Class ^__^^i, 
 
 Book_ ill^ 
 CopyiightN'' 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
THE SCIENCE 
 
 OF 
 
 THRESHING. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. F. Conner 
 
 Price $1.00. ^^-^-^V 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE UNION COMPANY 
 
 RACINE. WIS. 
 
Copyright, G F. CONNER, 1897. 
 All Riehts Reserved. 
 
Preface. 
 
 :E have no history of so marked a degree of development in so 
 short a time as the present generation has witnessed in grain 
 handhng machinery. 
 
 When we consider the difficulties to be encountered and 
 the obstacles to overcome in taking the minute kernels, husking them 
 from the chaff in which nature has enveloped them, depositing the gol- 
 den grain in the sack, delivering the refuse at the Operator's command 
 in so perfect and expeditious a manner, we may look upon the modern 
 thresher as a marvel of success. 
 
 To the Thresherman in the field belongs more credit for this achieve- 
 ment than is generally accredited him. He is the final dictator. On 
 his judgement must a device stand or fall. His part to suggest, the 
 Manufacturer's to execute. Still there is room for more and deeper 
 study. Further progress can be made by all working in unison. 
 
 If this book is the means of aiding any one in his part of the work, 
 the author will feel conscious of being well repaid for the labor and 
 time used in preparing it. 
 
 Due acknowledgement is extended to all who have aided in any 
 way to make it a success. 
 
 Racine, Wis., 1897. G. F. C. 
 
Contents. 
 
 Preface 3 
 
 Introduction 7 
 
 Cylinder 9 
 
 Concaves 12 
 
 Feed Board 12 
 
 Cirates 13 
 
 Teeth 14 
 
 Beater 16 
 
 Separating Devices i>S 
 
 The Shoe 22 
 
 Separator Cuts 27-50 
 
 Self Feeders 52 
 
 Feeder Cuts 54-5'^ 
 
 Feeding 5y 
 
 Wind Stackers 60 
 
 Handling the Threshed CJrain 6t 
 
 Operation f>2 
 
 Belts 72 
 
 Lacing a Belt 73 
 
 Babbitting Bo.xes 74 
 
 Lubrication 73 
 
 Getting Ready 7<) 
 
 The Crew 78 
 
 'I'he Engine 80 
 
 Setting the Machine 82 
 
 Moving 83 
 
 Wasting Grain ,84 
 
 Notes 86 
 
 The Whistle 89 
 
 Centrifugal Separators 90 
 
 Gas Engine 91 
 
 How to Become an Expert 91 
 
 Full Crew 92 
 
 A Suggestion 93 
 
 Tables 94-97 
 
 Index gS 
 
IISTROOUCTION. 
 
 The position is taken by some that there can be no definite 
 rule formulated by which to operate a machine, which may be true to 
 a certain extent. The same may be said with equal truthfulness of any 
 work requiring skill, as skill can only be had by experience. The mind 
 must first be informed and then the hands made skillful. The mind 
 will grasp information from any source within reach. 
 
 Each and every part of a machine from the foot-board of the 
 engine to the tail end of the straw carrier, works under and obeys some 
 law peculiar to itself, and unless both manufacturer and operator under- 
 stand these various laws and principles, the device is liable to fail to 
 perform the functions intended, though both may have had unlimited 
 experience. The written rule is much the better method by which to 
 gain a knowledge of the law. 
 
 This knowledge can be put in practice much easier and more suc- 
 cessfully than by depending on the slow process of the school of exper- 
 ience to educate the head and teach what should have been understood 
 at the beginning. 
 
Cylinder. 
 
 The usual form of construction 
 of a cylinder is parallel bars se- 
 cured to the heads or spokes by 
 means of bands shrunk around 
 them, the cylinder teeth being in- 
 serted through the bars and se- 
 cured by nuts on the inside. 
 They are either double or single 
 bar. There are usually 9 or 12 
 bars, the object being to increase 
 the weight of the cylinder by us- 
 ing more and heavier ones, to in- 
 sure more uniform and steady 
 motion. The cylinder is a bal- 
 ance wheel in which is stored up 
 power to maintain its speed when 
 an undue amount of straw is per- 
 mitted to enter, thus preventing 
 the motion being reduced. 
 
 It is quite essential that the 
 cylinder be kept thoroughly in bal- 
 ance as it adds greatly to the 
 smooth running of the machine. 
 It is easily detected when the cyl- 
 inder is out of balance by the jar- 
 ring or short vibrations in the re- 
 gion of the cylinder. By placing 
 the hand upon the frame-work 
 near the cylinder boxes, a pecul- 
 iar jarring motion is plainly no- 
 ticed. The side on which this is 
 most plainly shown wil{ indicate 
 the end of the cylinder which is 
 mostly at fault 
 
If permitted to run so, it will have a tendency to cause the cylinder 
 boxes to heat and wear out much more rapidly, and also has a tendency 
 to flatten the cylinder shaft on the side that receives the wearing strain. 
 A smoothly running cylinder requires much less power to drive it; as 
 whatever force it takes to cause the vibration is so much power lost, 
 besides interfering with the working and lasting qualities of the machine. 
 Excessive vibration has a tendency to loosen the frame work of the en- 
 tire machine. 
 
 A cylinder may be put in balance by removing it and placing it on 
 two straight edges set up edgewise to receive the journals of the cyl- 
 inder shaft. The squares or straight edges should first be trued up with 
 a spirit level and may be held in position on edge by driving spikes on 
 either side. The cylinder will adjust itself by turning on the straight 
 edges, the heavier side going down. Wedges, or pieces of iron of suffi- 
 cient weight, should be driven in between the band and head on the 
 light or upper side of the cylinder to cause it to balance or remain 
 without turning in any position in which it may be placed. 
 
 If cylinders are properly balanced when they come from the shop 
 this method will usually put them in good working order. However, 
 a cylinder may indicate to be in perfect balance on the straight edges 
 but in motion in the machine not so, the cause being that one end is 
 heavier on one side while the other end of the cylinder is correspond- 
 ingly heavy on the opposite side, thus preventing the straight edges 
 from indicating which is the heavier side. In such case the cylinder 
 should be revolved at a rapid speed in loose boxes, and while in motion 
 a piece of chalk held stationary near enough to the shaft at the journal 
 to slightly mark it. This will indicate the light side and a balancing 
 piece should be inserted as before. Both ends should be trued in the 
 same manner.. 
 
 A cylinder is sometimes thrown out of balance by putting 
 in part new teeth, leaving a part of the worn ones in and not hav- 
 ing them evenly distributed around the cylinder. In this case the rem- 
 edy is to put in all new teeth where they are much worn. 
 
 The office of a cylinder is to loosen the kernels from the straw. 
 This is accomplished by the cylinder tooth striking the unthreshed 
 head with sufficient force to jar the kernels loose from the chaff. The 
 cylinder should be run with sufficient speed to entirely free all the ker- 
 
 lO 
 
nels, and not leave any in the straw. If for any reason the cyHndef 
 does not do its work thoroughly, the result is the wasting of grain. In 
 some instances some of the kernels will be partially loosened, but ad- 
 here to the head until nearly through the machine when they will fall 
 out and be carried along with the straw to the straw stack, thus making 
 the machine appear to be at fault in separation in wasting the grain. 
 The usual speed of an ordinary cylinder is from 1050 to 11 50 revolu- 
 tions per minute. This gives a speed to the teeth of about 6,000 feet 
 per minute. Under ordinary circumstances this will thoroughly dislodge 
 the kernels, if the tooth is brought in contact with the head in a proper 
 manner. 
 
 The cylinder boxes should be adjusted endwise so as to bring 
 the cylinder teeth midway between the concave teeth and prevent 
 the cylinder from having end play. 
 
 It will greatly aid the cylinder in working freely and easily to have 
 the separator stand still on its trucks while in operation for the reason 
 that the cylinder is a gyroscope on a large scale. Or, in other words 
 it consumes and takes more power to vibrate and move the cylinder 
 back and forth while in rapid motion than if the cylinder did not revolve, 
 and it also requires more power to revolve the cylinder while vibrating. 
 
 This principle or law is but slightly understood and difficult to ex- 
 plain. Though any one may take the little toy called the gyroscope 
 and easily demonstrate the fact. While it is revolving rapidly, grasp 
 the frame and move it quickly back and forth. It can be plainly felt to 
 resist the movement with a marked degree of force, and will come to 
 rest much quicker in its rotary motion while being oscillated than if the 
 journals are allowed to remain at rest, clearly showing that a part of 
 the force is consumed in the resistance before mentioned. It is then 
 reasonable to suppose that the cylinder being so much heavier will con- 
 sume a correspondingly large amount of power to cause it to oscillate 
 while in so rapid motion. It has been demonstrated by actual test that 
 a separator will run much easier while standing perfectly quiet and still 
 than if permitted to rock back and forth on its trucks. 
 
 11 
 
Concaves. 
 
 Concaves should be sufficiently strong to stand the enofmouS 
 strain they are subjected to in "slugging" or threshing damp grain. 
 Care should be used to see that none of the teeth are too long to per- 
 mit the concave being raised to its full height without striking. There 
 should be stops provided to keep the concave from raising too high at 
 either end. These should be adjusted to allow it to be raised as high 
 as possible without striking the teeth. It is good practice to use the 
 concave set clear up and use less rows of teeth, rather than to use more 
 teeth and lower the concave. In the latter case it leaves a space be- 
 low the points of cylinder teeth to permit whole heads to pass without 
 being acted upon sufficiently to shell the kernels out. When the work 
 will permit, remove one or more of the concaves and insert blanks with- 
 out teeth. However in some cases where the straw is very dry and 
 brittle and inclined to break up badly, the concave may be lowered a 
 little to advantage. Some are constructed to adjust both rear and 
 front. It is contended by some that a cylinder is less liable to "slug" 
 when the concave is lowered in the rear and raised in front than when 
 up in the rear and down in front, on account of the wedge shaped 
 angle presented for the straw to enter. 
 
 Feed-Board. 
 
 In hand-feeding the tables and feed-board should be kept smooth 
 and free from nails to facilitate the moving of the straw. If the cylin- 
 der does not have draft enough, or take the straw free enough, it may 
 be helped by rounding or curving the lower edge of the feed-board that 
 comes in contact with the concave. The straw will pass over this 
 rounded portion more freely than it would pass the sharp angle, and be 
 broken or cut up less, a desirable point to be gained. 
 
 It is good practice to keep the lower edge of the feed-board on top of 
 the concave, close to the cylinder teeth even when the concave is lower- 
 ed somewhat. Then every head will be acted upon by the cylinder 
 teeth as it enters, otherwise it might pass along close to the bottom 
 of the concave unthreshed. 
 
 12 
 
Grates. 
 
 The grates back of the concave are very essential to assist in sep- 
 aration, if the spaces between the grates are of sufficient width to free- 
 ly permit flying kernels to fall through. The adjustment should be such 
 that the straw passing from the concave will strike the surface of the 
 grate at a slight angle; this will assist in the separation by directing 
 the kernels through it. The action of the passing straw will also tend 
 to keep the grate clean, and prevent it from loading up with chaff and 
 sticks. 
 
 13 
 
Teeth. 
 
 The cylinder teeth should pass midway between the concave teeth. 
 Any bent ones may be straightened with a heavy hammer, and the 
 cyHnder boxes adjusted edgewise to make all the teeth run squarely in 
 the center. If permitted to have too much end play or run too close 
 together it will cause cracking of the grain and chop the straw up too 
 much; besides it may leave a correspondingly large opening at one side 
 of the tooth that will permit heads of grain to pass unthreshed. 
 
 The teeth shell the kernels from the headby striking them with such 
 force as to jar them loose. The concave teeth are for the purpose of re- 
 tarding the speed of the straw while receiving the action of the cylinder 
 teeth. Only enough concave teeth should be used to hold the straw 
 until threshed clean, as more would have a tendency to chop up the 
 straw and consume unnecessary power. It also makes separation more 
 difBcult to have the straw cut up, as it packs together more than if the 
 stalks are left comparatively whole. 
 
 The teeth sometimes become loose and cause delay. This is more 
 true of new teeth when being first used. This is on account of their 
 not fitting perfectly and the terrible strain they are subjected to when 
 the straw is compressed in passing through, causes them to move in 
 the bar slightly and each time they move the nut loosens a little and 
 they are soon loose enough to strike and rattle. When new teeth are 
 put in they shouM be watched carefully and tightened up occasionally 
 until well seated when they will stay without further attention. But 
 the practice of some threshers is to give the teeth no attention until 
 they begin to rattle and make a noise. Much time will be saved by go- 
 ing over the entire cylinder, having new teeth, with the wrench once or 
 twice a day and see that every nut is set up tight. Many devices have 
 been tried to keep the nuts from working loose, some of which have 
 points of merit. Some use wooden bars inside of the cylinder bars; 
 the spring or natural tension of the wood serving to permit the tooth 
 to spring a little and still remain tight. A twisted or spiral steel bar 
 on the inside has been used to take up the wear. Teeth do not seem 
 to loosen as badly in double bar as single bar cylinder on account of 
 the extra length of the shank to hold them from side movement of the 
 tooth when the straw passes in in excessive quantities. Fig. 2 illus- 
 trates one method, which is in use, by which to hold the nuts from 
 
 14 
 
turning by using a spring steel washer under the nut. Both square 
 and round shanks are in use. Teeth should be made of steel, sufficient- 
 ly hard to prevent too rapid wear. Worn cylinder teeth retard the 
 straw from entering the cylinder freely and should be replaced with 
 new ones as soon as they become very much worn. 
 
 CYLINDER TOOTH WITH 
 LOCK WASHER. 
 
 TOOTH IN CYLINDER BAR, WITH LOCK WASHER 
 IN POSITION AND NUT SCREWED UP. 
 
Beater. 
 
 The office of the beater is to take the straw from the cyHnder as fast 
 as threshed and pass it back to the separating device. There have 
 been many arrangements planned and used for this purpose. The 
 form in common use at the present time is a fan-Hke drum set in a po- 
 sition for the straw and grain to strike against it as it comes from the 
 cyHnder and pass either under or over it. It also serves as a check to 
 the flying kernels from the cylinder which would otherwise be thrown 
 back into the straw and thus retard separation. 
 
 There are also other devices in use for passing the straw 
 back from the cylinder, one of them is shown in Fig. 3. It 
 consists of a set of forks placed to work over a slatted rack 
 located back of the cylinder. Still another form is a drum 
 filled with spikes something like a cylinder, as shown in Fig. 13, while 
 some machines work very well without a beater at all, letting the cylin- 
 der deliver direct to the separating device. The chief object of the 
 beater seems to be to keep the straw from tilling up near the cylinder 
 to such an extent as to cause it to wind and carry back around the 
 cylinder. As a separating device it does not seem to be of much ben- 
 efit as its rapid motion has a tendency to carry the grain along with it 
 and throw a portion on top of the straw as it passes back. The beater 
 should be run only fast enough to prevent it from winding in damp or 
 soft straw, as it increases its tendency to throw the grain. Some diffi- 
 culty has been experienced in having the beaters wind in long or damp 
 straw. The cause usually having been too slow a speed, or the position 
 in which it is set. 
 
 The Checkboard is a sheet-iron apron hung just back- of 
 the beater, to arrest flying kernels. It is an important factor 
 and is "sometimes placed too near the beater to permit it to work free- 
 ly. It should be sufficiently long and adjusted to come down low 
 enough to arrest all flying kernels that come from the beater and cylin- 
 der as they would be thrown back on top of the straw so far towards 
 the rear of the machine as to be lost with the straw. The weight of 
 this check-board some times effects the action of the straw as it passes 
 under it serving as a compressor. As the straw leaves the beater it is 
 very loose and fluffy and in passing under the check-board is reduced 
 by its weight and action. This will be referred to again under the 
 head of Operation and in the working of the various types of machines. 
 
 16 
 
re 
 
 17 
 
Separating Devices. 
 
 One of the most important features of a thresher is the Separating 
 device. Upon this depends the saving of the grain. After the cyHnder 
 has shelled it from the straw, it is left for the separating device to pass 
 the straw to the stack and direct the grain to the shoe or fanning mill 
 to be cleaned. 
 
 The cuts on the following pages serve to illustrate the various 
 types and combinations of devices in use at the present time. 
 While there are many combinations and different arrangements in use 
 they may be divided into two or three general classes. First, the vi- 
 brating or oscillating rack or table, and second, the traveling raddle 
 or straw rake, or the combination of these two. There are also acces- 
 sories used in connection with these, such as revolving pickers or rakes, 
 beaters and fingers that will be considered in their turn. Each one 
 having merits of its own, it would be hard to say which device is the 
 best as each machine has combinations peculiar to itself. 
 
 It is not intended that this book shall show any preference but will 
 try to faithfully explain the working and functions of each, leaving the 
 reader to judge which is best adapted to his particular use. When 
 the principles and laws upon which a device works are understood it 
 will be easy to discern its merits and demerits. 
 
 While the separator seems to be a very simple machine, there 
 are some parts and principles that are so puzzling that no one 
 yet has devised one that will save every kernel in all kinds and 
 conditions of threshing, and until that time comes there is room for 
 improvement. 
 
 The inclination at the present time is toward faster threshing, hav- 
 ing a tendency to overtax the capacity of the separating devices, as they 
 all depend on gravity to cause the kernels to fall from the straw. Even 
 though this takes but little time it is enough to cause a limit to the 
 amount of grain and straw that can be handled with any of the various 
 devices now in use; for, while we wait for gravity to do its work the 
 straw is increasing in bulk and quantity. If the straw is passed too 
 rapidly through the machine it has a tendency to carry a portion of the 
 grain along with it, while if we reduce the speed of the traveling column 
 of straw it is plain the said column will be correspondingly increased in 
 size and quantity, which of itself is a serious difficulty to contend with 
 
 18 
 
in separation. It would be well for the intelligent thresher to bear this 
 in mind and not crowd his machine beyond its natural capacity as the 
 result will surely be unsatisfactory. However, any of the separating 
 devices now in use will handle enormously large quantities of grain and 
 straw when used and operated with intelligence. The various types of 
 separating racks or tables are usually constructed of slats leaving spaces 
 through which the grain may fall and the straw be carried along its up- 
 per surface. 
 
 The straw is caused to pass along by means of the motion 
 imparted to the rack by the use of a crank. In some, this motion is 
 concave, in others convex, while in others the rack partakes of the 
 rotary motion of the crank and makes a complete revolution. 
 
