Lfl 894 
 
 1913a rpjjj, 
 
 SCHOOL SYSTEM OF 
 NORWAY 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON, M.A. 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OP 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 TO 
 
 THE GRADUATE FACULTY 
 
 IOWA CITY, IOWA 
 1912 
 
THE 
 
 SCHOOL SYSTEM OF 
 NORWAY 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON, M. A. 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 TO 
 
 THE GRADUATE FACULTY 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 
 
 IOWA CITY, IOWA 
 1912 
 
LAS94- 
 
 Copyright, 1913, by Richard G. Badger t\ 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 
 The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 THIS account is a descriptive statement of 
 the organization, management, operation, 
 and efficiency of the public school system of 
 Norway. The intent has been to consider 
 only the more vital features, those essentials which 
 definitely shape the products of educational endeavor. 
 Many topics of interest have been touched but briefly 
 while others have been omitted altogether. Some 
 attention has been given to pointing out good qualities 
 of the Norwegian schools and to indicating wherein we 
 might improve our own. 
 
 The materials entering into the make-up of this 
 dissertation were gathered during a summer and 
 autumn devoted to travel and study in Norway. Much 
 time was spent in study at the University Library in 
 Christiania and still more in the visitation of schools. 
 It was with pleasure that I availed myself of the oppor- 
 tunity to see the schools in operation. I observed 
 recitations throughout the entire program of study in 
 every grade from the kindergarten to the University. 
 I also visited many special schools and other educational 
 institutions both public and private. Further than 
 this, I was benefited by frequent conferences with the 
 leading educators of the country and by almost con- 
 stant associations with schoolmen, patrons, and stu-' 
 
4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 dents. These personal investigations enabled me to 
 become familiar with the spirit and work of the schools, 
 and they furnish backgromid for a large part of the 
 content of this treatise. Since no adequate account of 
 the schools of Norway is in print, the authority for this 
 work has been gained chiefly from school laws, annual 
 reports from the Department of Ecclesiastical and 
 Educational Affairs (chiefly statistical), and the in- 
 dividual research referred to above. 
 
 It was my good fortune to be provided with official 
 credentials as holder of a Traveling Fellowship for 
 study in Norway from the State University of Iowa; a 
 commission to study the school system of Norway 
 from His Excellency, B. F. Carroll, the Governor of 
 the State of Iowa; and a letter of introduction to Nor- 
 way's educational executives from Hon. Elmer Ells- 
 worth Brown, at that time Commissioner of Education 
 for the United States. These credentials had the 
 effect of mtensifying the already superior courtesy and 
 oblighig disposition of the Norwegian officials and 
 schoolmen, who gave me free access to every facility 
 for the pursuance of my work within the state and 
 volmitarily offered their co-operation whenever I might 
 desire it. Their gracious exemplification of the spirit 
 of brotherly kindness made my work among them a 
 constant delight. I desire to express my gratitude to 
 the Norwegians wherever I traveled for the rare cordial- 
 ity characterizing my reception among them and to 
 acknowledge my obligations to J. K. Qvigstad, chef for 
 Kirk-og Undervisningsdepartmentet; Knut Johannes 
 Hougen, byraachef for Undervisningsvaesen; A. H. Rae- 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 5 
 
 der, Undervisningsraadeis formand; Johan Andreas 
 Johnsen, SkoledireJdoren i Kristiania stift; Otto Andreas 
 Anderssen, Bestyrer og forstelaerer i det Paedagogiske 
 Seminar for Laerere ved hoiere Almenskoler, for valuable 
 suggestions and careful reading and criticism of the 
 entire work in manuscript; further to Iowa's Board of 
 Education and the Graduate Faculty of the State 
 University of Iowa for the appointment which made 
 possible the investigation; to Professor F. E. Bolton, 
 who first suggested that I make the study and who has 
 constantly been to me a wise counsellor and a willing 
 co-operator; and finally to my wife who, through all, 
 has been both critic and companion, 
 
 David Allen Anderson. 
 The State University of Iowa, 
 Iowa City, 
 
 May, 1912, 
 
REVIEWER'S PREFACE 
 
 Kristiania den 16 februar 1912. 
 
 Jeg har med stor fornoielse gjennemlaest Mr. David 
 A. Andersons fremstilling av Norges Undervisnings- 
 vaesen og fundet den i all vaesentlige ting korrekt, 
 fuldstaendig og oplysende. Gjennem personlig iagtta- 
 gelse, samtale med kompetente maend og studium av 
 den vigtigste litteratur er det lykkes forfatteren at 
 danne sig en klar og noiagtig forestilling om de norske 
 skolers ordning og saeregne arbeidsformer i deres 
 historiske tilblivelse og nuvaerende vilkaar. Hans 
 reflektioner og domme vedner om paedagogiske ind- 
 sight og uavhaengig opfatning. Det er mulig at ban 
 nu og da er noget tilboielig til at domme vel gunstig 
 om vore skoleinstitutioners effektivitet og vort folks 
 interesse og offervillighed for at gjore denne saa stor 
 some mulig, men dette for haenge sammen med at ban 
 ser tingene mot en bakgrund av amerikanske forbold, 
 som ban onsker reformeret. 
 
 Jeg bar ikke bavt anledning til at kontroUere i det 
 enkelte de statistiske opgaver forfatteren meddeler, 
 men da disse er bentet ut fra ofiicielle kilder tviler jeg 
 ikke paa at de er rigtige. 
 
 Professor dr Otto Anderssen, 
 
 Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary annexed to the 
 University of Christiania. 
 
REVIEWER'S PREFACE 
 
 (Translation) 
 
 Christiania, February 16, 1912. « 
 I have, with great pleasure, read through Mr. David 
 A. Anderson's presentation of Norway's school system 
 and found it in all essentials correct, complete and 
 illuminating. Through personal observation, conver- 
 sation with competent men and study of the most 
 important literature, the author has succeeded in get- 
 ting a clear and exact view of the Norwegian school 
 methods and characteristic forms of work in their 
 historical development and present condition. His 
 reflections and judgments testify to pedagogical insight 
 and independence of views. It may be that now and 
 then he is somewhat inclined to judge too favorably as 
 to the eflficiency of our institutions and the interest of 
 our people and their readiness to sacrifice in order to 
 make this efliciency as high as possible, but this may be 
 due to the fact that he views it against a background of 
 American conditions, which he desires to improve. 
 
 I have not taken occasion to verify in detail the 
 statistical tables the author includes, but since they 
 have been gathered from oflScial sources I do not doubt 
 that they are correct. 
 
 Professor Dr. Otto Anderssen, 
 Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary, affiliated with 
 the University of Christiania. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 THE most pressing problems of education 
 at the present time are those of organization 
 and administration of educational forces. 
 Problems of method of instruction though 
 important are entirely subsidiary, for if all the people 
 can be aroused to a desire for education and then be 
 shown ways and means of attaining it the very desire 
 for education will be the most important factor in 
 learning. 
 
 No means of studying questions of organization and 
 administration are so valuable as the comparative. 
 Various studies of education in foreign countries have 
 been made, but there still exists a need for many more 
 investigations. Norway has furnished a great many 
 illustrious statesmen, scientists and literary masters, 
 and is also a country abounding in men of a high type 
 of valor, physical prowess, honesty and industry, and 
 consequently the educational ideals and practices 
 which prevail there should be worthy of most careful 
 consideration. Heretofore, only fragmentary accounts 
 of Norway's educational system have been available 
 in the English language. At the writer's suggestion, 
 Mr. Anderson made a trip abroad for the purpose of 
 studying the system at first hand. His intimate 
 acquaintance with the language was a prime essential 
 
 9 
 
10 EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 in acquiring an understanding through observation 
 and reading. That he has made an accurate interpreta- 
 tion is attested by the foreword of one of Norway's 
 eminent scholars and that he has made an interesting 
 account will be conceded by all who peruse the pages. 
 It is hoped that many more studies of a similar nature 
 will follow in the near future. 
 
 Frederick E. Bolton, 
 State University of Washington, 
 
 Seattle, April 8, 1913. 
 
CONTENTS 
 Chapter I 
 Background and Organization 
 
 I. Introduction 19 
 
 1 . History of Norway (brief sketch) 19 
 
 2. Geographical features 22 
 
 3. National characteristics, aims and 
 
 ideals 25 
 
 II. Differentiation of Schools 28 
 
 1. Primary schools — rural and city. ... 28 
 
 2. Secondary 30 
 
 3. The University and other schools. . . 32 
 
 III. Distribution of Schools and Pupils. 34 
 
 1. Primary — rural and city 34 
 
 2. Secondary — middle school and gym- 
 nasium. 41 
 
 3. Teachers' Seminaries 41 
 
 4. The University 41 
 
 5. Private schools 43 
 
 IV. Pupils 44 
 
 1. Age in primary schools, secondary 
 schools and teachers' seminaries .... 44 
 
 2. Comparisons with America in equip- 
 ment and time spent in school 50 
 
 3. Speciahzation 51 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 V. Organization — Relation to state, com- 
 mune and city. 51 
 
 1. The state department and its divi- 
 
 sions 51 
 
 2. Units of organization 53 
 
 3. The school board and school com- 
 
 mittees 56 
 
 4. City superintendent (Inspector) and 
 
 ward principles (Overlaererer) 60 
 
 5. Private citizens a factor 61 
 
 6. Financial support of schools 62 
 
 VI. Buildings and Grounds 64 
 
 1. General character of buildings 64 
 
 2. Equipment 64 
 
 3. Playgrounds 69 
 
 4. Homes for principals and teachers. . . 70 
 
 VII. General Features of Inner Organiz- 
 ation 71 
 
 1. The teaching staff 71 
 
 2. Plan of instruction 72 
 
 3. Gymnastics 74 
 
 4. Lunches 75 
 
 5. School discipline 76 
 
 6. Attendance 77 
 
 7. Health 77 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter II 
 
 Teachers 
 
 I. Qualification and Certification of 
 
 Teachers 79 
 
 1. General situation and tendencies... 79 
 
 2. Special teachers 80 
 
 II. Training of Teachers 81 
 
 1. Introductory 81 
 
 2. Seminaries — establishment and work 83 
 
 III. Teachers' Official Titles. 85 
 
 1 . In the several schools — significance . 85 
 
 IV. Teachers' Tenure of Office 86 
 
 1. Positions — Permanent and tempor- 
 ary 87 
 
 2. Comparisons with conditions in 
 America 89 
 
 3. Changes in teaching staff (with 
 tables) 89 
 
 V. Teachers' Salaries 91 
 
 1. General statement 91 
 
 2. Additional benefits 92 
 
 3. Schedules (with tables) 94 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 Courses of Study in State Schools 
 
 I. Introductory — ^Rise, development, and 
 
 present form of the curriculum,. 96 
 
 1 . Origin and evolution of the course of 
 study 96 
 
 a. The early schools; their work, in- 
 fluence, and development in Nor- 
 way 97 
 
 2. Three sections of schools 99 
 
 •II. The Primary School 101 
 
 1. Rural and city 101 
 
 2. Schedules of courses 104 
 
 a. Comparisons 106 
 
 b. Subjects emphasized 107 
 
 3. Outline of subjects of instruction. . . . 108 
 
 a. Religion 108 
 
 b. Norwegian 118 
 
 c. Mathematics 125 
 
 d. Geography 129 
 
 e. History 134 
 
 f. Nature study 139 
 
 g. Other subjects : writing and draw- 
 ing, vocal music, manual training, 
 gymnastics 146 
 
 III. The Middle School 149 
 
 1. Its standard, aim, and method 149 
 
 2. Outline of subjects of instruction. . . . 151 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 IV. The Gymnasium 162 
 
 1 . Outline of subjects of instruction ... 162 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 Interpretative Conclusions 
 
 1. The people and their ideals 181 
 
 2. Facilities for education 184 
 
 3. Directing authority and management of 
 
 schools 187 
 
 4. Teachers' training 191 
 
 5. The teacher's life 195 
 
 6. The curriculum 197 
 
 a. Religious instruction and education. . . . 198 
 
 b. The classics 201 
 
 c. Physical culture 204 
 
 d. Vocal music 206 
 
 7. Lines of instruction in the gymnasium 207 
 
 8. Co-education 210 
 
 9. The school year 214 
 
 10. School lunches 215 
 
 11. Comparative attainments 217 
 
 12. Methods of instruction 220 
 
 13. Continuity of effort 222 
 
 Bibliography 225 
 
 Index 229 
 
THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 OF NORWAY 
 
 Chapter I 
 BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE history of mankind in Norway covers a 
 period of at least five thousand years and 
 includes a great variety of interesting inci- 
 dents and conditions. The accounts of the 
 earlier ages may be read only in archaeological forma- 
 tions, while for more recent times, these silent records 
 are supplemented and enriched by traditions. All 
 such accounts are of deep interest and significance but 
 only in a measure reliable. We have no really authen- 
 tic information regarding Norway's political history 
 until the reign of Harald the Fair Haired (860-930). 
 We do know, however, that, previous to his establish- 
 ment of the sovereign state of Norway in 872, the 
 people had known only the rule of numerous petty, 
 warring earls and kings. Besides this, the entire 
 country had been subjected to the devastations of the 
 vikings. These sea robbers were the terror of all the 
 coast countries in western Europe and the British Isles 
 
 19 
 
20 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 until about the year 900 when sea robbery at home 
 was aboHshed, and the Norsemen became colonizers, 
 migrating to surrounding islands, the west and south 
 of Europe, and probably America. Now when piracy 
 began to decline the people rose to a higher plane of 
 living, and the prosperity attained through peace and 
 industry was found to be the more desirable. A long 
 succession of Idngs, some good and some evil, ruled the 
 land. Paganism was gradually overcome, and about 
 the year 1,000 Christianity was established. 
 
 From this time on, for several centuries, the country 
 experienced only moderate visible progress though 
 large gains were made in potential powers. In 1381, 
 Norway entered into a union with Denmark and re- 
 mained in large measure subject to her power until 
 1814. This period of more than four hundred years 
 was a season of little good and of great hardships to 
 the people. Their development received little atten- 
 tion, the resources of the country and the cause of 
 education were neglected, and the masses were not 
 recognized in a way that would tend to their enlighten- 
 ment and progress. The entire nation suffered from 
 international difficulties as well as from oppression at 
 home. Conditions remained unimproved and the 
 latent powers of the people, which had been accumulat- 
 ing for generations, found no adequate means for ex- 
 pression. 
 
 When in 1814 the treaty of Kiel, sanctioned by the 
 European powers, forced Norway into an unwilling 
 union with Sweden, the Norwegians revolted; and, in 
 their attempt to liberate themselves, adopted a con- 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 21 
 
 stitution for their government.* Their revolt created 
 ill feelings on the part of the Swedes while the demands 
 for complete sovereignty by Sweden were resented by 
 the Norwegians. The adoption of this constitution by 
 the people of Norway and their standing so tenaciously 
 for its recognition are manifestations of the spirit which 
 had been developing among them for centuries. They 
 believed that they were being imposed upon and stood 
 firm for their rights. They had felt the crushing hand 
 of foreign rule, they had observed the benefits of inde- 
 pendence, they had developed confidence in their otnti 
 powers, and now they were converted to the idea that 
 the time for home rule was upon them. Civil liberty 
 was their dream. State rights came to be demanded. 
 Their time to act in a decisive manner had come. The 
 people had grow^i into a nation deserving and in need of 
 larger powers, and their best advancement was in great 
 measure dependent upon the exercise of these powers. 
 Conditions then justified their demands and Sweden, 
 appreciating the situation, yielded, acknowledged the 
 independence of Norway, and agreed to govern in 
 accordance, with the newly adopted constitution. On 
 the other hand, Norway acceded to the demands of 
 Sweden in accepting the King of Sweden as theirs also. 
 Now for nearly one hundred years this union was 
 maintained. Comparative peace and prosperity pre- 
 vailed and the outlook seemed favorable for both 
 nations. Sweden profited because of the new relations, 
 and Norway gained in strength and power through her 
 
 *The Constitution (Grundlov) adopted at Eidsvold, Norway, 
 May 17, 1814. 
 
22 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 experience in individual initiative and governmental 
 duties generally. While the relations between the two 
 countries were in the main friendly, on various occasions 
 Norway felt that her rights were not always respected. 
 The people craved larger privileges, more recognition 
 among the nations of the world, and the exercise of 
 greater authority. The functioning of capacities that 
 had long lain dormant revealed to her the powers that 
 were still latent. Norway became eager for absolute 
 independence and these feelings rose to larger and 
 larger proportions until desires became demands. All 
 the people were ready and offered their services, their 
 fortunes (whether large or scant), and their lives in the 
 cause of freedom. Finally, formally, and without 
 bloodshed, the bonds uniting the two countries were 
 severed in 1905 and Norway became an independent 
 nation. 
 
 Having briefly sketched the history of the country 
 let us now turn our attention to its geography. Nor- 
 way, as we all know, lies in the northwestern part of 
 Europe, and measures over one thousand one hundred 
 miles from north to south and from two hundred to 
 nearly five hundred miles from east to west. Politi- 
 cally it is divided into eighteen counties (Amter) and 
 the cities of Christiania and Bergen. These counties 
 are subdivided into six hundred sixty-six town- 
 ships or communes {Kommuner) which are again 
 divided into school districts or circles {Kredser) num- 
 bering in all five thousand nine hundred seventy.* 
 
 The area is approximately one hundred and twenty- 
 .*Statistics for 1907 — the last published. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 23 
 
 five thousand square miles. Nearly all of it is made up 
 of mountains which have no regularity in distribution, 
 a large portion of them being merely heaps of barren 
 rock thrown up in conglomerate masses. The valleys 
 are as numerous and irregular as the mountains. In 
 them are lakes, rivers, and waterfalls, their waters pure 
 and clear as crystal. The lakes differ greatly in out- 
 line and size. The rivers in their windings dash furi- 
 ously through precipitous, rugged, rocky channels, or 
 glide murmuringly through quiet valleys until they 
 reach the fjords which appear like huge arms of the sea, 
 reaching deep into the earth and extending far inland. 
 The waterfalls vary from mere threads tinkling into 
 tiny pools to great torrents gushing over dizzy preci- 
 pices. Viewed in combination these features present 
 an infinite variety of exquisitely beautiful scenes. 
 
 The climate of Norway is greatly diversified owing 
 to the wide range in latitude and the influence of the 
 Gulf stream. In the northern part and on the highest 
 mountains there are vast fields of snow during the 
 entire year, while in some of the sheltered portions 
 along the western coast, the climate is well adapted to 
 the cultivation of some of the tropical plants. It is, 
 of course, essential that all plants that are cultivated 
 be of rapid growth and of quiclc maturity, since their 
 seasons are quite short. The atmospheric conditions 
 are excelled nowhere. Few locations on the earth 
 enjoy such freshness or provide so much mental and 
 physical invigoration. Just the joy of living is more 
 than recompense for all one's expense and trouble in 
 going for a season into this summer home of nature. 
 
24 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Being situated so far to the north the days of sum- 
 mer are very long while those of winter are extremely 
 short. This is noticeable even in the southern part of 
 the country, and as one goes farther north it is more 
 and more striking until upon reaching the arctic circle 
 the summer traveler has the unique experience of see- 
 ing the sun at midnight. It is visible for weeks or 
 months at a time, according to whether one is near the 
 circle or farther toward the pole. For corresponding 
 periods during the winter seasons the sun does not ap- 
 pear at all. It should not l^e inferred that these sun- 
 less days are intensely dark and gloomy. On the con- 
 trary, they, as well as the midnight sun, have fascma- 
 tions peculiar to themselves and are of deep mterest, 
 especially to the novice in that latitude. The glitter 
 of the stars, the glow of the moon, and the palpitating 
 brilliance of the northern lights, combine with the 
 light reflected from the vast snow fields and compensate 
 in part for the absence of the direct rays from the sun. 
 
 The industries and occupations of the Norwegians 
 are dependent in large measure upon environing con- 
 ditions. Nearly one-fourth of the country is covered 
 with a heavy gro\\i:h of timber; hence, lumbering affords 
 a large part of the most profitable employment. Much 
 of the mountainous land can be used only for pasturage 
 and, as a result, dairying claims considerable attention. 
 Only a very small portion of the area (about four per 
 cent) is suitable for agriculture and owing to this 
 limitation of opportunity, comparatively few of the 
 people are farmers. Their numerous fisheries supply 
 cargoes, and train loads of fresh and cured fish to the 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 25 
 
 markets of the world. Fishing is, in fact, one of the 
 most important industries, and a large percentage of 
 the wage earners of the country engage in it. Since 
 the bulk of their travel and transportation is by water, 
 a great many become sailors. A certain amount of 
 manufacturing also is done, and this provides another 
 means of earning a livelihood. The fact that nearly 
 all of the people are gathered into cities, towns, and 
 settlements along the coast, is explained l>y a con- 
 sideration of the activities and conditions herein set 
 forth. 
 
 The people of Norway are large of stature, vigorous, 
 and alert in mind and body. They have ever been un- 
 daunted in their efforts to overcome the great, natural 
 barriers to progress and to secure what they believed 
 would be for their well-being. Toiling patiently and 
 persistently, suffering hardships on land and perils at 
 sea, they have developed the well-known characteristics 
 of their sturdy race. The long, rigorous winters taught 
 the people to provide amply for the needs of the future, 
 and they learned also the economy of making every en- 
 deavor count for permanency. It has been and is 
 still their aim and intent to so direct their efforts that 
 their citizens may experience and enjoy not only in the 
 present the best conditions m^ade possible by the world 's 
 highest attainments, but that later generations also 
 may reap valuable benefits therefrom. They realize 
 that it is easily possible for today 's provisions to supply 
 the best for the present, and at the same time to bless 
 tomorrow and the next day and all the com.ing years. 
 
 The Norwegians are as democratic in mind and 
 
26 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 disposition as any people of the earth. They demand 
 that the masses shall receive whatever benefit may 
 come from prosperity at home, from their relations 
 with other nations, or from legislation. They advo- 
 cate further that right now is the time to increase op- 
 portunities, to multiply privileges, to raise standards of 
 living, and to insure through conservative action a 
 substantial basis on which the coming generations may 
 safely build. In accord with their aims and ideals 
 they study the questions of education, labor and capital, 
 and many others of vital interest to the people. They 
 seek out sources, eliminating the undesirable and cul- 
 tivating those of favorable growi:h and fruitage. Rec- 
 ognizing their own resourcefulness and al)ility, the 
 Norsemen strive to gain for themselves and for their 
 descendants material prosperity and true culture. 
 To these ends they foster educational advantages for 
 all, the development of the arts and sciences, and the 
 elevation of labor. 
 
 Educationally, they have ever been desirous of pro- 
 viding the l^est possible advantages. During the latter 
 part of the nineteenth century and the few years of the 
 present one, they have been in a position to put into 
 execution a number of advance ideas which they have 
 done without hesitation. Being observant of what 
 other nations provide they have been ready to select 
 from various sources whatever good they found, to 
 eliminate any undesirable features which revealed 
 tliemselves, and to strengthen the weaker points. 
 Though they have been forced by conditions to assume 
 and maintain a conservative attitude toward every 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 27 
 
 new project or attempt at reform, they have been also 
 too democratic to permit tradition or precedent to 
 bind them down or to hinder them in making changes 
 in their school system, which they were convinced 
 by experience or study would be for their good. In 
 harmony with this they have been eager to make re- 
 visions where necessary; to introduce new features, 
 which had been tested at home or abroad and found 
 successful; and to cast aside relics of the past, unneces- 
 sary phases of work, and those things which miglit be 
 supplanted by materials of superior advantage or 
 value to the people served. They have become 
 hal)ituated to examining the new from every conceiv- 
 able viewpoint, to finding its foundations, to testing 
 its values, and to weighing its effects. When a thing 
 has been thoroughly studied it is accepted or rejected 
 according to whether it is adjudged desirable or un- 
 desirable for their use under existing conditions. In 
 their effort to answer the demands of the people and to 
 supply their needs, schools have been established ac- 
 cording to local requirements. That is to say, every 
 community enjoys school advantages, and every child 
 in the entire state is privileged to receive instruction 
 for a certain num])er of weeks each year at the expense 
 of the state. All children are required to attend the 
 schools of the state at least twelve weeks each year for 
 seven years, or to receive instruction elsewhere which 
 is equivalent to the amount required. In the more 
 populous places higher schools also are provided for 
 those who desire to take advantage of the opportuni- 
 ties afforded in them. 
 
28 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 II. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 It was early recognized by the Norwegians that 
 through the means of education, better than any other 
 way, they could develop a people qualified to pursue 
 the arts, to cultivate the sciences, to appreciate and en- 
 joy the highest culture, and to maintain and develop 
 their noblest ideals of citizenship and richest concep- 
 tions of statehood. Having these objects in mind 
 they endeavored to establish schools of instruction 
 and training along every legitimate line. Beginning 
 with the most essential they worked unceasingly, pro- 
 viding additional worthy kinds of instruction as rapidly 
 as possible, until their efforts resulted in their present 
 school system. 
 
 Perhaps the most important feature of their work 
 was the establishment of primary schools, which fur- 
 nish general education. These schools provide seven 
 years of elementary instruction for children l»etween 
 the ages of seven and fourteen years, and are literally 
 the peojile's schools {Folkeskoler) . The law requires 
 that pupils must be regular in attendance, and that 
 parents, who fail to have their children in school in 
 harmony with the provisions of the law, be fined ac- 
 cording to the seriousness and extent of the offense. 
 It is further provided that these schools shall be in 
 operation for at least twelve weeks in the year, and that 
 this time may be extended according to local demands 
 or needs. As a matter of fact, nearly all of them in 
 the cities and many of them in the country operate 
 forty weeks per year. As a consequence of liberal 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 29 
 
 provisions and enforced regulations, Norway has 
 achieved an eminent place educationally among the 
 nations of the world. 
 
 In the rural sections primary schools are held in 
 comfortable, well equipped, and conveniently located 
 schoolhouses and are taught by competent teachers 
 who live near by in homes provided for them. In a 
 few remote, rugged sections of the country, where 
 children are few and scattering or where locations 
 accessible to all cannot be found, they have no fixed 
 schools, but instead what are termed ambulatory 
 schools (OmgangsJcoler). There are no schoolliouses 
 in these districts but the officials designate certain 
 houses* as the places where children go at stated times 
 to receive instruction. The teacher meets the children 
 of the neighborhood in a given home and teaches them 
 for a specified time, passes to the next designated place, 
 and continues until his rounds are completed. Form- 
 erly, a very large number of these schools existed, but 
 as roadways were extended or improved and the peo- 
 ple became able to erect and mamtain schoolhouses, 
 the demand for ambulatory schools decreased until 
 now nearly all of them are supplanted by fixed schools. 
 In 1837, ninety-two per cent of the children attending 
 school in the country were taught in ambulatory schools, 
 while in 1907 this was the case with less than one per 
 cent of them. 
 
 In all the cities and towns excellent educational ad- 
 
 *The law requires the opening of residences having sufficient 
 room for the accommodation of these groups of pupils for instruc- 
 tional purposes. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 41. 
 
30 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 vantages are provided. Usually their school year con- 
 sists of forty weeks of six days each. Every provision 
 is made for the welfare of the children; excellent in- 
 structors are secured, and the equipment for teaching 
 purposes is of the best procurable. Furthermore, no 
 pains are spared in guarding the children from physical 
 discomfort and immoral conditions or associations. 
 
 Simultaneously with the development of the elemen- 
 tary schools secondary education moved along advance 
 lines. In 1814, when Norway became an independent 
 state there were but four of the higher classical (laerde) 
 schools within her borders. These were the historic 
 cathedral schools (KathedraWcoler) which had been 
 established for centuries. As time passed, other second- 
 ary schools were organized. Higher education was re- 
 organized in 18C9 and again in 1896, when by act of the 
 Stoilhnig secondary education was made to include 
 the middle school and the gymnasium. The enact- 
 ment defines these schools and states their aim as fol- 
 lows: "The middle school is a school for children, 
 which, in miion with the primary school, gives its pupils 
 a complete, thorough, general education, adapted 
 to the receptivity of childhood. The gymnasium is a 
 school for young people, which on the foundation of the 
 middle school, leads on to a complete, higher, general 
 education, which may also serve as a basis for scientific 
 studies. Both middle school and gymnasium shall 
 contribute to the religious and moral training of the 
 pupils, and it should also be their common aim to de- 
 velop the pupils both mentally and physically into 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 31 
 
 competent young people."* The act requires that 
 the middle school shall be no longer than four years, 
 and that the gynmasial courses shall be of three years ' 
 duration. 
 
 The gymnasia of Norway take up the work where 
 the middle schools leave off, and provide three years of 
 instruction which concludes with the exanien artium. 
 The passing of this examination entitles the individual 
 to become a student in the university. Previous to 
 the time of entering the gymnasium the subjects of 
 instruction are uniform for all; here they branch into 
 two or three lines, any one of which may be selected by 
 the pupil and followed to its completion. The main 
 divisions of the work are represented in the names of 
 the courses — the Real and the Linguistic-Historical. 
 The latter of these is again divided in some schools, 
 one of its two lines including Latin. The Real course 
 of instruction is largely scientific while the Linguistic- 
 Historical, true to its name, embodies a large amount 
 of language and history. In case the course including 
 Latin is offered, Latin replaces some of the work in 
 modern languages and history. 
 
 The middle school, then, is the second step in the 
 educational ladder and builds upon the work previously 
 done in the primary school. No middle school is 
 privileged to include work lower down than the sixth 
 grade. In other words, the primary schools are the 
 only ones which are authorized to present the work of 
 the first five grades or years of school instruction. 
 The courses of study are so arranged that a child may 
 
 *Law for Higher State Schools, Sec. 2. 
 
32 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 pass from the primary school after completing the 
 fifth grade and enter directly upon the studies in the 
 regular four year course of the middle school. On the 
 other hand a pupil may continue in the primary school 
 mitil its completion — seven years — and then enter a 
 middle school and finish its requirements in three years . 
 While nearly all middle schools present a four year 
 course there are a few which offer only three years of 
 instruction. In order to enter these latter schools the 
 child must have finished the seven years of instruction 
 in the primary schools. Middle schools are under the 
 inspection of state officials and a uniform standard of 
 work is required of all of them. The middle school 
 examination which marks the completion of the middle 
 school course is exactly the same for all pupils in the 
 state. In any given year all who take the examina- 
 tions write on exactly the same questions on a specified 
 hour of a certain day. 
 
 The Royal Frederik University, established by King 
 Frederik in 1811, furnishes the summit of educational 
 endeavor. Its five faculties — (1) theology, (2) law, 
 (3) medicine, (4) mathematics and science, and (5) 
 history and philosophy — represent the best products 
 of the country and maintain standards of efficiency 
 paralleling the achievements of the day. Besides 
 the five faculties already mentioned there are (1) The 
 Practical Theological Seminary for the training of 
 ministers and (2) The Pedagogical Seminary (affiliated) 
 for special training of teachers. Through the endeavors 
 of the faculties and seminaries enumerated, the neces- 
 sary professions, scientific organizations, and philosophic 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 33 
 
 societies are supplied with men of eminent qualifica- 
 tions. The state also is supplied from the same source 
 with individuals capable of attending to the affairs of 
 state in a dignified and competent manner. 
 
 To aid prospective teachers and to maintain high 
 professional standards, Norway early established a 
 Teachers ' Seminary in each of its six dioceses (Stifter) . 
 Having made this ample provision for the training of 
 teachers, they were in a position to require a certain 
 amount of professional preparation of all candidates 
 for appointment to teaching positions. Adherence to 
 this laudable principle has saved the state from an over- 
 flow of incompetent instructors. While requirements 
 were very low for a long time, the increasing supply of 
 qualified candidates for positions warranted successive 
 shiftings of them to higher and higher standards. At 
 present, the teachers of Norway, as a body, rank among 
 the best in educational equipment, professional train- 
 ing, and morality. 
 
 Technical, agricultural, military, and naval schools 
 have been established in order to keep pace with the 
 world's developments along these lines. The technical 
 school in Trondhjem opened in 1910, sets the require- 
 ments for admission as high as those at the university. 
 Its work promises to be of unquestioned quality and 
 its prospects are very bright. The students at this 
 school come chiefly from the scientific course offered 
 in the gymnasia or from the several preparatory tech- 
 nical schools of Norway. There are many of these 
 lower technical schools doing excellent work and some 
 of them are modeled after American schools. The work 
 
34 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of the agricultural college and of the military and naval 
 schools is more or less technical along their respective 
 lines and meets certain requirements not elsewhere 
 provided for. When one notes the variety of schools 
 maintained by the Norwegian state, it is evident that 
 it is the intent to provide for its citizens a very wide 
 range of educational advantages, and at the same time 
 to develop the capacities of yoimg people until they are 
 able to perform the oflfices of state and nation. 
 
 III. DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS 
 
 The laws of Norway are specific in their require- 
 ments regarding education, and the people are at hand 
 to provide the essential means for carrying out the de- 
 mands. It is required that in each city or district in 
 the entire realm there shall be the necessary number of 
 schools to provide instruction for all children of school 
 age. This is in answer to the law which makes a re- 
 quirement of a certain minimum amount of education 
 of all such children. 
 
 The primary schools are distributed in the cities, 
 villa^',e-. and rural communes to suit the convenience 
 of pupils attending. Other and higher schools are 
 provided where most needed. As is true everywhere 
 the bulk of work is done in the primary schools. Rural 
 and city schools have their own laws and government, 
 and are admirably adapted to the needs of their respec- 
 tive constituencies. As would be expected, the rural 
 schools and the pupils attending them far outnumber 
 those in the cities and towns. There are in the coun- 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 35 
 
 try five thousand, nine hundred and seventy schools 
 attended by two hundred seventy-five thousand, one 
 hundred and fifty-five pupils, while there are but 
 sixty-one city school systems having an enrollment of 
 ninety thousand, one hundred and twenty-nine pupils.* 
 It is seen that there are about three times as many 
 pupils in the rural primary schools as are found in the 
 city primary schools. The distribution and care of the 
 city school pupils are, however, much larger tasks 
 than providing for those in the rural sections. In 
 order to show conditions in a given city we insert Table 
 I which indicates the number of classes and pupils 
 in the several grades in the nmeteen primary schools 
 of Christiania, and also gives the totals for the entire 
 city. Boys and girls attend the same school, but in this 
 particular city they are generally separated into dif- 
 ferent rooms where they are taught by themselves. 
 The schools are coeducational but not generally coin- 
 structional. As the table will show, some of them are 
 coinstructional through a part of the course while only 
 one follows this plan throughout its work. 
 ♦Statistics for 1907. 
 
36 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
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BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 37 
 
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 ^:s ^:3 ^:^ ^:s ^:s l';^ ^:| ^i^ ^f^ 
 mo pqo pQO PQO pQO P=i^ WO mo 
 
38 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
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BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 39 
 
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40 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 In addition to the special features in this table, to 
 which we have already called attention, it may be ob- 
 served that the total number of boys', girls', and co- 
 educational classes; the total number of boys and of 
 girls in attendance at each school; and the average 
 number of pupils per class in each school are also in- 
 cluded. 
 
