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CllAKLi;.MA^.;NL. 
 
THE 
 
 BoYS' Book of Famous Rulers. 
 
 BY 
 
 LYDIA HOYT FARMER, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE STORY OF SCIENCE," "THE PRINCE OF THE FLAMINCi 
 STAR," " WHAT SHE MADE OF HER LIFE," E%C. 
 
 ^ 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO., 
 
 No. 13 AsTOR Place. 
 
 
CopyHgM, 
 
 By. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 
 
 18S6. 
 
 J. S. CusniNG & Co., PllINTERS, BOSTON. 
 

 DEDICATED 
 
 TO 
 
 MY CHILDREN 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The aim of this book is to give in as concise manner 
 as possible, consistent with graphic narration and bio- 
 graphical completeness, the most important and inter- 
 esting events in the lives of these famous rulers ; together 
 with a brief history of the various epochs in which they 
 lived, and a description of the manners and customs of 
 the people comprising the several nations governed by 
 these illustrious monarchs. 
 
 The Author. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Agamemnon 1 
 
 Cyrus the Great 30 
 
 Alexander the Great 71 
 
 juliis c^sar 110 
 
 Charlemagne 142 
 
 Alfred the Great 169 
 
 Richard Cceur de Lion 195 
 
 Robert Bruce 233 
 
 Ferdinand V. or Spain 266 
 
 Philip II. of Spain 291 
 
 GusTAVus Adolphus 312 
 
 Louis XIV 334 
 
 Peter the Great . . . • • 367 
 
 Frederick the Great 398 
 
 Napoleon 1 433 
 
Ii«^ 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Charlemagne Frontispiece 
 
 Jupiter sending the Evil Dream to Agamemnon Page 9 
 
 Hector chiding Paris 11 
 
 Diomed casting his Spear against Mars 17 
 
 Ajax defending the Greek Ships against the Trojans ..... 18 
 
 Hector's Body dragged at the Car of Achilles 26 
 
 The Funeral of Hector 27 
 
 Persian Guardsman carrying Bow and Quiver 37 
 
 Persian Soldier with Battle-Axe 37 
 
 Persian Foot Soldiers 37 
 
 Persian King seated on his Throne. 38 
 
 Persian Subjects bringing Tribute 58 
 
 Chart of the Country around Babylon 60 
 
 Supposed Plan of Ancient Babylon 62 
 
 Babylonian King 64 
 
 Persian Chariot 67 
 
 Tomb of Cyrus 67 
 
 Ruins of Babylon 70 
 
 Temple of Diana at Ephesus 72 
 
 ^ Alexander the Great 74 
 
 ^ Demosthenes 80 
 
 Darius 92 
 
 •"^ Julius C^sar — from the Antique Bust 110 
 
 Julius Csesar 116 
 
 Caesar in Gaul 122 
 
 The Landing of Julius Caesar in Britain 124 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ^ Charlemagne — from Early Engraving 
 
 The Huns at Chalons 
 
 " Thrust him away or thou diest in his stead " 
 
 ^ Charlemagne 
 
 Death of Roland 
 
 Alfred the Great 
 
 The Northmen invading France 
 
 Alfred the Great 
 
 Alfred and the Cakes 
 
 ^ Richard Coeur de Lion 
 
 '^Richard Coeur de Lion 
 
 Richard tearing down the Austrian Banner 
 
 " Most Holy Land, Farewell ! " 
 
 King John 
 
 '^ Warren, Earl of Surrey, Governor of Scotland under Ed- 
 ward I 
 
 ^ Robert Bruce 
 
 " Bruce was not slow in taking the warning " 
 
 " See ! I have spoiled my good battle-axe " 
 
 Ferdinand of Aragon 
 
 I Isabella of Castile 
 
 Segovia : The Alcazar and Cathedral 
 
 The Cathedral and Port of Malaga 
 
 Court of Lions, Alhambra ... 
 
 ■^^ Columbus 
 
 Prison of the Inquisition at Barcelona . 
 
 Tomb of Ferdmand and Isatella in the Cathedral of 
 Granada ... .... 
 