 The object of the motion is to thoroughly agitate or stir the straw 
 in such a way as to permit the kernels to fall out, and at the same time 
 move the column of straw along toward the rear of the machine. 
 
 We may imagine a quantity of straw intermingled with kernels of 
 grain held in position by being lodged between the stalks and leaves. Now 
 it is plain that we may take this bunch of straw and grain and handle 
 it as a whole, and if we toss it up and down or do whatever we may 
 and not move the stalks as related to each other, the kernels will 
 still remain lodged in their respective places. But in order to have 
 them fall out we must move the stalks about among themselves to 
 dislodge each kernel from its resting place, and the milder and more 
 perfectly we can do this the better the result. 
 
 The ordinary vibrating rack acting on the under side of a quantity 
 of straw has a tendency to jar and compress it at each upward stroke 
 of the rack. The straw of its own elasticity will expand again to its 
 normal condition while up in the air free from the rack. Thus the 
 straw receives a succession of jars or strokes on its under side, which 
 will be more effective when the straw in falling comes in contact with 
 the rack on its rising motion at one-half of its stroke. It then will re- 
 ceive the most sudden and severe shock on account of the rack travel- 
 ing the fastest at this particular point of its stroke. When the rack 
 first starts on its upward motion it travels but slowly, but continues to 
 increase its speed until one-half of the full height is reached. The mo- 
 tion then continually decreases to the upper end of the stroke; the same 
 is true of the descending motion. This is owing to the peculiarities of 
 the crank motion by which it is operated. 
 
 19 
 
Now it is plain that if the quantity of straw and grain 
 should lie on its upper surface and vibrate up and down 
 with the rack, not moving any higher, the stalks would remain 
 in their respective positions and not give the kernels a chance to 
 fall out. But to be effective each stalk must be moved as related to 
 its neighbor in order to accomplish the desired result. And when you 
 have mastered this principle and got it thoroughly fixed in your mind 
 the problem of separation will be the more easily understood. 
 
 The motion of the rack should be such that its upward stroke will 
 cause the straw to continue its course slightly and permit the rack to des- 
 cend from beneath it. Gravity then will begin to act upon the straw and 
 cause it to start on its downward motion; the straw at first moves but 
 very slowly but increases its speed as it descends toward the rack, the 
 momentum thus attained will cause it to strike the ascending rack with 
 a sharp and jarring motion at the midway point before mentioned, if it 
 has been properly timed. The weight of the straw will cause it to be 
 pressed against the rack with force, while the stiffness of each straw 
 that comes in contact with the rack will have a tendency to move it as 
 related to its neighbor, and as soon as released at the upward end of 
 the stroke will again expand to its normal condition. 
 
 This jarring, compressing and expanding movement accomplishes 
 the desired result in a remarkably perfect manner, when the vibrating 
 column of straw is not too thick and bulky. If the column of straw is 
 so deep that the jarring motion of the rack is not felt through its entire 
 column the results are not as good. The upper part of the column of 
 straw will float along without receiving the essential jarring motion of 
 the rack on account of the springiness or elasticity of the intervening 
 straws. While on the other hand if the rack is made to vibrate faster 
 to throw the straw higher, the tendency is to also throw the grain; be- 
 ing of the greater specific gravity it will continue its upward course in 
 excess of the straw if the opportunity presents itself and thus retard 
 separation. 
 
 The ordinary raddle is constructed of belting running over pulleys 
 with laterally secured slats that will permit the grain to fall through 
 and carry the straw along on their upper side. They seem to accom- 
 plish their work in a more perfect manner when their motion is quite 
 rapid, as this keeps the sheet of traveling straw much thinner thus giv- 
 ing the kernels a better opportunity to fall out. The raddle should be 
 
 20 
 
of sufficient length to give the kernels ample time to fall clear through 
 the slats before reaching the end. 
 
 Some raddles are agitated while in motion by means of traveling 
 over an irregularly shaped pulley which produces a rapid jarring motion, 
 having a tendency to move the stalks of straw slightly among them- 
 selves. 
 
 The point of contact as the straw falls on to the raddle needs 
 special attention. The straw at this point should be quite thin and 
 loose for if large or hard bunches are permitted to fall on it, the tendency 
 is to carry them along in one mass, not giving the kernels a chance to 
 fall out. As the straw falls the slats of the raddle in their rapid motion 
 catch the straws in contact and give them a sudden start or jerk that 
 has a tendency to loosen or move the straws from each other. The 
 greater portion of the separation is done at this point, and it seems to 
 be more effective if the straw can fall a little distance so as to be 
 traveling at right angles to the line of motion of the raddle when they 
 come in contact. It also causes the straw to strike the slats with more 
 force, giving it a better hold to pull it apart. Whereas if the straw 
 is traveling in the same direction as the raddle when it comes in con- 
 tact, it does not receive the same jarring and pulling apart motion, but 
 passes along with ease, without change of direction or position of the 
 stalks as related to each other, making it impossible for the enveloped 
 kernel to fall out. 
 
 In the combination of the vibrating rack with the raddle, the straw 
 usually passes over the rack first and delivers on to the raddle. At the 
 point of delivery, the straw is pulled apart and thinned by the action of 
 the raddle, its rapid motion having a tendency to take the straw much 
 faster than it is delivered to it. This pulling apart process greatly as- 
 sists separation at this point. There are also other combinations that 
 will be noticed in connection with the illustrations of same. 
 
 
 2X 
 
 
The Shoe. 
 
 The shoe, or cleaning mill, is an important part of the separator 
 and upon it depends largely the good work of the machine. In separ- 
 ating the grain from the straw there is a large amount of chaff and ref- 
 use delivered to the sieves with the grain. This is cleaned from the 
 grain by passing it over a series of sieves through which a blast is being 
 forced. A great deal depends on the perfect working of the shoe, whose 
 office is to thoroughly clean the grain without waste, and in quantities 
 as fast as delivered to it. 
 
 There are three things to be considered in a shoe, and on the 
 arrangement of these three depends its working, viz., the sieves, 
 the blast and the motion. The sieves should be adapted to the 
 kind of grain being threshed and as few used as are necessary to do 
 the work, as more retard the blast and catch straws and sticks. The 
 blast should be sufficiently strong to insure its continued flow through 
 the sieves, even when they are heavily loaded. The motion should be 
 sufficiently strong to insure the chaff and kernels being moved on the 
 surface of the sieve. 
 
 The fans for producing the blast are usually constructed of a 
 centrally revolving shaft with radiating arms, on which are se- 
 cured fans to cause the air to rotate with it and produce the blast 
 by admitting it at the ends, and forcing it out by centrifugal force at 
 the periphery. 
 
 Some are revolved in one direction and some in the other. Those 
 where the top of the fan travels toward the sieves are called overblast 
 fans, and when constructed to revolve in the opposite direction, they 
 are called underblast fans. Both styles are in common use and accom- 
 plish the work intended. There is a large variety of sieves made and 
 used. Of late years the inclination seems to be favorable to the perfor- 
 ated metal and corrugated iron ones, though wooden and wire ones are 
 in use. The proper qualifications of a sieve are to permit the grain to 
 fall through, pass the chaff and sticks over it, direct the proper amount 
 of blast in the right direction and prevent the straws and sticks being 
 retained in the meshes. The usual practice is to use a sieve adapted to 
 each class of work, though there are some combinations that operate 
 well on different kinds of grain. The usual plan is to have the upper 
 sieve, called the chaffer, secured permanently and of sufficiently large 
 
 22 
 
meshes to adapt it to the coarsest kinds of grain while the lower ones 
 are made interchangeable, to be varied according to the kind of work 
 being done. 
 
 The openings in the sieve should be of sufficient size to permit 
 the clean kernel to pass freely, and only enough of said openings 
 to allow a proper quantity of blast of air to pass through. If the open- 
 ings are too small or not enough in number to prevent the grain to pass 
 through freely as fast as it falls onto the sieve, the result will be to 
 cause it to overflow into the tailings spout and be returned to the cylin- 
 der a useless operation which greatly reduces the capacity of the ma- 
 chine by increasing the quantity of grain to be handled. If the open- 
 ings are too large the tendency is to permit heavy sticks to pass through 
 with the grain. These openings should be of such a nature as to cause 
 the blast of air to flow in the proper direction which is found to be at 
 quite a perpendicular angle. This will prevent the blast from having a 
 tendency to blow the grain along the upper surface of the sieve. If 
 there are too many openings, as in a wire sieve, the tendency is to per- 
 mit too much air to pass through, and cause too much of a blast above 
 the sieve to permit kernels that are lifted from the surface to again fall 
 before reaching the rear end. 
 
 The blast is an important feature of a well regulated shoe. It 
 should be of sufficient quantity to lift all light matter and of sufficient 
 force or pressure to cause a continuous and uniform flow through the 
 meshes of the sieve. It is essential that this blast should be tH'e strong- 
 est directly in the opening or meshes of the sieve, while a short distance 
 above the surface it should be mild and light When these conditions 
 are secured should the blast lift a kernel it will ascend but a short dis- 
 tance before it will again return to the sieve, while if the blast were as 
 strong above as in the meshes, the kernel would be blown out with the 
 chaff, and wasted. This condition is accomplished by making the blind 
 portion of the sieve in proper proportion to the opening of the meshes; 
 this in practice is found to be about as five is to seven. That is to say, 
 for the solid portion of the sieve to be about 5-12 of the surface while 
 the opening in the meshes constitutes the other 7-12. By reflection it 
 will be observed that a short distance above the sieve the blast will be 
 only 7-12 as strong as directly in the meshes of the sieve. It is also 
 well to observe that this statement is more nearly correct when the 
 blast is traveling in an upward direction nearly at right angles to the 
 surface of the sieve. 
 
 23 
 
The blast should be sufficiently strong to insure its continual 
 flow under all circumstances and conditions, but not of enough 
 speed to blow any of the grain over with the chaff. There is 
 a difference between a blast of strong pressure and a blast of fast speed. 
 A blast of air may be traveling comparatively slow and still go with 
 force and be difficult to stop, like that produced from a slow moving 
 air pump; or it may be moving quite rapidly, but with no particular 
 force more than the inertia produced by its own weight, like the breeze 
 of a summer day or the stroke of a lady's fan The least obstruction 
 would stop or turn such a blast. The kernels of grain will fall through 
 a blast of any pressure or strength, but will not fall through a very 
 fast traveling blast. 
 
 The chaff is easily lifted on account of its light specific 
 gravity. To do good work then, it requires a mild or slow blast 
 delivered with strength or force. This blast should be spread under 
 the entire surface of the sieve and be made to flow through every mesh. 
 It should be the strongest and of greatest quantity at the front end of 
 the sieve where it receives the grain and chaff, for it is here where the 
 greatest work is to be done in lifting the sheet of chaff intermingled with 
 grain, and decrease in quantity and pressure toward the rear end where 
 less work is required. Then if a light kernel has been lifted with the 
 chaff at the front end, it will give it a chance to fall before reaching the 
 rear end of the sieve. 
 
 If the blast is made to pass through the chaff as soon as 
 it enters the upper sieve, it will lift it and cause it to sepa- 
 rate and expand, the lightest flying out first giving, the kernels a free op- 
 portunity to fall through the sieve much more ([uickly than if the blast 
 were not strong enough to keep the meshes open and cleared of chaff. 
 Besides, if the blast ceases to flow through any of the meshes, the fine 
 dust and chaff will fall through and cause the second sieve to be over- 
 loaded, and thus the grain may retain a part of the chaff and dirt. The 
 motion of the shoe should be sufficiently strong and rapid to move the 
 grain and chaff on the surface of the sieves. Too strong a motion will 
 interfere with the kernels in falling through the meshes properly and 
 cause the grain to be carried over, either with the chaff or into the tail- 
 ings spout. It is found in practice that the upper sieve or chaffer re- 
 quires a longer and more positive stroke than the lower sieves. This is 
 on account of the excessive quantities of chaff and cut up straw to be 
 
 ?4 
 
carried along. For this reason the upper sieve or chaffer is usually 
 placed in a different frame and given a longer stroke while those in the 
 shoe receive a shorter and more rapid stroke. 
 
 The coarser and looser the material to be handled the longer and 
 more vigorous the motion should be. The straw rack loaded with loose 
 fluffy straw requires quite a long stroke to be effective. The conveyor 
 and chaffer sieves will use less, and the shoe sieves still less. 
 
 It will be seen, that if the straw rack had no more motion than 
 the shoe it would not handle or scarcely move the straw at all. While 
 if the shoe had as much motion as the straw rack, it would throw the 
 grain in such a fierce manner as to prevent much of it from passing 
 through the sieve. This is on account of the difference in elasticity or 
 springiness of the materials to be moved. It is then quite essential 
 that the motion should be adapted to the class of work to be done. 
 In end shake sieves^ i. e., the stroke being endwise of the machine, this 
 motion should be upwards and backwards wiih more of an uplift, and 
 should be only sufficiently strong or rapid enough to cause the grain to 
 be carried along in as quiet a manner as possible. 
 
 The sieves should be stiff and rigid enough to not permit them to 
 spring much in the center, for if they do it will make the motion too 
 strong there, causing the grain in the center of the sieves to be thrown 
 too high, preventing it from properly falling through the meshes. This 
 will be apparent when we consider the frame of the sieve traveling two 
 inches at each stroke and making 250 strokes per minute, the sieve 
 then will travel 500 inches per minute. Now if the sieve springs one 
 inch each stroke, the center of the sieve has traveled three inches each 
 stroke or 750 inches each minute which may be a motion entirely too 
 strong, and it will be seen that the center of the sieve receiving the 
 stronger motion will act upon the grain in a more vigorous manner than 
 the portion of it which has less motion. 
 
 It is also necessary for a shoe having a weak blast to have a stronger 
 motion to assist in carrying off the refuse and chaff at times when 
 the blast is overtaxed, such as in wet or damp threshing or when an un- 
 due amount of chaff and cut straw loaded with dust is delivered to it. 
 
 In side shake shoes, i. e., when the motion is sideways to the ma- 
 chine, the motion should be sufficiently strong and long to cause the 
 
 25 
 
sieve to move under the grain and chaff, and keep it in motion to aid 
 the blast in carrying it along toward the rear end. 
 
 The blast may be at a greater angle from the perpendicular in side 
 shake shoes, as it is the only means of carrying the chaff and refuse 
 along to the rear end. While in the end shake, the upward and back- 
 ward motion will assist in moving it. 
 
 The motion in a side shake may be given an upward rocking at 
 each side as the stroke is finished. This is accomplished by using com- 
 paratively short hangers and adjusting the hangers so they will be at 
 an angle (sideways to the machine.) As the shoe is moved sideways 
 one side of it will continue to rise, and the other to lower somewhat, 
 causing it to give the grain a slight upward motion at each stroke. 
 This motion varies in different places on the surface of the sieve, being 
 nearer parallel in the center. 
 
 26 
 
Figure 4 
 
 No. I, Cylinder. 
 
 No. 1, Grate made of flat 
 strap iron. 
 
 No. 3, Beater. 
 
 Nos. 4-4-4-4, notched fish 
 backs in the straw rack, con- 
 nected by open slatwork in the 
 bottom 
 
 Nos. 5-5-5-5 are the open 
 slat work running across the 
 separator on the lower edge of 
 the fish backs. 
 
 No. 6, Grain Conveyor. 
 
 No. 7, Lipped Chaffer. 
 
 No. 8, Set of Wire Fingers. 
 
 No. 9, Upper Sieve. 
 
 No. 10, Lower Sieve. 
 
 No. 1 1, Fan Drum. 
 
 No. 12, Fan. 
 
 No. 13, Upper Wind Board. 
 
 No. 14, Lower Wind Board. 
 
 No. 15, Grain Auger. 
 
 No. 17, Tailings Elevator. 
 
 Fig 4. 
 
 27 
 
Fig. 4, shows one kind of Separator with vibrating straw rack; three- 
 winged beater; end-shake shoe, and overblast fan. This type of. beater 
 being comparatively small and composed of three wings, takes a firm 
 hold on the straw as soon as it passes from the cylinder, and may be 
 run quite fast with advantage. 
 
 The check-board or apron (not shown in cut; should be far enough 
 back from the beater to leave enough of a reservoir to give it a clear- 
 ance in hard feeding or slugging. 
 
 The straw rack is suspended on links or hangers which gives it a 
 concave motion. It will be observed that this motion is different from 
 a convex motion where the rack is supported on rockers, or where it is 
 held by the upper end of the link instead of the lower end. It might 
 be represented in this case by the inside of a rim of a wheel, while 
 in the other case by the outside surface of the rim. If the wheel 
 were set in motion in the first case, an object on the inside of 
 the rim would be held against it by centrifugal force, while in the other 
 case an object on the outside would be thrown off by centrifugal force. 
 
 The straw rack moves only a short distance, but as far as it goes 
 any given point travels in a circle, the same as the rim of the wheel, 
 using the hanger as a radius to make the segment of the stroke. Dur- 
 ing the upward stroke of the rack this has a tendency to cause the straw 
 to bear down and hug to the rack much closer than if the motion were 
 convex. 
 
 The shorter the hangers are, the more sharp will this curve be, 
 and the more closely will the straw cling to the rack in its upward 
 stroke. The position of the hanger determines the direction of this 
 stroke or motion, which always is at right angles to the hanger. If the 
 hangers were perpendicular, the motion of the rack would be horizon- 
 tal, and would not carry the straw in either direction. But by inclin- 
 ing the top of the hanger forward, the rack partakes of an upward mo- 
 tion, just in proportion to the angle of the hanger. 
 
 A rack that has the concave motion begins the upward stroke with 
 a motion toward the horizontal and finishes more toward the perpen- 
 dicular. While a rack with a convex motion begins with more of a 
 perpendicular and finishes toward a horizontal motion. For this reason 
 the hangers should be adjusted nearer to the perpendicular in the con- 
 cave than in the convex motion. 
 
The rack with«a motion toward the horizontal should have a longer 
 and more rapid motion than that imparted to one of nearer perpendic- 
 ular motion, for the reason before mentioned, that the straw hugs closer 
 to the rack on the upward stroke, and requires a sharper throw to cause 
 it to ascend and leave the rack at the upper point of the stroke. But 
 a point is gained by the expansiveness of the straw as it leaves the 
 rack permitting the kernels to fall out. 
 