 The law limits the number of pupils in a class to 
 thirty-five, except temporarily or in case of stringency 
 in financial conditions, and in no case must there be 
 more than forty.* It is seen in the talile that the 
 average is above thirty-five in all but one school, but 
 it has been exceedingly difiicult in the rapidly growing 
 city of Christiania to avoid congestion in the schools. 
 In only one of the nineteen schools does the general 
 average come within the rule. If they plead economic 
 stringency then the averages of all fall within the limits. 
 
 Now a large percentage of children continue their 
 education after the completion of the elementary 
 course. In 1907, there were nine thousand, eight hun- 
 dred and ninety-five pupils in the accredited middle 
 schools,! and one thousand, five hundred and ninety- 
 three in the gymnasia. About eighteen thousand 
 others attended non- accredited secondary schools and 
 those of still lower standards — evening schools, con- 
 tinuation schools, and various preparatory schools. 
 Approximately two thousand were in technical schools 
 
 *Law for City Schools, Sec. 5, as amended on August 15, 1908. 
 
 fSchools undertaking educational work of this character must 
 meet specified standards in course of study, equipment, teaching 
 staff, etc., to have their work accredited by the state. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 41 
 
 and about one thousand in teachers' seminaries. 
 Nearly every town of any considerable consequence has 
 a middle school where pupils from the town and sur- 
 romiding territory may receive its benefits. The 
 larger cities have, in addition to a liberal supply of 
 middle schools, one or more gymnasia, according to 
 their size. The gymnasia draw from a wider territory 
 than do the middle schools because they are fewer and 
 farther apart. 
 
 In addition to the six teachers' seminaries main- 
 tained by the state, there are four private ones — ten in 
 all. Table II indicates the aggregate attendance 
 at these institutions and the number of those who 
 passed the advanced examinations during the years 
 designated. 
 
 The university, of course, draws its students from all 
 over the State. It has an attendance of one thousand, 
 three hundred or more, about five hundred and fifty 
 of whom are annually enrolled direct from the gym- 
 nasia. These students represent the best products 
 of the country and generally they work with earnest- 
 ness and zeal. 
 
42 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 
 tabl: 
 
 E II 
 
 
 
 Table Giving Attendance at Teachers 
 
 ' Seminaries 
 
 and 
 
 the Number Passing Advanced Examinations. 
 
 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Took Examination. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. Total. 
 
 1901-02 
 
 755 
 
 204 
 
 135 
 
 339 
 
 1902-03 
 
 980 
 
 192 
 
 129 
 
 321 
 
 1903-04 
 
 953 
 
 216 
 
 184 
 
 400 
 
 1904-05 
 
 902 
 
 174 
 
 119 
 
 293 
 
 1905-06 
 
 955 
 
 208 
 
 147 
 
 355 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 994 
 
 714 ] 
 
 1,708 
 
 
 Annual Average 
 
 199 
 
 143 
 
 342 
 
 Private schools have played ai important role in 
 Norway. They have had a long and interesting his- 
 tory. A number of them do part or all of the work 
 represented by the state primary and secondary schools 
 and teachers' seminaries. Most of them are located 
 in the larger cities and receive recognition and patronage 
 from some of the best homes in the land. Their in- 
 fluence upon education 'generally has been wholesome. 
 The valuable and attractive features introduced by 
 them have operated like spurs on those under state 
 direction. The cooperative activity which has char- 
 acterized the relationship between the two kinds of 
 schools has resulted in the betterment of both and in 
 the rapid advancement of educational ideals and activ- 
 ities throughout the state. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 43 
 
 There are, of course, some fundamental differences 
 existing between them. The private schools charge 
 a regular tuition in every grade of primary and sec- 
 ondary work. The state primary schools are free and 
 the tuition in its secondary schools is less than that 
 charged in the private schools. It is self-evident that 
 private schools are dependent upon tuition receipts 
 for both running expenses and profits, while the state 
 and communal schools are supported largely by public 
 taxation.* Paralleling so nearly the work of the state 
 schools, yet being more expensive, the private schools 
 have been under the necessity of offering certain in- 
 ducements in order to secure pupils. They have been 
 made attractive in location, in buildings, in equipment, 
 in the personnel of their faculties, and in other ways, 
 and their efforts have been richly rewarded as a rule. 
 
 All classes of schools are subject to state regulations 
 and inspection. Certain definite requirements must 
 be met before a private school may even begin to op- 
 erate, and still higher standards must be maintained in 
 order for the work to be accredited by the state. Stan- 
 dards of excellence are naturally set by state schools and 
 the requirements fixed by the state inhibit the starting 
 of inferior schools under the pretense of offering some- 
 thing "just as good." During recent years some of 
 the private schools — those well-known and respected 
 
 * The only difference between state and communal schools 
 consists in the fact that in the one case the state and in the other 
 a commune takes the initial step in the establishment of the school 
 and bears the larger portion of the burden in its maintenance. The 
 work of the two is uniform in every particular. They are together 
 referred to as state schools in contrast to private schools. 
 
44 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 because of the nature of work and high standards of 
 excellence maintained — have been given special recog- 
 nition by the state, and a few of them receive annuities. 
 When advancement in nature or improvement in qual- 
 ity of school work is rewarded by increase in patronage 
 from the state, zest is furnished in the contest for first 
 recognition. 
 
 Though the history of the rise, development and in- 
 fluence of the private schools of Norway, together with 
 a discussion of their present status and worth, might 
 furnish an interesting chapter, it becomes necessary 
 to let this slight mention suffice and to confine this 
 work to a treatise of the schools instituted and directed 
 by the state. It may be added, however, that the work 
 of the accredited private schools equals in quality and 
 receives the same recognition as that done in state 
 schools. For example, all graduates from the private 
 gymnasia pass the same examinations for artium as 
 those who complete the work of the state gymnasia 
 and enter the university on exactly the same footing. 
 
 IV. PUPILS 
 
 The compulsory school laws which operate in Nor- 
 way determine the age (seven years) at which children 
 shall enter school and the regularity of their attendance. 
 With this in mind, it is readily understood that as a rule 
 each class marches steadily forward, one grade each 
 year, until the completion of the school life. As a conse- 
 quence there is but little variation in the ages of pupils 
 doing the work of any certain grade, and the proportion 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 45 
 
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46 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of pupils of normal age in the several grades is very 
 large. In order to illustrate definitely, a concrete 
 situation is presented in Table III, which shows the 
 exact conditions existing at a certain time in one of their 
 representative cities. 
 
 This table speaks for itself and needs no explanation. 
 It is worthy of note, however, that in comparatively 
 few instances do the ages vary more than two or three 
 years, and that six years is the widest difference in age 
 to be found among all the pupils of any given grade of 
 work. Furthermore, we call attention to the fact that 
 those above normal age in no year aggregated as much 
 as ten per cent of the entire number in attendance. 
 10.1 per cent represents the entire number outside 
 the normal age — ^those above plus those below — for 
 the year 1908. During the three former years the 
 percentage was still smaller. The reduction in num- 
 bers of pupils in the sixth and seventh grades is due in 
 large part to the fact that so many pass from the fifth 
 grade into the middle school. 
 
 The same conditions of uniformity exist in the sec- 
 ondary schools. Having entered at the age of seven 
 and having spent five or more years in the primary 
 school, the pupils upon entrance to the middle school 
 are generally twelve or more years old. In some middle 
 schools the average age of those entering will at times 
 be less than twelve years. This latter condition is 
 usually due to some local situation or rule regarding 
 age at entrance upon school work. In order to follow 
 the age question to nearer its limits we will present 
 Table IV. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 47 
 
 
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 m 
 
 ill 
 
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 fl 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 fl, O O OS 00 CO CO 
 
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 . rH CO Y op 7" <^ 
 
 H 00 00 C» t- 00 00 
 
 H t- b- «0 CO <0 «0 
 
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 HH '^ '^ '^ ^ ^ '^ 
 
 CO »0 W5 ■* »< CO 
 
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 II 
 
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48 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Attention is called to the step from the last year in 
 the middle school to the first year in the gymnasium. 
 In several instances there is considerably less than a 
 year of difference in age. This is but another illustra- 
 tion of the tendencies of the sifting that goes on in the 
 natural process of selecting the fittest. Those of keen- 
 est intellect are the ones who reach a specific require- 
 ment in least time and then proceed in the pursuit of 
 advance education. The ones sifted out are more gen- 
 erally those whose advance has been more difficult, or 
 those who have lagged behind others of their own age. 
 The absence of these tends to lower the average age 
 in the succeeding grade. Similar conditions in em- 
 phasized form are in evidence when we study the ages 
 of those who enter the university from year to year. 
 While the ages of those just entering the third and final 
 year of the gymnasium are on the average more than 
 eighteen, the ones who enter the university the follow- 
 ing year in September average nineteen years of age or 
 a little less. 
 
 In addition to the tables showing the ages of pupils 
 throughout the several grades of preparatory and sec- 
 ondary education, the following one is inserted to show 
 the average age of those in attendance at four of the 
 teachers' seminaries. The advance in age with ad- 
 vance of grade is not as regular here as in the other 
 schools. 
 
BACKGROUND AJND ORGANIZATION 49 
 
 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 
 Table Showing 
 
 Age 
 
 of Pupils in 
 
 the Teachers' Semi- 
 
 naries at the Begmning of the Year, 1906-7. 
 
 
 
 Avera 
 
 ,ge age* in grades. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. III. 
 
 Holmestrand 
 
 
 19-7 
 
 21-3 22-1 
 
 Levanger 
 
 
 20 
 
 19-8 21-4 
 
 Hamar 
 
 
 19-2 
 
 20-2 21-7 
 
 Stord 
 
 
 19-6 
 
 19-11 21 
 
 * Age in years and months. 
 
 There is not as close correspondence between age 
 or grade and scholarship in the seminaries as we find 
 in the other schools. The greater variation is due to 
 several causes, among them are the following: (1) 
 The law requires that a teacher must be at least twenty 
 years of age.* (2) The previous education of those 
 in attendance varies greatly. Many are desirous of 
 gettmg as thorough and complete preparation as their 
 circumstances admit, while others are seemingly anx- 
 ious to enter on the lowest standard admissible. (3) 
 Teachers who are eager to improve their qualifications 
 frequently return to the seminary after a few years of 
 teaching experience in order to complete the course and 
 prepare for the better class of positions. 
 
 Comparisons between the educational equipment of 
 the American youth and that of his Norwegian cousin 
 
 * Law for City Schools, Sec. 28 as revised in 1908. Law for 
 Rural Schools, Sec. 26 as revised in 1908. 
 
50 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 at any given age are exceedingly difficult to make. We 
 have not yet established any specific units or norms 
 by which education may be measured. We can make 
 neither definite nor satisfactory quantitative or qualita- 
 tive measurements of accomplishment. However, a 
 careful analysis of the respective courses of study, the 
 qualification of teachers, and plans of work, supported 
 by the testimony of those who have been teachers in 
 both countries, seems to warrant the statement that 
 the completion of the gymnasial course of study in 
 Norway is comparable to the completion of the sopho- 
 more year of work in our American colleges and uni- 
 versities. The average age of students is about the 
 same in both instances. 
 
 The American children spend a less portion of the 
 year in school than do the children in Norway. While 
 in our schools we generally have but thirty-six weeks of 
 five days each in a year, inclusive of all regular and spec- 
 ial holidays, the schools of Norway are in operation 
 forty weeks of six days each, exclusive of holidays. 
 Leaving out any consideration of holidays, the American 
 school year usually amounts to one hundred eighty 
 days, while in Norway they have two hundred and forty 
 days of school. In other words, eight years of primary 
 school and four years of high school in America repre- 
 sent only three-fourths as many days of mstruction and 
 study as are included in five years of primary school, 
 four years of middle school, and three years of gymna- 
 sium in Norway. That is to say, to provide the same 
 number of days of instruction it would take sixteen 
 school years in America to equal twelve in Norway. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 51 
 
 The specialization which characterizes the work of 
 the students upon entrance to the Norwegian university 
 brings their study within much narrower hmits than 
 that of our ordinary juniors in college. Their general 
 cultural education concludes with the taking of artium 
 while ours usually continues throughout the liberal 
 arts course in college or until the degree of Bachelor of 
 Arts has been received. A certain amount of special- 
 ization is common among our students during the 
 later years of their college education, but it covers a 
 wider range than in Norway and the greater portion of 
 it is reserved for post graduate courses. In Norway 
 the professional studies are taken up without any pre- 
 liminaries immediately upon entrance to the university. 
 In the better professional schools of America, one, two, 
 or three years of collegiate work is required as a prepa- 
 ration for entrance. 
 
 I. ORGANIZATION RELATION TO STATE, COMMUNE, 
 
 AND CITY 
 
 The highest educational authority of Norway is 
 vested in the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educa- 
 tional Affairs (Kirke-og Undervisnings-Departmentet), 
 and the chief functionary in this department of gov- 
 ernment is a member of the King 's cabinet (Statsraad). 
 The work of the department is separated into two divi- 
 sions, one of which supervises the ecclesiastical acti- 
 vities and the other the educational work of the coun- 
 try. This latter division is again separated into two 
 bureaus, one having charge of primary education and 
 
52 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 the other being in control of secondary educational 
 affairs. These bureaus perform the functions usually 
 devolving upon such offices, the work being largely 
 clerical. In addition there are the diocesan directors 
 {Stift Direktorer) bearing the immediate responsibili- 
 ties in primary education, and a state educational com- 
 mission (Undervisningsraad) having large authority in 
 secondary education. 
 
 Next to the department itself the school directors 
 have authority over primary education. In fact the 
 director has all but complete control in his territory 
 even though the department is recognized as having 
 the higher authority or powers. The King's cabinet 
 appoints seven directors for the six dioceses into which 
 the state is divided; two for the most northern, because 
 of its greater extent, and one for each of the other five. 
 The directors are paid by the state and are amenable 
 only to the state, hence they exercise their powers 
 in an endeavor to effect the best possible results edu- 
 cationally without fear or favor of local influences. 
 They act independently in their respective territories 
 and do not constitute a committee in any sense what- 
 ever. 
 
 The commission having chief oversight of secondary 
 education consists of seven men appointed by the 
 King's cabinet. They are chosen because of their 
 efficiency in educational affairs without regard to the 
 part of the country to which they belong.* They work 
 always as a committee, and as experts serve the state 
 
 * Some are always appointed from outside the city of Christ- 
 iania. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 53 
 
 for the general welfare of secondary education. The 
 many privileges and duties exercised by this commis- 
 sion may be grouped together under the heads of in- 
 spection and supervision of secondary schools, and ar- 
 rangements for having examinations. Several of the 
 men constituting this commission are at the same time 
 rectors of leading secondary schools in the country. 
 In fact they are chosen because of their familiarity with 
 and expertness in just such kind of work. When it 
 becomes necessary to seek advice in hygienic questions 
 a physician of recognized ability is added to the com- 
 mission. His judgment and instruction are respected 
 and adhered to very closely. 
 
 The rural communes are divided into school districts 
 or circles {Skolekredser) . Each district supports and 
 maintains a primary school with at least two divisions — 
 an infant school (Smaaskole) for children from seven 
 to ten years of age, and a higher one designed for chil- 
 dren from ten to fourteen years of age. In districts 
 where distances are great or roadways difficult, two or 
 more infant schools are provided. 
 
 Companies operating one or more manufacturing 
 establishments or industrial concerns, and generally 
 employing thirty or more laborers, are required to 
 provide a primary school for the children of the men in 
 their employ. When once started these schools are to 
 be kept up unless the number of the employed is re- 
 duced below twenty. In case there are other children 
 who desire to attend such school, they shall have the 
 right to do so providing it does not interfere with the 
 instruction of those for whom the school was estab- 
 
54 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 lished. In return for this the school treasury receives 
 from the communal treasury a yearly amount pro- 
 portioned to the total cost for all pupils in the school.* 
 While the law requires that instruction shall be pro- 
 vided six days in the week for at least twelve weeks each 
 year, it also grants to the communes the privilege of 
 extending the time to fifteen weeks, f It further pro- 
 vides the right to maintain six weeks additional, vol- 
 untary instruction each year, f These privileges are 
 generally taken advantage of by both communes and 
 pupils. The communes desire the extension of time 
 for school, and the pupils are very glad of the oppor- 
 tunity to attend the extra time, even though their pres- 
 ence is not compulsory. In fact the compulsory educa- 
 tion law has been so rigidly enforced for so long a time 
 that regular attendance has become habitual, and the 
 exact provisions and requirements of the law are rarely 
 thought of by the pupils. There is, in reality, no law 
 requiring children to attend the schools provided by 
 the state, but a certain amount of education is obliga- 
 tory. It is mandatory that schools be maintained ip 
 all of the districts, but individual children may receive 
 their instruction in private schools if they choose, so 
 long as educational requirements are met from year to 
 year. Pupils who belong to the schools are required 
 to be in attendance regularly, and children who receive 
 instruction elsewhere than in the state schools must 
 meet the requirements calculated to bring them to a 
 certain educational standard by the time they are fif- 
 
 * Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 42. 
 t Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 5. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 55 
 
 teen years of age. Failure in this subjects parents, 
 guardians, and those providing schools for children of 
 laborers in their employ to fine or imprisonment.* 
 
 The work in the infant school includes or amounts 
 to thirty lessons per week while in the higher one there 
 are thirty-six lessons. Accordingly, the pupils in the 
 lower grades receive a minimum of three hundred sixty 
 lessons a year, and this number may be increased to 
 four hundred fifty or six hundred thirty. In the higher 
 grades they have at least four hundred thirty-two les- 
 sons a year, and if the time is extended they have five 
 hundred forty or seven hundred fifty-six lessons a year. 
 
 Each rural commune has its own school board 
 (Skolestyret) consisting of a priest; the chairman of the 
 municipal council; one or two teachersf chosen by the 
 body of teachers; as many other members (men or 
 women) as the communal council deems it advisable to 
 select; and the rectors of higher schools, if there be any, 
 
 * Gathered from Law for Rural Schools, Sections 5, 15, 16, 
 56, 57, and 59. 
 
 t In communes where the number of regular teaching positions 
 in the primary schools is fifteen or over, of which at least five are 
 positions for females, one male and one female teacher occupying 
 regular posts are chosen. In commimes where the number of posi- 
 tions is under fifteen, one male or female teacher occupying a 
 regular post is chosen. Where a male and a female teacher are to 
 be chosen, the elections take place in separate meetings of the male 
 and the female teachers, each selecting its representative; in the 
 other communes election takes place m a common meeting. Elec- 
 tion is for two years. The meetings are conducted by the chairman 
 of the school board. Schools provided and sustained by the owners 
 of industrial concerns within the communes may each be represented 
 in the meetings of the school board, by an owner of such establish- 
 ment, while matters pertaining to the school in which he is interested 
 are being considered. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 47. 
 
56 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 under the supervision and inspection of the school* 
 board. 
 
 In the towns and cities the school board consists of 
 at least one priest*; a member of the city's executive 
 council ;t as many other members chosen for three years 
 as the municipal council deems it advisable to select, 
 at least half of whom must be chosen from among par- 
 ents who at the time of election have children in the 
 city primary schools; one or two teachers;! and, wher- 
 ever the school board controls higher schools, the rectors 
 of such schools. 
 
 The members of the school board select their own 
 chairman and act together as a committee or board. 
 Among its more important duties are appointment of 
 teachers and special committees, provision of course of 
 study with specific instructions regarding its presenta- 
 tion, and the estimation of sums of money necessary to 
 meet demands in the maintenance of the schools for the 
 
 * The law provides that there shall be on the school board a 
 priest for each pastorate within the commune, though not to exceed 
 three. In all cases of necessity the bishop having direction of church 
 affairs in the locality appoints the ministerial members of the board. 
 Their appointments are for three years. 
 
 t The executive board of the communal council each year 
 elects one of its members to act on the school board for one year. 
 
 I In cities where the number of regular teaching positions is 
 fifteen or more there are elected one male and one female teacher; 
 and in cities where the number of regular teaching positions is less 
 than fifteen, but at least five, one male or one female teacher. In 
 cases where two teachers are elected, the sexes separate, each select- 
 ing its own representative; but where only one is elected they all 
 meet together and choose one of their number. Election is for two 
 years. The meetings are conducted by the chairman of the school 
 board. 
 
 The above notes are from: Law for City Schools, Sec. 40. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 57 
 
 year. This estimate of expenses is sent by the board 
 each year to the communal council which has charge of 
 the dispensing of finances for the commune. 
 
 The course of study, including the plan of instruction 
 and directions regarding the supervision of the schools as 
 given by the board, is minutely detailed and specifically 
 stated. It includes a list of studies to be pursued, the 
 manner and order of their presentation, and the num- 
 ber of hours per week to be devoted to each subject; 
 an outline of arrangements for entrance, promotion, 
 and leaving examinations, with provisions for exemp- 
 tion therefrom wherever such is deemed advisable; all 
 necessary arrangements for vacations; and other 
 matters considered essential in the maintenance and 
 carrying on of a school. 
 
 For each primary school, or for the several schools, 
 using the same building, the board appoints a com- 
 mittee of inspection (Tilsynsutvalg) . This committee 
 consists of a member of the school board (chosen by the 
 board), who is chairman of the committee, and three 
 other members. These latter members are chosen in 
 the city by the parents of children attending the school, 
 and in the rural districts by such parents and other 
 taxpayers. A priest appointed by church authority 
 is added to committees serving town or city schools. 
 
 This committee of inspection exercises constant over- 
 sight of the school, keeping the board informed with 
 reference to all matters requiring attention by that 
 body. By the consent of the communal council this 
 committee may have an amount provided from the 
 school funds for its use in carrying out its work. The 
 
58 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 inspection is with special reference to the physical and 
 moral well-being of those connected with the institu- 
 tion. Among the special objects of its endeavors may 
 be enumerated the solving of all hygienic questions, 
 regular attendance, good discipline, and proper moral 
 conduct. The committee must also see to it that chil- 
 dren of school age, not in attendance at the state prim- 
 ary schools, receive instruction in such quantity and 
 of such quality as to meet all state requirements. In 
 general it is an outstretched arm of the school board, 
 feeling after the betterment of the common schools in 
 every possible direction. 
 
 Another committee (called the school committee — 
 Skoleraad) is appointed by the school board for each of 
 the primary schools in the city. The duties of the two 
 committees are in a way complementary. While the 
 committee of inspection is occupied in matters external 
 in large measure, the school committee exercises func- 
 tions more pedagogical in nature, though it also has 
 general watch care over the affairs of the school. If 
 there be a superintendent of schools {Skoleinspehtor) , he 
 is a member ex officio of the school committee, and its 
 chairman. Under other conditions the school board 
 designates which of the appointed members of the 
 committee shall be its chairman. In towns where the 
 number of teachers exceeds sixty, the school board may 
 direct that the school committee shall consist of the 
 superintendent and the principals of the several schools 
 as ex officio members and any determined number of 
 other teachers selected by the body of teachers. The 
 elected members are to be male and female in propor- 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 59 
 
 tion to their respective numbers on the teaching staff, 
 exclusive of those who are ex officio members of the 
 committee. The sexes separate into special meetings 
 for the purpose of election, each choosing its allotted 
 number of representatives. Election is for two years, 
 one-half retiring each year, the first time according to 
 lot. Members whose terms expire are required to 
 serve longer in case of re-election. This school com- 
 mittee holds regular meetings, according to its own ap- 
 pointment, at which the members are required to be 
 present. Furthermore, the chairman may call addi- 
 tional meetings in cases of necessity, and he is required 
 to call special meetings when requested by the school 
 board to do so. A majority vote of the members is 
 sufficient for the passage of any proposition. While 
 the duties of this committee are not specifically out- 
 lined, it is intended that its work shall concern chiefly 
 the internal workings of the schools. Its functions are 
 mainly pedagogical in character as already stated and 
 as evidenced in the following provisions in the law. 
 "The school board shall permit the school committee 
 to voice its opinions in every affair which concerns: 
 (1) the general supervision of primary schools, (2) gen- 
 eral provisions concerning regulations and discipline, 
 and (3) text books and outlines of instruction." In 
 addition the committee is required to express itself re- 
 garding any matter relating to the good of the school 
 when asked by the board for advice. 
 
 The school board may also order that there be a 
 teachers' commission {Laererraad) for each school or 
 for the several schools using the same buildings, con- 
 
60 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 sisting of the teachers in the school. The chairman 
 of this committee is the superintendent of schools, a 
 school principal, or other member, according to the 
 determination of the board. The duties devolving 
 upon this commission are in each case outlined by the 
 board. 
 
 The superintendent of schools (Skoleinspektor) has 
 general direction of all the primary schools in the city 
 system. His duties are similar to those of the superin- 
 tendent in American towns and cities. He takes the 
 lead in directing the policies of the schools and exer- 
 cises large powers in making them efficient. He is 
 provided with well-equipped offices, generally in one 
 of the school buildings, where he and his clerks, sup- 
 plied by the school board, do the greater portion of their 
 work. 
 
 A principal or headmaster (Overlaerer) is generally 
 placed in charge of each school. His duties are com- 
 parable to those performed by ward principals in the 
 United States. While the superintendent is the 
 superior officer and exercises general control and author- 
 ity, the principal has immediate charge of the work 
 of the school. He controls its activities in harmony 
 with and under the direction of the superintendent, 
 consulting the wishes of the higher official and respect- 
 ing his opinions. The superintendent recognizes that 
 for the one in immediate charge of a school to have his 
 hands tied or his liberties too circumscribed means the 
 hampering of the work; hence, he gives to the principals 
 working under him wide latitude in carrying out their 
 ideas. For example, if the principal is a believer in 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 61 
 
 coeducation or, on the other hand, a staunch advocate 
 of segregation of the sexes for instructional purposes, he 
 is usually privileged to carry his policy into execution 
 in his school, even though the views of the superin- 
 tendent are not wholly in accord therewith. Through- 
 out their work they seek each other's counsel and ad- 
 vice, and cooperate successfully. 
 
 The private citizen in Norway plays only an indirect 
 part in school affairs, yet his interests are conserved 
 in various ways. The local pastor, who is a member 
 ex officio of the school board, generally guards the in- 
 terests of the masses. His influence and vote may be 
 regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind. 
 The chairman of the municipal council, who also is a 
 member of the board by virtue of his position, is in- 
 directly the choice of the people. The teacher or 
 teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly 
 always work in harmony with the public will. The 
 committee of inspection has a majority of its members 
 chosen directly by vote of the people immediately con- 
 cerned. The press is free and educational movements 
 are continually discussed in the leading papers. Fur- 
 ther than this, educational affairs are common topics of 
 conversation, being talked of on all occasions under 
 various circumstances and conditions. It may be 
 said to their credit that those discussing these subjects 
 do so inteUigently and critically. The masses are 
 alive to the educational situation, are intensely in- 
 terested in their schools, and are acquainted with the 
 provisions of the law concerning them. The people 
 being so democratic in tendency and so very frank m 
 
62 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 the expression of their feeUngs and opinions, naturally 
 reflect public sentiment; which because of being under- 
 stood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater 
 factor in legislative activities. 
 
 The primary schools receive their financial support 
 from the state, county, and commune. The state pro- 
 vides for city schools one-third of straight salaries, 
 which range between twelve hundred and fourteen 
 hundred crowns for men, and between eight hundred 
 and nine hundred crowns for women; two- thirds of 
 additional salary paid because of long service to the 
 limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five 
 hundred crowns per year for women; and one- third of 
 salaries paid for positions requiring only part time, for 
 teaching by the hour, and for teaching in continuation 
 schools. In certain cases where the treasuries are 
 depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty- 
 five per cent of teachers ' salaries within the fixed limits 
 mentioned above. In the rural communes the grant 
 received from the state amounts to forty-five per cent 
 of the teachers' salaries, and where finances are low 
 this amount may be increased to sixty per cent. The 
 amount of this state grant is figured on the basis of 
 salaries that do not exceed twenty-four crowns per week 
 in the second or higher division, and nineteen crowns in 
 the first or infant division of the primary school, ex- 
 cept in the county of Finmarken where the bases may 
 be respectively twenty-eight crowns and twenty-two 
 crowns per week. 
 
 In each county (Ami) the county council provides 
 funds for the following purposes: raising teachers' 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 63 
 
 salaries in case of long service, erecting school build- 
 ings, supplying teachers' homes, paying substitute 
 teachers, purchasing apparatus, relieving communes 
 and municipalities where school expenses are dis- 
 proportionately high, and maintaining continuation 
 and artisan schools. Whatever is required to defray 
 the expenses of the primary schools, in addition to 
 state and county grants, tuition, receipts from school 
 lands or holdings, etc., is furnished by the commune 
 or municipality through its council. 
 
 The secondary schools are either state or communal. 
 The state schools are provided with grounds, buildings, 
 and equipment by the communes in which they are 
 located; the remaining expenses are met by state grants, 
 tuition fees, etc. The expense of maintaining com- 
 munal schools falls largely upon the communes. The 
 state furnishes one-third of the salaries in both classes 
 of schools, and all additional amounts paid to teachers 
 because of long service. While most of the secondary 
 schools charge regular tuition fees, all of them have 
 funds which supply free scholarships to a number of 
 pupils each year. In some communes they have been 
 able already to provide free middle schools, and it 
 appears at least possible that all state and communal 
 schools may sometime be free. The aim in financing 
 the school system is to equalize the burden of expense 
 as far as possible, and to recognize, at the same time, 
 the efforts of those directly concerned. In order to ob- 
 tain the best results, authority has been strongly cen- 
 tralized; school boards, communal and county councils, 
 and state oflScials exercise large discretionary powers. 
 
64 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 VI. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 
 
 The school buildings of Norway are justly reputed 
 to be the most magnificent, best located, and finest 
 edifices of the country. They are built of substantial 
 materials according to attractive architectural designs, 
 and are provided with liberal equipment. The larger 
 buildings are usually constructed of stone, brick and 
 stone, or brick and cement; while the smaller ones are 
 built of lumber and stone. In the erection of build- 
 ings, great care is exercised to make them spacious and 
 permanent. All materials used are selected because of 
 their durability and suitability to purpose. In order 
 to guarantee the best hygienic conditions, the law pro- 
 vides that buildings must meet the approval of experts 
 in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes. 
 This means that the services of these experts must be 
 secured in getting out designs for school buildings, 
 whether in the erection of new or the remodeling of old 
 ones. 
 
 The school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves. 
 The newer ones are modem in every respect and, of 
 course, have excellent heating systems. Those which 
 have done service for several decades are usually heated 
 by stoves. 
 
 The buildings are divided into rooms in such a man- 
 ner that the daylight nearly always enters from the 
 left or the rear of the pupils when they are seated at 
 their desks. This rule is disregarded only in rare cases. 
 During the short days of winter it is essential to provide 
 artificial light. In cities and large towns they use 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 65 
 
 electricity for lighting the school buildings; in the coun- 
 try or in small towns, where the municipalities do not 
 maintain any central lighting plant, various devices 
 are installed. Sometimes gasoline is used and again 
 ordinary oil lamps are common. An abundance of 
 light of the best procurable quality is generally pro- 
 vided. 
 
 Besides admitting light the outside windows are of 
 use in providing ventilation for the school rooms. 
 They are opened wide during intermissions between 
 classes, so that when the children come in from their 
 exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere 
 nearly as pure and fresh as that out of doors. In ad- 
 dition, many schoolliouses, especially those built re- 
 cently, have regular ventilating devices. 
 
 The class room furniture in Norway, like that used 
 in many other European schools, is about as primitive 
 in design and lacking in attractiveness as anything found 
 in the whole country. Its evolution surely has been 
 greatly retarded. In each room there is a small plat- 
 form high enough to enable the instructor to see all 
 his pupils with ease. On this platform is a desk and a 
 high chair in which the teacher sits most of the time 
 while giving instruction. 
 
 The pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy 
 lumber and attached to a common base. This makes 
 them clumsy, and they appear very queer to one ac- 
 customed to the l.etter designs now in use in some coun- 
 tries. Those of recent make are for but one pupil, 
 though older ones, some of which are still in use, ac- 
 commodate three or four. In construction the seat 
 
66 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 is generally a solid flat bench with a low back. The 
 desk has a slightly sloping top, a small inconvenient 
 shelf for books, and a receptacle for pencils, pens, rulers, 
 and other articles used by school children. The Nor- 
 wegians deserve commendation for the care exercised 
 in the arrangement of seats and desks. The distance 
 and proportion between them are regulated according 
 to scientific principles looking to the physical welfare 
 of the occupants. The bodily posture of children in 
 school determines in large measure what it will be out 
 of school. Far too little attention has been given the 
 physical side of education, and one of the important 
 problems in connection there vvith is the proper con- 
 struction of school-room furniture. 
 
 In the smaller buildings, classrooms have commo- 
 dious cupboards for apparatus (maps, charts, globes, 
 plates, etc.), and various things with which the chil- 
 dren work (sewing materials, exercise books, etc.). 
 While they have a liberal supply of excellent illus- 
 trative material and teaching apparatus and the best 
 of facilities for storing it, mechanical appliances for 
 its display and devices for its convenient use are woe- 
 fully lacking. Maps and charts are held in the hand 
 or hung on a nail or other fixture in the room; while 
 globes and the like are placed on chairs or improvised 
 stands. In general the apparatus is awkward to 
 manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost. 
 
 Blackboards of proper size are very rare in the schools 
 of Norway. As a rule the board is about three by 
 five feet in size and fastened to a clumsy easel which 
 elevates it so high that it is out of reach of the pupils. 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 67 
 
 To enable the children to use such a board a small 
 platform is provided. The child mounts the platform 
 by means of a few steps and there stands and does his 
 blackboard work. In only one instance did the writer 
 during his visits to the schools find what appeared to 
 him to be an adequate amount of blackboard space. 
 This exceptional condition was in one of the primary 
 schools where special equipment was installed for the 
 instruction of children below normal intelligence. 
 The ample provision of blackboard here is proof of a 
 recognition of its value, and the situation may also 
 be regarded as an indictment against the prevalent 
 neglect in this line. 
 
 School room decorations are not as prominent as 
 might be expected. Despite the facts that the whole 
 of Norway is picturesque, that her artists are quite 
 numerous, and that the masses of her people are more 
 than ordinarily appreciative of the finer phases of life, 
 very few paintings or pieces of sculpture adorn her 
 schools. True, exceptions as to this rule of scant pro- 
 vision of the artistic may be found; but, as in all coun- 
 tries, they quite generally fail to appreciate the educa- 
 tive values of art. 
 
 While, traditionally at least, the study and recita- 
 tion rooms have been considered of prime and greatest 
 importance in school buildings, there are others, ac- 
 cessory to them, which in their effects are productive 
 of quite as good results. Among them may be men- 
 tioned: offices, teachers' rooms, libraries, laboratories, 
 and other rooms for special purposes. Some of these 
 
68 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 are not provided in all schools, but commonly all of 
 them are found in the city school buildings. 
 