 Philip II, 
 
 Queen Mary plighting her Troth to Philip 
 
 Destroying Statues, etc., in the Cathedral at Antwerp. . 
 ^ Philip II 
 
 142 
 144 
 147 
 152 
 160 
 170 
 174 
 182 
 186 
 196 
 208 
 221 
 228 
 230 
 
 235 
 
 238 
 243 
 260 
 266 
 268 
 271 
 274 
 280 
 282 
 286 
 
 289 
 291 
 292 
 304 
 308 
 
I 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 
 
 Guctavus Adolplnijj 312 
 
 ^Gustavus Adolphus — from a picture by Van Dyck 318 
 
 Death of Gustavus and his Page 332 
 
 ^ Louis XIV 334 
 
 •^ Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin 340 
 
 Louis XIV. taking leave of Fouquet 344 
 
 Death of Turenne 350 
 
 Jean Baptiste Colbert 352 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 354 
 
 Peter the Great. . , 368 
 
 The Kremlin of Moscow 373 
 
 Peter saved from Slaughter by his Mother 374 
 
 Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul in the Fortress 386 
 
 Peter the Great in the Dutch Ship-yard 389 
 
 •^ Peter the Great 392 
 
 '^ Frederick II., King of Prussia, aet. 58 398 
 
 ''Frederick the Great 418 
 
 Arrest of Voltaire by order of Frederick 427 
 
 ^^ Equestrian Statue of Frederick the Great, set. 73 430 
 
 ^ Napoleon 434 
 
 Napoleon in the Prison of Nice, 1794 442 
 
 ^ Napoleon at Fontainebleau 462 
 
 " Napoleon on Board the Bellerophon 466 
 
 I The Rock at St. Helena 474 
 
BOYS' BOOK OF FAMOUS RULEES. 
 
 ^»o>©<c 
 
 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 1184 B.C. 
 
 " The rule 
 Of many is not well. One must be chief 
 In 'svar, and one the king." — Iliad. 
 
 FOR nine 3'ears the Greeks had besieged the cit}" of 
 Troy. This famous Trojan War, which is said to 
 have occurred about 1184 b.c, has been embellished by 
 romance and poetry ; and although the real events have 
 been much distorted by fabulous tales, it holds an impor- 
 tant place in ancient Grecian histoiy. 
 
 The marvellous Greek poet Homer has immortalized 
 the wonderful story of this congest, in which, according 
 to the old Grecian belief, gods and heroes fought for 
 mastery ; and it seems more fitting to the subject that 
 we should view these events through the eyes of those 
 ancient Greeks, whose weird yet fascinating fables 
 peopled the mountains and seas with gods and goddesses ; 
 over whom proud Zeus or Jupiter ruled on the dread 
 Mount of Olympus, from whence he hurled his awful 
 thunderbolts, and shook the earth and heavens in his 
 wrathful moods, when gods or mortals had dared to defy 
 his imperial will. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, was 
 the commander of all the Grecian hosts which for these 
 
2 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 nine years had surrounded the walls of Tro}^ The cause 
 of the quarrel may be thus briefly stated : — 
 
 Priam was the richest and most powerful of all the 
 kings of Troy. His wife, Queen Hecuba, had dreamed 
 that one of her children should become a firebrand which 
 should consume the whole city. Whereupon, Priam was 
 so alarmed, that he ordered that her next child should be 
 exposed in a desert place among the mountains, and left 
 to perish. Paris was this child, and when an infant, was 
 hidden by his mother, that he might not be thus destroyed. 
 Paris grew to be a youth of marvellous beauty, and was 
 at length brought by his mother to the court of Priam. 
 The king was so charmed by his beauty and accomplish- 
 ments, that Paris ventured to make himself known, and 
 was received by Priam, his father, with great kindness; 
 for he was so pleased with the noble youth, that he ceased 
 to remember the evil dream. This dream, however, was 
 very strangely fulfilled years afterwards. Paris made an 
 expedition into Greece, which country was at that time 
 divided into many small kingdoms or states, each gov- 
 erned by its own king. Agamemnon was king of My cense, 
 and his brother Menelaiis was king of Sparta. 
 
 Agamemnon and Menelaiis were the sons of Plisthenes ; 
 but as their father died when they were very young, their 
 mother Aerope was afterwards married to Atreus ; and 
 these two brothers were brought up by their step-father 
 as his own children, to whom his name was given, as 
 they were called Atridiv. 
 