 The first part of the stroke being towards the horizontal, has a 
 rasping motion, using the weight of the straw as a resistance, which 
 tends to move the straws among themselves dislodging any imprisoned 
 kernels. 
 
 The straw in passing over the upper point of each riser is pulled 
 apart as it falls to the next riser. This is especially true when the col- 
 umn of straw is not too thick and heavy to be thoroughly bent and 
 pulled apart. In hard feeding the greater part of the separation is done 
 at this point. 
 
 The chaffer sieve is fastened to the frame of the conveyor and re- 
 ceives the same stroke. This insures the continuous travel of the chaff 
 without the aid of the blast to carry it along. 
 
 The air in passing from the fan strikes the blastboards (13 and 14) 
 on their upper surface and can be directed to any part of the sieves by 
 changing the angle of the blastboards which are adjustable. 
 
 -^0(ij?>- 
 
 39 
 
30 
 
Figure 5. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents the ordinary i2-bar cylinder, grate or straw 
 guide of round fingers, and subdivided straw rack, vibrating grain con- 
 veyor and overblast fan. 
 
 The straw guide between the cylinder and beater is hinged, and is 
 adjustable to direct the straw higher or lower. 
 
 In this plan of straw rack each section has a concave motion and 
 works independently of the other. 
 
 The hangers are rigidly secured to each section of the rack, motion 
 being imparted to them by means of a connecting rod. In vibrating, 
 each rack uses the upper end of its hanger as a center to travel to. 
 This causes the rear and upper end to have a longer and more perpen- 
 dicular motion than the front or lower end, and has a tendency to 
 break and pull apart the column of straw as it passes over the highest 
 points. 
 
 The motion should be strong and rapid enough to insure the straw 
 from becoming too deep and thick in fast threshing. These motions 
 are in unison, all the racks working simultaneously, or varied and irregu- 
 lar, regulated by the way the hangers and connecting rods are disposed. 
 
 As the grain falls through the slat work of the rack, it is received 
 on the grain pan by which means it is conveyed to the sieves, where it 
 is acted upon by the blast. 
 
 As the blast leaves the fan it strikes the stationary blast board 
 over the grain auger and is deflected up and back toward the sieves at 
 an angle along their entire length. 
 
 31 
 
32 
 
Figure 6. 
 
 Fig. 6 clearly represents a 12-bar cylinder, 4-wing beater, straw 
 rack of one piece, underblast fan and end shake shoe. 
 
 The straw passes under the beater on to the straw rack which has 
 a convex motion. 
 
 The check board arrests all flying kernels coming from the cylinder 
 and beater. 
 
 This straw rack is of one piece throughont its entire length. It 
 has a series of risers over which the straw is made to pass. As the 
 column of straw passes over the point of each step it is bent downwardly, 
 tending to pull apart the stalks of the upper side. Then as it passes 
 between the risers it is curved upwardly tending to elongate the lower 
 side of the column of straw. 
 
 This movement of bending the column of straw alternately up and 
 down is calculated to move the straws among themselves and permit 
 the kernels to fall through the rack and be caught by the vibrating 
 grain conveyor below. This is hinged to the opposite end of the rocker 
 arm on which the straw rack is held, thus the two tend to balance each 
 other while in motion. 
 
 The chaffer or conveyor sieve is fastened to the vibrating grain con- 
 veyor and receives the same motion. A disconnected view of an ex- 
 tension for the conveyor sieve is shown at the lower left hand corner. 
 This may be attached to the rear end of the conveyor sieve and takes 
 the place of the wire fingers shown in cut. The return bottom deliv- 
 ers the grain into the tailings spout. 
 
 The blast from the fan strikes the underside of the upper blast 
 board where it is deflected downward to the bottom of the shoe from 
 whence it passes up through the sieves. 
 
 The grain and tailings are conveyed across the machine by means 
 of augers. 
 
 The tailings are delivered by the elevator to the vibrating spout 
 which conveys them to the feed board in front of the cylinder. 
 
 S3 
 
u 
 
 S4 
 
Figure 7. 
 
 Fig. 7 is designed to specially show the movement of the straw 
 rack. At the center it is divided and journaled directly to the crank 
 which is placed midway between the two parts, this gives the two cen- 
 ter ends of the rack a circular motion. The other ends front and back 
 are link supported which gives them a concave motion, while the cen- 
 tral portion of each rack partaking of the motion of both, causes an 
 elliptical motion, the long part of the ellipse being parallel to the rack. 
 
 This style of rack will admit of a very strong and vigorous stroke 
 without throwing the grain, as near the central ends of the rack where 
 the rotary motion is most apparent, the motion is reversed at Lhe lower 
 part of the stroke. It will strike the straw on its upward motion going 
 at an angle toward the cylinder. The straw will then adhere to the 
 rack until the upper part of the circle is reached where it will receive a 
 backward and upward throw. The motion thus reversed while the 
 straw is in contact with the rack, has a tendency to move and pull it 
 apart, changing the straw's position as related to each other. This is 
 especially true at the extreme upper point of the first rack. 
 
 As the straw falls over on to the second rack it receives a long, 
 vigorous stroke calculated to thoroughly pull it apart at this point giving 
 the kernels an opportunity to fall out. 
 
 This mode of moving the rack insures perfect balancing as each 
 rack balances the other by moving in opposite directions. 
 
 As the grain is separated and falls through the slat work of the 
 rack it is received on the grain bottom and conveyed to the chaffer and 
 shoe. That coming from the rear rack is returned to the forward end 
 of the chaffer by means of a link supported bottom, thus preventing 
 any straws falling from the straw rack endwise through the meshes of 
 the chaffer and sieve. 
 
 This fan is constructed with the wings disposed at an angle to its 
 center, claimed by some to give a stronger blast than those in which 
 the wings stand straight from the center. 
 
 As the blast comes from the wing it strikes the blast board above 
 the grain auger and is directed with force against the front portion of 
 the sieves. 
 
 The back portion of the chaffer is constructed of fingers to permit 
 any unthreshed heads to fall into the tailings spout to be returned to the 
 cylinder. 
 
 35 
 
f 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 30 
 
Figure 8. 
 
 In Fig. 8 the straw rack is represented to be divided lengthwise 
 into several sections. The front end running in parallel guides, and 
 journaled to a multicrank shaft at the rear, gives them a straight mo- 
 tion at the front end, and a circular motion at the rear, it making a 
 complete revolution with the crank. 
 
 By being divided into sections lengthwise and each section working 
 independently it gives a varied and stirring motion to the straw that 
 increases as the rear is approached. 
 
 Each section is also provided with risers which help to further 
 break the straw. 
 
 The separation in this plan is accomplished by a stirring, pulling 
 process. As each successive rack moves upward and backward carry- 
 ing the stalks in contact with it while the rack next to it tends to hold 
 it back; it does not need as vigorous a throwing motion as racks other- 
 wise planned. 
 
 37 
 
38 
 
Figure 9. 
 
 Fig. 9 is designed to show the interior of a machine with 12-bar 
 cylinder. Straw racks divided at the center and in sections lengthwise, 
 each section of each end working independently. 
 
 The forward ends of each section are given a rotary motion by be- 
 ing fastened directly to a revolving crank placed beneath them, while 
 the rear ends are supported on rocker arms and have a convex motion. 
 
 The grain is conveyed back to the sieves by means of a raddle or 
 grain web made of belting with laterally secured slats that catch the 
 grain and drag it along on the tight bottom. 
 
 It shows also the chaffer constructed of inclining wooden slats, 
 side shake shoe, and under blast fan placed in close proximity to the 
 sieves. 
 
 In operation the beater is dispensed with, the cylinder delivering 
 direct on to the straw racks, a hinged check board being suspended to 
 stop the flying kernels. 
 
 As the straw comes from the cylinder, it is a very thin sheet and is 
 deposited on the rack in a very loose open mass. The straw rack hav- 
 ing the strongest motion at this point begins pounding it from below as 
 soon as deposited having a tendency to begin separation at once while 
 in the loose form. As it passes back under the check board, it is 
 packed somewhat and reduced in bulk which quickens its speed. 
 
 As it goes over the upper point of the first riser it is pulled apart 
 and deposited on the second set of racks to be again operated upon as 
 before. 
 
 The racks so operated are self balancing which ought to insure the 
 machine being held quiet while in operation. 
 
 As the grain falls through the racks to the tight bottom it is car- 
 ried back to the cleaning sieves by the grain raddle. Where it first 
 passes on to the upper sieve or chaffer the blast strikes it and re- 
 moves the chaff. 
 
 The incline of the slats of the chaffer are such as to direct the blast 
 well up towards a perpendicular. In this position it will admit of a 
 strong blast without blowing kernels along the surface of the sieve. 
 
 The fan being located so near will give the forward portion of the 
 sieves a very strong blast as each wing passes. 
 
 39 
 
Figure 10. 
 
 Fig. lo represents a machine in operation and shows very clearly 
 the action of the various parts upon the grain and straw. 
 
 The cylinder represented is constructed of a cylindrical drum with 
 teeth inserted snd secured by nuts on the inside. Nuts are tightened 
 by inserting a specially constructed wrench to the end of the drum. 
 
 The straw passes over the beater which is composed of four wings 
 and revolves in the opposite direction from the cylinder. 
 
 The check board above the beater stops the flying kernels. 
 
 The straw rack is in one piece and is composed of a series of steps 
 oyer which the straw passes. The rack is made of open slat work 
 through which the grain can fall as it is separated from the straw. 
 
 The conveyor located under the rack carries the grain back to the 
 chaffer which is attached to it, and receives the same motion. 
 
 The shoe has a side shake with the grain and tailings spout rigidly 
 attached. The motion of the shoe carries the grain and tailings along 
 the inclined bottom 
 
 The fan is over blast with the wings set at an angle, and forces a 
 strong blast through the sieves. 
 
 41 
 
•n 
 
Figure"41. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 represents a'machine of the vibrator class with straw racks 
 divided in the center which carry both grain and straw, the straw being 
 held up by notched strips set up edgewise running their entire length. 
 
 The rack has also a number of rearwardly inclining fingers hinged 
 to it having an independent vibratory movement imparted to them by 
 means of an adjustable arm on the outside of the frame. As the rack 
 travels backward on its stroke it causes the upper points of the fingers 
 to rise and force themselves into the straw producing a motion well 
 calculated to pull the straw apart. The angle of these fingers can be 
 varied by adjusting the rocking arm. 
 
 Motion is imparted to the racks by means of a double crank at the 
 front end connected with each by a pitman so arranged that they bal- 
 ance each other. 
 
 Over the rack forward and back of the center are two sets of fingers 
 or pickers having motion imparted to them by means of a crank shaft 
 running across the top of the machine. These are so arranged 
 that while in rapid motion they pick and pull apart the moving column 
 of straw as it passes along the rack, thus assisting separation. 
 
 The rear portion of the back rack is perforated to allow the grain 
 to pass down to the shoe. 
 
 This shoe is long giving ample sieve room. 
 
 The fan is under blast and located a good distance from the sieves 
 thus giving the compressed column of air as it comes from the wings of 
 the fan a chance to equalize and adjust itself before reaching the sieves. 
 
 The cut shows the manner of belting and driving the different parts. 
 
 The fan and crank shaft is driven direct from the cylinder shaft 
 and the straw pickers from the crank shaft, the straw carrier pulley 
 from the fan shaft, and tailings elevator from one of the picker shafts 
 from the opposite side of the machine. 
 
 The tailings elevator extends far enough ahead so the tailings will 
 fall from it and descend by gravity to the cylinder. 
 
 43 
 
Figure 12. 
 
 Pig. 12 represents a machine with many novel devices peculiar 
 to itself. 
 
 Twelve-bar cylinder with wooden bars on the inside through which 
 teeth are secured. 
 
 The straw is thrown by the cylinder against a grate in which is 
 placed a revolving picker that passes the straw up and backward to two 
 revolving reels through which the straw passes. 
 
 A two winged picker located back of the reels runs at a fast speed 
 and deposits the straw upon the rack below. 
 
 The straw rack is divided at the center and operated by a centrally 
 located crank the outer ends of which are secured on rocker arms that 
 give them a convex motion. 
 
 Grain conveyors located under the racks convey the grain to the 
 forward end of the shoe. As the straw is thrown against the grate at 
 the rear of the cylinder, the pickers suddenly change the direction of 
 the straw at right angles, which has a tendency to leave the kernels to 
 fall to the rack below. Should any grain be caught and passed 
 up with the straw it will be subjected to the action of the 
 reels and picker that will again loosen and pull it apart. The reels run 
 rather slowly and confine the straw between them while the picker run- 
 ning at a high rate of speed near to them will pull the straw apart as 
 fast as presented to it. This picker also deposits the straw upon the 
 vibrating rack below in a loose and open condition to permit the ker- 
 nels to fall out by the action of the rack as it passes over them. 
 
 The straw rack has rigidly secured pieces with their upper sides 
 notched to assist the progress of the straw. 
 
 The chaffer is link supported on the lower end of the same arm 
 that carries the rear end of the straw rack, and receives the same num- 
 ber of vibrations though not as long a stroke. 
 
 After the grain falls through the chaffer it is delivered to a series of 
 corrugated rollers to be further cleaned of any remaining sticks or chaff. 
 
 The blast through the chaffer and rollers is produced by an under 
 blast fan delivering into an upper and lower air passage. The upper 
 passage opening under the chaffer, and the lower one leading to the cor- 
 
 45 
 

rugated rollers. These rollers are made to revolve slowly while a sta- 
 tionary notched comb is stationed near to each of them. The grain 
 falls between the corrugations of the roller and comb, against the mo- 
 tion of the roller, which tends to lift the chaff and sticks up, and they 
 are blown back to the tailing spout by the blast. 
 
 The blast is automatically controlled by a yielding blast board, 
 supported by a spring. 
 
 The fan is suspended in a drum sufficiently large to allow the air to 
 discharge clear around its circumference, thus increasing its capacity. 
 
 Figure 13. 
 
 Fig. 13 illustrates very clearly the plan of separation employing 
 traveling raddles or straw rakes, in connection with a separating drum 
 located at the rear of the cylinder, and pneumatic or air blast arranged 
 midway between the raddles, an underblast fan, and 9-bar cylinder. 
 
 In operation the cylinder A delivers the straw and grain against a 
 revolving drum C that is filled with short spikes which catch the straw 
 and carry it rapidly back over the grate B which is made of strap 
 iron. The straw is then delivered on to the traveling raddle D ; as it 
 passes up it is acted upon by the beater E. On reaching the upper 
 end of the raddle D it is loosened up by the picker F, and delivered on 
 to the vibrating fingers G through w hich a blast of air is being forced by 
 the upper fan H. 
 
 The second raddle I then takes the straw and carries it to the rear 
 end of the machine This raddle is vibrated in its travel by passing 
 over the irregular shaped pulley J. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the straw and grain are subjected to sev- 
 eral novel operations in their course from the cylinder to their destina- 
 tion calculated to induce separation. 
 
 The grain from the forward part of the machine is carried to the 
 shoe M by the grain conveyor K K, while that from the rear raddle is 
 returned on a tight bottom by the action of the slats on the lower side. 
 Both deliver on to the distributing grain board L, from whence the 
 grain passes to the sieves where it is acted upon by the blast from the 
 fanN. 
 
 O and P are the grain and tailings augers. 
 
 47 
 
Figure 14- 
 
 This cut is designed to show the combination of the vibrating rack 
 and the raddle as a separating device. 
 
 The cylinder A, throws the straw against the fingers B located 
 beneath the beater, which deflects it upward, permitting the grain to 
 fall through to the vibrating rack below which has a closed bottom. 
 The vibrating rack has notched pieces running lengthwise to hold 
 up the straw and assist in carrying it along. It also has rearwardly in- 
 inclining fingers secured to it which further aid in agitating the 
 straw as it passes over them. The rear portion of the rack terminates 
 in a riser that delivers the straw direct to the raddle, which is vibrated 
 in its center by the square shaped pulley over which it runs. 
 
 The conveyor sieve and straw rack are dependent of each other, 
 and are operated by a double crank at the front end of the machine 
 These cranks being set opposite to each other tend to cause the vibrat- 
 ing parts to balance, thus aiding in holding the machine still while at 
 work. 
 
 The raddle being set on an incline, has a tendency by its rapid 
 motion to give the lower stalks of the straw a sudden jerk or pull as it 
 leaves the end of the rack tending to pull the column of straw apart, 
 which will permit any imprisoned kernels to fall out, the raddle being 
 long enough to give them ample time to descend before they reach the 
 upper end. The rack and conveyor being link supported have a con- 
 cave motion. 
 
 49 
 
be 
 
Figure 15. 
 
 Fig. 15, shows another combination of raddles, racks and sep- 
 arating grates, over which forks are made to pass to carry the straw up 
 and back. 
 
 An enlarged view of these grates and forks are shown in Fig. 3. 
 This grate located just back of the cylinder catches all the straw and 
 flying kernels. The forks are operated by a crank and link connection 
 giving the lower ends a pointed elliptical motion that cleans the grates 
 at each revolution, permitting the loosened kernels to fall through to the 
 conveyor below. These forks should run quite fast and pass as close 
 to the grates as possible, to insure their being cleaned at each stroke. 
 
 As the straw leaves the forks it is deposited on the first table which 
 is composed of parallel notched strips running lengthwise quite a dis- 
 tance apart, the spaces being wide enough to permit a part of the straw 
 to fall through to the second rack below. 
 
 It is thus held apart and agitated in this condition by the move- 
 ment of the rack, then passed along to the rear of the second or lower 
 rack that further moves the straws among themselves by passing them 
 over the fish back risers and letting them fall to the fast moving raddle 
 below. This raddle is vibrated in its center by means of a revolving 
 shaft on which is placed at each end two small pulleys that strike the 
 web alternately as it rises and falls. This shaft to be most effective 
 should be timed so that the pulleys will strike the web at half their 
 height of revolution and their stroke should not be long enough to 
 cause the straw and web to ascend very high as it will have a tendency 
 to throw the grain and not give it time to fall before reaching the rear 
 end. 
 
 It will be seen that the straw in its travel from the cylinder to the 
 rear of the machine is subjected to many different motions and combi- 
 nations calculated to induce separation. 
 
 5i 
 
Self Feeders. 
 