 The offices for rectors, inspectors, head masters, 
 etc., are admirably arranged and handsomely appoint- 
 ed. They are provided with desks, cabinets, chairs, 
 settees, tables, and other furnishings which add to 
 convenience and comfort. The rooms for teachers 
 are equipped and furnished in a way just as suitable 
 to their purpose. In these they spend their vacant 
 periods in study, reading, or in leisure, according to 
 their choice. Here, too, officers and teachers are 
 served with Imicheons in the middle of forenoon and 
 afternoon sessions. 
 
 There are libraries in nearly all school buildings. 
 While many of them are small some are of large conse- 
 quence. The one in the Christiania Cathedral School 
 numbers thirty thousand volumes. This is one of the 
 oldest and perhaps the largest library in any school 
 of the country, and it is regarded with considerable 
 justifiable pride. 
 
 The laboratories are furnished in harmony with 
 their traditional plan of instruction. Instead of having 
 a supply of apparatus so that most or all of the pupils 
 may be occupied simultaneously in laboratory experi- 
 mentation, they have but one set of instrumeats. 
 However, they do furnish liberal quantities of materials 
 for laboratory experimentation. The teacher is the 
 chief operator, one or -two pupils assist in the work, 
 and the other members of the class are onlookers. 
 
 Where domestic arts are taught, rooms are fitted up 
 especially for the purpose. Stoves, cooking utensils, 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 69 
 
 and many other necessary articles are at hand ready 
 for use. The efficiency of the work is in no wise hin- 
 dered by lack of supplies. In many instances teachers 
 go themselves to the markets and purchase provisions 
 needed for the day. An earnest effort is made to com- 
 bine theory and practice in proportions suitable to ob- 
 taining the best possible results. 
 
 Some of the larger buildings have special rooms for 
 the storing of apparatus and illustrative materi- 
 als {Anskuelsesmidler) . Racks, cupboards, cabinets, 
 drawers, cases, and the like provide convenient means 
 for preserving these supplies and of rendering them 
 easily accessible. Gymnastic halls and lunch rooms 
 will be discussed in another section. 
 
 The playgrounds are generally small, but some of the 
 schools have, in addition to the grounds immediately 
 surrounding the buildings, athletic parks of consider- 
 able proportions. The grounds about the school 
 buildings are arranged with a view of securing from 
 them maximum returns. They are enclosed by high 
 board or wire fence, or by stone or brick and cement 
 walls. A heavy coating of gravel is usually placed on 
 the ground in order to avoid the growth of vegetation 
 or an accumulation of dust. "Keep off the grass" 
 signs are not in evidence, for rarely do they attempt to 
 have grassy lawns. 
 
 They recognize the need and value of physical exer- 
 cise in the open, and provide means for it in connection 
 with every school. It is specifically required that all 
 pupils go on to the playgrounds during the intermis- 
 sions {Jri Kvarterer) which come between all lessons. 
 
70 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 While the children are at play one or more of the 
 teachers are detailed to supervise the grounds, while 
 others are to patrol the hallways. Large roofs are put 
 up under which the children play when the weather is 
 not favorable to being in the open. On rare occasions 
 when the weather is bitter, pupils may be permitted 
 to remain indoors. Children whose health is ex- 
 tremely delicate are dealt with in leniency, and some 
 of them are permitted to remain inside regularly. 
 
 Near to the school buildings, generally on a corner 
 of the grounds, homes are provided for the head master 
 or principal and the janitor {V agtmester) . Sometimes 
 the janitor and his family live in an apartment in the 
 school building. Generally, however, a double house 
 is erected, one part for the principal and the other for 
 the janitor. These homes are furnished rent free to 
 these men. 
 
 Teachers in rural districts, as a rule, are supplied 
 with a house and sufficient ground for garden and the 
 pasturage of two or three cows. These provisions ma- 
 terially reduce living expenses, and, in a way, recom- 
 pense for the low salaries received. In one rural school 
 the writer found three hundred and fifty pupils taught 
 in two divisions — forenoon and afternoon sessions — 
 by six teachers. The principal had been in charge of 
 the school forty- three years. One portion of the school 
 building provided a residence for him and his family. 
 They had a small garden; a fruit orchard; a few acres 
 of land for pasturage and hay; and a barn and sheds 
 for cow, pig, and chickens. There are many similar 
 situations throughout the country. This particular 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 71 
 
 one lay just outside a small city, and this fact accounts 
 in part for the large number of pupils in attendance. 
 
 As a rule the homes for rural school teachers com- 
 pare very favorably with the better class of homes in 
 the surrounding neighborhood. They have sufficient 
 room, are comfortable, and generally satisfy the oc- 
 cupants. The majority of rural teachers have such 
 homes provided, though only a few city teachers enjoy 
 this favor. In 1905, two thousand, eight hundred 
 and twenty-six rural teachers had homes furnished 
 them free of cost. 
 
 VII. GENERAL FEATURES OF INNER ORGANIZATION 
 
 Most of the teachers in the rural primary schools are 
 men, while the majority of them in the city are women. 
 During the year 1907 there were four thousand, one 
 hundred and twenty-three male and one thousand, 
 four hundred and seven female teachers occupying reg- 
 ular positions in the rural schools, and in the city their 
 numbers were respectively eight hundred and twenty- 
 eight and one thousand, six hundred and six. Although 
 the law makes no requirements as to sex, except that 
 in city schools there must be at least one master and 
 one governess, there are certain forces operative which 
 almost equal edicts of law. Traditionally, teachers in 
 the rural schools are men and, as previously stated, 
 homes are provided for them and their families. Ap- 
 pointments to teaching positions are permanent. 
 Teachers remain in their places until death removes 
 
72 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 them or until they choose to retire on pension, which is, 
 all too often, long after they pass the time of their 
 efficiency. It is difficult to break with the old customs 
 and hence the entrance of women teachers into the rural 
 school positions has been slow. In the cities the con- 
 ditions are different. There only a small percentage 
 of the teachers have homes furnished them, the number 
 of teaching positions without supervising responsibility 
 is large, and the salaries paid to women are lower than 
 those paid to men. As a consequence the female 
 teachers have found easy entrance into the city schools, 
 and at present they outnumber the men two to one. 
 Women have been teaching since 1869, and the people 
 are convinced that their ability as teachers is equal to 
 that of the sterner sex. 
 
 In the secondary schools, also, the majority of the 
 instructors are men. In the gymnasia practically all 
 of them are men, but in the middle schools there are 
 many women teachers. Even though the Norwegians 
 recognize woman's ingenuity and efficiency in teaching 
 small children, they have not yet become couverted 
 to the idea that she is man 's equal in the more advanced 
 educational fields. It seems probable that tradition 
 is the chief hindrance to the entrance of women into 
 teaching positions in the gymnasia. 
 
 In their plan of instruction there is much to commend 
 and some things to criticise. The teachers do a large 
 amount of teaching, but they also provide opportunity 
 for the children to do a great deal on their own initia- 
 tive, so that they too may know the joy of discovery 
 and feel the triumph of mastery. The Norwegian 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 73 
 
 pedagogue uses the recitation period, nearly always 
 fifty minutes, in an endeavor to impart information, 
 both directly and indirectly; directly by straightfor- 
 ward giving, and indirectly through cooperative mental 
 activities. While they feel the importance of direct 
 instruction, they see, also, the advantage in shifting 
 a part of the responsibility to the pupils. They recog- 
 nize the fact that the child has ability, and that by 
 himself he is capable of finding and recognizing prob- 
 lems, and of working them out to satisfying conclu- 
 sions. They appreciate that even a small child is able 
 to carry out many educative activities with a minimum 
 of direction from the teacher, and that the development 
 which comes from this self-direction and initiative is 
 one of the most valuable ends of education. The in- 
 tent is that the class period shall be devoted to exercises 
 which will furnish information and, at the same time, 
 make the children independent and able to direct 
 themselves. 
 
 Though the ideals and aims are excellent, the means 
 for attaining them are not the best. There is a certain 
 inherited aloofness on the part of the instructor which 
 robs both teacher and pupils of some of the values 
 which come from closer association. During the recita- 
 tion hour the teacher nearly always occupies the high 
 chair on the elevated platform, except while using the 
 blackboard or doing other demonstrational work. My 
 observations convince me that the teachers, especially 
 the men, do not get down and work among and with the 
 children as much as seems essential to the accomplish- 
 ment of the greatest good. 
 
74 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Now the discipline and character of recitations also 
 deserve attention. When a pupil is called upon to re- 
 cite, he is expected to pass to the aisle and there stand 
 erect until the recitation is completed. Only in rare 
 cases are children allowed to sit while reciting. I have 
 seen children only eleven or twelve years of age called 
 to the front of the room to analyze and develop a prob- 
 lem. The smallest children are required to give only 
 short answers to questions, but responses rapidly in- 
 crease in length, as age advances, until they amount 
 to minute and extended discussions of topics. Recita- 
 tions lasting ten to fifteen minutes are not uncommon, 
 and the children become quite expert in the relation of 
 facts and in the development of problems presented. 
 This method of procedure is perhaps all right for a cer- 
 tain class of children, but timid boys and girls are some- 
 times embarrassed to the extent that they are unable 
 to do credit to themselves, their teachers, or the lessons. 
 On one occasion I saw a boy who was so frightened in 
 an attempt to stand and recite, being required at the 
 same time to look into the face of a complaining teacher, 
 that he was unable to say anything whatever. The 
 teacher, a man of advanced age, finally awoke to the 
 situation, and placing his hand on the boy's head, 
 talked to him about the lesson until he calmed the lad 's 
 fears and obtained a very satisfactory response from 
 him. 
 
 In addition to classroom activities connected with 
 mental growth, considerable work is done looking to 
 physical development. Gymnastic exercise is required 
 of all children in primary and secondary schools, ex- 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 75 
 
 cepting those in first and second grades and a few who 
 are physically disqualified for it. To provide for this 
 work, the city schools furnish large halls with excellent 
 equipment, and special teachers to give instruction. 
 A Swedish system of gymnastics is in vogue throughout 
 the country. There seems to be no criticism against 
 the system, and the benefits testify emphatically to 
 its efficiency. The apparatus is simple and inexpensive, 
 but the variety of movements and the numberless com- 
 binations of them seem to answer every demand. 
 
 Certain conditions and customs prevailing m Nor- 
 way make it necessary to serve lunches at the school 
 buildings. The morning sessions are long and the din- 
 ner hour is far later than noon — generally two or three 
 o 'clock. Furthermore, many children of poor parentage 
 come to school underfed. Opportunity to obtain 
 a light lunch of nourishing food and a warm drink at 
 about 10:30 or 11 o'clock is an appreciated necessity. 
 Hence most buildings have lunch rooms arranged and 
 equipped according to local demands. Here, in the 
 secondary schools, the family of the janitor furnishes 
 rolls, buns, cakes, cocoa, coffee, milk, etc., at a reason- 
 able rate. As stated before, the teachers have lunches 
 served in their own rooms. Some cities provide chil- 
 dren in the primary schools with one meal of whole- 
 some food each day of school during the winter months — 
 generally from the middle of October until the first of 
 May. This is free to the needy children, and others 
 obtain it at first cost. 
 
 In Christiania they have a central kitchen from 
 which the city primary schools receive supplies. This 
 
76 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 kitchen has a capacity for steam cooking, ten thousand 
 Hters at a time. Only the best food is purchased. 
 This is carefully prepared and delivered every day in 
 tightly sealed cans to the several schools where it is 
 served hot. The maintenance of this kitchen is in 
 answer to recommendations made by a committee, 
 appointed by the school board, after visiting various 
 similar European institutions and studying carefully 
 into their operations. In equipment, management, 
 and good results it is not surpassed in any city in 
 Europe or America. In some of the schools, hundreds 
 of free meals are dispensed every day throughout the 
 long winter. During the year 1908-1909, from Octo- 
 ber 19, 1908, to April 30, 1909, (one hundred and thirty- 
 two days), the Christiania central kitchen furnished 
 616,821 free meals and 77,733 meals which were paid 
 for by children in the schools. This work stands as a 
 testimonial to the beneficence of the people whose cir- 
 cumstances enable them to maintain it. 
 
 The discipline of the school borders on the military 
 order. The pupils form in line and march in passing 
 to and from class-rooms and playgrounds. While the 
 work of instruction proceeds strict discipline is main- 
 tained. Before entering a classroom where a recita- 
 tion is in progress, one invariably knocks at the door, 
 whoever he is and whatever his errand, and by the time 
 he enters teacher and pupils are on their feet. Turn- 
 ing to the one entering, they bow and continue to face 
 him until he is seated, which is a signal to them to sit. 
 Should the visitor withdraw before the class is dismissed, 
 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 77 
 
 the pupils again rise to their feet and bow him out; 
 but, if he remains until they are dismissed, they bow 
 to him before taking their departure. Every activity 
 indoors and out of doors is closely supervised, and the 
 control exercised over the pupils is praiseworthy. 
 
 Attendance at school is regular in all grades. When 
 children are absent for any reason the case is inquired 
 into without delay, and, unless satisfactory excuse or 
 explanation is forthcoming, the truant officers are on 
 hand to enforce regulations. Failure to comply with 
 the laws regarding absence from school, subjects par- 
 ents or guardians of children to a fine of from one to 
 twenty-five crowns.* Very rarely is an enforcement 
 of these laws necessary, for the people are generally law- 
 abiding and peace-loving. Being eager for develop- 
 ment, they gladly comply with educational provisions 
 without any compulsion, and regularity in attendance 
 is the universal practice. Sickness is perhaps the most 
 common excuse given for absence and, since excellent 
 health is characteristic of the people, this is infrequent. 
 
 Pupils are nearly always healthy, vigorous, and ro- 
 bust. One of the chief points calling attention to this 
 is the rarity of cases where glasses are worn. In visit- 
 ing schools I noticed that spectacled children were very 
 few. I was at first inclined to criticise what I inter- 
 preted to be neglect of the eyes, but soon found that 
 eyesight, as well as the general health of the children, 
 was being carefully guarded. Every school has its 
 
 * Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 15. A crown is equal to about 
 twenty-seven cents. 
 
78 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 physician whose duty it is to regulate sanitation and to 
 remedy physical defects of children. I ascertained 
 that in some schools special examinations had been 
 conducted for the testing of eyesight, and results showed 
 that very few of the pupils were under the necessity 
 of wearing glasses. Among the causes contributing 
 to this favorable situation may be mentioned a health- 
 ful climate, regular drill in gymnastics, proper lighting 
 of school rooms, good ventilation, physical exercise 
 in the open between successive classes, and, in general, 
 the maintenance of a high state of physical vigor. The 
 Norse take justifiable pride in their physical develop- 
 ment, and they pay considerable attention to this phase 
 of education. Consequently the children are able to 
 attack the strenuous activities of school life with vim, 
 and mastery of the course of study is not a hardship. 
 
Chapter II 
 TEACHERS 
 
 I. QUALIFICATIONS AND CERTIFICATION 
 
 TEACHING is a profession in Norway. 
 Those following it have chosen it as their 
 life work. The people thus engaged deserve 
 and receive the recognition, confidence, and 
 esteem of the masses, and they maintain the dignity of 
 their calling. As a class they rank high educationally, 
 morally, and professionally. With the advance in social 
 ideals it has been necessary to raise the standards 
 of preparation for teaching, and, as the years pass, fur- 
 ther changes will be required. For a long time, pro- 
 fessional training has been demanded of every appointee 
 to a teaching position, and indications point to a rapid 
 development of the quality of this training until every 
 resource is operative. 
 
 The law requires that to be eligible for appointment 
 to a regular teaching position in the secondary schools 
 (middle school and gymnasium), one must have had 
 a course in the university and special training provided 
 in the pedagogical seminary. This means that the 
 candidate has completed : (1) the twelve years of work 
 in the primary and secondary schools, where a wide 
 
 79 
 
80 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 range of instruction and general culture are provided; 
 (2) a course in the university (four to seven years in 
 length), devoted to exhaustive research in the particular 
 branches of study which are subsequently to be taught; 
 and (3) the course of training given in the pedagogical 
 seminary. 
 
 It is the aim and function of this seminary to provide 
 for the university graduates who are to become teachers 
 the most practical and complete professional training 
 possible within the limits of time (six months). It is 
 readily evident that excellence in educational equip- 
 ment and intelligent insight into the business of teach- 
 ing are among the accomplishments of the profession. 
 In fact, mastery of the field to be taught and profes- 
 sional training in its presentation are requisites. 
 
 The certificates or diplomas issued upon completion 
 of the preparatory work just outlined are the only cre- 
 dentials required of the Norwegian teachers. Being 
 issued by the state they have a standard of value which 
 is uniform, recognized, and honored throughout the 
 realm. Without these papers it would be folly to seek 
 appointment to a fixed (permanent ) post. 
 
 Besides the regular corps of instructors occupying 
 on full time in the general lines of instruction, there are 
 many special teachers devoting their energies along 
 particular lines of work, such as home economics, draw- 
 ing, music, gymnastics, and manual training; and still 
 others who teach some of the regular branches of study 
 only part time, whose positions are not permanent. 
 Special preparation is required in order to obtain posi^ 
 tions in these specific lines of work, 
 
TEACHERS 81 
 
 II. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 Norway early recognized the value of specific train- 
 ing for the work of the teacher. The experiences of 
 other nations served as object lessons illustrating the 
 good coming from the services of properly equipped 
 teachers and the dangers of proceeding without such. 
 The state was eager to lay substantial foundations, to 
 conserve and develop every resource, to build perma- 
 nently and economically, and to profit by the experi- 
 ences of other systems. Consequently, the people 
 moved forward in a conservative manner and planned 
 for the future as well as for immediate needs. 
 
 Utilizing the strong points of other systems and 
 adapting them to local conditions, the state established 
 six teachers' seminaries, locating one in each of the six 
 dioceses into which the country is divided, so that they 
 would be within easy access of the people attending 
 them. Besides these state seminaries, four private 
 institutions, having almost identical functions, have 
 been established and are flourishing. The private 
 seminaries are located at vantage points not too close 
 to the State Schools yet where they will be 
 within reach of a large number of people. The favor- 
 able location of these schools makes it possible for a 
 large number of the attendants to live in their own 
 homes, while the large majority need be but a short 
 distance from their homes. 
 
 The work of the teachers' seminaries is, of course, to 
 provide special preparation for teaching in the schools 
 throughout the nation. Their curricula are similar 
 
82 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 to those used in the secondary schools. The chief 
 point of difference between them is the attitude taken 
 toward the subjects of instruction. In the secondary 
 schools the aim is general and in a large measure cul- 
 tural, while in the seminaries the attempt is always 
 to present the lesson or subjects of instruction in such 
 a manner that the pupils shall get both intellectual 
 development and the correct method of presentation. 
 It is the intent that this experience shall help to qual- 
 ify for the successful teaching of the subjects studied. 
 The work corresponds closely with that done in the 
 normal schools of America or similar teachers' schools 
 in other lands. 
 
 It is everywhere true that teachers teach as they 
 have been taught. The principle of imitation is illus- 
 trated clearly every day in every school room. Teach- 
 ers, like pupils, follow example more closely than pre- 
 cept. Providing schools designed to fit people for the 
 teaching profession have ideal teachers, they will be 
 able to turn out from year to year groups of teachers, 
 who, imitating their masters, both in the application 
 of scientific principles of method and in the exercise 
 of individuality, will in turn become ideal teachers. 
 If the curriculum and teaching of the training college 
 are rich and varied, its products will be characterized by 
 efficiency and resourcefuhiess. On the contrary, should 
 the work of the school be narrow because of a cramped 
 curriculum, or on account of biased and shrunken ideals 
 of the faculty, the results will be unsatisfactory. The 
 teachers who go out from such an institution will be 
 
TEACHERS 83 
 
 unequal to the tasks awaiting them — they will be un- 
 able to meet the situation in the educational field. 
 
 Since it is a chief occupation of the training school to 
 instill methods of presentation, there is great danger of 
 becoming mechanical, machine-made, or stilted in one 
 way or another. Quite the opposite must be the nature 
 and work of the teacher. The teacher should be able 
 to come down from the high platform and cooperate 
 with the children; to find the individual child and his 
 interests and, in a genuinely sympathetic spirit, to 
 direct those interests; to discard set rules, hard and fast 
 hues, and pet theories; and to open up to each child a 
 vision of the fields before. In order to do these things 
 the instructor must be thoroughly familar with child 
 life: its nature, mental and physical make-up, pro- 
 cesses of development, conditions of growth and acti- 
 vity, instincts, and hopes. He must also cherish and 
 manifest a sympathetic attitude towards youthful 
 tendencies and aspirations, and be able to inspire the 
 pupils to noble purposes. 
 
 The seminaries of Norway, like those of other nations, 
 fall short of some of the conditions of excellence that 
 we yearn for. They do not include a sufficient amount 
 of professional training nor is that which is provided 
 always the ideal type. Nevertheless, an earnest effort 
 is being put forth to approach these higher conditions 
 as rapidly as possible. The course of three years, be- 
 sides furnishing a valuable fund of instruction, provides 
 a large amount of work in observation and extensive 
 experience in teaching. The training in observation 
 generally consists of work in connection with the state 
 
84 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 schools (primary and secondary) in the immediate 
 vicinity of the seminary. Into these state schools the 
 seminary pupils are permitted to go and ol)serve the 
 teaching of the regularly employed instructors as they 
 present the different subjects in the curriculum. After 
 having observed teaching for some time and having 
 carefully discussed class room procedure with their own 
 teachers, they are required to specially prepare and 
 present some lessons under the close, yet sympathetic 
 scrutiny and supervision of their masters. As time 
 passes, more and more of this practice teaching is as- 
 signed until proficiency is attained in the presentation 
 of subjects to be taught in subsequent years. While 
 these schools do not mcorporate into their activities 
 all things that seem important, it must be said to their 
 credit that they have done a great service in qualifying 
 teachers for the class of instruction which has already 
 raised the masses to their present place of literary 
 distinction. 
 
 Besides the institutions providmg teachers' training 
 above referred to, there was established in 1907 the 
 Pedagogical seminary. This semmary is affiliated with 
 the university in Christiania but is not an organic part 
 of it. It was founded by act of the Storthing and is 
 supported by the state. The function of the Peda- 
 gogical Seminary is to provide professional training of 
 an especially practical type for graduates of the uni- 
 versity who intend to make teachmg their profession. 
 The length of the course is six months. Instruction 
 and training provided in this institution includes: (1) 
 lectures in hygiene, psychology, history of education, 
 
TEACHERS 85 
 
 and principles of education; (2) observation of class 
 instruction by masters, whose teaching is the highest 
 representation of the art in the city; (3) discussions, 
 formal and informal, general and analytic, with the 
 headmaster of the seminar^^ concerning methods of 
 instruction, class conduct, and school management; 
 and (4) practice teaching under the supervision of 
 masters whose criticisms are given in such frank and 
 sympathetic manner as to make them invaluable. 
 
 As a rule, those trained in the teachers' seminaries 
 are employed in the primary schools. The students 
 who avail themselves of the advantages of a university 
 education and follow it by the training provided in the 
 Pedagogical Seminary generally become teachers in 
 the secondary schools. The seminary training in gen- 
 eral is of such character that it may be put into use im- 
 mediately upon entrance into the work of teaching. 
 It also renders vital and usable for purposes of instruc- 
 tion the information and intellectual development 
 gained during the long-continued and intensive school- 
 ing preceding such training. 
 
 III. teachers' official titles 
 
 Throughout the school system of Norway teachers 
 are given titles according to the nature of the positions 
 occupied. In the primary school the man who does 
 the supervising work (in America known as superin- 
 tendent) is called the Inspektor; the head teacher or 
 principal is termed the Overlaerer\ and the other 
 teachers, male and female, are spoken of respectively 
 
86 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 as Laerer and Laererinde. In the middle school and 
 gynmasium the titles are Rektor, Overlaerer, and Ad- 
 junkt. The Rektor has the supervisory work and some 
 teaching to do; the Overlaerer is one of the principal 
 teachers who has been given the title and ranking, 
 chiefly because of fitness and long service; and the 
 Adjimkt is a regular teacher who has served the school 
 for five years or more and has received permanent 
 appointment. 
 
 Titles do not correspond strictly to educational equip- 
 ment nor do they depend wholly upon term of service, 
 though both of these may be and generally are con- 
 tributory factors. For example : positions in the mid- 
 dle schools and gymnasia are open only to those who 
 have certain educational fitness; the teachers with 
 especially strong qualifications and superior ability 
 are the ones most liable to receive early promotion to 
 the higher class positions; and, when promotions are 
 made, the persons who have taught for a long time en- 
 joy some advantage over those with but slight experi- 
 ence. Titles correspond more definitely to classes of 
 positions occupied than to any other thing that can be 
 named. When an individual is appointed to a position 
 carrying a title, that designation is invariably used in 
 connection with his name. He is no longer John John- 
 son or Herr Johnson, but Rektor Johnson, Overlaerer 
 Johnson, Inspektor Johnson, etc. 
 
 IV. teachers' tenure of office 
 
 The teacher's tenure of oflBce in Norway is very dif- 
 ferent from what we are accustomed to in America. 
 
TEACHERS 87 
 
 Positions are of two kinds — permanent and temporary. 
 Nearly all appointments in the past have been to per- 
 manent posts. This means that the individual oc- 
 cupies his place without molestation or any hint of 
 insecurity until he chooses to resign or until he reaches 
 the age of retirement.* Some appointments now are 
 to temporary positions though generally they lead to 
 permanent ones. Rarely, if ever, does a person who 
 makes reasonable success in a temporary position fail 
 to secure an appointment to a permanent post. 
 
 Permanency in position has a number of well-recog- 
 nized advantages. Security of situation gives to the 
 teacher a release from the uncertainty which constantly 
 harasses the minds of so many where frequent change 
 of position is the rule. A lasting appointment enables 
 one to get a firm grasp on the local situation, and to 
 utilize without waste all the momentum accumulated 
 while occupying in a particular place. Furthermore, 
 the teacher who feels settled in a position is able to estab- 
 lish a home, and to become identified with the com- 
 munity and its interest. 
 
 Since teachers continue for so long a time in a posi- 
 tion, they and their pupils become as well acquainted 
 with each other as with members of a common family. 
 It is interesting to note how minutely a teacher knows 
 the daily life and habits of his pupils. While the rela- 
 tions are not always the most congenial, they are known 
 to be practically inevitable and impossible of escape 
 so they each make the best of the situation and get the 
 most out of it. 
 
 * Law for Secondary Schools, Sec. 33. 
 
88 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Again, when children know that it will be their lot to 
 come under the tuition of a certain instructor who oc- 
 cupies a permanent post under state appointment, they 
 work faithfully and usually eliminate any criticising 
 attitude. In fact, long terms of service tend to inhibit 
 the criticisms of both children and parents which some- 
 times attend teachers who occupy positions but for a 
 short time. The situation conduces to a condition of 
 harmony and cooperative activity. The children in- 
 stinctively feel the authority of the teacher. They 
 know that he has the support of local and state authori- 
 ties, and that they will cooperate with him in carrying 
 forward his projects. The teacher, in turn, recognizes 
 his responsibilities in the premises and endeavors to 
 occupy acceptably. 
 
 Now it is just as true that there are some disadvan- 
 tages to permanency of positions. Teachers are apt 
 to become non-progressive and in some cases, little 
 more than fixtures. Change of environment stimulates 
 progress and development. Variety in teaching ex- 
 perience broadens the capabilities and increases the 
 usefulness of teachers. In addition, children need the 
 touch and influence of many lives. They receive great- 
 er inspiration because of coming in contact with the 
 personality of a large luunber of teachers. However, 
 too frequent change is wasteful. It dissipates the 
 energy of teachers and breaks the continuity of the 
 work of the children. Where the permanency of posi- 
 tions is absolutely uncertain, the teaching profession 
 is transitory and dwindling. Only a few remain for 
 long time in the work under such conditions. Many 
 
TEACHERS , 89 
 
 efficient school men leave the profession annually be- 
 cause of this discouragement. 
 
 At present, the feeling appears to be general that 
 permanency in position should be conditioned upon im- 
 provement in efficiency. Evidently a re?ognition of 
 this principle is a basic cause underlying the increase 
 in number of appointments to temporary teaching 
 positions. This procedure affords an excellent oppor- 
 tunity for weeding out the unfit. At the same time it 
 acts as a spur inducing growth and development. 
 Progressive tendencies, along with other qualifications, 
 are regarded necessary to appointment even to tem- 
 porary posts, and, as implied before, success in such 
 positions is a prerequisite to appointment to permanent 
 ones. 
 
 In America, teacher's tenure of office is very short. 
 Each year there are many changes in the personnel of 
 teachers throughout the country. Here we have the 
 extreme of uncertainty, while in Norway they go to the 
 limits of certainty in teaching positions. Both these 
 extremes are unfortunate. Could a golden mean be 
 reached which would include proper incentives to and 
 recognition of continuous self-improvement and a 
 reasonable sense of security in permanent occupation, 
 the profession would call into its ranks a large and more 
 efficient body of men and women, and the schools would 
 make greater and more substantial progress. In order 
 to illustrate the permanency of positions in Norway 
 Table VI has been arranged. 
 
90 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
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TEACHERS 91 
 
 It is immediately apparent that the charges in the 
 body of teachers are rare. It is also evident that nearly 
 all who leave the profession do so on legitimate grounds. 
 A few changes result from transfers in position, a large 
 per cent of withdrawals are retirements after extended 
 periods of service, and many vacancies are due to death. 
 Fifty per cent or more of the women who retire do so on 
 account of marrying, a few die at their posts, and many 
 retire on pensions. Very few of the women teachers 
 retire to enter other lines of work. While the table 
 does not indicate how much longer than thirty years 
 some teachers remain in the service, it may be added 
 here that examples are not rare where individuals con- 
 tinue teaching for more than half a century. In most 
 cases teachers occupy the same position throughout 
 their teaching experience. 
 
 V. teachers' salaries 
 
 The salaries received by teachers do not average high 
 in Norway. Many provisions are made, however, for 
 the reduction of their living expenses. All those who 
 serve the school authorities in Norway receive certain 
 benefits appertaining to the positions they hold. For 
 example: There is advance in salaries on promotions 
 and after specified periods of service; teachers are ex- 
 empt from expense incident to particular offices ; school 
 authorities send all official communications through 
 the mail free of postage; teachers receive pensions on 
 retirement from positions; the rural school teachers 
 frequently receive, in addition to their salary, a house 
 
92 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 to live in and sufficient land for the pasturage of two or 
 three cows, and in towns and cities some of the teachers 
 have homes provided, or are allowed a certain amount 
 per year for living expenses. These and similar con- 
 cessions and provisions are extended to the teachers 
 according to enactments of the state, individual com- 
 munes, or municipalities. Generally, a regular schedule 
 is made out by which salaries are governed. Table VII 
 indicates the salaries for different positions in eight 
 cities of Norway : 
 
 The table is made up from the salary schedules of 
 typical cities of various sizes. The values are in kroner 
 (one krone is practically the equivalent of twenty- seven 
 cents in United States money). We note that salaries 
 are medium in the beginning, and that they increase 
 at regular intervals until certain limits are reached. 
 When we consider these limiting salaries, the long ser- 
 vice generally rendered at the highest rate, certainty 
 of position, and the pension to be received upon re- 
 tirement, we are prone to admit that the advantages 
 are not altogether in favor of the higher salaries paid 
 in our American schools. True, the American teacher 
 generally receives larger returns in dollars and cents, 
 but the Norwegian pedagogue is less mercenary than 
 his American cousin. He is satisfied when his wants 
 and those of his family are liberally provided for. His 
 life is not strenuous. It is happy and filled with the 
 joys of service and the companionship of youthful 
 souls. Anxieties are in large measure overcome by the 
 assurance that the state will provide necessities when 
 
TEACHERS 93 
 
 the time for retirement comes. Pensions are graduated 
 according to individual necessity as well as with refer- 
 ence to position, term of service, and salary at the time 
 of retirement. 
 
94 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 
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TEACHERS 95 
 
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Chapter III 
 COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 
 
 I. INTRODUCTORY — RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT 
 FORM OF THE CURRICULUM 
 
 WE come now to a consideration of the 
 course of study in the school system 
 as it has evolved and is now operative. 
 As was true throughout other parts of 
 Europe, so in Norway, education during the middle 
 ages issued almost exclusively from the cloister and 
 cathedral schools {Dom-og Kathedral Skoler), and in 
 them are found the germs of most modem courses of 
 study. Inasmuch as the successive steps in the evolu- 
 tion of the recent schools of Europe from the earlier 
 forms vary but httle in the several countries, and since 
 the subject is already familiar to nearly all students 
 of education, we omit any technical discussion of that 
 interesting feature of history, and refer the reader to 
 any of the several works treating it fully. Suffice it 
 to say, the aim of the church in maintaining these 
 earlier schools centered in the development of a quali- 
 fied clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal fol- 
 lowing, well-trained in the dogmas, doctrines, and tradi- 
 tions of the organization. 
 
 96 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 97 
 
 At this time the monk and a small company of disci- 
 ples constituted the school. The little group studied 
 together from day to day in and about the cloister or 
 cathedral. Among them, very naturally, certain new 
 thoughts and ideals sprung up. The masters saw the 
 new developments if they were not themselves parties 
 to them. As the newer thoughts became fixed in the 
 youthful minds, individual interests pressed harder 
 and harder still until provision was made for extending 
 the work of instruction as well as for widening the scope 
 of activities within the schools. While the aim was 
 at first to give instruction and discipline in lines neces- 
 sary to a clerical career, it changed by degrees until it 
 included branches useful in legitimate occupations 
 other than that of the clergy. However, the diversify- 
 ing of school activities and the enrichment of the pro- 
 gram of study did not keep pace with the changes that 
 were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos. 
 A spirit of unrest grew to proportions almost ungovern- 
 able until the middle age renaissance in learning re- 
 moved the fetters and brought relief by effecting sys- 
 tems of education very fitting to the requirements. 
 Great credit is due to the leaders in the Reformation for 
 the part they played in placing means for instruction 
 and education upon a more secure and permanent 
 basis, and for the service they rendered in giving to 
 the schools certain vitality that had rarely, if ever, 
 been characteristic of any similar institution. 
 
 The new type of school bore a stamp of general ap- 
 proval which enabled it to gain a momentum which was 
 not soon to be overcome. In fact, the schools of all the 
 
98 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 more civilized countries are still largely dominated by 
 traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of 
 such men as Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, and Sturm. 
 
