, the end and aim of all medical studies, and in the widest and fullest sense such studies as Surgery, Obstetrics, Gynecology, or the use of medicines, baths, electricity, etc., are merely specialized branches of Therapeutics, of the Art of Curing or Healing. The pharmacist, then, must thoroughly study Chemistry, (theoretical and practical), Botany (structural and microscop- ical), Microscopy, Pharmacy and Pharmacognosy, and moderately thoroughly also Pharmaco-Dynamics, including Posology, or the doses of medicines, and in addition he should acquire rather more than a mere superficial knowledge of Biology and Zoology, Anat- omy, Physiology, and Pathology; in other words, the educated, thoroughly qualified pharmacist must be a learned professional man. CLASSIFICATIONS In the prosecution of any study it is absolutely necessary to adopt some system. A haphazard random memorizing of isolated facts is of little value because the facts are not utilizable unless their relation to each other is fully understood. Therefore, in order to study drugs and medicines we must adopt some method of classification. We may adopt any of the following methods, or in fact, adopt several for different purposes— HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 17 Alphabetical. Natural orders alphabetically arranged. [ Natural orders according to natural system. Zoological. Chemical. Physiological. Therapeutical. Physiological and Therapeutical Combined. Organoleptic Properties. Physical Characteristics. The Alphabetical Classification is best adapted for works of reference and is used in the Pharmacopoeia and in the various commentaries, as in the Dispensatories. The system has no scien- tific merit, but is the best and only one adapted for convenience and rapidity of reference. Botanical Classifications are of interest because they group drugs according to their family affinities, all the drugs derived from any one class of plants being enumerated together. While this system has a little value in an abstract scientific sense, it is of little or no practical value to the pharmacist or physician, as botanical affinities do not argue therapeutical affinities or phar- maceutical similarities. For instance: the Rubiaeece furnish both cinchona and ipecac; the Leguminosce yield a heterogeneous jum- ble of drugs dissimilar in physical nature as well as in medicinal activities, as gum arabic, senna, catechu, balsam of tolu, logwood, Calabar bean, cassia fistula, red saunders, licorice root, broom, ta- marind and balsam of peru, representing the therapeutical groups of lenitives, laxatives, astringents, cathartics, blennorrhetics, nar- cotics, and coloring agents, and the physical groups of gums, ex- tracts, balsams, fruits, roots, wood, leaves and flowering tops ; from the Umbelliferce we derive anise, asafcetida, and conium, etc. This whole subject is of such subordinate value to the pharmacist, that students are advised not to devote much time to trying to mem- orize the classes of plants from which the various drugs are derived, if this must be done at the expense of practical and more impor- tant subjects of study. Some works classify the natural orders of plants according to a "natural system," while in other works on drugs based on bo- tanical classification the orders of plants are arranged alpha- betically. As drugs are not in condition to be classified botanically, or to 18 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY be assigned to their botanical classes, this method of grouping them is of absolutely no value to the pharmacist or pharma- cognosist. If the animal drugs were of more importance, we might be jus- tified in adding a Zoological Classification; to the extent that these drugs are spoken of such a classification is in use, but it is of course of very inferior importance and of limited applicability. Chemical Classifications, more or less comprehensive, are used for special purposes, as for instance in pharmacy when the drugs are arranged in groups according to their constituents, with ref- erence to the menstrua that are needed to exhaust them in mak- ing tinctures, fluid extracts, etc. Physiological Classifications are based on the actions of medi- cines as determined by experiments on lower animals or on healthy human beings. While the action as thus determined is not always the same as, or even similar to the action of the same drug when administered to a sick person, the facts found by physiological researches and experiments explain the manner of the action of medicines and suggest the rational and more scien- tific use of the remedies. Therapeutical Classifications are based on the actions of medi- cines in disease. The knowledge of the action of remedies has been obtained in the past, largely by accident or empiricism, and many absurdities were believed until modern systematic physi- ological research placed the study of therapeutics on a more rational basis. Still, even now, the mode of action of many reme- dies and the valuable results obtained by the administration of these medicines to the sick, are but imperfectly or not at all un- derstood, and the administration of these drugs and. their prepa- rations continues to be based on the accumulated empirical ex- periences of the past and present. But while a therapeutical classification is not as strictly scien- tific as some of the others, it is of great value to the physician, and is very valuable for the purpose of the therapeutist, and some therapeutical system of classification of medicines should be studied by every pharmacist as well. There are very many dif- ferent systems of this kind, almost every author on therapeutics having modified previous systems to suit his own theories. Perhaps the most valuable system of classification for the physi- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 19 cian is one based on the combined physiological and therapeutical consideration of medicines. In other words, a careful study of the empirical knowledge and experience of the ages by the light of modern scientific methods, gives us the best and most practical systems of classification of medicines for clinical use. A system of this kind, practically based on Headland's work on the action of drugs, is presented for study a little farther on. The grouping of drugs according to their organoleptic proper- ties (odor, taste, or even color) was properly and scathingly ridi- culed by Schleiden, the originator of modern pharmacognosy, yet it has been made quite prominent again in recent times; — modern systematic pharmacognosy is intended to enable us to identify or recognize unknown drugs from a description of the same; therefore, the descriptions of drugs should be in words that convey some idea about their properties, which cannot be done in regard to their organoleptic properties. For instance, we cannot describe, in words, what "sweet" or "sour" means, to one who has not experienced such tastes before; we cannot de- scribe, in words, the difference between the "sweetness" of cane sugar and maple sugar, between the "sourness" of vinegar and lemon juice, or the difference in the "aromas" of vanilla and cardamom, or anise and fennel; therefore, while an experi- ence of such tastes or odors may be a very great aid in recognizing again previously known drugs, no good verbal description in re- gard to previously unknown tastes or odors can be given, and therefore such characteristics should not be made important in modern works of pharmacognosy, even though it is advisable for every student of pharmacognosy to taste and smell every drug. Least of all should organoleptic properties be made the basis of a classification of drugs, as has been done by some recent authors. We have learned that Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs and that it teaches us how to recognize and identify drugs and how to determine their quality. The systems of classifica- tions already mentioned are of little or no assistance for this pur- pose and another method must be adopted. Physical Characteristics are made the basis of a system of classification whose introduction raised Pharmacognosy to be a methodical and accurate science. When we see a drug that is not known to us, we examine it carefully to find what it is; 20 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY suppose it is a root this determination at once eliminates from the consideration of what it possibly can be all the drugs that are not roots and narrows us to a choice among a comparatively small number of drugs. This is what the physician would call "diagnosis by exclusion." We make a transverse section of the drug and examine the smooth cut surface with a lens, or we may make a microscopical section and examine that, to determine whether it is a mono-coty- ledonous or di-cotyledonous root. As we can observe nearly all the facts required for identification by examining a smooth sec- tion with a low-power lens, and by reflected light, it is not neces- sary to make or figure cleared sections showing cellular details. Many drawings in this book show merely what a small lens, or even the unaided eye, can see by reflected light. If we find our specimen to be of di-cotyledonous structure, we determine next whether it is a fleshy or woody root, and if the latter, whether it has a thick or thin bark; if it is either a woody root with a thick bark, or a fleshy root, we look for oil, resin or latex ducts, because we subdivide into groups with or without such ducts. Now we have probably reduced the number of drugs which the one under examination can be to a half dozen or less, and we can soon determine which one of this small number it really is. Or if we find the drug to be a leaf or flower, a bark or wood, or anything else, we proceed in a similar manner to narrow the choice to a very few names, from which it is easy to select the correct one. This is what is meant by a system of Pharmacognosy based on physical characteristics. As the main object of systematic pharmacognosy is to enable us to recognize and identify unknown drugs, it follows that the characteristics taken notice of in such a system must be such as can be recognized in any unknown drug; therefore the physical characteristics which can be recognized by our physical senses (mainly sight and touch) are most important. For instance, to classify volatile oils as derived from leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., is absurd, because we cannot recognize this in an unknown volatile oil; we must first identify the oil and then ascertain such facts from a book. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 21 Therapeutical Classification Innumerable systems of therapeutical classification have been proposed; it is impossible to devise a system of any kind of classification which shall be open to no objection; we see a weak place in one system and Ave attempt to better it only to find that it necessitates changes elsewhere that are more objectionable than the faults we attempted to correct. The best system, there- fore, remains a compromise, and it differs from other systems mainly because one author places more stress on one feature of the subject, another author more on some other feature. The following therapeutical system of classifications is given merely for the purpose of giving a general idea of the subject, and not because it is better than dozens of others, any one of which might have been used as well as an illustration: — CLASS I. HAEMATICS OR BLOOD REMEDIES. DIVISION I. RESTORATIVES. Order 1. Aliments or Foods. " 2. Acids. " 3. Alkalies. " 4. Tonics. 11 5. Chalybeate* (Iron). " 6. Solvents. DIVISION II. CATALYTICS, OR ALTERATIVES. • Order 1. Antiplilogisties. 2. Antisyphilitics. 3. Antiscrofulosa. 4. Antiarthrities. 5. Antiscorbutics. 6. Antiperiodies. 7. Anticonvulsives. 8. Antisquamosa. CLASS II. NEUROTICS OR NERVE REMEDIES. DIVISION I. STIMULANTS. Order 1. General Stimulants. " 2. Specific Stimulants. DIVISION II. NARCOTICS. Order 1. Inebriants. ' ' 2. Somnif erants. . " 3. Deliriants. DIVISION III. ASTRINGENTS. Order 1. Mineral Astringents. " 2. Vegetable Astringents. 22 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY CLASS III. ELIMINANTS OR EVACUANTS. Order 1. Sialagogues. ." 2. Expectorants. " 3. Emetics. " 4. Cathartics. *' 5. Cholagogues. " 6. Diaphoretics. " 7. Diuretics. CLASS IV. TOPICAL OR LOCAL REMEDIES. It is outside of the purpose of this book to go into any farther detail in regard to this subject. The meaning of the words, as far as they are not self-explanatory, can be learned from any med- ical dictionary, or the student may study these and other thera- peutical terms in the list of therapeutical terms on page 612 of this book. Classification According to Physical Characteristics This method of classification deals only with drugs, which are the organic substances used in medicine and: the arts in the crude form in which they are brought into trade. They are grouped according to their derivation from animals or plants, and secondarily according to whether or not they show organic or cell structure. Drugs Animal {Showing cell-structure. Showing no cell-structure. ] Vegetable! Showing cell-structure. [ ( Showing no cell-struct structure. Animal Drugs Showing cell-structure f Worms. Whole animals I 1 Insects. [ Immature ; Eggs. [Soluble in alcohol or water. Parts of animals Ingoluble in a i coho i or wate r. f Solid. Showing no cell-structure I Semi-solid. [ Liquid. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 23 Showing cell-structure Vegetable Drugs Whole plants or flowering tops, sufficiently com- plete for botanical determination. Cryptogams.* Roots. Rhizomes. Tubers or Corms. Bulbs. Twigs or Branches. Piths. Woods. Barks. Leafbuds. Leaves. Flowers. Fruits. Seeds. Parts of plants not easily recog- nizable. Parts of Plants. Showing no cell-structure Showing definite granules under microscope. Acids. Juices and Extracts. Sugars. Gums. Gum-resins. Resins. Oleo-resins. Balsams. Volatile oils. Fixed oils. Peculiar concrete substances. .Coloring matters. Amorphous, t The cellular vegetable drugs are grouped as follows : — Whole Plants or Flowering Tops. Cryptogams Thallogens Acrogens {Algae. Lichens. Fungi. ILycopodiaceas. Equisetaceae. Ferns. Roots Mono-cotyledonous. Woody with thin bark. {with ducts. t without ducts.* Di-cotyledonous Fleshy! with ducts. }: without ducts.t *The Cryptogams, many of which are really whole plants, are placed here on account of the difficulty of classifying them botanically. tA few of these amorphous substances contain mechanically incorporated debris of cellu- lar elements. {Oil, resin or latex ducts or special large cells. 24 Rhizomes HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Mono-cotyledonous. With rootlets Without rootlets < ( with ducts.* Di-cotyledonous 1 .,-. , -, , * J [without ducts.* Cryptogamous. f elongated. Mono-cotyledonous | ghort> compact ; f elongated. Di-cotyledonous [ short, compact. Tubers or Corms | Whole. 1 Sliced. Bulbs Whole. Sliced. f Leafy. Twigs or Branches < Scaly. I Naked. Piths. Woods Barks White. Colored. Whole .Rasped. Leaf buds. Bast with isolated bast-cells. Bast radially striated. Bast tangentially striated. Bast quadratically striated. Bast without striation. Leaves Flowers Fruits Simple. Coriaceous { CompoimcL Herbaceous \ n -, [Compound. {Racemose or cymose. [Unopened. Compound flower-heads j y ■, _, {[ Unopened. Whole \^ A A [Expanded, f Corollas. Parts of flowers \ Cl , . [ Stigmas. {Spurious. Fleshy. Stone Fruits. (Spurious. Fie h Stone fruits. Parts of Fruits. Whole. Seeds in Fig. 13). "When cells are joined together, mutual pressure at the points of contact is apt to modify the shape, as in the long thread-like filaments of many algae, when the cells become cylindrical, as in c; and this shape is also found in the soft interiors of many plants in which the aggregations of cells is not a mere thread, as in the soft parts of sarsaparilla. If only a few cells are joined to form a vege- table hair, the individual cell may assume the conical shape shown in d. But in the interior parts of plants it is more common that the Fig. 13. cells are compressed from all directions, and the shape becomes more or less regularly twelve-sided, as in f, which in section will appear as six-sided ; and if the growth is more rapid in one direc- tion than in others the cells will be elongated in that direction as in g and h, but they will still appear six-sided on section. Occasionally the cells niay be more or less prismatic in shape, as in i, j, or A 1 , but this is not common. All such cells abutting on each other with broad surfaces are parenchymatous cells; they are usually not much longer than they are broad, and are usually soft-walled, and therefore they do not give much strength to the plant. An important modification of the shape of cells is that figured 78 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY at e, where the cell is shown as elongated and pointed at the ends, the fusiform or spindle-shaped cell; in the tissues. of the plant the ends of these cells interlace and as they are usually hardened, or lignified (woody), they give strength to plants. The wood of our trees, for example, is made up of such fusiform cells which often are ten or even a hundred times as long as they are broad, and these cells are called prosenchymatous cells. When the cell is young it is completely filled with protoplasm, a portion of which is differentiated from the remainder so as to form the nucleus. The cell wall may be scarcely more than a delicate layer on the outside of the cell in its earlier stages, but Fig. 14 this soon becomes surrounded with a denser wall of cellulose. When a cell of this kind is subjected to the action of any medium capable of attracting water from the protoplasm the latter will shrink away from the cell-wall and will then appear 'to be sur- rounded by a delicate membrane which is called the " primordial utricle;" but this membrane is possibly only a product of the chemical action of the medium on the protoplasm, and is probably no more a membrane than is seen when we carefully open an egg into boiling water, when the white of egg on the outside at once coagulates and appears to be a white membrane around the still transparent albumen within. This contraction of the protoplasm by the action of reagents, such as glycerin, alcohol, etc., is seen in Fig. 14, which repre- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 79 sents cells from rhubarb root, taken from the soft mass left after making an infusion and then placing in alcohol ; two of the cells* are shown empty; the others show contracted protoplasm. The angular mass represents the stellate crystals of oxalate of lime which are plentiful in rhubarb root. As the cell grows older and larger, spaces occur in the pro- toplasm which are filled with a watery fluid ; such spaces are called vacuoles, and the fluid which they contain is called the cell-sap, which increases in volume until the protoplasm occupies but a small part of the cell contiguous to the cell wall and finally dis- appears altogether. The cell then ceases to take active part in the life of the plant and serves mechanically by osmosis through its cell Avails, or by capillary attraction, to carry moisture from the rootlets to the growing and living cells of the plant. At last this too may cease and the dry cell, empty or filled with mineral or other deposits, as in the inner or heartwood of trees, serves only as mechanical support to the living tissues. From the protoplasm may be elaborated various organic sub- stances which are of importance in the economy of the plant; and the moisture taken from the soil holds in solution more or less inorganic material which is carried up into the tissues of the plant, where it is finally deposited without, however, necessarily taking part in the life processes of the plant. As evaporation of moisture from the plant takes place mainly from the leaves it is here that much of this inorganic material is deposited, and upon burning different parts of plants and weigh- ing the residue it is found that leaves leave the largest percentage of ash. In the tissues of the plant inorganic substances are deposited in various forms, often in combination with organic acids con- stituting some of the proximate principles of the plant; sometimes they are deposited in the cell walls, in the form of small crystals, or the whole cell wall may be so loaded with inorganic material that it will retain its shape even when the organic materials have been destroyed, as in diatoms, or in the epidermis of Equisetum, in which silica is deposited. Or lime salts are deposited in the interior of the cell, in the protoplasm; either in single crystals, as in the epidermal cells of onion peel, or in bundles of long slender crystals, as in the stem 80 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of lilies or of fuchsia, or in skunk-cabbage, when they are called raphides, a Latin word meaning needles; or the crystals may be in stellate aggregations, as in the oxalate of lime crystals in rhu- barb, shown in the last illustration (Fig. 14), which are generally spoken of as " rosette ' ' crystals. Protoplasm is an indispensable part of the cell-contents of every living cell, but it is of little interest to the student of phar- macognosy, who is mainly concerned with those substances which have definite form when seen under the microscope. Of the al- most innumerable organic substances that are found in plants starch is of most interest in the study of drugs, because its va- rious forms may help to distinguish one drug from another, al- though in examining powdered drugs it may occasionally be necessary to apply chemical tests to determine some of the form- less constituents of the cells. Starch is found in most plants and consists of more or less regular grains with a structure that is often characteristic of the plant or drug. Typical grains of starch may be obtained for study by slicing a potato and pressing the cut surface against a glass slide, placing a drop of water on this and covering with a thin cover glass and examining with a high power objective. In Fig. 15 we see several large grains of potato starch, the oval form being most common, although quite a number are ir- regular from mutual compression in the cells, and a few are com- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 81 pound by the adhesion of two or more. By making a section of the potato at right angles to the surface and mounting in water or glycerin the extent to which starch grains are crowded in the cells may be seen. In potato starch the size varies considerably, large, intermediate and small grains being plentifully found; in wheat starch there are large numbers of large round grains and of quite small grains and few of intermediate size ; while in corn starch nearly all grains are of uniform size. Most kinds of starch show peculiar layers or concentric mark- ings around a dot or "nilum," which is generally excentric. If examined with the polariscope, starch is seen to polarize light with a cross radiating from the hilum, as shown in Fig. 16. Starch is to the plant what fat is to an animal — surplus food material stored up for future use. If, in examining a drug, we are in doubt about the nature of any grains we see, we may test for starch by soaking the sub- Fig. 16. stance under examination in watery solution containing free iodine, as for instance, a few drops of tincture of iodine in water, to which a grain or two of iodide of potassium may be added; this will stain the starch grains blue. In some plants, especially Compositae, no starch is found, and the food material is not deposited in solid form but remains in solution. This substance is inulin, but it is of little interest to the pharmacognosist. If a drug containing inulin is soaked for some days in alcohol the inulin is precipitated and becomes ag- gregated in spherical masses of an apparently radiating crystal- line structure, forming ' ' sphaero-crystals ; " these sometimes oc- cupy several adjacent cells; the cell walls apparently not inter- fering Avith their arrangement. Iodine stains inulin yellowish- 82 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY brown by the mechanical deposit of iodine in the fissures of the sphaero-crystals, and not by any real staining effect. Aleurone grains are found exclusively in seeds, especially oily ones. They are food reserve in the form of rounded or oval grains resembling starch grains, but are not colored blue by iodine. They appear to be homogeneous until they are cleared by soaking in glycerin, when they are seen to contain a crystalloid or globoid body in the interior. Aleurone grains consist of albu- minoid or protein substances, the crystalloids of calcium oxalate and the globoids of calcium and magnesium phosphate. Aleurone is generally soluble in water, and sections intended to show these grains must be examined in glycerin. Aleurone is of little importance to the pharmacognosist, although when peas or beans are added as adulterations to powdered drugs, the presence of aleurone grains may establish the fact of adulteration. Other protein grains, etc., are sometimes produced by pre- cipitating the protein substances that are held in solution in the protoplasm and cell-sap; they do not naturally assume regular forms recognizable under the microscope, and while they are of interest to the student of vegetable histology and physiology, they are of little or no interest to the pharmacognosist. The same is true of most other organic compounds, as" sugars, tannin, extractives, alkaloids, glucosides, etc. Fixed oils are often visible in the form of highly refractive drops or globules. Resin masses, which are often deposited in special ducts or cells, may be identified by soaking the section in tincture of alkanna diluted with water, when the resin be- comes colored brilliantly red; or by soaking in a watery solu- tion of acetate of copper, when it becomes emerald green, but the staining in the latter solution requires several days. The simplest and primary cell wall is cellulose. As we see the cell Avails in a section of a drug, the partition between any two cells is composed of the cell walls of the two cells united by an interposed cell cement, and under low powers and without differential staining it looks like one cell wall. Ordinarily we speak of the empty cells consisting merely of sections of cell walls, as in sections from which the cell-contents have been re- moved by the treatment spoken of when telling about the making of sections, as "cells," and a pharmacognosist is not much in- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 83 terested in any other cells; so that pharmacognosy is mainly concerned with the empty cell walls. Parenchymatous cells usually have cellulose walls. As plants grow older various changes occur in the cell walls; for instance, the thin epidermal cells of leaves change by a development of cuticle, a peculiar layer of cells the outer part of which is thick- ened and impervious to water; still later, on the branches and roots this cuticle becomes replaced by suber or cork, a more or less thick deposit of a different kind of cell, which is even more impermeable to water than the cuticle. Prosenchymatous cells often become lignified — that is, the cell wall is changed to lignin, a hard and tough material forming wood. The wood of plants is composed of this modification of Fig. 17. cell wall, and it serves for mechanical support of the plant. A similar modification of the cell wall is that by deposition of sclerogen (lignin?) within the original cellulose wall. This sub- stance is deposited in layers, one within another, until the cell is often nearly filled with this material. But there are little pores which remain open, making communication from one cell to an- other by osmosis through the cellulose wall possible (Fig. 17). In the illustration we see sclerenchymatous cells from the carpel of star anise, all but one having these small pores filled with Canada balsam, so that they cannot be seen, while in one they are filled with air, which renders them plainly perceptible. The stones of fruits and the gritty particles in pears furnish inter- esting cells of this kind, but when they are found scattered among parenchymatous cells, as when they occur in the middle part of a bark, or scattered in the fleshy part of the pear, they 84 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY are called "stone cells." Such cells are usually nearly round, while the sclerenchymatous cells which are found in the bast portion of the bark are also prosenchymatous or spindle-shaped. The stony shells of nuts furnish fine examples of stone cells. In Fig.- 18 we see a transverse section of the bast cells of cinchona bark, showing plainly how the small canals that run through the layers of sclerogen communicate with those in an adjacent cell. If we look down on the end of one of these small canals it will appear as a dot, and when the deposit is very thin the cell will look as if it was dotted, and it is then called a "dotted cell;" of this, beautiful examples can be found in Areca nut. Dotted cells may, however, be of lignin as well. Fig. 1 Fig. 20. Sclerenchymatous cells polarize light, and a cross section of such a cell will shoAv a polarization cross, as shown in this illus- tration of three cinchona bast cells under the polariscope'(Fig. 19). The distribution of sclerenchymatous cells among the other cells of a plant or drug often gives such a characteristic appear- ance, that it becomes a valuable feature for the recognition of the drug. We have already learned that the words "paren- chyma" and "prosenchyma" refer to the shapes of cells; the word "sclerenchyma" refers to the peculiar thickening of the cell wall, and sclerenchymatous cells may be either parenchy- matous or prosenchymatous in shape. Under the epidermis of the cotyledons of many seeds, as well HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 85 as under the epidermis of young twigs, petioles and midribs of leaves, etc., we sometimes find a peculiar kind of cells and of tissue, which we have not heretofore considered. To support the tender epidermis there may be developed from the fundamental tissue certain hard-walled cells, as for instance the sclerenchyma- tous cells under the epidermis of sarsaparilla root, or the stone cells which constitute the outer layer of the middle bark of cin- namon, or the sclerenchymatous cells under the epidermis of the fruit of cubeb. But in some cases, especially in the positions re- ferred to above, the walls of such supporting cells for the epider- mis become thickened very much in the angles of the cells and but little elsewhere ; these cells are called collenchymatous cells and the tissue formed by them constitutes collenchyma or collen- chymatous tissue. This kind of cells and tissue is, hoAvever, of quite subordinate importance to the pharmacognosist, but may sometimes help to some trifling extent in recognizing powdered seeds, or powdered leaves from which the petioles, etc., have been imperfectly removed in garbling, and their nature is therefore briefly referred to here (Fig. 20). 86 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Peculiar round dots or pores are found in the wood cells of coni- fers, which are characteristic of that class of plants, and which are shown in the drawing of the wood cells of Pinus sylvestris (Fig. 21) ; a thickening of the cell wall at first leaves a larger circular space, but this gradually becomes narrowed until we see the ap- pearance as in a, a section of the cell wall also being shown; at 1) we see an older formation, the original cellulose cell wall having been absorbed, thus allowing direct communication from cell to cell. Cells of this kind are called "pitted cells.' ' Each such pit polarizes light with a beautiful polarization cross. In many plants we find ducts or tracheids, consisting of large cylindrical cells joined at their ends, the partition walls after- wards being absorbed, thus producing long continuous tubes or vessels. Thickening by the deposit of lignin or sclerogen may take place in these ducts, as in simple cells, giving rise to varia- tions in appearance, which are designated by distinguishing names. When the thickening is interrupted by small and circular pores, whether in the cell or in a duct, we say these structures are dotted; a dotted duct is seen in i, in Fig. 22. In reticulated ducts the pores are a little longer in a transverse than in a longi- tudinal direction, thus making the cell walls look like the meshes HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 87 of a net as in a. When these meshes are regularly arranged in rows, the appearance may be similar to that of the rounds of a ladder; such ducts are called scalariform, of which fine examples may be seen in ferns, and such a duct is shown in e. This resemblance to a ladder may be a little less evident, as in y of Fig. 23 ; but it is still a scalariform duct, but already indicating variations which lead to a deposit of sclerogen in spiral bands, as in u, which forms the spiral ducts. Other ducts have spirals interrupted with circular bands, as in o, while still others have the thickening only in circular bands, forming the annular ducts. All possible gradations or combinations between these different methods of thickening may, however, be found in the same duct. These ducts are found in the wood portion of plants. Still another form of duct which is of great importance in the life-economy of the plant, but of little importance from a phar- macognosy point of view, is the sieve duct which is found in the bast of plants, and in which the thickening takes place only in the partitions between the different cells constituting the duct, which partitions are permanent and thickened like dotted ducts so as to resemble sieves placed between the cells. Latex ducts, or laticiferous ducts or vessels may be formed by the coalescence of cells, so that they form anastomosing vessels; they contain latex, a peculiar substance containing oil, resin, caout- 88 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY chouc, gum, etc., with water, in an emulsion, sometimes limpid, more frequently milky. Laticiferous ducts must not be confounded with lactiferous ducts, which occur in the mammary glands of animals, and which convey lac or milk. Some writers say "lacticiferous," which is an inex- cusable blunder. Intercellular spaces, with no walls of their own, but formed by the surrounding cells, as flues in chimneys are bounded by the bricks, may serve as ducts, sometimes containing air, as in many water plants, sometimes latex, oil, etc., as in the oil ducts of anise or fennel; when such spaces are nearly spherical they are sometimes called glands, although not properly such, as in orange- peel, cloves, etc. All these different forms of cell and duct formations unite to form tissues. A tissue may be described as a union. of many cells for the performance of a common function. According to Fluecki- ger, the different systems of tissues are: — Epidermal System. — In its simplest form merely a thickening of the outer wall of the outer cells, as in some thallogens ; in higher plants, a layer of cells, forming the epidermis, in and on which we find stomata or breathing pores, hairs, glands, etc. On roots and stems this epidermis is later on replaced by the formation of cork (periderm). The epidermal structures protect the more delicate structures within, and also prevent too rapid or excessive evapo- ration. Mechanical System. — This serves to give mechanical strength to the plant. It includes wood cells, bast cells, stone cells, etc. The wood or xylem portion of fibro-vascular bundles belongs here. Absorbing System. — Structures by which food is obtained from the soil, or in parasitic plants from their hosts ; of little importance in pharmacognosy. The root hairs belong to this system. Assimilating System. — Consists of cells containing chlorophyll, therefore in the higher plants mainly the leaves. Conducting System. — The fibro-vascular bundles; ducts, sieve- ducts, etc. This system permits the passage of food materials, water, etc., from one part of a plant to another. Storing System. — Receptacles for storing surplus food, such as seeds, fruits, rhizomes, bulbs, roots, etc. Strictly speaking, seeds fruits, etc., are not "tissues" but "organs." HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 89 Aerating System. — Stomata and intercellular spaces to effect the interchange of gases in the interior of the plant. Secretion Storage. — To receive and store the secretions of the plant, as oil, resin, mucilage, etc. It includes intercellular spaces, cells, latex ducts, glands, etc. While a study of these systems of tissues is important from the botanical standpoint and even essential to a proper understand- ing of physiological botany, it must yet be remembered that the pharmacist has no more use for botany as such than has the physician, lawyer or preacher, or than has an architect, civil engineer or stonemason for geology or mineralogy, and it is only in so far as a knowledge of botany is of use in pharmacognosy that it is necessary to a pharmacist's education. Pharmacognosy deals with the anatomical and chemical facts alone, and it is a divergence and misapplication of time to study botany (as the tendency seems now to be) from the botanist's standpoint. For instance, in studying physiological botany, we should want to study chlorophyll grains with reference to their functions as assimilating organs, and how they produce starch grains, which in turn Ave would study from their first inception in the chloro- phyll bodies to the final perfect shapes in the cell. In pharma- cognosy Ave only need to know chlorophyll bodies and starch grains Avhen Ave see them, and only want to know whether cer- tain structures are present or not, and if present, what they look like. We will therefore study the tissues of the drugs from a purely anatomical standpoint and in connection with the parts of plants in which they occur, and will next proceed to the consideration of the pharmacognosy of A r egetable drugs. Adulterations Drugs may be debased or tampered with in various ways. We meet with adulterations, sophistications, admixtures and substi- tutions. An adulteration is an addition of foreign substances to any article with the intention to defraud. When extract of poppy leaA T es is added to opium, or when leaden bullets or shot are in- closed in lumps of opium to increase the weight, these are adul- 90 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY terations. But it is also adulteration when cheaper drugs of simi- lar appearance or inferior or spoiled drugs of the same kind are added with intent to defraud. Sophistication is an addition of a spurious article closely re- sembling the true, as paraffin to white wax. A sophistication is, therefore, always an adulteration; but as an adulteration is not necessarily an imitation of the genuine, an adulteration is not necessarily a sophistication. Adulterations and sophistications always imply intentional fraud, and the nature of the adulterant is usually such that its use cannot exert any immediately injurious effects, however delete- rious the ultimate effects may be, for no one is depraved or fool- ish enough to risk an immediately fatal effect for the sake of pecuniary gain. An admixture is the addition of one drug to another, and may be intentional, when it constitutes an adulteration; but the term is usually restricted to those cases when the admixture is due to ac- cident or ignorance, and with no intenton to defraud; the circum- stances of the case generally show whether the admixture is due to one or the other of these causes, as when the added article is more expensive than the drug, or when it is dangerous to health or life, when it is evidently unintentional and not in any sense an adul- teration. A substitution is when an entirely different substance is sold instead of the one asked for. Such substitution may, of course, be intentional, and, therefore, for fraudulent purposes, as when ceresin is sold instead of beeswax, cottonseed oil for olive oil, or Mexican sarsaparilla for Eio Negro sarsaparilla; but such frau- dulent substitution would not be an adulteration because the lat- ter presupposes an intentional cheapening of the genuine article, and in cases of substitution none of the genuine article is present at all. A substitution may also be unintentional, as when through ignorance one drug is sold for another resembling it, or when labels are accidentally interchanged, or when the similarity of names leads to the sale of a wrong article, as in a case where apocynum cannabinum was sold instead of cannabis Indica which had been ordered; but the label was ' ' Cannabis Indica. " Here the use of the English name ' ' Indian Hemp ' ' for both drugs led to the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 91 mistake. Substitutions may furthermore result from carelessness, as when morphine is dispensed instead of quinine. It will therefore be seen that each of these terms — adulteration, sophistication, admixture and substitution — has a distinct mean- ing, and that they should not be indiscriminately used, one for an- other. The first two terms always imply fraud; the other two sometimes imply fraud, but frequently imply ignorance or careless- ness. Adulterations and sophistications, therefore, seldom directly lead to dangerous results, while admixtures and especially substi- tutions, frequently give rise to serious or even fatal accidents. Formerly much attention was given to a study of adulterants, these being described with the same minuteness as the drugs them- selves, but now we generally restrict our study to the drugs, count- ing all that does not answer the description of the drug under con- sideration to be foreign substance, and therefore one of the above forms of debasement. Adulterations that are of common occurrence or of characteristic nature will be described in these notes. We proceed now to the consideration of the pharmacognosy of the in- dividual vegetable drugs. GROUP IX Herbs — Whole Plants Botanically Eecognizable While herbs or flowering tops are usually sufficiently complete to be recognized by their botanical characteristics, yet as a matter of fact works like Maisch's Organic Materia Medica do not clas- sify them systematically as fresh plants are classified, for instance, in Gray's Manual. Moreover, by looking over the group list, it will be seen that there are comparatively few whole floAvering plants used as drugs, and even these are of subordinate importance, so that to study taxonomy for the sake of recognizing these few, reminds one of the mountain heaving in labor to produce a mouse. A large number of herbs and other "botanical drugs" are sold in compressed packages, and the retailer sells these as la- beled and without opening the packages to determine the identity of the drugs, which, moreover, are often cut up before compres- sion so as to be unrecognizable by their botanical features, when, of course, other characteristics, such as odor or taste, must be 92 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY relied on for identification. In any case, however, these drugs must be softened by dipping in hot water, or by holding in the steam escaping from a tea kettle, so that they may be properly handled for examination. The flowers of most of these plants are very minute and must be examined with a lens. In the following drawings in this group most of them are represented much en- larged. In pharmacognosy, while it is theoretically assumed that herbs are classified botanically, yet the books give such other methods of identifying these drugs as to make a knowledge of taxonomy practically superfluous, as will be appreciated by reference to this group in Maisch. It is true that at present, in some quarters, pharmacognosy is taught by botanists as if botany were the im- portant study, and pharmacognosy but an incident to it, while in reality botany is and should be but a subordinate incident to the study of pharmacognosy. As a matter ,of fact, the best and easiest way to learn to recog- nize the drugs of this group is to get a sample of each drug and become familiar with its appearance, taste and odor, and in this way the same result may be reached in a few days that would require a year or two of practice in recognizing plants botani- cally, especially as many of the drugs of this group are not always in a condition for botanical determination, while the other char- acteristics are always present. The following is an enumeration of the more important drugs of this class, arranged alphabetically according to the orders to which they belong, although no great stress is intended to be placed on the orders or families. COMPOSITE. Leaves and tops Absinthium. Leaves and flowering tops Achillea. Flowering tops Eupatorium. Leaves and flowering tops Grindelia. Leaves and flowering tops Solidago. Leaves and tops Tanacetum. GENTIANACE^E. Entire plant Chirata. LABIATE. Leaves and tops Cataria. Leaves and tops Hedeoma. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 93 Leaves and tops Lycopus. Leaves and tops Majorana. Leaves and tops Marrubium. Leaves and tops Melissa. Leaves and tops Mentha piperita. Leaves and tops Mentha viridis. Leaves and tops Monarda. Herb Scutellaria. LEGUMINOS^E. Tops Scoparius. LOiBELIACILE. Leaves and tops Lobelia. PAPAVERACELE. Entire plant Chelidonium. RANUNCULACE^S. Entire plant Coptis. Herb Pulsatilla. SOLANACEJE. Leaves and flowering tops Hyoscyamus. URTICACE.E. Flowering tops of female plant Cannabis Indica Fig. 24. It must be remembered that drugs which should consist of only leaves, as belladonna, aconite, eucalyptus or chimaphila leaves, or only of flowers, as matricaria, etc., often come into the trade in the shape of twigs or tops and may then also appear to belong to this group. Such drugs are described under the proper groups to which they belong. Composite. — Flowers in a close head, on a common receptacle, 94 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY surrounded with an involucre, with five (rarely four) stamens inserted on the corolla, their anthers united in a tube (syngene- sious). (Fig. 24.) Yellowish florets; leaves petiolate, pinnatifid Absinthium. White florets; leaves thrice pinnatifid Achillea. White florets; leaves connate-perfoliate Eupatorium. Yellow ray florets; leaves sessile, spatulate to lanceolate .. Grindelia. Yellow florets; leaves linear-lanceolate Solidago. Yellow tubular florets ; leaves alternate, pinnatifid Tanacetum, Absinthium N. Wormwood. — 0. Leaves and tops of Artemisia Absinthium; Compositor. — H. Northern temperate zone ; cultivated. — D. Leaves about five em. long, hoary, silky pubescent, petiolate, roundish- Fig. 25. triangular in outline ; pinnately two or three cleft with lanceolate segments, the terminal one spatulate; bracts three cleft or entire; heads numerous, about three mm. long, subglobose; numerous small, pale yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus; odor aromatic; taste persistently bitter. — C. Volatile oil, bitter gluco- side, absinthin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stimulant. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion, tincture or fluid extract. Achillea N. Yarrow, Milfoil. — 0. Flowering tops and leaves of Achillea Millefolium; Compositor. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. Leaves from five to twenty-five cm. long, three pinnatifid, the divisions linear, three to five cleft, crowded; corymb compound, flat-topped; involucre oblong with imbricate scales; rays four to five, short, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 95 white (sometimes rose-color) ; disc-florets greenish-white, perfect; achenes flat and without pappus ; odor aromatic, reminding some- what of chamomile ; taste bitter. Should be free from coarse stems. — C. Volatile oil and a peculiar principle, achillein, etc. — U. Aromatic, stomachic, bitter tonic; similar to chamomile. Also supposed to act as an emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, in in- fusion or fluid extract. Eupatorium N. Boneset, Thoroughwort, — 0. Flowering tops and leaves of Eupatorium perfoliatum; Composite. — H. North America. — D. Stem hairy ; leaves lanceolate, united at the base around the stem (connate-perfoliate), tapering to a slender point, serrate, very veiny, wrinkled, downy beneath, ten to twenty cm. long; flower- Fig. 27. heads with ten to thirty white florets; corymbs compound and large; scales of involucre linear-lanceolate. — C. A bitter extract- ive, a glucoside eupatorin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, useful in inter- mittent fever, dyspepsia, general debility, etc. — The warm in- 96 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY fusion is an excellent emetic and diaphoretic, best given in infusion or fluid extract. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, Grindelia N. Grindelia. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia robusta [Grindelia camporum, or Grindelia cuneifolia), and G. sqaarrosa; Composite. — H. G. rob. west of the Eocky Mountains; G. squarr. from the Mississippi westward to the coast. — D. Leaves about five cm. or less long, varying from broadly spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, more or less sharply serrate, Fig. 28. often spinosely toothed, or even laciniate-pinnatind, pale green, smooth,, finely dotted, thickish, brittle, most of them broken off from the stems and loose in the packages; there should not be more than 10 per cent by weight of stems or foreign matter; heads many-flowered, subglobular or somewhat conical; the in- volucre hemispherical, about ten mm. broad, composed of numer- ous imbricated spreading scales ; ray florets yellow, ligulate, pis- tillate; disc-florets yellow, tubular, perfect; pappus 1 consisting of two or three awns of the length of the disc-florets; odor, bal- samic ; taste pungently aromatic and bitter. In the cut, representing G. rob., a shows a dry flower-head, as in HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 97 trade ; b, same soaked in water ; c, section of receptacle ; d, disc- floret, enlarged ; e, ray-floret ; f, stigma, enlarged ; g, fruit, enlarged ; G. squarr., resembles G. rob., but is smaller and the ray-florets are sometimes wanting. The name ' ' squarrosa ' ' refers to the recurved points of the scales covering the flowerheads, but this peculiarity is present in both varieties. — C. Resin and volatile oil. — U. Em- ployed in various affections of the organs of respiration, asthma, pertussis, bronchitis, etc.; it also is said to be diuretic and useful in catarrh of the bladder. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract. Solidago N. Golden Rod. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Solidago odor a; Compositcc. — H. North America. — D. Leaves three to five cm. long, entire, sessile, smooth, lanceolate, acute, pellucid-punctate; flow- erheads numerous, small, in one-sided curved racemes; florets yellow, with bristly pappus; odor and taste aromatic, sweet, re- Fig. 29. minding of anise. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Slightly stimulant and car- minative ; copious draughts of warm infusion produce diaphoresis, mainly on account of the warm water taken. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form of infusion. Tanacetum N. Tansy. — 0. Leaves and tops of Tanacetum vulgare; Compo- sitce. Several pharmacopoeias prescribed the use of the flowers only. — H. Northern hemisphere ; cultivated.— D. Leaves about fif- ten cm. long ; bipinnatifid, the segments oblong, obtuse, serrate or incised, smooth, dark-green and glandular; flowerheads corymbose, 98 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY with an imbricated involucre, a convex, naked receptacle and numerous yellow tubular florets; odor, strong, camphoraceous ; taste, acrid, bitter. — C. Volatile oil and a bitter principle tanace- tin. — U. Emmenagogue, to restore suppressed menstruation, and sometimes for the purpose of procuring abortion. It is seldom, if ever, successful in producing the latter effect, unless the dose is so large that it produces fatal intestinal inflammations. It also Fig. 30. possesses anthelmintic properties. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract or infusion; of the oil, one to three drops. Gentianace^e. — Smooth herbs, with a colorless bitter juice; op- posite, sessile, entire and simple leaves without stipules; solitary or cymose flowers, regular; calyx persistent; corolla mostly withering- persistent; lobes of corolla convolute in bud; stamens as many as Fig. 31. the lobes of the corolla and inserted on its tube: one-celled ovary with two parietal placental or nearly the whole inner face of the ovary ovuliferous; the fruit usually a two-valved septicidal and many -seeded capsule; seed anatropous with a minute embryo in fleshy albumen. . Two nectaries on each petal, Chirata. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Chirata 99 N. Chirata, Chiretta.— 0. The entire plant, Swertia Chirata; Gentianacece. — H. East India. — D. Chirata comes in bundles about seventy-five cm. in length, of the shape shown in Fig. 32. The root is nearly simple, about seven cm. long ; stem branched, nearly one meter long, slightly quadrangular above, containing a narrow Fig. 32. wood circle and a large yellowish pith ; leaves opposite, sessile, ovate, entire, five-nerved ; flowers, numerous, small, with f our- lobed calyx and corolla ; with two nectaries on each petal. The whole plant smooth, pale brown, inodorous and intensely bitter. — C. Ophelic acid, a peculiar bitter principle, chiratin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and febrifuge. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form of infusion or fluid extract. Chirata should be freed from the coarser woody stems, which contain little of the bitter constituents. Fig. 33. Labiate. — Chiefly herbs, with square stems; opposite aromatic leaves, mostly dotted with small glands which contain a volatile oil upon which depends the warmth and aroma of these plants; flowers axillary, chiefly in cymose clusters, these often aggregated in ter- minal spikes or racemes; more or less two-lipped corolla, upper lip of corolla two-lobed or sometimes entire, lower lip three-lobed; stamens inserted on tube of corolla, didynamous or diandrous ; ovary deeply four-lobed, forming in fruit four little seed-like nuts or achenes, 100 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY surrounding the base of the single style in the bottom of the per- sistent calyx and each filled with a single erect seed. Fig. 34. Upper lip arched; stamens 4 Cataria. Corolla small, 2-lipped; stamens 2 .Hedeoma. Flowers in axillary whorls; stamens 2 Lycopus. Flowers in corymbose clusters; stamens 4 Majorana. Flowers in dense, woolly, axillary whorls; stamens 4 Marrubium. Flowers in small cymes; stamens 4 .Melissa. Flowers in obtuse spikes; stamens 4, short Mentha ppt. Flowers in slender spikes; stamens 2 Mentha virid. Corolla long, with narrow lip; stamens 2 -._... Monarda. Flowers in axillary 1-sided racemes; stamens 4 Scutellaria. Cataria N. Catnep, Catnip. — 0. Leaves and tops of Nepeta Cataria; La- biatce. — H. Northern hemisphere. — D. Stem branched, downy gray; Fig. 35. with petiolate, heart-shaped, oblong, deeply crenate leaves, with the under side whitish-downy. Cymose axillary clusters, dense and many-flowered, forming interrupted spikes or racemes; flowers HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 101 with whitish corolla, with four stamens ascending under the upper lip, the two lower stamens being shorter. Odor mint-like, taste bitterish and aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — U. Stimulant and tonic; stomachic; but most frequently used as a remedy for flatulent colic of infants. Dose. 2 to 5 grams in in- fusion or fluid extract. Hedeoma N. American Pennyroyal. — 0. Leaves and tops of Hedeoma Pul- egioides; Labiatce. — H. North America. — D. Branching, hairy, roundish-quadrangular stem; leaves opposite, short petioled, ob- long-ovate, somewhat serrate, about twelve mm. long; flowers in small axillary cymules, with a tubular bilabiate five-toothed calyx, Fig. 36. and a pale blue, spotted, bilabiate corolla, containing tAvo fertile and two sterile stamens. Odor strong and mint-like ; taste pun- gent, aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Stimulant, carminative and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. The fresh herb hung in rooms is much used to drive away mosquitos, and a spirit made by dissolving the oil in alcohol is used for the same purpose. Lycopus N. Bugle, Bugleweed. — 0. Tops of Lycopus Virginicus; La- biatce. — H. North America. — D. Stem obtusely quadrangular, with slender runners; leaves about five cm. long, short-petioled, elliptic-lanceolate, toothed above, smooth; flowers in axillary clus- ters, small; calyx bluntly four-toothed; corolla purplish and four- 102 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY lobed ; the right hand figure shows the mouth of the corolla with the stigma and two fertile stamens; the odor resembles that of mint; the taste is bitter. — C. A crystallizable glucoside and tan- nin. — U. Said to be astringent and sedative, and has been recom- Fig. 37. mended to reduce the force of the pulse and allay cough, and to arrest hemorrhage from the lungs. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, pre- ferably in the form of infusion or fluid extract. Majorana N. Marjoram. — 0. Tops of Origanum Majorana and 0. vulgare; Labiatce. — H. Asia Minor and Southern Europe ; cultivated in U. S. D. 0. Majorana has the stem branched; leaves about fifteen mm. long, sessile, spatulate or obovate, entire, grayish-green and hairy; flowers in clusters; calyx two-lipped; corolla whitish, obscurely Fig. 38. two-lipped; stamens, four, exserted and didynamous; taste pun- gent, odor aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Stimulant, carmina- tive and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion or fluid extract. 0. vulg., a flower of which is figured, is also called Wild Mar- joram, or Origanum, while 0. marj. is known as Sweet Marjoram. The latter is the better known because it is used by cooks as a con- diment. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Marrabium 103 N. Hoarhound. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Marrubium vulgare; LaUatce. — H. Northern hemisphere; cultivated. — D. Branches quadrangular; white, densely downy stems; leaves op- posite, petiolate, roundish-ovate, about twenty-five mm. long, Fig. 39. obtuse, coarsely crenate, strongly wrinkled, downy above, white hairy beneath, flowers in dense, axillary, woolly whorls; with a stiffly ten-toothed calyx, whitish, bilabiate corolla and four included stamens; odor aromatic and taste bitter. — C. A bitter principle Marrubiin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stom- achic, in dyspepsia and in atonic conditions of the alimentary tract. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or in fluid extract. Melissa N. Melissa, Balm. — 0. Leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis; Labiates. — H. Asia Minor, Southern Europe ; naturalized in U. Fig. 40. S. — D. Stem branched, quadrangular, pubescent; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate, obtuse, somewhat hairy and gland- 104 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ular, rounded or sub cordate at the base, with margin crenate; flowers in about four-flowered cymules ; calyx tubular, bell-shaped, five toothed; corolla whitish or purplish, bilabiate; stamens four, didynamous ; odor fragrant and aromatic ; taste astringent and bitterish. — C. Volatile oil, tannin and a bitter principle. — U. Car- minative, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. Mentha Piperita N. Peppermint. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Mentha pipe- rita; Labiatce. — H. Asia, Europe and North America. — D. Stems and branches quadrangular, often purplish ; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly Fig. 41. smooth, with margin sharply serrate ; flowers in terminal conical obtuse spikes; calyx tubular, five-toothed, often purplish; corolla four-lobed, purplish, stamens four, short, inserted on corolla; odor aromatic and taste pungent and cooling. — C. Volatile oil, which contains menthol. — U. Carminative and nervine. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. Mentha Viridis N. Spearmint. — 0. Leaves and tops of Mentha viridis; Labiatce. — ■ H. Europe and North America. — D. Stems and branches quad- rangular and usually light-green ; leaves about five cm. long, sub- sessile, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 105 smooth, with margin unequally serrate; flowers in slender acute terminal spikes ; calyx tubular, sharply five-toothed ; corolla f our- lobed, light purplish; stamens four, rather long; odor aromatic Fig. 42. and taste pungent. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Carminative and nervine. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. Monarda N. Horsemint. — 0. Leaves and tops of Monarda punctata; Labi- atce. — H. United States, New York to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. — D. Stem nearly simple, minutely downy; leaves about Fig. 43. five cm. long, petioled, lanceolate, acute, glandular, nearly smooth with margin sparsely serrate; flowers in whorls, with sessile, yel- 106 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY low and purplish bracts ; calyx tubular, downy, five-toothed ; corolla two-lipped, yellowish with purplish spots on upper lip ; stamens two : odor aromatic and taste pungent and bitterish. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. Scutellaria N. Scullcap, Skullcap. — 0. Leaves and tops of Scutellaria lateri- flora; Ldbiatce. — H. North America, west to Alabama and New Mexico. — D. Stem and branches quadrangular, smooth; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, with margin serrate; flowers in axillary, one-sided racemes; calyx two-lipped; corolla two-lipped, pale-blue; stamens four, didy- Fig. 44. Fig. 45. namous; odor slight and taste bitterish. — C. Bitter principle. — U. Tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. Leguminos/e. — Plants with papilionaceous or sometimes regular flowers; stamens ten (rarely five, and sometimes many), monadel- phous, diadelphous, rarely distinct; pistil free, single and simple, becoming a legume in fruit; seeds mostly without albumen; leaves alternate, with stipules, usually' compound. (Fig. 45.) Leaves usually absent, stamens monadelphous Scoparius Scoparius N. Broom. — 0. Tops of Cytisus Scoparius; Leguminosce. — H. Wes- tern Asia, Western and Southern Europe and naturalized in parts of America. — D. Stems thin, flexible, pentangular, smooth, tough, dark green and usually free of leaves; leaves, if present, small, trifoliate, leaflets obovate-oblong and entire ; inflorescence race- mose, but flowers often broken off, leaving the stems bare; HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 107 corolla, yellow; stamens ten, monadelphous, odor peculiar and taste disagreeably bitter. — C. Volatile oil, sparteine, scopa- rin. — U. Diuretic and hydragogue cathartic, of value for re- Fig. 46. moval of effusions in chronic dropsies. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in fluid extract or infusion. Lobeliace/E. — Herbs with acrid milky juice; leaves alternate; flowers scattered; corolla irregular, monopetalous, five-lobed; sta- Fig. 47. mens five, free from the corolla, united into tube commonly by their filaments and always by their anthers. Leaves alternate; stamens united into a tube Lobelia Lobelia N. Lobelia, Indian Tobacco. — 0. Leaves and tops of Lobelia in- flata collected after a portion of the capsules have become inflated ; Lobeliacew. — H. North America. — D. Stem erect, with hairy branches terminating in long racemes of pale-blue flowers ; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate or oblong, pubescent, pale green, with margin irregularly toothed, gradually diminishing 108 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY into leaf -like sessile bracts; calyx adherent, five-toothed, becom- ing inflated in fruit; corolla split down on upper side, bilabiate, Fig. 48. the upper lip consisting of two rather erect lobes, the other lip spreading and 3-cleft; stamens five, united into a tube; fruit an Fig. 49. inflated pod, inferior; odor slight, irritating, and taste at first mild, afterwards acrid and burning. — C. Lobeline, lobelic acid, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 109 etc. — U. Sialagogue, expectorant, emetic, narcotic and purgative; in large doses powerfully depressant. Valuable in asthma. Dose: As an emetic, 0.5 to 1.5 grams, but its use is dangerous; as an ex- pectorant in much smaller doses. Papaverace^e. — Herbs with milky or colored juice; flowers regu- lar, with parts in twos or fours; sepals two (rarely three), fuga- cious, falling off when the flower expands; petals four to twelve; stamens polyandrous, rarely as few as sixteen, distinct, hypogenous; ovary one-celled, with two or more parietal placentas; fruit a dry one-celled pod or capsule. (Fig. 49.) Flowers in long-peduncled umbels; capsule linear Chelidonium Chelidonium N. Chelidonium, Celandine. — 0. The entire plant Chelidonium majus; Papaveracece. — H. Europe; naturalized in North Amer- ica. — D. Root, several-headed, branching, reddish-brown; stem about fifty cm. high, hairy, light-green; leaves about fifteen cm. 110 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY long, thin, petiolate, the upper ones smaller and sessile, obtuse, with margin coarsely crenate or incised and the terminal ones often three-lobed; flowers in small, long-peduncled umbels; sepals two ; petals four, yellow ; capsule linear, one-celled and many- seeded; odor, when fresh, disagreeable and taste acrid. — C. The fresh plant contains a saffron-colored milk-juice. Chelidonine, chelerythrine, chelidonic acid, etc. — U. Diuretic and cathartic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract. Ranunculace,e. — Herbs, or some woody plants, with a colorless and usually acrid juice; flowers regular or irregular, polypetalous or apetalous, with the calyx often colored like a corolla, hypogen- Fig. 51. ous; sepals three to fifteen; petals three to fifteen or iv anting ; sta- mens numerous, indefinite, rarely few; pistils many or few, rarely single; sepals, petals, stamens and pistils all distinct and uncon- nected; fruits, dry pods, achenes or berries. Bhizomes thin, filiform, golden-yellow Coptis Cluster of leaves forming an involucre some distance below the flower .Pulsatilla Coptis N. Goldthread. — 0. Entire plant Coptis tri folia; Banuncula- cece. — H. Northern continents. — D. Rhizome filiform or thread- like, bright golden-yellow, with very thin rootlets; leaves radical, from a scaly base, petiolate, trifoliate, the leaflets about one to two cm. long; obovate-cuneate, obscurely three-lobed, sharply toothed; shape slender, naked, one-flowered; calyx petal-like, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 111 deciduous; petals small; stamens fifteen to twenty-five; pistils, three to seven, on slender stalks, maturing into divergent membranaceous pods containing from four to eight seeds; in- odorous and taste very bitter. The drawing shows a flower with sepals and petals removed. — C. Berberine and coptine. — U. Pow- erful pure bitter tonic, used as a stomachic and appetizer in dys- pepsia, apepsia, want of appetite during convalescence, etc. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in fluid extract. Pulsatilla N. Pulsatilla, Pasque flower. — 0. The herb of Anemone Pulsa- tilla (Pasque flower) and of Anemone pratensis; Ranunculacem. — H. Europe; Anemone patens, indigenous to "Western North Amer- ica, is used for the same purpose. — D. Leaves radical petiolate, silky-villous, twice or thrice deeply three-parted or pinnately cleft, with linear acute lobes, appearing after the flowers ; flow- 112 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ers large, purple, bell-shaped, the flowerstalk having a cluster of linear-divided leaves forming an involucre at some distance from Fig. 53. the flower and often recurved so that the flower hangs down- wards; sepals petaloid; petals none; pistils numerous, forming achenes terminated by a bearded feathery style. The illustra- Fig. 54. tion shows the scape and flower of the Pasque flower, Anemone Pulsatilla. The herb should be collected soon after flowering, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 113 carefully preserved, and not kept longer than one year. The dried herb is inodorous, but has a very acrid taste. — C. Anemonin and anemonic acid, etc. — U. Diuretic, alterative, diaphoretic, ex- pectorant; little used. Dose: 0.3 gram. Solanace/E. — Herbs (or rarely shrubs) with colorless juice; leaves alternate; flowers regular, pentamerous, on bractless pedi- cels; stamens five; corolla imbricate or valvate in tlie bud and mostly plaited; fruit a two-celled (rarely three to five-celled) many-seeded capsule or berry. {Fig. 54.) Gray-green hairy leaves, irregularly lobed; flowers, or capsules within persistent calyx, often present Hyoscyamus Hyoscyamus N. Hyoscyamus, Henbane. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger; SolanacecB. Only leaves and tops of the sec- ond year's growth should be collected; formerly only the leaves were official, and the twigs, flowers and fruits were rejected. — H. Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America. — D. Long stems cylindrical, hairy; leaf to twenty-five cm. long, ten cm. broad, with prominent midrib, grayish-green, hahy, especially on the under side ; ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, sinuate-toothed, teeth large, oblong or triangular; flowers nearly sessile; calyx urn-shaped, five-toothed, persistent; corolla five-lobed, yellowish with purplish veins; occasionally the capsule, inclosed in the per- sistent calyx, is present, as shown in the right-hand figure ; odor heavy, narcotic, and taste bitter and somewhat acrid. — C. Hyo- scyamine, etc. ; the drug should yield not less than 0.065 per cent 114 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of mydriatic alkaloids. — U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic; used to allay cough, spasm, asthma, etc., and often added to purgatives to prevent griping ; used as a hypnotic when opium is not well tolerated. Poisonous in large doses. Dose: 0.1 to 1 gram; average dose about 0.3 gram. Fig. 56. URTiCACEiE. — Plants with stipules, and monoecious or dioecious, or rarely perfect flowers; calyx regular and free; stamens as many as the lobes of calyx and opposite them, or sometimes fewer; ovary one-celled (rarely two-celled) ; free from calyx; fruit one-seeded; embryo in the albumen, when there is any, its radicle pointing upward. Flowers consisting of single sepal inclosing pistil or capsule Cannabis Cannabis N. Cannabis, Indian Hemp. — 0. Flowering tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa; Urticacem. — H. Asia; collected in In- dia. — D. Only the flowering tops of the female plant should be used. Branches about five to seven cm. long, with a few digitate leaves with linear-lanceolate leaflets and numerous sheathing pointed bracts, each containing two small pistillate flowers, some- times with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less aggluti- nated with a resinous adhesive exudation; color, brownish-green; odor peculiar, narcotic and taste slightly acrid. It should consist only of the short branches of the flowering tops of the female plants grown in East India, and from which the resin has not been removed; this article is known (see Fig. 58) in the trade as gunjah, ganja or guaza. The variety of hemp grown in Russia and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 115 other parts of Europe, and in America, is almost destitute of resin and is generally considered to be medicinally inferior. — C. Resin. — U. Anodyne, nervine, in large doses narcotic. In Oriental coun- tries it has been used as an intoxicant and exhilarant from times immemorial, being the "hasheesh" of those countries, and is Fig. 57. sometimes swallowed, sometimes smoked. Its effects are indi- cated by its East Indian names, "Increaser of Pleasure," "Ex- citer of Desire," etc. Used in tetanus, insanity, delirium tre- mens, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram, best in extract or fluid extract. Bhang consists of the dried leaves and small stalks of Cannabis; it is an inferior article, excluded from use by the official descrip- tion. In the Orient it is used for smoking, . for making a sweet- meat called majoon, or an intoxicating drink by infusing bhang in water. Fig. 58. Churrus is the resin which exudes spontaneously in minute drops from the stems, leaves and tops. It is gathered by rubbing the tops with -leather gloves, to which the resin adheres and from which it is afterwards scraped. It is used only in the Orient, for smoking. 