 Self-feeders are of comparatively recent development, though they 
 have been experimented with for several years. After patient study 
 and many unsuccessful trials, the feeder and band cutter has reached a 
 degree of perfection that makes it a desirable part of the complete 
 threshing rig. 
 
 The office of the self-feeder is to cut the bands, loosen the bundle, 
 dividing it in a sufficiently thin body, and present it to the cylinder in a 
 manner that will not permit slugging or choking of the cylinder. To 
 do this successfully it is necessary that the bundles should be drawn out 
 or elongated endwise, or divided in some way that the cylinder may 
 not receive the whole bundle at one time. The usual method of accom- 
 plishing this is to pass the lower part of the bundle towards the cylinder 
 slowly while the top part has its speed increased by some faster travel- 
 ing mechanism above it, forcing the top straws ahead, while the lower 
 ones are being retarded and this must be accomplished before the bun- 
 dle reaches the cylinder. The more thorough this is done the better 
 the feeder and the machine seem to work. 
 
 There has been some experimenting with governors to regulate the 
 amount being fed to the machine and they are being used with more or 
 less succcess. Some depend on the speed of the cylinder to disengage 
 a mechanism whereby the feeder is thrown out of gear when the speed 
 is reduced below a predetermined number of revolutions per minute- 
 Others regulate by the amount or bulk of the traveling column of straw. 
 
 The bundles in most feeders are first deposited on the carrier, on 
 which they are carried along to the band cutting device by means of 
 a raddle constructed of belting with laterally secured slats, or canvas 
 covered table As the bundles move towards the cylinder, they are 
 acted upon by the band cutters, which should be sufficiently near to- 
 gether and travel closely enough to the table, to insure all the bands 
 being cut. It is also necessary that the bundles should be throughly picked 
 
 52 
 
apart and loosened up before reaching the cylinder. The band cutters 
 in most of the feeders perform this office also, by passing the knives 
 rapidly into the bundle among the straws in such a manner as to throw 
 the top straws ahead toward the cylinder. 
 
 A separator with a properly constructed self-feeder will require but 
 very little more power to thresh the same amount of grain in the 
 same time, as it divides up the bundles and feeds clear across the cylin- 
 der much better than is done by hand. But with the use of self-feeders 
 the pitchers usually pass the bundles along a little faster because they 
 do not have to use the same caution about placing them on the table as 
 they do in hand feeding. The only thing they need to observe is the 
 amount or quantity being handled. 
 
Fig. i6. 
 
 54 
 
Figure 16, 
 
 Fig. i6 represents one plan of Self-feeder and band cutter, and 
 shows the arrangement of the different parts from which its working 
 may be easily understood. 
 
 The bundles are placed on the carrier C; as they pass under the 
 disc G the bands are caught up by the notched teeth and forced against 
 the lower end of the cutting knives H. The frame E is hinged so the 
 disc head may adjust itself to the thickness of the traveling sheaves as 
 they pass under it. The bundle carrier delivers the grain on to the 
 retaining board Q which is supported by the coil spring S. 
 
 The lower portion of the retaining board is slotted to permit the 
 fingers R to project through, when the board is depressed by the grain 
 being pressed against it by the traveling rake O, which takes the straw 
 from the board Q and delivers it on to the feed board P where it passes 
 into the cylinder. 
 
 Instead of the discs G cutting the bands they serve only as pickers 
 to pick up the bands and press them against the stationary knives H. 
 There are enough discs and knives arranged across the carrier to pre- 
 vent the possibility of any bundles passing between and not have their 
 bands cut. 
 
 The distance between the front end of the carrier and the travel- 
 ing rake O, forms a reservoir in which to hold a quantity of grain. 
 The yielding board Q, having the office of pressing it against the rake 
 which only takes off a given portion, it being the amount the length of 
 the teeth will grasp and move. 
 
 Should the quantity of grain become excessive, the yielding board 
 Q will be depressed and a connecting mechanism throws the carrier out 
 of gear and stops its travel until said board reaches its normal position 
 again. 
 
 The size of the throat may be varied by sliding the lingers R, and 
 retained in position by the thumb nut W and washer U. 
 
Fig. 17. 
 
 Figure 17. 
 
 In Fig. 17 the bundles are carried on a canvas covered raddle or 
 table to the band cutters and cylinder. The bands are cut by passing 
 the bundles under a revolving drum on which are fastened sharp knives 
 that cut the bands, and at the same time loosen the bundle by pulling 
 it apart, and throwing it towards the regulator placed near the cylinder. 
 This regulator is a centrally located drum in which are fastened curved 
 teeth or fingers. 
 
 It revolves quite slowly, the lower side going towards the cylinder. 
 The loosened straw is caught by the curved forks and held from enter- 
 ing the cylinder too fast. The amount is determined by the speed of 
 the regulator. 
 
 The frame carrying the band cutting drum may be hinged to rise 
 as it passes over an abnormally large bundle or mass of straw. 
 
 The cut shows the feeder in position for work. For moving on 
 the road it is loaded on top of the separator by means of a windlass at- 
 tached to the legs of the feeder. 
 
 56 
 
Fig. I 8. 
 
 Figure 18. 
 
 In Fig. 1 8 the bundles are carried by a raddle composed of belting 
 with laterally secured slats. The revolving band cutter is formed of a 
 series of three pointed discs that cut the bands and loosen up the bun- 
 dles as they pass under it. 
 
 The loosened straw is dropped on to the vibrating table or feed 
 board in front of the cylinder. A number of regulating fingers project 
 through the feed board to check the speed of the lower side of the in- 
 going grain. Short vibrating deflectors are operated above tending to 
 force the top part of the mass of straw into the cylinder, while the 
 lower part is being retained by the regulating fingers below, thus tend- 
 ing to prevent slugging by not admitting too much straw at one time. 
 
 S7 
 
CARRIER ROLLEfV 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Figure 19. 
 
 Fig. 19 represents a class called crank feeders. 
 
 The bundles are placed on the sheaf carrier which deposits them 
 on the oscillating bottom or feed board where they are acted upon by 
 the band cutting knives above. The knives are operated by a multiple 
 crank which gives the forward part of the bars holding the knives a cir- 
 cular motion, and the rear end an angular parallel motion. This action 
 cuts the bands and tends to elongate the bundle towards the cylinder; 
 the notched pieces below tending to retard the bottom portion of the 
 grain somewhat, while the knives cut and loosen from above. 
 
 The cranks are constructed so the knife bars balance, as they re- 
 volve, by being set opposite each other. 
 
 58 
 
Feeding. 
 
 The separator, to work in harmony with the engine should be fed 
 uniformly, keeping a continuous flow of straw through the cylinder at 
 all times. This keeps the engine working with a uniform amount of 
 steam and given tension on the belt. 
 
 When grain is passed into the cylinder it tends to check its speed. 
 As soon as this checking is felt on the main drive belt it also slows the 
 speed of the engine until the governor has time to act and let on more 
 steam, which brings the motion back to its normal speed. This it does 
 by pulling harder on the drive belt. Now if while pulling hard, the 
 cylinder suddenly runs empty of straw, the speed at once increases in 
 obedience to the extra tension on the belt, as it takes a little time to 
 communicate this change of speed to the governor and have it act 
 upon the steam. The result is a see sawing of motion every time a 
 bundle goes in if it is not properly divided up and lapped on to the next 
 one. This is true both in hand and self-feeding. A whole or compact 
 bundle large enough to slug should not be permitted to enter the cylin- 
 der. 
 
 The cylinder teeth are about three inches long. The concave 
 teeth occupy about one third of the space between the cylinder bars 
 and concave, this leaves a space of about two inches which the bundle 
 must be compressed into in passing through. This compressing process 
 by the teeth consumes a large amount of power. 
 
 A 500 pound cylinder running at full speed, has a momentum or 
 striking force of 1320 tons. This indicates the terrible strain brought 
 to bear when a bundle goes in sufficiently large to stop the cylin- 
 der dead still at once, though this does not often happen. But the 
 power consumed when the bundles are not properly divided up is enor- 
 mous. This is more so in damp and tough grain than when dryer, as 
 the damp straw being tougher and more pliable clings firmer to the 
 teeth. 
 
 59 
 
Wind Stackers. 
 
 It might be said of pneumatic or wind stackers that they are just 
 in the process of being developed and introduced. In some sections of 
 the country they have come into quite common use while in others they 
 have not been tried so generally. 
 
 Though there have been pneumatic straw handling machines in 
 use to a limited extent for several years, especially in Europe where 
 they were first tried, it is only recently that they have reached a degree 
 of perfection to warrant their general use. One of the greatest obstacles 
 to overcome has been the great amount of power required to run 
 them, but that has been remedied to a certain extent though it is one 
 of the chief items to be considered in their use at the present time. 
 
 It is difficult to state the actual horse power required to drive them; 
 but the comparative amount may be arrived at by the width of belt 
 and size of pulley used to convey the motion to them. If the belt is as 
 wide and the pulley as large which runs the stacker as that which runs 
 the separator and both belts of equal tightness it is reasonable to sup- 
 pose they consume an equal amount of power. Or if the belt coming 
 from the engine is a 7 inch belt and running on an 8 inch pulley, and 
 the belt which runs the wind stacker a 4 inch belt running on a pulley 
 of the same size, and both belts of the same tension and both working 
 to their full capacity it is plain then the wind stacker is using 4-7 of the 
 power transmitted by the engine. If the latter belt was 5 inches 
 then 5-7 of the power would be used to drive it. 
 
 The wind stacker has some advantages peculiar to itself. It does 
 not require any extra effort to set it as the swinging stacker does, when 
 commencing a new setting of stacks, or in moving the machine after 
 the stacks are finished. It will throw the straw farther, which makes 
 it less liable to fill up near it and cause trouble. 
 
 In the first wind stackers used the fan was located beneath the 
 straw exit and forced a blast into the straw pipe, which was funnel 
 
 60 
 
shaped at the point where the straw and blast entered. The difficulty 
 with this style was, that a slight obstruction would cause the straw to 
 stop in the pipe and the air would return and blow out at the point 
 where the straw entered, not being able to maintain pressure enough to 
 cause the straw to continue its course under all conditions to the end of 
 the pipe. In the present construction the straw enters the fan with the blast 
 and is forced to travel the whole length of the pipe before finding an outlet. 
 A sufficiently strong pressure is thus maintained to cause the continual 
 flow of the blast and straw; this pressure to insure successful work 
 should be equal to the weight of a column of water about 3 inches high 
 and does not need to travel very fast, but when being retarded by wet 
 or heavy straw should come with a force equal to the above. There 
 is a difference between force and speed. The one that has the most 
 force and least speed will be the one that operates best and requires 
 least power to run. 
 
 Handling The Threshed Grain. 
 
 There is a variety of weighers, measurers, sackers, and wagon load- 
 ers on the market and in use for handling cleaned grain as it comes 
 from the machine. They do not need more than passing notice here. 
 
 First is the class that weighs the grain, and registers the number of 
 bushels delivered. Also the wagon loader that delivers to either side 
 of the machine without any device for recording the amount handled. 
 
 There are also those that measure the grain instead of weighing it, 
 keeping a record of the amount on a suitably arranged tallier. The 
 common short sacker is also a very handy and common means of get- 
 ting the grain sacked, requiring one man to operate it. 
 
 The old way of measuring with half bushels from the ground is a 
 laborious task when threshing very fast. 
 
 61 
 
Operation. 
 
 In operation, the threshing machine, the same as any other ma- 
 chine, will do the best work when properly managed. 
 
 There is no machine whose work is more varied nor which is re- 
 quired to be operated under so many different conditions. 
 
 Scarcely two fields of grain have grown, ripened and been cut 
 and handled the same. One may be in a condition to shell from the 
 straw easily, while in another the kernels may cling to the chaff or 
 heads so as to make it almost impossible to dislodge them. One stack 
 of grain may be brittle and cut up, another may pass through without 
 breaking up much. One kind may be stiff and stubborn, another soft 
 and pliable. One lot may have many blades or leaves on the stalks, 
 another only the plain stalk and head. One kind may have a light 
 fluffy chaff and dense heavy kernels, another, with the chaff heavy and 
 filled with sap and the kernel as light as the chaff. Some fields are 
 filled with weeds and foreign matter which the machine is expected to 
 distinguish and separate from the grain. 
 
 Then again some conditions require more power than others to 
 drive the machine. Some days are bright and sunshiny, others damp 
 and foggy. Some warm or hot, others cold. There may be a hard 
 wind blowing or none at all, each condition affecting the machine in a 
 different way. The experienced Operator is expected to meet all 
 these varied conditions and save every kernel, and clean the grain 
 perfectl3% and do many other things well nigh impossible. But the 
 man who understands the machine and its workings best, will come the 
 nearest to perfection in the operation of the same. 
 
 The Cylinder should receive special attention and be kept in good 
 condition. If it is too much out of balance it should be taken from the 
 machine and set on straight edges and put in balance again by insert- 
 ing counterbalancing weights on the light side. The boxes should not 
 be run too tight as it consumes a large amount of power to overcome 
 the extra friction. 
 
 The teeth should not be permitted to become so worn and rounded 
 as to retard the straw from entering the cylinder freely. Part new 
 teeth divided equally around and along the cylinder, will assist in the 
 suction of the straw, and thresh clean also. 
 
Care should be used to keep the teeth properly spaced, any bent 
 ones may be trued up with the tooth straightener or with a heavy 
 hammer. 
 
 The cracking of grain is usually caused by one or more teeth run- 
 ning so near the concave teeth or bottom as not to permit a whole ker- 
 nel to pass and by being wedged between them the kernel is cracked 
 or broken. Still there is another cause of cracking grain, by being re- 
 peatedly returned to the cylinder by the tailings elevator. Each time 
 the kernel receives a blow from the moving tooth it is partly disinteg- 
 rated and soon is forced open or broken to pieces. 
 
 Only sufficient concave teeth should be used to retard the straw 
 long enough in its passage through the cylinder to allow all the kernels 
 to be loosened, as more consume unnecessary power and cut up the 
 straw to such an extent as to interfere with the proper functions of the 
 separating and cleaning devices. The machine will often do better 
 work with two or four rows of concave teeth than with more. In oats 
 two rows are usually sufficient except sometimes where the kernel is 
 small and light and the oats having^ been cut green seem to be tough 
 and cling to the straw, then a high speed of the cylinder and more 
 concave teeth are necessary to loosen all of them from the straw. 
 
 In sections where flax is grown it is a good plan to have a concave 
 especially designed, with the teeth closer together, as some conditions 
 need very close work to break open the balls containing the seed. 
 
 There is a condition of flax quite often found where the ball is 
 saturated with an oily gummy substance that causes it to be very tough 
 and hard to open, and it is liable to break off from the stalk and pass 
 through the machine in a whole condition. In such cases use all the 
 concave teeth possible and run the cylinder at high speed and arrange 
 the rear end of the machine to return the unbroken balls through the 
 tailings elevator. 
 
 In threshing barley it " nubs" or breaks off the beard better with 
 plenty of concave teeth in, and running at high speed. 
 
 The grate back of the concave should be raised at the rear side 
 enough to permit the straw and grain, as it comes from the cylinder, 
 to strike its face at a slight angle. This will keep it clean and prevent 
 it from loading up in dry and brittle straw. 
 
 The beater should be in a position for the straw to pass it without 
 
 63 
 
changing the course of the straw too much, that is, it should be in such a 
 position that the straw coming from the cyhnder will not strike it near 
 the center, as it would then have to change its course to pass under or 
 over the beater, which ever the case may be. 
 
 When the straw passes under, the beater should be only low 
 enough to reach the straw sufficiently to keep it moving. 
 
 In the scheme of separation the first essential feature is to have 
 the cylinder leave the straw as near whole as possible and have it 
 threshed clean of kernels. The nearer whole the stalks are the more 
 freely will the kernels fall out, as it will not pack together so much as 
 if cut and broken up. 
 
 In some cases the stalks are heavily loaded with leaves that break 
 loose-and cut up forming a homogeneous mass in which the kernels are 
 lodged and retained. 
 
 Oats in some cases are difficult to separate. In some sections of 
 the country the rust forms on the stalks and leaves before being har- 
 vested. It usually leaves them very brittle, and the kernels blight 
 making them light. The rust on the stalks has a certain clinging 
 roughness that makes them adhere to each other, and tends to retard the 
 action of the rack or raddle in moving them about among each other, 
 they having a tendency to move along in a continuous mass. In such 
 cases all that can be done is to adjust the machine to best advantage, 
 run with a full motion and regulate the amount being fed accordingly. 
 
 In threshing rye, which is usually very easily separated on account 
 of the stalks being stiff, comparatively little chaff and leaves are found 
 to retard separation. In some cases the straw is so fluffy and loose as 
 to prevent it being worked back fast enough by the separating devices 
 causing the body of the machine to choke and fill up. This may be 
 remedied somewhat by inserting more concave teeth to cut the 
 straw up. 
 
 The check board in vibrating machines can sometimes be weighted 
 to advantage which has a tendency to pound the straw down and com- 
 press it, giving the table a better chance to handle it. The check 
 board can be weighted by fastening a piece of wood or iron to its back 
 and upper side running it lengthwise and securing it by bolts or screws. 
 
 As has been stated before, it is quite essential to the good working 
 
 64 
 
of a separator that it should stand quite still on its trucks while in 
 operation. 
 
 There is a great difference whether the separator frame is still, and 
 the moving parts make their full motion, or the frame does half or 
 even a part of the moving and the working parts only go far enough to 
 complete the motion. 
 
 There have been several devices used to hold the machine still on 
 its trucks. Manufacturers seem to have neglected to properly provide 
 means for that purpose. Some use blocks driven under the wheels but 
 they are unsatisfactory as they work loose and do not hold properly. 
 
 Some use a brace running from the sill to the lower part of the 
 truck wheel held by a properly constructed clamp bolt. Other clamps 
 and braces have been devised for this purpose. 
 
 There is also another reason why the separator should stand still. 
 When the engine is working it has one side of the belt drawn up tight 
 while the other side is comparatively loose. The harder it is working 
 the tighter this will be drawn. Now if the separator is rocking back 
 and forth on its trucks, as it goes toward the engine it takes up more 
 slack, and when moving backward away from the engine the belt will 
 either have to stretch, or slip upon the pulley, and as the slack has 
 already been taken up and the belt drawn tight it is very liable to do 
 the latter. This is hard upon the drive belt and the lagging of the pul- 
 ley and a great waste of power. This is augmented and made worse 
 if.the engine is also permitted to rock and vibrate. For the vibrations 
 of the two will not be the same, and during part of the time in the series 
 of oscillations, the separator will be moving in one direction and the en- 
 gine in the other, thus doubly increasing the liability of the belt to slip. 
 