 Now the ideas of these famous educators were less 
 subjected to change in Norway than in the centers from 
 whence they came. Until the union between this coun- 
 try and Denmark came to an end in 1814, very little 
 thought was given to advancing educational interests 
 in Norway. The work of her cathedral schools had 
 been little improved during the centuries that had 
 passed since their establishment. When at last Nor- 
 way became a free constitutional state and these Norse- 
 men breathed the air of freedom, felt the exhilaration 
 of greater personal liberties, realized that their destiny 
 was to be of their own making, and fully sensed their 
 important responsibilities in the situation, they all, 
 ecclesiasts and politicians, capitalists and laborers, 
 combined in developing their schools in ways calculated 
 to lift the masses to higher intellectual planes. The 
 changes wrought were in relation to what was to be 
 taught and to the extension of learning. An opportu- 
 nity for instruction was given to every youth in the 
 land. 
 
 For a long time the ancient languages formed the 
 bulk of higher learning, while in the primary schools 
 only the rudiments of a few subjects were attempted. 
 Social tendencies soon required an increase in the num- 
 ber of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight 
 upon the importance of such study as would be of bene- 
 fit in vocational activities. Accordingly, mathematics, 
 history, geography, and nature study became more 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 99 
 
 prominent features in all schools. One of the best 
 characteristics of the work throughout is that the 
 mother-tongue has been at all times a dominating factor 
 through every grade of their schools. Later in the pro- 
 cess a demand for the modern foreign languages was 
 responded to favorably and they took places in the 
 curriculum of the higher school. These changes bring 
 us down through the last century to the recent forms 
 in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader 
 immediately into the present situation. 
 
 Besides the institutions for higher learning there are 
 now three distinct sections in the school system of Nor- 
 way, viz.: Primary School, Middle School, and Gymna- 
 sium. The primary school is designed to provide edu- 
 cation of an elementary type for every citizen of the 
 country. By vital cooperation and the exercise of great 
 care in organization, distribution, supervision, and in- 
 spection of these schools, the people have overcome illit- 
 eracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum — almost 
 to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to 
 the belief that an enlightened populace is a necessity to 
 the continuity of desirable institutions, to the develop- 
 ment of resources, and to the maintenance of worthy 
 traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and 
 intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to 
 have the curriculum for the primary schools include 
 the branches of study which have meaning in every 
 walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each 
 citizen in his individual activities. In short, it is the 
 intent that all the people shall have the more abundant 
 life which comes with a thorough, general, elementary 
 
100 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 education; and, at the same time, that they shall be 
 prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad 
 foundation of the common school. 
 
 Following the primary schools are the middle schools 
 which lead still farther in the pathway of intellectual 
 development those whose situation in life enables them 
 to proceed with school work. Besides carrying for- 
 ward the lines of study begun in the lower school with 
 added vigor and exactitude, they include a large amount 
 of work in foreign modem languages. Thus we see 
 that this second section in the great institution of learn- 
 ing fills in the elementary framework, enriches the 
 fund of information, adds a considerable amount of cul- 
 ture, and paves the way for the more liberal training 
 to follow in the next section. 
 
 The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon 
 the work of the middle school. Its function is to pro- 
 vide a liberal culture and education suited to the needs 
 and desires of those who become in large part the leaders 
 in all phases of political, professional, or other social 
 careers. 
 
 Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the 
 educational ladder are in harmony with and dependent 
 upon preceding work. While only a correspondingly 
 small number pass to the summit, all the people enjoy 
 the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generali- 
 zations which lie at the base of their educational sys- 
 tem and equip very well for the common walks and voca- 
 tions of life. In our discussion we shall separate the 
 work of the three sections and consider them one at a 
 time. It seems advisable to handle them in this way, 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 101 
 
 and we believe that a more adequate conception of the 
 work as a whole will be obtained by offering first the 
 part affecting all the people and dealing with the prim- 
 ary schools. 
 
 II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS 
 
 The primary schools are of two kinds, — those special- 
 ly designed for the rural sections of the country and 
 others provided for the towns and cities, the latter 
 being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in 
 organization, and more thorough in operation than the 
 former. Considering the fact that such uniformity 
 characterizes the courses of study in the various schools, 
 it will be necessary to present but one outline for each 
 class of schools. An effort has been made to select 
 courses that are representative and which clearly set 
 forth typical conditions. Table VIII gives the pro- 
 gram of work offered in one of the rural communes, and 
 shows the number of hours per week devoted to each 
 branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just 
 after the legislative act of 1889, the Department sent 
 out a "normal plan" which served as a guide in ar- 
 ranging the time-tables for rural municipalities. As a 
 result great uniformity exists. 
 
102 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for 
 Each Branch of Instruction in the Course of Study in 
 Fredrikvaern Commune.* 
 
 Year 
 
 I. 11. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total 
 
 Religion 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 43 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 Geography 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 Nature Study 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Writing 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Manual Training 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246 
 
 The program just above is normal and typical in 
 every respect. The schools are very uniform in their 
 work and, as previously stated, no further tables are 
 necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work 
 generally presented in the rural districts of the entire 
 country. 
 
 *Year 1905. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 103 
 
 The second program selected is the one used in the 
 primary schools of Christian ia.* The schools of this 
 city are among the best and are taken as models for a 
 number in other cities and towns. 
 ♦Year 1910-1911. 
 
104 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 
 
 
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 Division 
 Year 
 
 Sex 
 
 Religion 
 Norwegian 
 Mathematics 
 Geography 
 History 
 Nature Study 
 Writing 
 Drawing 
 Vocal Music 
 Manual Training 
 Gymnastics 
 Total 
 
 is 
 
 tHCQ 
 
 H— * 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 105 
 
 The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences 
 the similarities already referred to and, at the same time, 
 serves to indicate all variations. However, in the mak- 
 ing of comparisons, difference in the number and dis- 
 tribution of hours is more a matter of method or cor- 
 relation between branches than an indication of actual 
 difference in accomplishment. For example, a large 
 number of hours for writing may mean exclusively 
 work in practice writing, but it is very probable that 
 it will include a considerable amount of work in the 
 mother-tongue or a definite correlation with nature 
 study, history, or religion. The fundamental standard 
 by which work is judged or measured is whether it pre- 
 pares the pupil fully for work in the middle school. 
 
106 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
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 o 
 
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 m 
 
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 PQ 
 
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 Bergen 
 
 Trondhjem 
 
 Stavanger 
 
 Drammen 
 
 Kristiansand 
 
 Aalesmid 
 
 Fredrikshald 
 
 Skien 
 
 Kristiansmid 
 
 •a 
 
 s 
 
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 PQ 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 107 
 
 Religion The four R's in Norway's educa- 
 
 Reading tional system form the center of their 
 
 Reckoning educational endeavors. Only a super- 
 RiTiNG ficial glance at the tables presented is 
 
 necessary in order to notice their 
 prominence throughout the course of study. While 
 the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a suffi- 
 ciently strong indication of their predominance, we 
 must also carry in mind an allowance for closest pos- 
 sible correlation between them as constant and addi- 
 tional factors along the same line. Bearing these 
 things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion 
 of the course of study or school plan. Though the 
 programs presented and digest of plans following or 
 accompanying are taken from particular schools, the 
 discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise 
 specified. For varied reasons, but chiefly because they 
 are typical, specific, and concrete, the courses of study 
 used in Christiania — primary and secondary — are chos- 
 en as illustrations. The following is not a verbatim 
 translation of Christiania 's plan of instruction but an 
 abbreviated statement of the work as outlined in their 
 published school plan (Skoleplan) . I have endeavored 
 to select the more vital points throughout and to 
 represent them as exactly as a condensed version ren- 
 ders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur 
 they are due to a demand for economy — ^the things 
 omitted not being regarded as absolute essentials to a 
 correct representation of the intent and spirit of the 
 work as carried on. 
 
108 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Religion 
 
 Aim. The aims of instruction in religion are to de- 
 velop the religious instincts of the children and to in- 
 still in them a recognition of Christianity, out of which 
 may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear concep- 
 tion of the church. 
 
 To attain these, an effort is made to impart the fol- 
 lowing fund of information: 
 
 Definite acquaintance with the more important parts 
 of Bible history, with the chief events in church his- 
 tory, and with the catechism according to the Evan- 
 gelical Lutheran creed. 
 
 First Division 
 
 Class I. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruc- 
 tion during the beginning weeks consists in simple 
 stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and conversations de- 
 signed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics, 
 and morals; to effect defiaite connections with previous 
 home training; and to awaken and develop religious 
 and moral attitudes in the children preparatory to the 
 more direct instruction to follow. 
 
 The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins 
 with Bible stories selected from the Old and New Testa- 
 ments and specially adapted to the understanding of the 
 children and their ability to master the same. The 
 following stories are among the ones used: The Story 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 109 
 
 of Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, 
 The Birth of Jesus, The Three Wise Men, Jesus in the 
 Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand, Jesus 
 Raising the Widow's Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, 
 Jesus Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories 
 are presented orally and explained and elucidated in 
 such a way that the children may receive clear and vivid 
 pictures of the persons and events referred to, appreciate 
 their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be 
 able to rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner. 
 Whenever possible the religious or moral content of 
 the conversation should be brought to a climax in a 
 simple passage of Scripture, a response from the cate- 
 chism, or a verse of some hymn, which should be 
 memorized. 
 
 Class II. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible 
 stories from Old and New Testaments taken mainly 
 from the time of the patriarchs and Moses. Among 
 them are the following : 
 
 From Old Testament: The Creation and Eden, The 
 Fall, Cain and Abel, The Flood, The Call of Abraham, 
 Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering of Isaac, 
 The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing 
 His Sons, Jacob's Flight, The Birth and Rearing of 
 Moses, The Call of Moses, Moses Before Pharaoh, The 
 Exodus from Egypt. 
 
 Fro7n New Testament: The Birth of Jesus, Jesus' 
 Entry into Jerusalem, Jesus Suffering in the Garden 
 of Gethsemane, Jesus' Death on the Cross, The Burial 
 of Jesus, The Resurrection of Jesus, The Outpouring 
 of the Holy Ghost. Instruction is exclusively oral. 
 
no THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Historical references are disregarded. Historical situa- 
 tions are frequently clarified by references to the his- 
 tory of civilization and geography. New phases of 
 God's dealings with men and their attitudes toward 
 Him are singled out and presented for consideration. 
 Passages of Scripture and others from the catechism 
 or hymns are treated in connection with the Bible 
 stories as they are told. 
 
 Class III. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bibli- 
 cal history up to and including the time of Solomon, 
 characteristic stories from the prophetic period, and 
 selections of Scripture from the New Testament de- 
 signated officially for study in reference to certain 
 church holidays. Among the topics included we find: 
 The Tower of Babel, God's Covenant with Abra- 
 ham, The Visit of the Three Men, The Lord Visits 
 Sodom and Gomorrah, Jacob Serving Laban, Jacob's 
 Return, The Travel to Sinai, The Giving of the Law, 
 The Unfaithfulness of the People, The Travels from 
 Sinai to Jordan, The Death of Moses, Joshua Leading 
 the People into Canaan, Gideon, Ruth, Samuel, Saul 
 Becomes King, Saul Rejected, God Chooses David to 
 be King, David and Jonathan, Saul Pursuing David, 
 The Death of Saul, David Chosen to be King by the 
 People, The Fall and Restitution of David, Absalom, 
 The Last Days of David's Life, Solomon, Elias, Jonah, 
 Daniel. The matter covered in Classes I and II is 
 again taken up, to which the above is added in historical 
 connection. To this material Biblical geography and 
 cultural history are added as needed, while hymns, 
 passages of Scripture, or selections from the catechism 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 111 
 
 are continually used. Through constant reviews the 
 moral and religious contents from the various sources 
 are connected into successive groups, each group center- 
 ing around the life of some prominent Biblical character. 
 Instruction is chiefly oral, though some reading from 
 text is a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid. 
 A certain amount of catechismal work may be assigned 
 as home lessons. 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Class IV. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) 
 New Testament history centering in the stories of Jesus ' 
 childhood, His miracles, and His easier parables. New 
 stories taken up : The Birth of John the Baptist Fore- 
 told, The Birth of Jesus Foretold, The Birth of John 
 the Baptist, Jesus Presented in the Temple, The Flight 
 into Egypt, Appearance of John the Baptist, The Bap- 
 tism of Jesus, Jesus is Tempted, The First Disciples 
 Come to Jesus, The Marriage in Cana, Jesus Visits 
 Nazareth, Jesus Choosing the Twelve Apostles, Jesus 
 Heals the Centurion's Servant, The Death of John the 
 Baptist, Jesus Healing the Palsied, Jesus Raising 
 Jairus' Daughter, The Woman of Canaan, Parable of 
 the Unmerciful Servant, The Good Samaritan, Jesus 
 at the House of Martha and Mary, Parables of the Lost 
 Sheep and the Lost Coin, Parable of the Prodigal Son, 
 Dives and Lazarus, Healing of the Ten Lepers, Parable 
 of the Publican and Pharisee, Parable of the Marriage 
 of the King's Son, Easter, Pentecost. The extent to 
 which details of stories. Biblical geography, cultural 
 
112 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 history, and passages of Scripture or catechism are in- 
 cluded is governed by the maturity and education of the 
 children. In this class considerable attention is given 
 to the reading of hymns and New Testament Scrip- 
 tures from the four Gospels (elucidating obscure pas- 
 sages and difficult sentences), to connections between 
 Bible stories and history, and to chronological sequence. 
 Class V. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) 
 Continued instruction in New Testament history, 
 especially the parables of Jesus and the story of his 
 passion and resurrection. To this is added the account 
 of the founding of the first Christian church and its 
 spread by the efforts of the chief apostles. The work 
 includes the following new stories: Jesus and Nicho- 
 demus, Jesus and the Samaritan Woman, Jesus Com- 
 mences to Speak in Parables, The Transfiguration of 
 Jesus, Peter's Confession, The Man Bom Blind, Jesus 
 the Good Shepherd, The Raising of Lazarus, Jesus in 
 the House of Zacchaeus, Jesus in Bethany, Parable of 
 the Labourers in the Vineyard, Parable of the Ten 
 Virgins, Washing of Feet, The Lord's Supper, Jesus in 
 Gethsemane, Jesus Before the High Priest and the 
 Sanhedrin, Jesus Before Pilate and Herod, Crucifixion 
 of Jesus, Christ's Burial, The Resurrection, Jesus Ap- 
 pears to the Two Disciples on the Way to Emmaus, 
 He Appears to the Disciples in Jerusalem, He Appears 
 at the Sea of Tiberias, The Great Commission to the 
 Disciples, His Ascension, The Outpouring of the Holy 
 Ghost on Pentecost, The First Miracle and First Perse- 
 cution, Stephen, The Ethiopian Eunuch, Saul, Cornelius, 
 Paul Preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles, 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 113 
 
 Bible reading, the catechism, Bible history, and 
 hymns are studied as in former classes, but more in- 
 tensively. Besides the catechism, passages of Scrip- 
 ture, containing great Christian and moral truths are 
 to be impressed and memorized verbatim. Contin- 
 uous reviews through the years enable the children to 
 connect several stories into groups, and to acquire com- 
 plete information regarding the life and work of Christ. 
 A small instruction book is used. First part and 
 Article I of the second part are studied. 
 
 Third Division 
 
 Class VI. (Four hours weekly.) Bible history and 
 Old Testament taken up simultaneously — Bible read- 
 ing and ecclesiastical history alternating. A deeper 
 knowledge of sacred history is sought. Striking illus- 
 trations of God's plan of salvation operating among 
 the Jews are given, designed to enable the children to 
 appreciate the redemptive meaning of Old Testament 
 history. Emphasis is placed on the period just pre- 
 ceding the time of Christ, New stories introduced: 
 The Division of the Kingdom, Elisha, The Downfall 
 of the Kingdom of Israel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, The Fall 
 of the Kingdom of Judah, The Jews under Babylonian 
 Captivity, Their Return from Captivity, The Last 
 Four Hundred Years. 
 
 Familiarity with Old Testament Scriptures and his- 
 tory, Biblical geography, and cultural history is to be 
 gained. Articles II and III of the second part, and 
 the third, fourth, and fifth parts of the instruction book 
 are taken up. 
 
114 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Class VII . (Three hours weekly.) One Gospel — 
 Matthew — is read connectedly and followed by a treat- 
 ment of selected parts from the Acts of the Apostles 
 in connection with the work of Biblical history in the 
 fourth and fifth grades. All materials previously 
 gathered from the various sources are again taken up, 
 applied, and centered. 
 
 Narratives relating to important periods of the 
 church. Among them: — The Persecutions (under 
 Nero, Poly carpus). The Victory of Christianity (Con- 
 stantine). The Christian Ceremonies, Augustine, Her- 
 mits and Monks, The Spread of Christianity, The 
 Popes, The Crusades, The Preparation for the Reforma- 
 tion, The Lutheran Reformation (Luther, the Jesuits, 
 the Catholic Mission), The Lutheran Church in the 
 Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, in the Eight- 
 eenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Mission, Bible 
 Societies. 
 
 The aim in this division is to give information re- 
 garding the development of the church in general, and 
 of the Lutheran church in particular. Narratives are 
 grouped around great central characters — Christian 
 personages. A realization of the lofty aims of Chris- 
 tianity on the part of the children together with an 
 appreciation of their duties and responsibilities as mem- 
 bers of the Christian church is the intent. By means of 
 an instruction book the main divisions of church his- 
 tory, general history, and the history of Norway are 
 correlated. Information contained in the hymn book 
 acquaints the children with the ceremonial order of the 
 ecclesiastical year as well as with the contents and order 
 
COURSES QF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 115 
 
 of the book itself. The study of previously memorized 
 hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon. 
 
 It is to be remembered that in Norway church and 
 state are united. Religious and scholastic interests 
 are under the direction of the Department of Ecclesias- 
 tical and Educational affairs. The minister of this 
 department of State is one of the King's cabinet. Here 
 we find one of the numerous attempts at the solution 
 of the vexing question of moral instruction, or, to be 
 more exact, religious instruction in the public schools. 
 While the provisions for this teaching are not faultless, 
 and though their course of instruction could not be 
 adopted for use in America with its medley of religious 
 prejudices, yet we must acknowledge that they are well 
 adapted to the needs and desires of the people served. 
 The citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously, 
 almost universally Lutheran, and their traditions mili- 
 tate against any change in religious creed. The teach- 
 ing of religion in the schools has been the practice for 
 generations, the instruction is taken as a matter of 
 course, and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all. 
 
 There are a number of important features of this 
 moral instruction which press their claims for special 
 mention, but we cannot discuss them all. A few, how- 
 ever, demand some attesntion. The statement of the 
 proverb, that as the twig is bent so will the tree be in- 
 clined, has been borne out in practice times without 
 number. Here, it seems to me, is one more illustration. 
 Throughout their whole school life — that receptive, 
 appropriating, formative period — the children have 
 constantly before them ideals that are elevating, exam- 
 
116 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 pies that are inspiring, and admonitions that tend to 
 create and develop within them an ambition to excel 
 in beauty of character. That the morals of society 
 are not kept more nearly pure by this procedure seems 
 a psychological impossibility. Agam a rather success- 
 ful attempt is made to have the home and school co- 
 operate along the lines of personal purity. In fact the 
 home, the school, and the church join hands and sup- 
 plement each other in all efforts in religious and moral 
 training. True it is that striking examples of nobility 
 of character, high ideals, and moral worth abound in 
 profane history as well as in sacred, in secular life as 
 well as in religious, in living characters as truly as in 
 those of past ages, but the school system of Norway 
 provides ample opportunity for presenting all of these 
 things in connection with their regular instruction in 
 the various subjects taught, and, in addition, furnishes 
 particularized instruction which makes a specialty 
 of moral and religious development. It seems impera- 
 tive that, when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly 
 presented, the powers of imitation and habit should com- 
 bine in the creation of stronger and nobler characters. 
 
 Nevertheless, when religious instruction is made a 
 requirement, it too frequently becomes formal and 
 literal rather than spiritual and lifegiving. That this 
 great misfortune is the case in some of the secondary 
 schools of Norway is an indictment which cannot be 
 denied. However, in the primary schools the instruc- 
 tion is fruitful and important. As a consequence of 
 these conditions the statement is common among many 
 that in looking back over the years of religious instruc- 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 117 
 
 tion they recall numerous happy instances of earnest, 
 heartfelt prayer and Bible stories accompanied by in- 
 tense feeling on the part of the teacher. Other experi- 
 ences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profes- 
 sion had not the sincerity and feeling back of their in- 
 struction required in order to give vitality and meaning 
 to the lessons presented. 
 
 The entire question of instruction in morals in our 
 public schools is one of pressing importance. It is 
 being agitated in many lands today and a solution is 
 sorely needed. Were all classes of society united as to 
 what should be included in this instruction the matter 
 would adjust itself very readily. However, social con- 
 ditions in a single nation are more or less diverse, and 
 between different nations still greater breaks are to be 
 found. In fact the ideals and conceptions of society 
 are so varied that no one present system would suffice 
 for all. Could a code of ethics be formulated which 
 would meet universal approval then its adoption and 
 use might be hoped for. Until then each nation must 
 necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted 
 to its social requirements. As already stated, the peo- 
 ple of Norway are nearly all adherents to the Lutheran 
 creed so there are very few dissenters from the common 
 rule. Provision is made in the law that those who do 
 not adhere to the state church and object to receiving 
 instruction in this particular line may, upon request of 
 parent or guardian, be excused from such instruction.* 
 * Law for City Schools, Sec. 4. 
 
118 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 Aim. It is the aim of the instruction in Norwegian 
 to further the mental development of children, especi- 
 ally their linguistic ability. In this course of activity 
 they should acquire : 
 
 (1) Efficiency in apprehending and assimilating 
 what they hear or read, confident readiness in reading, 
 plain articulation, and correct and natural accentua- 
 tion. 
 
 (2) Efficiency in expressing themselves orally and 
 in writing without making any serious errors in the 
 common usage of language or the rules of composition. 
 
 (3) Efficiency in the use of the grammar of the 
 mother-tongue which is necessary for the above meas- 
 ure of attainments. 
 
 First Division 
 
 Class I. (Boys twelve hours, girls eleven hours, 
 weekly.) A suitable number (twelve or fifteen) of in- 
 teresting children 's stories are told and utilized for the 
 special purposes of mdening the circle of the children's 
 imagination and developing in them ability in observa- 
 tion, conception, and expression. An effort is made to 
 render the general contents of the stories lucid through 
 explanations, while the features arousing special interest 
 in the minds of the pupils are made the objects of more 
 detailed conversation. An effort is made to train the 
 children in correct, free, and easy expression in con- 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 119 
 
 nected sentences, and to develop in them the abihty 
 to rehearse their stories freely and connectedly. 
 
 Reading. The aim is ability to read the primer 
 (ABC-en) with assurance and in a clear tone, properly 
 articulating and accenting each word and syllable. 
 
 Written exercises. The object of the written work 
 is to teach the children to write words and simple sen- 
 tences which have just been read orally or have been 
 seen in the primer or on the blackboard. 
 
 Class II. (Boys ten hours, girls eight hours, weekly.) 
 Twenty or thirty of the most interesting and valuable 
 selections (prose and poetry) contained in the reader 
 are made the objects of special and thorough treatment. 
 Comments, questions, elucidating explanations, and 
 conversations are means employed in securing a vivid 
 appreciation of the contents and in developing ability 
 in their easy rehearsal. The other pieces are treated 
 in a more cursory manner, only the larger views and 
 the more general understanding of them being at- 
 tempted. 
 
 Special attention is given to having all readings slow 
 with loud, plain, and correct articulation and proper 
 accentuation. Habitual mistakes are carefully elim- 
 inated. Story telling is also a feature of the year's 
 work. 
 
 Written exercises, made up of sentences and short 
 parts of readings, conversations, or stories are given 
 frequently and for short periods. Here the names of 
 letters and spelling are attended to with great care. 
 
 Class III. (Boys eight hours, girls seven hours, 
 weekly.) Twenty or thirty paragraphs from the 
 reader are given special attention — the remainder 
 
120 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 cursory. The plan of work is about the same as for 
 Class II. Considerable attention is given to the re- 
 hearsing of the reading lesson by the pupils. Some 
 reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact though 
 they are not to be given in the exact words of the text. 
 Still other selections receive more general treatment. 
 A few of the most pleasing poems should be memorized. 
 Greater readiness in slow and even reading with loud 
 and clear expression and proper natural accentuation 
 should be sought. 
 
 Written exercises. Selections from the language work 
 giving special and rather extended attention to spell- 
 ing, punctuation, and grammatical constructions and 
 forms. The teacher sets examples of correct punctua- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Class IV. (Five hours weekly.) A select number 
 (20-30) of pieces from the reader treated as in the former 
 classes, though more exhaustively; and, in addition, 
 quite a wide range of selections chosen for more cur- 
 sory reading. A considerable amount of information 
 regarding the topics treated and explanations of literary 
 expressions should form important parts of the instruc- 
 tion in this class. Here, as in both preceding and suc- 
 ceeding classes, it should be the aim to have the chil- 
 dren make their meanings plain when conversing upon 
 the selections read, at least to the degree of their ability 
 and development. Parts of former conversations on 
 various topics should also be recalled and woven into 
 their discussions. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 121 
 
 Written exercises. These shall include features pre- 
 viously studied, and introduce more detailed and finer 
 discriminations in grammatical usages and forms. 
 
 Class V. (Boys four hours, girls five hours, weekly.) 
 Exhaustive study of a few. selections and cursory read- 
 ing in large quantities as before. Careful and abundant 
 training in oral expression. Specific and detailed re- 
 hearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount 
 of knowledge gained through study, experience, and 
 thought is utihzed. Short stories are read. Poems 
 are memorized. Progress in clear and distinct articula- 
 tion and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with 
 refined speech is continuously a requirement. 
 
 Written exercises. A continuation of former exer- 
 cises and a considerable amount of copying, or the writ- 
 ing of abstracts of lesson content, especially during the 
 second half year. Orthographic, grammatical, and 
 rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively 
 and their niceties urged. Through continued practice 
 in preparing and writing compositions, extra work in 
 copying, and special study of orthography and punctua- 
 tion, the children, by the close of this their fifth year of 
 schoolmg, should be quite capable in punctuation as 
 well as spelling, though they should not be expected to 
 spell and punctuate independently with accuracy. 
 
 Third Division 
 
 Class VI. (Boys five hours, girls six hours, weekly.) 
 Reading from a selected portion of the reader. Con- 
 versations, information, explanations, and linguistic 
 
122 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 elucidations are to be entered into according to neces- 
 sity. Increasing stress is here laid on the work of draw- 
 ing out the thoughts, ideas, and knowledge of the pupils, 
 and of inciting them to more independent, intellectual 
 effort. 
 
 Written exercises. Continued as previously though 
 introducing larger amounts of independently selected 
 forms of expression and insisting on greater accuracy 
 in punctuation. Letter writing is added. 
 
 Class VII . (Five hours weekly.) Selections from 
 the reader and supplementary reading from recommend- 
 ed books calculated to awaken, develop, and educate. 
 Special attention given to the most important authors. 
 
 Written exercises. Compositions on topics of in- 
 interest, letter writing, business correspondence includ- 
 ing applications, invoices,advertisements, and telegrams. 
 
 The methods employed in presenting the mother- 
 tongue are quite plainly set forth in the foregoing out- 
 line. Though the content is not so specifically defined, 
 the general lines are indicated in such a way as to give 
 very adequate insight thereinto. Some of the methods 
 of presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather 
 antiquated. This impression is due chiefly to ter- 
 minology. The actual work in the schoolrooms is 
 flexible, free, and, as a rule, attractive. The latitude 
 granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost 
 unlimited individual initiative. Many of their teachers 
 are quite expert in the most modern methods. 
 
 The utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of 
 their school work is especially noticeable in the teaching 
 of their own language. In harmony with this idea, let 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 123 
 
 me call attention to the fact that, from the first, constant 
 use is made of every attainment in both oral and written 
 form. The oral work embraces the reading of the text, 
 reading from the blackboard, and conversational exer- 
 cises on the special topics being considered. Written 
 work on the same lessons include copying of certain 
 selections or parts of them and original expressions 
 in regard to the contents of lessons read. In the ad- 
 vanced grades these written exercises become more and 
 more extended and complicated until they amount to 
 complete essays. Special attention is given to correct 
 forms of expression and to the acquirement of habits 
 of clear and distinct enunciation. The child, who from 
 his earhest school days becomes habituated to exact 
 pronunciations, is very liable — almost sure — to spell 
 correctly; and, when constant use is made of the lan- 
 guage in written exercises, the accepted and approved 
 forms of expression become the fixed usages. 
 
 Now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a com- 
 bination of our reading, spelling, language lessons, 
 grammar, rhetoric, and literature, all taught in their 
 natural order as they arise through actual use. In- 
 cidentally, vast amounts of biography, history, geog- 
 raphy, and natural science as well as writing are in- 
 cluded. The richness of content and thoroughness of 
 treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing 
 of courses and still more in their application. Speciali- 
 zation in phases of a single subject in lower schools 
 nearly always means waste of energy, scattering of 
 forces, and disappointment in the end. On the con- 
 trary, imification and close correlation result in economy 
 
124 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of time and effort, and issue in more worthy attain- 
 ments. The several fields of thought are already too 
 much isolated from each other, and unless some guards 
 are erected the individual fields also will be broken up 
 and their distinctive phases so divorced from one an- 
 other that their cooperative tendencies and values will 
 become void and their relationships will be lost sight 
 of. Norwegian is easily the preponderant study in 
 Norway's schools, but, since it is so inclusive, it prob- 
 ably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it. 
 The long lists of supplementary readings now pro- 
 vided in our American schools exert a wholesome in- 
 fluence. Their constant revision and extension fur- 
 nish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers, 
 guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in 
 the use of the mother- tongue. The limitless resources 
 in English literature, America's lavish provision for 
 higher education and professional training, and the 
 freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the 
 teachers of our language without excuse. The pupils 
 studying English in America have a right to expect the 
 best. One cordition which frequently militates against 
 first class work in this line is that school boards all too 
 frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of English 
 means more than merely hearing lessons so many times 
 a week. A very large part of the most important work 
 must be done aside from class exercises. If there be 
 any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours 
 of instruction it is the teacher of the mother- tongue. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 125 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Aim. Readiness in the four mathematical operations 
 in whole numbers, decimal numbers, and simple frac- 
 tions, written and oral. Ability to independently solve 
 various examples in the forms in which they generally 
 appear in practical life, also examples in proportion and 
 examples in percentage, together with problems of 
 planes and solids. Course and mode of its execution 
 as given in a text — Instruction in Mathematics (Regne- 
 undervisningen) — ^followed in all essentials. 
 
 First Division 
 
 Class I. (Boys five hours, girls four hours, weekly.) 
 Through constant use of illustrative material (objects 
 about the room, wooden pins, cubes, the children's 
 fingers, etc.) the children are taught to gradually be- 
 come acquainted with the numbers to ten, twenty, 
 thirty, and on up to one hundred ; and they are afforded 
 continuous practice in reading, writing, and explain- 
 ing the numbers, as well as in performing simple solu- 
 tions in the four arithmetical operations. At the close 
 of the year the children should be able to count to one 
 hundred forward and backward. They must know how 
 to manipulate the numbers from one to ten in adding 
 to or subtracting from any number less than one hun- 
 dred, and be able, by the assistance of the tables, to 
 answer questions in multiphcation (two's to five's) 
 and some questions in division. Chief importance at- 
 taches to the ability of the children to use the numbers 
 from one to thirty. 
 
126 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Class II. (Four hours weekly.) Acquaintance with 
 and abihty to read and write any number up to one 
 miUion. 
 
 Mental arithmetic. Continuation of operations be- 
 gun in Class I. When proficient in adding and sub- 
 tracting units to and from one hundred, tens and units 
 are taken up in the same way. Examples in easy 
 multiplication, with occasional use of division, carried 
 on throughout the year. 
 
 Tablet work. Addition and subtraction of numbers 
 up to one million. In the operations coin, measure, 
 and weight denominations are used, and are illustrated 
 by coins, measures, and weights. 
 
 Class III. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, 
 weekly.) Acquaintance with the numeral system up 
 to and including milUons. Continuous practice in 
 reading, writing, and using numbers. 
 
 Mental operations. Addition and subtraction of num- 
 bers up to one hundred continued. Thereafter extend 
 the numbers as far as the children can use them with 
 certainty and rapidity. Multiplication of numbers up 
 to one hundred by units. 
 
 Tablet work. More work in addition and subtrac- 
 tion going farther than to numbers with six ciphers. 
 Multiplication of numbers with many ciphers by multi- 
 pliers having one or more ciphers. 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Class IV. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, 
 weekly.) Division with divisors having one or more 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 127 
 
 ciphers. Separation of numbers into their individual 
 factors. Finding of the least common multiple. After 
 this a thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations 
 with whole numbers — old and new exercises. 
 
 Mental and tablet exercises in closest relation to each 
 other. In all mental operations, here or later, rapid 
 and positive use should be made of the easier examples 
 before the harder ones are fumbled or handled with un- 
 certainty. 
 
 Class V. (Two hours weekly.) After the necessary 
 preparation, practice in the three operations with deci- 
 mal numbers. In connection with the consideration of 
 plane surfaces the children should be given practice 
 in measuring parallelograms, triangles, irregular quad- 
 rangles and many-sided surfaces — ^triangles should pre- 
 dominate. 
 
 Mental and tablet exercises parallel each other and are 
 in intimate relation. 
 
 Third Division 
 
 Class VI. (Three hours weekly.) Preparatory prac- 
 tice in common fractions together with addition and 
 subtraction of fractions having a common denominator 
 and others which can easily be reduced to a common 
 denominator. Multiplication and division using or 
 including fractions. Further development with men- 
 tal operations growdng out of and in connection with 
 tablet work. 
 
 Class VII. (Three hours weekly.) Percentage in- 
 cluding interest, rebate, and discount. The calculating 
 
128 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of cubes, prisms, pyramids, circles, cylinders, cones; 
 also shortened pyramids, cones, and cylinders. 
 
 After this a general review so far as time admits. 
 
 Simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire 
 field during the earlier years. The elementary alge- 
 braic forms and methods of solution are introduced re- 
 latively early, and minor geometric relations and opera- 
 tions are presented during the last (seventh) year of the 
 lower schools. These latter features are radically 
 different from our general procedure in the United 
 States. We are in the habit of presenting the various 
 mathematical subjects one at a time, completing one 
 before another is considered to any extent whatever. 
 For example, arithmetic is taken up and gone through, 
 while parts of geometry and algebra which would be 
 great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are 
 studiously avoided or excluded until the formal study 
 of that particular subject is finally begun. The people 
 of Norway, on the contrary, enter the larger field of 
 mathematics and, in a more rational manner — a more 
 psychological way — utilize available processes and forms 
 at every opportunity. The phases of mathematics 
 are not specialized into isolation but coordinated into 
 a working unity. Instead of studying one subject 
 throughout its intricacies and side issues before admit- 
 ting consideration of other phases of mathematics, 
 they make it the rule to utilize the elemental factors of 
 the various mathematical subjects in every way pos- 
 sible. They give recognition to the simpler and more 
 fundamental principles and operations regardless of 
 the special phase of the subject to which they belong. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 129 
 
 and use the entire product as groundwork for succeeding 
 steps in the science. In this way parts of algebra and 
 geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries 
 to higher arithmetical operations. 
 