 Atreus was afterwards murdered, and Agamemnon's 
 uncle Thyestes ascended the throne of Mycenae. Aga- 
 memnon and his brother Menelaiis then fled to Sparta. 
 The king of Sparta agreed to recover the kingdom for 
 Agamemnon, if he would marry his daughter Clytem- 
 
AGAMEMNON. 3 
 
 nestra, and make her his queen. To this Agamemnon 
 consented, and with the aid of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, 
 he recovered his own kingdom, and married Clytemnestra. 
 His brother Menelaiis afterwards became king of Sparta. 
 
 During the expedition into Greece, of Paris, the son 
 of King Priam, he visited the court of Sparta, and was 
 received most kindly by King Menelaiis. But the hand- 
 some and fascinating Paris ill-repaid this courteous recep- 
 tion, for he fell in love with Helen, the beautiful wife of 
 Menelaiis, and carried her off with him on his return to 
 Troy. Menelaiis, enraged at this wicked treachery, per- 
 suaded his brother Agamemnon, king of Myceniie, to 
 espouse his quarrel, and to join him in waging war with 
 the Trojans, to revenge his indignity, and to recover, if 
 possible, his wife, the fair Helen, who was so exquisitel}' 
 beautiful, that all who saw her fell in love with her. 
 Agamemnon was chosen connnander-in-chief of all the 
 powerful Grecian princes who now combined their forces 
 to fight against Troy. Homer gives us the names of the 
 most famous of these Grecian warriors. Agamemnon was 
 sovereign lord of all the host, and Achilles was the 
 bravest and most valiant man amongst them. But be- 
 sides these, there was the yellow-haired Menelaiis, king 
 of Sparta, and husband of the beautiful Helen ; Ajax 
 Oileus, or, as men called him, the lesser Ajax, king of 
 the Locri, swiftest of foot among the Greeks, after the 
 great Achilles; Ajax Telamon, from Salamis ; Diomed, 
 son of Tydeus, king of Argos, and with him Sthenelus ; 
 Nestor, king of Pylos, oldest and wisest among the 
 Greeks ; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, most crafty in counsel ; 
 Idomeneus, grandson of the great judge Minos, king of 
 Crete, and with him Meriones ; Tlepolemus, son of Her- 
 cules, from Rhodes ; Eumelus, from Pherae, son of that 
 
4 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 Alcestis, who died for her husband, and was brought back 
 from death by Hercules, according to Grecian mythology ; 
 and many more heroes too numerous to mention : but the 
 bravest and strongest of all was Ajax, son of Telamon, 
 and the best horses were those of Eumelus ; but there was 
 none that could compare with Achilles and the horses of 
 Achilles, bravest of men, and swiftest of steeds. 
 
 The heroes upon the Trojan side were also great and 
 brave. The most famous of their chiefs were Hector, 
 son of King Priam, most valiant of all the Trojan war- 
 riors ; ^neas, whose father was Anchises, and whose 
 mother was supposed to be the goddess Aphrodite ; Pan- 
 darus, from Mount Ida, to whom Apollo had given a 
 marvellous bow ; Asius, the son of Hyrtacus, who came 
 from the broad salt river, the Hellespont ; Pylaemenes, 
 king of Paplilagonia ; and Sarpedon from Lycia, whom 
 men affirmed to be the son of Zeus himself; and lastly, 
 Glaucus his friend. 
 
 When the Grecian fleet had started upon this expedi- 
 tion against Troy, a wonderful incident had occurred. 
 The fleet of the Greeks was detained b}' contrary winds 
 at Aulis, owing to the wrath of the goddess Diana, whom 
 King Aoameranon had offended bv killing one of her 
 favorite deer. In this emergency Calchas the soothsayer 
 was consulted, and he declared that to appease the anger 
 of the goddess, Iphigenia, the eldest daughter of King 
 Agamemnon, must be sacrificed. She was accordingly led 
 to the altar, and was about to be offered as a victim, when 
 she is said to have suddenly disappeared, being caught 
 up by Diana, who in pity substituted a stag in her place. 
 Virgil, however, tells this story somewhat differently ; 
 for he relates that Iphigenia was actually sacrificed. The 
 goddess having been appeased, the winds were favorable. 
 
AGAMEMNON. 5 
 
 and the Grecian fleet sailed onward, and arrived safely at 
 Troy ; and for nine long years these famous warriors had 
 been waoino- war around the walls of that city, within 
 which, in the palace of Paris, son of King Priam, was 
 concealed the matchlessly beautiful Helen, and much rich 
 treasure, which that treacherous but fascinating prince 
 had stolen from the Greeks. 
 