 If it is a horse power machine the same reasons exist for needing 
 the separator to stand quiet as it causes a heavy strain on the tumbling 
 rods that convey the power to the separator. 
 
 If the separator fails to take the grain out of the straw properly it 
 is very likely because of one or more of the following reasons; viz., 
 the separator is not standing still upon its trucks; it is not running at 
 the proper speed, the cylinder fails to dislodge all of the kernels; the 
 rear end is standing too high, or the machine is being crowded beyond 
 its natural capacity. 
 
 The speed of the machine is quite important. One of the stubborn 
 
 65 
 
facts in threshing is, that the time when a good stiff motion is needed 
 is the time when the machine is being fed hard and is very liable to be 
 the time when the motion is low. This is more especially true when 
 the source of power is weak or being taxed to its full limit. 
 
 The Shoe or cleaning mill should receive special study by any one 
 who intends to make threshing a success. Though a very simple ap- 
 pearing device it has many features that are not generally understood. 
 The large variety of arrangements of the different parts prevents this 
 work from going into the details of every machine, but it will deal with 
 them in a general way that is applicable to all. 
 
 The motion of the shoe is varied in the different machines, in some 
 as short as 5-8 of an inch, up to 4 inches in others, though there is not so 
 much difference in the motion of the upper sieve or chaffer. In most 
 machines it is from 2 to 3 inches. The following rule will be found 
 nearly correct, viz., the shorter the stroke the more vibrations per 
 minute, the longer the stroke the less the number of vibrations per 
 minute. 
 
 The speed should be only strong and quick enough to throw the 
 grain but slightly at the top finish of the stroke, if more than this, it is 
 too strong and will carry or throw the grain and a part of it will pass 
 out with the chaff. If the motion is not strong enough to cause the 
 grain to leave the upper surface of the sieve slightly at each stroke the 
 result is, the meshes become filled with grain and chaff, the sieve or 
 chaffer becomes choked and loaded up to such an extent as to allow 
 but very little to pass through If the mechanism is such that the upper 
 part of the stroke is the more strong and quick leaving the lower end of 
 the stroke slow and mild, all the better; as the upper part will do the 
 throwing and agitating while the slow part of the stroke will give the 
 sieve time to come to rest for an instant permitting the kernels to fall 
 through much better. 
 
 The boxes and connections that operate the shoe should be kept 
 in good order and not be permitted to get loose as the loss of motion 
 causes a pounding that jars the sieve causing it to spring and tremble, 
 greatly interfering with the free passage of the kernels. 
 
 The Blast should come in for its share of attention. Much de- 
 pends upon it to accomplish good work and when once mastered and 
 controlled it is a very obedient servant. But few changes have been 
 
 ee 
 
adopted in the construction of the fans since they were first used in the 
 separators. They have faults as well as virtues; they do not always 
 send the proper amount of blast just where intended or needed most. 
 
 There is a great difference in the condition of the material coming 
 to the shoe to be handled at different times, and in different sections of 
 the country. In parts of the country where spring wheat is raised 
 there is much more work required of the shoe, there being more chaff; 
 and the straw being stiffer and harder to thresh breaks up much more 
 than that of the variety known as winter wheat raised in other sections. 
 
 The chaff and dust from spring wheat is much denser and heavier 
 than that from winter wheat, requiring more than twice the pressure of 
 blast to lift and penetrate through it though the kernels are not much 
 heavier. 
 
 The cylinder and concaves should be adjusted to cut the straw up 
 as little as possible and get the grain out, by doing so it will be made 
 easier for the shoe to do its work. 
 
 As the grain and chaff are delivered to the front end of the chaffer 
 they are more or less mixed, the kernels being intermingled with the 
 chaff, and of a depth and quantity according to the amount being 
 threshed. 
 
 It is plain that so long as the chaff and kernels are mixed together, 
 if the meshes of the chaffer are not large enough to let the whole mass 
 of mixed material drop through, the most of it will be carried along by 
 the action of the chaffer to the rear end. But force a little blast 
 through and notice the effect; as the blast comes through the meshes of 
 the sieve it lifts grain, straw and all. Now the kernels at or near the 
 bottom of the mass will fall by their own weight to or through the sieve. 
 As the blast continues to find its way through and among the various 
 particles of the mass it loosens and separates it carrying the lightest up 
 first and farthest leaving the heavier pieces and kernels to fall by their 
 weight. 
 
 By watching the blast at work passing through the chaff it will be 
 noticed that the particles traveling through the air are entirely free from 
 each other, each one trying to get as far away from its neighbor as pos- 
 sible. There are never any bunches clinging together being blown up by 
 the action of the air, but they are always separated, producing the very 
 best conditions for the separation of the kernels from the chaff to take 
 place. 
 
 67 
 
The blast should be strong enough at the very front of the 
 chaffer to insure it always flowing through the very first meshes 
 enough to keep them cleared, and passing up through the column of 
 chaff as it passes along; but it should not blow fast enough to lift the 
 light kernels very high. There is a difference between strength and 
 speed. The blast should have strength but not much speed. A horse 
 might be very strong and able to move a heavy load but not move it 
 very fast. The horse would be able to go at a uniform speed whether 
 loaded heavy or light. So with the blast in the shoe, it should be able 
 to move at its regular speed regardless of the amount of grain and chaff 
 to be handled. 
 
 It is plain that it should be the strongest at the front end of the 
 chaffer where the load is heaviest, the chaff being mixed with the grain 
 and packed together at that point. After the blast has once penetrated 
 through the column and has the chaff lifted up in the air it does not 
 need as strong a blast to keep it there. In some wrongly constructed 
 shoes the reverse is found; the blast being the strongest at the rear 
 end and the weakest at the front end of the chaffer. In such cases the 
 heavier the load of chaff coming on at the front end the harder the 
 blast will be at the rear. As soon as a little too much grain and chaff 
 enter the front end of the chaffer and load the meshes enough, the 
 blast ceases to escape there and is forced along to the rear end and be- 
 ing confined there and deflected up by the bottom of the shoe it is 
 blown out through the rear meshes of the sieve with force enough to 
 carry kernels and all along with it. 
 
 If a shoe is found to be in this condition the remedy is to arrange 
 and adjust the blast or deflecting boards in such a manner as to cause 
 the blast to strike the front end more forcibly. 
 
 To aid in this adjustment it would be well to consider first some 
 of the peculiarities of the fan and its action on the air. As it revolves 
 the wings cause the air to revolve with it. As each wing passes the 
 outlet a small portion of the air is thrown off by centrifugal force, other 
 air coming in through the openmgs at the end to take its place in the 
 fan. 
 
 As the fan revolves the front side of the wing has a slight increase 
 of pressure of air against it, while the back side has a corresponding de- 
 creased pressure. The sum of these minus and plus sides being very 
 nearly equal to the natural atmospheric pressure. 
 
 68 
 
As each win^ passes the outlet opening into the shoe the air starts 
 to rush in behind the wing, from the shoe, to fill the partial vacuum on 
 the rear side of the fan wing. A small portion enters the fan after each 
 wing; the next wing coming has a tendency to force it back again before 
 it has entered very far. This causes the air to be moved first one way, 
 then the other, causing the low vibrating or humming sound heard in 
 fast running fans. Now this action of the air is not equal and alike 
 along the entire length of the wing. The most air being forced out at 
 the center of the shoe materially effects the action of the blast through 
 the sieves. 
 
 When the fan is in motion, with the ends open free to admit air, 
 it rushes in from both ends and these two columns of air meet midway, 
 at the center of the fan. The meeting of these two columns increases 
 the pressure somewhat at this central point and to relieve this pressure 
 it is passed off most freely in the outlet toward the sieves at the center. 
 As the wing passes the outlet the most air rushes in behind the wing at 
 the ends, as the vacuum is greater there than at the center of the wing; 
 consequently instead of the air blowing from the fan toward the sieves, 
 it passes from the sieves into the fan near the ends of the wings. This 
 is more so in wide machines than in narrow ones as this fact is more 
 marked in long than in comparatively short fans. 
 
 There is still another reason for this unrecognized phenomenon. 
 As the air rushes in at the ends of the fan, toward its center, it has but 
 ■^ery little pressure sideways toward the sieves and the extra pressure in 
 the shoe forces the air back into the fan, thus causing the air to travel 
 the wrong way a part of the distance near the ends of the wings, as the 
 air comes from the center of the fan a part of it swings around and 
 passes back into the fan at the ends. This causes a kind of an eddy or 
 whirling motion. Should this effect become strong enough the result 
 will be to carry some of the falling grain along with the air into the fan. 
 
 In some machines the corners of the wings are worn by striking 
 against the grain that is carried into it by the action of the air. This 
 also effects the perfect cleaning, as at the front corners of the sieves 
 the blast has a tendency downward carrying the chaff and dust with it 
 into the grain. 
 
 This whirling motion can be tested in any machine by taking the 
 sieves out and running the machine empty. While in motion take a 
 
 69 
 
cane or stick of convenient length and fasten a ribbon about four or 
 five inches long to one end. By holding this near the fan at the out- 
 let the ribbon will indicate which way the blast is moving. 
 
 It will be found that the direction of the blast is not in a direct 
 line from the point of delivery of the fan along the stationary blast 
 board at the top or bottom toward the sieves, but rather has a tendency 
 to follow the curve of the fan until it comes in contact with the blast 
 board. Further, in the underblast fan the blast does not leave the 
 fan at the bottom and travel in a direct line along the bottom blast 
 board toward the sieves; but travels in a thin column along near the 
 fan increasing slightly in bulk until it reaches the top blast board where 
 it is deflected downward and backward, the angle of reflection being 
 nearly equal to the angle of incidence. 
 
 The air being compressed slightly in the center will take a course 
 angling toward the sides causing it to blow harder at the rear corners 
 than in the center at the rear end. 
 
 It will greatly aid the blast to equalize and adjust itself if two or 
 three narrow wind boards i or 2 inches wide be placed parallel to 
 the fan in the forward part of the shoe below the sieves. They should 
 be set at such an angle as to deflect the blast toward the forward part 
 of the sieves and near enough together to require a little pressure to 
 force the blast through. This will tend to cause the air to pass through 
 along the entire length of the opening to relieve the pressure on the fan 
 side, and will tend to make the blast more uniform across the entire- 
 width of the sieves. 
 
 There is a great variety of sieves made and used. In former years 
 the woven wire ones were in general use, but they are not used as much 
 now. They admit the blast too freely and the straws run through the 
 meshes and fill them up. The tendency at present is toward sheet 
 metal ones, being either perforated through the plain surface or cut 
 and bent into irregular shaped lips and corrugations. 
 
 Chaffers constructed of wooden slats set at an angle are used, also 
 perforated plain wooden ones with the holes bored at an angle. 
 
 The sieves should be constructed and adapted for the kind of work 
 being done. 
 
 The frame should not spring very much while in motion as the ex- 
 cessive vibration in the center tends to throw the grain in too positive a 
 manner. The angle of the blast passing through the chaffer should be 
 
 70 
 
well upward rather than backward. This is accomplished by the posi- 
 tion of the lip or slat forming the meshes of the sieve, the blast taking 
 the same angle as the slat or lip of the sieve. 
 
 A kernel of grain will fall through a perpendicular blast more 
 readily than through an angular one, and a perpendicular blast will lift 
 the chaff from the sieve much better than an angular one. 
 
 The holes or meshes should be only large enough to freely allow 
 the grain to pass through. When the sieve is correctly constructed 
 and the blast properly adjusted there need be no waste and the grain 
 will be well cleaned. When the shoe is working properly there will 
 be very little tailings going back to the cylinder. Tailings is what 
 goes through the chaffer and does not go through the sieve and is com- 
 posed of chaff and grain. 
 
 Upon reflection then it will be seen that if the blast strikes every 
 mesh in the chaffer properly it will prevent any chaff from passing 
 through and cause it to be carried off with the straw. Further, if the 
 chaffer is properly constructed and has the right motion, as soon as the 
 blast clears the meshes of chaff the grain will fall through at once at the 
 forward end, and will then have the entire length of the sieve to travel 
 over before reaching the tailings spout thus increasing its chances of 
 passing through and not be carried around with the tailings. 
 
 Otherwise if the blast does not pass through the column of chaff 
 until it is half way or more along the sieve, it is plain that a part of the 
 chaff has been sifting through the meshes where no blast was felt. 
 The chaff will then find its exit along the next lower sieve to the tail- 
 ings spout. A portion of the grain cannot pass through the chaffer at the 
 front end but is carried along with the chaff to the point where the 
 blast first passes through it. This may be so near the tailings spout as 
 to cause the grain to be carried over into the straw or go back to the 
 cylinder with the tailings, thus overloading the elevator and unduly 
 taxingthe capacity of the separating and cleaning devices, and if the 
 same kernels should be returned often, the action of the cylinder will 
 tend to crack or hull them as the case may be. 
 
 As few sieves should be used as will do the work properly. Oats 
 and wheat usually require only one. In some instances in weedy 
 wheat a second sieve in the shpe will improve the cleaning. Flax, if 
 
 71 
 
weedy, may be run through two sieves below the chaffer. Many make 
 a mistake by trying to run flax through a sieve with too small meshes 
 causing it to pass over to the tailings spout which greatly interferes 
 with the free action of the blast. Some kinds of flax have a seed much 
 larger than others. In fast flax threshing, much more satisfactory work 
 can be done by using a finishmg sieve with the meshes as large as 3-16 
 of an inch. (This refers to perforated sheet metal ones. ) 
 
 Belts. 
 
 The success of a machine depends largely upon the working of the 
 belts. Their proper care and management is of importance. The ma- 
 terial should be of the best quality. 
 
 Leather belts should always be run with the grain or smooth side 
 to the pulley, as they will run easier transmit more power and last lon- 
 ger. They will run easier because the flesh or rough side by being on 
 the outside will expand more easily and adjust itself to the curve in pass- 
 ing around the pulley, which also has a tendency to add to the life of 
 the belt. The smooth side will transmit more power because it brings 
 more surface in contact with the pulley. They should be run only tight 
 enough to perform the work without slipping, for whatever power is 
 consumed in slipping is lost. If a belt is permitted to slip it will have a 
 tendency to partially run off of the pulley, and will also soon wear out 
 the lacings. 
 
 If belts become dry and brittle they should have a dressing of 
 neatsfoot oil with a very little resin mixed in it. Do not use enough 
 resin to leave the surface of the belt sticky. A belt that is pliable will 
 transmit more power than if dry and hard. 
 
 Rubber belting is also used quite extensively for some purposes, 
 and when of the best grade is very economical as its first cost is less 
 than that of the best grades of leather. 
 
 Chain or link belting is used, and in some places is preferable to 
 any other. It never slips or runs off, nor does it ever come unlaced. 
 When link belting is used it should not be run too tight as it causes 
 a trembling or jarring vibration as each link passes on to the sprocket. 
 
 72 
 
Lacing A Belt. 
 
 There is a right and a wrong way to lace a belt. The two ends to 
 be joined should be cut square. A belt punch of sufficient size should 
 be used to permit the lacing to pass through freely without straining 
 the fibre of the leather, which has a tendency to cause the holes to tear 
 out and the lacing to break off. A punch making a hole about 5-16 of 
 an inch is the most convenient size for ordinary work. A smaller one 
 should be used to make a hole in which to fasten the ends of the lac- 
 ing which should be of a size to permit the lace to pass through tight. 
 
 In punching the holes, care should be taken to get the spaces uni- 
 form and of equal distance from the edge of the belt. An odd number 
 of holes gives the best results, thus, three, five or seven may be made 
 according to the width of the belt. 
 
 The start should be made with the lace by passing the two ends of 
 the lace through the two center holes from the flesh side, to the smooth 
 side. This when finished will leave the ends of the lace projecting on 
 the side to be run next to the pulley, this will prevent the ends from 
 slapping and wearing off as they pass around the pulleys. It will also 
 leave the lace crossed on the pulley side, thus giving more surface for 
 contact. From the center, lace once through each hole until the outer 
 edge is reached using one end of lace for one edge and the other end for 
 the other edge. Then pass the ends of lace through each outside hole 
 again, then through the next succeeding holes until the center is reached 
 using each end of the lace for its respective edge of the belt. Then 
 pass the ends of the lace up through the small retaining holes. 
 
 This when finished has the lace passed through each hole twice 
 and is what is called double lacing. The length of the lace should be 
 such as to project through only about three inches when finished. Punch 
 the small retaining hole for end of lace in line with the center holes 
 then when the belt stretches and is cut off to be relaced, it will be in 
 position to be enlarged and used. 
 
 Good lace leather should be used and cut of uniform width, about 
 5-16 of an inch, with ends tapered for convenience. In lacing place 
 the smooth or grain side of lace out, as so placed it will last longer. 
 
 A lace-cutter is a cheap and convenient tool, and should be found 
 in the kit of tools of every thresherman. 
 
 73 
 
Babbitting Boxes. 
 
 With a little care and practice any one of ordinary ability can 
 babbitt boxes. 
 
 First remove the old babbitt and clean the boxes well, to get 
 them free from grease and dampness as the gases when heated will 
 cause the babbitt to blow out. Bolt the boxes in place with shimming 
 (pieces of pasteboard) between the halves to allow take up for wear. 
 Hold the shaft in place at the center of the box by inserting a narrow 
 strip of leather around the shaft at the end of the box, then with clay 
 moistened to the consistency of stiff dough thoroughly seal up all open- 
 ings to prevent the liquid metal from running out. Place a wooden 
 stick in the oil hole and plaster up, leaving the top flaring to pour the 
 metal in. After all is in readiness remove the stick with care to pre- 
 vent any clay from being broken loose and falling into the box. 
 
 In preparing the shimming between the boxes see that the edge of 
 the shimming comes against the shaft, in order to separate the metal 
 in the two halves. Cut two or three small notches in the shimming 
 about I inch deep and %. inch long to allow the babbitt to run in and 
 fill the lower half of the box. 
 