 The texts used by the pupils are little more than 
 a series of exercises. All teaching is done by the teacher 
 and the texts are arranged in such a way that the chil- 
 dren may have opportunity to become skilled in the 
 principles evolved in class through application of them 
 in the long lists of problems in their texts. Very little 
 blackboard is provided for the pupils' use, hence but 
 little blackboard work is accomplished. Each room 
 has a small board on which the teacher or a pupil may 
 go through solutions. Never have I seen more than 
 one at a time working at the blackboard. While the 
 limited use of blackboards generally calls for an in- 
 creased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity 
 and consequent increase in mental alertness, the free 
 use of blackboards relieves the mind of unnecessary 
 burdens which may as well be borne by crayon, and 
 thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in 
 pushing on the quest for the unknown. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Aim. To obtain (1) A somewhat complete ac- 
 quaintance with the fatherland; its conditions, com- 
 merce, maimer of life. (2) Acquaintance with the 
 geography of Europe, especially the countries to the 
 north and the other longer civilized countries. (3) A 
 view of the different continents and a closer acquaint- 
 
130 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 ance with lands and places which are of greatest im- 
 portance to the fatherland. (4) Knowledge of the 
 most important features of physical and mathematical 
 geography. 
 
 First Division 
 
 Class II. (Boys three hours, girls two hours, weekly.) 
 With continuous reference to local geography and 
 places known to the children, the pupils are brought to 
 understand geographical forms and relations in general. 
 Special attention is given to charts and maps. In- 
 struction begins with drawings (on blackboard and tab- 
 lets) of the schoolroom; then extends to schoolgrounds, 
 to the immediate surroimdings with streets and some 
 of the more important buildings; and then to the entire 
 city with its environs, etc., etc. The children should 
 become acquainted with the more important features 
 of topography, soil, valleys, plains, ridges, mountains, 
 seas, fjords, rivers, brooks, seasons, day and night, 
 rising and setting of planets (sun, moon, and stars), 
 flora and fauna, altitude, sea level, etc. From famili- 
 arity with the city and its surroundings the work ex- 
 tends to the entire fatherland which is considered in 
 an elementary fashion. Herein are included elemen- 
 tary studies of coast line, principal systems of valleys, 
 and location and size of cities. 
 
 Map drawing of small localities. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours weekly.) The map of 
 Europe. Beginning with the fatherland, including its 
 location with reference to other lands and seas as well 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 131 
 
 as its relations thereto, enter into a study of other 
 European countries in the order in which they would 
 naturally be entered if touring from the fatherland. 
 Subdivisions of the sea and land, also cities, railways, 
 canals, rivers, and mountains are to be studied. Pic- 
 tures are to be used in illustration. By the use of globes 
 and other illustrative material, the discussion may be 
 extended to other parts of the world. Each of the sev- 
 eral divisions of the earth is to be treated in an elemen- 
 tary manner. Everything is to be outlined or indicated 
 on the maps and charts — ^first by the teacher and later 
 by the pupils. 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Class IV. (One hour weekly.) On the foundation 
 of what was done in Class III the work shall be extended 
 to the outlying divisions of Europe — Norway, Sweden, 
 Denmark, The British Isles, France, Spain, Portugal, 
 Italy, Russia. The study of maps is emphasized both 
 for review and new work. Every land is considered 
 with reference to the fatherland, other known lands, 
 the equator, and the poles. Attention confined to 
 typical aspects: description of a typical city, a manu- 
 facturing center, etc., special variations in climate, 
 flora and fauna, chief natural scenery, commercial 
 activities, products and conditions of the citizens. 
 Readings on geographical topics are correlated with 
 picture illustrations. Details and illustrations utilized 
 as in Class III. 
 
 Class V. (One hour weekly.) Holland, Belgium, 
 Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, and the 
 
132 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Balkan peninsula are considered after the plan used 
 in Class IV. After these European countries, foreign 
 countries are discussed. Study and instruction in this 
 class is in accord with the outlmes of work in previous 
 classes though more exhaustive and minute. India, 
 China, the large islands in the Pacific Ocean, North 
 Africa with its Sahara, Central Africa, The United 
 States of America, Australia, etc., are also considered. 
 
 Third Division 
 
 Class VI. (One hour weekly.) The geography of 
 the fatherland is gone through thoroughly with the aim 
 of imparting to the children a rather complete knowl- 
 edge of their country's nature, commerce, and life in 
 its various localities. The chief points considered are: 
 coast line, surface, water channels, climate^east and 
 west — boundaries, inhabitants, life of the people, poli- 
 tical divisions. This is to be constantly correlated 
 with what has been learned previously of other European 
 countries. Map drawing in detail. Review of former 
 work. 
 
 Class VII. (One hour weekly.) The more import- 
 ant features of mathematical and physical geography 
 are presented, being continuously illustrated by charts, 
 maps, globes, astronomical plates, etc. The horizon, 
 earth formations, zones, yearly and daily rotations, 
 geographical breadth and length ; the moon, its phases ; 
 the planets, etc., are important topics for study. 
 Others are positions of continents and oceans with 
 reference to each other, climate and physical features 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 133 
 
 of the earth, the air, winds, changes in temperature, 
 movements of the sea, the more important ocean 
 streams (Gulf and Polar streams), etc. Throughout 
 the study constant connections should be made between 
 what is known in geography, natural history, and 
 nature study. 
 
 The outline indicates both thoroughness and a close 
 correlation with related fields of work. Beginning 
 with the well-known in geography they gradually widen 
 their horizon and establish connections with the more 
 remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a 
 moderately accurate appreciation and knowledge of 
 this branch of study and get a view of its intricate rela- 
 tions with life and human activity. While the work 
 of the course is generally characterized by thorough- 
 ness, their study of localities outside of Europe is simply 
 a skimming over or a skipping glance. 
 
 To be sure time is insufficient to enable them to ex- 
 haust all opportunities; but, it would seem more con- 
 sistent with their general idea of concentrating on 
 matters which directly concern the fatherland and its 
 subjects, did they bring the young into a more intimate 
 acquaintance with America and a fuller appreciation 
 of what America really means to Norway and Nor- 
 wegians. Very few Norsemen are without vital in- 
 terests here. Nearly all, it seems, have immediate 
 relatives or very dear friends who have migrated from 
 the native land and have established homes in the 
 United States. It appears that it would be important 
 for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren 
 and acquaint themselves more fully with the geography 
 
134 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of America. Its life, topography, commerce, and other 
 distinctive features would add to their geography a 
 chapter of unsurpassed values. 
 The work which is done is commendable for many 
 reasons. The many-sided views obtained by varied 
 methods of attack are rich and meaningful. Every 
 pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a 
 question relating to their o^n country. Furthermore, 
 they are informed with reference to the relationships 
 existing between each country studied and the father- 
 land. These have been clearly pointed out. The 
 perspective obtained through the study of physical 
 and mathematical geography affords richer meaning 
 to every day of life as well as to all the phenomena of 
 nature. 
 
 History 
 
 Aim. The chief aim of instruction in history is to 
 inspire the children's historic instincts and love for 
 their country and people. In an effort to obtain this 
 the following information is imparted: (1) A some- 
 what connected knowledge of the history of the father- 
 land together with the fundamental tendencies of the 
 social order. (2) Acquaintance with the most sig- 
 nificant incidents in general history. 
 
 First Division 
 
 Class III. (Two hours weekly.) Selected narra- 
 tives from the history of the fatherland. The collec- 
 tion of stories includes the following: Harald the 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 135 
 
 Fair Haired, Haakon the Good, Haakon Jarl, Olaf 
 Trygveson, Olaf the Holy, Sverre Sigurdson, Haaken 
 the Aged, Margaret and Albert, Christian the Second, 
 Christian the Fourth, Tordenskjold, The Years 1807- 
 1814, The Time of Pirates, Kristian August, Norway 
 in 1814, Kristian Fredrik, Eidsvold, 17th of May, Nor- 
 way's decennial celebration. 
 
 The stories are presented orally and are so detailed 
 that the children get clear pictures of persons and in- 
 cidents. The material of instruction is centered about 
 particular and important persons and incidents in 
 order to give them greater fixity. The pupils rehearse 
 the stories they have been taught. Historic poems 
 and songs of the fatherland which refer especially to 
 people or incidents are studied in connection with the 
 history. The material received through instruction 
 in geography during the former year is utilized as 
 groundwork in building up and enriching the historical 
 ideas of the fatherland. The more important phases 
 of social institutions are presented in a way suited to 
 the capacity of the pupils. As the stories proceed, an 
 attempt is made to awaken a degree of appreciation of 
 their historical sequence. 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Class IV. (Two hours weekly.) Stories and de- 
 scriptions regarding general history centering about 
 the following points or topics: Ancient world king- 
 doms, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Norse, Papacy, 
 great discoveries and inventions. Treatment here is 
 
136 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 similar to that given in Class III, Stories, anecdotes 
 and pictures add life to regular routine. Stories of 
 the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are 
 given in order to effect connection with general events 
 in world history. Here again geography is made the 
 groundwork of history. 
 
 Class V. (One hour weekly.) Work carried on as 
 previously. Narratives of events chiefly during the 
 time from the Reformation to the French Revolution. 
 
 Central features studied: Luther and the time of 
 the Reformation (Luther's childhood and youth, Karl 
 v., extension of the Reformation, and the Thirty 
 Years' War), the period of absolute monarchy, the time 
 preceding the Revolution, science and discovery. Pre- 
 sentation of topics the same as pre^ iously given. Here 
 is included also a considerable amount of culture his- 
 tory, descriptions from which are given in such a way 
 that life among the higher classes, as well as among the 
 oppressed, may be presented and appreciated. 
 
 Third Division 
 
 Class VI. (One hour weekly.) Work continued as 
 heretofore. Stories from the time of the Revolution 
 down to modern times. Among the materials used 
 are the following topics: time of the Revolution, 1789- 
 1800; Napoleon, 1800-1815; July and February Revo- 
 lutions, Napoleon III., Germany's consolidation, dis- 
 coveries, and inventions, delineations of the history of 
 civilization, and the advance of modem times in in- 
 dustries and means for communication. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 137 
 
 Class VII. (Two hours weekly.) The history of 
 the fatherland gone through in great detail and in a 
 definitely connected manner. All work based upon 
 what has been learned in former classes. The follow- 
 ing are among the more important points considered: 
 Norway in ancient times, Norway organized into a 
 Christian kingdom, Norway's time of prosperity, Nor- 
 way under internal wars, Norway under later kings of 
 Swedish family and descent, Norway in union with 
 Sweden and Denmark, Norway united to Denmark 
 until 1661, time of absolute monarchy (1661-1814), Nor- 
 way in 1814, Norway since 1814. In addition, the chief 
 features of social institutions, the condition of the 
 state, rights and obligations of citizens, state adminis- 
 tration, communal affairs, and similar topics are dis- 
 cussed at some length. 
 
 By the assistance of a suitable text the presentation 
 should impart to the pupils a moderately connected 
 knowledge of the historical development of the father- 
 land up to the present time. The children should ob- 
 tain clear insight into the inner historic situations; 
 persons, events, and specific dates standing as con- 
 tributors in the background. Historic sagas and re- 
 lated selections are used in connection. While atten- 
 tion centers in the history of the fatherland, important 
 contemporary events in general history are kept con- 
 stantly before the eyes, frequent reference being made 
 to the studies in Classes IV- VI. 
 
 The stated aims, enumerated means, and outlined 
 methods of presentation afford a fairly good idea of the 
 work done in the study of history throughout the 
 
138 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 primary schools. It has been observed, perhaps by 
 many, that instruction in history has been preceded by 
 one year's study of geography, that the geography of 
 the several countries precedes the history of the peo- 
 ples inhabiting them, and that geographical apprecia- 
 tion is utilized as a foundation for instruction in his- 
 tory. 
 
 The main purposes of instruction in history are: de- 
 velopment of patriotic and loyal citizens, intellectual 
 training, and cultural information. The prized traits 
 of citizenship are read, sung, and drilled into the daily 
 Hfe of every child in the entire country, and these im- 
 pressions are fixed so definitely that they live through 
 generations, even when the subjects are transplanted 
 to foreign soils. 
 
 Story telling in the beginnings of history instruction 
 affords an immediate appeal both to the children's in- 
 terest in personal activities and to their liking for that 
 form of instruction. The characters whose biogra- 
 phies are delineated are the men around whom national 
 activities have centered. The bits of history related 
 are of epoch-making incidents from the earliest times 
 down to the present. Being presented through bio- 
 graphy they have a personal touch and flavor which 
 secure vital and immediate responses from the chil- 
 dren. 
 
 There are still other features worthy of consideration. 
 Incidents of historic interest are not only pointed out 
 and studied but the scenes of these are actually visited. 
 Here again we see the definite way in which history and 
 geography are correlated. Too, since Norway has been 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 139 
 
 favored by the gift of many literary geniuses, most 
 historic characters and events have found place in 
 literary classics. All along the way, songs, poems, and 
 dramas having relation to national history are brought 
 into the instruction in a living, real way. The children 
 are given abundant opportunity to attain proficiency 
 in relating historic events with information gained from 
 the fields of geography, language, and literature. 
 
 Nature Study 
 
 Aim. Instruction in nature study attempts to 
 awaken the children's interest in and regard for nature 
 in all its expressions, and to exercise their thought 
 powers and judgment so as to enable them to find or 
 make connections between cause and effect. In order 
 that their attention be centered upon the suitability to 
 purpose, conformity to law, harmony and beauty, the 
 children should have their thought directed to nature 's 
 creation and maintenance. Finally, the children 
 through this instruction should obtain a conception 
 of how mankind attempts to control nature and to 
 utilize its strength in the promotion of human welfare. 
 
 Materials for instruction. Our bodily structure in 
 the large or whole, as necessary to an understanding of 
 the general conditions in man 's physical life and as fun- 
 damental to instruction in health. The more important 
 native and foreign animals and plants ; their gro^lh and 
 life, together with their importance in nature 's economy. 
 The natural forces which have greatest significance for 
 organic life and for man's efficiency. 
 
140 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Methods of instruction. Natural objects or repre- 
 sentations of them in model or drawing, and operations 
 of natural forces illustrated by experiments observed 
 and written up. The accuracy of observations are 
 tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what 
 they see. Conditions and things familiar to the chil- 
 dren in common life are the ones to be used above all 
 others. 
 
 Class IV. (One hour weekly.) Short synopsis 
 over our bodily structure (four hours). Present by 
 oral instruction and through illustrative materials the 
 skeleton, muscles, digestive organs, skin, circulation, 
 respiratory organs. The same points may also be 
 studied as they appear in the lower animals. 
 
 Mammals. (Twenty hours.) Horse, ass, cow, sheep, 
 goat, reindeer, deer, elk, camel, cat, wild-cat, lion, 
 tiger, dog, wolf, fox, marten, bear, swine, elephant, 
 seal, whale, hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, beaver, anteater, 
 bat, monkey. 
 
 Fowls. (Ten hours.) Tame chickens, woodcock, 
 sparrow, yellow hammer, bullfinch, lark, swallow, star- 
 ling, dove, cuckoo, parrot, hawk, falcon, eagle, owl, 
 heron, stork, duck, goose, swan, gull, ostrich, and others. 
 
 Instruction begins with typical animal forms which 
 are illustrated by charts or drawings when the stuffed 
 or mounted specimens are not at hand. The children 
 are required to depend upon themselves as much as 
 possible in finding out individual characteristics in the 
 bodily structures of the chosen forms. Then bodily 
 structure and habits are related, as are also their homes, 
 food, color, and environment. Finally, the animal's 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 141 
 
 meaning in the economy of nature and its value to 
 man are the points studied. Along with the careful 
 study of a typical form, related animals are examined 
 in a more general and cursory manner. The children 
 are taught to remember that while they have dominion 
 over the animals they are at the same time under obliga- 
 tions to them. Disregard of these duties is looked upon 
 as rudeness. Animal stories form a part of the in- 
 struction. After studying the chosen types a review 
 takes notice of common characters and separates ani- 
 mals into classes. Instruction is based on a text. 
 
 Class V. (Two hours weekly.) Plants. (Forty 
 hours.) Dicotyledonous plants. Bluebells, buttercups, 
 strawberry, apple trees, pea, clover, beans, cherry, 
 plum, dandelion, blueberry, heather, potato, tobacco, 
 willow, birch, hazel, and others, studied under their reg- 
 ular headings or in their special families. 
 
 Monocotyledonous plants. Rye, barley, wheat, oats, 
 timothy, lily of the valley, pine, fir, juniper, in connec- 
 tion with respective families. 
 
 Flowerless plants. Ferns, moss, mushrooms. 
 
 Foreign useful plants. Coffee, tea, cotton, sugar 
 cane, rice, maize, orange, palms, spices. All plants are 
 studied carefully under their respective subdivisions. 
 As in the consideration of animals, the growth, vital 
 organs, habitat, and use of plants are studied, as are 
 also their grouping, fruit, etc. About fifty plants are 
 studied carefully and others are related to them. The 
 children are taught not to injure plants or trees. 
 
 Animals. (Twenty hours.) Adder, lizard, croco- 
 dile, turtle, frog, toad, mackerel, pike, salmon, trout, 
 
142 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 herring, haddock, flounder, eel, shark, cabbage butter- 
 fly, silk worm, moth, bee, bumble-bee, wasp, ant, fly, 
 gnat, grasshopper, spider, lobster, crab, angleworm, 
 leech, trichina, snail, mussel, star-fish, sea urchin, 
 coral, sponge, etc. Instruction along same line as 
 in Class IV. 
 
 Physics, (Sixteen hours.) Based on a text. In- 
 struction to be accompanied by experiments whenever 
 possible — otherwise illustrated by drawings and models. 
 
 Solids. Resistance to change in form: hardness, 
 elasticity. Resistance to change of extensity: com- 
 pressibility, porosity, adhesion, cohesion. 
 
 Liquids. No fixed form, apparent unchangeability 
 of extensity, adhesion to solids, solution of solids, mix- 
 ing of liquids, endosmose. 
 
 Gases. No definite form, attraction, diffusion, ab- 
 sorption. 
 
 Gravitation. Weight, units of weight, weighing, re- 
 lation between weight and size, force of weight as a 
 cause of movement, hindrances to movement, forces in 
 equilibrium. 
 
 The lever. Balance, hand presses, on the principle 
 of the lever. 
 
 Class VI. (Two hours weekly.) Liquids. (Eight 
 hours.) Distribution of pressure, Archimedes' law, 
 specific gravity, communicating shaft. 
 
 Properties of air. (Eight hours.) Archimedes* law, 
 the atmosphere and its pressure, barometer, pumps and 
 lifters, Mariotte's law. 
 
 Heat. (Twelve hours.) Different temperatures, ef- 
 fects of heat, expansion of bodies, the thermometer, 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 143 
 
 maximum density of water, melting and freezing, evap- 
 oration and condensation, boiling, degree of pressure 
 at the boiling point. 
 
 Transmisson of heat by radiation and by conduction, 
 good and poor conductors, temperature and humidity 
 of the air, downward pressure, circulation of water, 
 atmospheric currents, sources of heat, heat as force, 
 steam pressure. 
 
 Sound. (Eight hours.) Origin of sound, its trans- 
 mission, rate of transmission, the ear, tones, reflection 
 of sound. 
 
 Light. (Ten hours.) Self-illuminating and dark 
 bodies, transparent and opaque, straight path of light, 
 shade, rate of transmission, reflection, refraction, dif- 
 fusion of color, convex and concave lenses, microscope, 
 telescope, camera, the eye, spectacles. 
 
 Magnetism. (Five hours.) The magnet and its 
 poles, their reciprocal relations, magnetizing, difference 
 magnetically in iron and steel, horseshoe magnet, com- 
 pass. 
 
 Electricity. (Fifteen hours.) Electricity of friction, 
 two kinds of electrical condition, conductors and in- 
 sulators, communcicating and distributing, electrical 
 machines, lightning and thunder, lightning rods, 
 electrical current, battery, electric light, electro- 
 magnetism, telegraph, telephone, electricity which 
 generates power. 
 
 Equilibrium and Motion. (Ten hours.) Motion 
 with uniform, increasing, or decreasing rapidity; com- 
 bination of motion and force (the parallelogram of 
 power, center of gravity, the three conditions of b?ilance, 
 
144 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 the beam, the inchned plane); work and vital force; 
 experiment with the pendulum. 
 
 Class VII. (Two hours weekly.) Physics. (Six- 
 teen hours.) Machines, block, tackle, windlass, the 
 curved pivot, various driving forces (water wheel, 
 steam engines, dynamos), apphcation of machinery 
 in the industries, railways and steamboats. 
 
 Chemistry. (Sixteen hours.) Ingredients of water 
 and air, coal, carbonic acid, burning and oxidation. 
 Fundamental elements as material in all bodies. Exam- 
 ples of elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, 
 chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, aluminum, iron, silver, 
 and gold. Examples for combinations: water, am- 
 monia, sulphuric acid, rust, soda, cooking salt, lime, 
 chalk, clay, quartz, ores. Examples of organic matter: 
 starch, sugar, albumen, alchohol, fats. Instruction 
 in chemistry consists in illustrations and descriptions 
 of materials and experiments. 
 
 Structure and life of the human body. Study of 
 health. (Thirty hours.) Based on text. Study of 
 skeleton, muscles, nervous system, work and rest, 
 sense organs and their use, digestive organs and pro- 
 cesses, use of teeth, blood and circulation, breathing 
 pure and impure air, kidneys, meaning of bodily ex- 
 ercise, structure and use of the skin, bathing, clothing, 
 dwellings, foods and pleasures (under this intoxicating 
 drinks, tobacco, etc.) Something regarding conta- 
 gious diseases and help in times of accidents. Inject 
 instruction on health when convenient in connection 
 with the study of the organs of the body. Illustrate 
 by experiment when possible. General review, especi- 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 145 
 
 ally the points concerning the nourishment and res- 
 piration of plants and animals. 
 
 The outline in nature study impresses one with the 
 inclusiveness of the course. The elementary phases of 
 animal life, plant life, physics, chemistry, and human 
 physiology and health are made the objects of careful 
 consideration. True this study in some cases is stiff, 
 formal, meaningless, and without spirit because of not 
 being connected with the vital interests of the pupils, 
 but on the whole the work is brought very close home 
 to their daily life. Through it the children are able to 
 see the contributions to life and human welfare made 
 by the innumerable things in man's environment. 
 
 Throughout the primary grades the work is mostly 
 devoted to descriptive studies. Considerable atten- 
 tion is given also to the intrinsic value to man of ani- 
 mals, plants, and natural forces, and the means he has 
 found for utilizing them in his struggle forward. The 
 nature lessons throughout the grades are enriched and 
 enhvened by the use of well selected and carefully pre- 
 pared appliances and models for demonstration. 
 Whenever possil)le the living animals and plants in 
 their natural habitat, forces as applied in the ma- 
 chinery of neighboring institutions, and minerals in 
 their successive processes of development and refine- 
 ment are studied at first hand. Every school where the 
 financial stringency is not too keen is provided with a 
 liberal amount of apparatus for demonstrational pur- 
 poses (anskuelsesmidler) . As an instance, every prim- 
 ary school in the city of Christiania has at least one room 
 of considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing 
 
146 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of this material. Maps, charts, mounted specimens, 
 plates, preserved articles, and accessoiy materials are 
 there in abundance, and provide minute representa- 
 tions for most any point one might wish to make typical 
 for illustration or study. The more genuine phases 
 of laboratory work are not provided, though a consider- 
 able amount of crude experimentation is done in the 
 grades. 
 
 The teacher presenting this course must be capable 
 for he is the authority and guide back of all work done. 
 Text books (good ones though condensed) play a part, 
 but a much smaller part than would be the case in our 
 American schools were similar instruction approached 
 in a formal way. In other words, their teachers fur- 
 nish the course and teach the subject, while too many of 
 ours merely present the course provided in the adopted 
 text book. 
 
 Writing, drawing, vocal music, manual training, and 
 gymnastics are also in the curriculum and each receives 
 careful attention. Perhaps extended outlining of these 
 courses and long discussions concerning them are im- 
 necessary. Their importance and value are recognized. 
 Their presentation in the schools of Norway is com- 
 mendable, but some things must be passed without ex- 
 haustive treatment. Only general statements will be 
 given. 
 
 The results in some lines — writing and drawing in 
 particular — do not justify the amount of time devoted 
 to them. The writing is mechanical throughout, and 
 in the lower grades the requirements are altogether 
 too exacting. Drawing is required of all alike. Those 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 147 
 
 who have abihty in this hne of work perhaps receive 
 too httle instruction; others, without talent or hking 
 for it, regard it as a drudgery and, in the minds of some 
 of their teachers, hinder the progress of the gifted. The 
 finer coordinations required in both writing and draw- 
 ing are frequently in advance of the development of the 
 pupils and work injury rather than benefit. 
 
 Vocal music is required of all and injures none. 
 Probably each one reaps considerable benefit from the 
 instruction. The class of music used in their teaching 
 is very different from what is in vogue in our American 
 schools. The church has exercised a great deal of in- 
 fluence in this respect. Since church and state are 
 united the music of the church forms a predominating 
 portion of the music of the state schools. Psalms, 
 chants, and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk 
 of their selections, while those of lighter strain are in- 
 terspersed at intervals not too close together. In 
 America our children's songs are more attractive from 
 the "jingle" point of view. Our children like them 
 better and are more anxious to sing them. The little 
 Norwegians, too, are delighted when permitted to swing 
 into the lighter strains of music. They love to sing. 
 Their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell out 
 whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies 
 of their psalms. Common use of the better quahty 
 of music cultivates their ability to appreciate and to 
 render works of higher order than one usually finds in 
 the schools of our own country. 
 
 Manual and industrial training has had an important 
 place in their schools for many years. Every hour 
 
148 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 spent at the bench is a dehght to the boys, while the 
 girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or cook- 
 ing. These activities are certainly valuable in the 
 training of the young, and their influences extend into 
 the, homes of all the pupils. 
 
 Gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils, A 
 Swedish system of exercises is used which requires little 
 apparatus but yields large returns. Abundant well- 
 directed exercises of various kinds are provided for 
 every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with 
 zest. The regularity with which the gymnastic exer- 
 cises are given doubtless has much to do in preserving 
 the health of the children. As a class they are not 
 only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust. 
 Another part of their gymnastic work is the outdoor 
 exercise which is required of all the pupils between the 
 class periods. This doubtless adds much life and ani- 
 mation to the entire school program. 
 
 The course as a whole includes the fundamentals and 
 chief essentials to educational activity. Those who 
 pass through the primary schools obtain an intelligent 
 appreciation of life and its meanings. They are able 
 to meet common needs successfully and to attend to gen- 
 eral affairs in an approved manner. The masses feel 
 the necessity of the fuller life thus provided and in 
 turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of de- 
 veloping loyal and capable citizens. Furthermore, 
 those who are so favorably situated that they may con- 
 tinue in school longer than seven years and desire fit- 
 ness for entrance upon the work of higher education 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 149 
 
 find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify 
 their desires. 
 
 The connection between the lower and higher schools 
 was not at all satisfactory until 1896, when the Storthing 
 readjusted the system. Since then pupils may pass 
 regularly from the fifth grade of the primary school into 
 the four year middle school, or after the completion 
 of the seven grades of the primary school they may enter 
 either a three or a four year middle school and finish 
 in three years. Since the number desiring entrance to 
 the middle school from the fifth grade is larger than can 
 be accommodated, those of highest ranking education- 
 ally are admitted. While the secondary school men 
 claim perfect right to choose the fittest for entrance into 
 their schools, the primary school men feel that their 
 work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice 
 as a result of this selective process. The connection 
 between the schools is not yet perfect and some unrest 
 is evidenced in reference to the matter. The chief 
 need seems to be an increase in the number of middle 
 schools. 
 
 in. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL 
 
 The. Storthing, in 1896, passed a law defining the 
 limits and work of the middle school. According to 
 the enactment this school builds upon the foundation 
 laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils 
 a thorough general education suited to the needs and 
 receptivity of childhood. The course of study offered 
 may be of varied length, but in no case shall it exceed 
 
150 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 four years in duration. The four year course aims at a 
 very natural connection with the work done during the 
 first five years in the common school. Where the con- 
 nection can be made with the work of later grades in 
 the primary school, the course of the middle school may 
 be correspondingly shorter. The aim and methods are 
 in general similar to those in the lower school; though, 
 of course, higher, more thorough and inclusive, and 
 such as give deeper insight into all subjects of instruc- 
 tion. It is required that instruction be given in reli- 
 gion, Norwegian, German, English, history, geography, 
 natural science, mathematics, writing, drawing, man- 
 ual training, and vocal music. Instruction in domestic 
 economy may be provided for the girls. 
 
 Formerly all of these schools charged tuition; but, as 
 the conditions in the commune gradually improved, 
 provisions were made in some of them for the issuance 
 of a certain number of free scholarships. These were 
 usually governed in such a way that those most in 
 need were the first to receive the benefits. From time 
 to time scholarship funds were increased until now some 
 communes provide free scholarships to all resident chil- 
 dren. The city of Christiania has a three-year middle 
 school building upon the foundation of seven years of 
 primary work and charging no tuition whatsoever. 
 This provision together with the building up of scholar- 
 ship funds are forerunners of free entrance, probably, 
 to all of the state's middle schools. As already stated, 
 the work of the middle school overlaps in part that of the 
 primary school. The course of study for Classes I and 
 II is in a large measure a duplication of that provided 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 151 
 
 for Classes VI and VII in the lower school. However, 
 to present the work of the middle school adequately, 
 it is essential that the course for the entire four years be 
 here included. The state adopts a curriculum which is 
 used in all of its secondary schools. Minor details 
 such as texts vary in the different schools. The fol- 
 lowing is an outline of the curriculum used in the 
 Christiania Cathedral School. 
 
 Religion 
 
 Class I. (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History to the 
 fall of the Kingdom of Judah. J. Sverdrup's Com- 
 mentary to Article 2. Verses of hymns once each 
 week. 
 
 Class II. (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History from 
 "The Exile" to "The Story of the Passion." Com- 
 mentary from Article 2 to "The Sacraments." Verses 
 from hymns. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours.) Bible History and Com- 
 mentary completed and reviewed. Verses from hymns. 
 Bible reading. 
 
 Class IV. (One hour.) Y. Brun and Th. Caspari's 
 Church History gone through and reviewed. Cursory 
 study of the ecclesiastical year and the order of divine 
 service. 
 
 Here we note the beginnings of a more formal con- 
 sideration of religion. A large part of the work is 
 historical. Texts and lectures covering practically 
 identical grounds form the basis of the work in this 
 branch of study. The change to the more formal 
 
152 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 study of religion strikes the writer as a distinctive turn 
 or transfer from moderately successful to useless en- 
 deavor. The personal touch and human flavor at- 
 tending the informal telling of Bible stories afford some 
 genuine inspiration. Life touches life. When char- 
 acter is exemplified in a living person or is sho^Ti 
 through story once to have had expression in a fellow 
 mortal, interest is awakened and the child instinctively 
 imitates the vision before him. He transforms it into 
 life. He enters into the spirit of the theme and the 
 spirit giveth life. 
 
 On the other hand, when religion is presented in a 
 formal way, when an abstract view is taken, when the 
 core of the subject is in the cold pages of texts, — ^then 
 the letter killeth. Through force of habit the children 
 retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and 
 do go through the motions of study and recitation, but 
 the life of the subject is very soon extinguished and 
 even respect for it vanishes in large measure. How- 
 ever, in rare instances good results are obtained through 
 the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified 
 for this work. 
 
 The Mother- Tongue and Old Norse 
 
 Class I. (Five hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader 
 II. 2. Some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned 
 by heart. Oral and written analysis. Hofgaard's 
 Norwegian School Grammar, Paragraphs 1-31, 34-38, 
 41, 45, 48-59, 61, 65, 76-79. The more important part 
 of Hougen's Rules for Correct Writing. Written work 
 (dictation and composition) each week. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 153 
 
 Class II. (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader 
 11. 3. Poems — among them some of the Songs of the 
 Fatherland learned by heart. Hofgaard's Grammar 
 continued, also analyses. One written exercise each 
 week (dictation and easy composition.) 
 
 Class III. (Alternately three and four hours.) 
 Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. Poems learned by 
 heart — ^partly from Lassen 's Poems for Middle Schools, 
 partly from Songs of the Fatherland. Certain parts 
 of the grammar reviewed. Analyses now and then. 
 About twenty written exercises, among them some 
 dictations. 
 
 Class IV. (alternating three and four hours.) 
 Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. That portion from 
 which the examination is taken, gone through and 
 partly reviewed. Several poems committed to mem- 
 ory. Fourteen written exercises. Among the topics 
 used the following are typical: The summer vacation, 
 the location of our city, Denmark, past and present 
 lighting systems, animal life in our forests, reminis- 
 cences from my earlier school days, birds and why we 
 protect them, the Norsemen as seamen, Christiania 
 in winter garb, Europe's natural conditions in prefer- 
 ence to those of other continents. 
 
 In harmony with the indications of the plan of in- 
 struction, the early part of the work in the study of 
 the mother-tongue is devoted to reading from selected 
 texts. Simultaneously, grammar and rhetoric are 
 carried along and put into use in written compositions 
 which are frequent. Here, as in the primary schools, 
 exact spelling, correct grammatical and rhetorical 
 
154 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 forms, and approved literary style are constant require- 
 ments. The child is expected not only to read intel- 
 ligently, but to express himself orally and in writing 
 in a comprehensive manner and in such form as to ap- 
 peal to the intelligence of others. Thus both in oral 
 speech and through written composition the pupil 
 is privileged to put his attainments into continuous 
 use. They acquire the tools of thought and skill in 
 handling them. 
 
 German 
 
 Class I. (Six hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen *s 
 Reader from the beginning to the "Subjunctive." 
 Written exercises. 
 
 Class II. (Five hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen 's 
 Reader from "Subjunctive" to close of book. Voss' 
 Reader in section A, seventy-six pages, in section B, 
 fifty pages; one-half of these shall be learned by heart. 
 Hofgaard's Short German Grammar the most import- 
 ant forms. Written exercises. Rehearsals. Retro- 
 versions. 
 
 Class III. (Five hours.) Voss ' Reader, in section A, 
 seventy-five pages, in section B, fiftj^-eight. Hof- 
 gaard's Short German Grammar, inflections. In sec- 
 tion B besides the above, paragraphs 140-148, 156,169, 
 179-181. In addition section B shall have thirty-six 
 pages of O. Kristiansen 's oral exercises and thirty- two 
 compositions according to O. Kristiansen 's exercises 
 in written work. In section A, written exercises, 
 partly according to Kristiansen 's outlines for written 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 155 
 
 work and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading 
 book. 
 