116 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Hasheesh is the Arabic name for hemp, and consists of the tops gathered some time before the seeds are ripe. Bhang and Hasheesh or a drug much crumbled or discolored, or consisting mainly of long barren stems, should not be employed in medicine. The bare stems, without leaves or tops, are some- times sold as Cannabis Indica; they are probably the refuse ob- tained when larger quantities are garbled. To sell these as Can- nabis must be due to ignorance or fraud. CRYPTOGAMOUS DRUGS Crypto gamous plants are nowerless plants, that is, they have no stamens or pistils, but produce instead of seeds minute one-celled germinating bodies called spores, in which there is no embryo or rudimentary plantlet. They are divided into two classes, Thal- logens or Thallophytes, and Acrogens. Thallogens comprise the lower orders of nowerless plants in which there is no marked distinction into root, stem and leaves, the entire thallus consisting of simple cell elements without regu- lar epidermis or fibro-vascular bundles. The thallus may have any kind of form, leaf-like, stem-like, branched, flattened or gathered into compact or globular forms, or drawn out into threads, or to single rows of cells, or even reduced to single cells. The axis of growth is indefinite and indeterminate, growth tak- ing place chiefly peripherically and horizontally. Of the subdi- visions of this group of plants the algales, lichenales and fungales furnish drugs. Acrogens are the higher class of nowerless plants and are char- acterized by having a distinct and determinate axis of growth, with frequently distinct foliage. They are subdivided into two sub-classes, Vascular Acrogens, or Pteridophytes, which have wood- cells and vessels (fibro-vascular bundles), and Cellular Acrogens, or Bryopliytes, composed of simple cellular tissue only, without wood or vessels. Of the vascular acrogens, lycopodiacem, equis- etacece and filices furnish drugs, while the cellular acrogens (mosses, etc.,) furnish no drugs. Many of the cryptogamous drugs are really sufficiently com- plete to be determined botanically, and would therefore belong HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 117 under Group IX, which we have just considered; but owing to the fact that but few pharmacists ever study the cryptogams thoroughly, we place these drugs under parts of plants not com- plete enough for botanical determination, and group them as follows: — f Algales Group 10 Cryptogams Thallogens J Lichenales . . I Fungales . . . . (Lycopodiaceas Equisetacese . s Filieej 11 12 13 14 15 GROUP X Algales. — Usually highly colored plants, aquatic or growing on damp rocks, walls, etc. ; sometimes frondose, sometimes reduced to a few cells or a single cell. Fructification monoecious or dioe- cious, sometimes consisting of special cells of two sexes, some- times of simple mobile spores, sometime of antheridia and spo- rangia, which are free or inclosed in capsules. Thallus filiform, much branched, horny, translucent Chondrus Thallus with large air vesicles Tucus Thallus round, long, stem-like Lamiiiaria Mixture of several small seaweeds Corsican Moss Chondrus N. Irish Moss, Carrageen. — 0. The drug consists of the two sea- algae, Chondrus crispus ( Splicer ococcus crispus) and Gigartina ma- millosa, Algales, bleached and dried by exposure to the sun. — H. Atlantic ocean. Both algae are gathered on the coasts of Ireland and New England. — D. From five to fifteen cm. long, many times two- forked, the segments varying somewhat in width, the ends either two-forked or emarginate ; yellowish- white, horny and translu- cent; slight seaweed odor and saline mucilaginous taste. In Ch. cr. the spore-vessels are imbedded in the frond, as in the large figure, a showing a sporocarp in section and o showing the small bodies contained in the sporocarp ; G.m. has the sporocarps raised on short stalks, as in c, or in section in d. The dried drug swells in water, resuming its original shape and is so represented in the 118 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY drawing. Boiled with thirty times its own weight of water it yields a mucilage which gelatinizes on cooling and does not turn blue with iodine T. S. (absence of starch.) — C. Mucilage and traces Fig. 59. of iodine and bromine. — U. Demulcent and nutrient, but without the medicinal virtues usually ascribed to it. in decoction or jelly. Agar-Agar Dose: 5 to 10 grams Several varieties of Fu'cus or Sphwrococcus come into trade un- der this title ; the Ceylon variety of Agar-agar consists mainly of Splicer ococcus lichenoides; Macassar Agar-agar consists of Eucheuma spinosum; Japanese Agar-agar, most frequently employed for the culture of bacteria, is made by treating several algae (Sphcerococcus compressus, Gelidium cameum, etc.) with boiling water, letting the resulting solution set into a jelly, which is cut into slices and dried; it occurs in translucent pieces, two feet long and as thick HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 119 as a straw, or in yellowish white masses a foot long and about an inch wide. (See Group LXXVIII.) Fucus N. Bladderwrack. — 0. The whole sea-alga Fucus vesiculosus, generally mixed with Fucus nodosus; Algales. — H. Atlantic ocean. Gathered on the shores, especially after storms, and much used Fig. 60. as fertilizer or to make kelp, the ash from which iodine is pre- pared. — D. The figures show both algae, reduced to about two- thirds of the natural size; the broad frond with two air-vesicles side by side is F. ves., and the narrow frond with single vesicles is F. nod. Fucus vesiculosus, which forms the bulk of the drug, is often up to a meter long, averaging about fifteen mm. in width ; flat- tened, branched, and with a ridge or "midrib," the air- vesicles usually in pairs, and some of the frond-ends enlarged and nodulated 120 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY by the organs of fructification; dark-brown or blackish; odor like sea-weeds and taste saline mucilaginous. Fucus nodosus is narrow, rounded, without "midrib," and with single air-vesicles ; other- wise similar to F. ves. — C. Mucilage and traces of iodine and bro- mine. — U.. Alterative and tonic. Dose: About 2 grams, in de- coction. Laminaria N. Sea-tangle. — 0. The stem-like frond of Laminaria digitata; Algales. — H. Atlantic ocean; about the coasts of Scotland. — D. Stem-like, one-half to two meters long, without joints or branches, about ten to fifteen mm. thick, somewhat flattened; elastic and horny; usually covered with a thin film of salt. The Fig. 61. figure shows a small piece with a view of the section at a; when soaked in water it swells to about four times its previous diameter, as shown at b. — U. Sea-tangle tents and bougies are made by trimming down pieces of this plant to the desired sizes and diameters ; these are used like sponge-tents, to dilate sinuses, etc., but mainly in gynecological practice to dilate the mouth of the womb. Corsican Moss is a mixture of small seaweeds, of which Gigar- tina Helminthocorton is the principal one; it consists of different, delicate, filiform, repeatedly forked and intertangled algae, vary- ing in color from pale yellowish-brown to blue-black. Helmintho- corton is pale brown, filiform, horny, round, branched, and striped transversely and has a salty, mucilaginous taste and seaweed odor. It is supposed to have anthelmintic properties, but Cor- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 121 sican Moss is mainly used by the inhabitants of the countries ad- joining the Mediterranean Sea for the same purposes as Irish or Iceland moss is used further north. In this country it is sel- dom kept in drug stores, except in neighborhoods containing French or Italian people. The drug is also known as Helmin- thocorton. GROUP XI Lichenales. — These are cellular perennial acotyledons, growing on the ground, stones, barks, etc. ; a perfect lichen usually consists of a thallus or vegetative apparatus; apothecia or organs of fructi- fication, and spermagonia or organs of fertilization. The thallus is very variable in shape as Avell as in color and texture; it never has stomata and it is usually dry and leathery. It may be fila- mentous, crustaceous, erect, etc., and gray, white, yellow, red, brown or black in color. It is beyond the scope of this book to refer to the fantastic theory that lichens are not a distinct group of plants, but a colony of fungi which holds a large number of algae in captivity ; practically, master fungi with slave algae. We prefer to believe that lichens are lichens. They are by some considered to be a subdivision of fungi, dif- fering from ordinary fungi by having chlorophyll. Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish-gray above and grayish-white below Cetraria Flat lichen, brownish, with oval prominences on one side and cor- responding depressions on the other side Sticta Cetraria N. Iceland moss. — 0. The whole lichen Cetraria Islandica; Li- chenales. — H. Northern Hemisphere. — D. Irregularly lobed, folia- ceous lichen, about five to ten cm. long, reddish to brownish- gray above and grayish-white beneath, with small faintly marked white depressions and the margins of the lobes, which are often recurved, beset with minute teeth; little or no odor and a bit- terish and- mucilaginous taste. It should be freed of pine leaves, mosses and other lichens, by careful garbling. When soaked in water, it becomes soft, cartilaginous and translucent, and when 122 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY boiled with twenty-five times its own weight of water it yields a decoction which gelatinizes on cooling. — C. Lichenin and liche- noid, both closely analogous to starch. — U. Demulcent and nu- Fig. 62. trient, supposed to exert a soothing effect on irritated bron- chial mucous membranes. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in decoction or jelly. Much used as an ingredient in ''pectoral teas." Sticta N. Lichen pulmonarius ; Lungmoss. — 0. The whole lichen Fig. 63 Sticta pulmonacea; Lichenales. — H. Europe.— D. Grows on the stems of oaks, beeches, etc., often hanging down in long shreds. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 123 Broad leathery sheets, smooth on the upper surface with oval de- pressions and corresponding elevations on the other side which is rough or felted from thin rootlike fibers; odor slightly mouldy and taste bitter and mucilaginous. — C. It contains mucilaginous and bitter constituents, similar to those found in Iceland moss, and is used for the same purposes and in the same manner. GROUP XII Fungales. — Cellular acotyledons, generally parasitic on de- caying, and sometimes on living animal and vegetable substances. They are sometimes perennial, more often ephemeral, grow best in the shade, and have no fronds, stomata or green parts. The organ of vegetation is called the mycelium; the organs of fructi- fication are borne on the mycelium, and are very variable in form, and bear spores either on the exterior or interior. Fusiform, purplish -black grains Ergota. Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranous, partly pul- verulent Ustilago. White, tough, light masses Agaric. Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk. Semifluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast. White or yellowish grains Kefir-seed. Round dark brown masses, pulverulent within . . .• Puff-balls. Ergota N. Ergot; Ergot of Rye; Secale cornutum. — 0. The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea (Fungales.), replacing the grain of rye, Secale cereale (Graminacece). — H. On the inflorescence of rye, in Southern Europe. The same fungus also grows on various other grasses in all parts of the world, but the variety growing on rye is the only kind officially recognized. — D. Ergot consists of grain- like bodies about two to five cm. long and three to four mm. thick; the ordinary average size of fair ergot is about 2.5 cm. by 3 mm. The grains are obtusely triangular, somewhat curved, marked lengthwise by a groove on each of the three sides, the groove on the inner side of the curve being most marked and often more or less deeply fissured; the grains are thickest in the middle and taper toward the blunt ends; color externally 124 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY dark purplish, with a slight coating of bluish bloom, lighter-colored or grayish-white within; the grains break with an abrupt frac- ture, old and dry grains being brittle, and fresh, good ergot somewhat elastic before breaking ; odor is peculiar, heavy and of- fensive, and taste is mawkish, fatty or disagreeable; the strong odor developed by treating ergot with solution of potassium hy- droxide is due to decomposition resulting in the production of trimethylamine, which, when present in the fluid extract, ren- ders the latter nauseating and less active. — C. No isolated sub- stance constitutes the active principle of ergot; the ergotine of the trade is merely a solid extract; fixed oil, ecboline, ergotine, sclererythrin, secalin, cornutine, sclerotic and ergotic acids, etc., have been isolated, but some of these substances probably were the products of the processes employed and do not exist in the Fig. 64. drug. — U. Excito-motor, causing contraction of the unstriped muscular fibers of the arterioles, sphincter muscles, uterus, etc. Parturient, ecbolic, emmenagogue, hemostatic. Dose: One to two grams up to thirty grams in urgent cases of hemorrhages, etc., to be given in powder, infusion or best in fluid extract. Cases of poisoning are reported to have been produced by ergot, and stimulants advised to be given as antidotes; such poisoning, if it does occur, is probably due to decomposition or rancidity of the drug or its preparation. The drug is liable to be attacked by mites; to prevent this it should be carefully dried at not above fifty degrees C, and not to perfect dryness, so that it may still retain some of the elas- ticity of fresh ergot, then kept in closed tins or bottles into which a few drops of chloroform have been poured; the drug should be obtained fresh each season, and the old thrown away. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 125 In the trade there are two varieties, the "German" and the "Spanish." They are not really different varieties, for ergot is often sifted or garbled after importation and the large, bold grains sold as "Spanish" and the smaller, less developed grains as "German" ergot. Spanish ergot, being the better article, is therefore to be preferred for medicinal uses ; or the ergot, as im- ported, garbled merely to remove foreign seeds and substances, should be used without separating the large from the small grains. Much broken, small, lean, unclean, worm-eaten, mouldy or too hard and dry ergot is totally unfit for use; the same is true of a drug having an ammoniacal odor, which is due to decomposi- tion, or one having no smell at all. Ustilago N. Cornsmut. — 0. The whole plant Ustilago Maydis; F unga- tes. — H. Grows on all parts of Indian corn, Zea Mays (Gramin- Fig. 65. acece), but especially on the ear. — D. Occurs in irregular globose masses, sometimes twelve to fifteen cm. thick, consisting of a tough external membrane, brownish-black in color, and contain- ing a friable pulverulent mass of innumerable brownish-black spores; odor and taste peculiar and unpleasant. The drug often contains pieces of corn-cob or of corn-shucks, and is mostly a fine powder. — C. No active principle has been isolated ; some fixed oil, a substance resembling sclerotic acid, etc. — U. Same as ergot, supposed by some to be preferable in midwifery practice, because it strengthens the "pains" without lengthening them; the drug is rarely used and while official in the United States Pharmaco- 126 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY poeia 1880, was dropped from the United States Pharmacopoeia in 1890; it is at best of doubtful value. Dose: 1 to 5 grams; average dose about two grams, best in fluid extract. Agaricus N. Agaric ; Agaricus albus; White agaric. — 0. It consists of fragments of the fungus Polyporus officinalis, F ungates. — H. Eu- rope; grows on the trunks of old larch trees. — D. As found in the shops it is broken up into irregular pieces, the outer rind having been removed, and is of a dirty white color, light in weight, of a close, fibrous texture, mealy on the outer surface, easily rubbed to a powder through a sieve but pulverizable only with great difficulty in a mortar ; odor resembles fresh flour, and if the pow- der is inhaled it produces violent sneezing; taste sweetish, after- wards acrid and bitter. Agaric is liable to be attacked by an insect, and worm-eaten or dense, hard, yellowish pieces, or pieces without bitter taste, should be rejected. — C. Agaricin and resins. — U. Formerly much used as a purgative, especially as an ingredient of mixtures like the elixir ad longam vitam, etc. ; agaricin is highly esteemed as a remedy to check night-sweats. Dose of agaric as a drastic purgative, two to four grams ; in night- sweats, 0.10 to 0.20 grams. Spunk, or Agaricus Chirurgorum, Surgeons' Agaric, is ob- tained from the fungi Polyporus igniarius and Polyporus fomen- tarius, collected from beech trees in Sweden, Bohemia, Hungary and Switzerland; those growing on birches or oaks yield an in- ferior article. The outer surface of the fungus having been re- moved, the interior is cut into slices, which are then soaked in hot weak lye, boiled, washed, and beaten with mallets. As found in the trade it occurs in light, thin, dull yellowish-brown, soft velvety and pliable pieces; without odor or taste. Hard, uneven surgeons' agaric is useless. It is used as a mechanical hemostatic. When used as tinder it is called fungus igniarius; which is the same as above, but soaked in a solution of potassium nitrate and then dried. Yeast, or Fermentum, Brewers' Yeast, is the fungus Saccharo- myces cerevisice, obtained as a foam when preparing beer and other HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 127 fermented malt liquors. Only the fresh yeast is used in medicine ; a whitish or pale 3 T ellowish-brown viscid liquid or frothy semi- fluid showing innumerable oval cells under the microscope, single and in chains. Yeast has a disagreeable, peculiar odor and a bit- ter taste. It has been used internally as an antiseptic and stimu- lant, in typhoid conditions, various forms of dyspepsia, in dia- betes, etc., and externally as a stimulant dressing in indolent ul- cers. Dose: Fifteen to fifty cm. before meals. For ordinary use, as when yeast is employed in tests, for in- stance the quantitative fermentation test for sugar in the urine, it is more convenient to use ' ' compressed yeast ; ' ' this is made by separating the liquid from ordinary brewers' yeast by a centri- fuge and cutting the thick pasty mass thus obtained into small cubes, which occur in the grocery trade wrapped in tinfoil. &® @<^ This is also the form in which yeast is now most frequently em- ployed in the household for baking. Kefir is a preparation made by placing a peculiar fungus mass into milk which then ferments and produces a drink which is similar to koumyss. The fungus used for the purpose is obtained from the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and consists of white or yellowish grains which are called "Kefir-seeds." The exact origin and nature of these grains are not known, but the grains contain several lower organisms or fungi of which the Saccharomyces cerevisice which constitutes brewers' yeast is one. The Kefir-seeds constitute the drug. Puff -Ball, the whole fungus Boletus or Lycoperdon cervinus, is occasionally found in drug stores. Round pieces about the size of walnuts, consisting of an external dark-brown membrane which does not open spontaneously when ripe, and filled with a dust-like powder of dark-brown spores. Formerly employed in nervous diseases; now nearly obsolete. 128 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY GROUP XIII Lycopodiace;e. — Low moss-like plants, with elongated and often much branched stems covered with small lanceolate, or subulate, rarely oblong or rounded, persistent entire leaves; the one to three-celled sporangia, solitary in the axils or on the upper sur- faces of the leaves along the entire stem or in terminal catkins, open when ripe into two or three valves and discharge the numer- ous yellow spores. Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium Lycopodium N. Lycopodium. — 0. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum and other species of club-mosses; Lycopodiacece. — H. Europe, — D. A fine, very mobile, pale yellowish powder, without odor or taste, burning with a flash when thrown in a flame; swims on water and Fig. 67. is not wet by it, unless boiled, when it sinks in the water. Un- der the microscope it is seen to be of the shape in the upper figure, rounded on one side, angular on the other; in the sporangia sev- eral spores adhere in a globular shape and the angular surfaces are formed by their breaking apart. Adulterations with pine- pollen, which consists of a central body with globular lobes at the two ends, as shown in the lower figure, or with other pollens, starch, fine sand, etc., are easily detected with the microscope. When burned it should not leave more than four per cent of ash. — C. About forty-seven per cent fixed oil. — U. As a protective by dusting on excoriated or chafed surfaces; in pharmacy, as a conspergative for pills, troches, plasters, suppositories, etc., to prevent adhesion to each other. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 129 GROUP XIV Equisetace/E. — .Rushlike, often branching plants, with jointed and mostly hollow stems, rising from running rootstocks, having denticulated sheaths at the joints and when fertile terminated by a conical or spike-like fructification composed of shield-shaped stalked scales bearing the spore-cases beneath; the spores are provided Avith elaters or processes which are coiled around the spores while moist and expand when dry, often suddenly so that the spores may jump some distance. Jointed, slender stems, about 60 cm. long Equisetum Equisetum N. Horse-tail; Scouring Rush. — 0. The stems of Equisetum ar- vense and Equisetum hyemalej Equisetacece. — H. Europe and Fig. 68. North America.— D. Simple, hollow, jointed, bright green, slen- der stems, about fifty to sixty cm. long and four to eight mm. thick; the illustration shows the end of a stem of E. hyemale, about natural size, and the fructification and spores enlarged.— C. A resin, which is the only medicinal constituent ; the plant also contains large quantities of silica which renders the stem rough, and useful for scouring and polishing metallic objects. — U. Diuretic; in renal affections, dropsies, etc. Dose: 5 grams, in infusion, during the day. GROUP XV Filices.— Cryptogamous plants, generally perennial, stemless, caulescent or arborescent ; fronds, borne on petioles called stipes, springing from the upper surface of the creeping rhizomes, or 130 handbook Of pharmacognosy forming regular crowns which terminate erect stems; blades leafy, circinate in the bud, simple or pinnatifid, bearing on the under surface or along the margin groups (son) of sporangia which break open and discharge spores, when mature. Large rhizome beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium. Frond of fern with triangular leaflets and thin glossy brown stipes Adiantum. Hard, dark-brown rhizome beset with short remnants of stipes. . Polypodium. Pine, silky, glossy hairs Penghawar. Aspidium N. Aspidium; Filix mas; Malefern. — 0. The rhizome of Dryop- teris Filix mas and of Dryopteris marginalis ; Filices. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. Malefern is a thick fleshy rhizome surrounded Fig. 69. by a number of the frond-bases or stipes, as shown in the illustra- tion. It is cylindrical, varying in length from ten to thirty cm. and in thickness about thirty to fifty mm. ; but in the drug it is often cut into several pieces, and sometimes split longitudinally. The transverse section of the rhizome without the stipes is from twelve to twenty-five mm. thick, as is shown in the middle figure, and shows about six to ten fibrovascular bundles in an interrupted circle, outside of which a few scattered bundles are also found. In the trade this drug occurs frequently in small pieces, the stipes being broken from the rhizome and the latter broken into short pieces; such a frond-base is about forty to fifty mm. long and six to ten mm. thick, as shown in the left-hand figure, but sometimes these fronds are peeled as illustrated in the right-hand figure. The unpeeled rhizome and fronds are covered with a brown, scaly, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 131 glossy epidermis, but the interiors of both rhizomes and stipes are grass-green when fresh, and they should be rejected if they have turned brown from age; when about to use the drug all the brown and chaffy parts must be cut away and only the green parts used. Malefern consists mainly of parenchyma cells, with occasional short-stalked oil glands projecting from the inner walls of the cells into the cells themselves, and the bundles consist mainly of scalariform vessels or ducts. The odor is disagreeable, the taste sweetish, astringent, nauseous and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, etc., which are contained in the oleo-resin. — U. Taenicide. Dose of the oleo-resin: 0.5 to 1 gram. The rhizomes of several other ferns which are used as substi- Fig. 70. tutes or adulterations, may be known by the much smaller diameter of the rhizome proper, even when the attached stipes make them appear as thick as the genuine malefern. Adiantum N. Maidenhair fern.— 0. The fronds of Adiantum Capillus Ve- neris and Adiantum pedatum; Filices. — H. The first named is a native of Europe, the last named is indigenous. — D. The drug- consists of the fronds of these ferns with the leaflets, as seen in natural size in the figure ; the edges of the leaflets are recurved, and the sporangia are attached under this edge, as shown at a where the leaflet is straightened out, and at b where it is shown in section. The leaflets are green while the stipes or stalks are 132 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY glossy dark brown and filamentous, wherefore the name of "maid- enhair" (German: Frauenhaar, Venushaar) was given to the plant. The odor is slightly aromatic and the taste mucilaginous, Fig. 71. sweetish-bitter and astringent. — C. Mucilage, tannin and bitter principle. — U. Demulcent and expectorant. Dose: 3 to 5 grams in infusion or syrup. Polypodium N. Polypodium ; Rock-brake ; Brake-root. — 0. The rhizome of Polypodium vulgar e; Filices. — H. Europe and America. — D. The illustration shoAvs the shape well. The somewhat contorted rhi- zome is of the thickness of a large quill and is beset with rather scattered short tubercles or stipe-remains; externally reddish- brown and internally green when fresh and cinnamon-colored when old. On section about ten small fibro-vascular bundles are HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 133 seen arranged in a loose circle, the predominant tissue being an amylaceous parenchyma. The taste is at first sweet, afterwards disagreeably acrid and bitter ; odor like rancid oil. — C. Not ana- lyzed. — U. Expectorant in asthma and catarrh ; also said to be pur gative syrup. gative and anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion or Penghawar N. This substance is known by various names; Pill Cibotii, Pen- ghawar Djambi, Cibotium, Paku-Kidang or Pulu. — and H. It consists of the hairs from the fronds of many varieties of ferns Fig. 73. growing in Sumatra, Java, -and other tropical islands and coun- tries; mainly varieties of Cibotium, as C. Baromez, C. Djambianum, etc., all of which, as Berg conjectures, may be merely varieties of 134 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Polypodium Baromez. Paku-Kidang is from Alsophila lurida, and other Javanese ferns. The hairs of Cibotium glaucum and other va- rieties of Cibotium come from the Sandwich Islands, and are known as Pulu or Pulu-Pulu.— D. Formerly the stipes, beset with hairs, came into trade, but now only the hairs are used. All of these ferns yield hairs which resemble each other closely, the drug consisting of glossy, golden-yellow or bronze-colored, curled and jointed, several or many-celled fine silky hairs which are from 1.5 to 3 cm. long, collapsed or flattened in such a way that the hairs appear to be twisted at the juncture of the separate cells; the individual cells or joints are flattened and often placed cross- wise to each other owing to torsion in the partition walls, thus producing the curling; odorless and tasteless. — C. A little tannin, resin, etc. — U. These hairs have been used to make pillows and mattresses, but in medical practice they are employed as a pow- erful local hemostatic and styptic drug, acting probably mainly or altogether in a mechanical manner by affording support to a forming clot. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS AND STEMS Since a large number of drugs are roots, rhizomes, stems or parts of stems, as woods, barks, etc., it is necessary that we study the minute structure of the various modifications of the descend- ing and ascending axes of plants. In the lower orders of cryptogams, which we have just con- sidered, there is little or no cell differentiation and these thallo- gens are without root, stem and leaf structure ; in the higher cryp- togams, the acrogens, such structures are apparent, but in the cel- lular acrogens they are still made up of simple cell-elements only, while in the vascular acrogens cell differentiation into various tis- sues takes place. Comparatively few plants are unicellular, and these only of the lowest orders of cryptogams, the thallogens; but most of the thallogens, and all plants higher than these, are made up of many or innumerable cells and in the vascular acrogens and the phane- rogams these cells are differentiated by changes in their shapes and in their cell walls, as already explained in the remarks devoted HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 135 to the consideration of cell structure. These various cells unite to form "tissues." A tissue may be denned as an aggregation of many similar cells united to perform a common function, but the word ought not to be misunderstood to mean plant organs which also may have def- inite functions to perform, but may be composed of several tis- sues; thus, when we speak of seeds, roots, etc., as belonging to the "storing system of tissue," it does not mean that these organs are single tissues but that they are made up of systems of differ- ent tissues which together form the organs that act as food reservoirs. We have already considered the nature of parenchymatous and prosenchymatous cells, the characteristics of which must be firmly fixed in the mind; aggregations of parenchymatous cells form pa- Fig. 74. Fig. 75. renchymatoiis tissue or parenchyma, while aggregations of prosen- chymatous cells constitute prosenchymatous tissue or prosenchyma. Similarly, aggregations of collenchymatous or sclerenchymatous cells form collenchyma or sclerenchyma respectively, these names re- ferring to the nature of the cell walls, while the words parenchyma and prosenchyma refer to the shapes of the cells. In a general way all cells and tissues are either parenchymatous or prosenchy- matous, although in some of the thallogens the thallus consists of felted threads (hyphce), which do not strictly belong to either of these groups but which form a distinct and peculiar kind of tissue (pseudo-parenchyma) , which is, however, of minor interest to the pharmacognosist. In parenchyma the cells abut against each other by broad sur- faces, and' as the ends of the cells are not interlaced and the cell walls are usually soft, this tissue is easily torn or broken ; the cells in parenchyma are often so loosely aggregated that the cell walls are 136 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY not compressed and many of the cells retain a spherical form with many minute intercellular spaces, as in the pulpy part of some fruits, but if such cells are brought into complete contact with the adjacent cells by pressure during growth they will become more or less regularly dodecahedral or twelve-sided; such cells are preferably spoken of as polyhedral or many-sided cells. In rapidly growing parts in which the growth is more rapid in one direction, as for instance, in the longitudinal direction of many roots and stems, the individual cells also may be elongated in the direction of most rapid growth, becoming cylindrical if lateral pressure is small, as in sarsaparilla (see Fig. 74), when small tri- angular or irregular intercellular spaces will be seen on transverse Fi £ . 76. section, or these spaces may be obliterated by lateral pressure when the cells assume prismatic shapes, the hexagonally prismatic form being most common, as seen in the transverse section of the parenchyma of couch-grass, dandelion root, etc. (See. Fig. 75.) As so large a portion of all pith and other fundamental paren- chyma tissue consists of cells which are compressed so as to ob- literate the small intercellular spaces, so that the polyhedral forms preponderate, it is advisable to make a simple experiment to show the shapes of these cells. Fill a pint or quart bottle completely with any fluid that will readily foam, as for instance with an in- fusion of quillaja, or a solution of soap in water to which a little glycerin is added, and then empty it by turning it upside down so that the fluid gurgles as it runs out and the air bubbles rise up through it ; a narrow necked bottle is best for the experiment, and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 137 when the liquid has all run out the bottle will be filled with a foam consisting of bubbles, which, by mutual pressure, will assume the dodecahedral or polyhedral form of the parenchyma cells we are considering, especially in the interior of the bottle, and it is in- structive to watch the various shapes assumed by the adjacent bubbles, as one after another of these bubbles burst and alter the pressure. The bubbles adjacent to the glass show the shapes of sections of these cells. Larger intercellular spaces than those just mentioned may be seen in calamus in which the cells are arranged as shown in the drawing (Fig. 76), the shaded cells containing starch, the undotted containing oleo-resin; examples of similar intercellular spaces may be found in most aquatic plants, as in the stems and leaf-stalks of calla, water-lilies, etc., and drugs having such structure usu- ally break with a corky or spongy fracture. In aquatic plants such large intercellular spaces are filled with air, which is also often the case in terrestrial plants having such spaces, but in the latter kind of plants these spaces sometimes contain oil or Fig. 77. latex (milk- juice) when, if they are nearly spherical, they are called "glands" (as in orange and lemon peels, etc.), while if they are long or tube-like, they are called "ducts;" but it must be remembered that such glands and ducts may also be formed by the absorption of cell partitions, in which case they are not intercellular spaces but true ducts. Whatever the nature or method of formation of such oil, resin, or latex ducts or spaces may be, the presence or absence of such ducts, spaces, or even large special cells, serves as a basis for group-divisions, as in Groups XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXIII, and XXIV, while in any case, whether filled with air or anything else, they usually impart a characteristic appearance to the section and are therefore frequently of diagnostic value. In prosenchyma the ends of the long cells, which are often 138 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY hardened by a deposit of ligiiin or sclerogen, are interlaced or spliced, as in the drawing of wood cells from sassafras root, so that this tissue is not readily torn apart or broken and it serves for mechanical support and strength. Wood cells, bast cells and most of the ducts belong to this system of tissues, and prosen- chyma is found mainly in the fibro-vascular bundles. Parts of plants which consist mainly of parenchyma are called "fleshy," while those containing mainly lignified pro- senchyma are "woody." Fig. 78. When we break the base of the petiole of a plantain leaf (from the common plantain weed, Plant ago major) we find that while we can readily break through most of the leaf -stalk, the broken ends are held together by a number of threads in the in- terior of the stalk; and if we pull the lower end with the threads towards the apex along the under side of the leaf, we can pull out these threads from the veins of the leaf. These thread-like strands are the fibro-vascular bundles, consisting of fibers or pro- senchyma cells and vessels, as the name implies. It is rarely the case that these fibro-vascular bundles can be HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 139 pulled out as threads, for in most plants they are intimately grown together with or adherent to the surrounding tissues, so that we must make sections of the plant-organ which contains them to trace them and to study their characteristics. These sections can be made in four different directions, of which two at least are essential to a correct understanding of stem struc- ture; a third is often of value but the fourth is seldom required. Fig. 78 shows in what direction these sections are to be made; the transverse section (tr.) is at right angles across the axis of growth, and is by far the most useful and instructive; the radial section (r.) is often also called the longitudinal section and it passes along the axis of growth and along the line of a radius or a line from the center to the circumference, and it is next to the transverse section in importance, as it shows the nature of the elements of the nbro-vascular bundles, the ducts, wood fibers, etc. ; the tangential section (tang.) also passes along the axis of growth, but at right angles across a radius, and it is useful mainly for the study of the medullary rays; finally, we may have oc- casion to make an oblique section (o.) although but little is to be learned from it and it is very rarely intentionally made, but quite frequently accidentally made of fibro-vascular bundles, es- pecially in monocotyls, when we make sections just below the point where one of the bundles is bent outwards to go to a leaf or rootlet, and which then appears as an oval section of a bun- dle differing in appearance from both the transverse and longi- tudinal sections of the same kind of bundle. In classifying plants or drugs we frequently use the terms mono-cotyledonous" and " di-cotyledonous, " for instance in Ray's System of Taxonomy, in A. D. 1686: Ray's System, A. D. 1686. Flowerless Plants. .„, _, f Mono-cotyledonous. Flowering Plants { ^. , , ( Di-cotyledonous J Woody trees. [Herbaceous plants. Further subdivisions based on fruits, 140 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Also in the system used in Gray's Manual of Botany: Natural System, Gray's Manual. Series. Cryptogams Class. Subclass. (Angiosperms Gymno-sperms. Mono-cotyledons. (Endogens) f Pteridophyta. fAcrogens j Bryophyta. I Thallogens. Thallophyta. Division. Polypetalae. Gamopetalse. Apetalse. Let us fix in our minds what these words mean and even more, what they imply; the word ' ' mono-cotyledonous '* means that the embryo in the seed has only one cotyledon or seed-leaf, as in the seeds of Indian corn, colchicum, etc., but it implies much more; it implies that the plant growing from- such a seed has parallel-veined leaves, flowers arranged on the numerical plan of 3, and that its axis shows "endogenous" structure." It is cus- tomary, although not strictly correct, to say or write "mono- cotyledonous structure" when we mean "endogenous structure." The word "di-cotyledons" means that the embryo in the seed of such a plant has two cotyledons or seed-leaves as in the seeds of the peanut, almond, bean, etc., but it implies that the plant growing from such a seed has netted-veined leaves, flowers usu- ally arranged on the numerical plan of 4 or more (usually 5), and that its axis shows "exogenous" structure. It is -also cus- tomary, although not strictly correct, to speak and write of " di-cotyledonous structure" when we mean "exogenous struc- ture;" but this careless use of the terms dates back, as shown above, to the times of Ray, in 1686, and usage has established the employment of the terms as explained. In a transverse section of the stem or root of a vascular crypto- gam or of a phanerogam it will be seen that the outer layer or layers of cells differ from the cells within. Perhaps the first and simplest change or differentiation of cells is the formation of an epidermis or cuticle, and even in thallogens in which there is no HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 141 true cell differentiation the outer cells are usually smaller and with thicker walls although otherwise like the larger interior cells. In leaves, young twigs, flowers, fruits, etc., the outer layer of cells have their outer cell wall thickened by a deposit of cutin, thus forming a true cuticle or epidermis, while in older stems, roots, etc., cork or suoer is formed under the epidermis which latter finally disappears entirely, so that in older parts cork then forms the outermost layer. Cutin is chemically identical with cork but differs in being deposited in the cell walls of the epidermal layer only, while cork is deposited in layers which are sometimes many hundreds of cells thick. If we make a transverse section from the young stalk of In- dian corn (Zea Mays) which is easily obtained by planting a grain of corn and then taking the stalk for examination when it Fig. 79. Fig. 80. is of about the thickness of a lead pencil, we will see that it appears circular, or nearly so, and is surrounded by the epider- mis and that the interior consists mainly of parenchymatous tis- sue with irregularly scattered circular clusters of cells appearing like dots, which latter are the sections of the fibro-vascular bundles, as diagrammatically represented in Fig. 79. These dots are distributed throughout the entire thickness of the stem, as is seen in the section, but so that the outer dots are somewhat smaller than those nearer the center of the section. This section shows the most common structure of monocotyls, and the structure is called endogenous (or inward growing) because as the plant be- comes older it increases in thickness by a formation of new fibro-vascular bundles among and between the others, and as 142 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY these are formed when the plant is larger the bundles also be- come larger, so that the newer and larger bundles are found mainly in the interior of the plant. In Fig. 80 we see a simple modification of this structure, for a layer of cells forming in the section a ring concentric with and some distance within the cuticle separates the parenchyma into two portions, and this ring of cells which, in the stem, forms a cylinder or tube, is called the nucleus sheath; within this sheath the fibro-vascular bundles are disposed, just as they are disposed in Fig. 79 throughout the en- tire thickness of the stem. This type of structure, diagrammatically shown in Fig. 80 can be seen in orris root. In a drug of this kind the part outside of the nucleus sheath is sometimes spoken of as "bark" or "cor- tex, ' ' but this is wrong, because monocotyls have no bark. In monocotyls the cells which do not belong to the cuticle, nu- cleus sheath or the fibro-vascular bundles, belong to the paren- chyma, which is called the fundamental tissue. Many students seem to fail to associate the drawings of trans- verse sections with the idea of continuity throughout the length of the axis of the plant. Suppose that some experimenter like Roentgen would discover a new kind of x-rays which would ren- der all the parenchyma of the fundamental tissue of plants trans- parent or invisible while the cuticle or outer bark and fibro-vas- cular bundles remained visible as concrete objects, a mono-coty- ledonous stem, as that of Indian corn, would then appear like a tube within which a number of threads or thin rods were arranged lengthwise, the space between being filled with the transparent medium, the fundamental tissue. Since we have no such con- venient x-rays, let us substitute our imagination and fancy the fundamental tissue to be invisible ; let us imagine a portion of the cuticle on the side nearest us to have been cut away so that we can look into the inside of the stem, and on looking through a suitable magnifying lens we would see the structures as shown in the lower part of the figure. If we cut across such a structure the appearance of the surface would be as is shown in the map of the section projected above the stem, in the circle in the upper part of the figure. If we were to cut off a thin slice from the end this would be a transverse section and such a section is therefore practically a map showing the manner of distribution of the dif- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 143 ferent tissues in the stem; but the relation of this transverse sec- tion (or map) to the real continuity of the tissues themselves, as shown in the figure, should always be mentally associated with the examination of every section. Fig. 81. The fibro-vascular bundles do not always run so parallel to each other in monocotyls, but only in long internodes devoid of branches or rootlets. When rootlets are attached along the en- tire length of a rhizome, for instance, or when growth in length 144 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY is accomplished by the continual and successive formation of new leaves at the apex, as in palms, some of the nbro-vascular bun- dles from the interior of the plant are bent outwards to enter these rootlets or leaves, as is diagrammatically represented in the accompanying drawing of a longitudinal section of a palm stem (Fig. 82). Drugs are recognized by the manner of the distribution and re- lation of the bundles to each other and to the other tissues rather than by the cellular elements of the bundles themselves, just as we recognize a friend by the relation of eyes, nose and mouth to each other and to the rest of the face, rather than by a conscious Fig. 82. recognition of the exact color of eyes or hair, or by an observ- ance of any minute peculiarities, of the several features. Besides the two methods of arrangement of stems with and without a nucleus sheath, as already figured, there are several other types of endogenous arrangement, which are of importance. One of these types may be seen in sarsaparilla, the peculiarity of which is that all the nbro-vascular bundles are closely aggregated just within the nucleus sheath, leaving a large pith-like paren- chyma in the interior, as in Fig. 83 ; the other type may be seen in calamus, galanga, ginger, etc., where a nucleus sheath is present, but the bundles are scattered both within and without this HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 145 sheath, as in Fig. 84. In some cases, as in the sarsaparillas, the cells of the nucleus sheath are characteristic of certain varieties, so that they may be of diagnostic value. Still other arrangements are found in the hollow stems of monoeotyls, as in the culms of grasses, etc. Cut a section of Fig. 83. Fig. 84. straw and the bundles are found arranged within the cuticle as in Fig. 85, while in the rhizome of couch-grass Ave find a nucleus sheath and the bundles within this, as in Fig. 86, while in both we see the large central cavity. Fig. Fig. 86. These figures, it should be remembered, illustrate diagram- matically the types of arrangement and not sections of individual drugs which may, and generally do, vary from the circular form, being quite frequently flattened or oval in section. We will post- pone a consideration of the nature of the nbro-vascular bundles of 146 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY monocotyls until we have considered the structure of dicotyls and polycotyls (conifers), the exogenous structure. To understand the structure of exogenous stems, let us examine the following three drawings, after Sachs. If we make a sec- tion at the extreme tip of the growing radicle or root of the cas- tor oil plant (Bicinus communis) we would find only one kind of parenchyma cells, the fundamental tissue, but a section from near the end of this radicle soon after it makes its appearance beyond the seedcoats shows a circle of cells somewhat different from the cells of the fundamental tissue, as indicated by the shaded circle marked x in Fig. 87; this layer of cells is called meristem or primary meristem, and from it the fibro-vascular bun- dles are produced. Fig. 87. Fig. 88. The fundamental tissue within this circle forms the medulla or pith (m), while the fundamental tissue without this circle forms the middle bark (r), the epidermis, or in older roots and stems the cork, forming the outer bark. It will be noticed that at some points the meristem layer is thicker than at others, and a section made from a root which is a little older, when the radicle has reached a length of about two cm. below the cotyledons, shows that each of the four thicker portions of meristem has developed into two clusters of cells (fv) which are cross-sections of fibro- vascular bundles, thus making a circle of eight fibro-vascular bundles (fv) shown in the shaded part of the drawing (Fig. 88), which are separated from each other by cells which resemble those of the pith (m) and the middle bark and which are the medullary rays (st). The pith or medulla, the middle bark and the medullary HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 147 rays together are all fundamental tissue. In Fig. 89 we see the development of the nbro-vascular bundles still farther advanced; fv shows the bundles, m is the pith from which the medullary rays radiate, r is the middle bark, but this drawing shows in ad- dition some bands of meristem crossing the medullary rays, at cb, connecting the fibro-vascular bundles. Such connecting bands when present are called secondary meristem, and it will be no- ticed that they are continuous with similarly shaded parts pass- Fig. 89. Fig. 90. ing through the nbro-vascular bundles, and that these nbro-vascu- lar bundles are arranged in a circle with the larger portion of each bundle within the meristem layer, and a smaller portion without the meristem layer, as is shown by the different shading of these parts in the last drawing. To examine the nature of these nbro-vascular bundles we may make a transverse section of the rhizome of black cohosh (Cimici- fuga) in which we find a large number of bundles of various sizes. Choosing one of the larger ones for examination (see Fig. 90) we 148 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY see that it is made up of three parts, an outer part called bast or phloem (a), an inner part called wood or xylem (c) and between them a part composed of very soft parenchyma cells constituting the cambium (b) ; surrounding the whole bundle we see the paren- chyma cells of the fundamental tissue (d). As the bundle grows the cambium cells form new wood on the inner side and new bast on the outer side. The wood (xylem) consists mainly of prosen- chymatous wood cells, with cell walls which have become hard by a deposit of lignin, together with (usually) ducts and (sometimes) Fig. 91. wood-parenchyma, the latter being cells of parenchymatous shape, but with thickened walls. The bast (phloem) consists mainly of some soft walled parenchymatous cells, some sieve-ducts and, in many plants, thickened prosenchymatous bast cells, which latter aid in giving strength to the stem or root. The relation of the fibro-vascular bundles to each other and to the other tissues is seen in Fig. 91, which is a drawing of the structure of yellow parilla (Menispermum Canadense) ; as is al- ways the case in di-cotyledonous or exogenous growth, the fibro- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 149 vascular bundles are arranged in a circle ; the central portion is the pith from which radiate the medullary rays (a) which separate the bundles from each other and connect the pith with the middle bark (f); the xylem or inner portion of the bundles (c) is separated from the phloem or outer portion (e) by the cambium (d); the cambium of the various bundles is connected by bands of secondary meristem (b), the two together forming the cambium zone. In woody plants all that lies within this cambium zone is called wood or wood-cylinder and all without this zone is called bark. The bark will be seen to be made up of three layers ; the outer bark (h ) consists of epidermis in young stems or roots and of cork in older structures; if the outer edges of all the bast portions of the fibro-vascular bundles are united by a line this line will mark the division between the middle bark (f) which consists of paren- chyma or fundamental tissue, and the inner bark, which consists of alternate portions of bast (e) and the continuation of the medul- lary rays (g). It will be seen that bark cannot exist in an endog- enous stem or root, because there is no cambium zone that sepa- rates the wood from the bast ; in fact, the bundles are not divided into these three parts as here shown in di-cotyledonous structure. Let us now suppose in regard to this exogenous structure, as we did in regard to the endogenous stem, that an X-ray might be found that would render all fundamental tissue in plants transparent or invisible while it left the fibro-vascular bundles and outer bark opaque and visible; removing a portion of the latter, and examining the interior we would see that the structure is as in Fig. 92, all the fibro-vascular bundles in a circle, witli a pith space in the interior, medullary rays between and middle bark around them, the last three parts being transparent or invisible under the influence of our imaginary X-ray, but the space which they should occupy being plainly shown. Here also the projec- tion of the section into the circle above shows the relation of such a section or map to the continuity of the tissues within the stem, and shows how such a transverse section, or a drawing of one, constitutes in reality merely a map, with which the idea of length or continuity must always be mentally associated. The fibro-vascular bundles are represented as being separate throughout the length of the stem, but this is the case only in 013 e type of fleshy di-cotyledonous stems, rhizomes, roots, etc., in which 150 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY the fundamental parenchyma tissue preponderates and the fibro- vascular bundles are few and arranged in a loose circle, as in Fig. 93. This is also the general structure of herbaceous di-cotyle- donous plants, as in many of our annuals, vegetables, etc. Another Fig. 92. type of fleshy root or stem is when the bundles form a central wood- cylinder as in Fig. 94, but are not much lignified ; the first plan is seen in masterwort and podophyllum, and the second is seen in dandelion. A modification of the latter plan is seen in senega, as HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 151 in these drawings (Fig. 95), where the wood-cylinder is not con- tinuous, but is irregularly interrupted by wide medullary rays. But the most characteristic exogenous structure is not seen in the fleshy plant axes, but in the woody roots and stems, in which there is but little fundamental parenchyma, the bundles are close Fig. 93. Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. together, and interwoven, and the wood cells are strongly lignified and therefore tough. In such a stem the fibro-vascular bundles are separated only for short distances by the medullary rays and are united with each other sideways, with their prosenchymatous cells 152 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY interlacing. In some woods, as in white pine, this interlacing is not very intricate and this wood splits easily along the grain, but in other woods, as in lignum vitae, this interlacing is so intricate that even the hard usage given to tenpins and tenpin balls does not split the wood. The drawing (Fig. 96) represents diagram- matically a young twig of maple with the bark and cambium re- moved. It is readily seen that while a section a little farther up or down the stem will not show us the same bundles and the same medullary rays, yet one section must be practically identical with every other section, so that a drawing of a section will serve as a map of the structure equally as well as in the other examples illustrated, only with the additional proviso that we must bear in Fig. 97. Fig. 98. mind this joining of the bundles to form a solid and connected wood cylinder. The pith consists of parenchyma and is often continuous through- out the length of the stem; in some cases, however, it is inter- rupted by wood, the fibro-vascular bundles anastomosing at the nodes, as for instance in the grape-vine, of which a longitudinal section is shown, and in which it is supposed that the fibro- vascular bundles from the side of the stem on which a leaf is placed by this means convey nourishment direct to the other side, on which a bunch of fruit is growing. Sometimes the pith is present in young stems but ceases to grow as the stem enlarges so that the mature stem becomes hoi- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 153 low with only shreds of pith adhering to the inner surface of the wood-cylinder, as in bittersweet. To the pharmacognosist it is of interest to know that stems contain more pith than the roots of the same plants, the roots often containing little or no pith when the stem contains a thick pith; this is often of diagnostic value in recognizing stems which have been added with fraudulent intent to drugs which should consist of roots only, as in belladonna root, bitter root, etc. Fig. 99. The medullary rays are seen as radiating lines in the transverse section, and in fleshy stems or roots they may extend for some dis- tance up and down the stem, but in woody stems or roots, as we have just learned, they are of short length and often only one or a few cells in thickness. If we make a radial section in such a man- ner as to cut through a medullary ray we will see that it consists of cells stretched radially across the fibro-vascular bundles and uniting the pith (p.) with the middle bark (m. b.), as is shown in Fig. 98. The function of the medullary rays is to conduct water and nourishing material to the inner parts of the stem, or at least as far inward as the sapwood extends. (See Woods, page 275,.) In Fig. 99 we see a transverse section of a young rose-twig with 154 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY the large-celled pith in the center, three medullary rays separating the four fibre-vascular bundles shown, and the whole surrounded by the middle bark and epidermis. The three parts of the fibro- vascular bundles, xylem, cambium and phloem are plainly seen, and in the phloem or bast of the second bundle from the right a notch is seen, indicating the beginning of a division into two bundles as will be more fully illustrated presently. If we examine a somewhat older twig from the same rose-bush (Fig. 100) we will find the following to have taken place during growth: The cells Fig. 100. of cambium next to the xylem produced new wood cells, thus adding much to the radial dimensions of the fibro-vascular bundles, so that the latter became larger, and the wood became thicker and stronger. Meanwhile, also, more bast was produced from the cambium, but much more slowly than the wood. This change of cambium into wood and bast continues as long- as the leaves assimilate food, or, in other words, as long as the vegetative process keeps up, which varies with the plants, and depends on the seasons in their habitat, being uninterrupted in many tropical and subtropical regions where trees are found in HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 155 which this process has probably gone on without intermission from a time previous to the building- of the Egyptian pyramids, while in subarctic regions the process may be limited to a few weeks ' duration ; in many plants the process extends only through a single season. When the plant grows during a part of the year only, as in the perennial woody plants of the temperate zones, growth is suspended during winter, although roots may form below the frost-line even in winter, as in trees transplanted in the fall of the year, for which reason fall transplanting is usually more successful than Fig. 101. spring transplanting, the plant becoming in a degree established before overground vegetation starts up. In spring the earliest sign of returning activity of vegetation is manifested by a great tur- gescence of the cambium and of the adjacent cells, to such an extent, that, if wounded, enormous quantities of sap may flow out, as seen in tapping sugar maples for their sap, or in the "bleeding" of grape vines when these are trimmed too late in the spring. Then the buds expand, the leaves unfold, and the life of the plant actively goes on. The inner layer of cambium pro- duces large ducts and large Avood cells, and the new wood is 156 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY added in a ring around the wood of the previous season's growth; the process continues until, as the season goes on, the leaves harden, the stomata may be clogged with dust, the soil becomes parched by the heat of summer, and cell-formation gradually be- comes slower and the cells smaller, while ducts may entirely cease to be formed, until, when the leaves have fallen, the year's work is completed and another ring of wood has been added around the former wood-cylinder, as is shown in the two rings of a section of a two years old rose-twig in Fig. 101. These rings are generally easily distinguished, because in the Fig. 102. earlier part of the season, while growth is very active, a larger number of ducts and larger wood cells are formed, while towards fall the ducts are either smaller or entirely wanting and the wood cells also become smaller, so that the inner portion of each ring is more porous than the outer portion, as is shown in the section of the wood of sassafras root (Fig. 102); even in woods which have no ducts (wood of gymnosperms or conifer 'ae) the dif- ference in the sizes of the wood-cells makes the rings quite distinct. In perennial stems a new ring of wood is thus added each year, and we call these rings annual rings or lagers and as the newer rings are formed on the outside of the older rings, growth in thick- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 157 ness takes place by the addition of new wood around the old, wherefore this is called exogenous (or outward growing) struc- ture. By counting these rings from the pith outward, we can ascertain the age of the stem, as in Fig. 103, where we see seg- ments of three annual rings between the two asterisks, the upper of which marks the cambium zone or margin between wood and bark, while the lower marks the boundary between the pith and wood. The three medullary rays crossing the ring of the first year are seen to continue outward to the middle bark ; if no new medullary rays were formed it is evident that the fibro-vascular bundles would become very wide in a few years, but when they have attained a certain width, the bast divides, as seen in the Fig. 103. first section shown of the rose-twig (Fig. 99), and after that this notch continues outward as a new medullary ray, so that the fibro- vascular bundles are divided year after year and approximately the same tangential dimensions of the bundles are maintained. In the last drawing (Fig. 103), for instance, eleven rays cross the segment of the third year's ring corresponding to the seg- ment of the first year's growth with only three rays; and the division is seen to have occurred in early spring at the com- mencement of each year 's growth, and after new rays are started they continue outward through the successive layers, so that while Ave can trace an original ray from the pith to the middle 158 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY bark, we cannot trace back all the rays from the bark to the pith. In some cases the fibro-vascular bundles divide during the year's growth, as seen in the section of a rootlet of black cohosh, shown in Fig. 104. Of course it will be understood that annual rings are not found in fleshy or annual dicotyls, nor in the annual stems of perennial plants, but only in perennial woody stems and roots. In tropical climates vegetation continues more or less actively Fig. 104. throughout the year and in many plants the rings are not con- centrically continuous; they are then called spurious rings, as in false pareira brava, illustrated in Fig. 105, in which some layers only go part of the way around, while, in this particular section, one layer is in the form of a spiral which commences at sp. and makes three turns. In vascular acrogens we also find fibro-vascular bundles, usu- ally arranged in circles, and often of peculiar shapes on trans- verse sections as seen in this drawing of a segment of a stem of HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 159 tree fern (Fig. 106) ; the fibro-vascular bundles of ferns consist almost altogether of scalariform ducts. When the stipes or bases of fronds are broken from the stem or rhizome of a fern, they often leave peculiar reticulated markings on the outside of the stem. The acrogenous structure is of little importance to the pharmacognosist, as only two drugs of this kind are used, of which only one, malefern, is important. We are now prepared to understand one more feature concern- ing fibro-vascular bundles, namely, the difference between open and closed bundles. In exogenous structures, as we have just learned, a bundle may continue to grow by additional development of wood from the cambium for an indefinite number of years, and such a bundle is said to be an ' ' open ' ' bundle ; in endogenous struc- Fig. 105 Fig. 106. ture, however, the cambium is finally all changed to wood, ducts or wood parenchyma and the growth of the bundle ceases, and such bundles are said to be " closed" bundles. To distinguish the Cambium of the closed bundle from that of the open bundle, the former is sometimes called "procambium. " The accompanying drawing shows a section of the fibro-vascular bundle of ginger (Fig. 107). The transition from the young and still growing fibro-vascular bundles of a mono-cotyledonous stem to the fully formed and closed 160 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY bundles, may be studied in a transverse section of bamboo cane, of which a photomicrograph follows (Fig. 108), in which the in- terior bundles are seen to have many soft-walled cells, while those of the exterior portions are all or nearly all lignified ; as the cut is shown, the cuticle is on the right and to the left we see some of the interior bundles. The bundles of the interior are not yet closed, but in the outer bundles cell-formation and cell-activity have ceased, and the latter are therefore "closed," and between Fig. 108. these two extremes there are all degrees of gradation between the youngest bundles still nearly all procambium, and the oldest in which procambium has been entirely replaced by formed material. The student will find excellent material for the study of handbook of pharmacognosy i61 closed fibro-vascular bundles in many of the drugs of mono-cot- yledonous origin, and especially in the stem of Mexican sarsa- parilla, and it is recommended that sections of as many as pos- sible of these drugs be made. It is unnecessary to dwell on any further details in regard to the closed bundles of monocotyls, for ordinarily they may be considered as mere dots in the section, but, of course, if the bundles present some peculiarity that is uniformly alike and characteristic, such bundles may be of diagnostic value. In a variety of rush (J uncus effusus), for instance, one bundle is simi- lar to every other bundle, each having the same number of ducts and large intercellular spaces, regularly arranged as shown in Fig. 109, so that a fragment of a section containing even a single Fig. 109. bundle might enable one to recognize the identity or origin of the specimen. Closed fibro-vascular bundles are also found in acrogens and in some annual dicotyls, as Avell as in the skeletons of the leaves of both dicotyls and monocotyls. ROOTS In pharmacognosy we restrict the word "root" to its botanical meaning as referring to the descending axis of plants, but the theoretical characteristic of a "root-cap" is not recognizable in drugs of this class. The trade use of the word "root" to desig- nate all forms of underground parts, as rhizomes, tubers, corms, bulbs, etc, is wrong and confusing and should be avoided. 162 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Roots are distinguished from stems by having no nodes or in- ternodes, no buds, little or no pith, no cryptogamous growths on the bark, and by their irregular branching. Drugs consisting of main-roots, with or without branches, taper from the stem-end to the tips of the roots or branches, as the case may be. When a root has a thick head to which the remains of several or many stems are attached, such head is called a "caudex, n as in dandelion and senega; when such a caudex is present it is often a diagnostic feature of the drug. Secondary roots from rhizomes are of nearly uniform diameter and seldom branch, and have but very few and small fibrous rootlets ; when rhizomes come into trade with their roots attached the latter are called "rootlets." The microscopical structure of roots is similar to that of stems, and has already been described. We group roots as follows: 'Mono-cotyledonous 16 fthin bark 17 | with ducts 18 [without ducts 19 [ | with ducts 20 Flesh 7 [without ducts 21 The ducts here referred to are oil, resin, or latex-ducts or spaces, or, in some cases, even large special cells. GROUP XVI Mono-cotyledonous Roots Only two mono-cotyledonous or endogenous roots are used as drugs ; Sarsaparilla and Vetivert. Both of these drugs are rootlets from rhizomes, and are therefore of uniform diameter throughout. Very long, about 4 to 5 mm. thick; brownish Sarsaparilla Thin and slender, about 15 to 20 cm. long, and about 1 mm. thick. .Vetiveria Sarsaparilla N. Sarsaparilla. — 0. Root of Smilax officinalis, S. medica, S. papyracea, and of other undetermined species of Smilax; Liliacece. — H. Mexico, Central America and Brazil; also cultivated in HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 163 Jamaica. — D. Slender roots, often over two meters long, about 4 to 5 millimeters thick, cylindrical, longitudinally furrowed or wrinkled, and breaking with an abrupt, sometimes mealy, sometimes horny fracture ; externally grayish-brown or reddish- broAvn; internally white and mealy or horny; nearly or quite inodorous, and with a slightly mucilaginous, at first bitter and afterwards also acrid taste. — C. The active constituent is va- riously known as parillin, smilacin, salseparin, parillinic acid, etc. — U. Generally reputed to be alterative, and popularly much esteemed as a " blood-purifier" but probably of little or no real medicinal value. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form of fluid extract or syrup. Sarsaparillas are generally classified as: 1, mealy sarsaparillas, in which the parenchyma cells most frequently contain unaltered starch grains; and 2, non-mealy sarsaparillas, in which altered starch in the form of a pasty mass preponderates in the parenchyma cells. This classification does not seem to have much scientific merit, pharmacognostically or otherwise, except in so far that a mealy or starchy sarsaparilla — be it Honduras, Para, Mexican or Jamaica — is probably a sounder drug than a non-mealy one. It is not improbable that all sarsaparillas would be mealy if gathered at the right season, or if collected and cured with proper care ; or it may be that the roots are non-mealy only in those parts which are exposed or covered by only a thin layer of earth in the grow- ing plant, as the portions nearest the "chump" (rhizome) are al- most always non-mealy and shriveled, while the ends of the roots, even in non-mealy kinds, are usually plump and mealy. Non-mealy sarsaparillas, which include Mexican and Jamaica varieties, are thin shriveled, deeply wrinkled,- with less unaltered starch grains, and often horny on fracture. Para Sarsaparilla (also called Brazilian, Rio, Rio Negro, or Lisbon) : The roots without the chumps, cut to even lengths and wrapped in handsome bundles, as shown in Figs. 110 and 113 ; these bundles are about one to one and one-half meters in length, and twenty-five to thirty-five centimeters thick, but this variety is not often used, although it is considered to be the best. Guatemala sarsaparilla is a variety of Brazilian sarsaparilla which comes into trade in smaller and looser bundles than the last mentioned; and 164 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Guayaquil sarsaparilla is still another variety of the Brazilian drug which comes in bales, without being put up in bundles. Honduras Sarsaparilla (Fig. I'll) is considered by many to Fig. 110. Fig. 111. Fig. 112. be fully equal if not superior to Rio sarsaparilla, and it is highly esteemed in this country. It comes into trade in bundles about sixty-five centimeters to nearly one meter long, and from ten to fifteen centimeters thick, and of the form as shown in the draw- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 165 ing, although they are often more loosely wrapped. Sometimes the bundles consist of roots only; sometimes the chumps remain attached ; and sometimes the interior of the bundle is filled with pieces of the chumps chopped up and carefully hidden by the roots which are wrapped around them, which of course constitutes an adulteration. This variety is plump, little wrinkled, and of a brown color, and it has more small rootlets attached to the roots than in Rio sarsaparilla. Mexican Sarsaparilla (Fig. 112) comes into trade in bales containing about one hundred kilos. The roots are always attached to the caudex or chump, as represented in the drawing, and often quite long ends of stems remain and a mass of earth or clay adheres to the chump, thus materially adding to the weight. This kind of sarsaparilla is deeply wrinkled, and of a grayish-brown color. Mex- Fig. 113. ican sarsaparilla is sometimes also called Vera Cruz sarsaparilla; and Caracas sarsaparilla is also but a variety of the Mexican. Jamaica Sarsaparilla is so little used in this country that it needs but little mention. It comes in small, loosely wrapped bun- dles, and is reddish-brown with numerous small rootlets which be- set the roots and which give to this variety the descriptive name of "bearded" sarsaparilla. The Pharmacopoeia (viii), speaking of all kinds of sarsaparilla, directs that "the thick, woody, knotty rhizome, if present, should be removed;" it is probable that the rhizome is at least equally as valuable as the roots, and in China root (the rhizome of Smilax China) the rhizome alone is used and the roots are rejected; the stems and adhering earth should be considered as adulterations, but the rhizome part is equally as valuable as the roots and should not be directed to be thrown away, especially as the concurrence 166 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of most authorities is to the effect that all parts are medicinally nearly or quite worthless. The microscopical structure is similar in all varieties of sar- saparilla. "When a section of a dry root is cut the circumference is seen to be deeply indented, but when the roots are soaked for making sections to be examined by transmitted light, the roots become round and plump; the sections illustrated in some works are wrong because they represent dry sections in outline but with the details which can be only seen in thin sections which have been cleared and which are examined by transmitted light, and Fig. 114. which are round. A segment of a section of Caracas sarsaparilla is represented in Fig. 114, from which the whole section may be readily imagined. The outer portion consists of a cuticle, and at places which were at the bottom of the wrinkles in the dry drug epidermal hairs are often attached to this cuticle; immediately below the cuticle is a more or less thick layer of sclerenchymatous cells, and inside of this a layer of parenchyma of considerable thickness containing more or less starch according to the variety under examination ; and to the left of the segment of the section a portion of this parenchyma is shown more highly magnified. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 167 Then comes a layer of cells forming* the nucleus sheath, a few of which are seen enlarged to the right of our drawing; within this nucleus sheath the fibro-vascular bundles are crowded into a continuous circle of wood, and the central portion within this woody layer consists of a pith similar in structure to the parenchyma out- Fig. 117. side of the nucleus sheath. The portion outside of the nucleus sheath is sometimes called the "cortical layer," but this term is misleading as it suggests a "bark," which, as we have already learned, does not exist in endogenous stem or root structures. According to Schleiden sarsaparillas growing south of ten de- grees north latitude have an inner parenchyma or pith which is 168 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY from three to eight times as thick as the woody layer, as is seen in Fig. 115, which represents Rio sarsaparilla ; and sarsaparillas growing north of the same line have a pith which is at most only one and one-half to two times the thickness of the woody layer, as is shown in Fig. 116, which shows Honduras sarsaparilla. The peculiar thickening of the subcuticular portion and of the nucleus sheath affords additional means of identifying the dif- ferent varieties of sarsaparilla, but we cannot enter into detail of this kind, but must be content with showing these parts from two varieties only. The upper drawings (Fig. 117) represent the subcuticular cells from Vera Cruz sarsaparilla on the left, and of Honduras sarsaparilla on the right, while immediately below each is a drawing of a few cells of the nucleus sheath of the same va- rieties. The best test of the value of sarsaparilla is in the fresh- ness and plumpness of the drug, and in the acridity of the taste. Vetiveria. N. Vetivert, Radix Ivarancusae. — 0. The rootlets of Andro- pogon muricatus; Graminacece. — H. East India. — D. Slender, tough, string-like rootlets, about fifteen to twenty centimeters Fig. 118. long and one millimeter thick, some with and some without smaller fibrous branchlets; yellowish-brown; somewhat waxy on fracture; the section (Fig. 118) showing large air passages in HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 169 the outer portion, with some resin cells, and a bright-yellow wood portion which contains about eighteen large ducts in a circle; aromatic and balsamic. — C. Resin and volatile oil. — U. Used altogether in the manufacture of perfumery, especially as an ingredient of sachet powders ; sometimes sold in bundles tied with strings or ribbons, the whole bundles to be used as sachets. GROUP XVII Woody Exogenous Roots with Thin Bark In woody di-cotyledonous or exogenous roots the wood forms a complete, rigid, firm and hard wood-cylinder, which can be sep- arated more or less readily from the bark; with thin bark are those in which the bark is considerably less thick than the wood, often only one-sixth or one-eighth as thick as the latter. Brown or purplish -brown; wood tough Krameria. Blackish-brown and warty; wood in irregular circles or rings. . Pareira. Wood firm and yellow; taste very sweet Glycyrrhiza. Yellowish-brown; tough, yellowish wood G-elsemium. Large grayish-brown; often with rootlets braided Methysticum. Thin pale-brown bark, often scaling off and showing white wood Hydrangea. Krameria N. Krameria, Rhatany. — 0. The root of Krameria triandra and K. Ixina; Polygalacece. — H. South America. — D. Two kinds of rhatany are common in the trade, and either may be used when this drug is prescribed: Peruvian or Payta rhatany (K. triandra) from Peru and Bolivia, and Savanilla rhatany (K. Ixina and K. argentea) from New Granada and Brazil. The drawing (Fig. 119) shows Peruvian rhatany somewhat reduced in size; it is from one to three centimeters thick, with a knotty several- headed caudex, and is branched below ; bark irregularly fissured, more or less rough, externally blackish-brown or dark reddish-brown, coarsely fibrous. The wood is lighter red-brown, tough, and in the thicker pieces shows heartwood of a darker color; this is shown in the left-hand drawing of a section of the thick root, the accom- panying smaller section being that of a root branch. The bark is 170 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY very astringent, but the wood is almost tasteless; owing to the greater proportion of bark in the smaller roots, as indicated in the section, the drug is valuable in direct ratio as the thicker pieces are rarer. Savanilla rhatany is less knotty or branched, shorter and more chocolate or purplish-brown, with scattered transverse fissures: the bark is more brittle than that of Peru- vian rhatany, and proportionately thicker, as/ shown in the right-hand drawing of a section, so that this variety really be- Fig. 119. longs in Group XIX, but is spoken of here for convenience. — C. About twenty per cent of kramerio-tannic acid, red coloring matter,, etc. — U. Astringent, useful in chronic diarrhoeas, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 graniSj preferably in form of fluid extract. Pareira N. Pareira, Pareira Brava. — 0. The roots of Chondodendron tornentosum; Menispermacece. — H. Brazil and Peru. — D. Pieces from a decimeter to a meter or more long, but generally cut into lengths of about ten to fifteen centimeters; varying in thickness from one or two to fifteen centimeters; cylindrical or irregular on transverse section; often tortuous; externally blackish- brown, with transverse ridges or warts and longitudinal furrows ; internally pale-browm with a waxy luster when freshly cut; in- odorous; taste bitter. The illustrations show the whole drug and its section in natural size (Fig. 120; upper right-hand draw- ing); the bark is thin and there is no pith; the wood is arranged HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 171 in several circles which sometimes are very irregular; at the ends of the pieces the tongh and separated bundles often project, as shown in the drawing. — C. Pelosine, identical with bebeerine. — U. Alterative diuretic, useful in cystitis and pyelitis, etc. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in form of fluid extract. The books mention several other roots which are used as ad- mixtures or substitutions, but the genuine is so characteristic Fig. 120. that other substances are readily recognized. The most com- mon one of these false pareiras comes in heavy pieces showing the structure as in the lower right-hand drawing (Fig. 120) ; it is interesting mainly on account of the spurious rings, or some- times even spirals (sp), which are sometimes found in woods of tropical growth. Pieces of pareira having a bright yellow color, or the woody portion of which is grayish, hard and nearly taste- less, should be rejected. 172 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Glycyrrhiza N. Liquorice root. — 0. Root of Glycyrrhiza glabra and G. glabra, var. glandulifera; Legaminosce. — H. Native in Southern Europe and Western Asia, and cultivated in England, France and Ger- many. — D. Cylindrical, tough, pliable pieces, up to one meter long, and from five to twenty-five millimeters thick; externally grayish-brown, warty, and with longitudinal wrinkles ; internally yellowish; with thin bark in the thicker pieces but proportionately Fig. 121. thick bark in thin pieces, no pith, wood in narrow bundles, and medullary rays linear, both bast and medullary wedges extend- ing through the greater part of the bark ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweet, mucilaginous and someAvhat acrid. In the stolons or un- derground stems which are sometimes present, there is a thin pith. — C. About six per cent of the peculiar principle glycyr- rhizin, considered to be an ammonium salt with glycyrrhizic acid. — U. Expectorant and demulcent; mainly used as an ex- cipient to mask the unpleasant tastes of other substances. Dose: Ad libitum. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 173 Fig. 121 shows a segment of a section in the field of vision of the microscope, enlarged at the rate indicated by the scale which shows one millimeter divided into fifths of a millimeter. The piece from which this section was made was therefore a quite small one, and the bark was comparatively thick; the rela- tion of the different parts to each other is clearly shown, as well as the peculiarity that growth is often excentric. Spanish, Italian, German and Turkish liquorice roots are all obtained from G. glabra, and correspond to the above description. The retail pharmacist generally buys the root cut in regular straight lengths and tied in bundles with wires, the crooked pieces and cut ends being consumed in manufacture. The Russian liquorice root (from G. gl. var. glandulifera, or G. echinata) is in thicker pieces, paler yellow color and often with the corky layer removed by scraping; it has a less sweet taste, sometimes even having a bitter by-taste. It makes a fine looking powder, but it is inferior to the other variety for all other pur- poses for which liquorice root is employed. Only a very small proportion of all the liquorice root imported is used in pharmacy, the bulk being consumed in the manufacture of chewing tobacco. Gelsemium N. Gelsemium, Yellow Jasmine. — 0. The rhizomes and roots of Gelsemium sempervirens; Loganiacece. — H. Southern United States. — D. Thick, branched rhizomes and roots, cut into short lengths and irregular pieces, which are sometimes split, mostly from five to fifteen millimeters thick, but occasionally to three or even more centimeters thick; the rhizomes are thicker than the roots, but being cut they are not readily recognizable as rhizomes and the drug is for this reason classed under Roots; externally light yellowish-brown, with purplish longitudinal lines and furrows and occasional transverse fissures; internally pale yellowish; bark closely adherent to the wood, thin, with silky bast fibers; wood porous, tough, breaking with a splintery frac- ture, and showing lighter colored radiating medullary rays; the rhizome has a thin pith, the roots have none ; odor feeble, some- what narcotic; taste bitterish. The drawing (Fig. 122) shows a 174 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY large piece of root in natural size, and the section is that of a small root examined by reflected light after soaking, and magni- fied five diameters. The furrows in the dry roots are caused by a shrinkage of the bark, determined by the bundles within, and the purplish color is due to the color of the external layers of Fig. 122. cork which have that color, and which remain in the depression of the furrows but are apt to be rubbed off elsewhere.— C. An alkaloid, gelsemine. — U. Mainly in nerve affections of a neuralgic character; also as a depressant and sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 gram, in tincture or fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 175 In over-doses gelsemium is poisonous; antidotal treatment con- sists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, the administration of diffusible stimulants, application of artificial warmth, electricity and artificial respiration. Digitalis and belladonna are physio- logical antidotes. Methysticum N. Kava, Ava Kava, Kava Kava. — 0. Roots of Piper Methysti- cum; Piperacece. — H. Sandwich and other Pacific Islands. — D. Large, more or less spongy roots, sometimes cut in pieces, gen- Fig. 123. erally with branches, the latter often braided and sometimes sep- arate from the large roots; grayish-brown externally, internally pale-yelloAvish, or yellowish- white; bark thin, often chipped off in flakes showing a characteristic network of yellowish-white bundles underneath, as shown in the drawing to the right; por- ous, frequently hollow, sometimes worm-eaten; odor somewhat fragrant; taste pungent, slightly aromatic, astringent and bitter. Fig. 123 shows a root about one-fourth linear size. — C. About two per cent resin, some volatile oil, kavahin, etc. — U. Stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, sialagogue, etc. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. 176 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Hydrangea N. Hydrangea, Seven Barks. — 0. Roots of Hydrangea arhores- cens; Saxifragacece. — H. United States, from the lakes south- ward. — D. Irregular, knotty head, two or more centimeters thick, root branches finger-thick or less, much bent and somewhat tuberculous; usually cut into short pieces; thin pale-broAvn bark Fig. 124. which occasionally peels off in spots, exposing the wood; wood white and tough, breaking with a splintery fracture; odor none; taste insipid and sweetish, afterwards somewhat pungent. Hy- drangea is shown in natural size in the drawings. — C. A crystal- line glucoside, resin, etc. — U. Lithontriptic. Dose 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 177 GROUP XVIII Woody Roots; Thick Bark with Ducts In di-cotyledonous or exogenous roots with thick bark the bark is often nearly as thick as the wood from the center outwards, or sometimes even as thick as the whole wood-cylinder. Such roots sometimes have oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells in the middle bark, and when this is the case they belong to this group. Only three are of any importance; the wood in these is not very firm, but it often is tough and breaks separately from the bark; Maisch calls them fleshy roots. Long roots, gray bark about one-fourth of di- ameter of the dry root Apocynum Cannabinum. Similar to above, but thinner, brown, and bark about one-sixth of entire thickness Apocynum Androssemifoliiun. Short brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and bark easily separable and flaring at cut ends Stillingia. Apocynum Cannabinum N. Apocynum, Canadian Hemp, Black Indian Hemp. — 0. Apocynum cannabinum; Apocynacece. — H. United States. — D. Long, cylindrical, sometimes branched roots, three to twelve milli- meters thick, average thickness being about seven millimeters; bark thick, about one-fourth of the diameter of the dried root, or one-third of the diameter of a root after soaking in water ; externally gray, sometimes with a faint brownish tint, with blunt longitudinal wrinkles and deep transverse fissures extending through the bark to the wood; in section the bark of small pieces of root is white or lighter in color than the wood, but in old pieces it is darker, even brown and sometimes resinous ; wood yellowish, porous, breaking with an abrupt fracture when the drug is thor- oughly dry or bending before breaking when not dry ; neither pith nor central cavity ; inodorous ; taste bitter and disagreeable. — C. An amorphous resin and a glucoside. — U. In small doses di- uretic ; in larger doses emetico-cathartic ; useful for removal of dropsical fluids. Dose: 0.5, even to 2 grams as an emetic, best given in fluid extract. 178 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY The drawings in Fig. 125 show two pieces (to the right) of root and a piece (above, to the left) of the stem, all natural size; the stem, which is often present, is brown, has a pith or central cavity, and often shows buds (marked by asterisks) ; it has no Fig. 125. transverse fissures, the bark is thin, wood tough; sometimes it is split lengthwise; the taste is slight. The drawings of sections show the dry- root in section (a) in natural size, the root after soaking in water and examined by re- flected light, enlarged (b), and a section of the latter after clear- ing with solution of potassium hydroxide (c), also enlarged, which shows the resin ducts in the bark. Apocynum Androssemifolium H. Bitter Root, Dogs-bane. — 0. The root of Apocynum andro- scemifolium; Apocynacece. — H. United States. — D. Rarely ex- ceeding ten centimeters long, and from three to twelve milli- meters thick, the average thickness being about four or five mil- limeters; externally rusty reddish-brown, the thick bark deeply HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 179 and sharply wrinkled longitudinally, and with transverse fis- sures that extend through the bark to the wood; bark about one- sixth the total diameter in the dry root, or nearly one-third the diameter in the soaked root; wood white, porous and brittle, breaking with an abrupt fracture ; inodorous ; taste very bitter.— C. Probably similar to those of A. can nab in urn. — U. Emetico- Fig. 127. cathartic, used in hepatic derangements; action probably like that of A. eannabinum. Dose: 0.5, even to 2 grams as an emetic, best in fluid extract. The stem, pieces of which are generally present, is recognized by its large pith or central cavity, its tough wood which is often split lengthwise, and the buds attached; some of the buds are Fig. 128. marked with asterisks in the drawing. The drawings show stem (upper) and root (lower) in natural size. In the drawings of sections (Fig. 128) a represents that of the dry root; b that of a root after being soaked in water, examined with a lens by reflected light ; and c is a section of stem, also after being soaked, and by reflected light, enlarged. 180 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY The two varieties of Apocynum are frequently mixed; the dif- ferences are here noted side by side. A. androscemifolmm. Diameter averages about four to five millimeters, although as large and as small pieces as any of A. cannabinum can be found. Thickness of bark about one-sixth of the entire diameter of the dry drug. Externally reddish-brown. Vessels less numerous and nearly all in one circle near the outer edge of the wood cylinder, only a few being scattered farther within. It is probable that the actions of the two drugs are identical, so that a careful differential diagnosis between them is of impor- tance only because of the absolute necessity in medicine of call- ing each drug by its own proper name, without which no reliable knowledge of pharmaco-dynamics could exist. A. cannabimim. Diameter averages about seven millimeters. Thickness of bark about one-fourth of the entire diameter of the dry drug. Externally gray. Vessels in woody portion more or less concentri- cally arranged. Stillingla N. Stillingia, Queen's Eoot. — 0. The root of Stillingia sylvatica; Euphorbiacew. — H. Southern United States. — D. The fresh root Fig. 129. is large, thick, tapering, little branched, tough and fibrous. The drug consists of the root chopped into pieces about two to five centimeters long, wrinkled, brownish-gray externally and some- what lighter colored within; bark thick, with numerous yellow- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 181 ish-brown resin-cells, and but few bast fibers, and a soft, porous, although fibrous wood; in drying the bark shrinks lengthwise so that it flares at the cut ends and often separates partly or completely from the slightly projecting wood, although the lat- ter usually remains inclosed; taste bitter, acrid and pungent, and odor peculiar and disagreeable. — C. Resin and probably a glucoside (or alkaloid?); no full analysis has been made. — U. Alterative. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. GROUP XIX Differs from the last group in the roots having no oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells. Purplish-brown, wood tough, bark thick Kramerla Small roots, blackish-brown, with thick annular bark Ipecacuanha Grayish-brown to dark brown, more or less contorted. Cartagena Ipecacuanha Krameria The bark of Krameria Ixina belongs in this group, but it has al- ready been described in connection with Peruvian Rhatany, under Group XVII, to which the reader is referred. Ipecacuanha N. Ipecacuanha, Ipecac; known in the trade as Brazilian or Rio Ipecac. — 0. The roots of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha; Rubiaceoe. — H. Brazil. — D. The roots come into trade in pieces up to ten centimeters long, and from four to five millimeters thick ; seldom branched, often contorted; externally grayish-brown or black- ish; bark thick, closely and irregularly annulated and often transversely fissured, giving the drug the appearance as in the drawing, which is .natural size; bark easily separable from the thin, tough, whitish wood cylinder; odor peculiar, nauseous, but slight, and taste bitterish, acrid and nauseating. — C. Emetine, and Cephaeline ; the drug should not contain less than 1.75 per cent ether-soluble alkaloids. — U. In large doses emetic, in small doses expectorant and diaphoretic. Dose: 0.03 to 0.05 gram; as an emetic 1 to 2 grams. 182 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Stems, which are sometimes admixed, may be recognized by the thin and smooth bark which is not annulated. Good ipecac consists of about eighty per cent of bark by weight. When ipecac is sound and free from mouldiness, its quality is proportionate to the thickness of the bark and the thinness of the ligneous portion. The illustrations (Fig. 130) show good ipecac, whole, and a section of same magnified at the rate shown by the scale which is one millimeter divided into fifths. It is difficult to clear the cells of their contents, so that most of them remain filled with altered cell-contents, even after quite long macera- tion in the clearing solutions. Fig. 130. The books mention various spurious ipecacs, but as they are not found in our markets, it is not necessary to mention them here. Cartegena Ipecac is obtained from Cephaelis Acuminata; Bu- biacece. It occurs in cylindrical or somewhat fusiform, more or less contorted pieces, up to 12 cm. in length and from 4 to 7 mm. in thickness ; grayish-brown ; not as markedly annulate as Rio Ipecac; bark about 2 mm. thick, dark-brown, and easily separated from the light-brown wood ; stems up to 10 cm. long and 2 to 3 mm. thick, cylindrical somewhat zig-zag, grayish-brown externally with bark thin and longitudinally wrinkled. — C. and U. like those of Rio Ipecac. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 183 FLESHY ROOTS In fleshy roots the fibro-vascular bundles are either small and widely separated so that there is no wood-cylinder, or the prosen- chyma of the bundles is little or not at all lignified, so that al- though there may appear to be a wood-cylinder and cambium zone, all the tissues are of nearly the same degree of softness, and so intimately united that the bark will not separate from the wood on drying or in the fresh condition; there is, however, no rigid demarcation between woody and fleshy roots, so that roots which are classed as fleshy by some authors are classed as woody by others. Besides, just as in radishes a younger root may be succulent and tender, and an older root be hard and woody and unfit for eating, so, in drugs, the age of the gathered root may also determine its degree of woodiness. However, there is one characteristic which we can use as a distinguishing feature, that in woody roots the bark sometimes separates from the wood while in fleshy roots it does not. Owing to the fact that fleshy roots are made up mainly of succulent parenchyma, which decreases very much in bulk on drying and the further fact that the longitudinal bundles offer more resistance to contraction during drying than is offered to contraction in the transverse direction, most fleshy roots show deep longitudinal wrinkles, although some also show less marked transverse wrinkles. The cambium zone, consisting of more deli- cate cells, often oxidizes readily and becomes darker-colored than the other tissues, especially in fleshy roots that are cut into sections before drying, and thus it forms a dark line which some- times becomes a diagnostic feature. Similarly, drying may cause a marked contrast between the colors of the wood rays and me- dullary rays, sometimes the one, sometimes the other being the darker-colored, and this, too, is of value in recognizing the indi- vidual drugs. We divide fleshy roots into two groups. Group XX, consist- ing of fleshy roots with latex, oil or resin ducts, cells or spaces, and Group XXI, fleshy roots without such ducts. 184 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY GROUP XX Fleshy Roots with Ducts The oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells referred to are mainly found in the parenchyma of the inner and middle bark; sometimes also in the inner parts of the root, or in the bast portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, or in the medullary rays and pith. Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark brown. . Jalapa. With caudex, branched, section marked with concentric lines. . Taraxacum. With caudex, branched, section marked with radiating lines. . Cichorium. Hard, yellowish-brown or gray, bark closely tuberculated. . . . Asclepias. Tough, porous sections with irregular bundles Sumbul. Light grayish-brown, branched root, deeply wrinkled Angelica. Fusiform, yellowish, annulate, often bifid Panax. Fusiform, dark grayish-brown, annulate above, deeply wrinkled Pyrethrum. Thick, round root with long branches, or sometimes in trans- verse or longitudinal sections Inula. Long, spongy or flexible, light-colored, usually split lengthwise. Levisticum. Dark brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse rings , Imperatoria. Long, slender, yellowish-white, flexible, usually split length- wise Petroselinum. Long, yellowish-brown, annulate above, wrinkled and warty below Pimpinella. Jalapa. N. Jalap. — 0. The tuberous root of Ipomcea Jalapa (Exogonium purga) ; Convolvulacece. — H. Mexico. — D. Irregularly rounded, ovate or pear-shaped, as in the drawing, more or less deeply wrinkled and the larger roots incised, dark brown with lighter- colored transverse warts or ridges, very hard and compact, break- ing with an abrupt, horny and somewhat resinous fracture; in- ternally pale grayish-brown; consists mainly of starchy paren- chyma with large resin-cells arranged in a dense layer under the thin bark and in wavy concentric circles which are darker than the starch-containing portions, as shown in the drawing of a sec- tion ; taste -sweetish, acrid and disagreeable and odor sweetish and nauseous. — C. Not less than 7 per cent of resin of which not over one-tenth should be soluble in ether. Formerly jalap yield- HANDBOOK OF PHAEMACOGNOSY 185 ing 12 to 20 per cent of resin was not unusual, but more careless modes of gathering have reduced the grade of available drug. — U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. Jalap is said to come into the market occasionally in longitudinal or trans- verse slices, but this is certainly quite rarely the case. Jalap must be sound, heavy and hard; soft and sticky, or mealy and light-colored, or woody tubers should be rejected. False jalaps are excluded by the description just given. Tampico Jalap resembles true jalap, but is of more irregular form without the transverse ridges or warts, light in weight, shriveled, and con- Fig. 131. tains a resin which is almost entirely soluble in ether. Male Jalap is spindle-shaped, light and woody, with a resin that is wholly soluble in ether. Mechoaccan Jalap usually comes cut into slices or cubes, and is light-colored or almost Avhitish, mealy and with very little resin. Genuine jalap is sometimes deprived of its resin by maceration in a solvent, and then dried; such jalap is darker-colored through- out, more .wrinkled, and more or less glossy externally. Worm- eaten jalap is unfit for all purposes but making resin of jalap, for which latter purpose it is still valuable, because the insects 186 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY which attack it destroy only the cells containing starch, so that the more worm-eaten the drug, the greater will be the proportion- ate yield of resin. Taraxacum N. Dandelion. — 0. Root of Taraxacum officinale gathered in autumn; Compositce. — H. Europe and United States. — D. The drug consists of a several-headed caudex with a cylindrical or somewhat tapering and slightly branched root, ten to fifteen centimeters long and up to ten millimeters thick and with the cau- dex sometimes up to twenty-five millimeters in diameter; usually Fig. 132. much shrunken and with deep longitudinal wrinkles; externally dark brown and internally light gray or whitish ; fracture abrupt, brittle, and somewhat resinous, showing a thin yellowish central wood-cylinder, consisting of reticulated and dotted ducts, non-lig- nified prosenchyma and parenchyma, and a thick whitish bark marked with numerous grayish-broAvn circles of latex duets; lit- tle or no odor, and a sweetish-bitter and mucilaginous taste. — C. Taraxacin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, alterative, and cholagogue. Dose: 2 to 10 grams. Dandelion is frequently much discolored, damaged by in- sects, mouldy or otherwise worthless. It should be perfectly HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 187 sound and recently dried to be of best value. Many lots of dandelion consist of small and apparently immature roots, hav- ing but little resemblance to dandelion as it should appear, but even in these roots the concentric markings are very plain; the section is drawn from a medium-sized root, the scale being one millimeter divided into fifths. The two drawings of cells show the parenchyma and laticiferous ducts in longitudinal and trans- verse sections. Chicory (Cichorium, from Cichorium Intybus; Composites) is sometimes substituted for or added to dandelion, which it very closely resembles in its outward appearance ; the transverse section, however offers a ready means for distinguishing between the two drugs, chicory having the laticiferous vessels arranged in radiat- ing lines in the bark, instead of in concentric circles, as in dande- Fig. 133. lion. Only the wild-grown chicory is used as a substitute for dandelion, and it is generally lighter-colored than dandelion; the cultivated chicory, which is used as an adulterant or a sub- stitute for coffee, etc., is shorter and more plump than dandelion and not easily mistaken for it, The scale is the same as in dandelion. Asclepias N. Asclepias; Pleurisy Root, — 0. The root of Asclepias tuber- osa; Asclepiaclacece. — H. United States, near Atlantic Coast. — D. Large, cylindrical, sometimes spindle-shaped roots, usually cut into lengths of from five to fifteen centimeters, and two or more centimeters thick; externally orange-brown when fresh, gray when old, internally whitish; breaks with a tough and uneven 188 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY fracture showing the bark in two layers; the external bark nodulated in a peculiar manner, as shown in the drawing, af- fording a diagnostic feature, the inner bark thin, whitish and with but few ducts, and the wood porous, yellowish, and with Fig. 134. wide medullary rays; taste bitterish and somewhat acrid, odor none. — C. Two resins, fixed and volatile oils, etc. — U. Diaphoretic, expectorant and carminative. Dose: Two to five grams, several times a day. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 189 Sumbul N. Musk Root. — 0. The root of Ferula Sumbul; Umbelliferce. — H. Central and Northeastern Asia. — D. Transverse segments of a light, spongy root, from two to ten centimeters thick and two to three centimeters long; externally dark brown, annulate and sometimes deeply wrinkled longitudinally, and internally whitish, with yellowish-brown dots and tangled fibers; taste bitter and balsamic, and odor musk-like. — C. Volatile oil, balsamic resin, etc. — U. Stimulant, blennorrhetic, and nervine tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. In the East it is also used as perfume and incense. Fig. 135. The dark markings on the cut ends are due mainly to adhering dirt rubbed off from the outer parts ; the illustration shows a portion broken away, exposing the clean, whitish tissue within. Angelica N. Angelica Root. — 0. The root of Archangelica officinalis, col- lected in the autumn of the first year; Um'belliferce. — H. Central and Northern Europe and Asia. — D. Root five to ten centimeters long and two to five centimeters thick; the upper end somewhat annulate and with leaf remnants attached; below divided into a number of almost cylindrical deeply wrinkled branches; ex- ternally grayish-brown; breaks with a short, spongy fracture, 190 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY showing a thick whitish bark with radiating lines of large resin ducts in the bast portions of the bundles, and a yellowish porous wood. The illustration shows a root in natural size. The drug Fig. 136. should not be so dry as to be brittle. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. U. Aromatic, stimulant and carminative. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Panax N. Ginseng. — 0. The root of Panax quinquefolius; Araliaceai. — H. North America south to the mountains of Tennessee and Geor- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 191 gia. — D. Spindle-shaped, five to ten centimeters long, often bifid or with three branches, annulate and longitudinally wrinkled; pale yellowish-brown externally, white and mealy within; breaks with a short fracture, showing thick bark which contains numer- ous resin cells ; taste sweetish and aromatic and odor faint. Ow- Fig. 137. ing to the high price of ginseng, it is often gathered before fully grown, and small specimens like those illustrated are therefore most common. — C. A sweet amorphous substance which has been named panaquilon, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant tonic; gathered mainly for export to China, where it is highl} T prized as an aphrodisiac. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Pyrethrum N. Pellitory, Roman Pellitory. — 0. The root of Anacyclus Pyre- thrum; Compositce. — H. Africa, adjacent to Mediterranean Sea; Fig. 138. comes into trade mainly from Tunis through Italy. — D. Fleshy, simple, fusiform root, from five to ten cm. long and from five 192 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY to twenty mm. thick, the upper end annulate and sometimes with frayed remnants of leaves and stem; deeply wrinkled and dark brown externally and grayish-white internally; with abrupt frac- ture showing comparatively thin bark, the outer layer of the middle bark containing comparatively few but large resin ducts ; narrow yellowish wood-bundles and wider and darker-colored medullary rays, as shown in the larger drawing of a section of a dry root, magnified three diameters; odorless, but with an acrid and pungent taste. — C. Acrid resin and fixed oil, etc. — U. Ir- ritant, sialagogue, etc. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. German Pellitory consists of the roots of Anacyclus officinarum, which are simple, nearly straight and filiform, up to fifteen cm. long and two to three mm. thick, with frayed leaf and stem rem- nants, deeply wrinkled, dark-brown externally, lighter brown within, with abrupt fracture, showing two layers separated by a darker-colored cambium zone and with numerous resin ducts in the bast portion; taste, odor, constituents and uses similar to those of Roman Pellitory. The drawings of the sections are after Berg, the smaller showing German Pellitory, also magnified three diameters. Inula N. Inula, Elecampane. — 0. The root of Inula Helenium; Com- positce. — H. Central and Southern Europe; naturalized and cul- tivated in the United States. — D. It is usually described as being in transverse or longitudinal sections, the latter with overlap- ping bark, as shown in the crescent-shaped section (after Maisch) ; I have more frequently found it whole, or at most, cut into two or three pieces and rarely longitudinally sliced, so that the "overlapping bark" is seldom to be seen. The drug, as I have seen it in trade, is shown in natural size in the drawing; it is a fleshy root, about two to three cm. thick at the upper end and from five to twenty-five cm. long, sometimes whole but often cut into two or three pieces, the figure showing the upper end which is most characteristic; this end is marked with a cup or funnel- shaped stem-scar and with several more or less fusiform heads, each having a similar depression. The root either tapers gradu- ally to a thin end or it may end rather abruptly in several branches, which are generally cut off and come as separate pieces; HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 193 the lower root-ends or branches taper from about ten mm. to a point and are from five to fifteen cm. long, either simple or slightly branched, deeply wrinkled longitudinally, flexible in damp weather, bnt hard when dry when they break with an ab- rupt fracture ; the cut and dried ends of larger pieces show pro- jecting concentric and radial lines, while the smaller roots have the structure as shown enlarged in the figure of a whole section; very rarely a piece may show a tendency to separate at the cam- bium zone, which, if more frequent, would make this a woody root; externally all parts of the drug, including the cut sur- Fig. 139. faces, are of a grayish-brown color, but when broken, the in- terior appears grayish-white with the resin ducts showing as bright yellow, glistening points in the middle and inner bark, and in the medullary rays and pith; the odor is faintly aromatic and the taste is bitter and pungent. — C. Resin, extractive, etc., but no starch. — U. Stimulant, expectorant, diaphoretic and di- uretic. Dose: 2 to 10 grams. Levisticum. N. Lovage. — 0. The root of Levisticum officinale: Umoelliferce. — ■ H. Southern and Central Europe; cultivated in Germany. — D. A fleshy root, eight to twenty cm. long and up to three to four cm. thick, several-headed, annulated at the upper end and divided below into several nearly cylindrical flexible branches which are about three to six mm. thick, but usually split longitudinally 194 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY into halves or quarters; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; yellow- ish-brown to dark-brown externally and pale-yellowish inter- nally; fracture spongy, showing a thick bark with many resin ducts and with radiating fissures, and the yellow wood-bundles alternating with narrow white medullary rays which also con- Fig. 140. tain resin ducts; the main root has a pith; odor strong and pene- trating and taste sweetish, mucilaginous and acrid. The draw- ing is after Berg and shows a section of a dry root enlarged three diameters. — C. Resin, volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — U. Stimulant carminative and emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Imperatoria N. Masterwort. — 0. The root of Imperatoria (or Peucedanum) Ostruthium; Umoelliferce. — H. Southern and Central Europe. — D. Masterwort is sometimes classed as a root, sometimes as a rhizome; the upper end is a root stock from which branches pro- ceed in the living i)lant at the ends of which buds and new plants HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 195 are formed, but usually this is but a small part of each piece while much the larger part is root ; but the rhizome portion may con- stitute so large a proportion of some pieces that they would be pronounced to be rhizomes and this drug is therefore also enumer- ated among rhizomes (Group XXIX). The illustration gives a good idea of the appearance and size of the drug; it is knotty, somewhat conical, crowned with leaf remnants, flattened as seen in the outline of its section (natural size), marked with transverse rings and longitudinal wrinkles and tuberculous root-scars ; from five to seven cm. long and about fifteen to thirty mm. wide ; the enlarged section shows a circle of numerous small wood-bundles inclosing a large pith, and with numerous large resin ducts in the bark and pith; the color is grajdsh-brown to blackish-gray externally and brownish-yellow to whitish within; odor aromatic and taste pungent and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, resin, imperatorin, etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant and carminative; seldom used. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Petroselinum. N. Parsley Root. — 0. The root of Petroselinum sativum; Um- belliferce. — H. Southern Europe; cultivated in this country. — D. A tapering fleshy root, about fifteen cm. long and about twelve mm. thick; annulate and transversely wrinkled above and deeply wrinkled longitudinally below; wood light-yellow and porous, and radiate from the white medullary rays, the bark whitish and dotted with resin ducts; color externally brownish-yellow and whitish within; odor aromatic and taste peculiar and sweetish. The drug, usually consists of the root cut into longitudinal strips, which are pale yellowish-white and flexible. The drawing is af- ter Maisch, and shows a section of a root enlarged three diam- 196 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY eters. — C. Volatile oil, etc. — U. Carminative and diuretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Pimpinella N. Pimpernel. — 0. The root of Pimpinella Saxifraga; Vmbelli- ferce. — H. Central Europe. — D. A simple fleshy root, sometimes several-headed, the heads with remains of hollow stems; from ten to fifteen cm. long and five to fifteen mm. thick; the upper end of the root annulate, the lower part tuberculate or warty, and the whole deeply furrowed longitudinally; yellowish-brown or ochre-colored externally ; fracture short, abrupt, showing a thick Fig. 143. white bark with radiating lines of yellowish or reddish resin ducts, separated by a darker-colored cambium zone from the faintly radiate yellowish wood; in old pieces the bark is often torn and fissured within on drying, so that it feels spongy; odor peculiar, aromatic and somewhat nauseous, and taste pungent and acrid. The drawing of the section is after Berg, and shows a section of a dry root enlarged three diameters. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant and sialagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 5 grams. GROUP XXI This group consists of fleshy roots with structure similar to those of the last group, but without the ducts. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs Aconitum. Slender, light grayish-brown roots, little branched Belladonnae Radix. Large, round or plano-convex orange-yellow pieces of roots, peeled Rheum. Whole, or longitudinally split, dark brown roots, trans- versely annulate above Gentiana. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 197 Several-headed caudex, root branched and keeled, yellow- ish-gray, wood not cylindrical Senega. Transverse sections, greenish-gray bark, yellowish on cut surfaces Calumba. Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with prominent radiating and concentric lines Bryonia. White roots with cork removed, externally white, mealy and fibrous Althaea. Longitudinal and transverse sections, with projecting white wood-bundles alternating with yellowish-gray parenchyma Phytolacca? Radix Long, simple, fusiform root, usually partially broken and doubled up lengthwise Rumex. Brown-black, horny, somewhat contorted roots, often split lengthwise Symphytum. Long, thin roots, externally rust-brown, internally whitish Saponaria. Cylindrical, simple, fleshy root, grayish-brown and wrinkled Lappa. Crowned with leaf bases and covered with a dark purplish foliaceous bark easily separable from the yellowish wood Alkanna. Longitudinal or transverse slices, pale orange-brown Frasera. Aconitum N. Aconite Root, Monkshood. — 0. The root of Aconitum Napel- Ins; Rami n cula cecc. — H. Mountainous parts of Europe and Asia. — D. Aconite root is sometimes classed as a tuber, because a small portion at the top is a root stock /which, produces a short lateral branch, at the end of which a new root and stem is formed; the old root ("mother tuber") has a portion of stem adhering while the younger, root ("daughter tuber") is crowned with a bud, which would form the next season's stem; the two are often at- tached to each other in the drug, but also occur separately. The bulk of drug is root and the drug is. therefore described under this group. The illustration shows the appearance of the root (A. N.) in natural size; conical or tapering, ten to twenty mm. thick at the top and three to ten cm. long, with either a bud or the remains of a stem at the apex, seldom branched, dark brown, the root with bud plump, little wrinkled, and whitish within, the one with stem remnant more deeply wrinkled and darker, even brownish within and sometimes hollow; fracture abrupt, mealy 198 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY or horny, showing five to eight-rayed star (usually seven-rayed) caused by the darker-colored cambium zone which separates the thick bark from the pith; odorless, taste at first sweetish, then acrid and followed by a tingling numbness, which is persistent and disagreeable and the intensity of which has been suggested as a good empirical test for the quality of the drug. — C. Acon- itine, pseudaconitin, aconine, pseudaconine, picraconitine, etc., which together constitute the commercial article which is sold as Fig. 144. "aconitine." Pure aconitine is a crystalline alkaloid. The drug should contain not less than 0.5 per cent of ether-soluble alka- loids. — U. Sedative and depressant; very poisonous. Dose of aconite root: 0.05 to 0.10 gram, in tincture or fluid extract. Antidotes. — Stomach pump or emetics (sulphate of zinc, mus- tard, apomorphine); friction of extremities; heart stimulants, as digitalis, atropine, or amyl nitrite inhalations; heat applied ex- ternally, etc. Aconitum Cammarum (A.C. in Fig. 144) is also gathered in HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 199 Europe; it is only about two cm. long and sub-globular and the cambium star seldom more than five-rayed, and less marked than in A. Napellus. Aconitum Stoerckianum, is characterized by the "mother tuber" developing two "daughter tubers," so that it comes in triplets ; the cambium zone is not stellate. These two varieties are sometimes mixed with the roots of A. Napellus, and have the same action. Fig. 145. Indian Aconite, from A. ferox (A.F. in Fig. 145), called bikh or bish, is from five to ten cm. long and about twenty-five mm. thick above, conical, brown externally and reddish-brown or brown- ish-black internally and breaks with a resinoid fracture. Japanese or Chinese Aconite (J.A. in Fig. 145), from A. Fischeri, often is napiform, tapering, with a circular or elliptical (rarely stellate) pith. All of these roots are used for the manufacture of the commer- cial "aconitine." 200 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Belladonnae Radix N. Belladonna Root. — 0. The root of Atropa Belladonna; Sol- anacece. — H. Central or Southern Europe. — D. The illustration shows an old and thick root, with the base of the hollow stem Fig. 146. attached; the drug consists mainly of the more slender, tapering and often nearly cylindrical roots up to twenty-five cm. long and from ten to twenty-five mm. thick, externally pale brownish- gray with few and shallow longitudinal wrinkles; breaks with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 201 an abrupt mealy fracture, the thinner pieces uniformly white within, the thicker and older pieces showing a radiating struc- ture inside of and near the cambium zone, as shown in the draw- ing of a section (enlarged) ; odor little or none, and taste at first sweetish, then bitterish and acrid, and followed by dryness of the mouth and fauces. — C. Atropine and hyoscyamine ; Belladonna root should contain not less than 0.5 per cent of mydriatic alka- loids. — U. Anodyne, narcotic; dilates the pupils of the eyes; sup- presses the secretions of the salivary and sweat glands ; in medic- inal doses it is a valuable stimulant of the respiratory muscles and the heart, but in overdoses it is a narcotic poison and paralyzes the heart ; externally, as an ingredient of plasters, it is a valuable anodyne and anti-neuralgic and the ointment of belladonna is applied to the breasts to suppress the secretion of milk. Dose: About 0.05 gram. "Roots which are tough and woody, breaking with a splintery fracture, should be rejected; likewise the hollow stem-bases which are sometimes present" (U.S.P.); but this empirical rule will sometimes lead to the rejection of a good drug, because a drug as here described occasionally assays as high as the drug described above, and which usually is the better; no large lot of roots should be rejected on its appearance alone; but a quantitative assay should be made to determine the quality of the drug. (See also Scopola, page 251.) Antidotes. — The poisonous effect shows itself by extreme dila- tation of the pupils, dryness of the fauces, headache, delirium, stupor, paralysis, weak pulse and respiration, and finally death. Treatment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, opium internally and stimulants when heart failure is threatened. Rheum N. Rhubarb. — 0. The root of Rheum officinale, Baillon, Rh. palmatum, and allied varieties of Rheum; Polygonacece. — H. "West- ern and Central China. — D. Cylindrical, conical or irregular, or flattish, often plano-convex pieces of root, deprived of the corky layer and often of the middle bark, covered externally with an orange-yellow powder (from attrition) which when rubbed off shows meshes of white, spongy tissue and short, reddish-brown or brownish-yellow stria?; compact and hard, breaking with an 202 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY uneven fracture, the broken surface being whitish and marbled or mottled with yellowish-red strias which are sometimes ar- ranged in star-shaped spots or clusters; the parenchymatous cells are filled with starch or stellate, rosette-shaped crystals of oxalate of calcium which feel gritty between the teeth, and the cells of the medullary rays are filled with a reddish coloring matter which colors the saliva yelloAv ; the odor is peculiar and the taste is bitter, disagreeable and slightly astringent.- — C. Two groups of glucosides, tanno-glucosides and anthra-glucosides, chrysophanic acid, emodin, tannin, etc. — U. Rhubarb is at first purgative, fol- lowed afterwards by an astringent action; it is therefore espe- cially adapted for use in cases of diarrhoeas caused by irritating substances in the intestines, such as indigestible food, etc. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. The rhubarb described above is called Chinese, Shensi or East Indian Rhubarb. Russian Rhubarb is no longer found in the trade and is only of historical interest. It therefore needs no description here. Rhapontic Rhubarb, also called Crimean Rhubarb, is the root of Rheum rhaponticum, which is a native of Western Asia, but is now also cultivated in Europe and in the . United States, being known here as "pie plant." When the root is found in the trade it is usually in slender cylindrical pieces of an orange- red color, about ten to twelve cm. long and two cm. thick, re- sembling the official rhubarb in color, odor and taste, but being more astringent and mucilaginous, and less gritty. European Rhubarb, from Rheum palmatum, R. rhaponticum, R. compactum, R. undulatum, R. Emodi and other species of Rheum, is sometimes trimmed to resemble Chinese rhubarb, but the taste is more mucilaginous and less gritty. Seldom used. The leaf-stalks are used in Europe as we use them here, for cooking. Senega N. Senega, Senega Snake-root. — 0. The root of Polygala Senega; Polygalacex. — H. Southern United States. — D. A fleshy, tapering, somewhat tortuous and slightly branched root, with a many- headed caudex often having the remains of numerous stems at- tached, of the size shown in the illustration, or frequently much smaller; deeply wrinkled and with a "keel" or prominent ridge HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 203 in the concave parts of the bends of the roots, which constitutes a diagnostic feature ; externally yellowish-gray to yellowish- brown, internally pale yellowish-white ; bark thick and woqpl- cylinder incomplete and irregularly excentric as shown in the drawings of sections which were enlarged from actual specimens; odor slight but disagreeable and taste at first insipidly sweetish, afterwards acrid. — C. Senegin (Saponin) and polygalic acid, etc. — U. Stimulant and alterative blennorrhetic and expectorant, acting especially on the bronchial mucous membranes. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. The above describes Southern Senega. Northern Seneca, Fig. 147. from Polygala alba, is inferior ; it is thicker, lighter-colored, with- out keel, with the woody portion thick and regular. Other (so- called "spurious") senegas are excluded by the official description. Gentiana N. Gentian. — 0. The root of Gentiana lutea; Gentianacea. — H. The mountainous regions of Central and Southern Europe. — D. A fleshy root, sometimes with a several-headed caudex, cylin- drical, little branched, of various lengths up to 20 cm. long, about 25 millimeters thick, annulate at the upper end, deeply wrinkled 204 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY longitudinally, occasionally split lengthwise, dark brown exter- nally and cinnamon-colored internally, breaking with abrupt brit- tle fracture in dry weather but somewhat flexible in damp weather, with a rather thick bark and a soft fleshy wood, with- out pith, and free from starch; odor faint and taste intensely and persistently bitter. — C. The amorphous glucoside gentiopicrin, gentisic acid, gentianose, pectin, etc. — U. A bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Sometimes the roots of G. purpurea, G. punctata and G. pannon- ica are also gathered and mixed with the official drug. These roots are similar in action and in appearance to that of G. lutea and this admixture is not considered to be objectionable. Calumba N. Calumba, Colombo. — 0. The root of Jateorhiza palmata; Menispermacem. — H. Eastern Africa, especially Mozambique, where the plant grows wild; it is also cultivated in some of the East Indian Islands. — D. The fresh large fleshy root is cut into tranverse sections which are circular or broadly elliptical, from three to six cm. in diameter and from eight to twelve mm. thick, often depressed around the center which latter may however pro- ject as a nipple-like elevation; the exterior surface is brownish- green, while the cut surfaces are yellowish-gray with a brighter HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 205 yellow color in the bark under the epidermis, and with the cam- bium zone often distinctly marked by a brownish-gray line which is crossed by numerous more or less distinctly marked radiating lines; breaks with an abrupt brittle and mealy fracture; odor slight and taste mucilaginous and bitter. Sometimes longer cylin- drical or tapering pieces are found which are the branches or ends of the roots without being cut into transverse slices, but they are readily recognized as calumba by the resemblance to the sec- tions. — C. Columbin, berberine, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Calumba must have a good bright color. Worm-eaten and dark or dirty-colored calumba is more common than the sound drug, Fig. 149. and such inferior drug should be rejected. This drug is said to be occasionally adulterated with transverse slices of other roots, such as bryonia, etc., but it is doubtful whether such additions are practicable as they are too easily recognized by even a novice. Bryonia N. Bryonia, Bryony. — 0. The roots of Bryonia all) a and of Bry- onia dioica; Cucurbitacece. — H. Central and Southern Europe. — D. Transverse sections, 3 to 6 cm. diameter, about 6 mm. thick, gray- ish-broAvn externally and the grayish-white cut surfaces marked with rough concentric and radiating lines due to projecting fibro- vascular bundles; hard, breaking with abrupt, brittle and mealy 206 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY fracture ; no odor but taste bitter and nauseous. — C. A bitter glu- coside, bryonin, etc. — U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 4 grams. Fig. 150. • The drug obtained from B. dioica is smoother and more mealy on its cut surfaces than that derived from B. alba. Althaea N. Marshm allow Root.— 0. The root of Althcea officinalis; Mal- vacece. From plants at least two years old. — H. Europe, Western and Northern Asia; cultivated in Europe; naturalized in United States. — D. Irregularly cylindrical or tapering pieces, 10 to 20 cm. long and about 10 to 20 mm. thick ; deprived of the ex- Fig. 151. ternal bark ; without rootlets, but with numerous round spots or root-scars; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; externally and inter- nally white, mealy and fibrous; fracture abrupt and mealy; odor HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 207 faintly aromatic and taste sweetish mucilaginous. — C. Asparagin, pectin, mucilage (35 per cent) and starch (35 per cent). — U. De- mulcent. Dose: Ad libitum. As usually bought and sold by the retail pharmacist it is cut into small cubes (about 3 or 4 mm. on each side) which are white, and readily recognized by the peculiar odor of the drug. A dis- colored or mouldy root, or one having a disagreeable or sourish odor or taste, must be rejected. Phytolaccse Radix N. Poke Root. — 0. The root of Phytolacca decandra; Phytolac- cacece. — H. Indigenous; naturalized in S. Europe and West In- Fig. 152. dies. — D. The root is a large fleshy, conical root, grayish-brown externally, whitish within, sometimes as much as twenty cm. thick at the upper end and up to one-half meter long, with many heads to which remnants of hollow stems containing transverse shreds of pith are attached. A transverse section shows the fibro-vascular bundles to be ar- ranged in irregularly concentric circles, as shown in the drawing of a microscopical section of a small piece (to the left, in Fig. 152) ; this arrangement of the bundles explains the appearance of the drug as found in the trade, for Avhen dry the parenchyma 208 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY shrinks more than the bundles and becomes light brownish-gray while the bundles remain whitish, and project above the shrunken parenchyma. In the trade the root is found in transverse or lon- gitudinal slices to some of which portions of the hollow stems re- main attached ; one of these drawings is of a small transverse slice as it appeared in the evening with the light falling on it obliquely, thus illuminating the projecting lines of fibro-vascular bundles, deepening the tints of the parenchyma by the strong shadows, thus exaggerating the contrast in color but showing the relief more clearly; the lower right-hand figure illustrates a small fragment of a longitudinal slice; the drug is hard and breaks with a fibrous fracture; odor, none; taste sweetish acrid. — C. No active principle has been isolated but the action probably depends on an undeter- mined glucoside. — U. Has been highly recommended as an altera- tive antiarthritic in rheumatism, and as a solvent in inflammation and threatened abscess of the breast. Dose: 0.05 to 0.5 gram; in overdoses it is poisonous. Rumex N. Yellow Dock, Radix Lapathi. — 0. The root of Bumex crispus Fig. 153. and of other varieties of Bumex; Polygonacece. — H. Europe ; natu- ralized in North America. — D. A long, tapering, simple fleshy root with but few root-fibers, sometimes somewhat fusiform, annulate above, deeply wrinkled below; generally broken as in the drawing which is about five-sixths natural size, the tough fibrous wood HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 209 bundles, especially in the larger and older roots, holding the broken parts together ; ten to thirty cm. long and twelve to fifteen mm. thick; externally brown or reddish-brown, internally some- what horny and dingy brownish-yellow; stains the saliva yellow; little or no odor and a bitter astringent taste.— C. Tannin, chryso- phanic acid, etc. — U. Alterative, astringent, tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Symphytum N. Symphytum* Comfrey. — 0. The root of Symphytum officinale; BoraginacecB. — H. Europe and United States. — D. The nearly sim- ple root is up to fifteen cm. long and from eight to twenty mm. Fig. 154. thick, the larger pieces often split lengthwise, very hard, wrinkled, somewhat twisted, blackish-brown externally and whitish within ; breaks with an abrupt, somewhat brittle fracture, the broken end appearing whitish and horny; odorless, and taste sweetish, muci- laginous and slightly astringent. — 0. Mucilage, asparagin, tannic acid, etc. — D. Demulcent and slightly astringent. Dose: 5 to 15 grams per day. Saponaria N. Saponaria, Soapwort. — 0. The root of Saponaria officinalis; Caryophyllacece. — H. Europe and America. — D. Cylindrical, about twenty-five cm. long but usually broken into shorter lengths, the older roots up to twelve mm. or more in thickness; formerly the 210 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY roots from older plants were more common than at present, and these were marked with distinct annual layers, but now the thin roots from one-year-old plants are preferred and these appear as in the drawings, from two or three to twelve mm. thick, rusty or Fig. 155. reddish-brown externally, hard, with abrupt fracture, the section showing a thick whitish bark and a delicate brownish cambium zone surrounding a pale yellowish wood without radiating markings ; no odor and a somewhat bitter and afterwards acrid taste. The smaller roots are to be preferred and large and woody roots should be re- jected. — 0. Saponin, etc. — U. Alterative diaphoretic; used simi- larly to Sarsaparilla in chronic skin diseases, etc. Dose: 25 to 50 grams during the day, in infusion. Lappa N. Burdock, Radix Bardanae. — 0. The root of Arctium Lappa and of some other species of Arctium; Compositce. From one-year- old plants. — H. Europe and Northern Asia; naturalized in North America. — D. A simple, fleshy, fusiform root about thirty cm. long to three cm. thick ; crowned with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf- stalks; externally grayish-brown and internally paler brown; frac- ture somewhat horny ; bark thick and with occasional spaces contain- ing a whitish felt-like mass of broken-down tissue, the cambium zone dark-colored, wood radiate and the center having spurious pith or cavities filled with a similar white tissue-debris as is found in the spaces in the bark ; odor faint but disagreeable, and taste sweetish- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 211 bitter and mucilaginous. The root usually comes into trade split lengthwise, so that the glistening white spurious pith becomes a char- acteristic and diagnostic feature. — C. Inulin (no starch), mucilage, bitter extractive, etc. — U. Diaphoretic, diuretic and alterative. Fig. 156. Has been very highly praised as a remedy in psoriasis and other skin diseases. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Alkanna N. Alkanet. — 0. The root of All-anna tinctoria; Boraginacece. — H. Southeast Europe and Western Asia. — D. A long, fleshy, cylin- drical, slightly branched root with a several or many-headed cau- dex to which tufts of leaf-bases remain attached, usually broken in pieces about ten cm. long and finger-thick, most of the thickness consisting in the dry drug of a thick bark, the outer layers of which, are foliaceous or torn into many shreds, which are but loosely adherent to each other and to the inner bark and wood, which latter is also often torn into its separate bundles during drying; the bark and medullary rays are dark purplish- violet in color, while the wood-bundles are yelloAvish, all parts being readily friable; little or no taste or odor. — C. Alkannin, a deep red color- ing matter which is soluble in alcohol, oils, fats, etc., but insoluble in water. — U. For coloring hair-oils, pomades and other fatty preparations. As the coloring matter is mainly found in the bark, the value of the drug depends on the proportion of bark present, and as this is sometimes sold separately, a drug consisting to any undue extent of the wood bundles should be rejected. 212 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Frasera N. Frasera, American Colombo, American Gentian. — 0. The root of Frasera Walteri; Gentianacece. — H. United States, Alle- ghenies and westward. — D. A large fleshy root which formerly was sometimes cnt into transverse slices resembling Calumba (whence the name American Colombo), but is now usually split in longitudinal slices, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 157) in natural size, annulate above, wrinkled longitudinally below, brown externally, light yellowish-brown within, odor reminding Fig. 157. of gentian, taste sweetish and afterwards bitter. — C. Similar to those of gentian, gentiopicrin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. RHIZOMES The stems of many plants are too weak to stand upright, and such stems lie procumbent on the ground, branching diffusely in a horizontal direction; such stems may lie on top of the ground, or be partially covered by the ground, or they may grow just HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 213 below the surface of the ground, usually producing rootlets at the nodes in contact with the soil. Such stems are called ' ' creep- ers;" or when they are habitually covered altogether by the ground, they are called "rhizomes." Rhizomes are underground stems, distinguished from roots by having nodes and internodes which are absent in roots; they may vary in length, some being creeping and often quite long, others being short and compact; some come into trade with the roots (usually simple "rootlets") attached, some without the roots; these rootlets are in some attached all around and along the full length, in some only on the under side, and in others only at the nodes, and when they are broken off the resulting scars are often characteristic and aid in the recognition of the drug. The remains of leaves or stems are often attached to the growing ends of rhizomes. We group the commercial drugs of this class, first, according to their most striking peculiarity, the presence or absence of rootlets, then according to structure (acrog- enous, endogenous, exogenous, or with or without ducts, as the case may be) and to some extent according to shape (long or short). Rhizomes are generally spoken of in the trade as "roots," but while there may be no serious objection to the continuance of this practice, yet the difference between roots and rhizomes must of course be always remembered by the student of pharmacognosy, as otherwise the confusion of terms may seriously interfere with the ready recognition of the respective drugs. When grouping according to presence or absence of rootlets we must remember that when drugs are gathered by savage or barbarous people, these people do things in a routine manner and do not deviate from the methods of their ancestors, and such drugs are gathered, cut, dried and put up for the trade as they have been for generations or perhaps for centuries; thus calumba always was and still is cut into transverse slices. On the other hand, civilized people vary the methods of trimming, often in an arbitrary or capricious manner, as when veratrum viride is sometimes whole with rootlets, sometimes without root- lets, or sometimes cut longitudinally into halves or quarters or sliced transversely into sections. So it happens that while a drug may be classed as a rhizome with rootlets, it may occasion- 214 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ally be found without rootlets, or vice versa; yet in most cases the drugs are as is herewith explained and deviations are ex- ceptional. f Mono-cotyledonous 22 With rootlets J _. , n r With ducts* 23 cotyledonous J TTT .^ , -, , * n . J | Without ducts* 24 Cryptogamous 25 26 27 long 28 [Di-cotyledonous ahort ^ Ehizomes < - Without rootlets [long Mono-cotyledonous j , , GROUP XXII MONO-COTYLEDONOUS EHIZOMES WlTH ROOTLETS Endogenous or mono-cotyledonous rhizomes, whether with or without rootlets, are readily recognized by the manner of dis- tribution of fibro-vascular bundles, as well as by the nucleus sheath when the latter is present, as has already been described. Grayish or brownish, deeply-wrinkled roots, often over one meter long, folded back over a compact rhizome Sarsaparilla. Obconical, blackish-gray with shriveled, lighter-colored rootlets Veratrum Viride. Thin, branched, straw-colored or pale yellowish, with hair- like rootlets at nodes Convallaria. Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulated with darker colored markings Iris Versicolor. Obconical to sub-globular, annulate, orange-brown Trillium. Obconical, grayish-brown, with rootlets on upper part; whit- ish within Dracontium. Bent, orange-brown, with many stem-scars above and wavy rootlets below Cypripedium. Whole, or longitudinal slices, yellowish-brown, whitish with- in, annulate Polygonatum. Much branched and curved; pale brown, very hard and tough Dioscorea. Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish-brown with tough, wiry rootlets Helonias. Cylindrical, covered with tufts of leaf -bases and numerous pale-colored and soft rootlets Aletris. Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in wavy lines on under side Calamus. *Oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Sarsaparilla 215 The various kinds of Sarsaparilla have been fully described in Group XVI, where they properly belong, as the roots alone are directed to be used, and where descriptions will be found. Mexican and Jamaica Sarsapaeillas usually consist of the root- lets attached to the "chumps" or rhizomes, and therefore might naturally be looked for here, wherefore they must be mentioned. Veratrum Viride N. Veratrum. American Hellebore. — 0. The rhizome and root- lets of Veratrum viride; Liliacece. — H. North America. — D. Up- Fig. 158. right ob conical rhizome, from three to eight cm. long and two to three cm. thick, when dried, often crowned with concentric lay- ers of leaf-bases, externally blackish-gray and covered Avith light- brown deeply-wrinkled rootlets up to ten or more cm. long and two mm. thick, from which the bark can be readily torn, show- ing an almost white fibrous wood; sometimes the rhizome is cut 216 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY into halves longitudinally, as shown in one of the figures, or it may occasionally occur in transverse sections, or even without rootlets, although this is more rarely the case ; it is without odor but is a powerful sternutatory when the powder is inhaled; the taste is bitter and acrid. — C. Jervine, veratroidine, etc. — U. Se- dative and antispasmodic, especially in puerperal convulsions; emetic, diaphoretic, and errhine. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram, best given as fluid extract or tincture. "While generally considered a dangerous or even poisonous remedy, it is claimed that no fatal effects have ever been ob- served from an overdose. Antidotal treatment should consist of emesis (usually effected by the drug itself), stimulants, alco- holics or ammonia, warm applications, etc. Veratrum Album, or "White Veratrum, is a European variety of this drug, which is similar to the American drug in appear- ance as well as in action, and is used for the same purposes. Convallaria N. Convallaria, Lily of the Valley Root. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Convallaria majalis; Liliacece. — H. Northern temperate zone ; cultivated in gardens. — D. The drug consists of a tangled or matted mass of pale straw-colored or yellowish, but not glossy, rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizomes sometimes branched, but usually simple, often with the growing end thickened and annu- lar and crowned with a mass of soft, whitish, threadlike hairs (the remnants of leaf bases) ; this thicker end contracts either ab- ruptly or tapers to a thin rhizome, which is lighter-colored than Fig. 159. the thick end and slightly wrinkled longitudinally; from five to ten cm. long and two to three mm. thick, with internodes from two to five cm. long, and with a few thin, almost threadlike root- lets attached at the slightly thickened nodes or joints; the frac- ture is tough and fibrous and the interior is white ; the drug has no odor, and the taste is bitter and slightly acrid. — C. Conval- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 217 larin, convallamarin, etc. — U. Heart tonic, especially useful in cardiac dropsies; in overdoses poisonous. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams daily. Iris Versicolor N. Blue Flag. — 0. The rhizome of Iris versicolor; Iridacece. — H. In swampy localities in North America. — D. In pieces of va- rious lengths, sometimes branched, but usually simple ; internodes five to ten cm. long, cylindrical at the older end and nattish at the growing end, where the numerous long, simple rootlets are attached when present; the upper (growing) end is marked with a circular stem-scar, the nodes with small circular root-scars when the roots are absent, and the whole length is marked by alternate lighter and darker-colored annular markings due to the leaf-scars, as shown in the illustration which shows a piece Fig. 160. of the drug without rootlets; the fracture is somewhat spongy or abrupt, the section showing a nucleus sheath which surrounds most of the wood-bundles; nearly inodorous, and taste acrid and nauseous. — C. Acrid resin, etc. — U. Emetico-cathartic in large doses; in medicinal doses hydragogue cathartic, cholagogue, diu- retic and alterative. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. This drug is often found in the trade without rootlets, and it is therefore also men- tioned under Group XXVI. A lot of well-cleaned rootless blue- flag looks more attractive, although there is probably no prefer- ence from a therapeutical standpoint. Trillium N. Beth-root, Birth-root. — 0. The rhizome of Trillium erectum and other varieties of Trillium; Liliacece. — H. United States. — D. Obconical to subglobular, often somewhat flattened, from two to five cm. long, shaped as shown in the drawing ; annulate, with the few and short rootlets attached near the upper end, which is 218 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY sometimes tufted with leaf -remnants; externally light yellowish- brown, internally whitish, inodorous and taste somewhat astrin- gent, afterwards bitter and acrid. — C. Acrid glucoside, etc. — U. Fig. 161. Used in genito-urinary troubles, as menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, etc.; emmenagogue and emetic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Dracontium N. Skunk Cabbage. — 0. The rhizome of Dracontium fcetidum ( Symplocarpus fcetidus); Aracem. — H. North America. — D. From five to ten cm. long and half as wide, obconical, shaped as shown in the drawing; the upper end usually has concentrically ar- ranged leaf-remnants and numerous long, shriveled and deeply Fig. 162. wrinkled rootlets attached, but these roots are often cut from the rhizomes and either come loose and separate in the bales or are absent; the drug is dark grayish-brown externally and whit- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 219 ish within, but when it comes cut into slices or into longitudinal quarters, which is frequently the case, the cut surfaces on dry- ing also appear grayish; the odor reminds one of a polecat, whence the name of the drug, and the taste is pungent and acrid. — C. Resin, an acrid volatile principle (the latter not iso- lated), etc. — U. Stimulant and anti-spasmodic; used in hysteria, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Cypripedium N. American Valerian, Lady's Slipper; commonly, but erro- neously, called Ladies' Slipper. — 0. Rhizome and roots of Cypri- pedium pitbescens and C. parviflorum; Orcliidacece. — H. United States. — D. The rhizome is usually curved or bent, beset with numerous long wavy rootlets which become entangled so that Fig. 163. the drug is a matted mass; in the illustration most of the rootlets are represented as removed, to show the nature of the rhizome, which is marked on its upper side with numerous circular cup- shaped but very shallow stem-scars, which are about as far apart from the edge of one to the edge of the other, as the diameter of such a scar; the rhizome is from five to ten cm. long and about three mm. thick, and the rootlets are up to twenty cm. long and about 1.5 mm. thick; dark brown to light orange-brown; frac- ture brittle, showing yellowish-white within; a faint but sicken- ing odor and a sweetish-bitter and slightly pungent taste. — C. No active principle has been isolated; fixed oils, resins, etc. — U. Dia- phoretic, anti-spasmodic and nervine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. According to Maisch the rhizome of C. pitbescens is the longer of the two rhizomes and is usually bent Avith a shallow curve, de- pressed in the middle so as to make a U-shaped curve ; this may be 220 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY remembered by thinking of the first letters which differ in the names of the two drugs, Cypripedium pubescens having a u where Cypripedium p&rviflorurn has an a. The rhizome of the latter plant is contorted, often bent at right angles, or with an upward curve. In both the rootlets spring from all sides of the rhizomes but bend abruptly downward, hiding the rhizome, so that to ex- amine the latter the rootlets must be removed as was done prior to making the illustration. Polygonatum N. Solomon's Seal. — 0. The rhizomes of several varieties of Polygonatum, Polygonatum giganteum, P. biflorum, P. multiflo- Fig. 164. rum, and P. uniflorum; Convallaria Polygonatum; Liliacem. — H. The first two are indigenous, the third grows in Europe and America, and P. uniflorum is a European plant. — D. The drug varies in size as it comes from one or another of these plants, but is always a rhizome with nodes, on the upper side of which are depressed stem-scars which resemble the impressions of a seal, wherefore the drug is called "Solomon's Seal." A com- mon form of the drug is as in the drawing, the upper figure of which shows the shape of the fresh rhizome reduced, but which is in reality about fifteen. cm. long and up to four or five cm. broad, but in the drug is usually sliced longitudinally as shown in the lower figures; each joint is marked with a stem-scar; the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 221 outer surface is yellowish-brown, the interior is whitish; the frac- ture is abrupt and somewhat spongy, showing the wood bundles mostly in the center, but without the nucleus sheath; odor none and taste mucilaginous, bitter and slightly acrid. Another much smaller form is one in which the rhizome is also about fifteen cm. long, but only about five mm. thick, not sliced, but in other re- gards similar to the above described variety. — C. Convallarin, asparagin, mucilage, etc. — U. Said to exert a special action on re- laxed mucous membranes, as in leucorrhoea, etc. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, preferably in the form of fluid extract. Dioscorea N. Wild Yam. — 0. The rhizome of Dioscorea villosa; Dioscora- cece. — H. United States. — D. The shape and size of the drug are well represented in Fig. 165 ; crooked, branched, somewhat flat- tened, with few rootlets; very hard and tough, but breaks with an abrupt, somewhat fibrous fracture; pale-brown externally and white within, with yellowish wood-bundles; odorless, and taste insipidly mucilaginous but developing a slight acridity after chewing for a little while. — C. An acrid principle resembling sapo- nin, resin, etc. — U. Said to be anti-spasmodic and anti-rheumatic ; also useful in bilious colic, cholera morbus, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 222 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY Helonias N. False Unicorn Root. — 0. The rhizome of Chamcelirium lu- teum (Helonias dioica); Liliacem. — H. North America. — D. Cylin- drical, curved, with stem-scars on upper surface and occasionally with leaf-remnants at growing end, closely annulate in small pieces and more coarsely annulate in larger specimens, beset with long, wiry rootlets, which, however, are sometimes wanting in the drug; from two to seven cm. long and five to twenty mm. Fig. 166-^ Fig. 166-5. thick; externally dark grayish-brown, internally whitish and horny; fracture abrupt, showing numerous wood bundles near center; odor peculiar, though weak, but readily perceived when the drug is bruised, and the taste bitter and acrid. — C. Chamaeli- rin, etc. — U. Tonic, diuretic and anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. (See Fig. 166-A.) Aletris N. Aletris, Star Grass, Unicorn Root. — 0. The rhizome of Ale- tris farinosa; Hcemodoracece. — H. United States. — D. The rhizome HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 223 is about two to three em. long and three to ten mm. thick, indis- tinctly jointed, with loose tufts of leaves and beset with nu- merous light grayish-yellow fibrous rootlets; externally grayish- brown, internally white, breaking with a mealy, somewhat fibrous fracture; odor none, and taste bitter. — C. A bitter prin- ciple. — U. Bitter tonic and stomachic ; reputed to be a tonic to the uterus, counteracting a tendency to miscarriage. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. (See Fig. 166-5.) Calamus Calamus, which usually comes into trade with the rootlets re- moved, is occasionally found with the rootlets attached, and would then be looked for in this group of drugs. The student is referred to Group XXVI for a description of this drug. GROUP XXIII dl-cotyledonous rhizomes wlth rootlets ; wlth ducts or Oil Cells Di-cotyledonous or exogenous rhizomes are recognizable by the arrangement of their fibro-vascular bundles; the word ''duct" is used in this book to include oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large (special) cells. Of the three drugs mentioned in this group, one, Arnica Root, has large ducts, which are very readily recog- nizable, but in Serpent-aria and Valerian the oil-cells are not very markedly larger than the other parenchyma cells, and although readily seen while still containing the oil, are not easily distin- guished after the cell-contents have been removed, as is usually the case in finished slides, and therefore Valerian and Serpentaria are also mentioned in the next group. Small, hard, dark brown, curved rhizome; rootlets all on lower side; a ring of ducts in the section Arnica. Short, thick, upright rhizome, with many rootlets; with char- acteristic odor Valeriana. Thin, small rhizome, with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria. 224 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Arnicse Rhizoma N. Arnica Root, Arnicce' Radix. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Arnica montana.; Composite?. — H. Europe, Asia and North America. — D. The drug consists of a tangled mass of rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizome is curved or contorted, up to five cm. long and two to three mm. thick, usually crowned with a tuft of leaf remnants, hard, brittle, wrinkled, annulate and nodulate with stem-remnants and leaf-scars, and the under side beset with numerous hard brittle rootlets, which are up to eight cm. long, and less than one mm. thick; the color of the rhizome is dark brown externally, with whitish bark and yellowish wood within, and with a large whitish pith; in the inner layer of the Fig. 167. bark, surrounding the cambium, there is a circle of large resin- ducts and a similar circle of resin-ducts occurs in the rootlets; the odor is peculiar, aromatic, and the taste is acrid, aromatic and somewhat bitter. The illustration shows the rhizome in natural size, sections of the rhizome in natural size and enlarged in the upper part aiid a section of a rootlet in the lower part of the drawing. — C. Resins, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant and vul- nerary. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Valeriana N. Valerian. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Valeriana officin- alis; Valerianae ece. — H. Europe and North Asia; cultivated in New England, especially in Vermont. — D. The rhizome is short, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 225 thick, upright, two to four cm. long, and one to two cm. thick, crowded with stem and leaf remnants, dark brown externally, brownish or grayish-brown, and somewhat horny within; beset with numerous deeply-wrinkled, brownish rootlets, five to ten cm. long and about two mm. thick, which are often twisted or sometimes braided into a conical or tapering compact cluster; the rhizomes are sometimes cut in halves, longitudinally, as shown in the drawing; the parenchyma cells of the bark and pith contain mainly starch, but some of them contain oil; in the bark and in the medullary rays are also larger oil-cells or glands, but in the sections from which the cell-contents have been re- Fig. 168. moved these oil-cells are not readily to be distinguished from the starch-cells, and the drug is therefore also enumerated in the next group; the odor is peculiar, exerting aphrodisiac effects on cats, and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — C. Volatile oil, valeric acid, etc. — U. Stimulant, nervine, anti-hysteric, anti-spas- modic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. A smaller variety of this drug which grows in dry mountainous re- gions is considered to be best; a larger variety, which grows in moist lowlands, is often cut into longitudinal halves, the inner surface then appearing concave on drying; this is considered to be inferior. 226 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Serpentaria N. Serpentaria, Virginia Snake Eoot. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Aristolochia Serpentaria and A. reticulata; Aristolo- chiacece. — H. United States. — D. A thin horizontal rhizome, one to two cm. long and two mm. thick, curved, with the upper side closely beset with short stem-remnants and the under side with many pale-brown, brittle rootlets, five to ten cm. long and less than one mm. thick; externally pale-brown and whitish within; fracture abrupt, smooth, showing excentric wood with small pith; Fig. 169. the fundamental tissue consists of parenchyma containing starch and in the bark are large oil-cells, but these cells are not suffi- ciently different from the adjoining starch-cells to be readily recognized when the sections have been cleared by removal of cell-contents, and this drug is therefore also mentioned in the next group; the odor reminds of a mixture of camphor and tur- pentine and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — C. Aristolo- chine, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant, useful in typhoid condi- tions. Dose: 0.5 to 4 grams. The illustrations (Fig. 169) show the rhizome, whole and Ion- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 227 gitudinal section, after soaking in water, and the transverse sec- tions of rhizome (above) and of a rootlet (below). The rootlets of A. reticulata (Texas Snake Koot) are said to be coarser, longer and less interlaced than those of A. serpent aria. Spigelia resembles Serpentaria, bnt is nearly black and has cir- cular stem-scars instead of stem-remnants. Other admixtures are readily excluded by the description of the drug. GROUP XXIV dl-cotyledonous rhizomes "wlth rootlets ; without ducts or Oil Cells The drugs of this group resemble those of the last group, ex- cept that they have no latex, oil or resin ducts, spaces or large cells. Short, thick, upright rhizome with many rootlets; with characteristic odor Valeriana. Thin, small rhizome with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria. Small, thin, knotty rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, ■ gamboge-colored within Hydrastis. Irregular, knotty, brownish-black rhizomes, with many rootlets which have from 3 to 6 radiating bundles. . Cimicifuga. Small, knotty rhizome, with several stem-scars and nu- merous long rootlets; grayish-brown Spigelia. Hard, irregular, bent and knotty rhizome, with broad stem-scars and numerous rootlets; yellowish-brown. Caulophyllum. Ehizome a meter or more long, with small rootlets; brown or yellowish-brown Menispermum. Knotty, many -headed caudex with many rootlets; gray- ish or yellowish-brown externally and with white wood Asclepias Incamata. Blackish-brown, branched and flattened rhizome, with many long and nearly black rootlets Leptandra. Thin, long, more or less contorted rhizomes; purplish- brown externally and whitish within Asarum. Much contorted, tough, knotty rhizomes, with several stems and more or less contorted roots; light-brown externally and white within Gillenia. Knotty, scaly and wrinkled rhizome, with rootlets on under side; brownish externally and whitish within. G-eum. Very hard, knotty and irregularly branched rhizomes, with thin and brittle rootlets; grayish-brown Collinsonia. 228 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Valeriana This drug has already been described in Group XXIII, and the reasons were there stated why it is also mentioned here. Serpentaria See Group XXIII for a description of this drug. Hydrastis N. Hydrastis, Golden Seal. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Hydrastis Canadensis; Ranunadacece. — H. North America. — D. Short, thin rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, a large portion of the drug often consisting of broken rootlets mixed with dust or dirt ; the rhizome is usually of the shape and size as shown in Fig. 170. the illustration, or even thinner, but is officially described as being much larger, but pieces of the size described in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia are very seldom found now, if they occur at all; the rhizome is wrinkled longitudinally and beset with stem-rem- nants ending with a cup-shaped scar and with many very thin rootlets which may be up to 10 cm. long, but are usually much shorter on account of being broken; the color is brownish exter- nally; fracture abrupt, waxy, gamboge-colored or reddish-yel- low ; the section of the rhizome is as shown in the drawing, all the fundamental tissue being of a yellow color; odor is slight but characteristic and the taste is bitter and slightly astringent. — C. Berberine, hydrastine, etc. It should contain at least 2.5 per cent of hydrastine. — U. Bitter tonic and alterative. Much used •as an alterative local application for relaxed mucous membranes. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 229 Cimicifuga N. Cimicifuga, Black Cohosh, Black Snakeroot. — 0. The rhi- zome and rootlets of Cimicifuga racemosa; Ranunculacece.- — H. U. S., from Canada to Florida. — D. The rhizome is a rough, irreg- ular, knobby, hard, many-headed caudex, up to 2 to 2.5 cm. thick and of various lengths, up to about 10 to 12 cm., with sev- eral stem-remnants Avith cup-shaped scars and numerous brittle rootlets ; externally blackish-brown and grayish within, the root- Fig. 171. lets being darker colored or almost black ; the rootlets break with an abrupt fracture, showing a dark bark and a woody 3 to 6-rayed cord, as shown in the small sections and in the larger drawing of a microscopical section; odor none, and taste acrid and bit- ter. — C. The active principle is probably an amorphous resin. — U. Alterative, anti-neuralgic, anti-spasmodic, sedative; useful in painful disturbances of the menstrual functions. It is also used in the treatment of St. Vitus' Dance in children. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 230 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Spigelia N. Spigelia, Pinkroot. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Spigelia Marilandica; Loganiacece. — H. United States. — D. The rhizome is small, knotty, bent, somewhat flattened from the sides, about 3 to 5 cm. long, 4 mm. thick and 3 mm. wide, at the growing end sometimes branched or many-headed, with round scars on the upper side and closely beset below with numerous, thin and brit- tle rootlets which are about 10 cm. long ; the rhizome is purplish- brown or blackish-gray externally and the rootlets are somewhat lighter-colored; fracture of the rhizome is abrupt, showing brown bark and whitish wood, the latter being horse-shoe shaped, or thicker below, and with a brown, horny pith, while the root- Fig. 172. lets have a central wood-cylinder and a brown, horny bark; the odor is slightly aromatic and the taste is sweetish-bitter and pungent. — C. Volatile oil, resin, bitter substance, etc. — U. An- thelmintic; to avoid toxic effects it is safe to combine it with a cathartic, as in the popular combination of Pinkroot and Senna. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Caulophyllum N. Blue Cohosh, Pappoose Boot, Squaw Eoot. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Caulophyllum thalictroides ; Berberidacece. — H. N. United States and Canada. — D. The drug, consists of a matted and tangled mass of rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizome is hard, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 231 irregular, bent and knotty, up to 10 cm. long and 6 to 10 mm. thick, with short, knotty branches marked with, broad saucer- shaped stem-scars, the terminal joint sometimes enclosed in a yel- lowish-white net-work of remains of fibro-vascular bundles; the rootlets, of which but a few are shown in the drawing, are very numerous, about 10 to 12 cm. long and 1 mm. thick, tough, fibrous, and tangled or matted; rhizome grayish-brown externally, frac- ture abrupt, showing a whitish interior, the bark thin, the medul- lary rays and pith large, and the wood-bundles thin, in a circle; the rootlets have a central wood-cylinder and a relatively thick bark; odor slight or none, and taste sweetish with slightly acrid Fig. 173. after-taste. — C. Leontin (a glucoside?), resins, etc. — U. Antispas- modic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturient. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Menispermum N. Yellow Parilla. — 0. The rhizomes and rootlets of Menisper- mum Canadense; Menispermacece. — H. Canada and E. United States. — D. Nearly cylindrical rhizomes, often a meter or more in length and usually rolled into bundles, as shown in the drawing, such bundles being of variable size, up to 10 or 15 cm. thick, or, more rarely, wound in balls; the rhizome is about 5 mm. thick, brown or yellowish-brown, longitudinally finely wrinkled and 232 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY with numerous thin and brittle rootlets; the fracture is tough and woody ; the interior is yellowish, and a section shows about four- teen or fifteen porous wood-bundles, arranged slightly excen- trically with the longer bundles on the under side, distinct pith and medullary rays; odor none and taste bitter. — C. Berberine, an amorphous alkaloid, etc. — U. Supposed to resemble sarsaparilla in medicinal properties, alterative and tonic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. Occasionally the stem is found in the trade, in similar bundles; the stem is much thicker than the rhizome, and gray, not brown. Asclepias Incarnata N. White Indian Hemp, Swamp Milkweed. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Asclepias incarnata; Asclepiadaceoe. — H. North Amer- ica. — D. The rhizome is many-headed, with remains of hollow stems, about 1 to 2 cm. thick, knotty, with a thin yellowish-brown bark and hard, white wood, and a brownish pith and beset with many light-grayish-brown rootlets; the rootlets are about 10 to J 2 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 233 cm. long, somewhat more than 1 mm. thick and with the bark and central wood-cylinder of about equal thickness; Fig. 175 shows the whole drug with the rootlets, reduced to about two-thirds natural size (linear), and Fig. 176 shows a piece of rhizome, with Fig. 175. Fig. 176. most of the rootlets broken off ; no odor, taste sweetish-bitter and acrid. — C. Acrid resins, a glucoside, etc. — U. Alterative, diuretic, diaphoretic; in large doses, emetic and cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 2.5 grams. Leptandra N. Culver's Root, Culver's Physic. — 0. The rhizome and root- lets of Veronica virginica; Scrophulariacece. — H. North Amer- ica. — D. The rhizome is from 10 to 15 cm. long, about 5 mm. thick, slightly flattened, bent and branched, deep blackish- brown, with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, hard and w T oody, the section showing a thin blackish bark, hard yellowish wood, and a large purplish-brown pith, and about six medullary rays, which are wide at the pith and become narrow toward the bark, giv- ing the pith the appearance of a six-rayed star ; the thin and wrinkled 234 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY rootlets are brittle, and have - a thick blackish bark and a thin wood-cylinder; odor faint or none, and taste bitter and slightly Fig. 177. acrid. — C. Leptandrin, resin, etc. — U. Laxative, alterative tonic and cholagogue. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. Asarum N. Canada Snake Koot, Wild Ginger. — 0. The rhizome and root- lets of Asarum Canadense; Aristolochiacece. — H. North America. — D. From 7.5 to 15 cm. long, often broken into shorter lengths, about 3 mm. thick, somewhat contorted or bent, slightly angular Fig. 178. or quadrangular, finely wrinkled, with nodes about 1.5 cm. apart and with thin nearly simple rootlets at the nodes ; grayish-brown or purplish-brown externally and whitish within; hard, with woody fracture; odor peculiar, aromatic, and taste aromatic, pungent and somewhat nauseous. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Spicy stimulant and carminative. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 235 Gillenia N. Gillenia, Indian Physic, American Ipecac. — 0. The rhi- zomes and rootlets of Porteranthus stipulatus (Gillenia stipula- cea) and Porteranthus trifoliatus (G. trifoliata) ; Rosacece. — H. United States. — D. The illustration shows the drug about two- thirds (linear) natural size; the horizontal knotty rhizome is from 1 to 2 cm. thick, much branched and often with stem-rem- nants attached, with numerous tortuous roots: both rhizome and Fig. 179. roots have a thin brownish-red bark and a tough, whitish wood ; in the roots the brittle bark is often cracked off, exposing the wood, as shown in the drawing; in Porteranthus stipulatus the bark of the roots is irregularly thickened, causing them to resem- ble ipecac in the annulate appearance of the roots, but in P. tri- foliatus the roots are less contorted and smoother, as in the accom- panying figure; odor faint and taste bitter. — C. Two glucosides, gillein and gilleenin, resin, etc. — U. Mild emetic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 236 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Geum N. Avens, Water Avens. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Geum rivale; Rosacece. — H. North America. — D. About 5 to 8 cm. long and about 6 mm. thick, knotty, scaly, wrinkled, with root- lets on under side, brownish or brownish-red externally as well as in the thin bark and the large pith, with a few small and widely separated whitish wood-bundles; odor slightly aromatic and taste astringent and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, tannin, etc. — U. Astringent tonic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. European avens, the rhizome and rootlets of Geum uroanum, is used like the American variety of this drug; its rhizome is thicker and shorter, about finger-thick and 2 to 5 cm. long, with a truncated head, and with rootlets about 12 cm. long and less than 1 mm. thick; tortuous, wrinkled, scaly, brittle, blackish- Fig. 180. brown or reddish-brown externally and flesh-colored or yellow- ish-white within; bark thin, wood usually in an interrupted circle and the large pith purplish brown; odor aromatic and clove-like (from which it derives its European name, "Radix caryophyl- latce"), and the taste astringent and bitter. — C. and U. like those of the American drug. Collinsonia N. Stone Root. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Collinsonia Ca- nadensis; Labiatce. — H. North America. — D. A knotty, tubercular, irregularly branched rhizome, 7 to 10 cm. long, marked with nu- merous shallow stem-scars, and many thin, brittle rootlets; ex- ternally grayish-brown and internally grayish- white; very hard and tough; a section shows thin bark and irregular wood- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 237 bundles; no odor, taste disagreeable and nauseous. — C. Contains resinous matter, tannin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant and al- terative diuretic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Fig. 181. The drawing shows the upper surface of the rhizome, reduced to about four-fifths linear size ; also a transverse section. GROUP XXV Cryptogamous Rhizomes Without Rootlets The rhizomes of ferns have already been described in Group XV, with the other drugs which are derived from this order of plants. The acrogenous structure is so characteristic that these drugs are readily recognized. Only two drugs are of sufficient importance to deserve men- tion here: Large rhizome, beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium. Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants of stipes . Polypodium. GROUP XXVI MONO-COTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS ; ELONGATED The endogenous structure of the drugs of this group is readily recognized by examining sections. The grouping into "elon- gated" and "short or compact" is rather empirical, but is prac- 238 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY tical; this group includes those in which the length is many times greater than the thickness. One of these drugs, Couch Grass, so often comes into trade cut, that it will usually be looked for in Group LXX, where it is also mentioned. Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulate with darker colored markings Iris Versicolor. Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in wavy lines on the under side Calamus. Very long, thin, straw-colored, hollow; usually cut into pieces about 1 cm. long Triticum. Iris Versicolor Blue Flag has already been mentioned under Group XXII ; as it comes into trade oftener with the rootlets attached than with- out them, the student is referred to that group for illustration and description. Calamus N. Calamus, Sweet Flag. — 0. The rhizome of Acorus Calamus; Aracece. — H. Europe, Asia and North America. — D. The unpeeled rhizome, which is the only kind that should be used, comes into trade usually in pieces 15 to 20 cm. long; it is somewhat flat- tened, about 2 cm. broad and 1.5 cm. thick, wrinkled longitudi- nally, and marked, especially on the upper surface, into wedge- shaped or obscurely triangular segments, by the darker-colored HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 239 leaf-scars, and on the under side with more or less distinctly zig- zag or wavy lines of round dots or root-scars ; externally reddish- brown or yellowish-brown, and reddish- white within; breaks with an abrupt corky fracture, showing an oval section with the thickness of the portion on the outer side of the nucleus sheath (often erroneously called the "bark") over one-half the shortest diameter of the portion included within the nucleus sheath, with Fig. 183. numerous brownish spots (fibro- vascular bundles) within the nucleus sheath and some also scattered outside the latter; the mi- croscope shows the entire parenchyma or fundamental tissue to be porous on account of the large intercellular spaces, the cells in the drawing (Fig. 183) which are dotted containing starch, those which are white containing oleo-resin; odor aromatic and taste bitter aromatic. — C. Oleo-resin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimu- lant, stomachic, carminative and tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Peeled Calamus is also found in the trade, but as the oil and resin-cells are es- pecialty plentiful in the sub-cuticular parenchyma, and as, more- over, the thick and tough cuticle prevents both access of air and evaporation of volatile oil, the unpeeled drug is decidedly to be preferred. Peeled calamus is without the characteristic seg- ments, although it shows traces of root-scars on the lower side; it is deeply wrinkled and sometimes sliced longitudinally, dirty or brownish- white ; when fresh it looks very handsome, especially when bleached, but if bleached (with chlorinated lime or sul- phurous acid) it is utterly unfit for medicinal use. 240 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Triticum N. Rhizoma Graminis; Couch Grass, Dog Grass, Quick Grass. — 0. The rhizome of Agropyron repens; Graminacece. — H. Europe and North America. — D. A long and branched rhizome, about two mm. thick, the internodes about seven cm. long and the nodes usually bare, but sometimes with frayed leaf-remnants, or, more rarely, with a few hair-like rootlets; smooth, but wrinkled longi- tudinally so as to be almost angular, hollow, of a pale straw-color, no odor, taste sweetish mucilaginous. As the drug reaches the retail pharmacist it is cut into short pieces, about one cm. long, looking much like straw chopped for fodder, and it would there- fore be looked for in Group LXX, where it is also mentioned. A transverse section (Fig. 184) shows the central cavity, the diam- Fig. 184. eter of which is about one-third of the diameter of the rhizome; the tissues consist mainly of parenchyma, hexagonally com- pressed, a nucleus sheath dividing a narrow interior layer from the wider outer part; just within the nucleus sheath numerous bundles are closely aggregated, forming a cylinder, while near the outer circumference there are about half a dozen small bun- dles at equal distances apart. — C. Glucose, triticin (resembles inulin), mucilage, etc. — U. Demulcent diuretic, useful in irritable bladder, cystitis, etc. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract. The rhizomes should be gathered in the fall of the year, after vegetation ceases for the season, or in spring before it again commences, and the rootlets should be removed. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 241 GROUP XXVII mono-cotyledonous rhizomes "without rootlets ; short and Compact An examination of the sections shows the endogenous struc- ture of these drugs. The group includes those endogenous rhi- zomes in which the length is not much more than two or three times the thickness of the drug. Flattish, lobed, peeled or impeded, brownish, gray or white rhizomes Zingiber. Cylindrical, branched, reddish-brown rhizomes, annulate with lighter-colored wavy leaf-sheaths Galanga. Cylindrical or oval yellowish-gray rhizomes, deep orange- yellow or gamboge-colored within Curcuma. Flat, somewhat ham-shaped, grayish or white rhizomes, often with similarly shaped smaller lobes attached. . . . Iris Florentina. Very hard, irregular, massive tuberous rhizomes, reddish- brown, with funnel-shaped stem-scars Chinae Khizoma. Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish-brown rhizome without rootlets Helonias. Light-reddish or brownish-gray circular disks, or in longi- tudinal halves or quarters Zedoaria. Zingiber N. Ginger. — 0. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale; Zingibera- cece. — H. Cultivated in tropical countries. — D. There are several kinds of ginger in the trade, but they resemble each other in form. The rhizome is from 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and 5 to 8 mm. thick, flattish, clavately lobed on one side (such lobed pieces are called "race" ginger, "race" being derived from the French word "racine" or root); with or without epi- dermis, varying in color according to variety from dark grayish- brown to white ; breaking with a somewhat fibrous mealy frac- ture, showing a nucleus sheath within which most but not all of the fibro-vascular bundles are found ; odor aromatic and taste pun- gently spicy. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc — U. Carminative stimu- lant, used for flavoring. Dose: About 1 gram. Cochin Ginger (Fig. 185) is the variety that best answers the description of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; pale'-buff-colored or yel- lowish, with short lobes and somewhat striate; it makes a beauti- 242 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ful light-yellow powder and has a strong but agreeable flavor and taste. Jamaica Ginger is whitish externally and internally and has long lobes; the epidermis is removed and it is often coated with a white powder of carbonate of lime from having been immersed in milk of lime. The smaller drawing in Fig. 186 shows this variety, but while the lobes are usually small, the specimens may some- Fig. 185. Fig. 186. times be as large as the Cochin ginger. This variety has the most pleasant flavor and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes. African Ginger is an unpeeled ginger; it is illustrated in the lower drawing of Fig. 186; it has short lobes and the epidermis is dark grayish-brown with peculiar darker patches as if torn on one side. It has a stronger though less agreeable taste than the other gingers. A preserved ginger, made by boiling the fresh rhizomes in a HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 243 concentrated syrup and then packing in jars, is to be found in the grocery trade. Green ginger is ginger sent into trade in a fresh condition. Black ginger is ginger which has been boiled in water and then dried ; it is dark colored and horny within. The term is also some- times applied to "unpeeled" ginger. Coated ginger is ginger retaining its epidermis, in other words, unpeeled ginger. Peeled ginger is without epidermis. Natural or unbleached ginger has no lime attached; bleached ginger is whit- ened by immersing in milk of lime or chlorinated lime and retains a coating of powder of carbonate of lime. Galanga N. Galangal. — 0. The rhizome of Alpinia officinarum; Zingibe- racece. — H. China. — D. Knotty, often branched, cylindrical, about Fig. 1S7. 5 to 6 cm. long and about finger-thick, frequently curved, trun- cated at the ends, externally light red-brown, finely wrinkled lengthwise, marked by wavy transverse rings from remnants of leaf-scales or sheaths, hard, brittle with short fracture, cinnamon- brown and showing structure as in Fig. 187, which also shows a few starch grains; under the microscope numerous brownish- yellow resin-cells are to be seen; odor aromatic, especially when freshly ground, and taste pungently spicy. — C. Volatile oil and resin. — U. Similar to those of ginger. Often sold by street fakirs as a secret catarrh cure, to be grated and used as a snuff; thus used it is sternutatory. 244 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Curcuma N. Curcuma, Turmeric. — 0. The rhizome of Curcuma longa; Zingiber acem. — H. Southern Asia. — D. Oblong or oval, from 3 to 5 cm. long and about half as thick, being then called " round turmeric," or only about 1 cm. thick, when it is called "long turmeric," but most pieces are much smaller; sometimes cut longitudinally or transversely, somewhat annulate and with large scars; externally yellowish-gray and internally deep orange- yellow or brownish-yellow, resembling the color of whole gam- boge; fracture abrupt, resinous and glossy, showing a nucleus sheath with bundles both w T ithin and without the sheath; odor Fig. 188. slight and ginger-like, taste warm, bitter, aromatic. The powder is rich deep yellow and turns brown with alkalies and borax. — C. Volatile oil, resin, and an orange-yellow, resinous coloring matter called curcumin, which in solution has a greenish fluores- cence. — U. Stimulant carminative, but rarely employed internally ; used mainly as a coloring agent and as a spicy addition to various pickles. In the trade distinction is made between light and dark turmeric (or yellow and red turmeric), and between long and round tur- meric. Of the varieties in our markets Madras Turmeric is best; it is generally large and orange-yellow, and somewhat rough externally. Bengal Turmeric is gray externally and smoother than the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 245 Madras variety, and has a darker red color within. It is also smaller and more slender. Chinese Turmeric is the best, but is not often found in our mar- kets. Java Turmeric is rather small and usually cut tranversely and longitudinally; also rare in our trade. Powdered turmeric is occasionally used as an adulterant to spices, drugs, etc., to impart a fresh color. The shapes of its cells, starch and ducts therefore deserve special study. Iris Florentina N. Orris Root, Florentine Orris; its German name is Veilchen- wurzel (violet root) on account of its violet-like odor which is utilized in the manufacture of perfumeries. — 0. The rhizomes of Iris Florentina; I. pallida and I. Germanica; Iridacece. — H. North- ern Italy; cultivated. — D. Simple or branched, flattened, jointed, 5 to 10 cm. long and about 2.5 cm. broad; with a circular scar at the upper end and with numerous round brownish root-scars on the lower side, and small marks of bundles on the upper side ; wrinkled lengthwise, or smooth and somewhat angular from being peeled; externally whitish or yellowish- white heavy, hard, with fracture short and mealy; section long oval, with nucleus sheath near the outer surface and most marked on lower half, and nbro-vascular bundles within the sheath; odor violet-like and taste insipid, afterward bitter and slightly acrid. — C. Vola- tile oil, acrid resin, etc. — U. Seldom employed internally. It is said to be an alterative cathartic and diuretic. Used mainly in the preparation of perfumery, flavoring extracts, etc. Florentine Orris is mainly from Iris pallida, and I. Germanica, but is named "Florentine" because it is cultivated near the city of Florence in Italy. It is considered better than the Veronese varieties, although the latter are obtained from the same plants. Verona Orris is of a more yellowish color. Finger Orris (right-hand drawing in Fig. 189) consists of picked, slender, nearly straight pieces, smoothly trimmed in uni- form size and shape and usually whitened with chalk, magnesia or starch. Usually with a hole drilled through one end. As only choice pieces of the rhizome of Florentine Orris can fur- 246 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY nish this kind of orris, it is sometimes considered to be a better variety than the ordinary drag; but for perfumery, etc., it is altogether unnecessary to use this drug. It is used only for Fig. 189. teething infants, but the rubber ring is better and more cleanly. Orris Root is frequently worm-eaten. Only sound pieces of good odor and light color should be used. Chinae Hhizoma N. China Root. — 0. The rhizome of Smilax China; Liliacece. — H. China and Japan. — D. Stout fibrous tubers, 5 to 20 cm. long and 2 to 6 cm. thick, knotty, dense, tough, externally reddish- brown, with several deep, circular, funnel-shaped stem-scars on the upper surface; internally pale-pinkish or pale brownish- white, darker towards the center on account of numerous dark- brown resin cells; inodorous; taste at first insipid, afterwards HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 247 bitterish; slightly astringent and acrid. — C. Similar or identical with those contained in sarsaparilla. — U. Same as those of sarsa- Fig. 190. parilla; alterative. Dose: 2 to 5 grams several times a day, best given in form of fluid extract. Zedoaria N. Zedoary. — 0. The tuberous rhizome of Curcuma Zedoaria; Zingiberacem. — H. India, Bengal and Madagascar. — D. The whole rhizome is ovoid, abont 4 cm. long and 3 cm. thick, orange- Fig. 191. broAvn; but the drug usually comes into the trade in circular slices or disks, with the cut surfaces pale grayish-brown with a somewhat waxy appearance, and showing a nucleus sheath near the outer circumference; odor and taste similar to those of 248 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ginger. — C. Resin, y 2 to 1% volatile oil, etc. — U. and dose simi- lar to those of ginger. Helonias, or False Unicorn Root, usually has rootlets attached, and was described on page 222; occasionally it is without root- lets, and then belongs here. GROUP XXVIII Exogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets; Long Drugs of this group are many times longer than they are thick; some of them occasionally, though rarely, come into trade with rootlets attached. Bhizomes with, thickened nodes, with stem-scars above and root-scars below; glossy brown, whitish within. . . Podophyllum. Cylindrical, annulate, light, pithy, grayish -brown; bark exfoliating Aralia Nudicaulis. Podophyllum N. Mandrake, May Apple. — 0. The rhizome of Podophyllum peltatum; Beroeridacece. — H. North America. — D. Somewhat va- riable in size, consisting of joints about 5 to 8 cm. long, the nodes Fig. 192. thickened, with a well-marked stem-scar on the upper surface and white root-scars on the lower surface; the internodes from 5 to 10 mm. thick, the thinner predominating, and without root- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 249 scars; the end terminates in a scar and often is branched, and it is also somewhat larger than the other parts of the rhizome, as is shown in the drawings; smooth, or longitudinally wrinkled; Fig. 193. orange-brown externally and white within; breaks with an ab- rupt, usually white, mealy fracture, so that a section is required to show the fibro-vascular bundles of which there are about six- teen arranged in a circle (see Fig. 193) ; no odor; taste at first sweetish, then bitter and acrid. — C. Resin, called "podophyllin" in the trade. The drug is very variable in quality, and its value depends directly on the amount of "podophyllin" which it yields; there should not be less than three per cent of this substance, which, hoAvever, is not a pure resin, but a mixture of several com- pounds, such as podophyllinic acid, podophyllotoxin, picropodo- phyllin, etc. — U. Emetico-cathartic in large doses; in medicinal doses it is a reliable cathartic, supposed also to possess alterative and cholagogue properties. Dose: 0:3 to 2 grams. (Fig. 193.) Aralia Nudicaulis N. American Sarsaparilla, False Sarsaparilla (Fig. 194.) — 0. The rhizome of Aralia midicaulis; Araliacece. — H. North Amer- Fig. 194. ica. — D. Cylindrical, 30 cm. or more in length, but usually broken into shorter pieces, about 6 mm. thick, longitudinally wrinkled, 250 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY annulate above, with cup-shaped scars from stems; rootlets usu- ally 'altogether absent; bark grayish-brown, exfoliating; inter- nally white or pale yellowish, with a large spongy pith; odor slightly aromatic and taste insipid, somewhat disagreeable. — C. A little volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Alterative. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. GROUP XXIX Di-cotyledonous Rhizomes "Without Rootlets ; Short and Compact The length of these drugs is only three or four times greater than their diameters; the exogenous structure is easily recog- nized in a prepared section, or even in the end of a piece of the drug soaked in water and cut through smoothly with a sharp knife. Flattened, bent upon itself, or broken, dark-brown, hard Bistorta. More or less curved and somewhat flattened pieces, with closely set, large cup-shaped stem-scars; brownish Scopola. Dark reddish-brown rhizome, somewhat flattened, much wrinkled and twisted Sanguinaria Hard, compact, contorted and tuberculated, umber-brown Geranium. Simple, cylindrical or flattened, externally rough and grayish- brown Tormentilla. Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse rings Imperatoria Bistorta N. Bistort. — 0. The rhizome of Polygonum Bistorta; Polygo- nacew. — H. Asia, Europe and America. — D. The whole rhizome is about 15 cm. long, 16 to 18 mm. broad and 1 cm. thick ; firm, hard, S-shaped or bent twice upon itself, as shown in the drawing (whence the name, his, twice, and torta, twisted or bent), flat- tened on one side, plump and rounded on the other; marked by transverse striae on the upper surface, and with root-scars on the lower side; externally dark-broAvn or almost black; breaks with abrupt fracture, and in fact usually comes into trade broken at the places where it is bent, so that it appears to consist of short HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 251 straight pieces; internally brownish-red; thick bark, small bundles in a circle, and very large pith ; no odor, but taste very astringent. — Fig. 195. C. About 20 per cent tannin. 2 grams. -U. Simple astringent. Dose: 1 to Scopola N. Scopola. — 0. The rhizome of Scopola Camiolica; Solana- cece. — H. Southwestern Russia, Austria, etc. — D. In pieces from 2.5 to 7.5 cm. in length and up to 1.5 cm. in thickness ; sometimes split lengthwise; irregular in shape, often much bent; slightly flattened vertically, and with closely set, large, cup-shaped stem- scars on the upper surface; hard, with brittle fracture; brownish or brownish-gray externally, whitish within ; finely and irregu- Fig. 196. larly wrinkled; little odor; taste at first sweetish, afterAvards bitterish and acrid. — C. An alkaloid, scopolamine, which is iden- tical with hyoscine. — U. Used like belladonna; for the manufac- 252 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ture of mydriatic alkaloids of which it should contain at least 0.5 per cent. Dose: About 0.045 gram. Introduced in the VIII Revision of the U. S. P., it has been dropped in the IX Revision. It is only used by manufacturers of alkaloids, belladonna plasters, etc., but has not been used in galen- ical preparations. Sanguinaria N. Blood Root. — 0. Rhizome of Sanguinaria Canadensis; Papa- veracew. It should be collected in autumn. — H. North America. — D. The rhizome is in pieces about 5 to 7.5 cm. long, 1 to 2 cm. thick, somewhat flattened, slightly annulate, much wrinkled and twisted, or broken, often with abrupt offsets or branches, and sometimes with very brittle rootlets; dark reddish-brown externally; fracture ab- Fig. 197. rupt, somewhat waxy, in fresh pieces whitish with red dots, in older pieces, brownish-red ; odor slight and taste bitter and acrid. — C. The alkaloid sanguinarine, one or two other unimportant alkaloids, resin, etc. — U. In large doses, emetic ; in smaller doses, stimulant and tonic. The powder is sometimes used as an errhine and sternu- tatory. Dose: 0.1 to 1 gram. The illustration show T s the whole drug, natural size ; transverse section of soaked rhizome, and the same after clearing with di- lute lye. Geranium N. Geranium, Cranesbill.— O. Rhizome of Geranium macula- turn; Geraniacew. — H. North America. — D. Cylindrical, sometimes HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 253 branched, 5 to 7 cm. long and about 1 cm. thick, contorted and tu- berculated, hard and compact; longitudinally wrinkled; exter- nally dark umber-brown; fracture short, showing pale red-brown Fig. 198. broken surface; inodorous; . taste pure astringent without dis- agreeable other taste. — C. From 15 to 25 per cent tannin, etc. — U. Astringent tonic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. Tormentilla N. Tormentil. — 0. Rhizome of Potentilla Tormentilla; Rosacece. — H. Europe. — D. Simple or sometimes branched, cylindrical or flat- tened, tapering; 5 to 8 cm. long and about 15 mm. thick, but often broken into shorter lengths; roughly marked by roundish eleva- tions and ridges and with the scars of stems and rootlets ; exter- Fig. 199. nally dark grayish-brown; very hard and compact, but breaks with abrupt and slightly fibrous fracture, showing light brownish- red interior; bark thick; wood-bundles small; pith about same thickness as the bark; no odor; taste astringent. — C. About 25 per cent tannin. — U. Astringent, tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 254 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY Imperatoria Masterwort is sometimes classed among the rhizomes, but be- longs more properly among the roots, where it has already been described and illustrated. The student is referred to Group XX for a consideration of this drug. TUBERS OR CORMS While tubers and corms resemble each other, a distinction may be made between them botanically, although it is not of much consequence as far as pharmacognosy is concerned. A tuber is a thickened and short rhizome or root-stock ; it usually has several internodes and therefore may have a number of lateral buds, as well as a terminal bud, as for instance in the potato. A corm is a very short, thickened, compact, fleshy, generally leafless underground stem or branch, often much thicker than it is long, which also produces buds, terminal or lateral or both; it sometimes consists only of one internode, in which case it pro- duces only the terminal bud ; when it consists of several internodes it may have lateral buds, occurring in the axils of leaves, which sometimes surround the corm as a membranous envelope. Some- times the corm is the dilated base of the annual stem, as in Tur- key Corn. The tuberous roots, as of aconite and jalap, are by some authors classed as tubers, but as they are really roots and not enlarged stems, and do not produce buds, although a small portion of adher- ing stem may have buds and may therefore permit of growth, as in aconite, the tuberous roots belong with the fleshy roots and not with the tubers or corms. Both corms and tubers may have traces of scaly leaves or leaf- scars on the sides or above and either rootlets or root-scars below. Some authors class corms and tubers with bulbs, considering that the presence or absence of fleshy leaf-bases is of insufficient importance to make a division. Other authors class corms and tubers, as well as bulbs, with the "gemmce" or leaf -buds, consid- ering the corms solid buds, the bulbs to be fleshy buds, while the leaf-buds are scaly buds. But corms and tubers are sufficiently distinct from the other structures mentioned, that they may HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 255 readily be distinguished from them, as well as from short rhi- zomes, which they also somewhat resemble, and they are therefore separately grouped here. Both tubers and corms are commonly called "roots" in the trade, yet for the purposes of the pharmacognosist a distinction must be made and their real nature must be borne in mind. Corms and tubers may be divided: — ( Whole 30 Corms and tubers SHced 31 GROUP XXX Whole Tubers and Corms Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark brown. . . . Jalapa. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs. . Aconitum. Ovoid, brownish, wrinkled corms, with a groove on one side Colchicum. Single, round, small, hard, semi-translucent or opaque, yellow or brown tubers; sometimes two tubers joined with a smaller third one between Corydalis. Oval, slightly flattened or shrunken, semi-translucent and very hard Salep. Jalapa On account of the general habit of calling the pieces of jalap 1 ' tubers, ' ' many students would naturally look here for this drug, and might be puzzled if they found no mention of it. Jalap con- sists of tuberous roots and is therefore described with the fleshy roots. (See Group XX.) Aconitum The remarks just made in reference to jalap apply also to this drug. (See Group XX.) Colchicum Occasionally the whole tubers of Colchicum occur in the trade or an occasional whole tuber may be found in the sliced corms as ordinarily sold. But Colchicum is usually sliced and is therefore described in the following group. (See Group XXXI.) 256 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Corydalis N. Turkey Corn, Turkey Pea, Squirrel Corn. — 0. The tubers of Dicentra Canadensis (Bicuculla Canadensis); Papaveracece. — H. North America, north of Kentucky. — D. Round, from 3 to 12 mm. in diameter, resembling tears of inferior acacia gum ; of a tawny yellowish color, internally yellowish- white, semi-translucent; some tubers are dark brownish, opaque, and vary in size from 12 mm. Fig. 200. diameter down to the size of barley grains; still other tubers con- sist of two irregular concavo-convex tubers, between which a smaller rounded or flattened third tuber is found; all forms are hard and horny, inodorous and persistently bitter. — C. Four alka- loids, an acrid resin, bitter extractive, etc. The Eclectic prepara- tion Corydalin is an impure mixture of alkaloids and resins. — U. Tonic, diuretic and alterative. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Salep N. Salep. — 0. The prepared tubers of Orchis mascula, 0. mili- taris, 0. morio, and other determined and undetermined varieties of Orchis; Orchidacece, sub-order Ophrydece. — H. Germany and France. — D. Irregularly oval, globular or flattened roundish tubers; sometimes deeply wrinkled or shrunken; about 2 cm. long; hard, heavy, yellowish or yellowish-gray, translucent; fracture homogeneous, horny, shining; inodorous; taste insipid mucilagi- nous. — C. Bassorin, starch, etc. — U. Nutritive and demulcent. A mucilage made from salep is occasionally employed as a vehicle for acrid or irritating remedies. The tubers of salep are of gelatinous fleshy consistency when fresh and contain starch grains. They are prepared for trade by handbook of pharmacognosy 257 scalding in boiling Avater and then rapidly drying in ovens; the starch is swelled and altered to a paste in the cells and to this is due the horny appearance of the drug. A larger and darker-colored variety than that above described was formerly brought from Oriental countries. Fig. 201. A variety which is palmately lobed is obtained from 0. latifolia, 0. maculata, etc., and was formerly gathered separately and sold as Radix palma? Christi. Tubers of this kind are sometimes, although rarely, found mixed with the ordinary trade variet} T described above. One part of poAvdered salep boiled with forty parts of water forms a thick jelly on cooling. The poAA T dered salep should be thinly spread over the surface of the boiling water from the end of a spatula, otherwise it will lump and prevent the making of a perfect infusion. GROUP XXXI Sliced Corms Kidney-shaped grayish-white slices . . Colchicum. Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy-white surfaces Arum. Colchici Cormus N. Commonly, though erroneously, called Colchicum Root. — 0. The tuber of Colchicum autumnale; LiUacece. — H. Europe. — D. The AAmole tuber is rarely found in the drug trade. The Avhole corm 258 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY is about 3 cm. high, ovoid, with a groove on one side in which, in the fresh state, the lateral bud rests, which forms the next season's corm. But usually the drug consists of the corm cut into slices and then dried ; these slices are generally transverse, but longitudinal slices also occur. The transverse slices are kidney-shaped, about 25 mm. in the longest diameter and about 2 mm. thick; one surface of the upper and under slices and the edges of the intermediate slices are covered with a brownish epidermis, while the cut surfaces are grayish or grayish-white and speckled with slightly darker dots Fig. 202. (the sections of fibro-vascular bundles, endogenous arrangement) ; breaks with abrupt mealy fracture ; inodorous and with sweetish- bitter and somewhat acrid taste. — C. Colchicine, alkaloid, of which the drug should yield not less than 0.35 per cent. — U. Cathartic and diuretic, mainly used as antarthritic in gout and rheumatism. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 grams. Colchicum corm which is dark-colored or horny should be re- jected. In the illustration the central figure is an upper transverse slice, the four corner figures are of inner transverse slices, the upper middle and left-hand middle figures show longitudinal outer HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 259 slices and incidentally give an idea of the appearance of the whole corms, while the middle figure in the lower row shows the groove in a longitudinal slice; the right-hand middle figure is an inner longitudinal slice ; all natural size. Colchicum is very subject to injury by insects, and should be well preserved and often inspected to protect it. Arum N. Indian Turnip. — 0. The tubers or corms of Arum triphyllum (Ariscema triphyllum); Aracece. — H. North America. — D. Occurs in transverse slices, from 2 to 5 cm. in diameter and 3 to 6 mm. thick ; Fig. 203. the outer edge covered with epidermis is dark gray and beset with rootlets; the cut surfaces are white; the drug breaks with an abrupt mealy fracture ; no odor ; taste acrid. — C. A volatile acrid principle, which is exceedingly pungent in the fresh corm, but gradually is lost on keeping, until the drug becomes almost or en- tirely inert. — U. Stimulant, expectorant, diaphoretic and carmina- tive. Dose : 1 to 2 grams three or four times daily. The illustration shows three slices, natural size, and a few starch grains, enlarged. European Arum, from Arum maculatum, is similar to the Ameri- can drug. 260 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY BULBS A bulb is a form of stem resembling the corm as to its solid parr, but the bulk of it consists of thick or fleshy leaf -scales surround- ing the buds which are found at the apex of growth within. These leafy envelopes may be narrow and arranged like shingles on a roof, overlapping each other (scaly bulb) or they are wide and each one is wrapped more or less nearly completely around all the others within (tunicated or coated bulb) ; the latter arrangement is seen in the onion, and it is the arrangement found in all medicinal bulbs. Bulbs may be grouped, for purposes of pharmacognosy, as whole bulbs and as sliced bulbs. JWh ••[Sli( , Whole 32 Bulbs.. A gHced 33 GROUP XXXII Whole Bulbs Only one bulb always comes into trade whole — Garlic. The most important bulb from a medicinal point of view is Squill, and this can sometimes be had fresh and whole, especially from florists for cultivation as a pot-plant, but in the drug trade this drug usually comes sliced and dried, and therefore belongs in the next group. The onion is sometimes mentioned in works of phar- macognosy, but is seldom used medicinally. Largo, juicy, greenish or pinkish-white bulbs, the external scales, when present, pinkish-brown Scilla. White bulbs, with stem, coated with a few dry, membranous, white scales enclosing about eight bulblets Allium. Scilla In some pharmacopoeias the fresh bulb is demanded as the drug. It is a large, pear-shaped, tunicated bulb, resembling a large onion in appearance, but without the odor; up to 15 cm. long and 10 to 15 cm. broad; the external scales are pinkish-brown, the inner scales are greenish or pinkish-white, juicy and translucent. The whole bulb is rarely found in the drug trade in our country and the reader will find this drug described in the next group. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 261 Allium N. Garlic. — 0. The fresh bulb of Allium sativum; Liliacece. — H. Cultivated everywhere. — D. The illustration shows the bulb in natural size, except that the stems are usually 10 to 15 cm. long so that the bulbs can be tied in bundles and hung up in a dry, cool place, in which manner they can be kept fresh through the year. The middle figure shows the stem with its dry corm-like disk and with one of its bulblets attached. On this disk there are about eight Fig. 204. bulblets (called "cloves of garlic"), arranged as in the left-hand figure, and surrounded with a few membranous scales which extend around the stem above. "When wanted for use the scales and stem are rejected and only the "cloves" are used. Garlic has a pecu- liarly pungent, penetrating and persistent odor, resembling asafet- ida, and a pungent acrid taste. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Blennorrhetic, carminative and stomachic; wholesome and appetizing and used as an ingredient in most table sauces. Used in larger quantities it is objectionable on account of the odor it imparts to the breath and the flatulence it produces. Dose: About 2 grams. 262 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY GROUP XXXIII Sliced Bulbs Scilla N. Squill. — 0. The bulb of Scilla maritima (Urginea maritima) ; TAliacece. — H. Mediterranean countries. — D. After the outer par- tially dry and brownish scales have been removed the bulb is sliced in the same manner as onions are sliced for culinary pur- poses. The small inner scales are rejected and the intermediate scales are separated and dried; these latter then constitute the drug. Narrow slices up to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and about 3 mm. thick in the thickest part ; often contorted or broken ; whitish with a yellowish or pinkish tint; slightly diaphanous ; brit- tle and pulverizable when dry, but often somewhat flexible and horny on account of its hygroscopic character which causes it to Fig. 205. absorb water with great avidity ; if exposed to moisture it becomes darker-colored and less valuable; no odor; taste mucilaginous, bitter and acrid. — C. Scillipicrin, scillitoxin and scillin. — U. In small doses, diuretic and expectorant; in large doses, emetic and cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram as an expectorant; up to 0.5 gram as an emetic; best given in syrup or fluid extract. TWIGS OE BRANCHES. Twigs or branches are parts of the ascending axes of plants, and therefore have the structure of stems, that is, they have nodes and internodes and if leaves are not present they show leaf -scars or occa- sionally leaf-scars with undeveloped leaf-buds. All the medicinal twigs are from exogenous woody plants and therefore show the char- acteristic structure of that class of stems. Some drugs consist of twigs with leaves attached; these leaves HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 263 may be ordinary foliage leaves, or the peculiar scaly leaves of some conifers. Some twigs come into trade without any leaves attached. These twigs are not always the drugs as recognized by the pharma- copoeias or other authoritative works, but may be simply gathered as twigs, when in reality only the leaves are wanted. Leafy twigs should not be confounded with the drugs of Group IX, flowering tops, which are mostly herbaceous branches with flowers, or with both leaves and flowers. The narcotic herbs as found in bales usual- ly are the smaller branches with leaves and sometimes flowers, although these drugs are officially described as the "leaves" of the respective plants. GROUP XXXIV. Leafy Twigs. Many of the drugs used as "flowering tops" or as "leaves" may be mistaken for leafy branches ; such drugs must be remembered and if a drug taken to be a leafy branch is not found mentioned here, it may be looked for under Group IX, or under Groups XL VII, XL VIII, XLIX or L. A few drugs consisting wholly or mainly of inflorescences, as cusso, may also be mistaken for leafy twigs; such would be found mentioned under Group LI. Some- times an inferior Cannabis Indica, consisting mainly of stems, might be looked for here. Twigs with obovate or oval, coriaceous, slightly serrate leaves Gaultheria. Twigs mixed with coriaceous, oblanceolate or cuneate-lanceo- late leaves, with margin serrate at apex and entire near the base Chimaphila. Twigs and leaves agglutinated into broken masses with exuded gum-resin; leaves lanceolate, dentate Eriodyction. Brownish-green twigs with oval, thick coriaceous, and deeply wrinkled leaves; leaves usually detached from twigs. . . . Phoradendron. Twigs with scythe-shaped, long, light-grayish-green leaves .. Eucalyptus. Gaultheria. N. Gaultheria, Winter green. — 0. The leaves of Gaultheria pro- cumbens; Ericacece. Only the leaves should be used, but the drug, as it comes into trade, always consists of the twigs with the leaves. — H. North America, from far north southward to Georgia and 264 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY westward to Minnesota. — D. The illustration gives a good idea of the appearance of the drug, natural size ; the twigs are slender, flexible, and much tangled in the drug, and unless packed tightly in the bale the upper part of the bale is apt to contain mainly twigs and the lower part most of the leaves; the leaves are Fig. 206. obovate or oval, short-petiolate, obscurely serrate with teeth hard, sharp and appressed, coriaceous or leathery, smooth and glossy, varying in color from green to brown; odor fragrant and taste pleasantly aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, methyl salicylate, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant and slightly astringent. Dose; 2 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 265 Chimaphila. N. Chimaphila, Pipsissewa, Prince's Pine. — 0. Leaves of Chima- phila umbellata; Ericacece. The leaves alone should be used, but twigs are always admixed. — H. North America, Nova Scotia to Fig. 207. Georgia, west to the Pacific. — D. The illustration gives a good idea of the drug, natural size ; the leaves are cuneate-lanceolate, or oblanceolate, with margin serrate at apex and entire near the base, coriaceous, smooth, dark-green to brown, with little odor and a bitterish, slightly astringent taste. — C. Chimaphilin, arbutin, a small proportion of tannic acid, etc. — U. Alterative, astringent 266 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY and tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams or more, in infusion or in fluid extract. The two drugs just described, Gaultheria and Chimaphila, are a good illustration of the necessity of using Latin scientific instead of common English or vernacular names. Both of them are called "Wintergreen," so that much confusion arises from the applica- tion of this same name to two different drugs ; and in my own ex- perience these particular two drugs caused me more trouble in this regard than all other drugs put together, before I finally learned to call only Gaultheria by the name of Wintergreen. In the text, therefore, Wintergreen is not given as one of the English names of Chimaphila, and throughout this book care is taken to apply an English name only to the one drug to which it is most commonly applied, even when the same name is used for several drugs. Eriodyction. N. Eriodyction, Yerba Santa. — 0. Leaves of Eriodictyon Cali- Fig. 208. fornicum (Eriodictyon glutinosum) ; Hydrophyllacew. The leaves are always mixed with the twigs. — H. California. — D. The illus- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 267 t rat ion shows a specimen of the drug in natural size, showing the manner in which leaves and twigs are agglutinated, and also one leaf whole in natural size; frequently, however, the leaves are smaller, more broken and agglutinated into almost formless masses, or broken into small fragments. The small drawings show the venation on the lower surface of a leaf, after having removed the resin by soaking in warm soda lye, then washing and drying; also a portion of epidermis with plain hair and a glandular hair. The leaves are lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, acute, irregularly dentate, upper surface smooth, grayish-green or brownish and glossy from resin, lower surface grayish, netted- veined and hairy; odor fragrant; taste aromatic, sweetish. — C. Acrid resin and small quantity of volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic and expectorant. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Yerba Santa is largely used, in combination with other drugs, in the manufacture of vehicles to disguise the bitterness of qui- nine, etc. Phoradendron. N. Phoradendron, American Mistletoe. — 0. The whole parasitic plant, Phoradendron flavescens; Loranihacece. — H. United States, Fig. 209 from New Jersey to Missouri and Southwest. — D. See the illus- tration. The drug consists of various-sized, much-branched frag- 268 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ments of twigs of a yellowish-green or brownish-green color, deeply wrinkled longitudinally, and showing section as illus- trated ; the leaves are of the same color as the twigs, thickly coria- ceous and deeply and irregularly wrinkled, and often broken from the twigs; the odor is heavy, disagreeable and the taste is bitter and somewhat astringent. — C. A tenacious substance called "viscin" (bird-lime), resin, fixed oil, tannin, etc. — U. Has been recommended as a parturient; also as an astringent in uterine hemorrhage. Dose 1 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. The European drug, the twigs and leaves of Viscum album, closely resembles the American Mistletoe. Eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is usually a mixture of twigs, scythe-shaped leaves and buds as it comes in the bales, but it is generally garbled before it is sold to the retail drug trade so that it then consists of leaves alone. It is mentioned here, but will be described fully under Group XL VII. GROUP XXXV. Scaly Twigs. Scaly twigs are obtained from several evergreen conifers ; they resemble each other rather closely and consist of twigs, with four rows of scales (scaly leaves) which are closely appressed to the twigs. Examine scales with a lens. Scales with, a longitudinal ridge and projecting gland Thuja. Scales with, a longitudinal groove Sabina. Thuja. N. Thuja, Arbor Vitas. — 0. The fresh terminal twigs of Thuja occidentalis; Coniferce. — H. Canada and Northern United States ; frequently cultivated as an ornamental evergreen shrub.— D. Much-branched, flattish two-edged twigs with scaly leaves ap- pressed in four rows, broadly ovate, bluntly pointed, those on the flat sides opened flat, those on the edges doubled or folded, the flat ones with an elevated ridge and a raised and rounded oil or balsam-gland; the illustration shows two twigs enlarged, and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 269 a few of the scales enlarged about 5 diameters; odor balsamic and taste pungent, camphoraceous and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Alterative, blennorrhetic ; externally as a stimu- Fig. 210. lant to indolent ulcers, a day; best in fluid cough medicines. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, three or four times extract. Much used as an ingredient of Sabina. N. Savin. — 0. The terminal twigs of Juniper us Sabina; Coni- ferce. The twigs should be collected in spring. — H. Northern Asia, Europe and America, — D. Branched, rounded or sub-quadrangu- lar twigs with four rows of scaly leaves, imbricate, lanceolate and acute ; scales about 2 mm. long, with a longitudinal groove or 270 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY depression on the outer surface, or back ; the color of a fresh drug should be greenish, not brown; the odor is terebinthinate and the taste disagreeably bitterish and acrid. The drawing shows the scales magnified five diameters. (See Fig. 211.) — C. Volatile oil, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Irritant diuretic, emmenagogue and vermifuge. It is sometimes administered in large doses to produce abortion, and then often leads to dangerous or fatal gas- trointestinal inflammation. A dose sufficiently large to produce abortion is also very apt to produce death. Dose: 0.3 to 1 gram. Terminal twigs of common juniper, Jumperus communis, are said to be sometimes substituted for those of Juniperus Sabina; the general appearance is similar, but the scaly leaves are less pointed, even obtuse, and on the back is a groove, at the bottom and lower end of which is a gland, as seen in the accompanying draw- ing, (Fig. 212). This represents the leaves of common juniper magnified five diameters. GROUP XXXVI. Naked or Leafless Twigs. Only one drug consisting of naked twigs is commonly to be found in the drug-market — Dulcamara. The fresh, or recently dried, flowering twigs or branches of Night-Blooming Cereus must be obtained from florists, etc., as they are not an article of commerce. Broom, which should be the flowering tops, consists occasionally of slender naked twigs, which are in reality the axes of inflorescences from which the flowers have been broken. Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with smooth-cut ends; usually hollow Dulcamara. Pale-green, five or six-angled stems, with clusters of spines on the edges Cereus. Dulcamara N. Bitter-sweet. — 0. The first, second and third year's twigs of Solarium Dulcamara; Solanacece. — H. Europe and North America. — D. The twigs are chopped into lengths of about three to five HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 271 centimeters, and are 1 centimeter or less in thickness, the average thickness being about five or six millimeters; the pieces are cylin- drical, somewhat angular from deep longitudinal wrinkles or grooves due to drying, marked with alternate leaf-scars and small buds, and the pith is generally torn and shrunken so that many of the pieces appear to be hollow ; the external bark is light greenish-gray, the middle and inner bark is green in fresh and yellowish in old drug, and the wood is yellowish or greenish- gray; according to the age of the twig when gathered; it has one or two (rarely three) annual rings, the Avood being radiate with many fine medullary rays and containing large ducts; the odor is faint, the taste is at first bitter, then sweetish. — C, A glucoside, dulcamarin, and an amorphous bitter substance from which the alkaloid solanin has been isolated. — U. Alterative, especially use- ful in non-syphilitic scaly skin diseases; in large doses anodyne and narcotic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. Cereus Grandiflorus. N. Night-Blooming Cereus. The preparations of this drug are commonly called for under the name " Cactus Grandiflorus". — 0. The fresh stems and flowers of Cereus grandiflorus; Cactacece. — H. Tropical America ; cultivated. — D. This drug cannot readily be obtained in the drug trade, as the fresh stem is wanted. Occasion- ally, however, the dried stems may be bought. The genuine drug 272 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY consists of branches of various lengths, about iy 2 to 2 cm. thick, five to seven-angled, the edges beset with radiating clusters of 6 to 8 short spines, and at irregular distances apart there are branched rootlets; the wood is thin and the bark consists of spongy paren- chyma; odor none, taste acrid. — C. An alkaloid (?) cactine. — U. Diuretic, in dropsies, but mainly valued as a cardiac stimulant. Dose : about 0.5 gram, in tincture. Fresh Cereus Grandiflorus Stems. — As the fresh stems should be used, it is best to obtain them from florists, who sometimes have more than they require for their business; in this way, however, Fig. 214. only small quantities are obtainable. Manufacturers of pharma- ceuticals frequently obtain the drug from Mexico, or the West Indies, the flowers and branches being crushed and packed in barrels and covered Avith a definite proportion of alcohol, so that it is a simple matter afterwards to add the menstruum necessary to make the commercial tincture. It is more than probable that much of the tincture sold is made from other and inferior or even worthless varieties of cactus. PARTS OF BRANCHES. As already explained in previous pages, the exogenous stem consists of three parts, an internal portion of soft-walled and usu- ally polyhedral cells which is called the medulla or pith, the wood, consisting of the xylem of the fibro-vascular bundles and the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 273 medullary rays, and lastly, the bark, which is all that part which lies outside of the cambium. Some drugs consist of pith alone, some only of wood, and many are barks; each of these parts of branches or stems must therefore be separately considered. GROUP XXXVII. Piths. There is only one pith which is a drug, namely, the pith of sassa- fras, but the pith of elder is sometimes kept in drug stores, and probably always in stores dealing in scientific instruments; it is also commonly used by microscopists for holding delicate tissues in the microtome, for section-cutting. Both piths are therefore apt to be met with by the student of pharmacognosy. Slender cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy, white Sassafras Medulla. Similar to above, but thicker and yellowish, in color .... Sambuci Medulla. Sassafras Medulla. N. Sassafras Pith. — 0. The pith of Sassafras variifolium; Jjaur- acece. — H. North America. — D. Slender, cylindrical or semi-cylin- drical pieces, often curved or twisted, very light and spongy; two to three centimeters long and about 4 to 6 mm. thick ; consists of thin-walled polyhedral cells; without odor and with insipid taste, — 0. Mucilage. — U. When macerated with water it forms a muci- lage which is not precipitated by alcohol. This mucilage is used as a menstruum or vehicle for other substances, especially for eye washes. Sambuci Medulla. Elder pith (from Sambucus Canadensis; Caprifoliacea?) is in larger and thicker pieces than sassafras pith, and is of a yellowish color. It is composed of similar polyhedral cells, but is not muci- laginous. Used only for physical experiments, and for holding deli- cate objects for cutting sections for the microscope, as already men- tioned. 