 To be successful the babbitt metal should be at about the tempera- 
 ture to burn a piece of wood To test it insert a stick into the melting 
 metal occasionally, and when it gets hot enough to make the stick 
 smoke or turn black it is of the right temperature. When pouring do 
 not stop until the box is filled as the metal chills very quickly and will 
 not unite when fresh metal is poured in. The metal should be poured in 
 as fast as it will run through the opening to insure its filling the lower 
 half. 
 
 If the lower half should not fill properly enlarge the openings in 
 the shimming between the halves of the box and try it again. After 
 pouring, remove the clay and break the box apart by driving a cold 
 chisel between the halves, then dress off the points formed in the 
 notches of the shimming. 
 
 74 
 
Relieve the shaft a little by scraping some of the babbitt metal away 
 from the inside of the box, removing the most near the inside edges, also put 
 in an extra piece of shimming as the box would be too tight and heat if 
 left as babbitted. 
 
 Before babbitting care should be used to have the box bolted down 
 tight, in the position it is intended to run, as the tightening is liable to 
 warp its position and get it out of line. 
 
 If a stick is inserted into the oil hole as soon as the metal is poured 
 before it cools, it will form an oil hole and save drilling or punching 
 same out. 
 
 Babbitt is made of Block tin and Antimony, the best grades also 
 contain a little copper. Babbitt with zinc in its composition should 
 not be used as it has a tendency to cause the boxes to heat and will 
 not wear long. 
 
 Lubrication. 
 
 The life of a machine and its ease of operation depend very much 
 upon the manner in which its journals are kept lubricated. 
 
 In the selection of lubricants we should keep in mind the purpose 
 for which they are to be used. In hot, dry weather a much thicker and 
 heavier oil can be used than in cold weather. Mineral oils are usually 
 preferred in places subject to heat, in preference to those composed of 
 animal or vegetable matter. Among dealers there has been quite a 
 tendency to supply the cheapest oil, but which in many instances has 
 been the dearest for the user. 
 
 There is a tendency at the present time toward what is called hard 
 oil. It is a mineral product from petroleum and certainly has many ex- 
 cellent qualities. It is easily applied and very lasting in its effects. In 
 the use of hard oil, a cup adapted to the purpose must be used. It is 
 usually a cup inserted in the box with cover or cap screwed on, by 
 which means the grease may be forced through the stem into the box. 
 Only a very little of the oil is necessary to lubricate a journal, and is 
 very lasting, 
 
 75 
 
In many of the machine oils, vegetable matter mixed with kerosene 
 or other light mineral oil is used, and can be sold very cheap. The 
 kerosene soon evaporates at the end of the journal, leaving 
 the vegetable matter in the box, which thickens and gums causing the 
 box to heat, or the shaft to run hard. Oil containing kerosene is al- 
 so hard on paint where it spreads out upon the wood work causing 
 the varnish to corrode and become dull 
 
 A good grade of oil for general purposes is what is called black or 
 crude oil. It is a mineral product with all the light oils removed, and 
 comes in different grades of density. The heavier qualities can be used 
 in warm weather to advantage, while in colder times the lighter grades 
 will be found to run more freely, and not thicken as readily. 
 
 Getting Ready. 
 
 If the machine is one that has been in use the year before, it 
 should be put in good condition before the time announced to commence 
 threshing by going over it and seeing that every piece is in proper re- 
 pair to maintain a fall's run. See that the boxes over the entire ma- 
 chine are properly adjusted and any worn ones set up. If too much 
 worn they should be rebabbitted. A shaft should not be so loose in 
 the box as to permit very much rattling or moving back and forth, 
 though it runs easier to not be too tight. 
 
 All boxes where the shaft is compelled to produce or withstand a 
 vibrating motion should be kept in good condition and not be allowed 
 to get loose at any time, as the least play will permit the shaft to pound 
 at each vibrating stroke causing the shaft to wear flat. Neither will 
 it cause the part being oscillated or vibrated to work smoothly and 
 easily and may interfere with its performing the functions intended. 
 
 All vertical oil cups should have a piece of clean waste inserted to 
 retain the oil and keep out the dust and dirt. See that every belt is 
 properly laced and of the right tension. If too tight, instead of over 
 straining it in putting it on, it is much the better plan to relieve it a 
 little by letting out the lacing, and then take it up when the belt has 
 
 76 
 
stretched. If they are dry and hard, a Httle neatsfoot oil, in which a 
 very little resin has been dissolved, will help to soften them and add to 
 the life of the belt. See that no rivet heads project through the lagging 
 on the pulleys for they cut the surface of the belt as it passes over them. 
 See that every nut and bolt in the entire machine is tight and in its 
 proper position. 
 
 If the frame of the machine is warped, try to get it in line. Any 
 worn teeth should be replaced with new ones. Straw rakes and rad- 
 dles should be examined with care and put in good condition. If 
 wooden trucks are used see that tires are tight, if iron, see that every 
 spoke is screwed up to its proper tension. 
 
 The tool box is quite an important adjunct to a well equipped out- 
 fit. It should be provided with the necessary tools such as hammers, 
 wrenches, chisels, files, etc., together with assorted sizes of bolts, 
 screws, rivets and nails, that would be liable to be needed at any time. 
 Much valuable time may be saved by being able to replace at any 
 moment such small parts that might be lost or broken. The box 
 should be well covered to exclude all dirt and chaff so that any article 
 can be found at a moment's notice. Each tool and piece should have 
 its place in the tool box and be kept there, then it can be found at any 
 time, and will be missed from its place as soon as mislaid or lost. 
 
 If the machine is a new one everything should be put in its 
 proper place and the machine gone over and all nuts tightened, leaving 
 each nut standing square with the piece upon which it rests. This will 
 give a symmetrical and workman-like look, and any time afterwards if a 
 nut should start to turn and loosen, the eye having become accustomed 
 to seeing the nuts stand square will detect the change, and it can be 
 again tightened before being lost 
 
 The machine should be run empty for a time before having the 
 crew assembled, to see that everything is in working order. New belts 
 after running a short time usually stretch and need to be cut and tight- 
 ened. See that all cinders and dirt are removed from the boxes and 
 pack them with waste to retain the oil and exclude dirt. 
 
 17 
 
The Crew. 
 
 The duty of the Manager is to have charge of the machine and crew 
 and see that everything is operating properly, arrange the work so it may be 
 done in the most expeditious manner, economize time and expense to 
 accompHsh the most with the least outlay of labor; look after the wel- 
 fare and comfort of the crew, and see that each one performs the tasks 
 assigned him. Much depends upon him for the success of the machine. 
 
 To make the machine work properly and do its best it is necessary 
 that each man should perform his part and it belongs to the 
 Manager to see that this is done and should be entirely under his con- 
 trol. There is no place where a head and leader is more essential than 
 around a threshing machine. The Manager should assert his rights in 
 a firm and mild manner, never lose his temper and show anger or abuse 
 any one, nor permit any of the crew to abuse each other. It is very 
 demoralizing if there is one or more among the crew who is a bully and 
 is permitted to exercise his inclinations on his fellow workmen. 
 
 The feeders should be sufficiently well acquainted with the ma- 
 chine to be able to work in harmony in order to aid in the successful 
 progress of the work. The usual practice in hand feeding is for each 
 to feed a given time or a given amount of grain when he is relieved by 
 the other feeder. The feeder is the one depended on to regulate the 
 amount being threshed and much depends upon him to make the ma- 
 chine do a good day's work. 
 
 The feeding should be even and continuous and as near the same 
 speed at all times as is practicable, that the crew may become ac- 
 customed to the amount of grain and straw to be handled, and be able 
 to judge the amount of labor required of them. The motion and work- 
 ing of the machine should be kept well in mind and be noticed and cor- 
 rected as soon as not right. The motion of the one feeding should be 
 suited to the kind and conditions of the grain being threshed. The 
 more the straw is divided up and spread out the less power is consumed 
 in passing it through the cylinder. This should be borne in mind when 
 horses are furnishing the power as it is generally limited in that case. 
 
 78 
 
In steam threshing where there is usually more grain being han- 
 dled and there is plenty of power, the feeder has about enough to do to 
 keep the bundles passing in at the proper speed without much time be- 
 ing spent in spreading them out. The feeding should be as continuous 
 as practicable that the next succeeding bundle should be engaged in the 
 cylinder before the last one has entirely passed through. This will aid 
 the motion and power. 
 
 The Band cutters should see that the bands are cut and the bun- 
 dles passed to the feeder in the most convenient manner to aid 
 him in performing his work. It will greatly assist in the free move- 
 ment of the bundles to keep the tables free from clinging straws, as 
 the bundles move much easier on the bare table. Care should be ex- 
 ercised in the handling of the knife used to cut the bands, as many a 
 feeder has had his hand cut by inattention or carelessness on the part 
 of the band cutter. Each band cutter should keep his particular side of 
 the machine as he can perform the work to better advantage after be- 
 coming accustomed to it, than by changing about. 
 
 The Pitchers are depended upon to get the grain to the machine 
 in quantities as fast as needed and in a manner to facilitate work. 
 There should be enough pitchers provided so the machine will not have 
 to wait for grain or run partly empty, as it necessitates the remainder 
 of the crew to be partly idle, and curtails the earnings of the machine. 
 They should work harmoniously with the end in view to make the day's 
 work as profitable as possible for the machine. 
 
 It is better practice for each man to keep his particular position on 
 his own side of the machine during the time he is with it. He then 
 becomes accustomed to moving the bundles in a certain way on that 
 side, while on the other side the position would be reversed. The 
 work will be performed much more expeditiously and with greater ease 
 as the muscles become accustomed and hardened to a certain movement 
 of the pitch fork. 
 
 The Straw Crew are to take care of the straw as fast as delivered 
 from the carrier. 
 
 It will be found to be as easy to form and build a good symmetrical 
 stack as to simply push the straw back, without any reference to the 
 form of the pile. 
 
 The straw will have to be moved a less distance to commence the 
 
 79 
 
stack well up toward the machine so the stacker will drop the straw 
 nearer in the center of the stack, than if commenced back so far that 
 the stacker comes only to the edge, as then it will have to be moved 
 clear across the distance of the stack. To keep well the center should 
 be tramped more. The outside portion will then settle more causing 
 the straws to incline downward at the out side making a better water- 
 shed. This it will be observed is the case when the stacker delivers the 
 straw to the center of the stack, as the straw men will then naturally 
 stand there to move the straw to either side. 
 
 The Engine. 
 
 The Engine is a secondary consideration as it is only a means to ac- 
 complish an end, that of making the separator run. It is the separator 
 that does the real work of threshing and cleaning the grain, which is 
 the object sought for. 
 
 The Power to run the separator is necessary and should not be en- 
 tirely forgotten. It should be kept in good repair and will well repay 
 for the necessary time expended in keeping it so. 
 
 The power is imparted to the steam engine by the expansion of 
 water, which when heated passes off into vapor called steam. 
 The office of the boiler is to generate this steam. 
 
 Heat is simply a vibratory motion of the molecules of the body 
 through which it passes. This heat is produced in the fire box of the 
 boiler by the union of two or more gases, viz., that produced from the 
 fuel called carbonous gas and the oxygen supplied by the air. When 
 an atom of carbon and oxygen come near each other they unite and 
 form carbonic acid gas. ' The motion produced in the process is the 
 source of heat, the union is called fire. To produce the best results 
 the gases should be united in about the right proportion. If too much 
 air is admitted for the amount of gas coming from the fuel, the result 
 will be a loss of heat by its being absorbed by the air. Or if not 
 enough air is admitted to the fire box to properly unite with the carbon, 
 
 80 
 
the result is that the gas of the fuel passes off without being consumed 
 and is thus wasted. It is necessary then that the proper amount of air 
 should be admitted, and this should be thoroughly mixed with the 
 gases of the fuel while in the intense heat of the fire or the union will 
 not take place properly. 
 
 The natural draft of an engine is increased by the use of the noz- 
 zle at the end of the exhaust. The smaller the nozzle the stronger the 
 draught. This nozzle should not be smaller than is necessary, as it 
 causes back pressure, reducing the power of the engine. 
 
 The cylinder and piston should be tested occasionally to see if the 
 piston rings are leaking. This can be done by putting the engine off 
 center and chaining the ily wheel so it cannot revolve, and open the 
 throttle carefully. If the cylinder cock in the opposite end of the 
 cylinder to that which steam is entering be opened and steam escapes 
 through it very much, it indicates that the rings or valve is leaking. 
 The steam will also escape through the exhaust nozzle if leaking, and 
 should be remedied. 
 
 Like the separator, the engine should be made to stand still upon its 
 trucks while at work, and set back enough to tighten the belt sufficiently 
 to keep it from slipping. 
 
 The governor of an engine should be in good working order at all 
 times, and adjusted to give the required speed to the separator whether 
 working hard or running light and the throttle left wide open while at 
 work. It is poor practice to try to regulate the speed or power by 
 partly opening the throttle as when the separator is being fed heavily 
 is the time more steam is required to keep up the motion. 
 
 The packing around the governor stem should not be so tight as 
 to prevent it from working up and down as the change of speed occurs. 
 
 But in some high speed governors that are inclined to dance when 
 the engine is working light, if the packing be screwed down lightly to 
 cause a little friction on the stem, it will make the engine run smoother. 
 
 The governor belt should be tight enough to run the governor at the 
 required speed without slipping. 
 
 As uniform a fire should be maintained as possible, as building a 
 hot fire and then letting it cool down somewhat is very hard on the 
 flues and firebox. Heat always causes iron to expand. With a hot 
 
 81 
 
lire going the fiues become longer, due to expansion. Then when the 
 fire cools down, the flues contract and become shorter. If this practice 
 is continued from day to day, the expanding and contracting process 
 will tend to work the flues loose in the flue sheet, and cause them to 
 leak. 
 
 Setting The Machine. 
 
 Some put great stress on how their separator is set when ready to 
 work, though they can not always tell just why it must be that particu- 
 lar way. Some set one end a little high, others would set the same ma- 
 chine differently and contend it was nearer right. These ideas are 
 usually gotten in threshing some particular setting which went extra 
 good other conditions being favorable, and not entirely understanding 
 the features and functions of all the parts of the machine, they con- 
 ceived the notion that it must be set just so, or no go. It is not to be 
 understood by this that it makes no difference as to how the machine is 
 set, but it would be hard to explain the reasons why an inch either way 
 would make any material difference. However if a man understands 
 his machine perfectly, and has well founded reasons for being so exact, 
 he should continue to be so. 
 
 Often much valuable time is consumed in getting the machine 
 leveled to an exact angle and after it has run a few minutes if on soft 
 ground or if the dirt has been partly removed from some of the wheels 
 it settles out of position; but the Operator seldom knows it as he does 
 not use the level again after starting up. 
 
 Sometimes with the vibrating rack if the straw is loose and fluffy 
 and the stroke is not sufftciently long and sharp to work it back fast 
 enough to separate well, the separator may be lowered at the rear end 
 to advantage as the straw will work off a little faster than if higher. 
 
 The separator should be near enough level sideways to prevent 
 the grain from shaking down to one side of the sieves. If the grain is 
 blowing over on one side, it can sometimes be remedied by lowering 
 that side of the machine, causing more grain to pass there thus partly 
 retarding the blast. 
 
 82 
 
When traction engines are used to draw the separator, a good 
 practice that saves some time in setting and leveling the machine is to 
 draw the separator near to the place and then prepare the resting place 
 just in front of the trucks by either digging or blocking up as the case 
 may be, (leaving the engine coupled on), then draw the separator in 
 place. If correct uncouple, if not back up and make the necessary ad- 
 justment and again set it in place with the engine. This takes but a 
 moment the separator being quickly and easily moved with the engine. 
 If left to be done by hand and the ground should be uneven, it would 
 consume much more time. After the engine and separator men have 
 become accustomed to this plan, but little time will be used in getting 
 the machine in position, even in difficult places. 
 
 As soon as the engine is uncoupled and starts away the drive belt 
 should be taken out at once and put in position to designate to the en- 
 gineer where to place the engine. The particular spot may be marked 
 by a bunch of straw or in any convenient v^ay, and the end of the belt 
 laid aside to permit the engine to come to place without the engineer 
 having left the foot board. As soon as the engine is in proper position 
 help should be there and the main belt run on; in the mean time the 
 pitchers have ascended the stacks, the Manager gives the word, the 
 machine starts rolling in a time so short it would surprise an on looker 
 that had been used to the old "take your time" sort of way in setting. 
 
 If the crew gets in the habit of visiting and swapping stories at each 
 setting, it is so much more comfortable a way of putting in an hour, 
 that the loss of time is not noticed. The best results cannot be at- 
 tained unless the whole crew work in harmony and are willing to carry 
 out the instructions of the Manager. Very much depends on him to 
 keep everything coming in its proper place without jar or friction. 
 
 Moving. 
 
 During a fall's run from one fourth to one half of the time is con- 
 sumed in moving and setting. Some sections of the country require 
 more than others, and some threshermen's work is more compact and 
 closer together than others. A thresherman should study well to at- 
 tain the most expeditious plan to tear up and move, as nothing is being 
 
earned while the golden stream is not running. All should work to- 
 gether to clean up and be off to the next setting without delay. The 
 Manager and Engineer should see that everything possible is loaded, 
 the horses if used, gotten ready to hitch on, so that as soon as the belt 
 is thrown off and rolled up everything is ready to go. 
 
 The route to the next setting should have been looked up by the 
 Manager and he should see that the road is clear, that no stops need be 
 made while in transit. 
 
 If convenient the setting should have been visited and he should 
 see that it is properly cleared of all rubbish or stones that may be there, 
 and decide which way the straw is to be thrown, as it often saves much 
 valuable time to the machine by discussing the question beforehand. 
 
 While on the road it will often save time for the Manager to be 
 ahead and designate to the engineer or drivers, the road to be taken. 
 If an unsafe bridge or other obstruction is to be encountered, the Mana- 
 ger should know it, that the course to be taken may be decided upon 
 without causing any delay to the machine. 
 
 A little thought and study beforehand spent in planning the 
 details, will save much time in executing the work. 
 
 A place should be provided for every article to be carried along. 
 Each oil can, spade, bar and box should have its particular place. 
 Commence to load up before the grain is all cleaned up, putting each 
 piece in its place. By using a regular system the time consumed can 
 be reduced to the minimum, and much labor saved. The engineer will 
 have his engine properly oiled and greased and everything in order and 
 ready to travel at once as soon as the belt is thrown off. Where horse 
 powers are used, each man should have a certain part of the work as- 
 signed to him. By following a system and working in unison much 
 time can be saved. But where each one walks around looking to see 
 what the others are doing much valuable time is lost. 
 