 Class IV. (Five hours.) Voss' Reader in section 
 A, twenty pages, in section B, seventy-five. Repeti- 
 tion of the portion designated for minutest study. The 
 grammar reviewed. One or two written exercises each 
 week according to Kristiansen 's outlines. 
 
 The instruction in German proceeds in a very natural 
 manner. The earlier lessons are devoted very largely to 
 oral instruction in which the teacher takes the lead. 
 Words, phrases, and sentences are given by the teacher 
 for translation and concert repetition. Repitition and 
 concert work are prominent in many places in the schools, 
 but nowhere stressed to the same extent as in their 
 language instruction. Concert work seems to stimu- 
 late to freedom in pronunciation, while repetition af- 
 fords the drill which is necessary to the required ac- 
 curacy. Having had at least five years of thorough 
 instruction in the mother-tongue the children are able 
 to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance 
 of verb forms and other features of inflection so that 
 they are ready to do consistent work in this phase of 
 their study. In addition to the translations referred 
 to, conversational exercises are soon introduced, and 
 at the end of the second year some facility in easy con- 
 versation is evidenced. Toward the close of the middle 
 school the children are able to read the language wdth 
 ease and to converse in it quite fluently. 
 
156 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 English 
 
 Class II. (Five hours.) Brekke's Elementary 
 Reader to page seventy- four, studied and reviewed, 
 besides the grammar in the back of the book. Conversa- 
 tional exercises and written work on the blackboard. 
 During the last half year an occasional written exercise 
 in a book. 
 
 Class III. (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the 
 Middle School, sixty-five pages read and reviewed. 
 Knap's Grammar. One narrative per week. 
 
 Class IV. (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the 
 Middle School. Required portion read and reviewed, 
 while the remainder of the book is gone through and 
 in part read ex tempore. One narrative each week. 
 
 The study of English proceeds along lines parallel 
 to those followed in the German. The learning of the 
 language is accomplished chiefly through its use. Ex- 
 planations are made by using the more familiar words 
 of the tongue studied, by circumlocutions, and by other 
 similar practices. Grammar is resorted to as a means 
 rather than an end. It is used only in facilitating the 
 acquisition of the language, not as an end in itself. 
 However, at the close of the course each pupil has be- 
 come quite proficient in the grammar as well as in read- 
 ing the language and in conversing in it. 
 
 History 
 
 Class I. (Three hours.) Nissen's History of the 
 World by Schjoth, from the beginning until "Scan- 
 dinavia in the Middle Ages." 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 157 
 
 Class II. (Two hours.) Text as in Class I. From 
 *' Scandinavia in the Middle Ages " to " Modern Times. " 
 
 Class III. (Three hours.) Same Text. From 
 " Charles V " to " The February Revolution. ' ' Review . 
 
 Class IV. (Three hours.) Same Text. Reviewed 
 in its entirety. 
 
 The course in history is very rich and its study is 
 entered into with animation. The teacher is usually 
 a master in the subject and he makes the work of great 
 profit. A considerable amount of the class period is 
 devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the 
 work to be done at the next meeting of the class, pre- 
 paration for which shall be made in the meantime. 
 Problems are presented and purposes are indicated so 
 that the preparatory study may be done with some de- 
 finite end in view. 
 
 All facts of history are placed in appropriate settings 
 and perspective, correlated into a unity, and given vital 
 meaning. Maps, charts, and pictorial illustrations 
 are provided in abundance and used constantly. 
 Frequently historic scenes near at hand or laiown to 
 the pupils are pointed out, minutely described, and 
 visited. 
 
 Teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the 
 aim of begetting loyalty for the fatherland in the 
 hearts and minds of the young. I have heard instruc- 
 tors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of 
 Norway's history, and have noted the flushed cheeks 
 and snapping eyes of the children that bespoke the 
 national pride of the young hearts as familiar words, 
 slogans, and songs of their heroes were quoted. 
 
158 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 When given an opportunity — a common occurrence — 
 the pupils enter into the rehearsal of historic events with 
 enthusiasm. Every mind in the room is active. They 
 are awake to the situations and are familiar with the 
 scenes and literature connected with the several stages 
 of development. Replies given in response to questions 
 from the teacher are nearly always in the form of narra- 
 tives, sometimes occupying ten or fifteen minutes. 
 
 General history or history of any foreign country is 
 entered into in a spirit similar to that characterizing 
 the consideration of their own. On one occasion I 
 listened to a review on American history. Among the 
 characters taken up were Grant, Lee, Harriet Beecher 
 Stowe, and Lincoln. The pupils discussed Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin with familiarity, Lee was considered as "The 
 Napoleon of America, "but Lincoln was the one to whom 
 most of the class period was devoted. At the close of 
 the hour the teacher announced a lecture on "Abraham 
 Lincoln" for the following Sunday evening in the 
 Working- Men 's College (Arbeiderakademi)* of which 
 he was the director. This incident illustrates the way 
 in which they correlate the work of different educa- 
 tional organizations, and shows their interest in the 
 important events connected with the history of other 
 nations. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Class I. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Nor- 
 way and Sweden. Review. 
 
 * An organization providing a series of weekly lectures by 
 men of prominence from various places, for the populace and espe- 
 cially adapted to the working classes. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 159 
 
 Class II. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. From 
 *'The Central European Mountams and Rivers" to 
 "Asia." Studied and reviewed. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. The 
 foreign continents. Studied and reviewed. 
 
 Class IV. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Re- 
 peated or reviewed in its entirety. 
 
 Two books are used in the study of this subject. 
 One is made up entirely of well designed, carefully 
 drawn, and thoroughly reUable maps, printed on a good 
 quality of paper. The other is a text giving a good 
 logical statement of what the course is calculated to 
 include. The teacher must provide the major portion 
 of the information by his own initiative and through 
 cooperation of pupils. Illustrative material {Anskuel- 
 sesmidler) is provided in great abundance and in diver- 
 sified variety. 
 
 An effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfac- 
 tory appreciation of the conditions prevailing in the 
 countries connsidered. Their colonization, commerce, 
 products, topography, political subdivisions, cities, 
 population, river and momitain systems, climate, etc., 
 are all carefully studied. The course begins with the 
 geography of Norway. Next foreign lands and con- 
 ditions are taken up and compared to situations at 
 home. When the various countries on the globe have 
 been kept for a time before the eyes, a thorough re- 
 view is given which occupies the greater portion of the 
 last year in the middle school course. 
 
160 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Class L (Five hours.) Numbers resolved into fac- 
 tors. Fractions. Some Proportion. 
 
 Class II. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
 Eliassen's text. From beginning to division. Geom- 
 etry: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From begin- 
 ning to right lines divided into equal parts. Arith- 
 metic: Proportion and percentage. 
 
 Class III. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
 Eliassen's text. From division to equations with two 
 unknowns. Geometry: Bonnevie 's text. From par- 
 allelograms to Book IV. Drill in percentage and in- 
 terest. 
 
 Class IV. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
 Eliassen's text. From equations with two unknowns 
 to close of book. Geometry : Bonnevie 's text. From 
 Book IV to close of text. Review of entire text. 
 Drill in computing solids and other miscellaneous 
 problems. A few hours devoted to bookkeeping. 
 
 One of the most favorable features of their instruc- 
 tion in mathematics is the intimate connection they 
 make between the several phases of the subject. Arith- 
 metic, algebra, and geometry are never wholly separated 
 from each other. They are in reality interwoven and 
 so definitely correlated that each contributes to the 
 others. By constant use the several processes become 
 familiar tools in the mental activities of the pupils. 
 Mastery of the principles of the science and ability in 
 their use are the ends to be attained. The outline of 
 the course indicates the extent of the field receivmg at- 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 161 
 
 tent ion. It is sufficient to say that the topics are all 
 made to appear plain, definite, and vital; and that they 
 are assimilated, and do become parts of the growing 
 life. 
 
 Nature Study {Natural Science) 
 
 Class I. (Three hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. 
 Written descriptions of about twenty-five plant forms. 
 Zoology: Vertebrates according to Sorensen's text. 
 
 Class II. (Two hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. 
 From "The Sunflower Family" to "Plant Structure." 
 Plant analysis. Zoology: Sorensen 's text. "Inverte- 
 brates." Review from treatise on insects to close of 
 book. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours.) Zoology and botany re- 
 viewed. Plant analysis. Henrichesn's Physics. From 
 beginning to "Properties of Air." 
 
 Class IV. (Three hours.) Henrichsen's Physics 
 studied through and reviewed with related laboratory 
 work. Knudsen and Falch's The Human Body I 
 studied and reviewed. 
 
 The plan of work, as noted, includes botany, zoology, 
 physics, and human physiology. Each subject is taken 
 up and pursued in a consistent manner. In botany 
 plant analysis and structure form the important part 
 of the work. A herbarium is made by each pupil. 
 The study is brought very definitely into the daily lives 
 of the children with the intent of opening their eyes to 
 the conditions in nature about them and of developing 
 in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited pro- 
 
162 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 vision made for man's welfare. Zoology and phy- 
 siology are treated in a similar way. They are cal- 
 culated to enrich the life of the individual by bringing 
 him into more sympathetic relations with all living 
 forms. In physics the child does some experimental 
 work and thereby gets first hand experience to accom- 
 pany, clarify, and assist in evaluating the elaborated 
 instruction of the teacher regarding forces, phenomena, 
 and laws. 
 
 It was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly de- 
 voted to experimental work that the language used in 
 conversation was carefully scrutinized and that errors 
 were corrected. Throughout the curriculum a very de- 
 finite effort is made to utilize every phase of informa- 
 tion possessed by the pupils. 
 
 IV. GYMNASIUM 
 
 Religion 
 
 Class I. (One hour.) Selected hymns, and chapters 
 from the prophet Isaiah. 
 
 Class II. (One hour.) Short survey of church his- 
 tory. Brandrud 's text used by some of the pupils. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours.) Short presentation of the 
 Christian faith and ethics, without text. Survey of 
 designated portions of John's Gospel, the Epistle to 
 the Romans, and Revelations. 
 
 The instruction in religion is commonly given by the 
 city pastors. While all of these men are highly edu- 
 cated, many of them lack the ability to awaken the 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 163 
 
 minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject. 
 No examination in rehgion is required in the gymnasium. 
 As a result of the formality in this teaching and the 
 lack of incentives generally, the members of the classes 
 are listless and inattentive. I insert a note that I 
 made in reference to one class in which I was a visitor. 
 "Most of the class was listless all of the time and all 
 of them most of the time." I have on a few occasions 
 heard short and irrelevant remarks made by pupils 
 in response to direct questions by the instructor, and 
 among the pupils it is accoimted no reflection whatever 
 if any of their number states that he knows nothing re- 
 garding the situation under discussion. The work ap- 
 pears altogether void of interest and without profit. 
 
 It seems almost pathetic that a subject of such im- 
 portance should have its richness of content dissipated 
 and wasted through lack of incentives or by reason of 
 unsuccessful methods of presentation. My observa- 
 tion of the work from the beginning of the primary 
 school through all the classes up to the completion of 
 the gymnasium convinces me that the personal and con- 
 crete presentations in the lower grades are very success- 
 ful but that the formal, authoritative work in the sec- 
 ondary schools is little more than failure. 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 Class I. A and B (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's 
 Reader IV. 1. Njael's saga. Holberg*s The Busy- 
 bodies and Peter Paars. Part of Ohlenschlager 's Alad- 
 din. Baggesen's Noureddin to Aladdin. Hertz's 
 
164 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 0¥ NORWAY 
 
 Svend Dyring's House. Also in A, Ibsen's Vikings at 
 Helgeland; in B, Ibsen's The Feast at Solliaug; Bjorn- 
 son's Synnove Solbakken. 
 
 Landsmaal. Garborg and Mortensen's, Reader for 
 Higher Schools. About forty pages from Aasen, Jan- 
 son, Si vie, etc. 
 
 Fourteen compositions in each class. Assigned exer- 
 cises: Impressions from the summer vacations; what 
 do we learn from Njaal's saga regarding life and cus- 
 toms in Iceland about the year one thousand; a char- 
 acteristic of the "Busybodies" by Holberg; Christiania 
 as a city of manufacture and industry; a comparison 
 between the east and west of Norway with references 
 to nature and commerce; a painting I like; Norway as 
 a tourist land ; do not put off until tomorrow what you 
 can do today; why could not the Persians conquer 
 the Greeks ; the dark sides of city life ; what circumstan- 
 ces have combined in giving the Norsemen high rank- 
 ing as seamen? 
 
 Class II. R. G, (Five hours.) History of Litera- 
 ture through the literature of the North, folk songs, a 
 collection of Danish and Norwegian ballads, selections 
 from Asbjornsen, Moe, and Holberg. Romance poetry, 
 some read minutely and the rest cursorily. Considera- 
 tion of Aasen and the Landsmaal movement. Sixty 
 pages of Garborg and Mortenson 's Landsmaal. About 
 twenty pages of Old Norse from Nygaard's beginner's 
 book. 
 
 Written exercises, frequently on topics of interest. 
 Besides all this each pupil must give a discussion on a 
 self-selected theme before the class. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 165 
 
 Class II. L-H. (Six and five hours.) Holberg's 
 Erasmus Montanus. Wessel's Kjaerlighed uden 
 Stromper (Love without Stockings.) History of Htera- 
 ture to about one thousand, eight hundred. Shakes- 
 peare's JuHus Caesar. In the Landsmaal selections 
 from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader (excepting folk 
 songs.) Old Norse: Nygaard's beginner's book. 
 Some pages from Thor to Utgard. Twelve written 
 exercises on important literary, historical, and industrial 
 subjects. 
 
 Class III. R. G. (Four hours.) History of litera- 
 ture from Holberg down to the present. Read scrutiniz- 
 ingly selected writings of Holberg, Ohlenschlager, Werge- 
 land, Welhaven, Asbjornsen and Ibsen. In the Land- 
 smaal read from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader and 
 the writings of Vinje. In the Old Norse read the re- 
 mainder of Nygaard's beginner's book. History of 
 language and history of literature. Many written 
 exercises, largely literary and historical topics. 
 
 Class III. L-H. (Five and four hours.) Special 
 study of selections specified as examination material 
 including the writings of Holberg, Wergeland, and Wel- 
 haven. Landsmaal from Garborg and Mortenson's 
 Reader. History of Literature. History of Language. 
 Twelve written compositions on important topics. 
 
 The work in literature throughout the gymnasium 
 deals with the masterpieces of the language in an analy- 
 tic and critical way. The aims are to familiarize the 
 pupils with the best productions in the language, to 
 acquaint them with the lives and historical relations 
 of their authors, and to develop literary appreciation 
 
166 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 and style. Accordingly many writers are included, 
 translations of world classics are utilized, history of 
 literature in its connections with general history receives 
 attention, and ability in composition is encouraged and 
 required. 
 
 Eddas, sagas, and the more important productions 
 from successive periods are studied in minute detail. 
 The Landsmaal is not neglected. When any piece of 
 literature is under discussion, related historical events; 
 references to other literary productions, characters, 
 myths, etc.; the life of the author; and many other im- 
 portant points are considered exhaustively. The in- 
 tricacies of the language are sought out in patience and 
 made familiar. Every known device for completing 
 the literary background is utilized. Since the litera- 
 ture of the country is a part of the life of its citizens, no 
 effort is required to secure intense interest in the work. 
 
 In the linguistic-historical course more time is de- 
 voted to this branch of instruction than is given to it 
 in the real and Latin courses. The quality or class 
 of work is essentially the same though the quantity 
 is necessarily less in the two latter courses. A definite 
 effort is made to place each pupil in possession of the cul- 
 ture represented in the national literature. 
 
 German 
 
 Class I. A and B (Three hours.) Gundersen's 
 German for the Gymnasiums. A, sixty-seven pages, B, 
 seventy-five pages, consisting of the following titles: 
 Die Sanger, Die BurgschaJU Der Ring des Polykrates 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 167 
 
 Der Handschuh, Die Sonne Bringt es an den Tag, Die 
 Goldene Repetieruhr, Wie der Meisenseppe Gestorben ist, 
 Umzingelty Der Stumme Ratsherr, Zur Geschichte des 
 SO-jahrigen Krieges, Landsknecht und Soldat. In B 
 review the more important features of syntax in O. 
 Kristiansen 's Grammatical Exercises. 
 
 Once every week a written review of a lesson read. 
 
 Class II. (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for 
 Gymnasiums, about one hundred pages. Fifteen writ- 
 ten exercises, partly reproductions of new matter and 
 partly write-ups of what has been studied. In real 
 gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addi- 
 tion (Das Schneeschuhlaufen, Die Lage Kristianias, etc.) 
 
 Class III. (Alternating three and four hours.) 
 Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums. Reading fin- 
 ished and the greater part of it reviewed. Every 
 second week a written review covering two consecutive 
 hours. 
 
 German is recognized as the language of a great 
 neighbor nation and is assiduously studied. Much 
 time has been spent in the middle school in acquiring 
 the language and now three years are used in introducing 
 the pupils into the thought-life and culture of the na- 
 tion through the inner contact of its literature. Some 
 of Germany 's more important authors are studied rather 
 exhaustively. An endeavor is also put forth to become 
 familiar with the most remarkable events in the history 
 of that Empire. Through this advanced treatment 
 they perfect their knowledge of the language as such, 
 and further their ability to converse in the foreign 
 tongue. 
 
168 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 French 
 
 Class I. A (Four hours.) After the more important 
 parts of phonology, Hermanstorff and Wallem's 
 Reader in French for the Gymnasium I. pp. 18-108. 
 The most essential parts of the grammar, together with 
 many exercises in translation. While reviewing, special 
 emphasis is placed upon reading exercises. 
 
 Class I. B (Four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wal- 
 lem's Reader I pp. 1-55 read and reviewed, together 
 with the corresponding translations from Norwegian p. 
 109 ff . In addition pages 98-108 are read and reviewed 
 and most of the remaining exercises are gone through 
 cursorily. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and Part 
 V. 6-9 are studied. 
 
 Class II. R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and 
 Wallem's Reader II pp. 1-31 and 104-112. Grammar 
 drill by references to synopses of grammar in the be- 
 ginner's book. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and 
 V. 6-10 studied and reviewed. 
 
 Class II. Lang. (With Latin five hours, without 
 Latin four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem 's Reader. 
 Division without Latin about eighty pages, consisting 
 of Part I., the last section and Part II selections for A, 
 I-VI for B, III, IV, VII, XL Division with Latin, 
 the same amount excepting B, VII and XL Wallem's 
 Vocabulary, review V. 6-9. 
 
 Class III. R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and 
 Wallem's Reader, about eighty pages. 
 
 Class III. Lang. (Three hours.) Hermanstorff and 
 Wallem 's Reader I, the last section and II for A, I-X 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 169 
 
 and for B, I-XIII with the exception of a few selections 
 such as X in A which is read only cursorily. As exer- 
 cise in ex tempore translation use Duruy's History of 
 France. 
 
 About the same amount of French is taken in the 
 Latin as in the real course of study though it is carried 
 but for two years in the former and three in the latter.* 
 More time is provided for it in the linguistic-historical 
 course then in either of the others. Reference to the 
 table on page 171 will indicate exactly the amount of 
 time used and its distribution throughout the years. 
 
 The French language is not as closely related to the 
 Norwegian as are the German and English. Greater 
 variations are noted both in pronunciation and in 
 vocabulary. Almost universally the Norwegians re- 
 gard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages 
 to acquire. 
 
 The study of French is not begun until the pupils 
 enter the gymnasium when they are fourteen or fifteen 
 years old. English and German are begun three and 
 four years before French. The teachers believe that a 
 mistake is made in not beginning the study of French 
 earlier. It is worthy of note that the Norwegian peda- 
 gogues who have tried beginning instruction in the 
 languages at different times in the school course are 
 definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a 
 foreign language early is a distinct advantage. It 
 seems to the writer that American schools might profit 
 by this experience and introduce the study of languages 
 
 in the lower grades. 
 
 * The course with Latin includes 4 hours of French in the first 
 year and 5 hours in the second; the real course oflFers it 4 hours in 
 the first year, and 2 hours in the second and third years. 
 
170 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
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COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 171 
 
 English 
 
 Class I. (Four hours.) Brekke and Western's 
 Selections from English Authors for the First Gymn- 
 asium. The regulation sixty pages (matter from which 
 examination is taken) is read and reviewed. Forty 
 pages ex tempore. One synopsis or reproduction each 
 second week. Knudsen's English Prepositions and 
 Synonyms. 
 
 Class II. R. G. and Latin (Two hours.) Brekke 
 and Western's Selections for Second and Third Classes 
 in the Real Gymnasium. Sixty-seven pages read and 
 reviewed in part. Ex tempore: Called Back of Con- 
 woy. 
 
 Class II. L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and West- 
 em's Selections from English Authors for Second and 
 Third Linguistic-Historical Classes, one hundred and 
 sixty pages. Merchant of Venice, Act I. Most of 
 Brigadier Gerard by Conan Doyle. Western's 
 English Institutions gone through. Otto Anders- 
 sen's History of Literature to "Bacon." Written 
 exercises each week. 
 
 Class III. R. G. (Two hours.) Anderssen and 
 Eitrem's Selection of Enghsh Classics, thirty-three 
 pages. The portion from which selections are taken 
 for the final examination {Artium Examen) reviewed 
 in its entirety. Ex tempore: Called Back of Conwoy. 
 
 Class III. L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and West- 
 ern's Reader. Obhgatory, Selections 3, 4, 16, 17, 11, 
 19. From Otto Anderssen 's English Literature the 
 required amount: Swift, Byron, Thackeray, Merchant 
 
172 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of Venice. O. Anderssen's History of English Litera- 
 ture. Western's English Listitutions. Written work 
 each week. 
 
 Class III. Latin (Two hours.) Anderssen and 
 Eitrem's Selection of English Classics, forty-five pages. 
 Review of selections from which examinations are taken. 
 
 The connections the Norwegians sustain with the 
 English speaking world are, perhaps, stronger than those 
 binding them to any other people. Norway has close 
 commercial associations with both England and 
 America, and rarely does one find a family in Norway 
 without near relatives in one or both countries. As a 
 consequence, more than usual interest attaches to the 
 study of English. Strenuous efforts are now being 
 made to introduce it into the curriculumx of the elemen- 
 tary school, and such change will probably be effected 
 at an early date. 
 
 According to the present plan those who graduate 
 from the gymnasium have studied English six or seven 
 years and have gained a fairly definite knowledge of it. 
 They are able to read fluently and converse with ease. 
 They have become familiar also with much of the best 
 English literature, and through it have been brought 
 into close touch with the life and culture of the English 
 speaking peoples. 
 
 Latin 
 
 Class II. Latin (Seven hours.) Schreiner's Short 
 Grammar. Inflection and some of the rules of syntax. 
 Ording's elementary book. Ording's Latin Reading 
 Selections, pp. 1-36. Written exercises each week. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 173 
 
 Class III. Latin (Eleven hours.) Schreiner's Latin 
 Reading Selections, pp. 30-67 and 73-88. Livy 
 XXII., chapters 4, 9-15, 16-18, 10-28, 42-55. Cicero 
 in Verrem IV., sections 1-14, 60-70, 72-81, 105-115. 
 Schreiner's Short Grammar: Syntax. Forty written 
 translations. 
 
 Latin is included in the curricula of only about one- 
 half of the gymnasia of Norway.* It is taught by com- 
 petent teachers who appeal to the interests of the pupils 
 through related history and literature, and through 
 promise of linguistic excellence. The work is gone into 
 thoroughly, drill is constant, and readiness in response 
 is demanded. 
 
 Despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a 
 general feeling among the Norwegians that the study 
 of Latin does not yield the immediate and substantial 
 returns coming from other kinds of study. While they 
 recognize that for advanced work in certain lines Latin 
 is a prerequisite, they are convinced that, outside of 
 those special lines of learning, contemporary tongues, 
 history, biology, industrial chemistry, and other scienti- 
 fic subjects are more beneficial. As a consequence this 
 branch of study is on the decline. 
 
 History 
 
 Class I. (Three hours.) Ancient history as treated 
 in Raeder's text. History of the middle ages up to the 
 
 * A school law passed in 1896 omitted Latin from the course 
 of study. Another act of the same Storthing granted privilege of 
 offering Latin as an elective in several schools. 
 
174 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 second division from Schjoth and Lange's General 
 History. 
 
 Class II. R. G. and Latin (Three hours.) Schjoth 
 and Lange's General History. History of the Middle 
 Ages and of Modem times until the Vienna Congress. 
 History of Scandinavia until 1720. Survey of its more 
 important portions — oral or written. 
 
 Class II. L-H. (Five hours.) History of the Mid- 
 dle ages down to the French Revolution from Schjoth 
 and Lange's General History. History of Scandinavia 
 to 1720. In addition use two hours per week in his- 
 torical readings including such topics as the feudal 
 system, medieval poetry, the university, Venice, crafts- 
 men and merchants in the middle ages, Fredrik II., Han- 
 seatics and aristocracy in the north, WiUiam Pitt. 
 
 Class III. L-H. (Five hours.) Schjoth and 
 Lange's General History finished. Scandinavian his- 
 tory in the nineteenth century. Review of all require- 
 ments. Taranger's Social Conditions or Civics. His- 
 torical readings including introduction to the French 
 Revolution, state rights in Norway, general culture and 
 political development in our time, Norway in 1814, 
 historical events. 
 
 Class III. Real and Latin. (Three hours.) His- 
 tory of Norway since the treaty of Kiel in 1814, and the 
 history of Europe after the Vienna Congress, using 
 Schjoth and Lange's General History. The more im- 
 portant features are presented in oral synopses. Be- 
 sides this Taranger's Civil Government of Norway. 
 
 The study of history in the gymnasium builds very 
 definitely upon the foundations laid in the primary 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 175 
 
 and middle schools. The supposition is that the pupils 
 are by this time capable of getting from texts the in- 
 formation they contain. 
 
 The class periods are devoted partially to texts of 
 lesson preparation, but mostly to free discussion and to 
 presentation of relevant material by the instructor. 
 Bits of information regarding the private life of his- 
 torical characters, minor incidents in their careers, and 
 varied personal touches given by the teacher infuse 
 spirit and vitality into the entire course. The lessons 
 are brought directly home to the pupils and they are 
 able to appreciate the fact that they are inheritors 
 of past accomplishments and participants in present 
 activities. Some of the most interesting and enthus- 
 iastic recitations I visited were in history. 
 
 All through the course in history Norway is given 
 first attention and consideration. Its history is begun 
 first, all along it is made the center around which the 
 history of other nations is grouped, and finally it is 
 given the concentrated, mature, and crowning efforts 
 of those pursuing the long course of instruction. The 
 closing year is generally devoted to a study of social and 
 political conditions in the fatherland. Norway's con- 
 stitution with its many provisions and administrative 
 features of government (general and local) is given to 
 the youths in clear, concrete, and concise presentations. 
 Upon leaving the gymnasium the young people, there- 
 fore, are in a position to appreciate the meaning, privi- 
 leges, and responsibilities of citizenship. While they 
 have their affections centered in their native land, they 
 
176 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 are able to comprehend the relative accomplishments, 
 standing, and conditions of other countries. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Class I. (One hour.) Haffner's Physical Geography. 
 
 Class II. (One hour.) Steen's Mathematical Geog- 
 raphy. Completed and reviewed. 
 
 Class III. (Two hours.) Arstal's Economic Geog- 
 raphy. Review all requirements. 
 
 The gymnasial course in geography includes physical 
 geography, astronomy, and political geography. It 
 is rich and profitable. Under the head of physical 
 geography are included such topics as physiography, 
 petrography, dynamic geology, history of the world's 
 development, the earth's surface, oceanography, and 
 the atmosphere. While only a general survey of the 
 respective fields is possible, the pupils obtain a pretty 
 fair grasp of fundamentals and feel that they have a 
 very good and adequate idea of what their home — the 
 earth — really is. 
 
 The work in astronomy or mathematical geography, 
 as it is frequently called, is concerned chiefly with the 
 earth's place in the universe, the Copernican system, 
 Keppler's laws, the moon, the earth (form, size, and 
 motion), the celestial world in general, the sun's ap- 
 parent motion, the sun as a measurer of time, etc., etc. 
 
 Political geography provides acquaintance with the 
 earth in special reference to man's presence and wel- 
 fare. It treats of his means of livelihood, ways of com- 
 munication, and the conditions under which he colon-- 
 izes, builds up cities, and develops generally. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 177 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Class I. (Four hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
 Berg's text. From beginning to "Series." Geom- 
 etry: Bonnevie and Sorensen's text. Entire text 
 covered and reviewed. Examples at home and at 
 school. 
 
 Class II. Real (Six hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie 
 and Berg's text. From "Series" to end of text. 
 Trigonometry: Johannesen's text. Completed and re- 
 viewed. Stereometry: Guldberg's text. Completed 
 and reviewed. Analytical Geometry: Guldberg's 
 text. From beginning to "The Ellipse." Problems 
 at home and at school. 
 
 Class II. Linguistic (Two hours.) Algebra: Bon- 
 nevie and Berg's text. "Series." Trigonometry: O. 
 Johannesen's text. Solving of problems. 
 
 Class III. Real (Six hours.) Guldberg's Analyti- 
 cal Geometry. E. Hoist's Higher Arithmetical Series. 
 Review of all requirements in real course. Solution of 
 problems. 
 
 Class III. Linguistic (Two hours.) Review of the 
 entire requirement. Examples at home and at school, 
 rf In addition to completing the work begun in the 
 middle school in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; 
 instruction in the gymnasium includes trigonometry, 
 stereometry, analytical geometry, and higher arith- 
 metical series. The methods of instruction are the 
 same as those used in the middle school though, of 
 course, adapted to the greater maturity and stronger 
 mentality of the pupils. By the time pupils enter the 
 
178 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 gymnasium considerable ability should have been 
 gained in working independently. Where necessary, 
 the teacher cooperates in solving problems and makes 
 sure that the principles involved are thoroughly under- 
 stood. 
 
 Frequently during the recitation period several mem- 
 bers of the class are called to the blackboard, one at a 
 time, to perform operations under consideration. As 
 the pupil develops the problem he explains every step 
 taken as he proceeds. The other pupils observe closely, 
 take notes, and offer suggestions. The instructor care- 
 fully supervises every move, giving explanations when 
 necessary not permitting erasures or leaving any opera- 
 tion until all in the class understand fully. In this 
 way hearty cooperation is secured. Every mind is 
 actively engaged and the excellent results testify of the 
 validity of the method. 
 
 Work in analytical geometry and higher arithmetical 
 series is taken only by those in the real course of in- 
 struction. 
 
 Natural History 
 
 Class I. (Four hours.) Chemistry: Waage's The 
 Chemistry of Daily Life. Gone through and reviewed. 
 Physiology: Knudsen and Falch's The Human Body 
 II. Studied and reviewed. 
 
 Class II. Real (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. 
 From the beginning to "Heat." Review after having 
 carefully studied. Exercises at home and at school. 
 Botany: Th. Resvoll's text. Completed and re- 
 viewed. 
 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 179 
 
 Class II. Linguistic (One hour.) Botany: Res- 
 voU's text. Completed and reviewed. 
 
 Class III. Real (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. 
 From "Heat" to end of text. Entire text reviewed. 
 Zoology: Chr. Bonnevie's text. Studied and re- 
 viewed. Botany: Th. Res voll's text reviewed. 
 
 Class III. Linguistic (One hour.) Zoology: Chr. 
 Bonnevie's text. Studied and reviewed. Botany: Th. 
 Resvoll's text reviewed. 
 
 Natural Science or Nature Study in the earlier years 
 of school life is less differentiated than it becomes in the 
 gymnasium. Here we find the fields very definitely 
 separated. The more important chemical laws, animal 
 and vegetable development and growth (botany and 
 zoology), and the more essential features of human 
 physiology and hygiene form centers of attention 
 throughout the three years. In the real course physics 
 also is stressed, though in the other courses of study 
 little time is provided for it. 
 
 Not as much is made of the laboratory method as 
 seems advisable. While every school has some pro- 
 vision for it they do not go at it in real earnest. Only 
 one or two at a time can do first hand work. The 
 others cooperate mentally and get some benefit, but 
 they cannot reap the greater results which immediate 
 individual experimentation yields. 
 
 One day during the progress of a lesson in zoology 
 (where I was a visitor) a supply of live specimens ar- 
 rived from the marine biological station at Drobak, and 
 the remaining portion of the hour was devoted to in- 
 vestigations at close range. Interest was intense. 
 
180 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Pupils dipped in (literally) and investigated at their own 
 pleasure quite informally. The material was soon 
 divided up into several receptacles, and around each 
 of these gathered an eager group in an effort to use, 
 handle, and examine every specimen. Those who had 
 no interfering appointments for the succeeding hour 
 accomited it a great favor to be privileged to continue 
 this study for an extra class period. This is but one 
 illustration of the interest attending laboratory work 
 where each pupil may handle and examine for himself — 
 where he may be a doer, an active participant instead of 
 merely an observer. 
 
Chapter IV 
 INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 
 
 THIS chapter is for the consideration of some of 
 the more important phases of the school system 
 presented in greater detail in the foregoing 
 chapters. The aim is to bring some features of 
 Norway's system under close inspection, to interpret 
 them in the light of commonly accepted pedagogical prin- 
 ciples, to make comparisons between them and our own, 
 and to suggest possible improvements where they seem to 
 be needed. It is clearly evident that school practices ad- 
 mirably adapted to the social conditions in one country 
 may be far from desirable in another. On the other hand, 
 it is well-known that some educational means may be 
 equally suitable in more than one country. Further- 
 more, certain fundamental principles are effectual wher- 
 ever education is attempted. We shall hope to find 
 some things worthy of being adopted bodily by us and 
 others capable of transformation into shapes calculated 
 to improve our educational practices. 
 
 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR IDEALS 
 
 The Norse are a sturdy race having potentialities cap- 
 able of great accomplishment when once aroused and 
 rightly directed. Conditions prevented these capacities 
 from functioning with freedom until the middle of the 
 
 181 
 
182 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 last century when the store of energy which had accum- 
 ulated during preceding decades and centuries asserted 
 itself and effected a rapid rise in the political and intel- 
 lectual status of the nation. 
 
 It is believed that Norway is now in a period of transi- 
 tion from a condition of mediocrity to one of eminence 
 among the nations of the world. Politically, ethically, 
 and educationally she assumes larger proportions daily. 
 
 As individuals the Norwegians are recognized among 
 the leaders in literature, art, and science, and equal to 
 any as pioneers in the development of the rich frontiers. 
 As citizens they are enthusiastically welcomed every- 
 where. Climatic conditions and habits of life have 
 'given them the sturdiness of physique and vigor of 
 mind which make them fearless and midaunted in the 
 face of great undertakings and critical situations. They 
 have become habituated to overcoming all obstacles 
 in their way, and they naturally concentrate their ener- 
 gies for the achievement of their desired ends. 
 