 But now within the Grecian camp a strife arises be- 
 tween King Agamemnon and Achilles, bravest of all his 
 host. The Greeks, having been away from home so 
 many years, were accustomed to make frequent raids 
 upon the surrounding cities to supply their needs, and 
 thus to enable them to continue still longer this weary 
 siege. They had thus ruthlessly attacked a city called 
 Chr\^sa, sacred to Apollo, where was a temple of that 
 god. 
 
 The Greeks, in their plunderings, had not dared to 
 molest the temple or its priest ; but they had carried off, 
 with other prisoners, the daughter of the priest of Apollo, 
 \iamed Chryseis. The spoils obtained from these expedi- 
 tions were divided between the various kings and heroes 
 in the Grecian host ; and the maiden Chryseis had been 
 apportioned as the share of King Agamemnon. The 
 next day the priest Chryses came to the Grecian camp, 
 bringing much gold, and wearing on his head the priest's 
 crown, that men might therel)y reverence him the more. 
 He demanded the return of his daughter, and offered his 
 gold as her ransom. The Grecian chiefs were favorable 
 to his suit, but King Agamemnon angril}' repulsed him, 
 exclaiming, — 
 
 " Hence, on thy life, and fly these hostile plains, 
 Nor ask, presumptuous, what the king detains. 
 Hence with thy laurel crown and golden rod ; 
 
6 AGAMEMNON, 
 
 Nor trust too far those ensigns of thy god. 
 
 Mine is thy daughter, priest, and shall remain, 
 
 And prayers, and tears, and bribes, shall plead in vain." 
 
 The sorrowful priest turned away in silence, and as he 
 walked along the seashore, he besought the aid of his 
 god, Apollo, praying : " Hear me, God of the silver bow ! 
 If I have built thee a temple, and offered thee the fat of 
 many bullocks and rams, hear me ! and avenge me on 
 these Greeks." 
 
 And Apollo heard him and descended with awful wrath 
 from dread Olympus, where dwelt the gods. The rattle 
 of his arrows filled the air, as he twanged his deadly bow, 
 and sent the fateful shafts of pestilence upon the Grecian 
 fleet below ; meanwhile, enwrapping his own form in 
 shadows black as night, from which his baleful darts shot 
 forth like lightning's flash. And so for ten long days 
 the pestilence raged, till heaps of dead men and beasts 
 lined the shore, and the black smoke ascended from 
 m^-riad funeral piles. Then Achilles called upon the seer, 
 Calchas, to tell them why Apollo was so wroth with them. 
 To whom the sage replied, — 
 
 "It is on behalf of his priest that Apollo is so wroth ; 
 for when he came to ransom his daughter, Agamemnon 
 would not let the maiden go. Now then, ye must send 
 her back to Chrysa without ransom, and with her a 
 hundred beasts for sacrifice, so that the plague may be 
 stayed." 
 
 Theu, with a threatening frown, Kiug Agamemnon 
 started from his gorgeous throne, with eyes which flashed 
 with angry light, as he exclaimed in fury, — 
 
 "Prophet of plagues, forever boding ill! Still must 
 that tongue some evil message bring. I will release the 
 maid, that my people may be spared. But for this, my 
 share of booty, shall the Greeks requite me." 
 
AGAMEMNON. 7 
 
 Then Achilles answered, — 
 
 '' We have no treasures from which to make up thv 
 loss. Let the maiden go ! and when we capture Trov, 
 we will repay thee fourfold." 
 
 Then Agamemnon replied, — 
 
 " Shall I my prize resign while thou art possessed of 
 thine ? I will send back the maid to please Apollo ; but 
 know thou that I will seize thy share, even the girl 
 Briseis, that all may know that I am sovereign here." 
 
 Whereupon, Achilles was so fierce with anger, that he 
 fain would have slain the monarch, and had, forsooth, 
 half drawn his sword from the scabbard, to thrust it into 
 the haughty king. But lo ! the goddess Athen^ stood 
 behind him, and caught him by his long yellow locks of 
 hair. None saw the goddess, save only Achilles, to 
 whom he said, — 
 
 "Art thou come, fair Minerva, to witness these wrongs 
 I bear from Atreus' son? If thou dost see his crime, see 
 also my proud vengeance." 
 