 Wasting Grain. 
 
 There is no place on earth where a kernel of grain looks as large 
 and is of so much value as at the tail end of a machine. To see some 
 hunt and search for them one would think each one a diamond or price- 
 
 S4 
 
less gem. There is no time when a farmer is so careful of his property 
 as right then. Any amount may be wasted by the harvester or in hand- 
 ling the grain, but let him discover a few kernels going into the straw 
 through the machine and he at once looses his reason and imagines 
 ruin stares him in the face. He will show them to the Operator 
 with an autocratic air of "do better or quit." 
 
 In a bushel of oats, 32 lbs., there are about 600,000 kernels. In 
 a bushel of wheat, 60 lbs., there are about 1,000,000 kernels. If he 
 should hold his hand where the grain is wasting fastest for half a min- 
 ute, and catch ten kernels he would say it was half going in the straw. 
 Let us see Counting 26 days for a month and 10 hours for a day it 
 would take him over three months to catch a bushel of wheat. Oh 
 yes, he says but he only held his hand under a small part of the falling 
 chaff. Well suppose the machine was 52 inches wide and his hand only 
 2 inches, and the grain wasting equally across the entire width, it would 
 then take three days at the same rate for enough kernels to pass to 
 fill a bushel measure. 
 
 In order to waste 5 bushels in a day of 10 hours run, there would 
 have to be 138 kernels escape every second or 8,240 every minute. It 
 is very deceiving when the quantity of grain comes to be measured by 
 the kernel. While most threshers are willing to do all in their power 
 to save the grain for their customers, the farmer should remember 
 that absolute perfection is impossible and that the actual waste is but 
 very small as compared to the amount threshed. 
 
 It is difficult to state what per cent, a machine may waste and still be 
 doing reasonably good work. There have been several tests made to 
 determine this but the conditions varied so that there are scarcely two 
 reports alike. In ordinary threshing when the conditions are not un- 
 favorable and the machine not being over crowded it should not waste 
 more than ? of i per cent this will be only a little over 3 bushels per 
 thousand. Calling 10 hours a day and threshing 1,000 bushels and 
 wasting 3 bushels it would necessitate losing what would lay on the 
 palm of the hand every i 5 seconds, not a very long space of time only 
 a quarter of a minute. This would show very plain, and the machine 
 would appear to be wasting very fast. If the kernels are still in the 
 head unthreshed the waste may be in much larger proportion; a kernel 
 in every head or two soon counts up. 
 
 85 
 
Notes. 
 
 The air has a pressure of between 14 and 15 pounds to the square 
 inch and varies slightly at different times and places. This pressure is 
 in all directions pressing as hard on the under side of an object as on 
 the upper side. 
 
 A cubic yard of air weighs nearly 2 pounds. Air will expand and 
 
 contract according to the pressure it is subjected to. Thus if a cubic 
 yard at a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch weighs 2 pounds, a 
 cubic yard at a pressure of 30 pounds per square inch would weigh 4 
 pounds, at 7^ pounds pressure it would only weigh i pound. This 
 also shows that to double the pressure reduces the bulk one half. 
 
 A MOVING COLUMN OF AIR DOES NOT EXERT FULL ATMOSPHERIC 
 PRESSURE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO ITS LINE OF MOTION. ITS LATERAL 
 PRESSURE DECREASES IN PROPORTION AS THE SPEED INCREASES. 
 
 The above law largely explains the difficulty experienced in getting 
 the blast equally distributed through all parts of the sieves, as the blast 
 makes many whirls and turns in obedience to these lateral pressures asit 
 comes from the fan. 
 
 Pulleys or band wheels are made a little fuller or larger in the cen- 
 ter to cause the belt to stay on and not run to one side of the pulley. 
 
 If two shafts on which are pulleys are nearer together at one 
 end, the belt will tend to travel towards the ends nearest together. 
 
 If two shafts run parallel on which are pulleys that are larger or 
 fuller on one side, the belt will tend to travel toward the larger side of 
 the pulley. 
 
 Two shafts are parallel when their centers are the same distance 
 apart throughout their entire length. 
 
 When threshing, the engine runs the separator by pulling on the 
 belt and requires a steady pull of 200 to 400 lbs., according to the size 
 of the machine, the condition of the grain, the attachments on the sepa- 
 rator and the size of the cylinder pulley. 
 
 86 
 
The life of a separator should be from 12 to 15 years while some 
 have been in active use 20 or even 25 years. Many discard machines 
 long before they are worn out. Because the paint has become dull or 
 a few of the boxes worn out is no reason why an otherwise good sepa- 
 rator should be stood aside and a new one purchased. As long as the 
 frame and trucks are in good condition a separator can with a little ex- 
 pense be kept in condition to do as good work as when new. A coat 
 of paint or varnish is inexpensive and adds tone and beauty as well as 
 lasting (jualities. 
 
 If dust and chaff are left on the woodwork of a machine in damp 
 or rainy weather the grain mixed with it will sprout and grow causing 
 the varnish and paint to spoil and peel ofi, as the feeders of the grow- 
 ing roots take up the vegetable matter leaving the wood bare to absorb 
 moisture causing early decay. 
 
 If the paint on the separator has become dull from exposure to 
 the weather a coat of good varnish will make it look new again, taking 
 care to remove all grease and dirt before applying it. 
 
 The machine is worth what money it will earn. To get the most 
 out of it is the desire of each operator. It will not always earn most 
 by being overcrowded, rather try to run steady and keep going. 
 Nothing is being earned while the machine is idle. The-stream must 
 be kept running. If an hour's time is lost in some useless manner, it 
 can not be made up with profit by overcrowding the machine the re- 
 mainder of the day. 
 
 The cause of failure is as often in the person who is trying to apply 
 a rule, as in the rule itself. 
 
 A good governor for a self feeder, to regulate the amount of grain 
 being fed, is the intelligence that controls the fork handle on the stack. 
 
 Friction is caused between two surfaces as they are rubbed to- 
 gether, by the unevenness or roughness of the surfaces in contact. No 
 matter how smooth a journal or box may seem to be the surface is dot- 
 ited all over with minute points or projections with corresponding in- 
 dentations or depressions between them. When the two metals come 
 in contact, the points or projections of one catch in the depressions of 
 the other and cling fast and break off a part of each other, as they move 
 in revolving. The office of the lubricating oil or grease is to fill in 
 these depressions and form a cushion tending to hold the surfaces of the 
 
 87 
 
metals apart permitting the small projections to pass each other without 
 coming in contact. Two metals of different kinds usually work together 
 better than metals of the same kind. The arrangement of the points 
 and depressions not being the same they will not settle together as 
 closely as if precisely the same size and distance apart. 
 
 Steam in a boiler at lOo lbs., pressure occupies 250 times as much 
 space as the water did from which it was made. At 50 lbs., pressure 
 it occupies 500 times as much space, and at 200 lbs. pressure, 125 
 times as much. 
 
 It is good practice for the Manager or Separator man to go over 
 the entire machine each day and see that each bolt and nut is tight and 
 the belts properly laced, any worn lace being replaced with new. This 
 can be done at odd times and does not take long and is a much 
 better way than letting everything go "clickety clack" until the wheels 
 
 stop. 
 
 If a separator is in good shape there is no reason why it should not 
 
 be started in the morning and run until noon and from noon till night 
 
 without stopping for repairs. 
 
 After the fall's run is over, the machine should be thoroughly 
 swept and cleaned of all dust and grease especially the wood and sheet 
 iron work. The dust will retain dampness causing the wood to decay 
 and the sheet metal to rust. A dry shed to house it in is preferable to 
 a damp one. 
 
 The Engine should be cleaned of all grease and dirt that will harden 
 if left on. The smoke stack and outside of the boiler should have a 
 coat of linseed oil to prevent rusting. 
 
 The boiler should be cleaned of mud and the hand hole plates fas- 
 tened in again, and all valves and connections kept closed to exclude 
 circulation of air. The boiler will not rust or corrode on the inside if 
 the air is kept excluded, rust being the union of the iron with the oxygen 
 of the air. 
 
 If the boiler has formed any scale the most of it will loosen and 
 drop off during the idle season by the unequal expansion of the iron and 
 scale and should be removed before starting up again in the fall. All 
 pipes and valves should be well drained to guard against bursting and 
 straining by freezing. 
 
 It is not the machine that does the largest day's work during the 
 fall that earns the most, but is more likely to be the one that does not 
 
 88 
 
do the smallest day's work that will have the most left after paying all 
 expenses. 
 
 Never try to do a large, and don't permit yourself to do a small 
 day's work. It is the steady regular work that counts. 
 
 The Whistle. 
 
 The whistle can be made to do service if its use is rightly under- 
 stood, but it is very poor practice to toot and blow it promiscuously 
 without any plan or method. If all threshermen would adopt and use a 
 prescribed code of signals, those connected with the machine would 
 soon become accustomed to them and understand what they mean. 
 
 The less the whistle is used the better, as it scares high spirited 
 horses, excites persons not accustomed to it, and attracts the attention 
 of all within hearing from their work. This time lost would not be very 
 much for one man, but twenty-five or one hundred men losing from one 
 half to one minute a piece is an item which if multiplied often during 
 the fall's run will be of enough magnitude to deserve attention. 
 
 CODE OF SIGNALS. 
 
 One long continuous sound is given to attract attention at such 
 times as in the morning or at noon to indicate the working place. 
 
 Two long continuous sounds with a short interval between them is to 
 denote the work completed for that day or at that place, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 One short sound is to stop. 
 
 Two short sounds with a short pause between them, to go ahead 
 or commence work. 
 
 Three medium short sounds means to hurry, given to indicate to 
 those hauling grain that the machine is about to wait for them. 
 
 One long continuous sound followed by three shorter ones is a 
 signal to the waterman that the supply of water is about exhausted. 
 
 A continuous succession of short and rapid sounds denotes fire or 
 other distress and should be responded to by all within hearing of the 
 call. 
 
 80 
 
No one should ever sound the whistle but the engineer, as one 
 unaccustomed to it can not give the proper expression to the sound. 
 
 The stroke of the whistle lever should be full and steady^ being well 
 timed. The valve should not be opened too suddenly, but with a clear 
 and steady pull, and closed gradually. The spaces between the sounds 
 should be well timed and of equal length. This will give expression to 
 the sound, pleasing to hear. An old thresherman once said he could 
 tell the character of the engineer by the way he sounded the whistle. 
 
 The tone or pitch of a whistle may be changed by screwing the 
 bell up or down. The lower down the sharper the tone will be, and 
 more piercing to the ears of those near by. When the bell is farther up 
 the tone will be of lower pitch and can be heard at a greater distance and 
 is not so distressing to those near by. When set in a position, it should 
 be left so and not changed without good reason, as the people in the 
 neighborhood become accustomed to it and can distinguish whose ma- 
 chine is giving the signals. 
 
 Whistles are sometimes made in chimes of two or more tones that 
 are very pleasing to the ear. 
 
 Centrifugal Separators. 
 
 There have been many plans and devices tried for the purpose of 
 removing the threshed grain from the straw. At present the efforts 
 seem to be in the direction of centrifugal separators, that is, using cen- 
 trifugal force to help separate the kernels from the straw. The present 
 plan is to wait for gravity alone to do the work of causing the grain to des- 
 cend from the straw. This process being naturally slow causes a limit 
 to the capacity of a given sized "machine, while in using the centrifugal 
 process the quantity will be limited to the speed of the machine and 
 the amount of straw that can be passed through. There have been 
 quite a number of plans and arrangements tried to accomplish this, 
 the main idea being to have the straw moving in a circular path at the 
 point at which the grain is to be separated from it. The grain having 
 a tendency to move in a straight line will leave the straw at once. If 
 this can be accomplished in a practical way it will greatly reduce the 
 weight and simplify the working parts of the grain separator. 
 
 90 
 
Gas Engine. 
 
 Gas engines have been used for stationary power for some time 
 but only of recent years have there been attempts made to use them 
 for threshing purposes. When perfected and brought into general use 
 they will have many advantages. 
 
 The power is generated in the gas engine by mixing the vapor of 
 gasoline with air and exploding it in the cylinder. With the proper 
 mixture it has a very high degree of pressure. Some difficulty has been 
 experienced in getting the proper mixture of air with the gas as the pro- 
 portions have to be about right. 
 
 \'ery heavy balance wheels have been necessary to withstand the 
 sudden shock of the explosion and keep a steady and uniform motion. 
 In some instances this has a tendency to make an engine that is strong 
 enough to run the largest separator successfully, very heavy and un- 
 wieldy. The wind and weather have been found to effect them in some 
 instances as the supply of oxygen must be taken from the surround- 
 ing atmosphere. But these objections can be overcome and the gas 
 engine made practical for threshing purposes. 
 
 How TO Become an Expert. 
 
 To become a threshing expert a person should thoroughly under- 
 stand the principles and details of the machine and become perfectly 
 familiar with all the various parts, their construction and how they per- 
 form their work. This knowledge may be gained by close application 
 and study. By becoming interested in the work the mind will store up 
 and retain the necessary knowledge. Enough experience in operating 
 is necessary to recognize at once when each part is performing the 
 function intended and to adjust it if wrong. 
 
 91 
 
Often when the machine is not working properly the ditftculty is 
 where least expected, and the expert will recognize at once where and 
 what the trouble is and know the remedy to put it right without making 
 useless changes or experimenting which takes up valuable time and tries 
 the patience of all concerned. He should know what good threshing 
 is and be able to recognize it at once when he sees it. 
 
 The expert should be able to explain the workings of the various 
 parts and their relation to each other in a clear and precise manner. 
 In many cases a clear explanation of the working of a device will show 
 to all its pecularities and points of merit not before understood and 
 cause that to be appreciated which was before condemned. He should 
 bear in mind that all do not understand the construction and working 
 of a machine and not become dissatisfied or find fault with the mistakes 
 of others but as occasion requires try to teach and impart the necessary 
 knowledge. 
 
 Many inexperienced threshers have been misled by being made to 
 believe that there are machines built that will simply do perfect work 
 and as fast as can be imagined. They often find this untrue to their 
 sorrow, and it sometimes requires the testimony of an expert to con- 
 vince them. It would be well for the one called to remember that the 
 thresher is not wholly to blame for his erroneous idea. 
 
 Full Crew. 
 
 In some sections of the country a common custom is for the man 
 furnishing the machine to also furnish the full crew and board them, 
 the farmer only taking his grain from the machine as fast as threshed. 
 In this plan the price per bushel is enough more to compensate the 
 extra cost. This method has met with general favor where tried. 
 It is especially profitable to the thresher where the jobs are large and 
 for the farmer whether he has much or little grain to thresh; it certainly 
 has many advantages over the old way. At first there is a slight ex- 
 pense to be met by the thresher in providing suitable tents or shanties 
 on trucks for the crew to sleep in, and for the cook to serve meals in. 
 He must also have dishes, a stove etc., but all these things last during 
 several fall's runs and are more than paid for in the advantages gained. 
 
 92 
 
The Manager can have full control of all men connected with the 
 machine, he can get them at work at a regular time each morning, and 
 never has to wait for tardy farm hands. Each man working with the 
 machine knows his place and just what is expected of him, 
 consequently he can do better and more work. An ordinary plain 
 home diet is provided which insures better health for the crew than can 
 be possible under the old boarding around plan. This method saves 
 the farmer the worry and expense of looking up his crew and get- 
 ting them collected at the proper time, and gives him his time at home 
 during the threshing season instead of being away at his neighbors to 
 help them thresh in return. It also relieves the woman of the house 
 from the very unpleasant task of providing food for so many. The 
 prices vary some in different localities for this plan of threshing but 
 usually are 7c per bushel for wheat, 5c for barley, 4c for oats and 12c 
 for flax. 
 
 A Suggestion. 
 
 A Suggestion as to soliciting threshing. Go about it in a business like 
 way. When you meet the man that has a job you want, ask him for 
 it in a plain practical manner. Assure him that you will do him a good 
 job in a workman like manner and save his grain, and do it in as short 
 a time as is consistent with good work. The subject of price usually 
 comes up at this time and this is the best time to lay the foundation for 
 prompt collections. 
 
 Let your rule be one price to every body and the account cash as 
 soon as work is done unless there is reason for an extension Be sure 
 to have this understood at the time, just when and how the account is 
 to be paid. This is business and no one ought to take offense at it. 
 but if nothing is said and the work is done, the parties to the transac- 
 tion may have entirely different ideas as to the price and time of pay- 
 ment which often leads to difficulties that require some sacrifice to ad- 
 just, and the Farmer feeling miffed will resolve to do business with 
 some one else next time, all because the start was not made right. 
 
 There is no more reason why a thresherman should wait for his 
 money than anyone else. He has his capital invested and has to pay his 
 help as he goes along. It is usually the thresherman's own fault if he 
 has poor collections, for not being hrm and exact. He would better lose 
 a job novV and then than to lose the pay after he has done the work. 
 
 93 
 
Table No. 1. 
 
 The following table shows the chemical composition of ordinary 
 firewood. 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen - 
 Nitrogen 
 Ashes 
 
 Hygrometric water 
 
 37.5 per cent. 
 
 4. 5 per cent. 
 30.75 per cent. 
 
 0.75 per cent. 
 
 1.5 per cent. 
 
 75.0 per cent. 
 25.0 per cent. 
 
 1 00.0 
 
 Table No. 2. 
 
 The composition of straw, in its ordinary air-dried condition is 
 about as follows. 
 
 
 Wheat .Straw, 
 
 Barley Straw. 
 
 Mean, 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 35-«6 
 
 36.27 
 
 36.075 
 
 Hydrogen - 
 
 - S-oi 
 
 5-07 
 
 5- 
 
 Oxygen - 
 
 37.68 
 
 38-26 
 
 38. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 •45 
 
 .40 
 
 .425 
 
 Ashes 
 
 5.00 
 
 4- 50 
 
 4-75 
 
 Water 
 
 - 16.00 
 
 15 50 
 
 15-75 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 ICO. 00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Table No. 3, 
 
 I Cd hickory or hard maple weighs 4,500 lbs. equals 2,000 lbs. coal. 
 I Cd white oak - - weighs 3,850 lbs. equals 1,711 lbs. coal. 
 