 It is reasonable to expect similar traits in them as a 
 nation. Their past actions declare these same tenden- 
 cies and their present attitudes confirm the observer 
 in the belief that the history of Norway will continue 
 the story of regular and ever higher development. Their 
 strongly democratic individuality seems to have been a 
 factor in enabling them to realize and recognize their 
 self in a very successful way. Matters of importance 
 put the entire state into action and it ploughs through 
 to the bottom of things. While very conservative, the 
 state will not permit precedent to stand in the way 
 of accepting new conditions when they are proven 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 183 
 
 superior to the old. After thorough examination of 
 every detail it passes judgment on the situation and 
 then stands on that solution. Conservation has been 
 an operating principle with them all along the line. A 
 step in advance, some worthy achievement, new or 
 loftier ideals, greater political freedom, and the like 
 when once gained are always retained. 
 
 The union of church and state for example has been 
 to their advantage. Matters of religion and politics 
 were handled by the same hands and as a consequence 
 both were strengthened. Each found in the other 
 sources of inspiration and power. They both recog- 
 nized education as a necessary fundamental means for 
 their preservation and advancement. Acting in the 
 main on the educational ideals of Martin Luther the 
 church accepted the chief responsibilities in the direc- 
 tion of school activities, while the state very cheerfully 
 undertook the burden of their support. Through the 
 processes of growth direct responsibilities have been 
 more and more shifted to the state, though the church 
 continues to exert very strong influence and render 
 every possible assistance. 
 
 Resulting from this cooperative activity a system of 
 education has evolved which is effectual in the improve- 
 ment of the state and in the maintenance of the noblest 
 ideals of the church. According to its design this sys- 
 tem of schools qualifies all children in the land for in- 
 telligent citizenship, and prepares them severally for 
 the performance of every function of state, the service 
 of the church, and for the various arts, professions, and 
 other occupations of life. In other words, Norway pro- 
 
184 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 vides for her children educational advantages suitable 
 to every legitimate requirement or desire. Thus its 
 school system develops a loyal, well-trained citizenship 
 capable of maintaining its highest ideals and eager to 
 cooperate in moving the fatherland forward into greater 
 and nobler achievement. 
 
 FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION 
 
 To satisfy the varied requirements of the nation along 
 the line of educational facilities it has been necessary to 
 establish a complex system of diversified schools. Fund- 
 amental in the system are the 'primary schools providing 
 the thorough elementary training so essential and effect- 
 ual m the qualifying of citizens. Following these are the 
 secondary schools — middle school and gymnasium — which 
 afford the advantages of higher education along the 
 more liberal lines. Besides these are the many institu- 
 tions — public and private — ^for technical and profes- 
 sional study. There are general technical schools, 
 schools of trades and manual arts, agricultural and 
 horticultural institutions, naval and military academies, 
 schools of art, teachers ' colleges, a technical high school 
 — an engineering college and institute of technology of 
 high rank — in the city of Trondhjem, and the Royal 
 Frederik University in Christiania which is devoted to 
 specialized study and research in science, letters, and 
 learned professions, including theology, law, medicine, 
 and education. The last is provided for in the af- 
 filiated Pedagogical Seminary recently established. 
 
 At this point we may speak a word in commendation 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 185 
 
 of the important part played by private institutions in 
 Norway. Among them may be enumerated primary 
 and secondary schools, teachers' seminaries, and tech- 
 nical institutes. Being of high merit and operating side 
 by side with the state schools, they have rendered valu- 
 able service and exerted a wholesome influence. The 
 state has recognized their work and expressed its appre- 
 ciation of their efforts by giving them standing and by 
 voting annuities to certain of them. 
 
 The uniformly high standard of preparation required 
 for entrance to and the close correlation between the 
 several special schools make easy the passage from one 
 to another when it is desired, and give solidarity and 
 unity wherein cooperation is natural and mutually 
 beneficial. 
 
 It should be noted that provision is made for the 
 proper care of the exceptional child in Norway. This is 
 more particularly true of the defective. The child who 
 is dull of comprehension along some lines receives in- 
 dividual assistance from his regular teacher or another 
 who is employed to do the work. Recognition is given 
 to disparity in physiological and mental age of children. 
 Those who are definitely lacking in mentality are segre- 
 gated into classes in the large schools and into separate 
 schools in the larger cities, where they are provided 
 with abundant, well-selected equipment and expert 
 teachers who exert every effort to improve the condi- 
 tions and to overcome the handicaps of the unfortu- 
 nates. Morally delinquent children are placed in 
 children's homes — homes for correction — where they 
 are supervised and taught. Each child is placed luider 
 
186 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 the conditions best suited to his needs — where he will 
 be most profited. All of this work comes under the 
 authority of the school oJBScials, and as a result there is 
 close coordination between the regular and the special 
 schools. 
 
 Not only do these officials care for the mentally and 
 morally delinquent but they are also authorized and 
 required to take children from environments that are 
 likely to develop evil and lawless traits. Unfit parents 
 may be deprived of the control and authority over their 
 offspring who are taken and placed in private homes of 
 moral influence or in children's homes where they re- 
 ceive proper care and training. Being vested with 
 such authority the school officials are able to do much 
 toward the prevention of delinquency as well as to at- 
 tend specifically to the individual cases where a lack 
 of moral responsibility is evidenced. 
 
 Here are wholesome lessons for our American schools. 
 Instead of giving sufficient individual help or providing 
 expert teachers for the less intelligent, we permit them 
 to become repeaters or to drop out altogether; in place 
 of taking the child from an evil environment before he 
 becomes a moral delinquent and placing him under 
 moral surroundings in some good home, we hesitate 
 to interfere with parental rights — as though they were 
 greater than social — and permit him to become a law- 
 breaker; and rather than give to school officials the 
 authority and necessary equipment to care rightfully 
 for the child who has committed some error, we place 
 him in the hands of the law and he is probably sent to 
 a reformatory having neither facility for his proper 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 187 
 
 treatment nor any connection with the schools what- 
 soever. 
 
 Closer co-ordination of these educational functions 
 and institutions would prevent much misfortune, cure 
 a vast amount of misery, and accomplish more effi- 
 cient results. 
 
 DIRECTING AUTHORITY AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS 
 
 Norway's educational authority is definitely centralized 
 in the person at the head of the Department of Eccle- 
 siastical and Educational Affairs, who is a member of 
 the King's cabinet. The several departments, bureaus, 
 commissions, and boards for control are radiations 
 from this central focus. Furthermore, their schools 
 are parts and parcels of one very definite, though 
 somewhat complex, system; each class of schools, in 
 its respective field, is ordered according to certain 
 specifications; and all are co-ordinated so as to result 
 in a imified whole without overlapping, or exposure 
 of ragged and loose ends. 
 
 The controlling features of greater importance such 
 as curriculum, appointment of teachers, plans of 
 instruction, and the determination of qualifications 
 for teaching positions are in the hands of the higher 
 authorities. In effect the state determines the policies, 
 the officers are expected to respect them, and the 
 patrons exercise but little direct control. For example, 
 the law provides that completion of certain grades of 
 school work shall mean practically the same through- 
 out the country, that the middle school and gymna- 
 
188 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 sium examinations shall be uniform everywhere in the 
 state, that standards of academic fitness for teaching 
 positions must be the same, and that teachers' salar- 
 ies shall not be below a certain minimum amount. 
 Local opinion never has a thought of departing from 
 these requirements. 
 
 Being vested with considerable authority the 
 school officials are able not only to make suggestions 
 and recommendations, but also to enforce all school 
 regulations. This plan is successful in securing the 
 most efficient service of which the officials are capable. 
 They are expected to pursue their duties and perform 
 their obligations according to directions without being 
 too largely influenced by the opinions of individuals 
 or community sentiment. Local politics plays a very 
 small part in determining what shall be the educa- 
 tional trend, though the patrons of the school do 
 enjoy considerable liberty and bear some responsibil- 
 ities in arranging minor factors with reference to local 
 situations. 
 
 We Americans might avoid a vast amount of 
 leakage and unnecessary expenditure by improved 
 organization of our educational institutions. A uni- 
 fied system of education, manned by competent officials 
 with some authority, might easily raise the standard 
 of efficiency of our schools several grades, and at the 
 same time reduce the proportional cost. President 
 Hall has given optimistic expression along this line. 
 He writes: — "The time is not far off when we shall 
 co-ordinate all educational agencies for all classes of 
 children of school age. . . . AH . . . insti- 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 189 
 
 tutions for the care and betterment of the bodies, 
 minds or morals of children should correlate their 
 work so that eventually it may all become so consoli- 
 dated that each child can be placed in that position 
 in the whole great system which will do most and 
 best for it at each stage and so that changes from one 
 to the other can be made whenever it becomes for the 
 welfare of the child. . . . Diversities of agencies, 
 aims and method should increase; and incorrigibles, 
 defectives, homeless, neglected, backward children and 
 the rest should each have special provision; but in- 
 tegration should keep pace with this differentiation."* 
 
 Were our public schools, reformatories, schools 
 for defectives, etc., etc., all combined into one system 
 they might perform their offices more effectively than 
 they do now. Instead of permitting each to run along 
 independent of the rest, they should be made to sup- 
 plement each other. 
 
 Again, it is a matter of common knowledge that 
 in our own country high school graduation, qualifica- 
 tions for teaching positions in the several grades of 
 school work, college entrance requirements, college 
 degrees, etc., are without uniform standardization. At 
 present even a college degree has meaning only when 
 the work and equipment of the institution granting 
 it have been carefully estimated; state teachers' cer- 
 tificates may or may not be valid in other states; and 
 reciprocity among the states in recognizing certificates 
 is not in operation generally. While state certificates 
 are not always demanded, some of the states are now 
 *Hall, G. Stanley, Educational Problems. Vol. I. p. 294. 
 
190 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 requiring that all teachers in the high schools must 
 be college graduates. In all too many instances the 
 only effectual prerequisite to obtaining a position as 
 teacher in the schools — primary or secondary — is the 
 vote of the school directors. The gradation of educa- 
 tional activity according to a fixed basis and the rais- 
 ing of standards in academic and pedagogical prepar- 
 ation and in personal fitness for teaching positions 
 would make the schools vastly greater factors in the 
 country's progress and do the nation an inestimable 
 service. 
 
 Centralization and uniformity in authority and 
 purpose are distinctly evident in every school activity 
 in Norway. The authority of the state is clearly 
 stamped on the work of every official from the direct- 
 ing head to the last in position. Everyone connected 
 with the system feels the obligations of the position 
 occupied and, at the same time, recognizes his own 
 security while keeping within the limits of the law. 
 They all concentrate their energies in an earnest en- 
 deavor to realize the ends which the educational sys- 
 tem is designed to reach. Even individual subjects 
 of instruction are presented for specific purposes which 
 in turn contribute to the general end to be reached 
 through the course of study as a whole. Purposes, 
 aims, and ends are always in the foreground of atten- 
 tion, and when teacher and pupils co-operate and are 
 actuated by common ideals, their efforts are sure to 
 be vital and successful. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 191 
 
 teachers' training 
 
 Proper pedagogical training is perhaps the 
 most potent factor for good in educational ac- 
 tivity. But few systems, if any, adequately meet 
 the needs along this line. Some are well supplied 
 with institutions devoted to the training of teachers 
 so far as their number and distribution are concerned 
 but they are lacking in quality; others have training 
 schools very high in quality but they are poorly dis- 
 tributed and insufficient in number. 
 
 The ideals and equipment of these special institu- 
 tions are factors of prime importance in determining 
 their real values. These center in the personnel of the 
 directing and teaching force. Too frequently thorough 
 scientific preparation for the specific work of supervis- 
 ing and instructing in teachers' seminaries is wanting. 
 Natural endowment coupled with long, varied, and 
 successful experience has been regarded as sufficient 
 qualification. To be sure, native ability is an abso- 
 lute essential; experience is of immeasurable value; 
 but intensive scientific research in the fields of child 
 nature and development, psychology, and pedagogi- 
 cal principles, together with scientific methods, are 
 equally indispensable. 
 
 Now it is a truism that teachers teach as they 
 have been taught. Hence, to achieve greatest results, 
 prospective teachers should secure their education 
 (general and professional) from ideal teachers as far 
 as possible and obtain experience through practice 
 teaching under the personal supervision of masters 
 
192 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 in education. Preparing under such conditions, their 
 natural capabihties would be brought more nearly to 
 maximum efficiency and they would become powers 
 for good in the profession. To have seminaries so 
 distributed and equipped that all prospective teachers 
 might have the best training within easy access would 
 be an ideal condition. 
 
 Germany affords an unparalleled example in the 
 development of teachers' seminaries. No other na- 
 tion ever had a system of training schools as efficient 
 as the one there provided. Her right to the title of 
 "School mistress of the world" is in large measure 
 traceable to the excellent training provided for and 
 required of the teachers m the schools. 
 
 Norway early recognized the importance of this 
 phase of school work and established six teachers' 
 seminaries. Subsequently four private seminaries have 
 been opened and the state has instituted the Peda- 
 gogical Seminary in affiliation with the university in 
 Christiania. This gives them a liberal number of train- 
 ing colleges well distributed. While they are subject 
 to some adverse criticism for failure to keep pace 
 with the development of their school system as a 
 whole, we must admit that the excellent results achieved 
 by the schools of Norway are due largely to the early 
 provision of these seminaries and insistence upon spec- 
 ial training for teaching positions. 
 
 It is probable that certain normal schools of the 
 United States deserve the honors so far as ideals and 
 results are concerned even though we have jaccorded 
 first ranking in system to Germany. Our plan, however, 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 193 
 
 is too individual in nature to accomplish greatest 
 good. We lack a centralized authority with power to 
 do things. We have practically no co-ordination be- 
 tween state systems and no uniformity. Even in 
 certain states the several schools do not co-operate 
 or supplement each other as they should. The waste 
 occasioned by the looseness of our system is enormous. 
 Could we unify our resources, systematize our equip- 
 ment, and provide efficient direction along co-oper- 
 ative lines of activity, the American schools would 
 advance by leaps and bomids such as have not been 
 known up to the present time in any nation. 
 
 A word is in place here with reference to the 
 process of obtaining professional preparation. One 
 of the best things to be gained by special training is 
 a professional attitude toward the work of teaching. 
 This cannot be attained by spasmodic effort but must 
 be grown into. It comes rather as a result of long- 
 continued study and application of principles than by 
 intensive training for a short while. Direct instruc- 
 tion and experiment extended over a long period of 
 time affords opportunity for innumerable associations 
 and interrelations which no "hurry-up" process can 
 provide. When professional training and study along 
 the general lines of academic learning parallel each 
 other they become interwoven in such a way that 
 each contributes to the other, and simultaneously the 
 proper attitude with respect to educational processes 
 becomes a very real part of the student's life. 
 
 There are a number of important pedagogical 
 principles which should become ingrained in the life 
 
194 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 of the individual in order that he make a success in 
 the teaching profession. It is a generally conceded 
 and commonly practiced rule in education that to 
 thoroughly master any field of knowledge and really 
 get into its vital parts it is necessary to keep the mind 
 acting upon it, at least intermittently, through several 
 years of time. Principles acted and reacted upon, 
 viewed in this light and that, examined under a cer- 
 tain condition and then another, and tested in various 
 ways may result very differently in one's life than 
 when given a hurried, even though intensive, examina- 
 tion. They are certain in the one instance to sink 
 deep into the life of the individual while in the other 
 case they may or may not affect his behavior. 
 
 It seems, therefore, that if the excellent features 
 which now characterize Norway's Pedagogical Semi- 
 nary might be carried along through the whole or a 
 large part of the college course, or if the work of the 
 seminary might be supplemented by studies such as 
 principles of education, history of education, child 
 study, and psychology, carried along with the college 
 work the results would be more effectual — ^the prepara- 
 tion for teaching more thorough. However, consider- 
 ing the short time that has elapsed since the founding 
 of this Seminary, its work is of high order and its 
 ideals are praiseworthy. The expressed intent of the 
 director is to develop the field as rapidly as possible 
 until it shall be characterized by the best means of 
 professional training known to the science. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 195 
 
 THE teachers' LIFE 
 
 The life of the teacher is one of service, 
 calling for an expenditure of the self to an ex- 
 tent perhaps greater than any other profes- 
 sion. Among the Norse, however, it is not as stren- 
 uous as that experienced in American schools. The 
 Norwegian teachers have more time than we for recre- 
 ation, self-improvement, or any of the activities 
 opened up by leisure hours. Life generally is set at 
 a more moderate pace with the Norsemen than with 
 the rushmg Americans, and the schoolmen enjoy the 
 attendant advantages along with those in other pro- 
 fessions or occupations. 
 
 While leisure among certain classes leads to idle- 
 ness and corruption, it has quite opposite results 
 among the better class of citizens. Windelband says 
 that "The cultured man is he who in his leisure does 
 not become a mere idler." The cultured men of the 
 past have in their leisure developed science, art, liter- 
 ature, and philosophy. They have had reserve energy 
 after the performance of their regular labors to use 
 in fruitful, self-selected activities. There are always 
 innumerable avenues through any one of which an 
 earnest servant of the state may bring great gain to 
 its people. 
 
 There is no nobler profession than that devoted 
 to the development of youth; neither is there any 
 occupation which brings more satisfying recompenses. 
 The child is the most precious asset of the nation and 
 deserves the maximum service possible for teachers 
 
196 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 to render. To perform the most efficient service the 
 teacher should have health, vigor, and time for recre- 
 ation in addition to scholastic and professional quali- 
 fications. When school authorities make conditions 
 conducive to these ends, the results will be of such 
 character that teachers, pupils, patrons, and communi- 
 ty will all obtain greater profits. 
 
 Where school activities are not overtaxing, the 
 teacher has opportunity to build up his physical being, 
 increase the buoyancy of his spirits so as to enthuse 
 his pupils to a greater extent, or improve his educa- 
 tional qualifications. One may concentrate his efforts 
 along some given line of research and from day to day 
 give the pupils under his tuition the benefits derived from 
 these specialized efforts. An individual by persistent 
 study may become the discoverer of new laws or 
 truths which reach the ends of the earth and pro- 
 foundly influence human affairs. Whatever the par- 
 ticular activity, leisure consecrated to the uplift of 
 mankind is sure to result in great good. 
 
 When institutions drive their servants to the 
 limit of their powers they must inevitably be the 
 losers in the long run. They extinguish the light of 
 ambition, reduce to machines the individuals who 
 should be contributors to human progress, and make 
 legion "the man with the hoe." Such practice in 
 our schools results in waste of energy, depletion of 
 our teaching force, and irretrievable loss in many ways. 
 
 It is my candid opinion that the rapidity of the 
 evolution of the Norwegian school system, its excel- 
 lencies, and the highly satisfactory results coming 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 197 
 
 from it are in large measure due to the fact that it 
 does not overtax the powers of its teachers and edu- 
 cational leaders, but on the contrary allows them 
 opportunity for the exercise of initiative and encour- 
 ages a professional attitude towards their work. 
 
 THE CURRICULUM 
 
 The course of instruction in the primary 
 and secondary schools of Norway is uniform 
 for all pupils except in the second and third 
 years of the gynmasium where diverse lines of study 
 are offered. The arrangement is unfortunate in that 
 the individual is sometimes required to pursue sub- 
 jects of study for which he has no adaptability and in 
 which he can develop no interest. Teachers in Nor- 
 way tell me that this requirement is a great handicap; 
 retarding the progress of the class, demoralizing the 
 individual, and increasing the burden of the teacher. 
 More flexibility in this regard would doubtless be an 
 advantage. The elective system, so common in our 
 own schools, when rightly supervised preserves suflSc- 
 ient coherence between the studies taken up and gives 
 opportunity for more perfect adjustment. 
 
 Not only in the course of study but also in organ- 
 ization, plans of instruction, and equipment, the schools 
 of Norway are too uniform to result in the freest de- 
 velopment of the intellect, the richest growth of indi- 
 viduality, or the greatest conservation of time, energy, 
 or money. There are a few variations from their 
 regular routine but these are not sufficiently numerous . 
 
198 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 One favorable innovation is the promotion of 
 teachers along with classes through a part or all of 
 the primary school. The consensus of opinion seems 
 to be that better results accrue when a teacher con- 
 tinues with a class through several years of work. 
 This plan is generally followed unless the special fit- 
 ness of a teacher for work within particular limits 
 renders it highly advisable for assignment to be made 
 to such place. While special aptness for a particular 
 class of instruction should be recognized, the promot- 
 ing of teachers along with classes generally obviates 
 any tendency to staleness and usually emphasizes 
 special qualifications. 
 
 While it would be interesting to discuss the meth- 
 ods used in presenting each subject in the curriculum 
 a few must suffice. 
 
 Religious Instruction and Moral Education 
 
 The church was first to establish schools in Nor- 
 way, putting them into operation in connection with 
 their cathedrals, probably about the middle of the 
 twelfth century. The chief aim was to prepare the 
 pupils for a religious life, either as ministers or as 
 faithful disciples. Having these as definite ends, 
 the materials for study were selected because of their 
 fitness to contribute along these lines. Instruction 
 was almost wholly in religion. Since morality is such 
 a fundamental part of religion, moral education in 
 large amount was given indirectly. The aim was 
 religion and the result was both morality and relig- 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 199 
 
 ion. Schools came to be generally regarded as insti- 
 tutions wherein moral and religious instruction were 
 the prevailing if not the dominating features. This 
 phase of work early became traditional and gained 
 such momentum that it has ever formed a conspic- 
 uous part of every grade of instruction throughout 
 the primary and secondary schools. 
 
 During the formative period the instruction in 
 religion maintained a vitality which was quite in keep- 
 ing with the demands of the times. However, as the 
 school system developed, especially during the clos- 
 ing half of the last century, it became necessary to 
 arrange more definite plans of instruction in religion 
 as well as in other subjects in the school curriculum. 
 The adapting of instruction to the various grades of 
 school work was a diflacult task. The adjustment 
 made to needs in the primary schools seems a very 
 happy one. In this elementary section of the school 
 system the instruction in religion consists mainly in 
 story telling. The work is made concrete and person- 
 al, and its influence is most excellent. 
 
 Not so fortunate has been the attempt to pre- 
 sent the great truths and ideals of religion in the 
 secondary grades. The human appeal, so fruitful 
 in the lower classes, does not appear in the higher, at 
 least to the same degree. Instead the work is formal 
 and prescribed. Interest dies out and even respect 
 for the work rapidly wanes as the pupil passes into 
 more advanced grades. I have often thought while 
 observing the listlessness of the pupils during the period 
 for religious teaching that the effects upon morals 
 
200 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 and religion would be better by far without the in- 
 struction as now provided. 
 
 To find lodgment in the heart and expression in 
 the experiences of youth, religious principles must be 
 made to appear practical and vital. They must be 
 shown to be desirable in themselves and in their 
 ends. 
 
 To teach religion successfully one must be a liv- 
 ing example of its true values, an earnest interpreter 
 of its meaning and power, and a sympathetic friend 
 of the pupils. Besides this he must be a genuine 
 teacher with a knowledge of youth and ability to 
 help others obtain a clear conception of the beauty 
 and worth of the nobler life. 
 
 Religion and morality are so intimately bound 
 up with life's activities that it is difficult to consider 
 them in and of themselves. It is quite impossible to 
 curriculize and present them as subjects for study 
 and instruction without building up in consciousness 
 the idea that they may or may not be phases of life. 
 When this is attempted it is liable to diminish rather 
 than to increase their true meaning. 
 
 It is at least possible that the most favorable 
 results come through specific occasions which arise 
 apart from set requirements. A genuine experience 
 in real life is the best illustration of what morality 
 and religion mean, and it furnishes the most secure 
 foundation for instruction along these lines. 
 
 Few lessons and no subjects of instruction can 
 be fully presented without giving considerable atten- 
 tion to their moral and religious phases . If a lesson is 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 201 
 
 completely mastered its moral and religious contri- 
 butions will have been taken over and appropriated 
 along with any and all other contents. When the 
 moral and religious values inherent in school studies 
 receive their proportionate emphasis there will be no 
 crying need of arranging special courses for their 
 study. The seriousness of the situation at present 
 lies not in the fact that there are no special courses 
 of instruction in morality and religion, but rather in 
 the condition that teachers fail to recognize their 
 opportunities for giving such instruction. They should 
 impress the children with the fact that morality and 
 religion are component parts of life and that they 
 give meaning and reality to every human experi- 
 ence. While it would be gratifying to see these sub- 
 jects taught as separate branches by individuals who 
 could make them profitable, it is much more impera- 
 tive that all teachers recognize their own responsi- 
 bility in this regard, whatever subjects they have 
 to teach. 
 
 TJie Classics 
 
 In common with those of many other 
 countries, the school curricula of Norway have 
 been saturated with the classics. For a long 
 time the secondary schools were devoted largely to 
 the presentation of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
 languages. About 1850, there arose a demand for an 
 education which was more utilitarian. Nature study, 
 the sciences, manual training, modern foreign languages, 
 
202 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 and home economics pressed their claims for recognition 
 and the people became convinced of their values. 
 The masses then began to investigate what right 
 the languages of the ancients had for occupying so 
 large a proportion of attention in school work. 
 
 Gradually the ancient classics were replaced by 
 more modern educational materials. Hebrew and 
 Greek were in their turn dropped from the list of re- 
 quired subjects and the time thus saved was given 
 to work regarded as more vital and beneficial. In 
 1896, a very decisive step was taken when by legis- 
 lative enactment Latin — ^the last of the dead lan- 
 guages — was omitted from the list of subjects required 
 in the school curriculum. 
 
 This act of the Storthing has been severely criti- 
 cised by some. However, the people whose right and 
 duty it was to decide studied the matter carefully 
 and thoroughly at home and abroad, and after calm 
 consideration, acted in harmony with their best judg- 
 ment, passed the law, and put in into immediate exe- 
 cution. The momentum of former practices, the force 
 of tradition, or the example of other nations was not 
 sufficient to control the Norwegian state in its action. 
 It does not permit precedent to determine its policies, 
 foreign nations to do its thinking, nor "well-enough" 
 systems to prevent reform. 
 
 When higher ground is seen clearly Norway 
 moves forward with all its power, determined to occu- 
 py and utilize the greater opportunities. Such was 
 the condition of the state in its consideration of the 
 classics in their school curriculum. They were willing 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 203 
 
 that those individuals who might elect to pursue the 
 study of the ancient languages should have the privi- 
 lege to do so and they provided for them such oppor- 
 tunity. However, they were definitely convmced that 
 to require all pupils to study these subjects in order 
 to complete courses of study or enter the university 
 was an injustice. To their credit be it said that when 
 they are convinced that a certain course of pro- 
 cedure is best they have the moral courage to pursue 
 it. In this particular instance the people were fully 
 aware of the fact that they were taking a step which 
 was a decided deviation from the straightforward 
 course pursued for centuries by the leading national 
 educational systems. Yet they became converted to 
 the idea that for their own good, under their own 
 conditions, and looking forward to their future as a 
 state and nation, it would be the wiser solution to 
 leave the classics behind and devote more time and 
 energy to studies which they conceived to be more 
 efficacious. 
 
 It is interesting to note the recent tendencies 
 in this direction in other countries. In the United 
 States Latin is becoming less and less a required sub- 
 ject of instruction in the high schools, and each year 
 lengthens the list of colleges which do not require it 
 for entrance. Even conservative and classic-loving 
 Germany has recently opened the doors of her uni- 
 versities to those who have finished the Real-gym- 
 nasia. Thus they, too, acknowledge that the way 
 of the classics is not the only road to higher culture 
 and learning. 
 
204 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 It has come to be almost universally recognized 
 that the schools exist for the learner rather than the 
 learner for the schools. To debar an individual from 
 privileges for which he is prepared simply because he 
 has not met certain inherited traditional prescrip- 
 tions is rapidly becoming unorthodox. Norway seems 
 to have set the pace for other nations in at least this 
 one respect, and her clearsighted move in displacing 
 the classics by the introduction of larger amounts 
 of modern foreign languages and other branches of 
 greatest present utility is being followed by other 
 nations of sound pedagogical principles. 
 
 Physical Culture 
 
 Few are the instances where the physical 
 development of the children is so effectually pro- 
 vided for as among the Norwegians. Gym- 
 nastics is a regular feature throughout the entire 
 course of study until the completion of the gymna- 
 sium. In addition to this the universal rule of requir- 
 ing the pupils to go into the open air during the inter- 
 missions which follow every class meeting has its good 
 effects. Athletic sports also have recently become 
 more important features of school life. Fortunately 
 they have not reached a point of specialization where 
 their values are open to question. 
 
 Buildings and grounds are constructed and laid 
 out with the physical welfare of children in mind. As 
 a consequence we find gymnastic halls well equipped 
 and grounds supplied with the advantages most essen- 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 205 
 
 tial in the accomplishment of the desired end, viz., 
 a strong and vigorous body in which to develop a 
 somid mind. Their school grounds are small, making 
 a crowded condition the rule in the larger schools. 
 Strange as it may seem, the same unfortunate con- 
 dition prevails almost universally in our own land 
 where there appears to be little excuse for congestion. 
 However, the size of the grounds is perhaps a matter 
 of minor importance, especially when compared to 
 their use. Space and equipment may be regarded 
 as incidental; use is the all-important part. Our 
 grounds are not used. We rarely have but one, if 
 any, intermission except the noon hour, the greater 
 portion of which is occupied in going for the midday 
 meal. The results of the Norwegians' enforced, fre- 
 quent, and regular use of the play-grounds are in 
 evidence on every hand. Robust, vigorous, buoyant, 
 active, healthy, sound, alert, and the like adjectives 
 are the appropriate ones to use in speaking of the 
 physiques of their pupils. 
 
 Were the influences of bodily conditions upon 
 mental growth and activity fully appreciated, the 
 schools would doubtless make a sudden shift toward 
 providing adequately for physical education. Physi- 
 cal development has been regarded with considerable 
 favor for some time, but it has usually been a secon- 
 dary affair when it should have been introduced as a 
 vital feature. Educational systems should provide for 
 the training and development of the physical as well 
 as the mental life. They are dependent upon each 
 other and are in fact two phases of the same life. 
 
206 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 It is obviously wasteful to seek to develop the one 
 without regard to the other, or to attempt the culti- 
 vation of one at the expense of the other. 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 Music is among the most potent factors 
 in developing national spirit and loyalty. Plato 
 wrote: "Any musical innovation is full of danger 
 to the whole state, and ought to be prohib- 
 ited. . . . When modes of music change, the 
 fundamental laws of the state always change with 
 them,"* Napoleon stated that if he might write the 
 nation's songs he cared not who might write its laws. 
 Music in the better forms has moved individuals and 
 nations to great accomplishments, and its efficacy is 
 generally recognized. As a means of education, how- 
 ever, it receives far too little attention. 
 
 The quality of music sung in the schools of Nor- 
 way has some points of superiority. One feature in 
 making it a powerful contributor in developing loyal 
 and competent citizens is the use they make of the 
 best compositions from their own writers. Their 
 poets and musicians have furnished large amounts 
 of excellent productions. They sing of their heroes 
 and of their national ideals and achievements. The 
 spirit in their songs reflects the soul of their father- 
 land. The influence upon the lives of the pupils 
 contributes to solidarity of the nation and to love 
 for its institutions. 
 
 * Plato, The Republic, p. 424. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 207 
 
 Contrast this with the results of the rattle of rag- 
 time and jigs. Too much of our public school, Sunday 
 school, and church music has been of this order. Pub- 
 lic school music and education along this line are 
 matters deserving more attention than they receive. 
 Recent introduction into many schools of victrolas 
 with records of masterpieces produced by the leading 
 artists of the world point to a recognition of the edu- 
 cative value of the better quality of selections. To 
 hear the same productions direct from the soul of the 
 artist would be many times as effectual as any me- 
 chanical reproduction, but this is beyond the reach of 
 the masses. Present indications give assurance that 
 the near future will see music more nearly occupying 
 its legitimate place in our educational provisions. 
 
 LINES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE GYMNASIUM 
 
 In the second and third years of gymnasial 
 work three courses of study are open, viz., Real, Lan- 
 guage-History^ and Language-History with Latin. Here 
 pupils get their first experience in electing the line 
 of work wherein their study shall center. This seems 
 a rather fortunate provision, for by this time Ukes 
 and dislikes for certain subjects of study, special 
 aptitudes along specific lines, and choice of life work 
 are coming into the foreground of consciousness. The 
 pupils' likes and aptitudes working together influence 
 their decisions concerning life's activities. Again the 
 disposition and nature of individuals render one line 
 of study more attractive and beneficial than either of 
 
208 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 the others. There are, indeed, many influences at 
 work upon pupils of such age which make it appear 
 highly advisable to follow some particular line of 
 study. 
 
 Whether pupils go into the chosen line of life 
 work directly from the gymnasium or by way of the 
 university, it is of distinct advantage to specialize 
 along the line for which they are preparing. Should 
 they intend to teach, they would doubtless prefer 
 studying most the subjects to be taught. In these 
 they would have deepest interest, and from their pur- 
 suit they would derive greatest profit. If they de- 
 termined to study theology, law, medicine, or some 
 other special phase of learning, they would make se- 
 lection of gymnasial course with that object in view. 
 Whatever the work to follow completion of the gymna- 
 sium, the different courses prepare for the narrower 
 specialization which characterizes life's activities and 
 all their university study. 
 
 The following table presents the exact work rep- 
 resented by the three courses in form convenient for 
 comparisons. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 209 
 
 TABLE XII. 
 
 The Three Courses of Study in the Gymnasia of Norway 
 Showing Weekly Hours Given to Each Subject.* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 I 
 
 II III 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 ReUgion 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 German 
 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 
 1 
 6 
 3 
 
 EngUsh 
 French 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 History 
 Geography 
 Natural Science 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 
 
 *1. Singing and gymnastics — 5 or 6 hours per 
 week are omitted from the table. 
 
 2. 1, Real course, 2, Language-History course, 
 3, Language-History course with Latin. 
 
 As the table shows, the three courses are identical 
 during the first year and uniform in religion and Ger- 
 man throughout the three Jy ears. The Language- 
 
210 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 History course lends itself favorably for purposes of 
 comparison. It stresses the importance of several 
 modem languages and history, giving to them a pre- 
 eminence over all other work. The Real course re- 
 duces the work in English, French, Norwegian, and 
 History and increases the amount of science and 
 mathematics. The course including Latin makes sim- 
 ilar reductions but emphasizes Latin instead of the 
 sciences and mathematics. 
 
 The Nor^^egians believe it better and cheaper to 
 offer the different courses in the same school than to 
 provide separate schools. This plan necessitates less 
 duplication and at the same time affords quite as 
 adequate facilities for whatever specialization the dif- 
 ferent courses represent. 
 
 CO-EDUCATION 
 
 Whether schools should be co-educational has 
 been a live question among many nations for gen- 
 erations, and considerable time will yet elapse be- 
 fore unanimity of opinion is reached. 
 