274 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY WOODS. Strictly speaking, wood is that tissue in plants which is made up of lignified cells, but it is generally considered to be all that part of exogenous stems which is within the cambium layer. Commer- cially, at least, this is the meaning of "wood" in the drug trade as well as in the lumber trade. By reference to the description of the section of an exogenous stem the relation of the fibro-vascular bundles to each other and to the other structures in the stem will be understood. (See page 274.) In the accompanying drawing the structure of the wood-cylinder is represented somewhat diagram- matically. In the interior is seen the pith, which is very small Fig. 215. proportionately in logs from which ' ' wood ' ' is obtained ; from this pith the medullary rays radiate showing as radiating lines on the transverse section, but on the outside of the wood-cylinder these medullary rays form only short perpendicular lines, as they are not extended far in a perpendicular direction; this is also the ap- pearance of the medullary rays in tangential sections. Medullary rays vary in width, in some cases being only a single cell wide, in other woods being two, three or more cells wide; this character of the medullary rays is of diagnostic value in some woods, notably so in quassia. As the stem grows, the cambium and bark and a few rings of wood next to the cambium are the living tissues ; the inner portion of the stem ceases to take part in active vegetative processes and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 275 merely serves for mechanical support. The outer layers of wood, which are filled with protoplasm and cell-sap and take part in the vegetative life of the tree, are usually white and constitute the alburnum or sap-wood, which is of little value, either as lumber or as drugs. As layer after layer of wood is added year after year, the inner layers are correspondingly withdrawn from the vegetative processes of the plant by an absorption of protoplasm and cell-sap and a deposit of extractive, resinous and coloring mat- ters, etc., in the place of the protoplasm, and these inner layers of wood then constitute the duramen or heart-wood. The heart- wood may he of the same color as the sap-wood, but often differs in color; in red cedar, for instance, the outer wood is white and the heart- wood is red ; in walnut the heart- wood is brown ; in guaiac wood the heart-wood is dark olive-green or greenish-brown; in ebony the heart-wood is black; etc. The formed materials stored in the cells of the heart-wood render many woods valuable, either because these substances have medicinal virtues or because they can be used for dyeing; in either case, woods containing them be- come valuable as drugs. The stems of the trees of the temperate zone, where there is com- plete cessation of growth during winter, are marked with perfect concentric annual rings; stems of trees of tropical climes, where growth is not thus completely suspended for a season, but goes on all the year, have no such rings, although they may be marked with "spurious" rings, as seen, for instance, in the section of -a false pareira brava, shown on page 171. With the exception of juniper wood, which is, however, rarely used, all the woods of the drug trade are from tropical trees and have obscure rings ; this, however, is of little importance, as all the woods sold as drugs are sold as shavings or raspings, and it is impossible, therefore, to determine this feature in the fragments that constitute the drugs. Woods may show a uniform structure of wood-cells under the microscope, the cells varying in size, but otherwise alike, and trav- ersed at more or less regular intervals by the medullary rays ; such woods are close-grained and even on section. Other woods have large ducts interspersed among the wood-cells, and such woods are more porous and show large openings on transverse section when 276 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY examined with a lens; the peculiar grouping of these ducts some- times aids in the recognition of the wood. But the most easily observed, and at the same time sufficiently characteristic feature of woods for recognition, is color, and we group woods as follows : White 38 '^Colored 39 GROUP XXXVIII White Woods Only one white wood, quassia, is of importance. Some authors mention S ant alum album as a white wood, but it is merely the sap- wood of the same plant from which Santalum citrinum is obtained and is seldom met with, and is worthless. Coarse, light, white shavings or raspings Quassia Quassia N. Quassia. — 0. The wood of Picrasma excelsa; Simarubiacece. — H. Jamaica, West Indies. — D. Quassia wood is imported in billets of various sizes, dense and tough, of medium hardness, porous, with minute pith and narrow medullary rays; in the drug trade, however, it occurs as coarse, light, white shavings or raspings, odor- less and intensely bitter. — C. A bitter principal called quassin. It contains no tannin and the infusion is therefore compatible with iron salts. — U. A pure bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in in- fusion. The quassia used in Europe is the wood of Quassia amara, of the same natural order as the plant which yields the drug used in this country. The wood of Quassia amara is called in the trade "Surinam Quassia," the shrub from which it is obtained being indigenous to Surinam. It resembles the Jamaica quassia which is used in this country, especially when in the form of shavings. The illustrations show Jamaica quassia in transverse (Fig. 216) and tangential (Fig. 217) sections; it will be noticed that the medullary rays vary from one row of cells to two or three rows HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 277 of cells in width. In Surinam quassia the medullary rays are rarely wider than one row of cells. This enables us to distinguish Fig. 216. Fig. 217. between the two kinds, although from a practical point of view there is no object in doing so, as the medicinal value of the two kinds of quassia is alike. 278 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Sandal Wood (the wood of Santalum album, Santalacew), is im- ported, but does not reach the retailer, as it is only used for the preparation of volatile oil. Only the sap-wood is white and this is worthless, as it contains no oil. The heart-wood varies in color from yellowish to brown, and is described by some authors as Santalum citrinum. GROUP XXXIX Colored Woods Some of the darker colored woods, like guaiac wood, contain but little soluble coloring matter, so that their solutions will not deeply stain fabrics moistened with them. Others, like logwood, contain an abundance of coloring matter, so that they can be used as dye-stuffs; and, in fact, many of the woods which are used as drugs have no medicinal value, their whole commercial im- portance depending on their being dye-stuffs. Before the intro- duction of the aniline dyes it was necessary for the pharmacist not only to be acquainted with these dye-woods, but also with the manner of using them, with the mordants to be used, etc.; now they are seldom called for in drug stores, although still exten- sively employed by dyers. Greenish-brown raspings, mixed with some white particle s.G-uaiaci Lignum. Yellowish or reddish-gray raspings Juniperi Lignum. Deep purplish-red or brownish-red shavings, or coarse powder Santalum Rubrum. Red or reddish-brown raspings, the cut surfaces having resinous appearance Fernambuco. Purplish-black or brownish-red shavings or raspings, often with a greenish-metallic luster Haematoxylon. Brown or yellowish-brown chips or raspings Lignum Citrinum. Guaiaci Lignum N. Guaiacum Wood, Lignum Vitae. — 0. The heart-wood of Guaia- cum officinale and G. sanctum; Zygophyllacece. — H. West Indies. — D. This wood is imported in large logs or billets and is much used in the arts for the manufacture of articles which must stand much rough usage, as for instance ten-pins and balls for bowling. It is admirably adapted for such uses because the wood is firm HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 279 and the bundles interlace and cross each other often at angles of even 60°, so that it is practically impossible to split the wood " along the grain" in any direction. The wood is very hard, heavier than water, resinous, brown or brownish-green ; the whit- ish sap-wood should be rejected. The drug consists of the rasp- ings and shavings, which are the waste from the turners ' benches ; these raspings are greenish-brown, containing occasionally a Fig. 218. few fragments of the whitish sap-wood; on exposure to nitric acid fumes they become dark bluish-green; odorless unless heated, when the drug has a balsamic odor; the taste is slightly acrid. — C. Twenty to twenty-five per cent of resin. — U. Altera- tive diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in fluid extract. The figure shows a transverse section of the wood. Juniperi Lignum N. Juniper Wood. — 0. The wood of Juniperus communis; Con- iferce. — H. Northern Hemisphere. — D. The wood is distinctly marked with annual rings, the fall part of one and the spring portion of another being here shown in transverse section; all the cells are marked with pits, as in the pitted cells already described on page 85, and there are no ducts. The drug consists 280 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of raspings of a reddish or yellowish-gray color; odor and taste similar to but weaker than juniper berries. — C. Volatile oil and resin. — U. Diuretic, stimulant and emmenagogue. Used only as an ingredient in alterative diuretic teas or species. Fig. 219 shows a transverse section of the wood. Fig. 219. Santalum Rubrum N. Red Saunders. — 0. The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus; Legauminosce. — H. East India. — D. The heart-wood is imported in hard, massive pieces, heavy (sinks in water), brownish-black ex- ternally and reddish-brown internally and susceptible of a fine polish. The drug consists of chips or, more frequently, of rasp- ings in the form of a coarse, irregular, brownish-red powder; almost tasteless and odorless. — C. A coloring principle, santalin, which is soluble in alcohol but insoluble in water. — U. Employed as a coloring agent for elixirs, tinctures, etc. Fernambuco N. Brazil Wood, Pernambuco or Fernambuco Wood. — 0. The heart-wood of several varieties of Caesalpinia, especially of C. echinata; Leguminosce. — H. Brazil. — D. The heart-wood, without HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 281 the bark and sap-wood, is imported in large logs, externally dark reddish-brown, internally lighter in color; texture fine-grained; surfaces resinous; hard and susceptible of a fine polish. The drug consists of raspings, with a slightly sweetish taste, but scarcely any odor. — C. A coloring principle; brasilin, which is Fig. 220. soluble in water, alcohol and ether, coloring them yellowish; by adding alkalies to its solutions, these assume a beautiful red color. — U. Fernambuco is sometimes used as a test-solution, but is mainly used as a red dye-stuff. The figure shows a transverse section of the wood. Hsematoxylon N. Logwood, Campeachy Wood. — 0. The heart-wood of Hcema- toxylon Campechianum; Legaminosce. — H. Campeachy, Honduras and other parts of tropical America. — D. Imported in logs which have been deprived of the bark and the yellowish sap-wood; these logs are very heavy and hard, externally bluish-black, internally reddish-brown, coarse-grained, but susceptible of a good polish. The drug consists of chips or coarse raspings of a brownish-red color, the different particles sometimes showing a greenish sheen or luster ; taste sweetish, astringent, and odor faint, agreeable. — 282 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 0. Tannic acid and hematoxylin, a coloring principle much used as a stain in microscopical work. — U. Logwood is used as an as- Fig. 221. tringent, mainly in the form of extract, of which the dose is about one gram. It is also used in the arts as a dye-stuff. The figure shows a radial section of the wood. Lignum Citrinum N. Fustic. — 0. A yellow dye-wood obtained from Morus tinc- toria (Chlorophora tinctoria) ; Urticacece. — H. West Indies and South America. — D. The stems deprived of bark and most of the sap-wood are imported in large, heavy logs, which are brown externally and yellowish-brown internally. In the trade it oc- curs in shavings or raspings of a deep yellowish color. — C. Fise- tin (fustin? morin?), yellow pigments used to dye fabrics yellow. Not used as medicine. BARKS Botanically, bark is that part of an exogenous plant-axis (stem or root) which is outside of the cambium zone. From the standpoint of the pharmacognosist, however, we must HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 283 modify and limit the meaning of the word "bark," and we define it as that part of a woody exogenous plant-axis (stem or root) which grows outside of the cambium zone, and which is detached from the wood-cylinder at the cambium zone, so that it is an article of trade by itself. The Latin word cortex (ids, 3, m.) means "bark" as well as "rind" or "peel" and is applied as a title to the class of drugs now under consideration, as well as to the rinds of fruits, as when we speak of cortex aurantii, cortex granati, etc. In English we Fig. 222. make a distinction betAveen these widely different structures, calling them by different names, but the use of the same word in the Latin titles leads to confusion, and the student should fix in his mind the conception of "bark" as being only that part of an exogenous plant-axis just described. We have already studied the structure of stems and roots in the earlier part of these notes, but w r e must now again consider some facts already mentioned, with especial reference to this class of drugs. The accompanying figure represents somewhat diagrammatically the structure of an exogenous plant-axis; the 284 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY cambium layer (d) separates the wood-cylinder, which consists of the pith, xylem (c) and medullary rays (a), from the bark. The latter consists of an outer epidermis in the young plant, or a corky layer (h) in older plants ; next within this is a layer of parenchyma cells (f) and then a circle of alternate bast portions of fibro-vascu- lar bundles (e) and outer parts of medullary rays (g). The barks of commerce are rarely obtained from first year's twigs with a structure as represented in section in the drawing. In perennial exogenous stems a new ring of wood is formed each year from the inner part of the cambium, the annual rings being thus added one after another; the fibro-vascular bundles divide and subdivide laterally, so that even after many years the width Fig. 223. of each bundle is no more, and perhaps even less, than at the end of the first year. At the same time the cambium cells are forming new bark, and if we examine a section of an endogenous stem of several years' growth we find it to appear similar to the section represented in Fig. 223, in which the asterisk indicates the cam- bium zone, all within which is conventionally spoken of as "wood" while all without it is "bark." If we cut a willow twig in spring, during the time of rapid growth when the tissues are fresh and soft, choosing a straight, smooth piece and preferably a single internode for the experi- ment, and then beat the surface gently with the side of the knife- handle, we bruise and loosen the cambium cells so that we may HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 285 slip a tubular outer piece from the solid cylinder of wood; the tube thus separated is the bark. If Ave make transverse sections, first, of the whole thickness of a willow twig, then of a piece of the bark and another of the wood-cylinder from which the bark was removed, as explained, and compare them with each other, Ave obtain a good conception of the relation of the bark to the other parts of the plant-axis. We see that the Avood-cylinder consists of the pith, the xylem or Avood portions of the fibro- vascular bundles and the medullary rays, as far outAvard as the cambium layer; and on the outside we find portions of the cam- bium tissue Avhich was torn in removing the bark ; we also see that the bark consists of the phloem or bast portions of the fibro- vascular bundles alternating Avith the prolongations of the medul- lary rays, of a layer of parenchyma surrounding them, and an outer corky layer, Avhile on the inner side Ave find also remnants of torn cambium tissues. After this description it is almost superfluous to add that the arrangement of the endogenous plant-axis is such that there can be no bark in the pharmacognostic sense of the Avord in mono- cotA r ls. be. fit Fig. 224. Let us now examine this diagram of a section of bark. A typical bark consists of three layers. The outer layer is epider- mis in young branches (a), under which a layer of cork or suber (b) soon forms, and in somewhat older barks the epidermis disap- pears and cork alone remains; this layer is called the "outer bark" (exophlceum). Next within this corky layer or outer bark is a layer of parenchyma cells (c) formed by the apparent extension, broadening and merging into each other of the medullary rays; in reality these cells, together with the medullary rays and pith, are fundamental tissue. This layer extends from the cork in- 286 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ward to an imaginary line drawn to connect the outer points of the bast portions of all the fibro-vascular bundles in the trans- verse section, and this parenchyma constitutes the "middle bark" (mesophloeum). The third layer (d) consists of the phloem- portions or bast-portions of the fibro-vascular bundles (ph) and the intermediate medullary rays (m) from the imaginary line just described inward to the cambium layer; it is called the "inner bark" (endophloeum or liber) and consists of alternating wedges of bast and parenchyma, the wedges of bast having their base or broader ends inward and the points outwards, and the fundamental parenchyma wedges vice versa. The bast consists of bast-paren- chyma (bp), which differs in the shape and size of its cells from the fundamental parenchyma, and bast-cells (be); it also contains sieve-ducts, which, however, are of little or no practical im- portance to the pharmacognosist. The arrangement of the bast- parenchyma, bast-cells and medullary rays or fundamental tis- Fig. 225. sue and their relations to each other give the peculiar appear- ances to the transverse sections of barks by which we group them. The outer surfaces of barks offer several points of interest which may be of diagnostic value. Formerly much attention was given to the study of the parasitic cryptogams, lichens and mosses, which grow on the surfaces of trees, and which were sup- posed to be characteristic features of certain barks. At the present time we give but little heed to these forms of vegetation, although some of them are peculiar in shape and possibly of some diagnostic value; the accompanying illustration (Fig. 225) shows a lichen, the "graphis elegans," so-called from its resemblance to (Chinese) writing, which occurs on Saigon cinnamon; the lit- tle black spots on the white corky layer of Cascarilla are also crypto gamic plants. While it is possible that a closer study of this subject, not only in connection with barks, but also with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 287 other plant-parts, might furnish some data of value for the iden- tification of powdered drugs, yet the former plan to use these lower plant-forms to identify whole barks is about as if someone would suggest that because the thumb-marks of no two persons agree in shape, therefore the lines and figures of the thumb might be used in recognizing our friends. A finger-mark in blood on the wall of a room in which a murder was committed might lead to the conviction of a murderer, but we recognize our friends by face and features other than thumb-marks; so we use other coarser and equally characteristic features to identify drugs, rather than by a study of the cryptogamic parasites. The mere presence or absence of such growths may, however, sometimes be useful in distinguishing between the barks of stems (with cryptogams) and the barks of roots (without cryptogams) of the same plant. Cork proper consists of true cork-cells (suber) which may be from a few to a few hundred or thousand cells in thickness. These cells are practically impervious to water and serve to pre- vent evaporation of moisture from the stem while en route from the roots to the leaves. As the stem grows in thickness this corky layer becomes fissured in a manner which enables the woodman to recognize the varieties of trees in the forests or fields by their barks, and often enables pharmacognosists to recognize barks by these same characteristics. In some barks this corky layer cracks off after a while, but a thin protecting layer remains, from which thicker layers are soon reproduced; meanwhile the middle bark forms new cells to adapt the bark to the growing circum- ference of the plant, so that while the bark grows in all direc- tions it yet retains the structure of a typical bark with the three layers, the outer, middle and inner barks. In other plants, however, the bark continues to grow only or mainly at the cambium zone and in this case, as the circumfer- ence enlarges and fissures form, these extend into the middle bark or even into the inner bark, until large pieces of bark finally fall off. This would leave the stem in a denuded condi- tion, somewhat like an open ulcer on an animal surface, if na- ture had not provided a plan to prevent this. A layer, or layers, of secondary cork (rhytidoma) dips down from the surface of the bark through the middle and later on through the inner bark 288 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY and emerges again at some little distance; such secondary cork layers are shown in this section of cornus florida bark (Fig. 226). When formed, nourishment or sap is cut off from the tissues out- side, and the latter are sphacelated or necrosed, i. e., cut off from the living tree, much like a sphacelus in a spontaneous amputa- tion or slough in an animal, or in the same manner as deciduous leaves are shed in fall. As far as external appearances go, these masses of fissured and necrosed bark tissue resemble the fis- sured masses of true cork previously described, and both forma- tions are called "Borke" by German botanists; no better term having been suggested it has also been adopted by English writers and the term is frequently met with; but care should be taken that no confusion be permitted by the similarity of the English terms "bork" and "bark." The "bork" of plants sometimes peels off in sheets or leaves Fig. 226. when it is called "liber," from a Latin word for book. Liber is seen in the grape-vine, for example. "Liber" usually means inner bark. The falling off of the bork frequently leaves peculiar mark- ings or depressions, the latter sometimes decidedly conchoidal in shape, or the bork itself may appear in nodules or warts, or it may peel off in more or less extended patches or flakes, any of which conditions may serve as aids for recognition of the identity of the several barks. In distinguishing between the barks of stems and roots we may also be aided by peculiar markings, traces of former leaf- scars or more rarely by the presence of buds on stem barks. The middle bark consists mainly of soft- walled parenchyma Handbook of pharmacognosy 289 cells, which appear tangentially stretched in a transverse sec- tion. When cells which are not prosenchymatous in shape, that is, which are not long or fusiform but of nearly equal di- ameters in all directions, become thickened by sclerogen layers, whether aggregated in large numbers as in the stones of fruits or scattered among surrounding parenchyma, these sclerenchy- matous cells are called ' ' stone-cells ; " a few such cells from a gritty particle in the flesh of the pear are shown in Fig. 227, and the typical appearance of sclerenchymatous cells will be readily recognized. Stone-cells of similar character are found in the middle bark of various plants, either singly, scattered as Fig. 227. Fig. 228. in the Cinchonas or in large clusters or even in almost solid layers, as in the stone-cells (so-called "star-cells") from Ceylon cinnamon, shown in Fig. 228. When present such stone-cells afford means for identifying the drug both in its whole and in its powdered condition, and of course in differentiating between different barks the absence of stone-cells in the middle bark may be just as good a characteristic in some cases as the presence of them is in other cases. Another feature of the middle bark consists in the presence (or absence, as the case may be) of larger ducts, cells or spaces, latex-ducts, resin or oil cells or ducts, or air-spaces, tracheids, etc. In fact cinchonas may be grouped on structural grounds 290 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY into divisions based upon the presence or absence of both stone- cells and latex-ducts or air-spaces. The inner bark consists of alternate wedges of medullary rays which are narrow at the cambium zone and gradually widen and merge with the middle bark and of bast portions of fibro-vascular bundles which are widest at the cambium zone and gradually grow smaller and cease at the margin of the middle bark; in fact the demarcation between middle and inner bark is an im- aginary line uniting the outer points of the bast bundles, as seen in a transverse section of bark. The medullary rays consist of cells similar to or identical with those of the middle bark (both being fundamental tissue), but they are frequently elongated in a radial direction near the cambium zone, gradually becoming shorter in the radial direc- tion until at or near the confluence with the middle bark the radial diameter is less than the tangential diameter and the cells are tangentially stretched as in the middle bark itself. The most characteristic features of the inner bark are found in the bast or phloem portions. In the living plant this part is actively concerned in the circulation of the fluids and special ducts, the so-called sieve-ducts, are here found. These ducts are formed of elongated cells which are separated by partitions of thickened material deposited in a sieve-like manner, the thinner parts, or meshes, consisting of soft cell-wall through which os- mosis can take place readily. To the pharmacognosist these ducts are of little or no importance, except that in the examina- tion of powdered barks the appearance of fragments of the sieve- like plates might possibly be characteristic in some few instances. Most of the bast consists of parenchymatous cells which are usually much smaller in diameter on transverse section, but elongated in the direction of the plant axis, therefore in a longi- tudinal direction. Some barks, hoAvever, contain also a large proportion of prosenchymatous cells or strings of cells in the bast which render the bark very tough, as in simaruba or meze- reon. In still other cases the phloem may be more or less ligni- fied, in which case the appearance of the anastomosing bast bundles, as seen on the inner surface of the bark of wild cherry (Pig. 229), for example, may closely resemble the outer appear- ance of the wood-cylinder as figured under woods; in fact the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 291 Fig. 229. structures of phloem and xylem correspond and fit each other ac- curately in the growing plant. In such cases the parenchyma of the medullary rays often shrinks and forms fissures or depres- sions on the inner surface of the bark, especially if the bark is Fig. 230. 292 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY too rigid to curl or quill inwards. (Fig. 229, enlarged 4 di- ameters.) Still other and perhaps the most characteristic structures when present are the bast-cells, which are found in the phloem or bast. On transverse section these appear to be similar to the stone- cells of the middle bark, as seen in Fig. 230, of bast-cells from calisaya bark, but on making a longitudinal section of the bark these bast-cells are seen to be prosenchymatous in form, and they belong to the mechanical tissue-system, giving strength and support. This is shown in the longitudinal section from calisaya bark, shown in Fig. 231. Fig. 231. The form, as well as the arrangement of the bast-cells, singly, in clusters, etc., may give peculiar appearance to the section of a bark; in the transverse section of calisaya bark just shown, we see the bast-cells irregularly scattered, either singly or in quite small clusters ; while in the section of cotton-root bark the bast- cells and bast-parenchyma are arranged in alternating layers, as shown in Fig. 232. Bast-cells, therefore, are important diag- nostic features in the determination of the identity of barks. Most of the parenchyma cells of the middle and inner bark contain starch, as well as the various medicinally valuable ingre- dients like alkaloids, etc. Some barks contain special mucilage HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 293 cells, which are usually larger than the other parenchymatous cells, or special oil cells which are sometimes smaller than the other parenchymatous cells. Alkaloids are contained in all the various cells, but probably mostly in the parenchyma of the in- ner bark. The outer bark, even when formed of necrosed tissues of inner bark, contains comparatively little of medicinal value and is therefore generally to be rejected if present in the form of "bork;" but if not present as bork, it constitutes part of the drug and the whole bark is to be used. We are now prepared to study some facts in regard to the Fig. 232. coarse appearances of bark, after which the principles of classi- fying them will be considered. It is of course well known that soft tissues of fruits, etc., be- come darkened when exposed to the oxidizing influence of air; a piece of peeled apple becomes yellowish and eventually brown- ish in a very short time after the protecting epidermis has been removed and dried fruits of almost all kinds are darker colored than the fresh pulp or flesh of the corresponding fruits. So also the cambium tissue, which is made up of very delicate cells and which is usually white or colorless, is readily oxidized and becomes darkened by exposure to air. Nearly all barks, when 294 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY first removed from the stems, branches or roots, are white on their interior surfaces, but the oxidation after removal changes their colors to those which are characteristic of the commercial barks; thus, canella alba remains nearly white, slippery elm be- comes pale brownish-white, sassafras changes to reddish or bright rust-brown, cinnamon brownish and old buckthorn bark almost blackish or purplish-brown, so that the tints or colors of the interior surfaces of barks become of diagnostic value. The appearance of the outer surfaces is not greatly altered except when the natural outer portions of cork and bark are removed and only the inner bark is sent into trade, when the outer surface differs from the fresh appearance in the ungath- ered bark, practically in the same manner as the changes in ap- pearance of the inner surfaces occur. This is the case, for in- stance, in Cassia and Ceylon cinnamons, in slippery elm, etc., which are described as " inner barks." As soon as a bark is separated from the stem or root it com- mences to lose moisture, and in drying out it naturally shrinks. The shrinkage will be greatest in that part of the bark which contains the softest cells, therefore, more in the inner than in the outer portions. If the outer portion or bark has been re- moved, the shrinkage will be even or nearly even from both surfaces and the pieces of bark will remain more or less flat, as in slippery elm, but in some barks the flat pieces are so in conse- quence of pressure applied, as in the larger pieces of yellow or red cinchona, especially as formerly brought from South America. As the softer and more succulent inner parts of barks lose their moisture, this generally causes the bark to curl inward and according to the degree of curvature different descriptive names are given to the barks. When the curvature is slight, as in Fig. 233, the pieces are called "troughs" or "curved pieces;" if the bark is rolled from one side into a tube or cylinder, as in Fig. 234, this is called a "quill" or "simple quill," while if it is rolled inward from both sides as in Fig. 235, it is called a "double quill." If while drying, the bark does not readily yield to quilling, it may peel off, leaving peculiar depressions on the outer surface of the bark, as shown in Fig. 236, and as may be seen in Pome- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 295 granate bark (Fig. 348). But an unequal shrinking of bast and medullary rays may cause longitudinal grooves or wrinkles on the inner surface, or even fissures, as in Fig. 237, also shown in Fig. 233. Fig. 234. Fig. 235. Fig. 236. Fig. 237. Fig. 238. a drawing of the inner surface of wild cherry bark (Fig. 229) ; or ridges may be formed, as in alnus rubra, the reason for which will be readily understood from an examination of Fig. 238. In some cases, as in cascarilla, the bark does not separate 296 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY readily from the stem and must be chipped or cut from the lat- ter; in such cases some pieces may consist only of a portion of the thickness of the bark, while other pieces may consist of more than the bark, having splinters of wood adherent on the inner surface, while yet other pieces may have both conditions present in different parts. In some other kinds of barks the suber or epidermis may be very thin or even soft, while the bast is rigid, or as just explained, bits of wood may adhere; the shrinkage under all these conditions will take place probably most in the middle bark and irregular torsion will be exerted on both inner and outer surface tissues, the result being pieces of bark which are irregularly bent and twisted, and it is to this kind of pieces that we should restrict the term " curved pieces" or "irregularly curved pieces." It will readily be understood that the main characteristics of structure which determine color or shape of the pieces of com- mercial barks are inherent attributes of the plant from which the bark is obtained, and that while the size of the stem or branch or root from which the bark is obtained must, in a limited way, have influence on the shape (owing to more or less heavy layers of outer bark mainly) or the rapidity of drying may to some extent modify the tint of the color, or the season of the year at which the bark is gathered may influence the bark in various ways and especially as regards its constituents, yet the essential characteristics, such as histological structure, which are of phar- macognostic diagnostic value will necessarily be present in each bark, no matter when or how gathered. Various methods of classification or grouping have been used, of which those based on structural features are, of course, most exact and desirable ; but other classifications have also been used and it is well to use them all in combination, as the barks present many difficulties in this regard. Schleiden, one of the founders of the modern study of phar- macognosy, in his work published in 1857, classified barks as follows: Ord. I. Aromatic Barks Cinnamon, canella, etc. Ord. II. Bitter and Astringent Barks A. Thin barks. — Willow, oak, horse chestnut, buckthorn, etc. B. Thick barks. — Simaruba, angostura, quassia, pomegranate, etc. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 297 Ord. III. Acrid Barks Mezereon. Ord. IV. Cinchona Barks (Recognizable by the peculiar bast-cells; this group was, therefore, based on structural characteristics.) Prof. Maisch, in his valuable work on "Organic Materia Medica," classifies barks thus: Sect. I. Taste Bitter and Astringent Cinchonas, dogwood, magnolia, black alder, wild cherry, barberry, willow, witchhazel, cramp bark, black haw, etc. Sect. II. Taste Astringent White oak, black oak, blackberry, and pomegranate. Sect. III. Taste Bitter, Not Aromatic White ash, simaruba, quassia, condurango, buckthorn, cascara, Jamaica dog- wood, butternut, quebracho, etc. Sect. IV. Taste Acrid and Pungent Prickly ash, mezereon, cotton-root, coto, wahoo, quillaja, etc. Sect. V. Mucilaginous Slippery elm. Sect. VI. Aromatic (Some also Bitter) With Resin-Cells Cinnamon, sassafras, canella, angostura, cascarilla, etc. (This is the onlv group of barks in Maisch 's system which is based, in parts at least, on struc- tural characteristics.) Prof. Culbreth, in his work on "Materia Medica," adopts Prof. Maisch 's system, but does not apply the system in the book itself. A. Bitter and Astringent. B. Astringent. C. Bitter, Not Aromatic. D. Acrid and Pungent. E. Mucilaginous. F. Aromatic, With Oil or Resin-cells. Prof. Sayre proposed the following system, but did not apply it in his work on ' ' Materia Medica. ' ' 298 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Class I. Aromatic. A. Deprived of Corky Layer. B. With Periderm. Class II. Acrid. Class III. Bitter. Class IV. Bitter and Astringent. Class V. Astringent. Class VI. Mucilaginous. Unclassified. Prof. Kraemer uses the following system: {A. Yellowish to dark brown. B. Grayish to grayish black. C. Greenish in color. Aromatic odor and taste. Without aromatic properties Without Periderm Ib: Prof. Berg (1857) furnished the first system of classifying barks strictly according to anatomical or structural characteris- tics. To examine the barks according, to his method, transverse sections must be made for microscopical examination. I. Bast With Scattered or Isolated Bast-Cells, Sometimes in Radial Eows, Less Often in Small Groups II. Bast Radially Striated A. Bast indistinctly striated. B. Bast distinctly striated. C. Bast regularly wedge-shaped. D. Bast with horny bast-fibers. III. Bast Quadratically Marked by Parenchymatous and Bast Rays Which Cross Each Other A. With horny bast-fibers. B. Evenly marked without any distinct bast-fibers. IV. Bast Tangentially Striate]) A. Bast firm and dense, moderately thick. B. Bast thin or thick, white, mealy, finely striated. C. Bark thin, flexible, reddish-brown. V. Bast Nearly Even, Without Distinct Striation A. With faint brownish wedges. B. Without wedges. VI. Bark Rasped, Pale Brown VII. Cork ("Bork") Thick, Pale Brown HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 299 Iii this system some of the subdivisions were made to accom- modate the placing of single barks, as for instance the last group or class (VII) which was thus created for only one article, cork, which, however, is not a drug in the proper sense of the word. The system of grouping barks used in this book was intro- duced by the author in his " Notes on Pharmacognosy" published serially in a journal about twenty-five years ago, and in book- form some years later. The system is based on the work of Berg, but it is simplified in such a manner that it does not require microscopical preparations. To apply the system here used it is only necessary to cut a bark to be examined, so as to make a smooth transverse section, which is to be examined by reflected light with a low power lens magnifying from 5 to 10 diameters. If the end of a piece of dry bark cannot be cut smooth enough, it may be necessary to soak it in water first. No cleared or finished microscopical section need be made; in fact, such sections are misleading since cleared sections are all " radially striate;" reflected light from the opaque end is neces- sary for a satisfactory examination, which therefore can be made in most instances in a very few minutes. Method of Grouping Barks Bast with isolated bast-cells XL Bast radially striated XLI Whole \ Bast tangentially striated XLII Bast quadratically striated XLIII Bast without striation XLXV Rasped XLV The characteristics of these groups will be described under the separate groups. GROUP XL Cinchona Barks This group consists of the dried barks of Cinchona Ledgeriana, Cinchona Calisaya, Cinchona officinalis, and of hybrids of these with other species of Cinchona; Bubiacece. A bark of this group may be known by placing about 0.1 or 0.2 gram of any cinchona Barks ■ 300 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY bark in a test-tube and then heating in the flame of a bunsen burner; the products of the destructive distillation condense on the sides of the glass in the upper part of the test-tube as drops of a red liquid, which is characteristic of the cinchona barks. A very thin sliver may then be cut with a sharp knife or razor from the end of one of the pieces, as nearly as possible in a trans- verse direction; place this thin fragment on a microscope slide, drop on it a little solution of potassium hydroxide and cover with a cover glass ; when it clears it will be easy to recognize the Fig. 239. peculiar bast-cells and their more or less scattered or isolated dis- tribution in cinchona barks. Only young barks have all three layers, while the older barks usually consist altogether of bast, or bast and bork. When all three layers are present the outer layer consists of cork. The middle bark consists of parenchyma cells, which are stretched tangentially and which contain starch and brownish- red coloring matter; in this layer there are occasionally found isolated stone-cells formed by the thickening of the cell-walls of some of the parenchyma cells, and also sometimes intercel- lular spaces or ducts which contain sap in younger barks, or air in older barks. The inner bark, which is continuously formed from the cambium, consists of bast rays separated by medullary rays; the bast portions contain peculiar cells, bast-cells, which HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 301 have so characteristic forms that they are ready means for recog- nizing cinchona barks. The appearance of these cells in Cali- saya bark is shown in transverse section in Fig. 239 and in longi- tudinal section in Fig. 240 ; under the polariscope a polarization cross is seen in a transverse section of such a cell, as shown in Fig. 19 on page 84. The cinchona barks may be grouped according to whether or not they contain stone-cells in the middle bark, and each of these groups may be divided again according to whether or not they Fig. 240. contain sap or air spaces in the middle bark. It is beyond the scope of these notes, however, to go into details in this regard further than giving a few examples: C. amygdalifolia With sap- spaces C. ovata. With stone- C. umbellata. cells c. lancifolia. Without sap-spaces. c. macrocalyx. c. microphylla. [ c - Calisaya. With sap-spaces ^ , - lutea. Without stone- l c - Uritusinga. cells [°- lanceolata. Without sap-spaces c - micrantha. lc succirubra. 302 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY The cinchona barks have also been grouped as " Yellow Cin- chona," "Red Cinchona" and "Pale Cinchona," of which the first two groups were official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 under the titles of "Cinchona Flava" and "Cinchona Rubra;" only C. Calisaya was recognized as yellow cinchona and C. suc- cirubra as red cinchona, pale cinchona not being official. In the U. S. P. of 1870, however, pale cinchona, or "Cinchona Pallida" was also officially recognized, C. officinalis and C. micrantha being recognized as the sources. According to the U. S. P. of 1890, "Cinchona" (Var.:Ledge- riana, C. Calisaya and hybrids) should contain not less than 5 per cent of total alkaloids of which at least 2.5 per cent should be quinine. This was changed in the U. S. P. VIII, to the require- ment that it should not contain less than 5 per cent total anhydrous alkaloids, and at least 4 per cent of anhydrous ether-soluble alka- loids. This is retained in the U. S. P. IX. "Cinchona Rubra" (C. succinibra) should contain 5 per cent of total alkaloids, but no special requirement of the quinine strength was made in the U. S. P. 1890 ; this was changed to "not less than 5 per cent of anhydrous alkaloids" in the U. S. P. VIII, which is also the requirement of the U. S. P. IX. The following list states the origins of the different kinds of Cinchonas : Pale Cinchonas : C. officinalis, C. micrantha, C. subcordata, C. umbellulifera, C. purpurea, C. Vritusinga, C. Condaminea (Loxa), C. macrocalyx, C. glandulifera, C. microphylla, C. scrobiculata (young bark), C. nitida, C. ovata, etc. Red Cinchonas : C. succirubra, C. coccinea, etc. Yellow Cinchonas: C. Calisaya (and hybrids with C. Ledge- riana), C. Boliviana, C. scrobiculata, C. pubescens, C. lancifolia, C. cordifolia, C. lutea, C. pitayensis, etc. The bark of C. Calisaya was considered best, and was therefore called Cinchona regia or China Regia, ' ' Royal Cinchona. ' ' The Cinchona barks contain several alkaloids, of which quinine is the most important ; in addition to quinine there are quinidme, cinchonine, cinchonidine, quinamine, conquinamine, etc. These alkaloids occur in the drug in combination with cincho-tannic and quinovic acids, of which the first-named is astringent. Then there are amorphous substances, quinovin and cinchona red, the first HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 303 being a bitter principle, while the latter is a product of cincho- tannic acid and is especially abundant in the red barks. The Cinchonas are natives of South America, but are now very successfully cultivated in Java, India, and Ceylon, and the cheapness of Cinchona barks and of alkaloids of Cinchona is due to the success achieved in these Asiatic plantations. By cultiva- tion the barks are not only more beautiful, but also of a higher grade; the U. S. P. 1880 requirement of "at least 3 per cent of alkaloids" is now too low for pharmaceutical barks, 5 per cent being the minimum now, but for manufacturing purposes barks are utilized that are often quite low in alkaloidal contents. The price of cinchona barks is determined now by the results of an assay. In the U. S. P. 1870 three Cinchona barks were recognized: Yellow Cinchona, Red Cinchona, and Pale Cinchona. While these names are no longer the official titles, they are still trade varieties of the barks used by pharmacists and we shall now consider them. Quills or troughs with brownish-gray cork; brownish-yel- low internally Cinchona. Thick, flat pieces, usually without cork, splintery, fibrous, orange-yellow Yellow Cinchona. Two kinds, flat and quilled. Similar to above kinds, except that the color is deep reddish-brown Red Cinchona. Quills, smaller than the other varieties, grayish-brown ex- ternally and internally Pale Cinchona. Cinchona N. Cinchona, Yellow Cinchona, Yellow Peruvian Bark, Cali- saya Bark. — 0. The bark of Cinchona Ledgeriana, C. Calisaya, C. officinalis, and of hybrids of these with other species of Cinchona; Rubiacece. Formerly only C. Calisaya was recognized as the source of true yellow cinchona. — H. South America, East India, Ceylon and Java; mainly, however, from Java. — D. The Java- nese drug, which is the one most commonly used now, comes in quills, double quills, or troughs of various lengths, often up to 30 or 40 cm. or more ; the bark itself from 2 to 3 up to 5 mm. thick ; outer surface covered with grayish or brownish gray cork, generally fissured both longitudinally and transversely, 304 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY sometimes wrinkled or marked with warts on longitudinal ridges; inner surface brownish-yellow or pale cinnamon-brown and finely striate ; fracture abrupt in the outer layers and finely fibrous in the inner layers; odor slight and taste bitter and as- tringent. (Fig. 241.) The South American drug, when obtained from the smaller Fig. 241. branches of the trees, resembles the drug just described; but when obtained from the trunks and larger branches of the trees, as is usually the case, it is called "flat cinchona" and differs in appearance. Flat yellow cinchona is in pieces of various sizes, up to 3 cm. or more thick, consisting mainly of bast, with cork Cinchona Calisaya. Fig. 242. (or rather "bork") occasionally present, but usually without cork ; usually the cork is roughly removed with instruments and then both outer and inner surfaces appear alike, orange-yellow, splintery and fibrous ; a large proportion of the drug usually con- sists of small splinters and fragments in which inner and outer surfaces cannot be distinguished; the cork ("bork") when present, is composed mainly of brown parenchyma or bast, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 305 with darker or almost black secondary cork lines; the bast- cells are arranged in radial lines singly or in small groups of two or three, short, thick and yellow. — C. Cinchona alkaloids, quinine quinidine, cinchonin, cinchonidine and quinamine, of which quinine is the most important and should constitute at least one-half of the total alkaloids, of which the bark should contain at least 5 per cent; the other constituents are of no im- portance: — U. Bitter tonic, anti-periodic, febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract or in the form of alkaloids and their salts. Fig. 242 shows a transverse section of a piece of young Cali- saya bark. Cinchona Rubra N. Red Cinchona. — 0. The bark of Cinchona succirubra, or of its hybrids; Rubiacecr. — H. Native in South America; cultivated in East India, Ceylon and Java. — D. In quills, double quills, or troughs, varying in length, from 2 to 5 mm. thick, covered on the outer surface with grayish-brown, rough, warty and wrinkled cork, which is sometimes slightly fissured transversely ; fracture 7?? ch on a succirubra. Fig. 243. fibrous in the inner layers and the inner surface distinctly striate, deep reddish-brown ; taste bitter and odor very slight. The South American flat red bark, now rarely met with in re- tail pharmacies, resembles the flat yellow bark, except in color, which is deep reddish-brown. — C. and U. Like those of yellow cinchona ; this bark should not yield less than 5 per cent anhydrous cinchona alkaloids. 306 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Cinchona Pallida N. Pale Cinchona, Loxa Bark, Crown Bark. — 0. The bark of Cinchona officinalis and other varieties of Cinchona; Rubiacece. — H. South America ; the varieties furnishing the gray or pale bark are of inferior value and are not now cultivated in Asiatic coun- tries, with the exception of C. officinalis, which seems to have ma- terially improved under cultivation. — D. Generally in quills from the thickness of a goose quill to that of a finger, rarely larger; epidermis or cork grayish-brown, sometimes wrinkled, or with small or shallow fissures, the inner surface brown or grayish- brown; fracture fibrous; taste bitter and odor faint, but pecu- liar. — C. This bark averages low in its alkaloidal contents, and is especially poor in quinine; it is therefore seldom used except for the manufacture of alkaloids. — U. Used as an antiseptic as- tringent. It contains more cincho-tannic acid than the other Cinchona ovata. Fig. 244. varieties of cinchona and has been used as an ingredient of anti- septic poultices; also internally as a bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in the form of fluid extract. Fig. 244 shows a trans- verse section of C. ovata, one of the varieties of pale cinchona. Cuprea Bark In the same forests in which the cinchona trees are found in South America, there are also found allied trees (Remijia pedun- culata; Rubiacece) which yield cinchona alkaloids, and which are sometimes even quite rich in quinine. The barks of these trees are brought into the trade as ' ' Cuprea Bark, ' ' but are not used for pharmaceutical purposes, but only for the manufacture of the alka- loids. They are, therefore, of little or no importance to the phar- macist and need not be described. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 307 GROUP XLI In barks of this group the bast wedges and medullary rays alternate more or less regularly, as shown in the accompanying diagrammatic illustration. As the cells of the medullary rays (fundamental tissue) usually contain starch, they are, therefore, lighter colored than the bast portions, so that this radial striation Fig. 245. can readily be seen with a low magnifying power, or even with the unaided eye. A transverse section should be made and ex- amined with a higher power, so that the cellular elements of the bark can be studied, some of which may be characteristic and diagnostic. But for simply identifying the barks a clean smooth transverse cut is sufficient. Thin, papery, compound quills, without cork, externally and internally pale cinnamon-colored; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Zeyl. Troughs or simple quills, without cork, both surfaces cin- namon-brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Cassia. Large troughs or quills, externally grayish-brown cork, in- ternally cinnamon-brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Saig. Quills or irregular pieces, dull brownish, with peculiar transverse cracks and with white lichens with black spots on outer surface; taste bitter aromatic Cascarilla. Irregularly curved pieces of various sizes, cork removed, both surfaces reddish-brown with a shade of carmine; longitudinally striate, fracture short and pale pink or whitish; bitter astringent Comus Florida. Quills or broken pieces, externally whitish or pale reddish with white scars, internally whitish; odor cinnamon- like and taste pungently bitterish CaneHa. Irregular pieces, outer surfaces often marbled, fragile, soft rust-brown, with characteristic taste and odor. . .Sassafras. 308 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Quills or flat pieces, externally purplish-brown showing small transverse scars, or rough; internally longitudi- nally fissured; developing bitter almond taste on chewing Prunus Vifg. Long, coarsely fibrous, pale yellowish-brown pieces, often partially broken and folded upon themselves; bitter. . Simaruba. Quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray with corky warts, internally orange-brown with narrow short longitudinal ridges; bitter astringent Alnus Rubra. Shallow troughs and irregular fragments, cork removed, toughly fibrous internally; both surfaces yellowish- brown Magnolia. Troughs or quills, purplish-brown externally, internally yellowish-white, fibrous in inner layer; bitter as- tringent Liriodendron. Thin, tough, flexible bands, flatfish or quilled, outer sur- face blackish, inner pale brown; mixed with small roots Rubus. Thin fragments, outer surface brownish, inner surface yel- low; bitter, stains saliva yellow Berberis. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish- yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptelea. Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and small spines; striation rather obscure Xanthoxylum, N. Cinnamomum There are three varieties of cinnamon in common use and as they differ materially in appearance, all three will be separately described. N. Cinnamomum Cassia, Cassia Cinnamon or Cassia, Chinese Fig. 246. Cinnamon. — 0. The bark of the shoots of one or more undeter- mined species of Cinnamomum; Lauracece. — H. This variety is a native of China. — D. In single and simple quills of various lengths HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 309 of the size shown in the left-hand figure; the bark is from 1 to 2 mm. or more in thickness; the corky layer has been removed by scraping, leaving the outer surface somewhat rough ; both sur- faces are characteristically brown (cinnamon-colored) ; the frac- ture is abrupt, nearly smooth and the transverse section shows transverse striation distinctly, as well as many stone-cells (the so-called "stellate" cells of cinnamon) in the middle bark which forms the outer layer of the drug. N. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Ceylon Cinnamon. — 0. The inner- bark from the shoots of pollarded trees; Cinnamomum Zeylani- cum; Lauracece. — H. Ceylon. — D. This variety occurs in long quills consisting of several pieces rolled together, with ends Fig. Fig. 248. stuck into each other so that the total length is about a meter; each compound quill has six or more barks of a thickness not much exceeding that of ordinary wrapping paper ; the outer sur- face of the bark is marked with wavy lines of bast bundles, and 310 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY both surfaces are pale-yellowish-brown; both surfaces are smooth and the fracture is short and somewhat splintery. The coarse appearance of this variety of cinnamon is shown in the right-hand figure above, and an enlarged appearance of a prepared transverse section is shown here; the outer layer, or middle bark of this variety also contains many stone-cells, enough in fact, to constitute a continuous layer; the large white cells in the bast portion of the bark are mucilage cells, and the small darker round cells are bast-cells ; before clearing the section nu- merous oil-cells may be seen, but as these do not differ in size or otherwise from the ordinary parenchyma cells, they cannot be distinguished in a cleared section. N. Cinnamomum Saigonicum, Saigon Cinnamon. — 0. The whole bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum; Lauracece. — Fig. 249. H. China. — D. In quills of various widely differing sizes, as seen in the drawings, which are natural size; the average thickness of the quills is about 10 to 15 mm., but sometimes more than twice that thickness; the drawings of sections of two pieces of bark, also natural size, show the variation in the thickness of the individual pieces of bark ; in this variety the cork is present, the outer surface being gray or light grayish-brown with whitish patches, more or less rough and warty, the inner surface granu- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 311 lar, slightly striate and dark-brown; the ends of the pieces of drug show a shortening of the outer parts due to shrinking in the freshly broken pieces ; fracture in the drug is abrupt, showing a large number of yellowish-white cell clusters near the outer part, just within the cork. All the cinnamon barks have a peculiar, very pleasant fragrant odor and a sweetish, warm and aromatic taste. Ceylon cinna- mon has both a finer and stronger aroma than Cassia cinnamon, the latter drug being the least valuable variety of cinnamon. Saigon cinnamon, however, has both the strongest and best aroma, and is the variety that should be preferred for medicinal purposes. — C. Volatile oil, some cinnamic acid, sugar, etc. — U. Mainly for culinary purposes. It was formerly supposed to con- Fig. 250. trol uterine hemorrhages, but as it was always combined with other more active remedies, it is doubtful whether it itself had any such action. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, or ad libitum. Cascarilla N. Cascarilla. — 0. The bark of C rot on Eluteria; EuphorbiacecB. — H. The Bahamas. — D. The drug consists of quills or troughs, from 2.5 to 10 cm. long and about 10 to 15 mm. thick, or broken into smaller pieces; the bark itself is about 2 mm. thick; the cascarilla imported into the United States consists mainly of young bark which has a dull brown color, both on the outer and inner surfaces; the outer surface is usually much fissured trans- versely and partly or entirely covered with a white lichenous growth with black spots; the inner surface is smooth; the frac- ture is abrupt, resinous, and shows distinctly the transverse 312 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY striation of the bast bundles and medullary rays; among the parenchyma cells of the bark which contain starch there are scattered numerous brown oil or resin-cells ; bast fibers are few ; odor is slightly aromatic, but on burning becomes strongly fra- grant; the taste is strongly bitter and aromatic. — C. About 1.5 per cent volatile oil, cascarillin (a bitter neutral principle), and Fig. 251. about 15 per cent of resin. — U. Stimulant stomachic. Occasionally used as an ingredient of incense. It is also often used, either alone or in combination with other substances, as a tobacco flavor. Dose: About 2 grams. i-v Cornus N. Dogwood Bark. — 0. The inner bark of the root of Cornus florida; Cornacece. — H. North America. — D. In irregularly curved pieces or troughs from which the coarse gray layer has been re- moved; about 2 to 3 mm. thick; both outer and inner surfaces striated and reddish or reddish-brown, with often a decided tint of rose color or crimson; the fracture, longitudinal and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 313 transverse, is abrupt, showing yellowish clusters of stone-cells ; a prepared transverse section has numerous radiating lines of medullary rays, the clusters of stone-cells being irregularly dis- persed in the parenchyma of the phloem, and frequently adher- ing portions of "bork" show tangential lines of secondary suber or cork; the taste is bitter and astringent, odor none. — C. Cornin (or cornic acid), tannin, etc. — U. Astringent bitter tonic; slightly febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. Fig. 252. The barks of Cornus sericea (Swamp Dogwood) and Cornus circinata (round-leaved Dogwood) resemble dogwood bark, but are thinner and usually quilled ; they are of little importance, as they are very seldom used medicinally. Canella N. Canella. — 0. The bark of the stem of Canella alba; Canel- lacece. — H. Bahama Islands and West Indies. — D. Hard, white quills, troughs, or irregular fragments, about 2 to 4 mm. thick ; the outer surface is freed from the outer bark, and is pale brown- ish-red or brownish-yellow, smooth except that it is marked with long, white, oval scars ; barks from older branches are rough on the outside, but constitute only a small proportion of the drug; the inner surface is white, smooth and finely striate; it breaks with an even granular white fracture, showing numerous yel- lowish resin-cells in the middle bark ; a prepared section shows the middle bark to be bounded outwardly by a layer of cubical, lemon-yellow stone-cells, with a parenchyma consisting mainly of starch-cells with numerous interspersed large, round or oval, 314 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY yellow resin-cells, while the inner bark is radiately striated with medullary rays, and shows bast fibers; the odor is spicy, resem- bling cassia (it is called "white cinnamon" in German) and the taste is bitter and pungently aromatic. — C. Contains about 1 per cent volatile oil and about 20 per cent of acrid aromatic resin. — Fig. 253. U. Stimulant tonic similar in action to other aromatics: used mainly to prevent griping of purgative remedies. 2.5 grams. Dose: 0.5 to Sassafras N. Sassafras, Sassafras Bark. — 0. The inner bark of the root of Sassafras variifolium; Lauracece. — H. North America, espe- cially United States. — D. In irregular fragments deprived of the corky layer or bork; about 3 mm. thick; the outer surface from which the bork has been removed is sometimes quite prettily mar- bled or grained in light and dark gray and rust-brown, owing to the different colors of the parenchyma and the secondary suber of the bork, as shown in a drawing of a piece of the drug; the inner surface is smooth and rust-brown; fragile, soft with short corky fracture, not fibrous; a transverse section of the soaked bark examined by reflected light shows no structure, except when the bork is still present, when the outer part of the bark is distinctly striated in a tangential direction by the light-colored bands of secondary suber, and the drug is apt to be mistaken for one belonging to Group 42; in a thin transverse section the ra- diating lines of the medullary rays are very distinct, especially HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 315 if the section is examined while it is immersed in the solution of caustic potassa before the color has all been removed, because it is discharged first from the medullary rays, which then are light- colored among the deep-red parenchyma; the prepared section shows many medullary rays and some bands of secondary suber, and numerous reddish or yellowish oil-cells and isolated pale yellow bast-cells; fragrant, sweetish aromatic. — C. About 3 per Fig. 254. cent of volatile oil, traces of tannin, etc.— U. Sassafras is popu- larly much esteemed as a " blood purifier," or alterative; it is a stimulant diaphoretic, especially when administered in the form of copious draughts of hot infusion, the hot water no doubt de- serving some of the credit for the action. More commonly used merely as a flavoring agent. Dose: Usually ad libitum, of the tea. Primus Virginiana 0. Wild Cherry, Wild Cherry Bark.— N. The bark of Prunus serotina (Prunus Virginiana) ; Rosacece. The drug should be col- lected in autumn. — H. North America, especially United States. D. The bark of medium-sized branches should be used, that of the large stems and roots or of small twigs being inferior. Wild 316 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Cherry bark occurs in troughs or irregular pieces of various sizes, but should be at least 2 mm. thick; if from large stems or roots the corky layer is usually removed and the pieces are flat, with the outer surface rough, uneven, only obscurely marked with the peculiar transverse scars (lenticels), and rust-brown; if from medium-sized or small branches the bark is smooth, greenish, yellowish or reddish-brown and marked with numer- ous elevated, transverse, light-colored, peculiar and character- istic scars or warts (lenticels), the thin cork or epidermis show- Fig. 255. Fig. 256. ing a strong tendency to peel off and curl up (see Fig. 256) ; the inner surface is pale cinnamon-colored, striated or more fre- quently longitudinally fissured, as shown in Fig. 255, showing the inner surface enlarged; the other illustration shows the outer surface, natural size; the drug has little or no odor when dry, but after macerating with water or chewing, it gives a strong bit- ter almond odor; the taste is bitter and astringent with the aroma of bitter almonds. — C. Two principles resembling the am- ygdalin and emulsin of bitter almonds, but not identical with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 317 them, which react on each other in the presence of water and yield hydrocyanic acid and oil of bitter almonds ; a bitter gluco- side, tannin, etc, — U. Bitter stomachic and tonic, with slight sedative effect, the latter making it a popular remedy for colds and coughs. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in form of syrup or fluid extract. Simaruba N. Simaruba. — 0. The bark of the roots of Simaruba officinalis and S. medicinalis; Simarubacece. — H. South America and "West In- dies. — D. Flat pieces, troughs or rarely quills, often up to a meter long, folded lengthwise, from 3 to 6 mm. thick ; externally rough, wrinkled, with whitish suber, or the latter more generally rubbed off, in which case the outer surface is pale fawn-colored, rough with coarse stone-cells and tough fibers; inner surface lighter- Fig. 257. colored and striate or fibrous; bast toughly fibrous, arranged in somewhat obliquely radiating lines, separated by rather broad medullary rays, as shown in Fig. 257 ; the direction of the obliquity may appear to be from left to right, or the reverse, depending on which side of the section comes uppermost when mounting the specimen; odorless and intensely and persistently bitter. — C. Vol- atile oil and resin in very small proportion, a bitter principle (probably quassin), etc. — U. A bitter tonic. Often used in diar- rhoeas and dysenteries, in which diseases it is often of marked value, especially when they are due to an atonic condition of the alimentary tract. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Alnus Rubra N. Tag Alder. — 0. The bark of Alnus serrulata; Betulacece. — H. North America, — D. In quills or troughs, externally dark brown- ish-gray, marked by corky warts which tend to run together trans- 318 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY versely; the inner surface is orange-brown and marked by scat- tered, coarse, narrow, short, longitudinal ridges, or striate, as shown in the illustration of the inner surface ; the drawings of the whole bark are of natural size, that of the section is enlarged 5 Fig. 258. times; odor feeble, taste bitter and astringent. — C. Tannin, etc.; no exact analysis has been made. — U. Astringent. Also reputed to be alterative and emetic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given as fluid extract. Magnolia N. Magnolia. — 0. The barks of Magnolia glauca, M. acuminata and M. tripetala; Magnoliacece. — H. Southern United States. — D. The bark from young branches is in quills or troughs, thin, orange- brown and glossy or light gray, with scattered warts or some- what fissured; internally pale yellowish- white or pale brownish and smooth ; fracture abrupt, slightly fibrous in the inner layers ; in bark from older branches or stems, the bork, if present, is dark gray and deeply fissured, but as found in the trade the outer layer of the bark is generally removed and the drug con- sists only of the inner bark, which is often from 5 to 6 mm. thick; both inner and outer surfaces are of a pale yellowish-brown HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 319 color, the outer surface appearing to be somewhat granular, while the inner is more fibrous; the illustrations show the transverse sections of Magnolia glauca, that of Fig. 259 being the entire bark with bork, Fig. 260 the inner bark alone as most generally seen in the trade, both showing a smooth cut section examined by reflected light with a Coddington lens; the drug has no odor; the taste is bitter, astringent and pungent. — C. Tasteless neutral principle, tannin, resin, etc.; analysis not complete. Judging by the taste, the bark from small twigs is better than that of the Fig. 259. larger stems, for it is more pungent and bitter. — U. Tonic, febri- fuge and diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in decoction or fluid extract. Liriodendron N. Tulip-tree Bark. — 0. The bark of the branches of Lirioden- dron tulipifera; Magnoliaceaz. — H. United States. — D. The bark of smaller branches comes in thin quills or troughs, the bark being about 2 mm. thick; the outer surface is grayish or blackish-brown with often a purplish shade, longitudinally wrinkled so that the wrinkles sometimes resemble elongated meshes; internally yel- lowish-white, smooth, or somewhat fibrous; pieces of bark from larger branches are up to 6 mm. thick, with a deeply fissured bork of a grayish-broAvn color often with a greenish tint due to lichenoid growths; a smooth transverse cut (Fig. 261) shows nearly one-half of the thickness of the bark to be corky layer, of a light-brown color on section, and the inner part, rather more 820 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY than half the thickness, to be pale yellowish or white ; the bark of older stems or branches is usually deprived of its corky layer and is white on both outer and inner surfaces; by aid of a lens the inner bark shows fibro-vascular bundles alternating with medullary rays so as to give a plainly radially striated appear- ance, and the individual bast-bundles appear beaded; this is shown in Fig. 261, showing a section of the bark by reflected Fig. 261. Fig. 262. light, enlarged ; Fig. 262 is a section of a bundle, much enlarged, showing minute structure to which this beaded appearance is due, and a small fragment of one of the bast-bundles is also shown in longitudinal section; no odor, taste bitter and slightly astrin- gent. — C. Various resins, a glucoside, tannin, etc. — U. Tonic, febrifuge and vermifuge; seldom used. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract. Rubus N. Blackberry Root Bark. — 0. The bark of the roots of Rubus Fig. 263. villosus (blackberry), R. Canadensis (dewberry), and R. trivialis; Rosacea?. — H. United States. — D. Thin, tough, flexible bands, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 321 sometimes flattisli, more often quilled; the outer surface blackish or blackish-gray, inner surface pale brown, often with strips of white wood adhering; fracture rather tough and fibrous, whitish; a large proportion of the drug consists of the smaller rootlets entire; a section of the bark shows the bast in rather broad, obliquely radiate wedges, some of which are made up of the bast of two or more bundles; the drug is odorless, with astringent and slightly bitter taste. — C. 10 to 12 per cent tannin, the bitter glucoside villosin, etc. — U. Astringent tonic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. Berberis N. Barberry Bark (must not be confounded with the rhizome and roots of Berberis Aquifolium, which is also called "Ber- beris"). — 0. The bark of Berberis vulgaris; Berberidacece. — H. Europe and Asia; naturalized in America. — D. Thin fragments, Fig. 264. Fig. 265. outer surface brown or brownish-gray, inner surface yellow, sep- arating in thin shreds or sheets ; a clean-cut section of a soaked piece shows an outer dark brown corky layer, a middle bark of light yellow color, abruptly marked off from darker yelloAv or brownish inner bark, which is plainly radiate with dark brown 322 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY or almost black bast-bundles, so arranged that two of them often join in almost O-shape (see Fig. 265). The drug in bulk has a slightly herbaceous odor and a pure, bitter taste, and stains the saliva yellow. — C. Alkaloids berberidine and oxyacanthin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stomachic; in large doses laxative' with supposed cholagogue effect. Dose: 2 to 6 or 8 grams. Ptelea N. Wafer Ash Bark, Shrubby Trefoil Bark, Hop Tree Bark.— 0. The bark of Ptelea trifoliata; Rutacece. — H. North America. — D. In irregular pieces, troughs or quills of various sizes, the bark itself up to 4 mm. thick; the outer surface pale yellowish-brown Fig. 266. Fig. 267. with grayish- white markings, with transverse ridges and grooves and occasional transversely elliptical patches or depressions, the inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, cut- ting with a waxy feel ; on smooth cut section the corky layer is not well marked, being of same pale yellowish color as the mid- dle bark, the inner bark is striated with irregularly radiating bast-bundles of a slightly darker color than the parenchyma of the middle bark and the medullary rays ; faint, not characteristic odor, and a mucilaginous, slightly acrid and bitter taste. — C. No analysis. — U. Stomachic tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in fluid extract. Northern Prickly Ash Bark, the bark of Xanthoxylum Ameri- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 323 canum, shows radiating striation of bast, but as the Southern Prickly Ash Bark has no well marked striation, and it is not very plain even in the Northern variety, this bark will be more fully described under Group XLV. GROUP XLII The barks of this group show on a smooth-cut transverse sec- tion, especially if moistened with diluted liquor potassa, either continuous or interrupted rows which are at right angles to the medullary rays, or parallel with the corky layer, giving the ap- pearance as in the diagrammatic illustration ; the medullary rays are not ay ell marked, although traces of them can be seen, and in some instances even quite plainly, but when the medullary rays make quite distinct radial lines the bark would belong in Fig. 268. the next group; thus the stem bark of Juglans, which generally shows only the tangential lines distinctly, in some pieces shows quadratically striated, although the checkered appearance is very plain in the root bark. Nearly all barks show their charac- teristic markings Avhen a piece is freshly broken across, then cut smooth with a sharp knife and examined with a Coddington lens, but some barks require soaking before cutting, and sometimes even moistening with dilute solution of potassa to increase the contrast in color between the medullary and bast rays. It is ad- visable, also, to cut as thin a section as possible from the end of a piece of bark previously soaked in water or diluted alcohol, place this section in a drop of liquor potassa on a slide and cover with a cover glass, and examine, while clearing, with a lens of rather low power ; the markings often appear plainer while clear- ing, than when the section has been completely cleared. Making such a slide need not take more than one or two minutes of time. 324 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Nearly flat massive bark, with thick corky layer deeply fissured; gray or grayish-brown on outer and yellowish-red on inner surfaces Aspidosperma. Thin flexible bands or quilled pieces; brownish on outer and whitish on inner surfaces; separable into thin layers G-ossypii Radicis Cortex. Long, thin flexible bands, rolled into bundles, yel- lowish on outer and silky-white on inner sur- faces Mezereum. Quilled pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and whit- ish or pale tawny inner surfaces Euonymus. Flatfish pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and pale brown or whitish inner surfaces Viburnum Opulus. Thin quills or troughs, gray- brown outer and pale brown and striated inner surfaces Cundurango. Coarse quills, troughs or irregular pieces, toughly fibrous; outer surface gray or blackish-brown with many transverse ridges, inner surface smooth or fibrous Piscidia. Thick quills or troughs with coarsely fissured gray- ish-brown corky layer, or without bork; yel- lowish-brown and striated inner surface Alstonia Constricta. Small contorted quills or troughs, usually irregularly broken; occasionally whole pieces of root; their brownish corky layer usually partially detached and adherent in shreds Rhois Glabrae Cort. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent Juglans (stem) . Aspidosperma N. Quebracho, Quebracho-bianco, White Quebracho. — 0. The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco ; Apocynacece. — H. Bra- zil and Argentine Republic. — D. Large pieces slightly curved or nearly flat, from 1 to 3 cm. thick, the rough bork and the inner bark being of about equal thickness. The corky portion of the bark is deeply fissured, both longitudinally and transversely, the fissures being quite wide and of grayish color from lichenous growths, while the elevated parts of bark are grayish-brown to rust-brown. On section the corky layer is yellowish-brown to rust-brown, with dark tangential lines of secondary suber and rows of whitish clusters of sclerenchyma cells showing that the outer layer is bork. The inner bark is fawn-colored and marked HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 325 with fine longitudinal lines on the inner surface, which is other- wise nearly smooth; on section the inner bark shows numerous whitish groups of sclerenchyma cells arranged in tangential rows. The fracture is fibrous, irregular. No odor and taste in- tensely bitter. — C. Six alkaloids, of which aspidospermhie and Fig. 269. Fig. 270. quebrachine are the most important.— U. Used to relieve dysp- nea, from whatever cause it may arise. Tonic and antispas- modic in asthma. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Fig. 269 shows the whole bark. False Quebracho.— The bark shown in Fig. 270 is sometimes 326 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY found in trade as a substitute for true quebracho. It is Que- bracho Colorado, dark quebracho or false quebracho, obtained from Loxopterygium Lorentzii; Anacarcliaceae. It is heavy, outer surface dark brown and fissured, light brown on inner surface, which is marked by a great number of prominent longitudinal ridges. It is about 12 mm. thick. The transverse section appears tangentially striated from secondary suber and rows of bast- cells, and sometimes the light-colored medullary rays are distinct enough to give a quadratically checkered appearance. In the specimen I have seen, the fissures in the bork contained many tangled fibers, probably the rootlets of some climbers. Odorless, taste slightly resinous and astringent, not bitter. Valueless. Gossypii Radicis Cortex N. Cotton Root Bark. — 0. The bark of the root of Gossypium herbaceum; Malvaceae. — H. The cotton plant is indigenous to sub- Fig. 271. tropical Asia and Africa and is cultivated in America. The drug is gathered in the United States, south of the Ohio River. — D. The drug consists of thin, flexible, flat or quilled bands ; the outer surface is brownish-yellow, with slight longitudinal ridges or HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 327 meshes, sparsely scattered small, round, black dots, or short transverse lines, and dull orange-brownish patches where the thin outer bark is abraded ; the inner surface is tawny or whitish, finely striate and of silky luster ; quite a large proportion of the drug consists of the smaller roots entire. The transverse section (Fig. 271) shows the bast-fibers in clusters forming tangential lines; these bast-fibers are long and tough and the bast can be separated into thin shreds or layers; no odor; taste very slightly acrid and faintly astringent. — C. Eesin, fixed oil, tannin and a deep red coloring matter. — U. Employed as an emmenagogue. It acts on the uterus similarly to ergot, and is used in cases of suppressed or scanty menstruation. In large doses it may pro- duce abortion, and in fact is often administered with the inten- tion of bringing about this effect. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. Mezereum N. Mezereum, Mezereon Bark. — 0. The bark of Daphne Meze- reum, D. Gnidium and D. Laureola; Thymelacew. — H. Northern Europe and Asia, also Canada and New England. — D. Mezereum occurs in long thin bands, very flexible and tough, usually rolled into discs or bundles; the outer surface consists of reddish-brown cork, which is easily separable in shreds, showing the greenish Fig. 272. middle bark underneath; the cork is marked with many round or slightly transverse scars which are dark-colored, but often abraded and then yellowish-brown and lighter-colored than the cork; the inner surface of the bark is whitish and silky fibrous; on transverse section the cork and thin middle bark usually tear, the inner bark or bast separating from them ; in the latter the bast-bundles are arranged in somewhat irregular and interrupted 328 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY tangential lines, as indicated in the illustration ; the bast-cells are very long and tough ; the drug has no odor, but a very acrid taste, and the powder is an extremely irritating sternutatory. — C. A soft, brown, acrid resin, an acrid volatile oil, the glucoside daph- nin, etc. — U. Mezereum is esteemed as an alterative stimulant in chronic syphilitic, scrofulous, rheumatic and cutaneous affections ; generally in combination with sarsaparilla and other so-called blood purifiers. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram, best as fluid extract. Euonymus N. Wahoo. — 0. The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpu- reus; Celastracece. — H. United States. — D. Quills or troughs and ir- regular pieces, the "bark itself being about 2 mm. thick ; the outer surface is gray, with dark ridges or patches; the inner surface is Fig. 273. whitish or tawny, and smooth; the fracture is abrupt through the outer part of the bark, but the bast is slightly fibrous from silky fibers, which are quite delicate and not at all tough; the smooth- cut transverse surface is whitish and mottled with brown, with tangential brownish lines in the inner bark, as shown in Fig. 273 ; the odor is faint, taste sweetish-bitter and acrid. — C. A bitter amorphous substance called euonymin, extractive, etc. The "euonymin" of trade is merely a powdered extract. — U. Said to be tonic, laxative, alterative, diuretic and expectorant. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. A bark occurs in the trade under the name of "Southern Wa- hoo," which comes in chips evidently removed from the branches by knives, so that it has thin edges; small, thin troughs bent lon- gitudinally outwardly, occasionally with bits of wood adhering; grayish-brown, lighter-colored on inner surface, wood whitish; HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 329 corky layer reticulately or longitudinally wrinkled, with occa- sional small warts; the transverse smooth-cut section shows nu- merous clusters of sclerenchymatous cells arranged in irregu- larly tangential rows. This bark may be the bark of Ulmus alata (winged elm) which is called "wahoo" in the Southern part of the United States, although the statement of the National Dis- pensatory that this bark is used to make ropes does not agree with the brittle and abrupt fracture of the bark under considera- tion. At all events, it is not the "wahoo" of the Pharmacopoeia, and should not be used as "wahoo." Viburnum Opulus N. Cramp Bark. — 0. The bark of Viburnum opulus; Caprifo- liacce. — H. Northern temperate zone, in America, Europe and Asia. — D. In quills or troughs, 10 to 25 cm. long, the bark itself Fig. 274. being about 1 to 2 mm. thick ; the outer layer is greenish or brownish-gray but peels off easily and shows the reddish-brown inner bark underneath; the inner surface is grayish or slightly brownish ;' fracture of young bark brittle, of older pieces tough, the bast separating into layers; on transverse section (upper 330 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY drawing of Fig. 274) the bast is seen to be tangentially striated with rows of almost rectangular clusters of cells which are dark by reflected light, but transparent in thin sections by transmit- ted light; the drug is inodorous, with pungent and bitter taste. Fig. 274 shows both old and young barks entire, and a smooth- cut section by reflected light. — C. A bitter principle, pungent resin, etc. — U. Antispasmodic, useful especially in uterine colic, cramps in hysterical women, etc. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion or in fluid extract. Condurango N. Condurango. — 0. The bark of Gonolobus Cundurango; Ascle- piadacecE. — H. Ecuador and Peru. Said to be often mixed with the barks of other varieties of Asclepiadaceag, etc. — D. In quills and troughs about 5 to 10 cm. long, the bark itself from 2 to 6 Fig. 275. mm. thick; the outer surface is grayish-brown, with here and there remains of silvery gray epidermis, and occasional whitish or ash-gray patches of lichens, and with occasional small, black lichenous dots; the corky layer with shorter or longer transverse ridges or warts, but more commonly longitudinally wrinkled and fissured ; the cork chips off in places, showing the tawny middle bark underneath; the inner surface' is lighter-colored, tawny or yellowish-white, and longitudinally striated with elevated lines, and occasionally irregularly dotted with dirty grayish-brown spots; the fracture is granular, with a few projecting fibers nearer the outer surface; a smooth-cut section, especially of a soaked piece, shows as in Fig. 275, the outer part brownish, grad- ually shading to grayish-white within, and showing compara- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 331 tively large and few clusters of stone-cells arranged in more or less well-marked tangential rows ; the parenchyma contains starch and crystals of oxalate of calcmm. Nearly odorless and but faintly bitter. — C. A peculiar glucoside, some tannin, etc. — U. When first introduced it was heralded to be a sure cure for cancer, but unfortunately it has proved worthless as a remedy for this disease. It has probably merely slightly tonic effects and is medicinally of very inferior value. Dose: About 2 grams. Rhois Glabrae Cortex N. Sumach Bark. — 0. The bark of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacece. The root bark is preferred. — H. North America. — D. Quills or Fig. 276. Fig. 277. troughs, or irregular somewhat twisted or contorted fragments, sometimes enclosing pieces of wood ; the corky layer, which often hangs in shreds, is chocolate-brown with scattered reddish-brown warts; the middle bark appears yelloAvish-gray wherever the corky layer is abraded; the inner surface is smooth and of a light cinnamon-brown color; fracture abrupt and grayish-white, the smooth-cut section showing by reflected light the structure shown in Fig. 277, the corky layer thin, the middle bark rather thick, light yellowish-white Avith yellowish-brown spots, and the inner bark with distinct tangential alternating brownish and whitish lines ; odor none, taste bitter astringent. — C. Tannin, etc.- — U. Astringent tonic, useful for both internal and local use. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 332 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Juglans N. Butternut Bark. — 0. The bark of Juglans cinerea; Juglan- dacece. The inner bark of the root should be preferred, but bark of the stem also is found in the trade; usually the two barks are Fig. 278. sold separately. The bark should be collected in autumn. — H. North America. — D. In flat, coarsely fibrous pieces or troughs, up to 20 cm. long and from 3 to 5 mm. thick, but occasional pieces ^,;„v>-,.-.>^ ;•- . = H;^ J , mmmm® mmm^ Fig. 279. with bork may be much thicker ; the drug is usually deprived of all bork and is grayish-brown, mottled with darker colored mark- ings and lighter colored patches, as shown in Fig. 278 ; the inner surface is dark-brown, smooth or striate and fibrous, but the fibers HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 333 are not tough, so that the fracture is short and cutting with a knife shows all parts to be quite soft; a smooth-cut section of a thick piece (about 6 mm.) is shown in Fig. 279, with a bit of bork (secondary cork and sphacelated inner bark) attached, and the balance of thickness is made up of alternate layers of parenchyma and rows of bast-cells which form practically continuous lines ; in a section of thinner pieces the outer portion is middle bark of a light-brown color and the inner bark, somewhat abruptly marked off from the middle bark, shows the characteristic tan- gential lines ; occasionally in the smooth-cut end it is possible to find checkered or quadratically marked parts, but this usually requires a finished section, which has been cleared and is exam- ined by transmitted light, when it appears almost always check- ered, and would be referred to Group XLIII ; odor faint and taste slightly acrid and bitter. — C. Nucin (juglandic acid), 14 per cent of fixed oil, a little tannin, etc. — U. Laxative and tonic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in infusion or fluid extract, Piscidia N. Jamaica Dogwood Bark. — 0. The bark of Piscidia Erythrina; Leguminosce. — H. West Indies. — D. In coarse quills or troughs, or irregular pieces, about 15 to 20 cm. long, very fibrous and torn, the bark itself being from 4 to 6 mm. thick; the outer surface is marked with transverse ridges or warts, the edges of which are Fig. 280. somewhat raised so that they look like oval or elongated grooves with elevated margins; the corky layer, when present, is of choco- late-brown color with orange-brown spots, but more commonly the corky layer is absent; where the corky layer is broken away 334 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY the surface appears brownish- gray, Avith the wrinkles or warts showing distinctly ; the inner surface is of a dirty-gray color, longitudinally fissured, smooth or fibrous; the fracture is very tough and fibrous, the freshly-broken surfaces appearing yellow- ish-white; a smooth-cut transverse section shows the bast-bundles in short tangentially elongated clusters, closely packed in such a manner as to give a somewhat irregularly serrate demarkation between the inner and middle barks; Fig. 280 shows a section seen by reflected light, when the middle bark appears yellowish- white and the inner bark brownish ; the odor is very faint, some- times described as narcotic or opium-like, and the taste is slightly bitter. — C. Resin, a neutral principle piscidin and a bitter gluco- side. — U. Soporific, narcotic, anodyne and sudorific. Dose: 1 to 3 grams. Alstonia Constricta N. Australian Fever Bark. — 0. The bark of Alstonia constricta; Apocynacew. — H. Australia. — D. In quills or troughs of various lengths, usually about 15 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself being up to 6 mm. thick ; the outer surface usually is covered with a rough, Fig. 281. fissured, spongy and friable corky layer, which is grayish-brown with ash-gray patches or occasionally almost the entire surface is whitish-gray ; sometimes the corky layer is covered with lichens and in a small proportion of the pieces it is altogether wanting; the inner surface is superficially dark brown, often splintery or coarsely fibrous and torn, showing light orange-brown in the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 335 interior parts of the bark; the fracture is fibrous and splintery; a smooth-cut transverse section of a piece previously soaked in water is, as in Fig. 281, with rather dark-brown mottled cork, bright-yellow middle bark and the inner bark with numerous dark-colored short tangentially stretched clusters arranged in longer tangential rows; odor faint and taste intensely bitter. — C. Bitter taste is probably due to an alkaloid, alstonine. — U. Used for similar purposes as Cinchona, as a bitter tonic and anti-peri- odic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract. A Similar Drug is Dita Bark, the bark of Alstonia scholaris; Apocynacece. This drug is obtained in the Philippine Islands. In thick troughs or partial quills of various lengths from 5 to 20 cm. long (Fig. 282) ; the corky layer is rough, fissured, leather-brown, Fig. 282. frequently marked with black spots ; the inner surface is brownish- gray and striated lengthwise; the fracture is short and hard, yel- lowish-brown or leather-colored, the inner bark being obscurely tan- gentially striated on section ; no odor, bitter taste. — C. A peculiar bitter principle ditain, an alkaloid ditamine, etc. — U. Used for similar purposes as Alstonia constricta, but probably less active. GROUP XLIII The barks of this group are characterized by a more or less distinctly checkered or quadratically marked striation. This marking is due to an arrangement of bast-cells similar to that which gives the barks of the previous group the tangential mark- 336 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ing, but in addition to this, the medullary rays and bast por- tions of the fibro-vascular bundles which give barks of Group XLI the radial striation are also well marked, and these two features together result in a distinctly quadratically checkered striation. Thin, tough quills, glossy greenish or yellowish-brown outer sur- face; bitter astringent taste Salix. Flat, pale brownish-white pieces with corky layer removed; mucilaginous taste TJlmus. Large, flat pieces or troughs, reddish-brown externally; fibrous fracture; acrid taste Quillaja. Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, inner sur- face somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depressions externally Granatum. Quills or troughs, cork warty, ash-gray, or wanting; fracture splintery, coarsely fibrous Fraxinus. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent Juglans. Salix N. Willow Bark. — 0. The bark of Salix alba and other varieties of Salix; Salicacece. — H. Europe and North America. — D. Thin, tough, flexible quills, or irregular pieces varying in thickness from 14 to 2 mm., the bark from the trunk often considerably §§§§1 jSm M^ttMRW n^ - Fig. 283. thicker ; outer surface glossy greenish-gray to grayish or yellow- ish-brown, with a greenish layer under the thin outer bark; the corky layer sometimes slightly warty, in older barks occasionally silver-gray from lichenous patches ; the inner surface smooth and pale cinnamon-brown, or sometimes slightly reddish, peeling off HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 337 in thin, finely fibrous liber sheets ; fracture tough and fibrous ; on transverse section (Fig. 283) the striation appears quadratically checkered; no odor; astringent and bitter taste. — C. Salicin, 1 to 3 per cent; tannin 10 to 12 per cent. — U. Tonic, astringent, slightly febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Ulmus N. Elm Bark, Slippery Elm Bark. — 0. The inner bark of Ulmus fulva; Ulmacece. — H. United States. — D. In flat, flexible pieces or troughs of various sizes up to one-half meter or more in length and up to 1 or 2 decimeters in width, but usually smaller; about 3 mm. thick; the outer bark is removed so that both outer and inner surfaces are of the same color, pale brownish-white, the inner surface slightly ridged longitudinally; fracture tough and very fibrous, mealy; a smooth-cut transverse section (Fig. 284) shows delicate quadratic markings due to tangential liber and radiating medullary rays ; odor faint and taste insipidly mucilag- inous. — C. Mucilage. — U. Demulcent and emollient. Dose, ad libitum, of the mucilage. Powdered slippery elm bark is said to be sometimes adulterated with corn meal, which can be detected by aid of a microscope. Quillaja N. Soap Bark, Quillaja, — 0. The inner bark of Quillaja sapona- ria; Rosacea. — H. Chili and Peru. — D. In large, flat pieces or shal- low troughs, the bark itself about 4 to 8 mm. thick ; the outer sur- face, deprived of its bork, is brownish-white, with occasional 338 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY patches of reddish-brown corky layer, the inner surface is pale brownish-white, and the interior of the bark on fresh fracture is nearly white. The structure is woody and fibrous, fracture coarsely splintery, with pale brownish bast fibers with adher- ent white tissue and glistening from oxalate of calcium crys- tals; a smooth-cut transverse section (Fig. 285) is delicately Fig. 285. quadratically striated or checkered ; odor none, taste persist- ently acrid. — 0. About 9 per cent saponin. — U. The powder is sternutatory. Internally administered it is stimulant and diu- retic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams in infusion. Often used for washing delicate fabrics, silk, lace, etc. ; also as a shampoo for the hair. Fraxinus N. White Ash Bark. — 0. The bark of Fraxinus Americana; Oleacecs. — H. North America. — D. Quills or troughs, the bark itself up to 5 mm, thick; outer bark or corky layer ash-gray and warty, but often removed; inner surface smooth and yellowish- white; fracture coarsely fibrous and splintery, a smooth-cut sec- tion showing quadratically checkered appearance; odor aromatic, weak; taste acrid bitter. — C. Glucoside, bitter principle, etc.; analysis incomplete. — U. Diuretic, uterine tonic and emmena- gogue. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Juglans. — Stem bark is usually tangentially striated with the radiating markings obscure, but the bark of the root, which in its coarse appearance closely resembles that of the stem, except that it is often much thicker, is usually quadratically checkered, with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 339 both tangential and radial striae very plain, especially if a thin section is examined while being cleared in solution of hydroxide of potassium under the microscope, less so when totally cleared. Granatum. — While most pieces of this bark show no striation, a few may be met with in which quadratic markings are deli- cately but distinctly shown. The bark may, therefore, sometimes be looked for in this group. For full description, however, see the next group. GROUP XLIV While a finished and cleared section of a bark of this group will show the same general structure that is observed in barks in general, yet in a smooth-cut section examined by reflected light the appearance is rather uniform, both in color and texture, and even in the few barks in which there are clusters of peculiar cells these are not arranged in any manner to suggest striation. Heavy, long, flattish pieces or troughs, the bark up to 15 mm. thick, reddish-brown Coto. Similar to above, rust-brown, outer surface fissured and shrunken Paracoto. Narrow, brittle fragments, shaved from twigs, about 1 mm. thick, whitish wood adhering to inner surface.Prinos. Irregular pieces or troughs, outer surface grayish - brown with transverse warts, or reddish-brown patches where the cork is detached. Hamamelidis Cortex. Troughs or quills, up to 30 cm. long, younger bark mottled, older with rough cork Cascara. Thin bark in rolled quills, externally grayish-brown to blackish-brown with small transverse whitish cork- warts, inner surface brownish-yellow Frangula. Thin quills or troughs, glossy purplish-brown with scat- tered warts and blackish dots Viburnum Prunif. Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and scattered small spines Xanthoxylum. N. Quills or flattish pieces, brownish-gray with many large conical projections tipped with spines Xanthoxylum. S. Irregular pieces or troughs, externally brown and rough from warts; inner surface pale brownish-yellow. . . Chionanthus. Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, inner surface somewhat darker; often with conchoi- dal depressions externally Granatum. 340 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Irregular pieces, outer surface marbled or grained, fragile, soft, rust-brown; characteristic taste and odor Sassafras. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy. . .Ptelea. Coto N. Coto Bark. — 0. The bark of some unknown South American tree. — H. Bolivia. — D. In flattish pieces or troughs 0.2 to 0.3 meters long, the bark itself being from 5 to 15 mm. thick; or in irregular pieces (Fig. 286); outer surface reddish-brown, inner surface somewhat darker colored; fracture granular in outer layer, coarsely fibrous in bast portion of bark; a transverse sec- tion shows many golden-yellow clusters of sclerenchymatous Fig. 286. cells, but no striation; the odor is aromatic, reminding of carda- mom, camphor, cajeput-oil with a faint trace of cinnamon; taste pungent aromatic and slightly bitter. — C. A bitter acrid prin- ciple called cotoin, several resins, volatile oil, etc. — U. Highly recommended as a remedy for acute and chronic diarrhoeas, dys- entery, etc. Dose: 0.06 to 1 gram. A spurious coto bark, called Paracoto Bark, is also used. Its origin is also unknown, but it is probably the bark of a variety of Nectandra. — H. Bolivia. — D. In flat pieces of uniform rust- brown color on all surfaces, up to 15 or rarely 20 mm. thick, the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 341 best being about two-thirds of the entire thickness; the onter surface is transversely fissured and shrunken in length so that the bast projects somewhat in the manner shown in Saigon cin- namon; the bast is coarsely fibrous, striate on the inner surface; a smooth transverse section shows a continuous tangential line of light-yellow sclerenchymatous cells under the cork, and many irregularly scattered clusters of similar cells throughout the bast portion, giving the latter a speckled or dotted appearance, but without any distinct arrangement in rows; a smooth longi- tudinal cut shows these clusters as short longitudinal lines; the odor is nutmeg-like. — U. In action this bark is similar to, but weaker than the genuine coto bark, although it is maintained by some writers that most, if not all, of the coto bark now in the trade is in reality paracoto bark. Prinos N. Black Alder Bark. — 0. The bark of Prinos verticillatus; Aquifoliacece. — H. United States and Canada. — D. In thin, nar- Fig. 287. row brittle fragments, about 1 mm. thick, seldom more than 10 or 12 mm. wide and about 5 to 6 cm. long ; the pieces of bark show that they were shaved from the twigs with knives, the edges being thin and the middle of the pieces thickest, with often shreds of whitish wood adhering; the outer surface is brownish- gray or ash-gray, with lighter colored irregular patches and darker colored dots and lines and often with patches of light gray lichens; the inner surface is pale green, except where the whitish shreds of wood are attached; fracture abrupt, showing no 342 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY striation in bast, but usually showing a fissure between the outer and inner bark, the corky layer separating readily even in the whole bark, with a tendency to curl the edges outward; a sec- tion when partly cleared, shows distinct radial lines or medul- lary rays, but when completely cleared these are indistinct ; in a section cleared with solution of hydroxide of potassium the corky layer is brownish with a narrow layer of yellow cells un- derneath, then some parenchyma of the middle bark, often torn, then the inner bark radially striate, with large clusters of yel- low bast-cells in its outer portion; nearly inodorous, taste bitter and astringent. — C. An unnamed amorphous bitter principle, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Astringent, bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. Hamamelidis Cortex N. Hamamelis Bark, Witchhazel Bark. — 0. The bark of young branches of Hamamelis Virginiana; Hamamelidacece. — H. North America. — D. In irregularly quilled and bent pieces, or troughs, Fig. 288. about 8 to 10 mm. wide and 1 to 1.5 mm. thick; outer surface smooth grayish-brown, with transverse warts, or reddish brown, with detached patches of darker-colored grayish-brown cork, dotted with scattered blackish warts ; or occasionally the cork is rubbed off from the warts, when they appear lighter than the general surface; inner surface paler brown, slightly striate and with small elevated dots; the fracture abrupt or faintly tough in the bast of older pieces of bark; a section examined under the microscope shows faint tangential striation which is not seen with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 343 the naked eye; the odor is faint bnt peculiar, and taste astrin- gent. — C. About 8 per cent tannin. — U. Tonic astringent. Has been recommended as a remedy to prevent miscarriage, and locally as an application to wounds, bruises, hemorrhoids, etc. Dose: 2 to 4 grams. The bark and twigs of witchhazel are chopped up together and distilled with water and alcohol to make witchhazel extract; nothing but alcohol and water distils over, so that the prepara- tion and the process both are absurd. Cascara Sagrada N. Cascara, Cascara Sagrada, Chittem Bark. — 0. The bark of Rhamnus Purshiana; Rhamnacece. — H. Western parts of United States, especially the region of the Rocky Mountains. — D. Thin, brittle troughs or quills, from 2 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself Fig. 289. about 2 mm. thick; in quite young bark the outer surface is mot- tled as shown in Fig. 289, at the left, the dark parts being nearly black, the light parts whitish or ash-colored, with intermediate shades of brown; in older barks the contrast is not so marked, the entire surface appearing brownish-gray, although the pecu- liar figuring is often present; the inner surface is yellowish- brown to orange-brown when fresh, but darkening to a uniform brown with age. The root bark (Fig. 289, at the right) is thicker, darker, irregularly twisted or bent, and with a thick rough ex- 344 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ternal bark, as shown in the smaller drawing. All thicker pieces are somewhat fibrous in fracture in the bast portion. Odorless, taste bitter, and the bark stains the saliva yellow upon being chewed. — 0. Three different resins, tannin,. and a neutral crystal- lizable substance. — U. Valuable tonic laxative in chronic constipa- tion. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract or other fluid form. Cascara bark must be kept for at least one year after collect- ing, because the fresh bark is too acrid and produces griping. Frangula N. Buckthorn Bark. — 0. The bark of Rhamnus Frangula; Bham- naceoe. — H. Europe. — D. Quills or troughs, about the thickness of a Fig. 290. Fig. 291. little finger, consisting of bark from 0.5 to 1 mm. thick ; outer sur- face dull grayish or blackish-brown, with many small whitish, some- times transversely elongated cork-Avarts (Fig. 290); the exter- nal layer or epidermis can be easily detached and shows a pur- plish color on its inner surface ; the inner surface of the bark is smooth, orange or reddish-brown, or dark brown in older bark; fracture brittle, showing short fibers in the inner or bast portion; odor weak, but peculiar, and the taste sweetish-bitter. — C. Fran- gulin, which is a yellow, odorless and tasteless glucoside; emo- din, etc.; on chewing the bark the saliva is colored yellow. — U. Mild purgative; when fresh, it is very violent in its action and therefore it must be kept for at least a year before it is used. Dose: 2 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 345 Fig. 290 shows the bark in natural size, while a transverse sec- tion is shown in Fig. 291. Buckthorn bark must be kept at least a year after collecting, before using. Viburnum Prunifolium N. Black Haw. — 0. The bark of Viburnum prunifolium and V. Lentago; Caprifoliacece. — H. United States. — D. Thin frag- ments or quills, externally glossy purplish-broAvn, with scattered warts and minute black dots; bark from older branches is gray- ish-brown ; the thin outer bark separates easily from the greenish middle bark ; the inner surface is smooth and of grayish- white color; fracture abrupt; Fig. 292 shows transverse section of bark of V. prunifolium; odor slight or none, and taste bitter and some- Fig. 292. what astringent. — C. Valeric acid, bitter principle viburnin, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Used to prevent abortion or miscarriage ; it is also used in uterine derangements, as dysmenorrhea, etc. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. Xanthoxylum N. Prickly Ash Bark. — 0. The barks of Xanthoxylum American- um and X. Clava-Herculis; Xanthoxylacece. — H. United States; X. Amer., in Northern and Central States, and X. Cl.-H., in Southern States. — D. Northern variety: Quills or troughs or irregular pieces, the bark itself about 1 mm. thick; the outer sur- face is brownish-gray with whitish patches and minute black dots, and some few glossy brown two-edged spines up to 5 mm. 346 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY long; the inner surface smooth and whitish ; fracture abrupt, the broken surface apparently of uniform texture, but greenish in the outer and yellowish in the inner layers; no odor; taste bitter- ish and very pungent. — D. Southern variety: Eesembles the former in general appearance and taste, but is up to 2 mm. thick and on the outer surface there are many large conical corky projections, sometimes up to 2 cm. high, and some stout spines Jtagmeni enZcuyecL Z/i. yi » Fig. 293. rising from a corky base. Northern Prickly Ash Bark has al- ready been mentioned in Group XLI, because its section shows distinct radial striation, but it is described here with the fre- quently used Southern bark. Fig. 293 illustrates the crude ap- pearance of Southern Prickly Ash Bark, and a longitudinal sec- tion of the same. — C. An acrid green oil, acrid soft resin, bitter HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 347 principle, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, sialagogue, alterative and emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. The bark of Aralia spinosa may be mistaken for that of Xan- thoxylum (especially for the Northern variety), but it is nearly smooth externally, with transverse rows of -slender prickles. Chionanthus N. Fringe Tree Bark. — 0. The bark of the root of Chionanthus Virginica; Oleacece. — H. United States. — D. Irregular, either tor- tuous or nearly straight troughs and pieces averaging from 2.5 to 10 cm. in length and 1 to 2.5 cm. in width, the bark itself being 2 to 5 mm. thick ; the external surface is of a brown color, rough, marked by warts, transverse ridges and irregular scars ; the inner Fig. 294. surface is pale brownish-yellow and finely striate; fracture brittle, the broken surface nearly white, the transverse section showing scattered brownish spots of bast-cell bundles, but no distinct stria- tion; the odor is faint, reminding of rancid cacao butter; the taste is bitter. — C. No accurate analysis has been' made, but saponin has been found. — U. Said to be alterative, aperient and diuretic. Dose : 2 to 8 grams, best as fluid extract. Granatum N. Pomegranate, Pomegranate Bark. — 0. The bark of the stem and root of Tunica Granatum; Punicacece. — H. Grows wild in Northern Africa and Southern Asia and Europe; cultivated in all sub-tropical countries. — D. The root bark occurs in troughs, more rarely in quills, up to 10 cm. long, the bark itself being about 1 348 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY mm. thick; externally it is grayish-yellow or brownish-gray, finely wrinkled (when young) or fissured and warty or scaly (when from older roots), but free from lichenous growths; the corky layer is comparatively thick and frequently marked with conchoidal depressions (see Fig. 295) due to sphacelation from secondary suber, or if these sphacelated portions have not yet become detached the external surface appears scaly; the inner surface is smooth, finely striate, grayish-yelloAV ; fracture abrupt, brownish-yellow, generally of uniform finely granular texture, more rarely showing indistinct checkered or even radial mark- ings ; no odor, taste bitter. The bark of the stem is similar to that of the root, except that it occurs more frequently in quills, and has a less abundant cork-formation; it is moreover often marked, and often nearly covered on its external surface with lichenous patches. — C. Its action is supposed to be due mainly to an oily Fig. 295. liquid alkaloid, pelletierine; it contains also three other allied alkaloids, about 20 per cent of punico-tannic acid, etc. — U. An- thelmintic and taenicide. Dose: 5 to 15 grams in decoction. Sassafras has already been described, but the bast portion of many of the pieces, especially when the dry bark is broken, appear on transverse section to be of a uniform texture, so that the bark might also be looked for here. For description see Group XLI. Ptelea or Wafer Ash has already been described in Group XLI ; many pieces, hoAvever, break or cut with a peculiar almost waxy fracture and show uniform texture on the broken surfaces, so that the drug may sometimes be looked for here. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 349 GROUP XLV This group comprises only one bark, that of White Oak, which rarely or never comes into the drug-trade except coarsely ground or rasped. An irregularly coarse, grayish-brown powder mixed with many tough coarse fibers Quercus Alba. Quercus Alba N. White Oak Bark. — 0. The bark of Quercus alba; Cupuli- ferce. — H. United States. — D. The barks of various kinds of oaks are gathered and used in the tanning industry. As brought into trade for this purpose they are massive pieces, often a meter or two in length and with the coarse bork attached. White oak bark when prepared for the drug trade, is freed from the bork, and is then in coarse flat pieces, the bark itself about 5 mm. thick, pale brown, the inner surface with sharp projecting longi- tudinal ridges; fracture tough and coarsely fibrous ; a smooth- cut section shows quadratically checkered markings. As found in the drug trade, however, this bark is always coarsely ground, torn or rasped, so that it appears as an irregular powder, mixed with a mass of tough, coarse fibers, or vice versa, as coarse fibers with some coarse powder intermixed; the odor is faintly tan-like, taste strongly astringent. — C. From 5 to 15 per cent of a peculiar variety of tannic acid, quercitannic acid ; younger bark contains proportionally more of this principle than does the older bark. — U. Astringent; the infusion is mainly employed externally as an injection in leucorrhoea, etc. ; as a gargle in pharyngitis, and as a mouth-wash for spongy and bleeding gums. Black Oak Bark (from Quercus tinctoria) colors the saliva yel- low, which the official bark does not. This bark should not be employed, as its decoction or infusion, when used for instance as an injection in leucorrhoea, would stain the clothing. GROUP XLVI Leaf Buds We have already learned that some authors include under the group of leaf buds such structures as bulbs, corms and even 350 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY tubers ; these structures are better separated from leaf buds, and have already been described under their appropriate Groups, XXX to XXXIII, inclusive. We speak here only of true leaf buds, to which no part of the stem is attached, or of which at least the stem does not form a part. In Latin these structures are called "Gemmae." Long, tapering, scaly leaf buds, brown and covered exter- nally with sticky resin Populi Gemmae. Populi Gemmae N. Poplar Buds. — 0. The buds of Populus nigra; Salicacece. — H. Europe. — D. The drawing shows the appearance and size of these buds better than words could do; they are dark brown, wrinkled, and covered with a sticky resinous exudation, so that they often adhere to each other to form lumps; odor balsamic and Fig. 296. terebinthinate, taste bitterish, balsamic and somewhat pungent. — C. Eesin, volatile oil, with probably small quantities of the bal- samic acids. — U. Poplar buds are used in combination with other substances for making some of the popular cough preparations, in which they probably act similar to tolu, etc.; used also in preparing ointments, to which the buds impart some ingredient which prevents the fats from becoming rancid. The buds of .the North American plant, Populus oalsamifera, are used in a similar manner as those from the black poplar; they are known as Balm of Gilead Buds. LEAVES The student is supposed to have acquired a knowledge of the nature of leaves and of their forms and structure from his read- ing some work on botany, or from the lectures on that subject. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 351 There are some characteristics, however, which are of especial im- portance to pharmacognosists and which must be mentioned here. Leaves are covered by an epidermis, which usually has more stomata on the under side than on the upper side; it is also often thicker, as well as smoother, on the upper side than on the under ; on section it is seen that cells are crowded closely against the upper epidermis, while they are separated by large intercellular spaces in the lower part of the leaf, these intercel- lular spaces communicating with the outer air by means of the breathing pores (stomata). As the "palisade" cells of the upper layer of the leaf also contain more chlorophyll bodies, the upper surface shows a deeper green color, while the under side is often made to look still paler by the innumerable small hairs, which grow by preference on the under side of leaves. Fig. 297 shows dia- gramatically a section of a part of a leaf, as well as a portion of epidermis. When ground or broken leaves are to be examined, the epider- mis and its cells, the shapes and distribution of the stomata, the presence or absence, as the case may be, of trichomes (outgrowths of the epidermis, as glands, hairs, scales, etc.), and the appear- ance of the latter constitute the characteristics by which a de- 352 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY termination is made, but when whole leaves are examined their shapes are described as in works of botany. Leaves may be divided into coriaceous and herbaceous leaves, and while this division is not always distinct, nevertheless it will be found to be of practical convenience ; in a few drugs, how- ever, some lots will appear to be of one kind, and other lots re- semble more the other kind, as is the case occasionally in coca, chestnut leaves, etc. Leaves are coriaceous or leathery when the epidermis is thick- ened and hardened and the skeleton or frame-work of fibro- vascular bundles is more or less lignified, so that the leaf retains its shape and size on drying. Herbaceous leaves, on the other hand, are those in which the epidermis and skeleton both are soft and succulent, so that the leaf shrinks in every direction on dry- ing, in length, width and thickness, so that it becomes much crumpled, often much broken and torn, and sometimes consider- ably reduced in size; such leaves may be softened by steaming, when they are to be examined, as they can then be flattened out easily and their forms shown. Some leaves are pellucid-punctate from numerous glands (often intercellular spaces in their interiors) filled with vola- tile oil, which appear as translucent dots on looking through the leaf at some bright light, or at the sun. Most leaves become brownish on drying, so that the color is rarely a pure green in the drugs; moreover the extractive mat- ters in the parenchyma of the leaves are usually dark brown, so that even in .greenish leaves this brown coloring material prepon- derates over the green chlorophyll, and extracts or tinctures from leaves are usually brown. Leaves may be grouped as follows: Leaves, Coriaceous j Sim P le XL ™ [Compound XLAIII „ , Simple XLIX Herbaceous A L [ Compound L It must be remembered, however, that flowering tops consist mainly of leaves, and some drugs which are supposed to consist of leaves alone are often terminal twigs with leaves and occasion- ally flowers or even immature fruits; especially is this the case with the narcotic herbs, as belladonna, aconite leaves, etc., and HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 353 so commonly and regularly was it the case with hyoscyamus that now the Pharmacopoeia defines this drug to be "the leaves and flowering tops." Some leaves are sometimes found in the trade as leaves alone, but more frequently as leafy twigs, and a few of these have been already described as "leafy branches" in Group XXXIV; mention of these is, however, also made under the ap- propriate groups of leaves. GROUP XLVII Simple Coriaceous Leaves Scythe-shaped, 15 to 30 cm. long, margin entire; grayish- green Eucalyptus. Roundish-obovate, about 15 mm. long, margin crenate or ser- rate; yellowish-green; pellucid-punctate, with a gland at each serration Buchu (short) . .Slender linear-lanceolate leaves, about 3 to 4 em. long, mar- gin serrate ; otherwise like the preceding Buchu (long) . Obovate or oblong spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long, margin en- tire; lower surface reticulate; brownish-green Uva Ursi. Variable in size and shape, ovate, obovate-oblong to lanceo- late, 2 to 7 cm. long, margin entire; green to brownish; with a curved line on each side of the midrib Coca. Obovate to oblong, 10 to 25 mm. long, margin with 2 to 6 dentations on each side; light-green Damiana. Ovate-oblong, to 5 cm. long, with long petiole, margin finely crenulate; whitish to grayish-green, downy Salvia. Rolled into small balls or cylinders; grayish-green, bluish- green to blackish Thea. Oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin entire, somewhat wavy; pellucid-punctate; brownish or brownish-green Laurus. Broadly oval, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; rough on both sides, glossy on upper and hairy on under surface; brown- ish-green Boldus. Linear, about 25 mm. long, margin revolute; dark-green above, whitish woolly, glandular, with prominent midrib under- neath Rosmarinus. Lanceolate, short-petiolate, 7 to 10 cm. long, to 25 mm. broad, margin entire and somewhat wavy; thin, smooth, and often with scars from insects Duboisia. Ovate, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; thick, glaucous, pale green Manzanita. ;54 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Roundish-oval or obovate, about 4 cm. long, 2 or more cm. broad, margin slightly serrate with appressed spicular teeth; smooth, glossy, green or brownish-green G-aultheria. Oblanceolate, about 5 cm. long, margin serrate at apex and nearly entire near base; smooth, dark-green Chimaphila. Oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin irregularly den- tate; greenish or brown; upper surface smooth and cov- ered with brownish resin, often agglutinated into lumps, lower surface white-hairy Eriodyction. Eucalyptus N. Eucalyptus. — 0. The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus; Myrta- cece. Only the leaves from the older parts of the tree should be Fig. 298 used, as those from the younger branches are comparatively worth- less. — H. Indigenous to Australia, but now cultivated in all sub- tropical countries. — D. This drug has already been mentioned under Group XXXIV, leafy twigs, as it comes into trade in that shape in the bales; but as it is usually garbled before reach- ing the retail dealer, the latter obtains it as leaves alone, and therefore its description has been postponed to this place. The leaves are petiolate, lanceolate scythe-shaped, from 15 to 30 cm. long, more or less rounded at the base, tapering at apex, margin entire, coriaceous, pellucid-punctate or glandular, gray- ish-green; a leaf from the older parts of the tree is represented in half natural size in Fig. 298 (a) ; odor strongly camphoraceous and the taste pungently aromatic, bitter and astringent, leaving a cool- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 355 ing taste in the mouth. A leaf from the younger branches is rep- resented in Fig. 298 (b), also half natural size; such leaves are ovate, faintly cordate at base, rounded or only slightly pointed at apex, bluish-green, thinner and less glandular than the scythe- shaped leaves, but otherwise similar except that they are far less active medicinally, for which reason they should not be used. In the bales twigs and unopened buds, of Avhich latter one is illus- trated (c), are generally present, though absent hi the garbled drug as it reaches the retail pharmacist. — C. About 6 per cent volatile oil, called "eucalyptol," some tannin, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant tonic, stomachic, blennorrhetic, diaphoretic and diu- retic; by some esteemed to be febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. The volatile oil is used as an antiseptic. Buchu N. Buchu. The word "buchu" ("bucco, bukko") is of Afri- can origin, and is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The leaves of Barosma betulina; Rutacece. — H. Southern Africa.— D. There are two trade varieties of this drug, short and long, of which the former is the best, although the long is the higher-priced variety. Short Buchu is composed of leaves about 15 mm. long, round- 356 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ish-obovate with somewhat wedge-shaped base, or varying be- tween oval and obovate, obtuse at apex, margin crenate or ser- rate, leaves rather thick, dnll yellowish-green, pellucid-punctate, with a gland at each indentation; odor and taste strongly mint- like, aromatic, pungent and bitterish. — C. One to iy 2 per cent volatile oil, etc. ; the oil is the active constituent. — U. Stimulant diuretic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, best in fluid extract. Long Buchu is obtained from B. serratifolia; the leaves are 3 to 4 cm. long, thin, slender, lanceolate, green, less leathery but otherwise similar to short buchu. Long buchu is often mixed with the leaves of Empleurum serrulatum, which are narrower and without oil-glands at the extreme apex. The illustrations in Fig. 299 are as follows: A, leaf of Barosma crenulata, natural size, and a, the same enlarged ; B, leaf of B. be- tidina, natural size, and b, the same enlarged ; C, leaf of B. serrati- folia, natural size ; D, leaf of Empleurum serrulatum, natural size, and d, apex of same, enlarged; E, leaf of Barosma crenata, which sometimes constitutes part of the drug. Uva Ursi N. Uva Ursi, Bearberry Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Arctosta- phylos Uva-ursi; Ericacece. — H. Northern Europe and America. — D. Short-petioled, obovate or oblong-spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long and 5 to 8 mm. broad, apex obtuse, margin entire and slightly revolute, upper surface with veins depressed, lower surface dis- Fig. 300. tinctly reticulate, brownish-green to brown ; odor faint and taste strongly astringent and somewhat bitter. — C. About 6 per cent tannin, arbutin, etc. — U. Astringent, diuretic and nephritic; es- pecially esteemed in kidney and bladder troubles. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 357 Coca N. Coca Leaves, Cucha Leaves. The word "Coca" is of Peru- vian origin and is indeclinable and neuter; to treat it as a noun of the first (Latin) declension is a mistake. — 0. The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca and its varieties; Erythroxylacece. — H. Peru and Bolivia; cultivated. — D. From 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, short- petioled, closely net-veined on both sides, with a thick midrib, on both sides of which there is a more or less distinctly marked curved line (not connected with the venation) running from the base to the apex, margin entire, greenish to greenish-brown or Fig. 301. even brown in color with faint tea-like odor and bitterish aro- matic taste. Fig. 301 shows a leaf of Erythroxylon Coca known as "Huanuco Coca." The leaves of the Truxillo variety are smaller than the Huanuco Coca, but are said to be richer in cocaine. They are derived from Erythroxylon Truxillense; they are up to 5 cm. long and one-half as broad, pale green; thin, and brittle. — C. Cocaine, etc. Both varieties should yield at least 0.5 per cent of the ether-soluble alkaloids of coca. — U. Stimulant, resembling coffee in action. Said to be a general excitant. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, chewed, or in 358 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY infusion or fluid extract. Cocaine is a local anaesthetic; used as a stimulant and intoxicant by so-called "cocaine-fiends," to whom the habitual use of this drug proves as destructive as the opium or hashish habits do to their respective votaries. Damiana N. Damiana. — 0. The leaves of Turnera aphrodisiaca, T. microphilla, and perhaps other varieties of Turnera; Tumeracece. — H. Mexico and lower California. — D. The form and size of the leaves are well shown in the drawings. Variable, short-petioled, obovate, or oblong, apex somewhat obtuse, base wedge-shaped and margin with three to six teeth on each side, veins prominent beneath, light green, nearly smooth, often much broken and Fig. 302. crumbled; odor agreeably aromatic and taste slightly aromatic. Mexican Damiana consists of small smooth leaves (a, b and c, in Fig. 302), and California Damiana consists of larger and broader leaves with redundant margin (d). — C. Volatile oil and resin. — U. Generally reported to be a valuable aphrodisiac. Stimulant, tonic and diuretic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in fluid extract or in- fusion. False Damiana consists of the leaves of Aplopappus (or Haplo- pappus) discoideus (Composite^), which are frequently sold as Damiana. Fig. 302 (e), shows appearance and size. About 2 to 3 cm. long, oblanceolate, with from one to three dentations on each side, rough, and minutely dotted; frequently mixed with the flower-heads (or with parts of same, involucre, florets and hairy pappus) of the same plant. The odor and taste of False Damiana HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 359 differs from that of the genuine drug, and resemble more those of Grindelia. These leaves contain resin, but lack the aroma of true Damiana, and when present must be considered as adulteration. Salvia N. Sage. — 0. The leaves of Salvia officinalis; Labiatce. — H. Cultivated. — D. With long petiole, blade ovate-oblong, about 3 to 7 cm. long, base rounded, apex obtuse or subacute, thick, some- what wrinkled, grayish-green, soft-hairy and glandulous on un- der side ; margin delicately crenulate ; odor aromatic, taste aro- Fig. 303. matic, bitter, somewhat astringent. Wild, gray, thick sage is considered the best ("Italian Sage"). — C. Volatile oil, some resin, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, astringent and vulnerary. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in infusion. The infusion is a popular gargle for sore throat, etc. Thea N. Tea. — 0. The leaves of Thea Chinensis (Sinensis); Ternstroz- miacece. According to Hayne there are three distinct varieties of this plant: Thea Bohea, T. viridis and T. stricta, distinguished by shape of leaves and fruits. — D. In the trade these leaves are found rolled into little balls or cylinders, varying in size, and in color from grayish-green, bluish-green to blackish. The leaves themselves, when unfolded after steaming or infusing, are found to be short- 360 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY petiolate, oval to oblong-lanceolate, 25 to 75 mm. long, about half as broad, acute at both ends, margin serrate, smooth or slightly hairy and glandular along the veins on the under side ; it is seldom, how- ever, that a leaf can be found entire, as they are mostly in small fragments in the drug, but sufficiently large pieces to identify the general form are not so rare; odor peculiar and taste astrin- gent and bitterish. The drawing of a whole leaf (Fig. 304) shows size, shape and venation of a large leaf and the other drawings show a portion of the epidermis of the under side (a) and a sec- tion of the leaf (6) with the peculiar sclerenchymatous cells in its Fig. 304. interior. — C. Volatile oil, up to 3 or 4 per cent of theine (identical with caffeine), up to 20 per cent tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, ner- vine and astringent. Mainly used in infusion as a drink, the habitual and excessive use of which may produce nervous and digestive derangements. Tea is commercially divided into a number of varieties, which may, however, be broadly grouped as black and green teas. These varieties are obtained from the same plant, the differences de- pending on size and age of leaves, time of gathering, mode of pre- paring, as well as on peculiarities of soil and climate. In the fol- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 361 lowing lists the names of these varieties are given in the order of quality, beginning with the finest, made from the tender leaf buds, down to the coarsest, from the hard and woody expanded leaves. Black Teas; with leaves usually merely rolled into cylinders ; var.: Flowery pekoe, orange pekoe, pekoe, pekoe souchong, sou- chong, congon, bohea. Green Teas; with leaves usually rolled into balls or twisted cylinders, and generally colored green artificially; var.: Gun- powder, imperial, hyson, young hyson, hyson skin, caper. Green teas are considered better or more fragrant, but they contain more tannin and are therefore more astringent. Adul- teration with other leaves can be determined by infusing the leaves and then spreading out and comparing the suspected leaves with the known shape and structure of the genuine leaves. Lauras N. Laurel Leaves, Bay Leaves. — 0. Leaves of Lauras nobilis; Lauracece. — H. Europe. — D. Fig. 305 shows size and venation; Fig. 305. short petiole, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, about 7 to 10 cm. long, margin entire and somewhat wavy, finely veined on under side, pellucid-punctate, greenish-brown to brownish, odor agreeably aromatic and taste bitterish. — 0. Vola- tile oil, some bitter substance, tannin, etc. — U. Employed as a flavoring in cooking. Boldus N. Boldo, Boldo Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Peumus Boldus; JIo- nimiacece, — H. Chili, cultivated. — D. Broadly oval, about 5 cm. 362 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY long, margin entire, rough on both sides from raised glands, glossy on upper and hairy on under surfaces, brownish-green to reddish-brown; disagreeably fragrant and pungently aromatic and bitter. — C. About 2 per cent volatile oil, an alkaloid boldine, a glucoside boldoglucin, some aromatic resin, tannin, etc. — U. Fig. 306. Stimulant nervine, excitant; also useful in inflammations of genito-urinary organs, in hepatic affections, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 gram, best in fluid extract. Rosmarinus N. Rosemary Leaves, Rosemary. — 0. The leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis; Labiatce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Linear, nearly sessile, about 2 to 3 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 mm. broad, margin entire and slightly revolute, dark-green above, whitish woolly, glandular and with prominent midrib underneath; odor camphoraceous, Fig. 307. taste strongly aromatic. — C. Volatile oil and bitter extractive. — U. Stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, carminative and emmena- gogue. Dose: 1 gram or more in infusion. Duboisia N. Duboisia Leaves. — O. The leaves of Duboisia myoporoides; Solanacece. — H. Australia. — D. Short-petiolate, broadly lanceolate, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 363 about 7 to 10 cm. long, 20 to 30 mm. broad, rather thin, smooth, apex acute, base long and tapering, margin entire and somewhat wavy, midrib coarse and prominent, odor slight, but disagreeable if any, and taste bitter acrid. Fig. 308 shows this leaf in natural size. — 0. Duboisine (similar to hyoscyamine or atropine), resin, etc. — U. Rarely used except for the manufacture of duboisine. The action is similar to that of belladonna, like which it is some- Fig. 308. times used. Excitomotor, in large doses narcotic poison, ano- dyne; dilates the pupil of the eye. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 gram in fluid extract. Manzanita N. Manzanita.— O. The leaves of Arctostaphylos glauca; Erica- cece. — H. California. — D. Ovate-oblong, or elliptical, petiolate, Fig. 309. about 5 cm. long, apex acute, base obtuse, margin entire, thick, hairy, pale-green; without odor, taste astringent and somewhat bitter. — C. Arbutin, about 10 per cent tannin, etc. — U. Used like uva ursi; astringent, diuretic, tonic. Dose: 2 to 8 grams in fluid extract. Gaultheria and Chimaphila are rarely met with in trade as leaves alone, and for this reason they have already been fully 364 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY described under Group XXXIV, Leafy Twigs. As garbled lots, consisting of leaves alone may, however, be met with occasion- ally, they are also mentioned here. Eriodyction is officially and generally described as " leaves" and would therefore be looked for here, but as a matter of fact this drug often consists of twigs with leaves attached, belong- ing therefore under Group XXXIV, where it has been described and figured. See also the next group. GROUP XLVIII Compound Coriaceous Leaves A compound leaf consists of a number of leaflets attached to a midrib; the drugs mentioned under this group are easily recog- nized as compound leaves when they come into the trade in bales, but they are sometimes carefully garbled and may then be mistaken for simple leaves ; this is especially true of India or Tinnevelly Senna. Care must be taken not to mistake compound leaves for leafy branches. Whole leaf with. 8 to 10 leaflets; leaflets various sizes, 2 to 4 cm. • long, lanceolate, uneven at base, entire, grayish-green Senna. Whole leaf with 5 to 11 leaflets; leaflets about 10 to 15 cm. long, oval or ovate-oblong, emarginate, uneven at base, margin en- tire, pellucid-punctate, dull grayish-green Pilocarpus. Senna N. Senna, Senna Leaves. — 0. The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia (Alexandria Senna) and C. angustifolia (India Senna) Legumi- nosoe. — H. Africa; the India Senna is cultivated in India. — D. There are two trade varieties, known as " Alexandria Senna" and " India Senna," which must be separately described: Alexandria Senna in bales sometimes consists of the whole leaf, a midrib with four to five pairs of leaflets, mixed with a short and broad legume, and occasionally with other or foreign leaves. Before using it should be carefully garbled and all foreign substances re- jected ; when thus garbled Alexandria senna consists of broadly lan- ceolate or ovate-lanceolate, almost sessile, subcoriaceous leaflets, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 365 about 15 to 25 mm. long and up to 10 mm. broad, apex tapering or pointed, base unequally oblique, margin entire, grayish-green and slightly pubescent; odor peculiar, taste nauseous bitter. India Senna generally occurs in trade well garbled, as leaflets alone, lanceolate, from 3 to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, apex acute, base unequally oblique, margin entire, smooth, yellowish- green or dull green; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like, and taste nauseous bitter and somewhat mucilaginous. — C. Cathartic acid, chrysophan, etc. — U. Active, but not acrid cathartic. Dose: 2 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract; often combined with magnesium sulphate. The letters refer to drawings in Fig. 310. Alexandria senna (6) is usually considerably broken, mixed with pods, midribs coarse stems, and with more or less of the leaves of Solenostemma Argel (/) or "Argel leaves;" it also frequently contains leaves from Cassia ohovata (c) and sometimes of Tephrosia (d) and Coriaria (e). India senna is much less broken than Alexandria senna. The senna cultivated at Tinnevelly, in East India, is the best kind of 366 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY India senna; it consists almost entirely of whole leaflets of good fresh color, and is free from stems, midribs and other admixtures. Alexandria senna leaves, entirely free from admixtures, are said to be about 50 per cent more active than India senna, and this is therefore the better variety. But for retail trade, the Tinnevelly senna is preferred on account of its clean and un- broken and therefore more sightly condition (a). Pilocarpus N. Pilocarpus, Jaborandi.— 0. The leaflets of Pilocarpus Jdbo- randi (and also of P. microphallus); Rutacece. — H. Brazil. — D. In the trade the entire leaf, consisting of midrib with from five to eleven leaflets, is often found, often even with a piece of twig attached, as shown in Fig. 311. The leaflets (Fig. 312-a) are HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 367 short-stalked, broadly oval or ovate-oblong, apex obtuse or slightly emarginate or notched, unequal at the base, margin en- tire and slightly revolute or rolled back on the under surface of the leaflet, smooth, pellucid-punctate, grayish or dull green color; odor slightly aromatic when bruised and taste somewhat pungent and bitter. — C. The alkaloids, pilocarpine, and jabo- rine, volatile oil, etc. ; the drug should yield not less than 0.6 per cent of alkaloids on assay. — U. Sialagogue and diaphoretic. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. Fig. 311 shows a whole leaf of P. Jaborandi as it occurs in the drug; Fig. 312 shows a leaflet (a) natural size, showing venation; a portion of epidermis of under surface, slightly enlarged, showing gland dots (b) ; the same more highly enlarged, by reflected light {d), and by transmitted light (e). The leaflets of P. microphyllus are much smaller, but otherwise, similar. GROUP XLIX Simple Herbaceous Leaves An herbaceous leaf has delicate and soft epidermis and the vessels and prosenchymatous cells of the skeleton are but slightly or not at all lignified, so that on drying it shrinks in every direction, becoming thinner and smaller than the growing leaf before gather- ing. In the drugs of this group many leaves are much shrunken and crumpled, so that they must be softened by steaming or infusing before they can be flattened out for examination, and most of them are so much broken that perfectly shaped leaves are not always easily obtained. Hyoscyamus, Maidenhair Fern, Tea, the drugs of Group IX, Flowering Tops, and the Inflorescence of Tilia may easily be mistaken for simple herbaceous leaves, and attention is therefore called to them here. See also introductory remarks to Group IX. Broadly ovate, thin, smooth, 5 to 15 cm. long, petiolate, apex tapering, margin entire; usually as "tops" with two unequal leaves at nodes Belladonnas Folia. Ovate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiolate, margin crenate, reticu- late on under surface, densely hairy Digitalis. 368 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Lanceolate, about 10 to 15 cm. long, apex acute, base un- equally cordate, margin finely crenulate, under sur- face with prominent venation and deeply reticulate. .Matico. Obliquely ovate or oval, about 10 cm. long, short petiolate, margin irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed Hamamelis. Ovate to oblong lanceolate, acuminate, petiolate, 15 to 25 cm. long, from 5 to 8 cm. broad, evenly feather-veined, margin serrate Castanea. Ovate, petiolate, about 15 to 25 cm. long, margin irregu- larly sinuously lobed or toothed, much wrinkled and broken Stramonii Folia. Oblong or oval-lanceolate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiole broadly winged, apex acute, margin crenate, gray- felty or hairy Verbasci Folia. Large peltate leaf, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm. or more across, lobes acuminate, margin serrate, much wrin- kled and broken Ricini Folia. Oval or ovate, lanceolate, up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, margin entire, brown Tabacum. Rolled into small balls or cylinders; grayish-green, bluish- green, to blackish Thea. Ovate, irregularly lobed leaves, up to 25 cm. long, gray- green, hairy; usually as leafy tops; flowers or capsules within persistent calyces often present Hyoscyamus. Frond of fern with triangular leaflets, with sporangia un- der recurved edges of lobes, and thin glossy-brown stipes Adiantum. Belladonnae Folia N. Belladonna Leaves, Deadly Night- Shade, — O. The leaves of Atropa Belladonna; Solanacece. — H. Europe and Asia; cultivated in Europe and America. — D. Broadly ovate, up to 15 cm. long, half as broad, apex acuminate, base tapering, petiolate, margin entire, thin and wrinkled, smooth, brownish-green on upper and grayish-green on under surfaces, both surfaces have minute whitish dots when examined with a lens; odor, if any, somewhat narcotic, taste disagreeable and bitter. — C. The alkaloid atropine is the most important principle; there are besides this belladon- nine, hyoscyamine, etc. — U. Narcotic, mydriatic (dilating the pupil of the eye), checks excessive sweats and suppresses secre- tion of milk; also physiological antidote to opium. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram, best in tincture or fluid extract. This drug very often consists of the tops, the twigs forming HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 369 obtuse angles at the nodes, with two leaves of very uneven size at each node ; frequently with either flowers or fruits (blackish- red berries with persistent calyx) also present. The leaves, flow- ers and fruits are shown in Fig;. 313 in natural size. Fig. 313. Antidotes: If a poisonous dose has been taken, the stomach should be promptly evacuated, either with an emetic or stomach tube, and opium or physostigma given to counteract the physio- logical effects of the belladonna on the nervous system. Digitalis N. Digitalis, Foxglove. — 0. The leaves of Digitalis purpurea; Scrophulariacece. Only the leaves of the plants of second year's growth should be gathered. — H. Europe. — D. Ovate-oblong, 10 to 20 cm. long, 5 to 10 cm. broad, apex acute, margin irregularly crenate, much wrinkled and broken, downy, the larger leaves 370 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY with petiole winged, the smaller leaves nearly sessile ; under sur- face deeply reticulate with prominent midrib and venation, pale- green on upper surface and whitish-felty underneath; hair two or three-celled, simple or club-shaped, nodulated, not branched; odor faint, taste bitter, nauseous and somewhat acrid. — C. The alkaloid digitalin, etc. — U. Excito-motor, heart stimulant; diu- retic. Dose: 0.03 to 0.3 gram, best in tincture. The shaded drawing in Fig. 314 shows the under side of a leaf of second year, while the outline drawing shows the more slender shape of the first year's leaf, both natural size. Leaves from cul- tivated plants are less hairy than those from wild-grown plants ; they are also less active. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 371 Digitalis, matico and mullein leaves have been confounded with each other. By comparing the figures of digitalis and matico the differences between these two drugs will become sufficiently ob- vious. Mullein leaf resembles digitalis more nearly in shape and general appearance, but it can readily be distinguished from dig- italis by its characteristic branched hairs which are easily seen with a lens of even quite low power. Digitalis does not keep well, and it should be kept in well-closed containers, away from the light, and a new supply should be pro- cured each season when the fresh crop arrives. Matico N. Matico. — 0. The leaves of Piper angiistifolium; Piperaceat. — H. South America. — D. Oblong-lanceolate, up to 15 cm. long, apex pointed, base unevenly heart-shaped, short-petiolate, margin ob- scurely crenulate, the upper surface tesselated (see smaller draw- ing in Fig. 315, enlarged 5 diameters), the under surface with Fig. 315. very prominent hairy midrib and venation, and deeply reticulate (drawing two-thirds natural size), wrinkled, brittle and very much broken, brownish-green; odor peculiar, taste aromatic, spicy and bitter. — C. About 2y 2 per cent volatile oil, a soft, green, pungent resin, artanthic acid, tannin, etc.— U. Stimulant blen- norrhetic, useful in chronic affections of the urinary organs. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. 372 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Hamamelidis Folia N. Hamamelis, Witch-Hazel Leaves.— 0. The leaves of Hama- melis Virginica; Ilamamelidacece. — H. North America. — D. Obliquely ovate or oval, 10 or more cm. long, short-petiolate, apex obtuse, margin irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed, base uneven, slightly cordate, feather-veined, nearly smooth, much crumpled and broken, green; no odor, taste bitter, astringent. — C. Fig. 316. Tannin, bitter principle, etc. — U. Tonic, astringent; vulnerary. Dose: About 5 grams in infusion or fluid extract. Castanea N. Chestnut Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Castanea dentata; Cupu- Uferce. — H. Europe and America. — D. Ovate to oblong-lanceolate, up to 25 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. broad, petiolate, apex pointed, mar- gin sinuate-serrate, feather-veined, smooth, green to pale brown- ish-green ; odor slight, taste astringent.— C. About 9 per cent tan- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 373 nin, etc. ; no complete analysis has been made. — U. Tonic, astrin- gent and sedative ; has been highly spoken of as a remedy for Fig. 317. whooping cough. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in infusion or fluid extract. Fig. 317 shows the leaf one-half natural size. Stramonii Folia N. Stramonium Leaves, Thornapple, Stinkweed, Jimson Weed. — 0. The leaves of Datura Stramonium and D. tatula; Solan- Fig. 318. acece. The leaves of D. tatula are gathered and used like those of D. Stramonium, and sold under the same name; there is no dif- 374 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ference between the leaves of the two plants. — H. Native of Asia, but naturalized everywhere. — D. Ovate, petiolate, up to 25 cm. long, apex pointed, margin irregularly sinuously toothed or lobed, the sides often unsymmetrical in lobes and venation, lateral veins leaving midrib at a sharp angle instead of first running parallel with it, thin, much shrunken, crumpled and broken, slightly hairy on the veins, green or brownish-green; nearly inodorous, but de- veloping a disagreeable narcotic odor on rubbing and crushing in the hands, taste nauseous bitter. — C. Daturine (closely related to if not identical with atropine, hyoscyamine, etc.) The drug should yield not less than 0.25 per cent of mydriatic alkaloids. — U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic; often smoked as a remedy against asthma. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram; average dose about 0.1 gram. Fig. 318 shows the leaf about one-third natural size. Verbasci Folia N. Mullein Leaves. — O. The leaves of Verbascam thapsus and other varieties of Verbascam; Scrophulariacece. — H. Europe and America. — D. Ovate, elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, the smaller Fig. 319. (upper) leaves sessile, the larger (lower) leaves tapering to a more or less winged petiole, to 30 cm. long, apex acute, margin crenate, densely felty or hairy on both surfaces, (the hairs branched; see Fig. 319), grayish-green; inodorous, taste muci- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 375 laginous. — C. Mucilage, etc.— U. Demulcent ; used as an ingre- dient of pectoral teas, mainly to increase the bulk of the package when sold. Dose: Ad libitum in infusion. The leaf resembles that of Digi- talis, but the shapes of the hairs will differentiate them. Ricini Folia N. Castor-oil Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Ricinus communis; Enphorbiacece. — H. Native of India; cultivated in sub-tropical and warm temperate regions in Europe and America. — D. Large peltate or shield-shaped leaves, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm, or Fig. 320. more across, lobes acuminate with serrate margins and promi- nent coarse central veins (Fig. 320), much shrunken, wrinkled and broken, dark-green; little odor, taste someAvhat acrid and disagreeable. — C. An undetermined acrid cathartic principle. — U. Castor-oil leaves are said to increase the secretion of milk when taken internally by, or when applied as cataplasms to the breasts of nursing women. Best used in the form of strong in- fusion. Dose: 5 to 15 grams. Tabacum N. Tobacco. — 0. The leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum; Solanacece. — H. Cultivated ; especially in subtropical and warm temperate re- gions. — D. The well-knoAvn dried commercial leaves as used by 376 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY tobacconists are also used as the drug. Broadly oval or ovate, up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, margin entire, short petiolate or sessile, brown, brittle, glandular-hairy ; odor peculiar, heavy and oppressive, taste acrid bitter and nauseous. — C. Two to eight per cent of the extremely acrid and poisonous alkaloid nicotine, nico- tianin, resin, extractive, etc. — U. Much employed for smoking, chewing, and as a sternutatory or snuff. A powerful depressant and poison; sedative, emetic and narcotic. Dose: 0.01 to 0.05 gram; to be used with great care ! Thea, which is really a coriaceous leaf, but artificially crum- pled and broken, might be mistaken for a herbaceous leaf and be sought for in this group; it is fully described under Group XL VII. For Hyoscyamus see Group IX. For Adiantum see Group XV. GROUP L Compound Herbaceous Leaves This group comprises the herbaceous compound leaves, which are like the simple herbaceous leaves in their structure, only dif- fering in shape, so that the methods of examining them are the same as for leaves of Group XLIX. Some of the flowering tops of Group IX, as for instance Cheli- donium, Millefolium, Absinthium, Coptis, Cannabis, etc., may be taken to belong in this group ; on the other hand, Aconite Leaves often come into trade as flowering tops, although only the leaves are supposed to be wanted. Adiantum might also be mistaken for a compound leaf. These facts must therefore be kept in mind. Trifoliate, with long petiole, side-leaflets nearly sessile, leaf- lets entire or irregularly lobed Rhus Radicans. Outline round or subcordate, petiolate, 5 to 10 cm. in diam- eter, 3 to 5 parted, the lobes deeply incised and wedge- shaped Aconiti Folia. Large, broad leaves, with hollow petiole, twice or thrice de- compound Oonii Folia. Long-petioled, bi- or tri-pinnately decompound; lobelets en- tire, spatulate, somewhat fleshy Ruta. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Rhus Radicans 377 N. Poison Ivy, Poison Oak. Formerly used under the names Rhus Toxicodendron, or Toxicodendron. — 0. The leaves of Rhus radicans; Anacardiacea?. — H. North America. — D. The figure shows the shape, but is much reduced in size ; with long petiole, trifoliate, the end-leaflet stalked, the side-leaflets sessile or nearly so, leaflets 7 to 12 cm. long and up to 10 cm. broad, ovate or oval, Fig. 321. apex pointed; base rounded or wedge-shaped, margin entire or with a few coarse teeth or lobes, the upper surface smooth, the lower hairy ; no odor, taste acrid and astringent. — C. Toxicoden- dric acid (volatile), tannin, etc. By many the irritant principle is said to be a fixed oil ; this seems to be incompatible with the fact that some with specially sensitive skins are poisoned without coming into actual contact with the leaves, thus suggesting the volatile principle to be the poisoning agent. — U. Irritant and 378 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY narcotic ; said to have been of benefit in paralysis, chronic rheu- matism, etc. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram, best in form of tincture. Caution: The fresh leaves contain an acrid juice, so that when the leaves are touched intense irritation, blisters, or even sup- puration may result. The dried leaves, as generally used for medicinal purposes, are considered inert by many. Aconiti Folia N. Aconite Leaves, Monkshood Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Aco- nitum Napellus; Ranunculacece. — H. Northern temperate zone. — Fig. 322. D. The illustration gives a good idea of the shape of this leaf; it is one-half natural size. In outline the leaf is round or broadly subcordate, with petiole, palmately three to five-lobed (when three-lobed, the lateral lobes are usually so deeply incised as to make the leaf appear five-lobed), the lobes deeply incised, with the segments lanceolate to wedge-shaped ; brownish-green ; odor faint, taste acrid, bitter, producing a numbing or tingling sensa- tion in the mouth.— C. Aconitine. — U. Sedative and motor de- pressant, in large doses narcotic poison. Similar to Aconite root, but weaker and more variable in strength, so that the prepara- tions of the root ought to be preferred. Dose: 0.05 to 0.20 gram, best in tincture or fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 379 Conii Folia N. Conium Leaves, Hemlock Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Conium maculatum; Umbelliferce. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. The shape is well shown in the drawing; the petioles are hollow and sheathing around the stem; the leaves are up to 30 cm. long, in outline round, ovate or triangularly ovate acuminate, ternately decompound, the pinnae deeply incised, with the teeth ending in whitish points, smooth upper surface dull bluish-green, lower surface lighter-colored and somewhat glossy ; odor and taste dis- Fig. 323. agreeably nauseous. The illustration shows the leaf one-third natural size and a lobelet natural size. — C. A volatile alka- loid coniine, volatile oil, etc, — U. Sedative narcotic, especially of use in the wakefulness of the insane ; also frequently added to purgatives to prevent griping. Dose : 0.2 to 0.5 gram, best in form of fluid extract, This drug is very hygroscopic and therefore liable to become mouldy. It should be kept in a thoroughly dry place; the fresh color is apt to change to yellowish-brown or dirty brown when exposed to moist atmosphere. 380 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY The leaves are so variable in strength that the preparations of the fruit should always be preferred; even the latter are very variable in action in different lots, so that great caution should be exercised when prescribing this drug. In over-doses conium is a narcotic poison, killing by paralysis of the respiratory muscles; antidotal treatment, therefore, re- sembles that for opium poisoning, emetics, stimulants (alcohol, coffee, mix vomica), enforced exercise, hot applications and elec- tricity. Ruta N. Rue, Garden Rue. — 0. The leaves of Ruta graveolens; Ruta- cece. — H. Southern Europe. — D. The illustration shows the shape Fig. 324. of the leaf in natural size ; the leaves are somewhat fleshy, twice or thrice pinnatind, the lobelets about 6 to 12 mm. long, somewhat spatulate or obovate, slightly crenate near the apex, smooth, grayish- green, pellucid-punctate; odor aromatic, balsamic; taste bitter and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant car- minative and anthelmintic. In large doses emmenagogue, for which purpose this drug is probably most frequently employed. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams in infusion. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 381 FLOWERS The flower is an altered leaf bud and contains the sexnal organs which are necessary to produce seed. In pharmacognosy, how- ever, the term "flowers" has a wider meaning, since it includes whole inflorescences, flower-buds, flowers, and parts of flowers. Inflorescence signifies the mode of the arrangement of flowers on the plant axis, and in pharmacognosy is used especially in the sense of signifying the peculiar flower-clusters, as racemes, heads, umbels, cymes, etc. ; the meaning of these terms is supposed to have been learned from some book on botany. By the words simple or single flower, any flower is meant that is not a compound flower; it is therefore not meant in the sense of a solitary or axillary flower, but one, a single one, whether it grew singly or solitar}^, or whether it was gathered from a cluster ; in the trade it occurs separate from all other flowers or from any pedun- cle or axis on which it may have grown. A compound flower is a cluster of flowers, the inflorescence of a plant of the class Composite; such an inflorescence consists of nu- merous small flowers gathered into a head which is surrounded by an encircling cluster of leaves which resemble a calyx and which constitute the involucre ; the end of the stem is broadened into the receptacle or disc on which are situated the individual flowers, the whole cluster looking like one flower, wherefore it is called a com- pound flower; as in the sunflower, etc. Flowers are divided into the following groups: {Racemose or cymose LI Compound.. J Unopened LII [Opened LIII Whole J Unopened LIV ' [Opened LV Parts jCorallas LVI [Stigmas LVII Flowers . Whole inflorescences Simple flowers, GROUP LI Eacemose or Cymose Inflorescences The nature of racemose and cymose inflorescences is supposed to have been learned from some book on botany, but so far as phar- macognosy is concerned, or rather, as far as the method of phar- 382 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY macognosy here employed is concerned, we might group inflores- cences merely as ' ' compound ' ' and ' ' not compound ; ' ' perhaps it might be better to say here, ' ' inflorescences of simple flowers ' ' and "inflorescences of compound flowers." This group comprises the "not compound" inflorescences. By inflorescence we mean those parts Of plants which bear the flowers without the ordinary foliage portions being attached ; if leafy parts are included regularly with a drug of this general character, it would be a "flowering top," and belong in Group IX. The umbels of dill, anise, fennel, caraway, parsley, celery, etc., with fruits instead of flowers are to be obtained in the markets as "sweet herbs," for culinary purposes; while at first glance they might be considered to belong here, the fact that they are mature fruits places them elsewhere, and moreover, they do not occur thus in the wholesale drug trade, but are obtained from farmers at the markets or are home-grown. Large panicles in bundles, rolls or compressed clusters; reddish-brown Cusso. Bundles of one-sided racemes with about eight or nine bell-shaped flowers; scape about 15 cm. long Convallariae Flores. Heads of small, reddish, papilionaceous flowers, with foliage leaves at base Trifolium. Pale yellowish-green bracts with cymes of three to nine flowers Tilia. Large corymbose cymes of yellowish color Sambucus. Cusso N. Cusso, Cousso, Kousso, Brayera. The word "Kusso" in its various spellings is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The female in- florescence of Hagenia Abyssinica; Rosacece. — H. Abyssinia, Africa. — D. Fig. 325 shows a bundle wrapped with the bast of some plant, but many of the bundles of the drug are not so wrapped ; the illustration is about three-tenths natural size. The flowers are also figured (Fig. 326) ; a, the section of a flower with fruit partly matured ; ~b, pistil ; c, section of female flower ; d, male flower, abortive pistils ; e, female flower, abortive stamens and an- thers ; /, flower-bud of male flower ; all much enlarged. The bun- dles, rolls or compressed clusters consist of panicles about 25 to 40 cm. long, with a sheathing bract at the base of each branch; the drug should consist of tolerably well preserved clusters without HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 383 the coarse stems ; not of crushed flowers with pieces of the stem ; the two roundish bracts at the base of each (female) flower and the five outer, obovate sepals are reddish-brown and- membranous ; the calyx is cup-shaped and contains two carpels, free from each other, and often partly developed into immature nut-like fruits; the odor, though faint, reminds of elder flowers, and the taste is slight at first, but afterwards becomes bitter and somewhat acrid. — C. Kosin about 3 per cent, tannin about 24 per cent, and resin about 6 per cent. — U. Anthelmintic, taenicide; not very reliable in action. Dose: 10 to 25 grams, in powder or electuary; or the powder may be made into an infusion with warm water and swallowed without straining. Fig. 325. Fig. 326. The female inflorescence is in bundles of distinctly reddish tint and is known in the trade as "red kousso;" it is the best kind. The bundles of male inflorescence are of a greenish or greenish- brow^n color and are called ' ' brown kousso ' ' in the trade ; they are inferior. The male flowers are frequently added to the female flowers as an adulteration, especially when the drug occurs loose or not in bundles. Convallariae Flores N. Lily of the Valley Flowers, Convallaria Flowers. — 0. The inflorescence of Convallaria majalis; Liliacece. — H. Europe, North- 384 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY ern Asia and America; generally cultivated by florists. — D. The flowers occur in the drug trade tied up in bundles just as the gardeners sell the fresh flowers; such bundles are about 2 cm. thick at the lower end, and rather loose or not much compressed at the flowering ends. The one-sided nodding raceme is about Fig. 327. 15 cm. long and consists of an angular scape, beset with about eight or nine small bell-shaped flowers, white when fresh, but yellowish-brown in the dried drug. Fig. 327 shows the withered raceme of a herbarium specimen in natural size, and one fresh flower, also natural size. — C. Convallarin and Convallamarin. — U. Similar to those of the rhizome, already described under Group XXII, and which is generally preferred as a drug; heart stimu- lant. Dose: 1 to 2.5 grams, best in form of fluid extract or infusion. Trifolium N. Red Clover, Red Clover Tops. — 0. The flower-heads of Tri- folium pratense; Papilionacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. Heads of flow- Fig. 328. ers, immediately below which there are two foliage leaves, the stipules of which are winged and enclose the base of the head; the leaves are three-lobed, or frequently one or both of the lower HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 385 lobes are absent in one or both of the leaves, so that they may appear to be two-lobed or simple ; the head contains from 50 to 150 flowers on a conical rhachis; the flowers are tubular, papil- ionaceous, purplish-red when fresh, but often brownish-red in the dried drug, fragrant, sweetish. Fig. 328 shows the inflores- cence natural size. — C. Cumarin, etc. — U. Red Clover has been recommended as a remedy for whooping cough; probably of lit- tle value. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. Tilia N. Linden Flowers. — 0. and H. The whole inflorescence, with the bract properly belonging to it, of several varieties of Tilia, of which T. Americana and T. heterophylla are American varieties Fig. 329. and T. ulmifolia, T. Europea, T. vulgaris, T. par vi folia, and T. platyphylla are European, although T. ulmifolia is also cultivated in the United States ; Tiliacece. Most of the drug comes from Germany. — D. Fig. 329 shows the inflorescence of T. ulmifolia in natural size; the inflorescences of other varieties are similar except that the number of flowers may be different. Linden flowers occur in 3 to 9-flowered racemes, the common stem of which springs from the middle of a bract which is from 5 to 10 cm. long ; the flowers are yellowish-white and the thin, mem- branous, netted-veined bracts are pale green; in the dried state, as drug, the flowers are yellowish, but the bracts should remain greenish and not be brownish; odor pleasant but feeble; taste sweetish. — C. Traces of volatile oil and aromatic resin, mucilage, 386 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY etc. — U. Diaphoretic, in copious draughts of hot infusion; it is probable that the hot water has at least as much to do with the action of these draughts as the linden flowers. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in infusion. The whole inflorescence of Sambucus or Elder Flowers came into trade formerly, and does so occasionally now ; large, corym- bose cymes, much branched, often up to 25 cm. across the flat- tened top, but generally much broken; yellowish. Now the pe- duncles and pedicels of the inflorescence are usually separated from the flowers and rejected, so that the flowers alone constitute the drug, for which reason this drug will be described under Group LV, opened single flowers. GROUP LII Unopened Compound Flower-Heads Only one drug of this group occurs in our trade, namely, the so- called ' ' Levant Wormseed ; " it resembles a seed, so that it is gen- erally called "wormseed," but a careful examination, especially if with a lens, will show the external scales of the involucre. Elongated, somewhat angular, scaly flower-heads, 2 to 3 mm. long, grayish-green ; unopened Santonica. Santonica N. Santonica, Levant Wormseed, Flores Cime, Semen Contra. — 0. The unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia paadflora (Arte- misia Cina); Composite.— H. Turkestan— D. Oblong-ovoid, gray- ish-green, somewhat glossy flower-heads, about 2 to 3 mm. long, covered with 12 to 18 imbricated glandular scales which en- close 3 to 5 rudimentary or undeveloped florets; odor strong, peculiar, aromatic and slightly camphoraceous ; taste bitter, aromatic, leaving a slightly cooling sensation in the mouth — C. Santoninum, volatile oil, etc.— U. Anthelmintic, especially for round worms or lumbrici. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in form of powder made into an electuary with syrup. A brownish color indicates that the drug has been exposed to light or is old, the probability being that in either case it has de- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 387 teriorated. It should have a grayish-green color, not brownish- green, and the odor should be strong. In Fig. 330 a, b, c, d show the flower-heads of Artemisia Vahli- ana, whole, in longitudinal section, one scale and one floret ; e and / show the flower-heads of A. pauciflora (A. maritima; A. Cina) whole, and one scale showing glands, which in the fresh drug are orange-colored, all much enlarged. Fig. 330. Authors differ in regard to the exact source of this drug, and it is probable that the plant may vary under various circum- stances, so that the drug may also vary somewhat according to soil, etc. Some authors claim that Santonica is derived from several varieties of Artemisia. GROUP LIII Expanded Compound Flower-Heads The nature of compound flower-heads was described on page 381 ; the group we are now considering includes the expanded compound flower-heads. Occasionally, but rarely, the flowering tops of Matricaria are used instead of the flower-heads alone, and not infrequently the flower-heads alone of Tanacetum occur in the trade, instead of the flowering tops, which were already described in Group IX. In order to properly examine the drugs of this group, the flower-heads may be soaked in water when they will resume the shape and size of the freshly-flowering inflorescence, and the de- tails of their structure can then be more readily compared with the descriptions and illustrations. 388 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Heads about 3 cm. broad, with scaly involucre, flat receptacle, about 15 to 20 yellow ray-florets and many disk-florets with pappus Arnicae Flores. Subglobular heads, about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate in- volucre, conical solid receptacle, numerous white ligulate florets and few disk-florets Anthemis. Heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate involucre, conical hollow receptacle, 12 to 18 white ray-florets and many deep-yellow disk-florets Matricaria. Heads depressed roundish, about 2.5 cm. broad, with imbri- cate involucre, convex receptacle, about 20 to 30 pinkish ray -florets and numerous yellow disk-florets Pyrethri Flores. Heads sub-globular, about 4 to 8 mm. broad, with imbricate involucre, convex receptacle, and numerous yellow tubu- lar florets Tanacetum. Arnicae Flores N. Arnica Flowers. — 0. The flower-heads of Arnica montana; Composites. — H. Europe and Northern Asia. — D. The flower-heads are roundish, about 2 to 3 cm. broad, with double rows of scales in hairy involucre, receptacle nearly flat, small and hairy, with 15 to 20 bright yellow ray-florets and numerous disk-florets; the ray-florets are female, about 4 cm. long, with tubular part of corolla about 4 mm. long, from which the bifid stigma protrudes, the ligule about 4 to 5 mm. broad, 9-nerved and 3-toothed; the disk-florets are perfect (hermaphrodite), about 2 cm. long, with 5-toothed tubular corolla from which the anther-tube and bifid stigma protrude ; in both ray and disk florets, the 4 mm. long ovary (or partially formed fruit, an achene) is surmounted with HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 389 a hairy pappus ; odor feebly aromatic and taste bitter and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, arnicin (nature not determined), resin, tannin, etc. — U. Mainly used externally as a vulnerary lotion or dress- ing; sometimes used internally as a stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram, in tincture. Fig. 331 sIioavs the involucre, ray-floret, disk-floret and pappus hair all in natural size. The drug should be gathered before the fruit commences to develop, as the drug is apt afterwards to con- tain the larvas of an insect (Trypeta) in the involucre and the more plentiful pappus. The ray-florets should therefore be bright-yellow, not withered and brown, and the drug should not have a gray and hairy appearance from pappus. It is recom- mended by some authorities that the involucre should always be rejected, because that part of the drug is most apt to contain the insects which are the probable cause of the irritation or urticaria sometimes produced by preparations of this drug; this insect is said to contain a principle similar to cantharidin, and to be the cause of ' ' arnica erysipelas. ' ' Anthemis N. Anthemis, Chamomile, Roman Chamomile, English Chamo- mile. — 0. The flower-heads of Anthemis nooilis; Composite?. — H. Cultivated in Europe and in some localities of the United States. — D. Subglobular heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate involucre, chaffy, conical, solid receptacle and numerous ray-florets with white strap-shaped, 3-toothed corolla, and but few yellow, tubular disk-florets; odor rather agreeably aromatic, taste bitter aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, bitter principle, etc. — U. Stimulant tonic and carminative; in large doses emetic and emmena- gogue (?). Mostly used as a diaphoretic, in copious draughts of hot, but weak infusion, while the patient is covered up in bed; the diaphoretic effect is mainly due to the hot water, though aided by the general relaxation produced by the nauseating ef- fect of the chamomile. -Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in infusion as a tea. In the wild- growing variety of this plant the flower-heads have only about fifteen ray-florets and many disk-florets; through cul- tivation the flower-head has become "double," that is, most of 390 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY the disk-florets have become changed to ray-florets ; the culti- vated variety is less disagreeable to the taste than the wild- growing. Fig. 332 shows a fresh flower-head of the cultivated variety in natural size, but in the drug the ligules are shrunken and doubled over the head so that it looks much smaller; the vertical section of the single or wild flower-head, one ray and one disk floret, stigma and fruit are shown considerably enlarged. Cotula,, the flower-heads or the flowering tops of Anthemis Cotula, Mayweed, Wild Chamomile or Dog Chamomile (a common Fig. 332. weed), are used for the same purposes as Anthemis nobilis; the taste and odor of Cotula are so disagreeable, however, that it is not a popular drug and is used only when other chamomile cannot be had. The flower-heads of Anthemis Cotula are single, not double. Matricaria N. Chamomile, German Chamomile, Wild Chamomile; this is the drug that is wanted when Germans ask for "chamomile." — 0. The flower-heads (or sometimes the flowering tops) of Matri- caria Chamomilla; Composite. — H. Europe. — D. Heads about 2 cm. broad, with flat imbricate involucre, conical, hollow, naked HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 391 receptacle, 12 to 15 female ray-florets about 8 mm. long, with white ligulate, 3-toothed corolla, and numerous perfect (herma- phrodite) tubular disk-florets Avith yellow, 5-toothed corolla; odor peculiar, somewhat disagreeable and nauseous, taste bitter aromatic. — C. Minute quantity of volatile oil, bitter extractive, tannin, etc. — U. Same as those of the previous drug, Anthemis. Owing to the hollow receptacle the flower-heads shrink much on drying and are easily crumbled; a good drug should have whole flower-heads with fresh, bright colors and strong charac- teristic odor and taste. The hollow receptacle distinguishes this drug from any possible adulteration. Fig. 333. Fig. 333 shows a portion of the flowering top with three flower- heads in natural size (fresh, a,) ; the involucre with receptacle (d), vertical section of same (e), ray-floret (b) and disk-floret (c) all enlarged. The flower-heads of several varieties of Pyrethrum (Chrysan- themum) are imported, but they reach the retail pharmacist only in the shape of "Persian Insect Powder." These flower-heads resemble in shape those of Anthemis, but the involucres are usually marked with red to brown markings, and the ray-florets are pinkish to reddish. The drug is of no particular interest in its whole condition to the pharmacist. 392 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Tanacetum, the flowering tops (or occasionally the flower- heads) of Tanacetum vulgar e, has already been described and figured under Group IX, but as the drug sometimes consists of the flower-heads alone it is also mentioned here. GROUP LIV Unopened Single Flowers Only two drugs consisting of unexpanded buds (Latin: Alabas- tri) of single flowers are of sufficient importance to need men- tion here: ^ubcylindrical calyx tube with, four teeth, terminated by a corolla forming a globular head; about 15 mm. long; brown Caryophyllus. Ovoid buds, about 12 to 15 mm. long, with 5-toothed calyx; pale brownish-yellow. Aurantii Flores. Caryophyllus N. Cloves. — 0. The unopened flower-buds (unexpanded flow- ers) of Eugenia aromatica; Myrtacece. — H. Molucca Islands; cul- tivated in tropical regions of the Eastern continent. — D. About 15 to 18 mm. long and 4 to 5 mm. thick through thickest part; dark brown, with a subcylindrical calyx tube which at its upper end is divided into four spreading notches or sepals supporting four petals which overlap each other and form a globular head (bud) covering numerous curved stamens and one style; the calyx tube contains the ovaries in its upper part and throughout its entire length contains near its outer surface many small inter- cellular gland-spaces or oil-glands; the odor is strongly aromatic and the taste pungent and spicy. — C. The only constituent of value is the volatile oil, which is so abundant (15 to 20 per cent) that it exudes simply on pressure of the surface of the clove with the finger-nail. — U. Spice and condiment. Stimulant, car- minative and stomachic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams in infusion. Fig. 334 shows a whole clove (a) and a fruit (b) in natural size; also a clove with petals removed (c) and a vertical section of a clove (d), both enlarged. The unripe fruits of the clove tree come into the trade under the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 393 name of "mother-cloves" or "anthophylli;" they are much less aromatic than cloves, and are mainly used to adulterate the lat- ter when powdered. Cloves, to be good, must be plump, heavy, of rich brown color, strong spicy odor and pungent aromatic taste ; they should be Fig. 334. kept in well-closed vessels. Occasionally cloves are mixed with some from which the volatile oil has been abstracted by distilla- tion; such cloves are much shrunken, appear to be moist, are dark-colored or almost black and the heads formed by the petals are generally broken or missing; they are, of course, much weaker in odor and taste. Aurantii Flores N. Orange Flowers; Flores Naphce. — 0. The unopened flower- buds (unexpanded flowers) of Citrus vulgaris and C. Aurantium; Rirfacece (Aurantiacece). — H. Cultivated in all subtropical coun- tries. — D. About 15 mm. long without the flower-stalk which is often present; the calyx is cup-shaped, small and 5-iiotched and incloses the base of the corolla which consists of five over-lapping pale brownish-yellow petals forming an ovoid head (bud) cover- ing numerous polyadelphous stamens inserted on a disk around a pistil with a globular ovary and stigma; odor fragrant and taste aromatic bitter. — C. Volatile oil (oil of neroli) and bitter ex- tractive. — TJ. Slightly stimulant and antispasmodic (?), but not much used. 394 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Fig. 335 shows the whole bud and the expanded flower in natural size ; also the bud with petals removed, showing stamens surrounding the pistil, and the same with the stamens removed, the latter two illustrations enlarged. The fresh flowers are used for making the distilled water of Fig. 335. orange flowers; sometimes the fresh flowers are salted down in jars with about one-third of their weight of salt, and distilled water may be made from these. The dried flowers which consti- tute the drug described above are practically worthless ; the dried flowers should be rejected if they are not strongly fragrant or if they are of a decidedly brown color. GROUP LV Opened Single Flowers Under this group we find single simple flowers as well as single florets from compound flowers ; the characteristic being that the flowers are entire. When a drug consists only of parts of flowers it belongs in Group LVI or LVII. Flowers can best be examined by first soaking in water, by which they to a certain extent resume their fresh shape and allow dissecting, to demonstrate botanical details. Simple Floiuers: Small shriveled, pale brownish-yellow, roundish grains. ... Sambucus. Small two-lipped flowers with bluish-gray calyx and violet- blue corolla Lavandula. Light grayish-green, double calyx, felty with stellate hairs; petals purplish-black Althseae Flores. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 395 Similar to last, somewhat smaller, and the corolla bluish- purple in dry drug Malvae Flores. Florets from Compound Flowers: Yellow, strap-shaped, fertile (female), ray-florets Calendula. Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting anther tube and style Oarthamus. Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending in 7- parted blue limb Cyani Flores. Calyx grayish-green, felty, 5-parted; corolla 5-lobed, wheel- shaped, yellow Verbasci Flores. Sambucus N. Elder Flowers. — 0. The flowers of Sambucus Canadensis and 8. nigra; Caprifoliacece. — H. 8. nigra is preferred in Europe and England because it grows there, and S. Canadensis is pre- ferred in America because it is indigenous here ; there is no need to distinguish between the two kinds as they are practically alike in appearance and in medicinal value. — D. In the dried drug the flowers are shriveled into roundish grains or balls scarcely more than iy 2 to 2 mm. in diameter, pale brownish-yellow, with a pe- culiar fragrant odor and a sweetish, mucilaginous aromatic and finally somewhat acrid taste. By soaking in water the flowers may be recognized as such and can be more readily examined. The fresh flowers are about 5 mm. broad, calyx superior and minutely 5-toothed, corolla 5-lobed, wheel-shaped, cream-colored or white, with five extrorse stamens, pistil with three roundish stigmas; Fig. 336 shows upper surface of flower enlarged (a), un- der surface of flower enlarged (b), from side, corolla and stamens removed (c), and flower in natural size (d). — 0. Very small quan- tity of volatile oil, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 4 grams, best in infusion. 396 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Lavandula N. Lavender, Lavender Flowers. — 0. The flowers of Lavandula vera; Labiatce. — H. Cultivated in Europe and America. — D. Small blue flowers, about 12 mm. long, calyx tubular, 5-toothed, the tooth on the back of the flower larger than the others and round- ish, calyx bluish-gray, hairy, the corolla violet-blue, labiate, the upper lip obcordate, larger and 2-lobed, the lower lip smaller and 3-lobed, hairy-glandular on outer surface, four stamens on inside of tube ; fragrant odor and aromatic, camphoraceous and bitter- ish taste. Fig. 337 shows a flower in natural size (a), same en- larged, front (b) and back (c). — C. One to three per cent of volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant carminative. Rarely used internally, except as a flavoring agent; the whole flowers are often used as sachet perfume. Althaeae Flores N. Flores Malvse Arboreag, Mallow Flowers, Hollyhock flowers; see Fig. 338. — 0. The flowers of Althcea rosea; Malvacem. — H. Cul- tivated; in cultivation the flowers are often double. — D. The flowers of this plant vary in color, white, yellow, rose, red, brown to purplish-red and purplish-black, but only the dark-colored flowers are gathered for the trade. Hollyhock flowers are 7 to 10 cm. broad, calyx gray-felty with stellate hairs, double, the outer layer of sepals (also called involucre) 9-cleft, the inner layer 5-cleft, corolla 5-lobed, the petals broadly obovate, notched at apex, united at base to the base of a column or tube formed by the union of the numerous filaments bearing many kidney-shaped anthers, and within which tube are the stigmas ; odor slight, taste sweetish mucilaginous and slightly astringent, The illustration shows the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 397 upper surface of a flower, natural size; the column bearing an- thers is shown.- — C. Mucilage, tannin, etc. — U. Demulcent, emol- lient. Used as an ingredient of "species pectorales. " The infusion of the petals is rendered red by acids, green by alkalies. The petals are also brought into trade alone, as corol- las, and can be used as a rich and harmless coloring agent for artificial fruit syrups, etc. Malvse Flores, Mallow Flowers, slightly smaller than those from Althaea rosea, are obtained from Malva sylvestris, M. rotundi- folia, etc. The flowers of these plants are similar to the above, ex- Fig. 338. cept that the petals have a bluish-purple color when dry, as in the drug. European writers (Schleiden, Berg, etc.) include under the title "Flores Malvse Arbor eae" the flowers of Althcea rosea, A. of- ficinalis, Malva sylvestris, M. rotundifolia, M. neglect a f etc., so that it is probable that no accurate distinctions need be made in the drugs known in the trade as "flores althaeae" or "flores malvae." These flowers vary in size and color, and to a limited extent in other regards, but resemble the illustration closed enough for identification ; they all have the central column hollow stamen-tube with numerous anthers. 398 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY They are all used for the same purposes as the Flores Althaeae described above. Calendula N. Calendula Flowers, Marigold Flowers.— 0. The ray-florets of Calendula officinalis; Composite^. — H. Cultivated everywhere. — D. Occasionally the flowering tops are used. The plant has a rough, angular stem, alternate, thick, hairy, spatulate leaves; flower-heads about 5 cm. broad, with conspicuous bright orange- yellow florets. Generally, however, only the ray-florets are gathered. The ray-florets are fertile (female), have a slightly curved ovary and a ligulate corolla, bright orange-yellow, up to Fig. 339. 2.5 cm. long and 3 mm, wide, 3-toothed and delicately striate longi- tudinally, the bifid style projecting from the short tube of the corolla; there is no pappus, by which characteristic calendula flowers may be readily distinguished from arnica flowers or other similar flowers. Fig. 339 shows a ray-floret in natural size, and enlarged. — C. An amorphous bitter principle, traces of volatile oil, yellow coloring principle, etc. — U. Reputed to possess tonic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue properties. Used also as a vulnerary externally, for similar purposes as arnica, to which drug it is probably superior, because less apt to be infested with insects and therefore less likely to produce the trouble which is usually called ' ' arnica urticaria " or " arnica erysipelas. ' ' Dose : 0.5 to 1 gram in infusion. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 399 Carthamus N. Safflower, American Saffron. — 0. The florets of Carthamus tinctorius; Composite. — H. Cultivated in India, the Levant and Egypt, Asia, Europe and America. — D. Fig. 340 shows a floret in natural size; the compound flower-heads are large and the florets are yellow, but after fertilization when the corollas commence to wither, the florets change to a deep orange-red color ; it is at this time that the florets are gathered by plucking from the flower- heads. The floret consists of a very thin cylindrical tube, about 2.5 cm. long, ending in a 5-cleft limb, each lobe of which is about 4 to 6 mm. long; from this tube projects the syngeuesious anther- Fig. 340. tube, yellow, and also about 4 to 6 mm. long, and through the latter the stigma protrudes another 6 mm., so that the total length of the floret is about 40 mm., but that of the corolla alone only about 2.5 cm.; odor feeble, peculiar, taste insipid, faintly bitterish. — C. Carthamin, about 40 per cent yellow coloring prin- ciple, etc. — U. Diaphoretic in infusion. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Mainly used as a coloring agent, or as a cheap substitute for genuine saffron; this drug is sometimes called "false saffron." The Oriental or Indian varieties of this drug are most highly esteemed and in the best grades of this drug the corolla was picked from the ovary in the gathering, so that the ' ovary is missing; see next group. 400 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Cyani Flores N. Only used by German pharmacists, to whom it is known as ' ' Korn-Blume ' ' or corn-flower. — 0. The ray-floret of Centaurea Cyanus; Compositce. — H. A common weed in European grain ("Korn") fields. — D. The ray-florets (Fig. 341) are neuter or sexless, about 3 cm. long, corolla consisting of a thin tube ex- panding into a cup-shaped, irregularly 7-cleft limb, of a blue color. See illustration, natural size. The flowers must be dried quickly and kept in a dry and dark place as they otherwise bleach readily. — C. Mucilage, etc. — U. German pharmacists are fond of giving a peculiar mottled appearance to their prepara- tions of "species pectorales" and they use for this purpose such inert substances as possess pronounced bright colors: Flores Fig. 341. Cyani, flores malvce, flores verbasci, etc. Flores Cyani have no medicinal virtues. Verbasci Flores, Mullein Flowers, are sometimes gathered en- tire, but usually the drug consists of the corollas alone, where- fore the description of this drug is to be found in the next group. GROUP LVI COLOLLAS This group includes only the corollas, either entire as in Ver- basci Flores, or the separate petals (Latin: Petala) as in Rosa cen- tifolia. Flores Cyani, consisting of neuter florets, have the ap- pearance of corollas only, although they are really entire florets ; they may therefore be looked for here and are mentioned for this reason in this group. Safflower, already mentioned in the last HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 401 group, is sometimes gathered by pinching off the corolla, reject- ing the ovary, so that the drug does not consist of entire flowers but only of parts of flowers; however, the corolla with the stamens and style projecting look so much like an entire flower, that the drug would still probably be looked for in the previous group. Mullein flowers usually consist only of the corolla with inclosed adherent stamens; they would therefore probably be looked for here, but because the whole flowers are sometimes found in the trade, they are also mentioned under Group LV. Roundish-obovate or obcordate petals of pinkish color and fragrant odor Rosa Centif olia. Deep purplish-red cones, about 2.5 cm. long, consisting of imbricated roundish petals Rosa Gallica. Five-lobed, wheel-shaped, hairy, yellow corolla, with five coherent anthers enclosed Verbasci Flores. Nearly round, thin, dark-red petals, about 5 cm. broad, with a blue-black spot at the base Rhceadis Flores. Five obovate-cuneate, deep-red to purplish-black petals, each about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, united at the base Athaeae Flores. Similar to last, but smaller and bluish-purple Malvae Flores. Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting an- ther tube and style Carthamus. Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending in 7- parted blue limb Cyani Flores. Rosa Centifolia N. Pale Rose, Pale Rose Leaves, Rose Leaves. — 0. The petals of Rosa centifolia; Rosacem. — H. Western Asia, but now cultivated Fig. 342. everywhere. — D. Cultivated roses are double flowers having many petals ; the. pale-red petals of the variety under consideration are ovate, roundish, broader than long, notched at apex so as 402 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY to appear almost obcordate, the upper margin often recurved; Fig. 342 shows one of the larger outer petals as it appears when fresh; if carefully dried the petals retain their shapes and fresh color fairly well, but exposure to light is apt to change the delicate pink color to a pale brownish-yellow; odor fragrant, taste slightly astringent. — C. Traces of volatile oil, tannin, etc. — U. For flavoring. Sometimes preserved undried with one-half of its weight of salt by packing tightly in jars; these leaves may then be used for making rose water by distillation, but the latter can be bought so much better and more economically that prob- ably very few pharmacists would take the trouble to make their rose water from salted leaves. Rosa Gallica N. Red Rose. — 0. The petals of the unopened buds of Rosa Gal- lica; Rosacea?. — H. Southern and middle Europe, eastward to Cau- Fig. 343. casia ; now cultivated everywhere. — D. The petals are removed from the unexpanded bud without separating them, and then quickly dried, so that the drug consists of small cones, varying somewhat in size, each cone consisting of numerous imbricated, roundish, notched, deep-purplish-red petals (see Fig. 343) ; the yellow claws or bases of the petals should be cut away when the drug is gathered, but are frequently allowed to remain; odor fragrant, taste slightly astringent. — C. Traces of volatile oil, tannin, etc. — U. Mainly for flavoring. Verbasci Flores N. Mullein Flowers. — 0. and H. The corollas (with stamens), or more rarely the entire flowers of several varieties of Verbas- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 403 cum; the common mullein of America is Verbascum thapsus; Scro- phulariacece. The two varieties V. thapsiforme and V. phlomoides are common weeds in Europe, where V. thapsus also occurs. All three varieties furnish the drug, although V. thapsiforme has the largest flower and therefore furnishes the showiest drug. — D. Fig. 344 shows the corolla of V. thapsiforme laid open to show the sta- mens. The hairy 5-lobed calyx is generally absent in the drug; the corolla is rotate or wheel-shaped, 2 to 4 cm. broad, bright golden yellow, with five roundish lobes, and with five stamens inserted in the tube of the corolla, three of which are shorter and woolly and two longer and naked; odor faintly aromatic and taste sweetish mucilaginous. The corollas of the American variety, V. thapsus, are similar but smaller, being only about 15 Fig. 344. mm. in diameter. — C. Trace of volatile oil, a fatty substance, mu- cilage, etc. — U. Demulcent; used mainly as a showily colored ingredient of pectoral teas. Flores Rhoeadis N. Poppy Flowers. — 0. The petals of Papaver Rhoeas; Papave- racece. — H. A European annual, but generally cultivated as a showy garden flower. — D. The entire flower is shown in Fig. 345 in natural size; the petals are very thin and delicate, broadly oval, broader than long, dark-red, with a blue-black spot at the base where they are inserted on the receptacle (hidden in the flower by the stamens and pistil); odor faintly narcotic, taste 404 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY bitterish mucilaginous. In the drug the petals are much shrunken.— C. A deep-red coloring principle, rhoeadic acid, solu- Fig. 345. ble in water and in dilute alcohol, etc. — U. Coloring agent ; used like Flores Malvae. For description of Flores Althsese, Flores Malvse, Carthamus and Flores Cyani, see previous group. GROUP LVII Stigmas The group includes two drugs only; these drugs consist of the styles and stigmas of the plants from which they are derived, the stigmas being the important part in Crocus and the styles in Zea. The group is called ' ' Sexual Organs ' ' by some authors, but this is evidently wrong because only parts, and not even the essential parts, of only the female organs are present ; and moreover, there would be just as much reason to Call Flores Verbasci "Corollas with Sexual Parts" as to call these drugs "Sexual Parts." The group has also been called "Styles with Stigmas," but as in the Latin titles for these drugs, as used in different works, the word "Stigmata" has so long been used it is deemed inadvisable to HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 405 change the custom, and this word is therefore preferred as the most appropriate title for this group of drugs. Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear tubular, about . 3 cm. long, deep orange-brown with reddish tinge Crocus. Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish hairs, about 15 cm. long; the ends of the tufts often dried or shriveled together and dark brown Zea. Crocus N. Saffron, Spanish Saffron, True Saffron. — 0. The stigmas of Crocus sativus; Iridacece. — H. Cultivated in Asia Minor and in Southern Europe; most of the saffron sold in this country is Fig. 346. from Spain and France. — D. The illustration shows the stigmas in natural size, with a short piece of the style attached, but in the drug they are crumpled and shrunken ; also, on the left, the end enlarged and on the right a portion of the margin, very much magnified. To examine the drug, drop a few shreds on w T arm water, when it will regain its fresh form. The stigmas are usually gathered so that a small portion of the style remains at- tached, and the three stigmas of a flower thereby remain at- tached as in Fig. 346; but occasionally they are pinched off shorter and are then single stigmas; the drug should contain very little of the styles. The stigma is about 3 cm. long, flattish-tubu- lar, almost thread-like where it joins the style, broader and split on the inner side of the free end, which is notched and shows papillose margin under a lens; a good grade of saffron is of 406 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY a rich orange-brown color with reddish tinge, somewhat deeper at the end and lighter toward the style, flexible and soft, not dry and hard, with a peculiar strong odor and an aromatic bitterish taste, and when chewed it stains the saliva a deep golden yel- low. — C. Coloring matter, gum, wax, etc. — U. Seldom employed otherwise than as a coloring agent. It is mildly diaphoretic, slightly sedative and antispasmodic. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams, in in- fusion or tincture. The genuine drug is necessarily very high-priced as the stig- mas from 130,000 flowers must be picked to make one kilo of the drug; owing to this high price the drug is often adulterated, or cheaper substances bearing more or less resemblance to it are used as substitutes or admixtures. The ray-florets of Calendula, flowers of Carthamus, petals of pomegranate or other deep-red flowers cut in shreds, shreds of smoked or dried beef, and other similar substances are readily distinguished when the suspected drug is placed on warm water, which causes the different parts to spread out and show their shapes. The stigmas of some other varieties of Crocus are occasionally added; they are smaller, more flaring and more deeply notched at the upper ends, and have a yellowish color. A deceptive adulteration is the addition of true saffron from which the coloring matter has been extracted by maceration; the exhausted stigmas have a pale and uniform yellowish color, and the whole drug has a less rich and bright appearance. It is sometimes loaded with mineral matters to increase the weight; when soaked in water this pulverulent substance is deposited. Although saffron feels greasy to the touch, it does not con- tain fixed oil. It should not leave a greasy spot when pressed between two thicknesses of filter-paper. On drying saffron it should not lose more than fourteen per cent of moisture (showing absence of water fraudulently added) and when thus dried it should not leave more than 7.5 to eight per cent ash on burning (absence of foreign mineral substances). Saffron bleaches in the light and loses its odor when exposed to the air ; it should therefore be kept in well-closed opaque containers, or in a dark closet, in a cool place. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 407 Zea N. Corn-silk. — 0. The styles and stigmas of Zea Mays; Gram- inacece. — H. Indigenous to the tropical parts of America, but now cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical parts of America and in some few places on the other continent. — D. Corn-silk consists of the threads projecting from the ears of corn, and is gathered when the corn is "shucked" or "husked;" the projecting ends of the styles are darker-colored, brownish to almost black, matted and tangled so that the threads are held together in tufts or bundles, the threads of which, where they were covered by the Fig. 347. "shucks" are pale yellowish or yellowish-green, about 15 cm. long, fine silky hairy and delicately veined longitudinally ; without odor, taste sweetish. — C. Sugar, mucilage, etc. — U. Reputed to be diu- retic, nephritic and lithontriptic. Useful in cystitis from any cause. Dose: 2 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. The drawing on the left (Fig. 347) shows the "ear" of corn, a spadix surrounded by spathes that form the "shucks" when mature, and from the ends of which the long styles with their stigmas project; the right hand figure shows the spadix with its female flowers and the styles and stigmas, while the two small figures show single female flowers, one enlarged ; both the larger figures are much smaller than in nature. 408 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY FRUITS This group includes not only whole fruits, but parts of fruits as well. In the trade the terms ' ' fruits ' ' and ' ' seeds ' ' have not been sufficiently accurately differentiated, as many drugs are called " seeds" which in reality are fruits, as for instance, " anise seed," "caraway seed," etc. In pharmacognosy such inaccu- racies are not permissible, and the student should make an effort to learn as soon as possible to use scientific words only in their correct meaning. Strictly speaking, a fruit is the ripened ovary with all that it contains; this may be thought of as a "true fruit" to distinguish it, for purposes of pharmacognosy, from "spurious fruits." It is common to call the matured ovary with all that is attached to it a fruit, although in some fruits of this kind the bulk of the fruit may thus be formed by a calyx tube that was adherent to the ovary, as in the apple, or of woody or leathery scales that were not part of the flower at all, as in cones and strobiles, or of the thickened end of the stem, or receptacle, as in the strawberry or fig ; such a structure is a " spurious fruit ' ' and the true fruits may be enclosed within, as in rose hips or figs, or they may be on the outside, as in the strawberry. Fruits are divided into three groups: Fleshy Fruits, in which the seeds are inclosed in a more or less soft and juicy flesh ; Stone Fruits or Drupes, in which the outer part (under leaf surface) of the ovary becomes soft and fleshy and the inner part (upper leaf surface) of the ovary hardens into a stony shell which envelopes the seed, like a nut ; and Dry Fruits, having no fleshy part at all, the entire ovary hardening into a stony, leathery, hard or tough structure which envelopes the seeds and in some kinds becomes per- manently united to the outer seed coat, while in other kinds the ovary opens or dehisces and allows the seeds to fall out. Fruits may be further divided into Simple Fruits, when a single pistil of a single flower developes into one fruit, and compound Fruits (also called multiple or collective) when a large number of pistils of one flower produce a cluster of fruits, as in raspberry, or when a number of single flowers develop so that the fruits are united into apparently one fruit, as in mulberry. Some authors make a distinction between different kinds of com- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 409 pound fruits, thus : An Aggregate Fruit is one in which the indi- vidual fruits were all developed from the carpels of the same flower, while a compound fruit resulting from a consolidation of the car- pels of several or many flowers is called a Collective or Compound Fruit. Fruits which are not used to make medicinal preparations, or which are not recognized in some pharmacopoeia or other, but which are only used for making "crushed fruits" or "fruit syrups ' ' for the soda water fountain, or for similar purposes, as strawberry, blackberry, cherry, grape, pineapple etc., are not drugs and therefore are not described in this book. f Spurious LVIII Fresh \ Fleshy LIX [Stone Fruits LX 'Spurious LXI Dry LXn Fleshy LXIII Stone Fruits LXIV Parts of Fruits LXV Fruits . Dried or prepared, GROUP LVIII Fresh Spurious Fruits The fruits of this group are seldom employed, partly perhaps because one of them is not easily obtainable, and the prepara- tions made from them are not often prescribed. The pome is a fruit in which the fleshy mass, which constitutes the principal thickness, is formed by development of the calyx, as in the apple, pear and quince. Pitcher-shaped or ovate berry-like fruit, about 2 cm. long, bright glossy red, bristly hairy within Rosa Canina. Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, red or varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum. Rosa Canina N. Cynosbata, Rose Hips, Hips. — 0. The spurious fruit of Rosa canina; Rosacece. — H. Europe. — D. Pitcher-shaped or ovate re- 410 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY ceptacle, about 2 cm. long, bright glossy red, fleshy, inclosing a number of brown dry fruits or akenes with bristly hairs; odor slight and taste sweetish acidulous; see Fig. 348. — 0. Malic acid, Fig. 348. citric acid, sugar, gum, etc. — U. Mild refrigerant the interior akenes and hairs are first removed. when used, Malum N. Fructus Mali, Ponwm, Apple. — 0. The fruit of Pyrus Malus; Rosacece. — H. Cultivated in temperate zones. — D. Fig. 349 shows a longitudinal and a transverse section of an apple, to explain structure. The apple consists of five leathery carpels each en- closing several seeds, arranged in a stellate manner, forming the "core" of the apple (or the true fruits), and surrounded by a Fig. 349. large fleshy mass which is the developed calyx; there are many varieties of apple in cultivation, varying in color and flavor, green, russet, yellow, red, striated, varicolored, and from very HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 411 sweet and mealy to sour and juicy ; for medicinal use only a sour and juicy apple is available. — C. Fruit acids (malic, etc.), sugar, etc. — U. The only medicinal use made of the apple is in preparing Extraction ferri pomatum- (from which in turn Tinctura ferri pomata is made ; the word pomatus, a, um being a Latin adjective meaning "made from apples") ; cider made from sour apples is poured over iron filings in a stone jar and after fermentation and maceration the liquid is decanted and evaporated to solid extract consistence. This preparation is tolerated by the most sensitive stomachs, and is a chalybeate preparation that deserves more consideration at the hands of American physicians than it is receiving. GROUP LIX Fresh Fleshy Fruits Fleshy fruits are also called berries; this group therefore com- prises the berries which are used in the fresh condition. Berries proper are fleshy throughout; the lemon and orange are berries with leathery rind ; a gourd is a berry with a hard rind, and a pome is a fleshy fruit resembling a berry, but formed mainly of a fleshy calyx, as the apple, etc. ; therefore the pome is really a spurious fruit, but because the apple would likely be looked for in this group it is also mentioned here. (See previous group.) The raspberry is usually called a berry, but is really an aggre- gate or multiple fruit, each little fruit being a drupe, similar in structure to a plum, although of course much smaller. See next group for description. Oval, bright yellow fruits, with very acid juice Limon. Globular or subglobular, orange-colored fruits, with acidu- lous sweet juice A.urantii Fructus Globular green berry, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, with 4- lobed persistent calyx and about five seeds Diospyros. Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, red or varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum. A collective or multiple fruit, composed of numerous small drupes; red or black Rubus Idaeus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diam- eter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. 412 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Limon N. Fructus Citri; Lemon. — 0. The fresh fruit of Citrus Medica Limonum; Rutacecc (Aurantiacece). — H. Cultivated in sub-tropical countries. — D. Fig. 350 shows the fruit in natural size ; oval, with nipple-shaped apex, glandulous bright-yellow ("lemon-yellow") rind; contains an agreeably acid juice. The section of the lemon closely resembles that of the orange (see next figure), but the •^'$5k. ^i , • v :'■•-'•.^.'••':■•.'■'•'>^i^ , ft-.* : Fig. 350. rind is closely adherent so that it must be peeled on 3 with a knife ; the rind is fragrant, bitter. The fruit must be fresh and sound. — C. The rind contains a volatile oil and the juice contains from 7 to 9 per cent citric acid. — U. The juice, or the acid, is much used as an antiscorbutic; it is also used as a refrigerant drink in the form of lemonade. In the form of lemon juice it enjoys the popu- lar reputation of curing and preventing "biliousness." Limon, onis, f, is the lemon tree, of which limonia, a, f, is the fruit. The word limon is, however, used for the fruit occasionally. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 413 The lime, the fruit of Citrus acris, is smaller than the lemon, with a thinner rind somewhat different in flavor from that of the lemon, pale yellowish-green, and with a very acid juice; this va- riety of fruit is preferred by many in the making of "mixed drinks," "whiskey sour," etc. Fructus Aurantii N. Orange. — 0. The fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium Sinensis; Rntacew (Aurantiacece) . — H. Subtropical countries. — D. Sim- ilar in structure to the lemon, but globular or subglobular, with- out nipple-shaped apex, but with apex sometimes nodulated as in Fig. 351. the "navel" oranges; giandulous orange-colored rind. Fig. 351 shows a section of an orange; the rind of the orange separates readily from the edible portion within, which is in sections also easily separable from each other ; the number of these sections is somewhat variable, as is also the number of seeds which vary in number from many, to none at all as in the "seedless" orange. — C. Citric acid, sugar, etc. The rind yields a volatile oil. — U. The orange is an agreeably acidulous sweet fruit, and is much used as a refrigerant and refreshing diet; or the juice is expressed and is taken as a refrigerant and laxative drink in febrile conditions. 414 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Diospyros N. Persimmon. — 0. The fresh and unripe fruit of Diospyros Virginiana; Ebenacece. — H. In the rich bottom lands of the rivers of the United States. — D. Form and size are shown in Fig. 352, green, smooth, with persistent 4-lobed calyx and about five smooth and dark-brown seeds ; odor pleasant fruit-like, taste in- tensely astringent. On ripening, the quantity of tannic acid de- creases, and after frosts in autumn the astringent taste disap- pears altogether and the fruit becomes a pleasantly acidulous sweet article of diet. — C. The unripe fruit contains tannic acid. — U. Astringent. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Malum, or apple, was described in the previous group, and the description of Rubus Idseus, or raspberry will be found in the next group. Fig. 352. Juniperus, or Juniper Berries, are not really berries nor are they fresh, but they have been prepared in a manner similar to that of drying grapes to make raisins, preserved in their own sugar by partially drying. Yet they look like 'fresh berries and some might look here for them and they are therefore mentioned, but the description is given in the proper place, under Group LXI. GROUP LX Fresh Stone Fruits The only drug of this group is a collective or compound drupa- ceous fruit. Numerous red or black stone-fruits united into a small, round- conical cluster with hollow base: sweet, acidulous Rubus Idaeus. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 415 Rubus Idaeus N. Raspberry. — 0. The fruit of Rubus Idmusj Rosacece. — H. Cultivated in Europe and America. — D. Fig. 353 shows the fruit in natural size, whole and in longitudinal section; it consists of about thirty to forty diminutive drupes; each one with a with- ered style, as shown plainer in the two smaller drawings, which show the individual fruit enlarged, whole and in section. When plucked these small fruits remain attached to each other, but separate from the white, pithy receptacle which remains on the stem; the cluster then forms a round-conical or hemispherical cup-shaped, red, finely hairy "berry," of an agreeable odor and pleasant sweet acidulous taste. — C. Citric and malic acids, pectin, fruit sugar, coloring matter, etc. — U. For flavoring. The light-red fruit of Rubus strigosus (Wild Raspberry) and Fig. 353. the purplish-black fruit of R. occidetitalis (Black Raspberry) are often used instead of and for the same purposes as the above ; a mixture of the red and black raspberries in about equal quanti- ties makes an exceptionally rich-looking and well-flavored syrup. GROUP LXI Dried or Prepared Spurious Fruits Of this group three drugs are dried, hops, long pepper and chenopodium, and two are only partly dried, being prepared or preserved by their own inspissated juices, fig and juniper berries. The structure of each, and therefore the reasons why each must be considered a spurious fruit, being peculiar, this will be ex- plained in connection with the individual drugs. 416 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Before proceeding to the consideration of these drugs it may be well to recall to memory the structure of two kinds of spurious fruits, of the cone or strobile, and of the syconium. The cone is the peculiar compound fruit of the Coniferae, a class of plants to which the pines, cypresses, etc., belong; the female inflorescence is composed of an axis on which are arranged a number of scales, which are considered to be open ovaries by some, and on the inner side of each scale there may be found one or two naked or un- covered ovules; when this matures, it forms a scaly spurious fruit with one or two naked seeds on the inner side of each scale. The word strobile is used by some as synonymous with cone, by others is applied to cones which do not become woody, but remain flexible or soft. The syconium is a fleshy receptacle or summit of the plant axis, hollowed out and lined within by a multitude of minute flowers which, when mature, are often supposed to be the seeds, whereas they are the real fruits, and the fleshy receptacle which is used, as in the fig or in rose hips (already considered) is not a fruit, but a spurious fruit. Strobile with flexible scales; yellowish-green Humulus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diam- eter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, yellowish-brown; very sweet Ficus. Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long, 5 mm. thick, spirally nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper longum. Dull greenish or greenish-brown fruit, about 1 mm. in diam- eter, depressed globular, obscurely lobed, containing a glossy black seed; peculiar odor and pungent taste Chenopodium. Humulus N. Hops. — 0. The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus; TJrticacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. The illustration gives a correct idea of the shape and size of the drug. It is not correct, strictly speaking, to call this a strobile, because the ovules on the inner side of the bracts or scales of the catkin are not naked, but are contained in ovaries, which are in turn contained in a sheathing calyx; the akenes are therefore real fruits (ripened ovary with its contents), but as the bulk of the structure is made up of scales, part of which are the HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 417 developed bracts and others the developed calyces, it looks like a strobile and it may be considered to be "a sort of membranaceous strobile" (see Fig. 354). These strobiles or fruit-cones are about 3 cm. long, oval, yellowish-green, and consist of many ovate, mem- branous, glandulous scales attached to a thin and hairy undulated axis. The fruit is an akene, and it, as well as its enveloping calyx scale, should be thickly beset with minute brownish-red glands. The odor of hops is strongly aromatic and the taste is bitter, aro- matic and slightly astringent. — C. About 1 per cent volatile oil, 9 to 18 per cent resin, 3 to 4 per cent tannin, etc. The bitter and aromatic properties of this drug reside in the minute glands al- ready referred to, which, when separately sold, constitute the drug which is commonly called ' l Lupulin. ' ' — U. Bitter tonic, sto- machic and anodyne. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, in fluid extract or in in- fusion. Also used locally to allay pain, in the form of dry and hot "hop pillows," or moist as fomentations or poultices. Hops should be whole and unbroken ; the lupulin has probably been at least partially removed from broken or much crumbled drug. Brown, spotted or discolored hops, or hops which is seen under a lens to be poor in lupulin glands, should be rejected for medicinal purposes. Old hops sometimes has a disagreeable odor, from valeric acid formed by the oxidation of the volatile oil; the odor should be fresh, and strongly and pleasantly aromatic. Juniperus N. Juniper Berries. — 0. The ripe fruit, a fleshy cone, of Juni- perus communis; Coniferce. — H. Northern hemisphere. — D. The 418 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY fertile catkin of common juniper consists of three fleshy coalescent scales, each with one naked ovule, which, when ripened at the end of the second year, form a fleshy cone or strobile resembling a berry. This fruit is therefore botanically a cone, a form of spurious fruit. Fig. 355 shows a little twig with two fruits in natural size, a fruit enlarged, whole and in section, and seed in natural size and enlarged, and in transverse section enlarged to show the oil-vesicles on seeds. Juniper berries are globular or subglobular, about 5 mm. in diameter, marked on top with three raphes meeting in the center, each triangular space be- tween these being marked with a small wart; externally cov- ered with a bluish bloom, so that they look dark-blue, but where the bloom is rubbed off the color is brownish-black and glossy; internally pithy-fleshy, brownish-green, containing three sub- triangular seeds, the seeds having oil-vesicles on their surfaces. Fig. 355. Odor peculiar, aromatic and terebinthinate, and taste sweetish spicy. — C. From 1 to 2 per cent volatile oil, about 30 per cent sugar, some resin, etc.; they are partially dried, by which they are preserved by their own sugar in similar manner as raisins and figs are preserved. — U. Stimulant, diuretic and emmena- gogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract, or a teaspoonful to tablespoonful of "roob juniperi" or syrup. Ficus N. Fig. — 0. The fruit, a syconium, of Ficus Carica; Urtica- cece. — H. Cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries.— D. As found in the trade, figs are partly dried and then compressed into wooden boxes; they are irregular in shape, mostly some- what flattened, angular, yellowish-brown, fleshy, covered with an efflorescence of sugar, and contain many minute fruits which HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 419 are commonly called "seeds;" odor fragrant, fruit-like, and taste very sweet and slightly mucilaginous. Fig. 356 shows the hollow receptacle, whole and in longitudinal section, natural size; it is pear-shaped, short-stalked, with the opening at apex protected by some scales; in the section the part shaded in small dots is the receptacle and the interior shows the manner in which the many minute female flowers are arranged. The smaller drawings represent a few female flowers and one male flower, both much enlarged. The unripe fruit is green, changing on ripening to purplish-green or purplish-red to yellowish-red, ac- Fig. 356. cording to variety. The male flowers are situated near the orifice while the interior contains only female flowers; fertiliza- tion depends largely on small insects which carry the pollen with them as they enter the receptacle on their way to gather nectar from the flowers within, and it is reported that the figs of California were much improved by the introduction of this insect from the fig-orchards of Smyrna in Asia Minor, from which we obtain the best figs of the trade. While the fruit is green it contains a milky juice, which disappears when the fruit ripens; the matured fruit is up to 8 cm. long and to 5 cm. thick at the widest part, and the compressed commercial fruit re- sumes its natural shape and size on soaking in water. — C. About 62 per cent of sugar, some gum, etc. — U. Demulcent and laxa- tive. Roasted figs are sometimes applied to abscesses of the gums as poultice. 420 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Piper Longum N. Long Pepper. — 0. The fully grown but still immature fruits coalesced with all the other structures of the spike or in- florescence of Chavica officinarum; Piperacece. — H. East Indian and Philippine Islands. — D. The rhachis, bracts and ovaries all develop and enlarge on fertilization and become consolidated into a cylindrical mass which is about 3.5 to 5 cm. long and about 5 mm. thick, with a stalk about 1 cm. long and with the fruits arranged spirally around the rhachis, giving the whole a Fig. 357. nodulated appearance; blackish-gray, dusty; odor and taste like those of black pepper. One of the drawings of Fig. 357 shows the tip (about one-fourth of total length) of the fresh female spike, a being the berries and b the bracts which accompany the ovaries and which develop as the fruit develops. The other drawing shows a section of the cylinder, with about 7 to 8 berries arranged around the rhachis of the spike. Both drawings are very much enlarged. All of these structures are present in the drug, but when dried and partially disfigured by attrition (to which the dusty appearance of the drug is due) cannot be seen HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 421 as distinctly in the drug as in the fresh spike or in the draw- ing. — C. Like those of black pepper; piperin, fatty oil, resin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Condiment, mainly; stimulant carminative. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. Chenopodium N. Chenopodium, Wormseed, American Wormseed. — 0. The fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides, var. anthelmintic urn; Cheno- podiacece. — H. Sub-tropical America, but naturalized and a com- mon weed in United States. — D. Small, depressed-globular, slightly lobed or ridged fruits, about 1 mm. in diameter, yellow- ish-gray to greenish-brown, very brittle and fragile; the minute seed is nattish, circular, glossy black, with the embryo curved around the edges of the seed; the fruit is a utricle, but it is so closely surrounded by and united with the five segments of the calyx which form the bulk of the fruit, that it is more proper Fig. 35 to consider this to be a spurious fruit. Fig. 358 shows a section of a seed, and the whole fruit, both much enlarged ; the lobing is, however, often much less prominently marked. Odor offensively aromatic, peculiar and taste bitterish pungent. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 2 sjrams. GROUP LXII Dry Fruits There is a great diversity of forms of fruits of this kind and works on botany give separate and distinctive names to quite a number of varieties of these fruits. The main characteristic of fruits of this group is, that the ovary develops into a dry, mem- branous, or even stony or hard structure in which the seed or seeds are contained; rarely does any part of such fruits remain fleshy, when fully ripe. 422 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY It will facilitate the study of this group of drugs to review briefly the characteristics of important forms, although the dif- ferent authors on pharmacognosy lay no particular stress on the correct botanical definitions of the names of fruits which they employ, so that what one author calls a carpel another may call a follicle, and still another may call it a capsule. A broad distinction may be based on the dehiscence. Some dry fruits dehisce or open when ripe; these usually contain several or many seeds and some authors call all such dehiscing dry fruits 1 ' pods " or ' ' capsules. ' ' Other dry fruits are indehiscent, that is, they do not open, but the ovary forms an envelope for the seed which remains closed, and which is often so seed-like in appear- ance that such fruits may be mistaken for naked seeds. In fact, in the ordinary trade nomenclature fruits of this kind are usually spoken of as "seeds," as for instance "hemp seed," "anise seed," etc. Indehiscent dry fruits are usually one-seeded. The word "carpel" is used by many authors to designate cer- tain dry fruits; the word, however, does not properly designate a fruit, for it means a simple pistil; each component leaf or pistil of a compound pistil is also a carpel; a flower may contain one or several or many separate or simple carpels. When a simple carpel matures into a fruit, or when each component carpel of what in the flower appeared to be a compound pistil matures into a separate fruit, such fruits may be akenes, follicles, leg- umes, pods, utricles, etc., but it is customary also to refer to such fruits as "carpels," especially when it is a little difficult to de- termine just what else to call them. For convenience we will group dry fruits as dehiscent and inde- hiscent, and we will call the dehiscent fruits "pods" or "cap- sules" and will divide the indehiscent fruits into "akenes" and "cremocarps." These names and a few other names of fruits Ave will now briefly define. The pod is any dry dehiscent fruit ; it may be the product of a simple pistil, and it is then called a follicle if the carpel opens or dehisces on one side only, as in the fruit of star anise, or a legume or true pod when it opens on both sides, as in the pea or bean ; or it may be the product of a compound pistil, when it is properly called a capsule, as in poppy. Some few fruits have the structure of dehiscing fruits or pods, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 423 yet do not dehisce at maturity, as, for instance, the pods of purg- ing cassia and of St. John's bread ; yet they must be placed among the pods, or dehiscing fruits, because they belong there on ac- count of their structure. It must be borne in mind, however, that some such fruits, if left ungathered, would probably dry out and decay so that dehiscence would take place at the beginning of the following season; in other words, there are many pods that re- main unopened through the winter, but open and drop their seeds early next spring when it is the proper time to sow them. Such may possibly be the case also with these two ' ' indehiscent pods." The akene is a small, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit; the fruits of composite flowers are also called akenes ; the utricle is an akene in which the ovary forms a thin, bladdery sac surrounding the seed, which may either break open irregularly or can be broken and removed by rubbing; the caryopsis or grain is an akene in which the ovary forms a thin membranaceous coating which is intimately united with the seed, appearing therefore to be merely a seed-coat, as in wheat, corn, etc. ; in a nut the ovary is changed to a hard, stony shell (made up of stone-cells) as in the hazel nut; cremocarp is the name given to the fruit of the Umbelliferce or umbelliferous plants, in which two carpels are intimately attached in the blos- som, both developing into akenes which sometimes separate when ripe, as in fennel and caraway, and sometimes remain per- manently attached to each other as in anise and coriander. We will consider the cremocarps (also called schizocarps by some authors) a little more fully. In Fig. 359 e shows the mature fruit 424 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of fennel, the two carpels or akenes still attached to each other, and c shows the same enlarged ; in b the fruits are seen separated but held together by the two-pronged prolongation of the receptacle, which is very brittle and easily broken so that the fruits are then entirely separated ; d is a longitudinal section, showing the embryo imbedded in the upper part of the albumen of the seed ; a is a transverse section of the fruit, showing the wall formed by the ovary and the albumen of the seed within (3), while 1 points out an oil-duct, or oil-tube (Latin : vitta, pi., vittce) which runs the length of the fruit, and 2 indicates a fibro-vascular bundle ; the fibro- vascular bundles are at the angles, and projecting outwardly where they are situated there are more or less distinctly marked ridges, giving characteristic appearances to the cross-sections and enabling us to recognize the various fruits of this kind thereby; between the fibro-vascular bundles are oil-ducts, vary- ing in number in different kinds of cremocarps, but fairly uni- form in number in cremocarps of the same kind. "With this ex- planation the enlarged drawings of the various cremocarps be- come self-explanatory. To examine these fruits, soak in water and cut transversely about the middle of the fruit; then examine the cut ends with a lens ; or a thin section may be cut from one of these pieces and cleared with solution of hydroxide of potassium, and then examined under the microscope. The taste and odor of most of the cremocarps are very char- acteristic. Capsules or, Pods Small, obtusely triangular, 3-celled capsules, 10 to 15 mm. long; central placenta with many brown seeds; pale buff Cardamomum. Eight reddish-brown woody follicles, arranged star- shaped; often some of the carpels are aborted; odor anise-like Illicium. Large, round or elongated, pale brownish-yellow capsules, 1-celled, with many parietal placentas and contain- ing many white or bluish seeds Papaver. Fleshy, linear, dark-brown pod, up to 25 cm. long by 8 mm. thick; very fragrant Vanilla. Hard, rigid, cylindrical, dark-brown pod, up to 60 cm. long by 2.5 cm. thick , Cassia Fistula. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 425 Flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. long, with up to 12 seeds; with sweetish pulp Coratonia. From 2 to 5 small, somewhat thick and fleshy pods at- tached to a short stalk; each about 5 mm. long and containing 1 or 2 glossy black seeds Xanthoxyli Fructus. Akenes Obovate-oblong, brownish-gray, somewhat curved akene, about 6 mm. long Lappse Fructus. Sub-globular, brownish or greenish-gray akene, about 4 mm. in diameter, with a single oily seed Cannabis Fructus. Elliptic grain, about 7 to 9 mm. long, enclosed in straw- colored palese; taste farinaceous Hordei Fructus. Like preceding in appearance, but with sweet taste. .. .Maltum. Very small subglobular utricle, about 1 mm. in diam- eter; dull greenish-brownish color; contains shining- black seed Chenopodium. Elliptic, flattened, glossy pale, yellowish grain, about 4 mm. long Phalaridis Fructus. Cremocakps Usually remaining united; with oil-tubes Oval; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and about 16 oil- tubes; grayish, finely hairy Anisum. Globular, hollow, some of the ridges wavy; each fruit with 2 oil-tubes on inner face; brownish-yellow, smooth Coriandrum. Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 ridges and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish-brown; rough hairy Cumini Fructus. Elongated, nearly cylindrical, with 5-toothed calyx, ridges not prominent; each fruit with 6 oil-tubes; brownish-green Phellandrii Fructus. Often remaining united; without oil-tubes Oval, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 nodu- lated ridges and 2 deep lateral grooves; no oil- tubes; albumen crescent-shaped in transverse sec- tion; brownish-green Conium. Usually separating ; with oil-tubes Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; usually curved; brown Carum. Elongated, nearly cylindrical; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 6 oil-tubes; smooth; yellowish-brown. . , , Fceniculum. 426 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Koundisk-ovate, compressed from sides; each, fruit with 5 obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; grayish-green .... Petroselini Fructus. Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 sharp- keeled dorsal ridges and 2 long lateral ridges form- ing thin broad margins; 6 oil-tubes; brown Anethi Fructus. Very small, roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, smooth; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 12 to 15 oil-tubes; brown Apii Fructus. Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 5 promi- nent ridges, the lateral ones larger, and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish-brown Levistici Fructus, Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 promi- nent dorsal ridges and 2 long, fiat, lateral ridges; numerous oil-tubes; yellow Dauci Fructus. Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 7 ridges, 2 lateral and 2 dorsal spinous, and 3 dorsal short- hairy; 6 oil- tubes; grayish-brown Angelicae Fructus. Cardamomum N. Cardamom. — 0. The fruit of Elettaria Cardamomum; Zingi- beracece. — H. Malabar and India. — D. Ovoid or oblong 3-celled capsules, obtusely triangular, rounded at base and beaked at apex, about 1 to 2 cm. long, with central placenta and numerous brown, aromatic seeds and a thin, tough, leathery, buff-colored, tasteless shell. — C. The seeds contain about 4 to 5 per cent of an aromatic volatile oil. — U. As a spice, carminative and stomachic ; mainly as a flavoring agent and corrective. Dose: About 1 gram. Malabar cardamom and Aleppy cardamom are the only varie- ties generally employed in the United States. There are several other varieties, and the seeds may be derived partly from some of these; for instance, Madras cardamom, the round cardamom, and the Ceylon cardamom. All kinds of cardamoms are designated according to size by the terms, shorts, short-longs or medium, and longs. Shorts are from 10 to 15 mm. long; mediums from 15 to 25 mm. long, and longs from 2.5 to 5 cm. long. Malabar cardamoms are best. They are either shorts or short-longs, bleached or unbleached ; the choicest are short, plump, heavy, and have a pale straw color without any green tint, and they yield from % to % of their weight of seeds. Madras cardamoms are pale and thin, not plump, short-longs. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 427 Aleppy cardamoms are shorts, of a somewhat greenish tint, and are of inferior quality. Ceylon cardamoms are longs, dark grayish-brown, and differ in odor and taste from the above kinds. In Fig. 360 a and o are Malabar shorts; c, Malabar mediums, and d Malabar longs; e is a section of Malabar cardamom, slightly en- larged ; / is round cardamom, from Java, and g is a section of the same, slightly enlarged; h shows Ceylon longs; except as otherwise noted, all are natural size. Cardamom seeds come into the trade as such, and are therefore described in their proper place, under Group LXVI. Fig. 360. Illicium N. Fructus Anisi Stcllati, Star Anise. — 0. The fruit of Illicium verum; MagnoliacecE. — H. China, Siam, Anam.- — D. A multiple fruit consisting of eight reddish-brown, woody follicles, arranged in a star-shaped or radiate whorl around a short central recep- tacle or axis which is a continuation of the stalk ; often the fol- licles are unevenly developed, or some are aborted, and generally the drug is much broken; each follicle is from 10 to 15 mm. long, boat-shaped, somewhat wrinkled, with straight point or beak, open at the upper suture, exposing the flat oval, glossy brown seed; odor like that of anise, taste sweetish aromatic. In Fig. 428 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 361-A are shown two large,* well-developed fruits, one from the upper and the other from the lower side, two imperfectly and irregularly developed fruits, one follicle and one seed. — C. The follicles yield upwards of 5 per cent and the seeds about 2 per cent of a volatile oil that is practically identical with that of anise ; the total yield of the fruit is about 4 to 4% per cent of this oil; there is also a fixed oil, etc. — U. Similar to those of anise stimulant, carminative and stomachic, but mainly as a flavor it is also an ingredient of many of the ''pectoral teas." Dose 0.5 to 2 grams. Adulteration. — The fruits of Illicium religiosum, shown in Fig Fig. 361-^4. 361, are sometimes found mixed with the fruit of star anise, and in such case they were probably added as an adulteration. The fol- licles of this fruit are rougher, more wrinkled and shriveled, and have a beak or point that is bent upwards. The odor is faintly aromatic, possibly from having been in contact with the star anise, somewhat clove-like, and the taste is disagreeable, somewhat saline, faintly reminding of cardamom. The fruits are smaller than those of star anise and in bulk have the appearance of being lighter in color, the follicles being more opened, so that the lighter-colored interior is more exposed. This fruit is also called shikimi fruit, and it is said to be poisonous; but if so, it cannot HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 429 be very poisonous because no serious effects seem to have followed its admixture to star anise ; the author once found a lot in trade which consisted of at least one-third of its weight of shikimi, and he chewed freely of this spurious star anise, without any effects whatever, and the lot was disposed of most likely in small lots by the wholesaler from whom a small quantity was obtained by the writer, and no bad effects Avere noted by anyone. Fig. 361-B. Papaver N. Poppy, Poppy Heads. — 0. The fruit of Papaver somnifcrum ; Papaveracece ; gathered before they are quite ripe. — H. Asia Minor and India ; cultivated. — D. There are capsules of various shapes, from elongated, to round and compressed or flat, but Fig. 362 gives a good idea of the average size and shape; the capsule is pale-brown or buff-colored externally, with a large persistent stigma, under the lobes of Avhich are small valves which open at the time of dehiscence and allow the seeds to fall out. The walls of the capsule are brittle, and many of the capsules are broken in the drug; one-celled, but with many (8-15) parietal placentas to which numerous seeds are attached; most seeds are removed from the drug, but enough are always present to determine the kind; there are two varieties of poppy, the so-called "black" Avhich has bluish seeds and the "white" which has white seeds. 430 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY It is usually stated that the white is to be preferred, but more probably there is no difference between the two kinds. The drug has no odor, but a somewhat bitter taste. — C. As these capsules, when fresh, furnish an exudation which forms opium, and as this milky juice is retained in the unincised capsules that are gathered for this drug, its constituents are the same as those of opium Fig. 362. (which see) but in very variable and uncertain proportions. — U. Slightly anodyne and sedative; mainly used in decoction or syrup as a cough medicine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Vanilla N. Vanilla. — 0. The fruit, a fleshy pod, of Vanilla planifolia; Orchidacece; gathered before it is quite ripe. — H. Mexico; culti- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 431 vated in other tropical countries. — D. The fruit of Vanilla is a dark-brown, flexible pod, from 15 to 25 cm. in length, and from 4 to 8 mm. in thickness, linear, obtusely triangular, hooked at the base and obliquely narrowed at the apex; the walls of the pod are soft-leathery, and the interior is filled with a blackish- brown, oily pulp in which numerous minute black seeds are im- bedded; odor and taste peculiarly aromatic and fragrant. Fig. 363 shows a whole pod, cut in halves to allow of illustration in natural size, and also a section enlarged, which may be pre- pared by first cutting it, then extracting the oil, etc., with ether, then soaking in dilute alcohol, then in water, to remove the color, Fig. 363. and finally clearing, as usual. The pod is one-celled, but has several placentas which bear the numerous seeds. — C. About 2 per cent of vanillin, some of which sometimes forms a crystalline efflorescence on the outer surface of the drug; some fixed oil, sugar, etc. — U. For flavoring. When ripe, the pod opens along the two darker-colored lines seen in the section; but it is gathered while still unripe and is treated by a process of "sweating" or fermentation, by which its aroma is fully developed and dehiscence is prevented. Mexican vanilla is the best kind ; it sometimes is more than 25 cm. long. It conies into trade tied into bundles containing about 50 fruits each; these bundles are then wrapped in tin-foil and several bundles are packed in a tin box. 432 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Bourbon vanilla is shorter, lighter-colored, and its odor re- sembles somewhat that of tonka bean. Venezuelan, Brazilian and other varieties of vanilla are not usually found in the trade. Vanilla is valued to a great extent by length ; it is assorted ac- cording to length, and the longer the bean the higher the price of any given weight of the drug. Cassia Fistula N. Purging Cassia. — 0. The pod of Cassia Fistula; Legumi- nosm. — H. West Indies. — D. An indehiscent, hard, rigid, cylindrical pod with two raphes on opposite sides down the length of the fruit ; up to 60 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. in diame- ter, of a rich dark-brown color, and containing in separate trans- verse cells from 25 to 100 ovate, nattish, glossy reddish-brown Fig. 364. seeds imbedded in a thick, tough, blackish-brown, sweet pulp which has the odor of prunes. Fig. 364 shows a small end of one of the fruits in natural size. — C. Good purging cassia contains about one-third of its weight of pulp, which is the only valuable portion; this pulp contains about 60 per cent of sugar, some mu- cilage, pectin, etc. — U. Mild laxative, mainly employed in combi- nation, as in confection of senna. Dose: As a laxative, 5 to 10 grams ; as a purgative, 25 to 50 grams. Ceratonia N. Siliqua Dulcis; St. John's Bread. — O. The pod of Ceratonia Siliqua; Leguminosce. — H. Southern Europe and the Orient. — D. An indehiscent, flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. broad and 3 to 8 mm. thick, thicker at the edges than in the center, grooved at the edges ; the external fruit-coat is HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 433 leathery; the interior contains from 3 up to 12 or 13 transverse cells, each lined with a papery membrane and containing a nat- tish oval, glossy brown and very hard seed in a pulp, which in the dry condition, as in the drug, is tough and alveolar, and which has an agreeably pleasant odor and taste. Fig. 365 shows one pod Avhole, one partly split in half and a tranverse section of a pod. — C. 40 to 50 per cent of sugar, some mucilage, pectin, _ -> Fig. 365. etc. — U. Slightly laxative and demulcent; occasionally used in pectoral teas, etc. ; sometimes imported as food for cattle, but in the drug-stores used mainly as "laggniappe." Xanthoxyli Fructus N. Prickly Ash Fruit, Prickly Ash Berries.— 0. The fruits of Xanthoxylum Americana m (X. fraxineum) and X. Clava-Her- culis (X. Carolinian-urn) ; Xanthoxylacece. — H. United States. — D. Somewhat thick and fleshy pods, some with, most without stalks, each about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish-brown, somewhat wrinkled and containing 1, more rarely 2, glossy, black seeds. The pods of X. car. grow in clusters of 2 or 3, those of X. jr. in clusters of 3 to 5, but they rarely remain attached to each other 434 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY in the drug, but are usually broken apart and partly opened from the separation of the two valves, and often empty and mixed with the separated seeds. The seeds are subglobular when single, com- pressed and flattened when two in a pod, wrinkled, glossy black, and contain a white albumen and embryo. Fig. 366 shows three Fig. 366. pods much enlarged, and several pods and a seed in natural size. Odor aromatic, taste pungent. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Nervine tonic, arterial stimulant, sialagogue, diaphoretic and al- terative. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Lappse Fructus N. Burdock Fruit, Burdock Seed. — 0. The fruit (akene) of Lappa officinalis; Compositor. — Europe and America. — D. The akenes, shown in Fig. 367 in natural size and enlarged, are ob- ovate-oblong, flattened, transversely wrinkled, sometimes some- what curved, about 6 mm. long, to 3 mm. wide, brownish-gray, Fig. 367. mottled; pappus stiff hairy-bristly, but usually wanting in the drug. No odor, taste bitter. — C. Fixed oil, resin, some bitter principle, etc. — U. Bitter tonic; alterative in psoriasis, etc. Dose: 1 to 4 grams, best in fluid extract. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 435 Cannabis Fructus N. Hemp Seed. — 0. The fruit (akene) of Cannabis sativa; Urti- cacece (Cannabinacece). — H. Indigenous to Asia, but cultivated everywhere ; see also Group IX. — D. Fig. 368 shows the fruit natural size, and whole and in longitudinal and transverse sec- tions, all much enlarged. An oval or subglobular akene, about 4 mm. long by 2 mm. broad; the fruit-shell is greenish or grayish- brown externally, with a whitish keel on the margin, netted- veined, smooth, internally dark olive-green or brown, brittle, one- Fig. 368. celled, two-valved, but not dehiscent, and contains one white, oily seed consisting of a curved embryo without albumen; no odor, taste nutty, sweet. — C. About 30 per cent fixed oil, albu- minoids, sugar, etc. — U. Sometimes used as a demulcent in the form of an emulsion, but most frequently used for bird-food. Hordei Fructus N. Barley. — 0. The fruit (caryopsis or grain) of Hordeum dis- tichum; Graminaccce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Fig. 369 shows barley Fig. 369. in natural size and enlarged, with the paleae enclosing the fruit proper and closely united therewith. The fruit is from 7 to 9 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, tapering towards the ends, with a groove along the front, smooth on the back, straAV-colored on account 436 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of the adhering paleae, brownish when the latter are removed; no odor, taste mealy. — C. About 60 to 70 per cent starch, gluten, sugar, fat, etc. — U. Food. Maltum Maltum Hordei, or malt, is made by causing barley to germinate until the sprout reaches about the length of the fruit, when further germination is stopped by quickly raising the temperature and drying the fruit ; barley loses about 10 to 20 per cent of its weight when changed to malt, and much of the starch is changed to dextrin, sugar, etc. For Pearl Barley see Group LXX. Chenopodium, or American Wormseed, is sometimes consid- ered to be a dry fruit. It is really a utricle, but is enclosed in the calyx, which constitutes the bulk of the fruit, for which reason it has been described in Group LXI, Spurious Fruits. Phalaridis Fructus N. Semen Canariense, or Canary Seed. — 0. The fruit (caryopsis or grain) of Phalaris Canariensis; Graminacece. — H. Indigenous to the Canary Islands, but also cultivated elsewhere, — D. The drawings show Canary Seed in natural size and enlarged. An elliptic fruit, about 4 mm. long and iy 2 mm. broad, flattish, en- closed in two hard paleag which are not united with the fruit; the paleaB are keeled, glossy yellowish-gray and finely hairy, and the enclosed fruit is smooth, brownish, with a small embryo and a mealy albumen.— U. One of the usual ingredients of ''mixed bird seeds." HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Anisi Fructus 437 N. Anisum, Anise. — 0. The fruit of Pinipinella Anisum; TJm- belliferce. — H. Indigenous to the Orient, but also cultivated in Europe. — D. Oval, about 2 to 3 mm. long, grayish or grayish- green, finely hairy; the two mericarps usually remain adherent; each fruit has 5 obscure ridges and about 16 (but sometimes up to 30 or more) oil-tubes; odor peculiar, aromatic, taste spicy, Fig. 371. sweet. — C. About 1.5 to 3 per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, sugar, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Anise should be plump and sound, and free from dirt and small stones, with which it is often mixed. It is said to be some- times mixed with Conium fruit which it somewhat resembles, but the writer has never seen any such admixture. Coriandri Fructus N. Coriandrum, Coriander. — 0. The fruit of Coriandrum sati- vum; UmbellifercB. — H. Asia and Europe; cultivated. — D. Globu- lar, about 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, light-brown ; the two meri- Fig. 372. carps remain adherent, each fruit having 5 wavy and 4 straight ridges on the back; face concave, thus making the whole fruit hollow ; each fruit has 2 oil-tubes on the face ; the fresh fruit has a nauseous odor, reminding of bed-bugs, but the dried fruit is agreeably aromatic, taste spicy. — C. About 0.5 per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 438 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Cumini Fructus N. Cuminum, Cumin. — 0. The fruit of Cuminum Cyminum; Vmbelliferm. — H. Northeastern Africa. — D. Oblong or elongated, compressed from the sides, about 4 mm. long, yellowish-brown; the two mericarps remain adherent ; each fruit has 3 prominent Fig. 373. ridges which are narrow and beset with fine hairs, and 4 broad grooves down the middle of each of which there is a slight ridge with short, soft spines; each mericarp has 6 oil-tubes, 4 lying under the grooves and 2 on the face; odor and taste peculiar, resembling caraway. — C. Volatile oil, the yield of which is va- riously stated, from 0.25 to 3 per cent (probably because the yield is very variable), some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Phellandrii Fructus N. Phellandrium, Water-Fennel, 5-leaved Water Hemlock. — 0. The fruit of Oenantke Phellandrium; Umbelliferaz. — H. Europe Fig. 374. and Northern Asia. — D. Oblong or elongated, nearly cylindrical, but tapering toward the upper end, about 4 mm. long, smooth, brown or blackish-brown; the two mericarps remain adherent; each fruit has 5 obtuse ridges, 4 narrow grooves and 6 oil-tubes; HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 439 taste and odor disagreeably aromatic. — C. A volatile alkaloid re- sembling coniine (?), about 1 per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and when fresh probably somewhat narcotic. Dose: About 0.5 gram, or up to 2 grams during 24 hours. Conii Fructus N. Conium, Hemlock Fruit. — 0. The full-grown but unripe fruits of Conium maculatum; Umbelliferce. — H. Europe and Asia ; naturalized in North America. — D. Oval, compressed from sides, about 3 mm. long, grayish to brownish-green (brown or brown- ish-black when ripe); if gathered when ripe or nearly ripe the two mericarps generally separate, but if gathered while still Fig. 375. green, the mericarps usually remain adherent, although they are deeply notched along the sides; each fruit has five undulated ridges, which are somewhat lighter-colored than the grooves; no oil-tubes; on transverse section the seed (albumen) appears cres- cent-shaped, on account of being notched or grooved on the face side (Fig. 375) ; little odor or taste, but the odor becomes offen- sively disagreeable on the addition of solution of hydroxide of potassium. — 0. A volatile alkaloid coniine, traces of volatile oil, some fixed oil, etc.— U. Narcotic, hypnotic, sedative, mainly in the insomnia of the insane. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram. In over-doses conium is a narcotic poison ; the antidotal treat- ment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, the in- ternal use of stimulants and astringents, and the external use of friction, warmth, flagellation, etc. 440 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Cari Fructus N. Carum, Caraway. — 0. The fruits of Car am Carvi (Carui); Umbelliferce. — H. Europe and Northern Asia; wild and culti- vated. — D. Elongated or oblong, compressed from sides, about Fig. 376. 3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, brown ; the two mericarps usually sepa- rate when ripe, and each of the fruits then curves towards the face at the top and base; each fruit has 5 obscure ridges, or rather angles, and 6 oil-tubes ; odor pleasantly aromatic and taste sweetish spicy. — C. About 4 to 6 per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic; mainly Dose: used for flavoring. 1 to 2 grams. Fceniculi Fructus N. Fceniculum, Fennel. — 0. The fruits of Fceniculum vulgare; Umbelliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe. — D. Elongated or Fig. 377. oblong, nearly cylindrical, about 4 to 5 mm. long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe, but the separated fruits rarely curve inwards; each fruit has a broad, HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 441 flat, pale-brown face, with longitudinal striae, a curved back with 5 angular, pale-brown ridges between which are dark brown grooves under which lie the oil-tubes, of which each fruit has 4 on the back and 2 to 4 on the face; the odor is strongly aromatic and the taste sweetish aromatic. — 0. About 2.5 to 4 per cent vola- tile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic ; mainly used for flavoring. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Roman fennel, from Foeniculum dulce, is nearly twice as long as the above-described German fennel, and is lighter-colored, more or less curved, slender, with sharp ribs. It has a sweeter and finer aroma than the German variety, but contains less volatile oil. Petroselini Fructus N. Parsley Fruit. — 0. The fruits of Petroselinam sativum; Apium Petroselinum; TJmbellifercc. — H. Western Asia and Europe ; Fig. 378. cultivated generally. — D. Roundish-ovate, compressed from the sides, about 2 mm. long, smooth, grayish-green ; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe and dried ; each fruit has 5 thin, light- colored ridges on the back, and contains 6 oil-tubes; odor and taste aromatic. — C. About 1 to 3 per cent volatile oil, apiin, apiol, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, diuretic, stimulant, aromatic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Anethi Fructus N. Anethum, Dill. — 0. The fruits of Anethum graveolens; Um- belliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe ; cultivated generally. — D. Oval, compressed from back, about 3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, brown; the. two mericarps readily separate when ripe; each fruit has 6 oil-tubes and 5 ridges of which the two lateral ones are 442 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY broad and thin, the others sharply angular ; odor and taste spicy, peculiar. — C. About 3 to 4 per cent volatile oil, some fatty oil, Fig. 379. etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic ; frequently used for flavoring pickles, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Apii Fructus N. Apium, Celery Seed. — 0. The fruits of Apium graveolens; Umbelliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe; cultivated gener- ally. — D. Roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, about 1 mm. in length, broader than long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps are usually separated in the drug; each fruit has five ribs and from 12 to 16 oil-tubes; odor and taste aromatic, peculiar. — C. About iy 2 to 3 per cent volatile oil, apiol, some fixed oil, resin, Fig. 380. etc. — U. Emmenagogue ; carminative, stimulant, stomachic; used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Levistici Fructus N. Ligustici Fructus, Loveage Fruit, Loveage Seed. — 0. The fruits of Levisticum officinale (Ligusticum Levisticum) ; Umbelli- ferce. — H. Europe; cultivated in Germany. — D. Ovate-oblong or elliptic, flattened or compressed from back, about 4 to 5 mm. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 443 long, yellowish-brown; in the drug the mericarps are usually separated; each fruit has five prominent ridges, the lateral ones Fig. 381. larger than the dorsal, and six oil-tubes; aromatic odor and taste. — C. Volatile oil, etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in in- fusion. Angelicae Fructus N. Angelica Fruit, Angelica Seed. — 0. and H. The fruits of Arch angelic a officinalis (Garden Angelica) ; Umbelliferce. This plant is a native of Northern Asia and Europe; cultivated. In America the similar fruit of Archangelica atropurpurca, which is Fig. 382. indigenous to the United States, is sometimes used as a substitute for the fruits of Garden Angelica. — D. Ovate or elliptic, flattened or compressed from back ; about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish ; in the drug the mericarps are usually separated; each fruit has three well-marked dorsal and two broad-winged lateral ridges and nu- merous oil-tubes; odor and taste aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Carminative stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grnis. 444 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Dauci Fructus N. Carota, Carotce Fructus, Carrot Fruit. — 0. The fruits of Daucus Carota; Umbelliferce. — H. Native of Asia and Europe; naturalized in North America ; cultivated.— D. Oval, flattened or compressed from back, about 4 mm. long, grayish-brown; fruits usually separated in the drug; each fruit has six oil-tubes and seven ridges, four of which are beset with bristly spines and the three intermediate ones with fine hairs; odor slightly and taste pungently aromatic. — C. Some volatile oil, fixed oil, etc. — U. Stimulant and diuretic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in infusion. GROUP LXIII Fleshy Fruits, or Berries, Dried or Prepared Drugs of this group and of Group LXIV, while botanically quite distinct, are not always easily differentiated, so that both groups must be considered together when trying to determine the identity of some unknown drug belonging here. A berry is a fleshy fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually more than one) are imbedded; it is often the product of a com- pound pistil. The peculiarity of the berry is, that the hardness of the seeds (when they are hard) is due to the hardening of the seed-coats, as in the grape. The ovary in the berry has matured into a more or less fleshy mass, the rind of which usually remains thin and delicate, as in the currant or tomato, but may be tough and leathery as in the orange or lemon, or even hard as in the gourds ; in the latter case the berry is designated as a pepo. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 445 A drupe may resemble a berry very closely, and in fact, there seem to be transitional forms which it is difficult to place in either group without careful microscopical examination. The drupe is a fleshy, berry-like fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually only one) are imbedded, but the characteristic which distinguishes the drupe from the berry is, that while the outer and middle layers of the ovary develop into a more or less fleshy substance (sarco- carp) as in the berry, the inner layer of the ovary hardens into a " stone" (endocarp or putamen) in which the seed is contained, Fig. 384. and commonly this stony layer is considered as part of the seed, as in the peach or plum. If we carefully open or dissect the hard seed of a berry by re- moving the hard outer part, we find a naked embryo, or albumen containing the embryo, within ; while, if Ave carefully examine the hard l ' seed " of a drupe, we find that after removal of the stony part, the seed within still has its seed-coats. For example: Fig. 384 shows a microscopical section of a part of the fruit and seed of cubeb, the outer part of the fruit being above and the seed being below; in the drawing a shows a sec- tion of the fruit with sclerenchymatous cells or stone-cells of the inner layer of the fruit, and b shows the section of the seed; the 446 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY star shows the seed-coats of the seed. In black pepper, which is very closely related, botanically, to cubeb, we find no such hard- ening of the inner layer of the fruit, although the inner layer is intimately blended or grown together with the seed-coats, and black pepper is therefore a berry while. cubeb is a drupe. While it is perfectly easy to determine in the case of large fruits of pronounced structure, as between raisins and prunes, which is a berry and which a drupe, it is difficult to decide this matter in case of small fruits like black pepper and cubeb, pi- mento or buckthorn berries, etc. ; and in fact, the latter, while called "berries" in the trade, are really compound drupes. For practical purposes, therefore, no sharp distinctions need be made between drugs of these two groups, but both groups should be considered together, although, for abstract scientific reasons, a distinction is here made. Juniperus, which is really a spurious fruit, or fleshy cone, be- longing in Group LXI and there described, may be supposed to belong among the berries, and be looked for here; it is there- fore mentioned. See also drugs of Group LXIV. Small, wrinkled, black berries, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter; pungently spicy Piper Nigrum. Oblong-conical, glossy red berry, about 2 cm. long; taste very hot Capsicum. Very light, spongy, white or yellowish-white, globular fruits, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter; very bitter Colocynthis. Soft, shriveled, flattened berries, brownish, translucent; very sweet TJvae Passae. Roughly granular, hard, grayish-brown berries with cir- cular scar at base Aurantii Fr. Immat. Small compound berries with 10 carpels, almost black; sticking together in lumps Phytolacca Fructus. Oval-oblong fruits, with 4-cleft calyx; odor clove-like. .Caryophylli Fructus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diameter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. Piper Nigrum N. Pepper, Black Pepper. — 0. The unripe fruit of Piper nig- rum; Piperacece. — H. Native of India (Malabar), but cultivated also in Sumatra, Borneo, Siam and other tropical countries. — D. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 447 A globular berry, without stalk, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, wrin- kled, brown to brownish-black, grayish-black or black; odor aromatic, taste pungently spicy. — C. About 1 to 2 per cent vola- tile oil, 4 to 6 per cent piperin, some resin, fat, etc. — U. Stimulant, Fig. 385. tonic, stomachic. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. Piperin is used as a febrifuge. Pepper is commonly used as condiment or spice. Fig. 385 shows fruit of pepper in natural size, and one whole and one in section, enlarged. For White Pepper see Group LXV. Capsicum N. Capsicum, Cayenne Pepper, African Pepper, Bird Pepper, Chillies, Paprika. — 0. The fruit of Capsicum frutescens; Sola- nacece. — H. Native of tropical America; cultivated in tropical and Fig. 386. Fig. 387. sub-tropical countries. — D. Oblong-conical berry (Fig. 386) about IV2 to 2 cm. and up to 3 cm. long, broadest at base which has a persistent, cup-shaped, five-toothed caryx ; the fruit has glossy red or reddish-brown, leathery, somewhat translucent walls, and 448 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY two cells containing numerous flat, kidney-shaped, yellowish seeds attached to a thick central placenta, as shown in the draw- ing of a longitudinal section; odor peculiar, taste intensely hot and spicy. — C. Capsaicin, fixed oil, resin, etc.- — U. Stimulant sto- machic condiment; externally a powerful rubefacient and coun- ter-irritant. Dose: 0.06 to 0.5 grams. Formerly the fruits of Capsicum annuum were used • they are much larger and of various shapes (see Fig. 387), nearly cylin- drical to subglobular or depressed; they are the "red peppers" of our markets and are used extensively for pickling and as condi- ment. By cultivation varieties have been produced which are quite mild in taste. A variety of red pepper, cultivated in Hun- gary, is called Paprika. Colocynthis N. Colocynth, Bitter Apple. — 0. The fruit of Citrullus (Cucumis) Colocynthis; Cucurbit acece. — H. Southwestern Asia and North- eastern Africa; cultivated especially in Greece and Spain. — D. The fruit is a gourd with a smooth, bright-yellow, leathery rind, which is removed when the fruit is gathered ; the drug consists of the light, spongy pulp with the enclosed seeds. Globular, about 5 to 7 or even occasionally 10 cm. in diameter, white or yellowish- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 449 white, light, spongy, porous, tough-elastic, with a three-cleft cavity within; easily breaks into three wedge-shaped pieces, each of which contains a large number of flat, ovate, yellowish or pale- brownish seeds near the outer rounded surface ; no odor, taste in- tensely bitter. — C. About 0.6 per cent colocynthin, 4 per cent bit- ter fatty oil, 13 per cent bitter resin, 14 per cent bitter extractive, etc. (According to another authority it contains as much as 14 per cent of Colocynthin; they can hardly be referring to the same substance.) — U. Drastic hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram. Should be used with caution, as it produces severe and almost poisonous effects when given in too large doses. Fig. 388 shows a transverse section of colocynth ; Fig. 389 shows a section of the ovary of the flower, to give an idea of the real nature of the structure. Uvse Passae N. Passula majores, Raisins. — 0. The partially dried berry of Vitis vinifera; Vitacea . — H. The grapevine is a native of Western Asia; cultivated generally, but raisins are mainly produced in Fig. 390. Southern Europe and California, from light-colored (red or am- ber-colored) and very sweet varieties of grapes. — D. Shriveled, flattened, soft berries; brownish or yellowish-brown, translucent; odor aromatic and taste agreeably sweet. — C. Grape-sugar, potas- sium tartrate, calcium tartrate, malic acid, etc. — U. Nutritive, de- mulcent, slightly laxative; sometimes added to purgatives as a cor- rective. Raisins are not quite dried, but are preserved in their own sugar. The better kinds of raisins consist of the entire clusters of 450 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY grapes. Inferior varieties consist of the berries separated from the stalks. A seedless variety of raisins is common in the trade. Passnla minores, "Corinthians," or Corinthian raisins (com- monly, but erroneously called currants) are the fruits of Vitis mi- nut a, native in Greece (and formerly plentiful near Corinth, whence the name) ; they are small, black, seedless, very sweet berries, which, when ripe, are gathered, dried, after which they are packed closely in magazines and preserved by a process resembling ensilage. They occur in the trade in agglutinated masses. Aurantii Fructus Immaturus N. Poma aurantii immatura, Aurantia immatura, Orange Ber- ries. — 0. The unripe fruits of Citrus vulgaris; Rutacem (Auran- tiacece. — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries. — D. Grlobular berries, averaging about 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, although both Fig. 391. smaller and larger ones occur, roughly granular on the surface from the dried-up oil-glands, grayish-brown to greenish-black externally and pale-brown within, with a circular scar at the base, and containing 8 to 10 very small and hollow cells with un- developed ovules along the central column ; odor aromatic, taste bitter and aromatic. — C. The bitter glucoside hesperedin, vola- tile oil, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, stomachic and stimulant. Mainly employed in combination with other aromatics and bitters. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Fig. 391 shows one berry in natural size, an enlarged drawing of a whole berry, and also one of a transverse section. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 451 Phytolacca Fructus N. Poke Berry. — 0. The fruit of Phytolacca decandra; Phyto- laccaceas. — H. A common, coarse, North American weed; natural- ized in Europe.— D. The fruit is a compound berry of 10 carpels, each of which contains a small, black seed. Flattened or com- pressed globular, about 6 to 8 mm. in diameter and 5 mm. high, nearly circular almost black, with thin skin and juicy dark-red pulp; in the drug the berries are partially dried and usually ag- glutinated in masses ; no odor, taste sweet, slightly acrid. — C. Sugar, gum, resin, coloring matter, etc. — U. Alterative and anti- rheumatic. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Fig. 392 shows the berry in natural size, whole and in vertical section, and in transverse sec- tion enlarged. Caryophylli Fructus AntJiophylli, or mother-cloves, are the partly developed berries of the clove-tree (see Clove, Group LIV). Oval, oblong, up to 3 Fig. 393. cm. long and 6 to 8 mm. thick, with persistent four-toothed calyx, wrinkled, generally 1-celled and 1-seeded, grayish-brown; odor and taste like those of cloves, but Aveaker. — C. and U. Similar to those of cloves; used to adulterate powdered cloves. Juniperus has been described in Group LXI. 452 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY GROUP LXIV Drupes, Dried or Prepared See the introductory remarks to Group LXIII, where the struc- ture of the drupe has been explained. See also drugs of Group LXIII. Globular, wrinkled, stalked, brownish-black drupe, 3 to 5 mm. diameter; odor and taste spicy. Cubeba. Oval, oblong or globular, bluish to blackish drupe, 3 to 4 cm. long; fruit-like odor and sweet taste Prunum. Oval, occasionally compressed, somewhat angular, brownish- black to bluish-black drupe, 1.5 to 3 cm. long and 1 to 1.5 cm. in diameter Sabal. Roundish, wrinkled, blackish-brown drupe, about 6 mm. diam- eter ; odorless Cocculus. Obscurely lobed, wrinkled, black fruit with four brown seeds, 5 mm. diameter; disagreeable odor, bitter taste Rhamni Fr. Globular drupe, 5 mm. diameter, with 4-toothed calyx, reddish- brown ; spicy Pimenta. Oval or subglobular drupe, 3 mm. diameter, densely hairy, crimson; taste acidulous Rhus Glabra. Kidney-shaped drupe with grayish-brown rind and black acrid juicy pulp Anacardium. Similar to last, but heart-shaped and darker brown Semecarpus. Cubeba N. Cubeb. — 0. The fruit of Piper Cubeba; Piperacew; gathered before it is quite ripe. — H. Java; cultivated. — D. A globular drupe about 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, contracted at the base into a stalk Fig. 394. 4 to 6 mm. long, from Avhich reticulate wrinkles extend over the surface, and which cannot be separated from the fruit except by breaking it, gray, brown to blackish-brown externally, whitish HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 453 within and with its one seed not united with the putamen; odor spicy, taste pungently aromatic. — C. Up to 15 per cent volatile oil, some resin, etc. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, diuretic, ex- pectorant. Dose: 1 to 8 grams. Fig. 394 shows a fruit in natural size, an enlarged view of one whole, one in transverse, and one in longitudinal section, and a drawing showing location of embryo. Prunum N. Prune. — 0. The prepared and partially dried fruit of any one of several varieties of the common plum, Prunus domestica; Rosacea. — H. Native of Western Asia, but cultivated generally; prunes are prepared in Southern Europe and California, — D. Fig. 395-A. Oval, oblong or globular, about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, shriveled and wrinkled, purplish-blue to black externally, with soft brownish pulp surrounding an ovate flat stone which encloses the seed; fruit-like odor and sweet acidulous taste. Fig. 395A shows a whole prune, its stone and the seed whole, and in transverse section. — C. Sugar, fruit acids, etc. — U. Nutritive, laxative, frequently used as a corrective with senna, but mainly as a food. Sabal N. Sabal, Saw Palmetto, Saw Palmetto Berries. — 0. The par- tially dried fruit of Serenoa serrulata; Palmacece. — H. Atlantic coast states of U. S., from S. Carolina to Florida. — D. Oval or ovoid-oblong drupe, irregularly shrivelled and angular, brown- ish-black to bluish-black, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long and 1 to 1.5 cm. thick, 454 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY outer skin thin and someAvhat oily, flesh soft and spongy, green- ish-yellow, glutamen thin and fragile, seed hard and dark brown ; taste sweetish, acrid and oily and odor aromatic. — C. Action de- pends upon a fixed oil, about iy 2 per cent.— U. Stimulant blen- Fig. 395-B. norrhetic in genito-urinary troubles; similar in action to copaiba and cubeb, but milder. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams, best adminis- tered as fluid extract. Cocculus N. Cocculus Indicus; Fish-berry. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of Anamirta Cocculus; Menispermacece. — H. East India, Ceylon, Java, etc. — D. Obscurely kidney-shaped, roundish, about 8 mm. in di- ameter, wrinkled, apex and base near together, blackish-brown externally, reddish-brown within, the skin and pulp brittle, the Fig. 396. stone pale brown ; odorless, the fleshy part tasteless, but the seed bitter and poisonous. — C. Picrotoxin, resin, etc. — U. Sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.2 gram. It is called "fish-berry" because it is sometimes fed to fishes in bait to stupefy them, so that they may be more readily caught. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 455 Rhamni Catharticae Fructus N. Buckthorn Berries. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of Bhamnus cathartica; Rhamnaceoe. — H. Northern temperate zone; indig- enous to the Eastern hemisphere, naturalized in America. — D. When fresh the fruit is round, supported on a circular disk, the parchment-like endocarp 4-celled (more rarely 2, 3 or 5-celled) and 4-seeded, black externally, greenish within; owing to the thin flesh this dries so that the Avhole fruit assumes the shape of the endocarp and appears lobed or furrowed; the dried fruit as it occurs in the drug is deeply wrinkled, about 5 mm. in diameter, with a fragile stalk, a brownish-green pulp, and with brown seeds that are triangular-rounded, with a deep furrow on the back so 397. that a section of one appears horseshoe-shaped; faint but dis- agreeable odor and taste bitter and acrid. When chewed the fruits color the saliva greenish. — C. Rhamnocathartin, sugar, gum, etc. — U. Brisk hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. Fig. 397 shows fruit and seed in natural size and enlarged, and in section. Pimenta N. Pimento, Allspice.— 0. The nearly ripe fruit of Pimenta of- ficinalis (Eugenia Pimenta); Myrtacece. — H. Indigenous to West Indies ; cultivated in tropical America and in India. — D. A globular or obscurely quadrangular drupe, about 5 mm. in di- ameter, surmounted by a four-toothed calyx and the remains 456 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY of the style, warty granular, grayish or reddish-brown, 1 or 2-celled, each cell containing one seed which is plano-convex when there are two in a fruit; odor and taste pungently spicy, resembling cloves. — -C. About 4 per cent volatile oil, some resin, etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant, mainly employed as a spice. Some- Fig. 398. times used as fluid extract in doses 0.5 to 2 grams. Also used whole in "hot spiced wine" (German: " Glueh-wein " ) . Fig. 398 shows the fruit and seed in natural size and enlarged, and in longitudinal and transverse sections. A variety of Eugenia (Myrtus) is indigenous to Mexico, Myrtus Tabasco; this plant furnishes a variety of allspice which is larger than the more common variety described above, but it is used for the same purposes as the latter. Rhus Glabra N. Rhois Glabra: Fructus, Sumach Berries. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacew. — H. North America. — D. Oval Fig. 399. or subglobular, about 3 mm. in diameter, bright crimson to brownish, densely hairy, containing an oblong-roundish, gray, hard stone surrounding the seed; no odor, taste acidulous. — C. Tannin, potassium malate, etc. — U. Slightly acidulous and refrig- HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 457 erant, and mildly astringent. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form of fluid extract. The infusion is also used as a gargle. Fig. 399 shows a fruit in natural size and two, one from the side and one from the edge, enlarged; also, on the left, some of the hairs and glands, much enlarged. Anacardium N. Anacardium occidentals, Cashew Nut. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of Anacardium Occident ale ; Anacardiacece. — H. Indigenous to Fig. 400. tropical America; naturalized in Africa and the East Indies.— D. Shape and size are well shown in the drawings of Fig. 400. A kidney-shaped, grayish-brown drupe, 2 to 3 cm. long, about 2 cm. broad and 6 to 8 mm. thick, glossy black, 1-celled and 1- seeded; this drupe resembles a nut because the outer part of the sarcocarp or flesh is hardened into a brittle rind (the exocarp) Pig. on. which is connected to the putamen or stone, but so that there are many cavities in this layer (the mesocarp) in which there is a black, acrid juicy pulp; the seed consists of two white cotyle- dons enveloped by brown seed-coats. — C. A yellowish, oily, acrid 458 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY substance which is more vesicating than cantharides. The ker- nel contains a bland fixed oil. — U. The. kernel, raw or roasted, is edible. The pulp or juice is a local irritant; it is sometimes em- ployed to destroy warts and excessive granulation tissue. The oil has been used as a vermifuge in doses of 0.2 gram (3 drops). Anacardium orientale, Semecarpus, or Oriental Cashew Nut (from Semecarpus Anacardium; Anacardiacece), from East India, is heart-shaped, flattish, blackish-brown, but otherwise similar to the true cashew nut in its structure, constituents and properties. (See Fig. 401). GROUP LXV Parts of Fruits With three exceptions the drugs of this group consist mainly of the rinds of fruits. These exceptions are tamarinds, white pepper and pearled barley, the first being the inner pulp, fibers and seeds of a fruit with the hard external shell or rind removed, the second being a berry with the external pulpy flesh partly re- moved, but with some fibro-vascular bundles and dried pulp still adhering to the outer surface of the seed, and the third being a grain from which the hulls and outer portions were removed, the inner mealy part then polished. In regard to the rinds it is to be regretted that in Latin nomen- clature no difference is made between " barks" and "rinds," but that the word "cortex" is used for both ; while not likely to cause confusion, it is not as exact a use of words as is desirable in scien- tific work, and it would be better to use distinctive words when- ever possible. Possibly some variant of the word tegmen (used to designate the inner seed-coat) might by common consent be used for "rind," for instance: Tegmentum or tegumentum; in that case tegmen might still mean "seed-coat" and its meaning would not be interfered with by tegmentum meaning "fruit-coat." Strictly speaking, Union is the lemon tree; limonis cortex could therefore mean "the bark of the lemon tree" as well as "the peel of the lemon. ' ' Limonia is the lemon ; lemon peel therefore would, be bet- ter expressed by the Latin words limonice tegmentum. Similarly, Aurantii cortex literally translated, might be "bark of the orange tree." HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 459 Brownish-black pulp mixed with tough fibers and glossy brown seeds; acidulous vinous odor Tamarindus. Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish- white; peppery taste Piper Album. Kind of fruit, in quarters, dirty brownish-green on outer and dirty white on inner surfaces; fra- grant Aurantii. Amari Cortex. Rind of fruit in spiral bands, dirty brownish-green on outer surface, with little whitish parenchyma on inner surface; fragrant Aurantii Amari Cortex. Rind of fruit, in quarters, orange-colored on outer, white on inner surfaces; fragrant Aurantii Dulcis Cortex. Rind of fruit in spiral bands, lemon-yellow on outer, white on inner surfaces; fragrant Limonis Cortex. Irregular leathery fragments of reddish-brown rind, some pieces with hard, long, tubular calyx, and most pieces with oval depressions on inner sur- face; no odor Granati Fructus Cortex. Fragments of fruit, hard brownish-gray rind, to the inner side of which dried pulp with seeds ad- heres ; no odor Belse Fructus. Hard, thick, deep brown rind, without adhering pulp, with remains of six-rayed stigma and of hard calyx; no odor Mangostana. Oval grains, about 3 to -i mm. long, yellowish-white, whiter at ends, yellowish-brown groove along- one side Hordeum Perlatum. Tamarindus N. Tamarind. — 0. The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarin- dus Indica; Leguminoscv. — H. East India, North Africa, West In- dies, etc. — D. The fruit is an indehiscent legume, up to 10 or 12 cm. long, about 3 cm. broad and iy 2 cm. thick, Avith a brownish pulp and 3 to 12 seeds. The drug consists of the brownish to brownish-black pulp composed of parenchyma cells mixed with strong, branching, fibrous bundles, and flattish, subquadrangular, glossy brown seeds, each of which is enclosed in a tough mem- brane; fruity odor and sweetish acidulous taste; see Fig. 402, which shows seeds whole and in sections. — C. About 9 per cent citric acid, iy 2 per cent tartaric acid, 3 per cent bitartrate of potassium, some malic acid, 12 per cent sugar, pectin, gum, etc. — 460 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY U. Tamarind pulp dissolved in water makes a pleasant, acidulous slightly laxative drink. Tamarinds are occasionally added to Fig. 402. other cathartics. Dose: 10 to 20 grams or more; practically ad lib itum. Piper Album N. White Pepper.-O. The -ripe seeds of Piper nigrum (see Piper nigrum, Group LXIII), with the inner portion of the fruit-pulp adhering, or "the ripe fruit of P. nigr. with the outer and middle layers of the fruit-pulp removed." The ripe berries of black pepper are soaked in water, after which they are dried in the sun and then gently rubbed between the hands to remove Fig. 403. the dark outer portion, but so that much of the soft white flesh of the berry remains adherent to the seed.— D. White pepper is globular, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, dirty white to yellowish-brown, smooth, with about 10 veins (fibro- vascular bundles of the fleshy pulp) running from base to apex; the seed itself, after removal of the whitish remains of the fruit parenchyma, is reddish-brown HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 461 and contains a large albumen in which is imbedded the small embryo; odor, taste, constituents and uses like those of black pep- per, except, that it is less pungent and spicy. Fig. 403 shows one grain of white pepper enlarged. Aurantii Amari Cortex N. Aurantii Amari Tegmentum. Bitter Orange Peel. — 0. The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus, Citrus Aurantium amara: Ruta- cece. (Aurantiacece) . — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries. — D. In spiral band ("ribbons") or in quarters; glandular and dark brownish-green externally, with a thin layer of white spongy parenchyma on the inner surface; odor fragrant, taste very bitter. — C. About 1 per cent volatile oil, a bitter principle hesperidin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, stomachic, stimulant carmina- tive. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 462 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY The spiral bands (Fig. 404) are made by peeling with a knife and contain less of the spongy parenchyma than does the peel in quarters (Fig. 405). The best bitter orange peel is that obtained from the rather small fruit of a variety of orange grown on the Island of Cura- cao, in the West Indies. "Curacao Orange Peel" is shown in Fig. 405 ; it has externally a dirty green, internally a dirty whit- ish color. Next in quality is the peel from an orange grown in Southern France, which is said to be green when ripe. Much of the so-called "Curacao peel" sold in the trade is probably not from either of these sources, but from unripe oranges grown in Southern Europe. Aurantii Dulcis Cortex N. Aurantii Dulcis Tegmentum, Sweet Orange Peel. — 0. The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium sinensis; Butacece (Au- Fig. 406. rantiacece. — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries, Southern- Europe, West Indies, Florida, California, etc. — D. The rind of the fruit is usually removed in quarters and is glandular rough and orange yellow on the outer surface, whitish on inner surface ; a section shows intercellular oil-glands or spaces near the outer surface and a loose, spongy, white parenchyma (consisting of pe- culiar branched cells) within; odor fragrant, taste aromatic and slightly bitter.— C. Volatile oil, hesperidin (much less than in bitter orange peel), etc.— U. Stimulant carminative and sto- machic, but employed mainly as an excipient and flavoring agent. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY Granati Fructus Cortex 463 N. Granati Fructus Tegmentum, Pomegranate Rind. — 0. The rind of the fruit of Punka Granatum; Punieacece. — H. Grows wild in Northern Africa and Southern Asia and Europe; culti- vated in all subtropical countries. — D. The illustration (Fig. Fig. 407. 407) shows the fruit whole and in longitudinal section (with seeds removed), and two fragments as they are found in the drug, all natural size ; the rind occurs in irregular fragments from 1 to 2 mm. thick, leathery, breaking with granular fracture, reddish- brown or brownish-red externally, lighter on the inner surface ; some of the pieces have the tubular persistent calyx attached and 464 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY all are more or less marked on the inner surface with depressions caused by the seeds; without odor, taste astringent. — C. About 28 per cent tannin.— U. Astringent. Used internally or locally as a gargle or wash, in diarrhoeas and relaxed conditions of the mucous membranes generally. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Belae Fructus N. Bela y Bael Fruit, Bengal Quince. — 0. The unripe fruit of Aegle Marmelos; Rutacem (Aurantiacem). — H. Cultivated in East Fig. 408. HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 465 India. — D. The fruit is orange-shaped, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter, and about 10 to 12-celled, but as found in the trade it is broken. The drug consists of irregular fragments (see Fig. 408) ; the rind is about 2 to 3 mm. thick, smooth, hard, and broAvnish-gray exter- nally ; the dried pulp, which adheres to the rind, is hard, reddish- brown, whitish within, mucilaginous, acidulous, and encloses ob- long, flat, hairy seeds; no odor, taste slightly astringent. — C. A small quantity of tannin, some mucilage, sugar, etc. — U. Mildly astringent, aromatic and demulcent. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Mangostanae Fructus N. Mangostance Fructus Tegmentum, Mangostana, Mangos- teen. 0. The rind of the fruit of Garcinia Mangostana; Gutti- Fig. 4, 584 237 5, 584 237 r, 584 , 241 5, 584 248 ), 585 250 ), 585 255 ., 585 257 i, 585 260 1, 586 262 t, 586 263 >, 586 268 J, 586 270 \ 586 273 \, 587 276 1, 587 278 ), 587 299 , 587, 307 !, 589 323 I, 589 335 t, 590 339 i, 590 349 1, 591, 349 , 591 353 1, 592 364 , 592, 367 ), 593 376 ., 593 381 !, 593 386 1, 594 387 :, 594, 392 , 594, 394 1, 595 400 ', 595, 404 1, 595 409 >, 595 411 >, 596 414 ., 596 415 !, 596, 421 , 598 444 t, 598 452 , 599, 458 1, 600 468 ', 602 494. I, 602 497 1, 602 500 >, 603, 502 , 605, 505 5, 605 510 , 606, 513 t, 606 522 1, 606 523 5, 606 523 r , 607 530 i, 607, 533 1, 608 535 >, 608 540 Group 81, 609, 548 Group 82, 609, 552 Group 83, 609, 555 Group 84, 610, 562 Group 85, 611, 569 Group 86, 611, 572 Groups of drugs, 22, 575 Guaiac resin, 545 wood, 278 Guarana, 504 Guaza, 114 Gum Arabic, 533 resins, 535 Gummi gutti, 536 Gums, 533 Gunjah, 114 Guru nuts, 497 Gutta percha, 571 H H. Habitat of drugs, 27 Haematoxyli extractum, 529 Haematoxylon, 281 Hamamelis bark, 342 leaf, 372 Hasheesh, 116 Hedeoma, 101 Hellebore, American, 215 Helminthocorton, 120 Helonias, 222 Hemlock fruit, 439 leaf, 379 pitch, 551 Hemp, black Indian, 177 Canadian, 177 Indian, 114 white Indian, 232 seed, 435 Henbane, 113 seed, 489 Herbs,' 91 Hips, 409 Hirudo, 32 Histology, 12 vegetable, 74 Hoarhound, 103 Hollyhock flowers, 396 Honey, 48 Hops, 416 Hoptree bark, 322 Hordeum, 435 perlatum, 466 Horsemint, 105 Horse-tail, 129 Humulus, 416 Hydrangea, 176 Hydrastis, 228 Hyoscyamus, 113 seed, 489 INDEX 623 Hyphae, 135 Hyraceum, 47 Iceland moss, 121 Ichthyocoila, 35 Ignatia, 474 Illicium, 427 Imperatoria, 194 Incense, 539 India rubber, 570 Indian hemp, 114 black, 177 white, 232 physic, 235 tobacco, 107 turnip, 259 Indicum, 572 Indigo, 572 Inspissated juices, 523 Intercellular spaces, 136 Inula, 192 Inulin, 81 Ipecac, American, 235 cartegena, 182 Ipecacuanha, 181 Iris florentina, 245 versicolor, 217 Irish moss, 117 Isinglass, 35 Jaborandi, 366 Jalap, 184 Jamaica dogwood bark, 333 Jasmine, yellow, 173 Jequirity bean, 486 Jimson weed, 373 Juglans, 332 Juices, inspissated, 523 berries, 417 tar, 552 wood, 279 K Kamala, 506 Kava, 175 Kefir, 127 Kino, 527 Kola, 497 Kousso, 382 Krameria, 169 Labiatse, 99 Lac, 545 Lacca, 545 Lacmus, 572 Lactucarium, French, 530 German, 527 Lady's slipper, 219 Laminaria, 120 Lapathe radix, 208 Lapilli cancrorum, 41 Lappa, 210 Lappae fructus, 434 radix, 210 Lard, 47 oil, 50 Larkspur seed, 490 Latex, 87 Laticiferous ducts, 87 Laurel leaf, 361 Laurel oil, 565 Laurus, 361 Lavandula, 396 Lavender flower, 396 Leaf buds, 349 Leaves, 350 structure of, 350 Leech, 32 Leguminosae, 106 Lemon fruit, 412 peel, 466 Leptandra, 233 Levant wormseed, 386 Levisticum, 193 fruit, 442 Lichen Islandica, 121 pulmonarius, 122 Lichens, 121 Licorice extract, 529 root, 172 Lignin, 83 Lignum citrinum, 282 guaiaci, 278 haematoxyli, 281 santali, 278 vitae, 278 Ligustici fructus, 442 Lily of the valley flowers, 383 Lily of the valley root. 216 Limon, 412 Limonis cortex, 466 Linden flowers, 385 Linseed, 491 Linseed oil, 567 Linum, 491 Liquid ambar, 555 Liquorice extract, 529 Liquorice root, 172 Liriodendron, 319 Litmus, 572 Lobelia, 107 seed, 489 Lobeliaceae, 107 Logwood, 281 624 INDEX Logwood extract, 529 Long pepper, 420 Loveage fruit, 442 root, 193 Lungmoss, 122 Lupulin, 507 Lycoperdon, 127 Lycopodiaceae, 128 Lycopodium, 128 Lycopus, 101 M Mace, 498 Magnolia, 318 Maidenhair fern, 131 Majorana, 102 Malefern, 130 Mallow flower, 396 Malt, 436 Malum, 410 Malvae flores, 396 Mandrake, 248 Mangosteen, 465 Manna, 532 Manzanita, 363 Maple sugar, 532 Marigold, 398 Marjoram, 102 Marrubium, 103 Marshmallow, 206 Masterwort, 194 Mastic, 542 Matico, 371 Matricaria, 390 May apple, 248 Mayweed, 390 Maw seed, 490 Medulla, 146 Medulla sambuci, 273 Medulla sassafras, 273 Medullary ravs, 153 Mel, 48 Melissa, 103 Menispermum, 231 Mentha piperita, 104 Mentha viridis, 104 Meristem, 146 Mesophloeum, 286 Metamorphosis, 74 Method of study, 27 Methysticum, 175 Mezereum, 327 Microphotographs, 68 Microscopic mounts, dry, 57 in balsam, 62 in fluids, 67 in glycerine jelly, 65 Microscopy, 12, 52 Milfoil, 94 Milk sugar, 45 Milkweed, swamp, 232 Mistletoe, 267 Monarda, 105 Monkshood leaf, 378 root, 197 Mono-cotyledonous, 140 Moschus, 36, 45 Mother cloves, 451 Mucuna, 509 Mullein flowers, 402 leaf, 374 Musk, 36, 42 root, 189 Mustard, black, 492 white, 493 Mylabris, 34 Myristica, 472 Myrrh, 538 N N. Names of drugs, 27 Neatsfoot oil, 50 Neutral principles, 30 Night-blooming cereus, 271 Non-cellular vegetable drugs, 512 Nucleolus, 75 Nucleus, 75 Nucleus sheath, 143 Nutgalls, 511 Nutmeg, 472 butter, 564 oil, 564 Nux moschata, 472 Nux vomica, 473 O O. Origin of drugs, 27 Oak bark, 349 Odor, 19, 29 Oil of almonds, 567 of cade, 552 of sesami, 569 of turpentine, 557 Oils, fixed, 20, 562 Oils, volatile, 30, 555 Oleo-resins, 548 Oleum adipis, 50 amygd. expressum, 567 bubulum, 50 cadinum, 552 cocois, 566 gossypii seminis, 567 lauri, 565 lini, 567 morrhuae, 49 myristicai expressum, 564 nucistae, 064 INDEX 625 Oleum — Cont 'd. olivae, 568 palmae, 566 ricini, 568 sesami, 569 terebinthinae, 557 theobromatis, 564 tiglii, 569 Olibanum, 539 Olive oil, 568 Open bundles, 159 Opium, 525 Orange, 413 berries, 450 flowers, 393 peel, bitter, 461 curacao, 462 sweet, 462 Orchil, 573 Origanum, 102 Orleana, 573 Orris root, 243 finger, 245 Os, 40 sepiae, 40 Ovum, 35 Ox-gall, 49 Paku-kidang, 133 Pale rose, 401 Palm oil, 566 Palmae Christi root, 256 Panax, 190 Papaver, 429 Papaveraceae, 109 Papaveris semen, 490 Pappoose root, 230 Paprika, 447 Paracoto bark, 340 Paraffin, 565 Pareira brava, 170 Parenchyma, 135 Parenchymatous cells, 83 Parilla, yellow, 231 Parsley fruit, 441 root, 195 Parts of branches, 272 Passulae majores, 449 minores, 450 Pasque flower, 111 Pathology, 13 Pearl barley, 466 Peculiar concrete substances, 569 Pellitory, 191 Penghawar, 133 Pennyroyal, 101 Pepo* 481 ' i Pepper, African, 447 bird, 447 black, 446 Cayenne, 447 long, 420 red, 447 white, 460 Peppermint, 104 Permanent mounts, 56 Pernambuco wood, 280 Persian insect powder, 391 Persimmon, 414 Persio, 573 Peruvian balsam, 554 Peruvian bark, 299 Petrolatum, 566 Petroselini fructus, 441 Petroselini radix, 195 Phalaris fructus, 436 Pharmaco-dynamics, 16 Pharmacognosy, 14 Pharmacognosy system, 22, Pharmacology, 13 Pharmacy, 15 Phellandrium, 438 Phloem, 154 Phoradendron, 267 Photo-micrographs, 68 Physical classification, 22 Physics, 11 Physiology, 12 Physostigma, 477 Phytolaccae fructus, 451 Phytolaccae radix, 207 Pichurim, 496 Pili slezolobu, 509 Pilocarpus, 366 Pimenta, 455 Pimpernel, 196 Pimpinella. 196 Pine tar, 552 Pink root, 230 Piper album, 460 Piper longum, 420 Piper nigrum, 446 Pipsissewa, 265 Piscidia, 333 Pitch Burgund}', 551 Canada, 551 hemlock, 551 Pith, 136, 146 Pith elder, 273 sassafras, 273 Piths. 273 Pitted cells, 86 Pix Burgundica, 551 Canadensis, 551 Pix liquida, 551 626 INDEX Pleurisy root, 187 Podophyllum, 248 Poison ivy, 37V Poison oak, 377 Poke berry, 451 Poke root, 207 Polygonatum, 220 Polypodium, 132 Pomegranate bark, 347 Pomegranate rind, 463 Pomum, 410 Poplar buds, 350 Poppy, 429 Poppy flowers, 403 Poppy seed, 490 Populi gemmae, 350 Postscript, 615 Potato bug, 34 Potato starch, 507 Prayer beads, 486 Prickly ash bark, 345 Prickly ash fruit, 433 Prince's pine, 265 Prinos, 341 Procambium, 159 Prognosis, 13 Prosenchyma, 135 Prosenchymatous cells, 83 Protein grains, 80 Protoplasm, 75 Prune, 453 Prunus Virginiana, 315 Pseudo-parenchyma, 135 Ptelea, 322 Pteudophytes, 116 Puffball, 127 Pulsatilla, 111 Pulu, 133 Pumpkin seed, 481 Purging cassia, 432 Pyrethrum, 19.1 Pyrethrum flowers, 391 Q Quaker buttons, 473 Quassia, 276 Quebracho, 324 Quebracho, false, 325 white, 324 Queen's root, 180 Quercus alba, 349 Quercus semen, 495 Quick grass, 240 Quillaja, 337 Quince, Bengal, 464 Quince seed, 485 E Radix Ivarancusae, 168 Palmae Christi, 257 Eaisins, 449 Ranunculaceae, 110 Rape seed, 493 Raphides, 79 Raspberry, 415 Red cloves, 384 rose, 402 Red saunders, 280 Resina, 547 Resina draconis, 544 Resina guaiaci, 545 Resins, 31, 540 Rhamni cathart. fruct., 455 Rhamnus Purshiana, 343 Rhatany, 169 Rheum, 201 Rhizomes, 212 Rhoeadis nores, 403 Rhois glabrae cortex, 331 Rhois glabrae fructus, 456 Rhubarb, 201 Rhus glabra, 456 Radicans, 377 Toxicodendron, 377 Rice starch, 517 Ricinus leaf, 375 Ricinus oil, 568 Rock-brake, 132 Rock candy, 531 Roots, 161 fleshy, 183 structure of, 134 woody, 169 Rosa canina, 409 Rosa centifolia, 401 Rosa Gallica, 402 Rose hips, 409 Rose, pale, 401 Rose, red, 402 Rosemary, 362 Rosin, 547 Rosmarinus, 362 Rottlera, 506 Rubus, 320 Rubus Tdaeus, 415 Rue, ?S0 Rumex, 208 Ruta, 380 S Sabadilla, 484 Sabal, 453 Sabina, 269 Saccharum, 531 Saceharum lactis, 45 INDEX 627 Saccharum — Cont 'd. Uveum, 532 Safflower, 399 Saffron, 405 American, 399 Spanish, 405 Sage, 359 Sago, 518 Sargon cinnamon, 310 Saint John's Bread, 432 Salep, 256 Salix, 336 Salvia, 359 Sambucus, 395 pith, 273 Sandal wood, 278 Sandarac, 543 Sanguinaria, 252 Sanguis draconis, 544 San t alum rub rum, 280 Santonica, 386 Saponaria, 209 Sarsaparilla, 162 American, 249 false, 249 Sassafras, 314 Sassafras nuts, 496 Sassafras pith, 273 Savin, 269 Saw Palmetto, 453 Scammony, 536 Schizocarps, 423 Scilla, 262 Sclerenehyma, 135 Sclerenchymatous cells, 83 Sclecogen, 83 Scoparius, 106 Scopola, 251 Scouring rush, 129 Scutellaria, 106 Sea tangle, 120 Sections of drugs, 50, 54, 58, 138 Seed leaves, 494 Seeds, 468 Semecarpus, 458 Semen contra, 3S6 Senega, 202 Senna, 364 Serpentaria, 226 Sesami olem, 569 Seven barks, 176 Sevum, 44 Shellac, 545 Shikimi fruit, 428 Shrubby- trefoil bark, 322 Siliqua dulcis, 432 Simaruba, 317 Sinapis alba, 493 Sinapis nigra, 492 Sizes of cells, 76 Skullcap, 106 Skunk cabbage, 218 Slippery elm bark, 337 Snake root, Canada, 234 Senega, 202 Virginia, 226 Soap bark, 337 Soapwort, 209 Solanaceae, 113 Solidago, 97 Solomon's seal, 220 Sophistication, 90 Spanish fly, 33 Spearmint, 104 Spermaceti, 43 Spigelia, 230 Spirit of turpentine, 557 Sponge, 39 Spunk, 126 Spurious rings, 158 Squaw root, 230 Squill, 262 Squirrel corn, 256 St. John's bread, 432 Staphisagria, 483 Star anise, 427 Star grass, 222 Starch, 80 Nature of, 513 Starches, 513 Stavesacre, 483 Stearic acid, 44 Steins, structure of, 134 Sticta, 122 Stigmas, 404 Stillingia, 180 Stinkweed, 373 Stone-cells, 84, 289 root, 236 Storax, 555 Stramonium leaf, 373 seed, 488 Strophanthus, 481 Structure, acrogenous, 159 Structure, endogenous, 143 Structure, exogenous, 146 Structure, root, 134 stem, 134 Styrax, 555 Suber, 83 Substitution, 90 Succinum, 546 Suet, 44 Sugar, 531 Sugar, grape, 532 Sugar of milk, 45 628 INDEX Sugars, 530 Sumach bark, 331 berries, 456 Sumbul, 189 Swamp dogwood, 313 Swamp milkweed, 232 Sweet flag, 238 gum, 555 oil, 568 of almonds, 567 Symphetum, 209 Synopsis of groups, 575 drugs, 575 Systems of tissues, 88 Tabaeum, 375 Tag alder, 317 Tallow, 41 Tamarind, 459 Tamnis, 31 Tanacetum, 97 Tansy, 97 Tapioca, 519 Tar, 551 Taraxacum, 186 Tartaric acid, 522 Taste, 19, 29 Tea, 359 Terebinthina, 547 Canadensis, 550 Terebinthinae oleum, 551 Terra Japonica, 528 Thallogens, 116 Thallophytes, 116 Thea, 359 Thebaicum, 525 Theobroma, 478 Theobromatis oleum, 564 Therapeutical classification, 21 terms, 612 Therapeutics, 16 Thornapple leaf, 373 Thoroughwort, 95 Thudace, 530 Thuja, 268 Thus, 539 Tilia, 385 Tissues, cellular, 88 Tobacco, 375 Tolu balsam, 554 Tonco, 479 Tonka bean, 479 Tormentilla, 253 Toxicodendron, 377 Tracheids, 86 Tragacanth, 534 Trefoil bark, 322 Trichomes, 505 Trifolium, 384 Trillium, 217 Triticum, 240 Tubers, 254 Tulip-tree bark, 319 Turkey corn, 256 Turkey pea, 256 Turmeric, 244 Turpentine, 549, 557 Canada, 550 oil, 557 Venice, 550 Twigs or branches, 262 U Uses of drugs, 31 Ulmus, 337 Unicorn, false, 222 root, 222 Urticaceae, 114 Ustilago, 125 Uva ursi, 356 Uvae passae, 449 V Valerian, 224 American, 219 Vanilla, 430 Vascular acrogens, 116 Vaseline, 566 Vegetable charcoal, 504 drugs, 50 histology, 74 without cellular structure, 512 Venice turpentine, 550 Veratrum viride, 215 Verbascum, flores, 402 leaves, 374 Vetivcrt, 168 Viburnum opulus, 329 Viburnum prunifolium, 345 Virginia snake root, 226 Vitta, 424 Volatile oils, 555-562 W Waferash, 322 Wahoo, 328 southern, 328 Water avens, 236 fennel, 438 hemlock, 438 Watermelon seed, 480 Wax, white. 43 yellow, 42 Wheat starch, 516 INDEX 629 White agaric, 126 ash, 338 glue, 46 Indian hemp, 232 oak bark, 349 wax, 43 Wild cherry bark, 315 ginger, 234 yam, 221 Willow bark, 336 Wintergreen, 263 Witchhazel bark, 342 leaf, 372 Wood, 274 structure of, 274 Woods, 274 Woolfat, 47 Wormseed, American, 421 Le van tie, 386 Wormwood, 94 Xanthoxyli cortex, 345 fructus, 433 Xanthoxylum, 345 Xvlem, 148 Yam, wild, 221 Yarrow, 94 Yeast, 126 Yellow dock, 208 jasmine, 173 parilla, 231 wax, 42 Yerba santa, 266 Zea, 407 Zedoary, 247 Zingiber, 241 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 0DDEbbl3577