 I Cd beech, red or black oak weighs 3,250 lbs. equals 1,445 lbs. coal. 
 I Cd poplar, chestnut, or elm weighs 2,350 lbs. equals 1,044 lbs. coal. 
 I Cd average pine - - weighs 2,000 lbs. equals 890 lbs. coal. 
 1 Ton dry straw - - weighs 2,000 lbs. equals i.iio lbs. coal, 
 
 94 
 
Table No. 4. 
 
 Total heat evolved by various fuels and their equivalent evapo- 
 rative power, with the weight of oxygen and volume of air chemically 
 consumed. 
 
 Kl-ki. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 (»xynf nCon- 
 
 suinefl per lb. 
 
 of Fuel. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 ,, , I Making Car 
 
 C arbon .... - . 
 
 ( bonic Acid. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Coal, average dessicated- 
 Coke. 
 
 Lignite, perfect 
 
 Asphalt 
 
 Wood, dessicated 
 
 25 per cent, moisture 
 Straw, 15^4 percent moist 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 Petroleum Oils 
 
 LI) 
 
 X.o 
 
 2.()() 
 
 I . ()(.1 
 
 - 4.T 
 
 - 4'' 
 
 -' . O.f 
 
 2.74 
 1 . 40 
 I .05 
 o .gS 
 
 .^^') 
 4.12 
 
 tiuaiitity of Air 
 
 Consumed per lli. 
 
 of Fuel. 
 
 M)S. 
 
 34.8 
 I J .b 
 
 4 35 
 10.7 
 10.81 
 
 S.S5 
 11.85 
 
 6 . 01) 
 
 4 57 
 4 26 
 
 M-33 
 17 93 
 
 |Cu ft. attVi' 
 
 457 
 15^ 
 
 57 
 140 
 142 
 I K) 
 156 
 
 So 
 
 ()0 
 
 56 
 
 iss 
 •^35 
 
 Total Heat of 
 
 Combustion 
 
 of I lb of Fuel. 
 
 Heat rnit. 
 
 62000 
 14500 
 
 4000 
 J 4700 
 
 13548 
 1310S 
 17040 
 1 0974 
 
 7951 
 
 Si 44 
 
 204 1 I 
 
 '27531 
 
 Kquivalent 
 
 Evaporative 
 
 Power of lib. of 
 
 Fuel from and 
 
 at 212". 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 f.2.4. 
 
 4. 17 
 15.22 
 34.02 
 
 13 57 
 17.64 
 1 1 . 36 
 
 «.20 
 
 8-43 
 
 21.13 
 
 28.50 
 
 Table No 5. 
 
 Silver - 
 
 1 000 
 
 Iron 
 
 375 
 
 I:5oiler Scale 
 
 . 
 
 60 
 
 Copper 
 
 - H50 
 
 Tin - 
 
 - 350 
 
 Brick - 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 Gold 
 
 800 
 
 Lead - 
 
 200 
 
 Soot - 
 
 - 
 
 10 
 
 The above table shows the relative heat conducting power of dif- 
 ferent substances 
 
 The fact that soot and boiler scale are such poor heat conductors 
 shows how essential it is that the fire-box and flues should be kept free 
 from soot and the boiler from scale, to give the action of the fire free 
 access to heat the water. An ordinary Threshing Engine will give from 
 two to four horse-power more, when clean of soot and scale. 
 
 95 
 
Combustion of Coal 
 
 "When coal is exposed to heat in a furnace, a portion of the car- 
 bon and hydrogen, associated in various chemical unions, as hydro-car- 
 bons, are volatilized and passed off. At the lowest temperature, naphtha- 
 line, resins, and fluids with high boiling points are disengaged; next, at 
 a higher temperature, volatile fluids are disengaged; and still higher, 
 olefiant gas, followed by common gas, light carburetted hydrogen, 
 which continues to be given off after the coal has reached a low red 
 heat. What remains after the distillatory process is over, is coke, 
 which is the fixed or solid carbon of coal, with earthy matter, the ash 
 of the coal. 
 
 Taking the fixed carbon, or coke remaining in the furnace after 
 the volatile elements are distilled off, for round numbers at 60 per cent., 
 the following is an approximate summary of the condition of the ele- 
 ments of average coal, after having been decomposed, and prior to en- 
 tering into combustion: 
 
 100 POUNDS OF AVERAGE COAL IN THE FURNACE. 
 
 Coniposiiion. Lbs. Decomposition. I-hs. 
 
 \ Fixed ' |() Fixed Carbon f'" 
 
 (\-irljon ^ VohitiiiVed ^o Hydrocarbons 24 
 
 Hydrogen 3 Sulphur i '-4 
 
 Sulphur I J 4 Water or Steam {) 
 
 Oxygen ^ Nitrogen i 15 
 
 Nitrogen ' i ; 
 
 Ash 4 
 
 Ash 4 
 
 About 100 
 
 showing a total useful combustible of S6}i per cent, of which iG},; 
 per cent, is volatilized. While the decomposition proceeds, combustion 
 proceeds, and the 26} per cent, of volatilized portions, and the 60 per 
 cent, of fixed carbon, successively are burned. 
 
 96 
 
table of the Areas and Circumfeiences of Circles and of 
 the Sides of Squares of the Same Area. 
 
 Djam. of 
 . Oirolo 
 
 Circumference 
 of 
 
 Area of Circle 
 
 Sides ofSq. of 
 same Area 
 
 Siam- of 
 Circle 
 
 Circumference 
 of 
 
 Area of Circle 
 
 Sides of sq. cf 
 
 same area 
 in square inc. 
 
 10 inches. 
 
 Circle. 
 
 in square ins. 
 -785 
 
 in square ins. 
 
 in inches. 
 
 Circle. 
 
 in square ins. ■ 
 
 1 
 
 3-14 
 
 .Hg 
 
 21 
 
 65 - 97 
 
 346.3'' 
 
 18 61 
 
 I^ 
 
 4.71 
 
 1.767 
 
 I -35 
 
 h 
 
 67-54 
 
 363.05 
 
 19.05 
 
 o 
 
 fi.28 
 
 3-142 
 
 J -77 
 
 •~>o 
 
 bg . 1 1 
 
 380.13 
 
 19-50 
 
 ^,!'2 
 
 7-85 
 
 4 - 909 
 
 2.22 
 
 h^ 
 
 70.68 
 
 397-61 
 
 19-94 
 
 3 
 
 g.42 
 
 7.069 
 
 2.66 
 
 23" 
 
 72.25 
 
 415-4'"* 
 
 20.38 
 
 K 
 
 10. 99 
 
 9.621 
 
 3-10 
 
 „ '^ 
 
 73-82 
 
 433-74 
 
 20.83 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 
 
 1 2 . 566 
 
 3.54 
 
 24 
 
 75 - 39 
 
 452.39 
 
 21.27 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 14-13 
 
 15-904 
 
 3-99 
 
 K 
 
 76.96 
 
 471-44 
 
 21.71 
 
 5 " 
 
 15-90 
 
 19-635 
 
 4-43 
 
 2t 
 
 78.. 04 
 
 490 . 88 
 
 22. 16 
 
 '4 
 
 17.27 
 
 23-758 
 
 4-87 , 
 
 H 
 
 80.10 
 
 510.71 
 
 22 .60 
 
 6 ' 
 
 1S.S4 
 
 28. 274 
 
 5-32 , 
 
 m 
 
 81.68 
 
 530 <)3 
 
 23-04 
 
 1, 
 
 20 . 42 
 
 33-183 
 
 5-76 
 
 H 
 
 83-25 
 
 551-55 
 
 23-49 
 
 T 
 
 21.99 
 
 38.485 
 
 6.20 
 
 27 
 
 84. 82 
 
 572 - 56 
 
 23-93 
 
 '4 
 
 23 -5f' 
 
 44.179 
 
 6.65 
 
 J'^~ 
 
 86.39 
 
 593-96 
 
 24-37 
 
 s 
 
 25-13 
 
 50.266 
 
 7-09 
 
 28 
 
 87.96 
 
 615-75 
 
 24.81 
 
 14 
 
 26.70 
 
 56.745 
 
 7-53 
 
 1/^ 
 
 89-53 
 
 637-94 
 
 25.20 
 
 9 " 
 
 28.27 
 
 63 617 
 
 7-98 
 
 29 
 
 91 . 10 
 
 660.52 
 
 25.70 
 
 1^^ 
 
 29.84 
 
 70.S82 
 
 8.42 
 
 ii 
 
 92.67 
 
 6S3 . 49 
 
 26. 14 
 
 10" 
 
 31-41 
 
 78 - 540 
 
 8.86 
 
 30 
 
 94.24 
 
 706 . 86 
 
 26 . 59 
 
 % 
 
 32.98 
 
 86 . 590 
 
 9-30 
 
 H 
 
 95-8i 
 
 730.62 
 
 27 - 03 
 
 n 
 
 34-55 
 
 95-03 
 
 9-75 
 
 31 
 
 97 • 38 
 
 754-77 
 
 27-47 
 
 '■2 
 
 36.12 
 
 103.87 
 
 10.19 ! 
 
 y2 
 
 98 . 96 
 
 779-3J 
 
 27.92 
 
 12 
 
 37 • 69 
 
 113.10 
 
 10.63 
 
 32 
 
 100.5 
 
 804. 25 
 
 28.36 
 
 1,, 
 
 39-27 
 
 122.72 
 
 1 1 . 08 
 
 .1/2 
 
 T02-. I 
 
 829.58 
 
 28 80 
 
 13 ' 
 
 40. S4 
 
 132.73 
 
 11.52 
 
 3.3 
 
 103.6 
 
 855-30 
 
 29.25 
 
 '/z 
 
 42 41 
 
 143-14 
 
 1 1 . 96 
 
 M 
 
 105.2 
 
 881 .41 
 
 2g.6g 
 
 14 
 
 43-98 
 
 153-94 
 
 12.41 
 
 .34 
 
 1 06 . 8 
 
 907-92 
 
 30.13 
 
 K 
 
 45-55 
 
 165 13 
 
 12.85 
 
 '2 
 
 1 08 . 3 
 
 934-82 
 
 30.57 
 
 15 
 
 47 12 
 
 176.72 
 
 13-29 
 
 35 
 
 log. 9 
 
 962. 1 1 
 
 31 .02 
 
 'A 
 
 48 . 6q 
 
 188.69 
 
 13-74 
 
 I., 
 
 III. 5 
 
 989 . 80 
 
 31.4'! 
 
 16 
 
 50. 2f. 
 
 201 .06 
 
 14.18 
 
 3(i ~ 
 
 113. 
 
 1017.88 
 
 31.90 
 
 /z 
 
 51-83 
 
 213-83 
 
 14.62 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 14.6 
 
 1046.35 
 
 32 - 35 
 
 17 
 
 53 40 
 
 226.98 
 
 1507 
 
 37 
 
 116. 2 
 
 1075.21 
 
 32-79 
 
 H 
 
 54 • 97 
 
 240.58 
 
 15-51 
 
 ■/, 
 
 117. 8 
 
 1104.47 
 
 33-23 
 
 IS 
 
 56.54 
 
 254.47 
 
 15-95 
 
 38'" 
 
 1 19 -3 
 
 "34-12 
 
 33 - 68 
 
 K 
 
 58.11 
 
 268 . 80 
 
 16.40 
 
 h 
 
 120.9 
 
 1 164. 16 
 
 34- 12 
 
 19 
 
 59-69 
 
 283.53 
 
 16.84 
 
 c9 
 
 122. 5 
 
 1194.59 
 
 34-5*' 
 
 1,/ 
 
 61.26 
 
 298.65 
 
 17.28 
 
 1., 
 
 124.0 
 
 1225.42 
 
 35-01 
 
 20 " 
 
 62.S;i 
 
 314.16 
 
 17 72 
 
 40'^ 
 
 125.6 
 
 1256.64 
 
 35.45 
 
 '4 
 
 ''4-40 
 
 330.06 
 
 18.17 
 
 1,., 
 
 127.2 
 
 1288.25 
 
 35-89 
 
 97 
 
Index. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Air 86 
 
 Moving Column of 86 
 
 Babbitting Boxes 74.75 
 
 Beater i6 
 
 Position of 16,63,64 
 
 Belts 72,76,71 
 
 Lacing 73 
 
 Blast 22,23,24,66,67,71 
 
 Angle of 26, 70, 71 
 
 Quantity of 23 
 
 Speed of 24,68 
 
 Strength of 22,23,24,68 
 
 Checkboard 16,64 
 
 Concaves 12,67 
 
 Contents 5 
 
 Crew, The 78 
 
 Band Cutters 79 
 
 Feeders 78 
 
 Full Crew 92 
 
 Manager 78, 88 
 
 Pitchers 79 
 
 Straw Crew 79. 80 
 
 Cylinder 9,65,67 
 
 As a Gyroscope 11 
 
 Boxes II 
 
 In Balance 9, 1 o, 62 
 
 Momentum of 59 
 
 Office of 10 
 
 Speed of 11 
 
Engine, The So,8(j,bS 
 
 Fans 22,67 
 
 Operation 68,69 
 
 Overblast 22 
 
 To Test (ig, 70 
 
 Underblast 22 
 
 Feed Board 12 
 
 Feeding 59 
 
 Friction 87 
 
 Full Crew 92,93 
 
 Gas Engine 91 
 
 Getting Ready 76,77 
 
 Grain 
 
 A Kernel of 71 
 
 Condition of 62 
 
 Cracking 63 
 
 Handling 61 
 
 Wasting 65,84,85 
 
 Grates 13 
 
 Handling The Grain 61 
 
 Heat 80,81,82 
 
 How to Become an Expert <) i , Q2 
 
 Introduction ■ 7 
 
 Lacing a Belt 73 
 
 Lubrication 75.76 
 
 Machine, The 
 
 Care of 88 
 
 Earnings of 88,90 
 
 Is Worth 87 
 
 Setting 82.83 
 
 Moving S3, 84 
 
 Notes 86 
 
 Operation (>2,72 
 
 Preface 3 
 
 Pulleys 8() 
 
 Rack 19 
 
 Motion of I <), 20, 2 1 
 
 Raddle 20, 2 1 
 
 Self Feeders 52 
 
 Cuts of 34' 56,57,58 
 
 Governors 52,87 
 
 Skharating Devices 18 
 
 Capacity of 19 
 
 Cuts of 30. 32. 34 3i>, i'6. 40, 42, 44, 4<i, 48, 50 
 
 Separation 18 
 
 Features of 64 
 
 Separator, The 
 
 Care of 87 
 
 Centrifugal 90 
 
 Life of 87 
 
 L.ofc 
 
Setting ...;.... ; ; . S2 
 
 Speed of 65 
 
 Should Stand Still (-)4,65 
 
 Seitinc, The M achink ^2,83 
 
 Shoe. The 22,66 
 
 Adjustment of ''S.yo 
 
 End Shake z't 
 
 Material to be Handled (>■/ 
 
 Motion of '24,2(>,t)6 
 
 Side Shake 25 
 
 SiEVKS 22,23,24 
 
 Adapted to the Work 22,70.71 
 
 End Shake 25 
 
 Motion of • 22,25,2() 
 
 Openings or Meshes 23,71,72 
 
 Qualifications of -J2 
 
 Side Shake 25 
 
 Variety of 70 
 
 Steam ^^ 
 
 Suggestion. A 93 
 
 Tables ')4,i)3,g(),Q7 
 
 Tailings 7' 
 
 Teet h 14 
 
 Concave. '>3 
 
 Tut of * 15 
 
 Cylinder 10,62 
 
 Worn 62 
 
 Tool Box . 77 
 
 Whistle ^^g 
 
 ( 'ode of Signals ^^1 
 
 Sound or Tone of 9" 
 
 Wind Stackers 60,61 
 
^ ^ tA, ,A, ,J^, ^ »A, y A^ tA, t^ ^A^ ^ ^A, ^ vJ^ ,-^, ^ V^?_ T-?-r r Ay v^^rA-,-\,,^,^,J\.„A,,JV, 
 
 T T T T : : T T TTTT TT I ! I I I I ADVERTISEMENTS. I : T ! T T n rTTT ! ! ! T t ' t f ^ 
 
 '-0^ ^v* "v" 'v* '^ ^v^ ■'^ '^ ■^''~ "^ '^ ^v^ ^v^^v^^^v^ '^ *v^ ^v^ •v- "-v" -v~ "0~ "-v- -\r -v- *v* ^V^ 'v^ 
 
 FRICK COMPANY 
 
 Eclipse 
 Machinery. 
 
 All Of The Highest Grade. 
 
 The "Eclipse" Traction Engine with Frie 
 tion Clutch, mounted on Independent bteel 
 Frame Work, and with many special features 
 
 The "Landis-Eclipse" Separator, Wind 
 Stackers and attachments, making the best and 
 most modern machine ever offered. 
 
 Also Eclipse Saw Mills,, Portable Engmes 
 Stationery Engines, Boilers, Ice and Refnger 
 atingf Machinery. For catalogue of particulars 
 address 
 
 FRICK COMPANY, Waynesboro, Franklin Co., Pa. 
 
Govcrnn 
 
 Band Cutter 
 
 Bundle Carrier 
 ^^ I :i 
 
 for raising, lowei'lng, 
 loading the Feeder 
 
 J. Jc. Bi-\iiiiFa'i, 
 
 RACINE, WIS 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 Barker's Self-Feeder. 
 
 The 24 double edge knives on the band cutter cut every band. 
 
 The corners of the six-sided band cutter knock the top half of the 
 bundle into the Governor ahead of the bottom half and then tear the 
 bottom half all to pieces. 
 
 The long curved fingers of the slowly revolving Governor prevent 
 wet grain slugging the cylinder. Absolutely the only feeder made that 
 will not slug. 
 
 By means of the Windlass and ropes attached to the hollow iron 
 legs, the feeder can be instantly raised to get at the concaves, lowered 
 for cleaning up. or loaded on top of separator for moving, in one 
 minute's time. 
 
 The Brush under the carrier roller next to the cylinder prevents 
 any littering. 
 
 This feeder is used exclusively by Gaar Scott & Co , and the 
 Nichols & Shepard Co. Parties desiring feeders to use on Separa- 
 tors made by either of the above firms, are requested to order of them. 
 For use on any other make of separator order of 
 
 J. L. BARKER, 
 
 Send for Circulars and Prices.'^"""'^^ Racine, Wis. 
 
L. C. Bindery 
 
if®'*^ 
 
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