 Nearly all the schools of Norway are co-educa- 
 tional. However, in some of the city systems boys 
 and girls use different playgrounds, and in certain 
 schools they are segregated also for purposes of in- 
 struction. These matters are governed according to 
 the wishes of the inspector or the desires of the prin- 
 cipals of the different schools. The aim is to combine 
 the better phases represented in various methods and 
 to adopt the plan best suited to the local situation. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 211 
 
 or the one to which the person in charge is converted 
 and in which he can, because of his convictions, accom- 
 pUsh best results. 
 
 "The separation of the sexes is complete in all 
 the schools of Germany excepting some of the pri- 
 mary classes. The advisability of this is a large ques- 
 tion, but by no means a settled one. . . . Ger- 
 many feels that she has the proper solution, while in 
 America, with an opposite answer, we feel for the 
 most part satisfied."* 
 
 In American public schools co-education is al- 
 most universally practiced. In reference to this mat- 
 ter we give the opinions of some prominent educa- 
 tors. The lamented Dr. Harris, while engaged in the 
 St. Louis, Mo., schools, wrote: "Discipline has im- 
 proved continually with the adoption of mixed schools ; 
 . . . the mixing of the male and female depart- 
 inents of a school has always been followed by improve- 
 ment in discipline, not merely on the part of the boys, 
 but on that of the girls as well. The rudeness and 
 abandon which prevail among boys when separate at 
 once give place to self-restraint in the presence of 
 girls. The prurient sentimentality engendered by 
 educating girls apart from boys . . . disappears 
 almost entirely in mixed schools."! The Honorable 
 John Eaton while Commissioner of Education of the 
 United States made report concerning the co-education 
 of the sexes in several hundred large and small cities 
 
 * Bolton, F. E., The Secondary School System of Germany, 
 375. 
 t Report of Bureau of Education, 1891-1892, Vol. II. p. 807. 
 
212 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 in the Union. The tenor of the entire report is well 
 summarized in the following sentence: *'We are cre- 
 ated male and female; all the impulses and activities 
 of nature enforce co-education; if we must live to- 
 gether we must be educated to that end; to educate 
 separately is an attempt to change the natural order 
 of human economy."* 
 
 In our higher institutions of learning the situa- 
 tion is much the same. The Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, referring to the State University of Iowa, 
 writes, "The report of the president says that the 
 experience of the institution has imiformly been fav- 
 orable to the co-education of the sexes; that their 
 influence on each other in the acquisition of learning 
 has been most beneficial as well as conducive to orderly 
 habits. The presence of both sexes is considered 'an 
 invaluable feature' in restraining indecorum and an 
 'inducement to every virtue.' "f The practice has 
 continued with similar results throughout the entire 
 country. 
 
 Instances favorable to co-education might be 
 multiplied. Its adoption has become a foregone con- 
 clusion so far as our general system of education is 
 concerned. True we do have some colleges and a 
 few secondary schools devoting themselves exclusively 
 to the education of one or the other of the sexes. Not 
 many of them are state institutions. They are* usually 
 private schools and they answer a certain demand 
 whether well founded or not. 
 
 * Special Report. No. 2, 1883. 
 
 t Report of Commissioner of Education, 1878, p. 71. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 213 
 
 There are certain questions in connection with 
 the education of the sexes which are fundamental 
 and need considerable attention. However, no at- 
 tempt can be made here to solve the many important 
 problems suggested. It is the intent only to emphasize 
 the necessity of being awake to real conditions and to 
 indicate the fact that herein lies a field for the educa- 
 tor's most careful consideration. 
 
 The questions arise: Are the natural functions 
 of man and woman enough ahke to justify making 
 their education identical, and will the adoption of 
 such a plan of education result in the advancement 
 or deterioration of the race? A recent article referring 
 "to the endeavor to use women industrially, socially, 
 and politically on the same footing as men" sounds 
 a warning note, crying out against the present tenden- 
 cies which are taking from the flower of womankind 
 thousands who are eminently fitted for motherhood, 
 "woman's essential function on the globe," and 
 diverting their lives to other and less noble pursuits. 
 "It is therefore essential to the race," say the authors, 
 "that the ablest, healthiest, and finest women should 
 be encouraged, tempted, compelled, if necessary, by 
 circumstances to devote themselves to family life by 
 becoming wives and mothers, and it is doubtful how 
 far it is expedient to draw them off, even for a time to 
 other occupations."* 
 
 While co-education is in agreement with condi- 
 tions of family life, is economic, and continues to be 
 
 * Whetham, W. C. D. and C. D., Decadence and Civilization, 
 The Hibbert Journal, Vol. X. No. 1. 
 
214 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 entirely practicable, the question still remains whether 
 there may not be justification in a demand for certain 
 fundamental differences to be made in adapting edu- 
 cational means and matter to the two sexes. Co-edu- 
 cation, however, may continue without making the 
 education of the sexes identical. In fact it is very 
 easily possible to make the education of the sexes 
 fundamentally different even though both institutions 
 and class activities are co-educational in practice. 
 A difference in the amount of work in certain groups 
 of subjects required of men and women, respectively, 
 might furnish a satisfying solution of this question. 
 And if there are certain branches of study which should 
 belong exclusively to one or the other of the sexes, 
 it is a simple matter to separate for such work. On 
 the whole it seems to the writer highly advisable to 
 educate the sexes together as far as possible. 
 
 THE SCHOOL YEAR 
 
 The regular school year in Norway has forty 
 weeks of six days each. The plan of having school 
 on Saturdays furnishes an additional day of fruitful, 
 well directed activity to the children, who might other- 
 wise be permitted to spend the time in idleness or 
 misguided conduct. 
 
 In America we have so many vacations and holi- 
 days that our schools are in session only about 75 or 
 80 per cent of the time utihzed in Norway. We may 
 be justified in having the long summer vacations 
 because of the inconvenience and depletion of strength 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 215 
 
 occasioned by the heat, but several of our vacations 
 during the year and the practice of having no school 
 on Saturdays are inheritances without much justi- 
 fication. School activities, when rightly conducted, 
 should be invigorating and exhilarating instead of 
 producing a state of prolonged fatigue requiring sea- 
 sons of inactivity or other changes in order to regain 
 lost vitality. Again, the relaxation occasioned by 
 diversion of thought and change of activity on Sunday 
 is certainly sufficient to counteract any necessity of 
 using Saturday for recuperation. It appears evident 
 that we are not as frugal in this matter as sound judg- 
 ment demands that we should be. 
 
 SCHOOL LUNCHES 
 
 It has been found that mental activity is 
 very greatly affected by conditions of nutrition. 
 The quality, quantity, and preparation of foods, 
 together with regularity in eating, determine to 
 a considerable extent what may be the progress of 
 the pupil in his growth, both mental and physical. 
 The child who is improperly fed or underfed is there- 
 by handicapped, while the one who receives intelli- 
 gent care along the same line is placed at a distinct 
 advantage. 
 
 That in all large cities there are hundreds and 
 thousands of underfed children is a fact of common 
 knowledge. In many cities provisions have been made 
 for supplying at least one meal per day free of charge 
 to all needy pupils. Norway has been in the forefront 
 
216 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 in this paternalistic movement. Several of her cities 
 have midertaken this noble work and probably no 
 city in the world can boast of more adequate facili- 
 ties for carrying it on than Christiania. 
 
 They purchase the best procurable quality of the 
 most nutritious food, prepare it in a wholesome and 
 palatable manner, and send it out from a central 
 kitchen to the several primary schools of the city in 
 such quantities as are needed to liberally supply the 
 demands. The food is served hot in the regular lunch 
 rooms absolutely free to all children whose parents ask 
 it and at first cost to others. This work in Christiania 
 is typical of the provisions made in other cities but 
 the equipment, and possibly the system of distribu- 
 tion, is superior to that found elsewhere. 
 
 In addition to this, nutritious and easily digested 
 foods and drinks are provided at other schools and 
 served at a moderate cost in the lunch rooms at stated 
 hours in the day. This latter provision is generally 
 in charge of the family of the janitor of the building 
 and is most common m the private and secondary 
 schools to which the previously mentioned plan does 
 not extend. 
 
 Experiment has demonstrated in our own land 
 that it is entirely practicable to provide at a minimum 
 cost warm, well-cooked, wholesome foods to either 
 supplement or replace the cold indigestible lunches 
 so commonly carried by school children. The cities 
 and towns enjoy few if any advantages over the rural 
 districts in this regard. The plan is workable and 
 advisable, and it should be more commonly adopted. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 217 
 
 COMPARATIVE ATTAINMENTS 
 
 In the study of the school system of 
 Norway it is interesting to compare the school 
 life and attainments of the pupils with those 
 of American children. It is true that until we 
 have established norms for measuring the results 
 of education, we cannot make accurate statements 
 regarding the relative standing of pupils nor estimate 
 precisely their accomplishments. However, we are 
 able to single out some features of importance and 
 compare them in a general way. 
 
 It has been noted that the Norwegian pupils 
 begin school at seven years of age, while the American 
 children commence at five or six. Many prominent 
 educators believe that our American children start 
 to school too young. They are of the opinion that 
 their development, physical and mental, would be 
 better if they did not begin formal school work until 
 at least seven or eight years of age. The greater phy- 
 sical development of the Norwegians, due to their later 
 start, gives them a distinct advantage. Their bodily 
 strength and vigor supplement and aid their mental 
 growth. 
 
 Passing through Norway's successive grades of 
 school to the completion of the gymnasium requires 
 twelve years. The same length of time is used in 
 reaching graduation from our American high school. 
 Now it is generally conceded that a graduate of the 
 gymnasium in Norway is two years in advance of a 
 graduate of the American high school; or in other 
 
ns THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 words a student entering the university from Nor- 
 way's gymnasial course has an education equivalent 
 to that of an individual entering the junior year of 
 work in an American college or university. Some 
 would rank the Norwegian even higher than I have 
 here suggested; however, only a very general compar- 
 ison can be made. 
 
 In consideration of these conditions the question 
 arises: How shall we account for the fact that we 
 use two extra years in order to reach approximately 
 the same standard? It is recalled that the Norwegian 
 entering school at seven and progressing at the normal 
 rate are ready for university work at nineteen while 
 the Americans begin two years earlier in order to reach 
 the same attainments at the same age. If the Nor- 
 wegian pupils accomplish as much in twelve years, 
 beginning at seven years of age, as our American chil- 
 dren do in fourteen years, commencmg at five, should 
 we rest satisfied, or should we modify our system 
 so as to profit by their experience? Why permit 
 traditions or precedent to rob us of choice benefits 
 within our reach? 
 
 Again, the students entering the Norwegian uni- 
 versity are older and more mature both physically 
 and mentally than are ours. Being older, their habits 
 of life are more definitely formed, and they are better 
 fitted to undertake the responsibility of self-direction. 
 It has been suggested by some that we extend the work 
 of the high school in order to keep our children under 
 parental guidance until they are sufficiently mature 
 to care for themselves at less hazard. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 219 
 
 The course pursued by Norwegian pupils is uni- 
 form for all until the last two years of the secondary 
 school, when certain branches of study may be chosen 
 for major attention. When students start to the uni- 
 versity they enter immediately upon specialized lines 
 of work and pursue them to their limits. The Amer- 
 ican pupils are privileged to elect a considerable pro- 
 portion of their secondary school work, yet they do 
 not generally specialize at all until their junior year in 
 college; frequently they postpone definite specialization 
 until the beginning of graduate courses. 
 
 Fundamental social characteristics enter into 
 educational ideals, and each nation, very naturally, 
 develops a system of schools peculiarly adapted to 
 its needs. There are, of course, general underlying 
 principles which operate in all educational systems 
 and place them on similar bases; there are also cer- 
 tain features, essential in the make-up of the individ- 
 ual systems, which are not common. These peculiar 
 factors give distinctive character to the various sys- 
 tems and are of telling effect in determining their 
 excellencies. Whether these special phases affect the 
 life and accomphshments of the pupils, the nature of 
 their work, the management of school affairs, or other 
 educational activities; they render the different systems 
 almost impossible of comparison. However, they are 
 suggestive, and frequently they may be modified and 
 used in improving the systems of other countries. 
 
220 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Every successful teacher presents his subject in con- 
 formity with some universal principles of method. While 
 these cannot be mechanically systematized and used 
 according to unchanging rules, they form a necess- 
 ary part of an instructor's equipment. The teacher 
 who knows the subject and is master of the technique 
 of instruction is sure of success, while the one with- 
 out method will fail. 
 
 It seems that the pedagogues of Norway have 
 formed a happy combination of some methods of 
 instruction. They appreciate the value of the class 
 meeting and with them "teaching goes on chiefly in 
 what we call the recitation. This is the teacher's point 
 of contact with his pupils; here he meets them face to 
 face and mind to mind; here he succeeds or fails in 
 his function of teaching."* 
 
 The excellence of the work of instruction in Ger- 
 many has long been recognized. That "the German 
 teacher teaches" is very generally known. He tran- 
 scends all texts and is an authority on the subjects 
 he presents. By pedagogic training he has been 
 exalted to a place of eminence in his profession. It 
 is possible that they over-emphasize the work of the 
 instructor and neglect the part that pupils should 
 
 play- 
 In America various methods of instruction are 
 in use. One plan is to regard teacher and pupils as 
 co-operators in activities wherein interests are common. 
 * Betts, G. H., The Recitation, p. 2. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 221 
 
 The teacher, having had experience, exercises Control 
 and serves as chief guide through the most critical 
 places in the way of progress. So far as possible the 
 pupils are encouraged to exercise individual initiative 
 and to become independent. They are not to be 
 merely recipients from the teacher's vast store of 
 knowledge, but with him they are to become genuine 
 participators in the world's thoughts and activities. 
 
 Another plan in all too common use may be 
 designated as the "text book method." According 
 to it the major portion of information comes from the 
 voluminous, logically developed, well-arranged, and 
 somewhat attractively printed and bound readable 
 text. The function of the teacher is largely testing 
 knowledge gained from books, assigning lessons in 
 the text, supplementing the work of the pupils from 
 his own store or by reference to other works on the 
 subject, and stimulating them to earnest effort in 
 every possible way. 
 
 President Hall would not regard this text book 
 plan of work as very worthy procedure. He writes 
 that some teachers take time "telling pupils what to 
 do and testing to see if they have done it. But this 
 is not teaching; but a device of ignorance, laziness, or 
 physical weakness, or all combined. The real teacher 
 teaches and reduces recitation to a minimum. Who- 
 ever has visited the best continental schools or studied 
 comparatively such national educational exhibitions 
 as those of St. Louis must have been acutely impressed 
 with the fact that we exhibit what the pupil does, 
 Europe what the teacher does. Here he says, 'Go, 
 
THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 do this, and prove to me that you have done it.* 
 There he says, 'Come, let us study together; I know 
 and will inform, interest and inspire you to goon.' "* 
 The instructors in the schools of Norway are true 
 teachers but they do not rely wholly upon their own 
 activity. The text finds a place not so large as in 
 American schools but of some consequence. The pupils 
 are privileged to act on their own initiative to some 
 extent though they are not granted unlimited freedom. 
 They co-operate with the teachers in many lines of 
 school work where they find interest and profit. Dem- 
 onstration is largely in the hands of the teachers. 
 The testing of lessons studied is a common exercise 
 with them, and their class hours are given to intensive 
 activity in which every individual member is expected 
 to be a participant and contributor. They, like we 
 in America, aim to suit instruction to pupils of average 
 ability rather than to the brightest as they do in Ger- 
 many and France. 
 
 CONTINUITY OF EFFORT 
 
 By referring to the programs of work arranged 
 for the successive years in the schools of Norway, one 
 readily sees that there is but little variation in sub- 
 jects of study from the first grades of the primary 
 school to the completion of the gymnasium. The 
 change of greatest importance is the introduction 
 of foreign languages — German and English the first 
 and second years in the middle schools and French the 
 first year in the gymnasium. 
 
 * Hall. G. Stanley, Educational Problems, Vol. II., p. 295. 
 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 223 
 
 When the child enters school he begins subjects 
 of study which represent the several fields of knowl- 
 edge. The teaching aims to keep him in touch with 
 these in ways adapted to his stage of development. 
 As the pupil grows the scope of each subject enlarges. 
 They advance together. Keeping the subject definitely 
 in mind for a long time tends to the creation of perma- 
 nent interests and at the same time makes possible 
 its assimilation into the very life of the learner. It 
 becomes vital and usable after being acted upon in 
 the various stages and conditions of life through which 
 the child passes. Inter-relations and associations with 
 other subjects of study and various phases of life are 
 affected, which give to it distinct values. Too often 
 we find in our own schools that hurried and intensive 
 study of certain subjects does not create permanent 
 interests nor prove of real worth. 
 
 If natural forces in the child are recognized and 
 utilized they facilitate the learning process and make 
 school activities profitable and delightful. It is a well 
 attested fact that at certain periods in the psycholo- 
 gical development of a child mastery of special phases 
 of learning is easy for him. Courses of study and 
 plans of instruction should be prepared in such a way 
 that the different phases of work included may be 
 presented and stressed while the nascent period of 
 interest is on. 
 
 We Americans are given to dividing a subject 
 into its separate phases, studying them consecutively 
 for short periods of time, and then forgetting them. 
 The plan is wasteful and unpedagogic. Note the 
 
224 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 manner in which we break up the work in mathematics 
 and in the mother tongue. It is questionable whether 
 there be a single valid argument favoring such practice. 
 
 The Norwegians present mathematics as a single 
 and comprehensive subject. The same is true in their 
 teaching of the mother tongue. The plan is advan- 
 tageous from every view point. It is certainly con- 
 ducive to economy of time and efficient results. 
 Instead of breaking up subjects of instruction and 
 isolating their several phases from each other, we 
 ought rather to keep them intact and set about 
 co-ordinating the several branches of instruction as 
 closely as possible. 
 
 Education should seek to associate and inter- 
 relate the truths we obtain and to organize our knowl- 
 edge into an effectual system. The formation of a 
 comprehensive curriculum, with arrangements for its 
 presentation in harmony with sound psychological 
 and pedagogical principles, is a matter of pressing 
 importance. 
 
 Wliile the school systems of the present are evi- 
 dently superior to what any past generation has 
 known, yet the investigations of psychologists and 
 educationists stress the fact that in many ways they 
 are weak and inefficient. The accumulated experi- 
 ence of the past needs overhauling by masters with 
 insight and foresight. Educational methods and prin- 
 ciples which have been tested and proven worthy 
 should be put into operation. Each nation should 
 devise and adopt the most perfect educational system 
 possible, and this then should be carried into execu- 
 tion by an army of qualified teachers responsive to 
 the call for truly consecrated service. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 BOOKS 
 
 Erichsen, A. E., Bergers Kathedrahkoles Historie. 
 
 Hertzberg, N., Paedagogiskens Historie. 
 
 Hoist, Axel, Skolehygiene. - 
 
 Monroe, W. S., In Viking Land. Norway: Its People, 
 
 Its Fjords and Its Fjelds. 
 Paludan, J., Det Hoiere Skolevaesen i Danmark^ Norge 
 
 og Sverig. 
 Salmonsens Store Illustrerede Konversationsleksikon. 
 Thieste, J. Schaan, Byskoleloven med Forklarende 
 
 Anmerkninger. 
 Thieste, J. Schaan, Landskoleloven med Forklarende 
 
 Anmerkninger. 
 
 PERIODICALS AUD REPORTS 
 
 Anderssen, Otto, Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1908, Vor 
 
 Ungdom, 1909, 
 Anderssen, Otto, Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1909, Vor 
 
 TJngdom, 1910. 
 Anderssen, Otto, '^ Norwegisches Schulwesen/' Son- 
 
 derabdruck aus W. Rems Encyklopadis- 
 
 chem Handbuch der Pddagogik, 2. Auflage. 
 Anderssen, Otto, Skolen for Skolens Opgaver. 
 
 225 
 
226 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Anderssen, Otto, "The New Laws for the Secondary 
 Schools m Norway," Special Reports on 
 Educational Subjects, Gt. Britam, 8:168, 
 
 Heiberg, J. V., "Education in Norway," Norway 
 (Official Publication for the Paris Exhi- 
 bition 1900), pp. 266-294. 
 
 Nissen, Hartvig, "Public Instruction in Norway," 
 The American Journal of Education, 8: 
 295-304. 
 
 Norsk Skoletidende, Published since 1869. 
 
 Pogue, Belle C, "Education and Schools of Norway," 
 Education, 10: 420-424.1 
 
 Report of the Commissioner of Education of the United 
 States, 1871, 1873, 1878, 1881, 1882-3, 
 1885-6, 1888-9, 1889-90, 1891-2, 1894-5, 
 1896-7, 1897-8, 1902, 1903, 1906, 1910. 
 
 Skolebladet, Pubhshed since 1898. 
 
 Thornton, J. S., "Schools Pubhc and Private in the 
 North of Europe," Special Reports on 
 Educatio;nal Subjects, Great Britain, 17: 
 36-65. 
 
 Void, J. Hourly, Report of Royal Commission of 
 Secondary Education, Great Britain, 5: 
 640-644. 
 
 OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Beretning om Skolevaesenets tilstand i Kongeriget 
 
 Norge. Yearly since 1861. 
 Forslag til en forandret Ordning af den h0iere Almen- 
 
 skole af den ved kgl. Resolutions af 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY <m 
 
 3 die September 1890 nedsatte Kom- 
 mission. 
 
 Gynmasiet: Lov om h0iere Almenskoler; Reglement 
 for de h0iere Almenskoler; Under vis- 
 ningssplan; Eksamensreglement ; 1911. 
 
 Lov af 9de Jmie 1903 om forandret Pr0ver ved Uni- 
 versitetet. 
 
 Lov om abn0rme B0ms Undervisning. 
 
 Lov om behandling af fors0mte B0m. 
 
 Lov om det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet. 
 
 Lov om Folkeskolen i Kj0bstaedeme. 
 
 Lov om Folkeskolen paa Landet. 
 
 Lov om h0iere Almenskoler. 
 
 Lov om Laererskoler og Pr0ver for Laerere og Laerer- 
 inder i Folkeskolen. 
 
 Middelskolen : Lov om li0iere Almenskoler; Regle- 
 ment for de h0iere Almenskoler; Under- 
 visningsplan; Eksamensreglement. 1911. 
 
 Naermere Bestemmelser angaaende de offentlige Laer- 
 erskoler og Laererpr0ver. 
 
 Norwege: Lois sur L'Enseignement Public. 
 
 Odelsthings Proposition Nr. 36 (1909) om forandringer 
 i Lov om h0iere Almenskoler av 27de 
 Juli 1896. 
 
 Odelsthing Proposition Nr. 12 (1910) : A. Om forand- 
 ringer i lov om h0iere Almenskoler av 
 27de Juli 1896. B. Om forandring i 
 lov om forberedende pr0ver ved Univer- 
 sitet av 9de Juni 1903. 
 
 Reglement for Aarspr0ver, Middelskole-eksamen, og 
 Eksamen Artium. 
 
228 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 
 
 Rieglement for de h0iere Almenskoler og Undervis- 
 
 ningsplan for Middelskolen, 1903. 
 Reglement for den ved Lov af 18 de Januar 1902 anord- 
 
 nede Optagelsespr0ve ved Laererskolenie. 
 Reglement for det Paedagogiske Seminar og Paeda- 
 
 gogisk Eksamen. 
 Statistisk Aarbok for Kongeriket Norge. Yearly. 
 Sortliings Proposition Nr. 1, Hovedpost V. (1910) 
 
 om bevilgning til det h0iere Skolevaesen. 
 Undervisningsplan for Gymnasiet, 1903. 
 Universitets-og Skole-Annaler. Yearly. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Age of pupils, 44-49; completing 
 secondary schools, 48; on en- 
 tering the university, 48; in 
 teachers' seminaries, 49. 
 
 Age of teachers, 49. 
 
 Agriculture, 24. 
 
 America of interest to the Nor- 
 wegians, 173. 
 
 Apparatus, 145-14C. 
 
 Astronomy, 177. 
 
 Attendance at school, 54, 77. 
 
 Authority, 189. 
 
 Certificates, 80. 
 
 Centralization of authority, 191. 
 
 Christiania's central kitchen, 75, 
 
 76. 
 Christianity established, 20. 
 Church and state united, 115,184. 
 Classes, size of, 40. 
 Classics, in America, 204; in 
 
 Germany, 204; their decline, 
 
 202. 
 Climate, effects of, 183. 
 Co-education, 40, 210-214; in 
 
 America, 211-213; in Germany, 
 
 211. 
 Cooking, 148. 
 Co-ordination, between grades, 
 
 149; between subjects, 162; of 
 
 educational agencies, 186. 
 Correlation, 223; between schools 
 
 189, 190. 
 Course of study, 57,. 96-181, 197- 
 
 207, 209, 218, 219; aim of, 148; 
 
 changes in, 97 ; development of, 
 
 97-101, 222, 223; during mid- 
 
 dle ages, 96; linguistic-histori- 
 cal, 31; Latin, 31; real 31; 
 secondary, 171; suited to 
 people served, 219; uniform- 
 ity of, 198. 
 
 Defective children, 186. 
 
 Department of Ecclesiastical and 
 Educational Affairs, 51. 
 
 Delinquents, mental, 187; moral, 
 187. 
 
 Diocesan directors, 52. 
 
 Discipline in school, 76, 77. 
 
 Distribution of schools, 34, 35. 
 
 Drawing, 146, 147. 
 
 Educational commission, 52. 
 
 Educational attainments, Nor- 
 way and America compared, 
 216-219; time required, 217, 
 218. 
 
 Educational authority, 188. 
 
 Educational equipment, Norway 
 and America compared, 49, 50. 
 
 Educational requirements, 27, 
 34; parents held responsible 
 for 55. 
 
 Educational standards, 54, 55. 
 
 Educational system, 184, 188, 
 
 Electives, 207, 208. 
 
 English, 156, 172, 173; in elemen- 
 tary schools, 173; its grammar, 
 156; length of course, 173; 
 methods in, 156. 
 
 Examen artium, 31. 
 
 Examinations, uniformity in, 188. 
 
 Exceptional child, 186. 
 
 Eyesight, 77, 78. 
 
 229 
 
INDEX 
 
 Fisheries, 24. 
 
 French, 168-170; difficulties in 
 study of, 170; length of course, 
 169. 
 
 Geography, 129-134, 158, 159, 
 177; aim in, 129, 159; methods 
 of presenting, 130-133; of 
 America, 133; texts, 159. 
 
 German, 154, 155, 167, 168; 
 authors studied, 168; methods 
 in, 155. 
 
 Grammar, 153, 154, 156. 
 
 Gymnasium, 100, 103-181, 207- 
 210. 
 
 Gymnastic halls, 69. 
 
 Gymnastics, 69, 70, 74, 75, 148, 
 204-206; apparatus, 148; dur- 
 ing intermissions, 69, 70; Swed- 
 ish system of, 75. 
 
 Hall, G. S., 189, 190. 
 
 Harold, the Fair-Haired, 19. 
 
 Health of pupils, 77, 78, 148, 205. 
 
 History, 19, 134-139, 156-158, 
 174-177; aim of, 134, 138; be- 
 ginnings in, 134; methods in, 
 157, 158, 176; of Norway, 176; 
 nature of work in, 157; related 
 to geography, 135; stories, 134, 
 135, 138. 
 
 Houses for janitors, 70; for prin- 
 cipals, 70; for teachers in the 
 rural districts, 70, 71. 
 
 Ideals of the people, 182, 183. 
 Illustrative materials, 66. 
 Imitation, law of, 82. 
 Industrial training, 147, 148. 
 Industries and occupations, 24. 
 Infant schools, 53. 
 Intermissions, 69, 70. 
 
 Laboratories, 67, 68, 69. 
 
 Latm, 173-174, 202; courses in, 
 
 167; length of course in, 174; 
 
 methods in, 174. 
 
 Libraries, 67, 68. 
 
 Lumbering, 24. 
 
 Lunches, 75, 76, 215, 216. 
 
 Limch rooms, 69; in Christiania, 
 215, 216. 
 
 Luther, influence of, on educa- 
 tion, 184. 
 
 Lutheran church, 114, 115. 
 
 Management of schools, 188-191. 
 
 Manual training, 147, 148. 
 
 Martin Luther's influence in edu- 
 cation, 184. 
 
 Mathematics, 125-129, 160, 178, 
 179, 223; aim in, 125; connec- 
 tion between phases of the 
 subject, 160; co-ordination in 
 128; methods in, 128, 129; 
 texts in, 129; thoroughness in, 
 160; use of, 128. 
 
 Medical inspection, 77, 78. 
 
 Mental delinquency, 187. 
 
 Methods, 72, 73, 74, 82, 83, 219- 
 222; in German, 155; in his- 
 tory, 157, 158, 176; in mother 
 tongue, 118, 119; in nature 
 study, 140; in religion, 163, 
 164, 200. 
 
 Middle school, 31, 32, 100, 149- 
 162; its aim, 149, 150; its found- 
 ation, 149; length of course in, 
 149, 150; its lunits, 149; work 
 of, 31, 32. 
 
 Moral delinquents, prevention 
 and care of, 187. 
 
 Mother tongue, 118-124, 152-154, 
 164-167; aim on instruction in, 
 118; correct use of, 123; in 
 America, 124; inclusiveness of 
 work in, 123, 124; methods in, 
 118, 119; nature of work in, 
 
 166, 167. 
 
 Natural history, 179-181 ; labora- 
 tory work in, 180, 181. 
 
 Nature study, 139-146, 161, 162, 
 179-181; aiin of, 139; illustra- 
 tive material in, 140-146; 
 
INDEX 
 
 231 
 
 Nature Study, 
 
 character, ICl, 162; laboratory 
 work in, 180, 181; methods in, 
 140; scope of, 139. 
 
 Norway, adopts constitution, 20; 
 area of, 22; becomes independ- 
 ent, 22; climate of, 23; develop- 
 ment of, 20, 183; geography of, 
 22; history of, 19; nights in, 24; 
 period of transition in, 183; 
 political divisions of, 22; revolt 
 of, 20; its union with Den- 
 mark, 20; its union with Swe- 
 den, 20. 
 
 Normal schools in the United 
 States, 193, 194. 
 
 Norwegians, characteristics of, 
 25, 26, 27; as colonizers, 20; 
 as sailors, 25; conservative, 
 184, 185; democratic, 184, 
 185. 
 
 Primary education, 52. 
 
 Private institutions, 81. 
 
 Private schools, 42-44, 54, 186; 
 equipment of, 43; inspection of, 
 43; recognition of, 44; second- 
 ary, 186; teachers' seminaries, 
 186; technical institutes, 186; 
 tuition in, 43. 
 
 Primary schools, 36-39, 185; at- 
 tendance in, 36-39; course of 
 study in, 102, 104, 106; curri- 
 culum in, 99; rural and city, 
 101; their financing, 62. 
 
 Professional training, 33, 79-85, 
 194, 195; amount of, 194, 195; 
 attitude toward, 194; stand- 
 ards of, 33. 
 
 Promotion of teachers, 198. 
 
 Pupils, in gymnasia, 40; in lower 
 schools, 40; in middle schools 
 40. 
 
 Observation and practice, 83, 84. 
 
 Occupations, 24. 
 
 Offices, 67, 68. 
 
 Officials, duties of, 188; efficiency 
 
 of, 189. 
 Organization, needed in America, 
 
 189. 
 
 Paganism overcome, 20. 
 
 Pedagogical seminary, 84, 85, 
 185, 193, 195. 
 
 Pensions, 92, 93. 
 
 People, ideals of, 182, 183. 
 
 Permanency of teaching posi- 
 tions, 87-89; advantages of, 87; 
 objections to, 88; present ten- 
 dencies with reference to, 89. 
 
 Physical culture, 204-207. 
 
 Physician, 77, 78. 
 
 Physical geography, 177. 
 
 Political geography, 177. 
 
 Practice teaching, 83, 84. 
 
 Private citizens, their part in 
 school affairs, 61, 62. 
 
 Recitation, method of, 72 , 4. 
 
 Religion, 108-117. 
 
 Religious characters, 114. 
 
 Religious education, 115-1 17, 151, 
 152, 163, 164, 199-202; advan- 
 tages of, 116; excused from, 
 117; loss of interest in, 163, 
 164; methods in, 163, 164, 
 200; objection to, 116, 117; re- 
 quired, 116; results of, 115- 
 117. 
 
 Royal Frederik University, 32. 
 
 Schools, agricultural, 33; ambula- 
 tory, 29; cathedral, 30; com- 
 munal, 63; elementary, 29, 30; 
 gymanasial, 30; maintained by 
 industrial concerns, 53; middle, 
 30; mihtary, 33; peoples', 28; 
 state, 63; technical, 33; their 
 distribution, 34, 35. 
 
 School boards, committees of, 
 56; officers of, 56; organiza- 
 tion of, 55, 56. 
 
INDEX 
 
 School buildings, appointment 
 
 and equipment of, 64-69; con- 
 struction of, 205, 
 School committees, appointed by 
 
 board, 56; duties of, 57, 58, 59. 
 School curriculum, 197-207. 
 School discipline, 76, 77. 
 School districts, 53. 
 School funds, 62. 
 School grounds, 205. 
 School life, in Norway, 217, 218; 
 
 in America, 217, 218. 
 School physician, 77, 78. 
 School principal, 60; duties of, 
 
 60, 61. 
 School room decoration, 67. 
 School system, its development, 
 
 197. 
 School year, 54, 55; compared 
 
 with American, 50; length of, 
 
 28; in America, 214. 
 Secondary schools, 52, 149, 185; 
 
 select strongest pupils, 149. 
 Sewing, 148. 
 
 Special classes for defectives, 186. 
 Special teachers, 80. 
 Specialization in university, 51. 
 Standards of work, 190. 
 Supermtendent, 60, 85; duties of, 
 
 60. 
 
 Teachers, attitude toward youth, 
 83; certificates, 80; life of, 195- 
 197; rooms for, 67, 68; salaries 
 of, 63, 91-95; sex of, 71, 72; 
 special considerations, 91, 92; 
 their tenure of office, 71, 72. 
 
 Teacher's qualifications, 79, 80, 
 146, 196; improvement of, 196; 
 in secondary schools, 79, 80. 
 
 Teachers' seminaries, 33, 193; 
 attendance at, 42; curricula in, 
 82; private, 41; weaknesses of, 
 83; work of, 81. 
 
 Teachers' tenure of office, 86-91; 
 in America, 89. 
 
 Teachers' titles, 85-86; signific- 
 ance of, 86; use of, 86. 
 
 Teachers' trainmg, 81, 83, 84, 
 85, 191-195; for secondary 
 schools, 85; in Germany, 192- 
 193. 
 
 Teaching as a profession, in Nor- 
 way, 79, 80; its value, 196. 
 
 Technical schools, 185. 
 
 Vikings, 19. 
 
 Vocal music, in America, 207; its 
 influence, 206; Napoleon on, 
 206: nature of, in Norway, 147. 
 
 Writing, 146. 
 
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