 Whereupon, he raised his sword to strike ; but the god- 
 dess said, — 
 
 " Forbear thy ftuy ! Let great Achilles yield to reason. 
 Put up thy sword ; but if thou pleasest, use the dagger of 
 thy tongue alone. With that, the gods permit thee to re- 
 proach him ; but vengeance, leave thou to the care of 
 heaven." 
 
 So spake the goddess, and Achilles thrust his sword 
 back into its sheath, and in proud scorn exclaimed, while 
 turning to the king with blazing eyes, — 
 
 "Coward! thou rulest sure a puny race, else this had 
 been thy last affront. Thou darest not to fight, but 
 cowerest like a dog in safe retreat within the camp ; but 
 after we have fought and conquered, thou claimest the 
 
8 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 richest booty ! But know, for this my grievous wrong, 
 tlie gods shall avenge it ! And when the Greeks lie in 
 heaps before the walls of Troy, slain b}' the dreadful 
 Hector, then shalt thou miss the strong arm of Achilles 
 from thy side, and thy proud heart shalt mourn the affront 
 thy madness gave. For thou hast made the bravest 
 Greek thy bitterest enemy." 
 
 Then did Achilles dash his sacred sceptre on the 
 ground, saying, — 
 
 " As surely as this sceptre, which was once a branch 
 from off a tree, now starred with golden studs and bound 
 with bronze, an ensign of Jove's favor, shall never 
 blossom more, so surely shalt thou miss the arm of brave 
 Achilles, when the Trojans press thee sore. Thou canst 
 play the master over others, but think not to master me ! 
 As to the maid, m}' prize, which the Greeks gave me, 
 let them take it again if they will, but if thou darest to 
 invade my tent and touch whate'er is mine, tliy blood shall 
 stream forth at the point of my revengeful blade." 
 
 So saying, the great Achilles strode forth from the 
 counsel-tent with wrathful looks, and the august brow of 
 Agamemnon was overcast with threatening gloom. In 
 vain had Nestor, eldest of the Grecian kings and wisest 
 of counsellors, endeavored to quell this ominous quarrel. 
 His words of reason moved not the two fierce warriors. 
 And surely, in this strife, Achilles held the right, and 
 Agamemnon showed himself a selfish, proud, and haughty 
 monarch. 
 
 The priest's daughter, Chrysei's, was sent back to her 
 home with offerings to the god, and Ulysses was appointed 
 to conduct her thither. But King Agamemnon would not 
 be persuaded to renounce his purpose of seizing upon the 
 war-prize which had been awarded to Achilles, namely, 
 
AGAMEMNON. 9 
 
 the maiden Brisei's ; aod forthwith he sent heralds to the 
 tent of Achilles to obtain her. The heralds approached 
 the warrior with much dread, for they feared his awful 
 wrath. But Achilles said to them, — 
 
 ''Fear not, ye heralds! It is no fault of yours that 
 you are sent on such an errand." 
 
 Whereupon he commanded that the maiden should be 
 brought from her tent and given to the heralds, who led 
 her, much against her will, to the haughty Agamemnon. 
 Then Achilles called upon his mother Thetis, who was a 
 goddess of the sea, to avenge his wrongs. Thetis rose 
 like a mist from the waves, and coming to Achilles, who 
 sat upon the seashore, she comforted him and asked his 
 trouble. Whereupon Achilles told her the cause of his 
 anger, and besought her to go to the great Zeus, whom 
 Thetis had once aided, when the other gods would have 
 bound oreat Jove, by brini2jino: Briareus of the hundred 
 hands, who so fought for the mighty Jupiter, that the 
 other gods dared no longer defy his power. And owing 
 this kindness to the goddess Thetis, her son thought 
 rightly that the great Jove would listen to her petitions 
 on his behalf. So Achilles asked his mother to go to 
 Olympus, and pray Zeus that he would help the sons of 
 Troy and give them victory over the Greeks, whose sove- 
 reign king had thus dishonored the bravest of all his host. 
 
 This, Thetis did, going to the palace of Jupiter on the 
 top of Olympus, and making her prayer in her son's be- 
 lialf. Zeus was loath to grant it. for he knew that it 
 would anger his wife Here, who loved the Greeks and 
 hated the Trojans. Yet on account of the past favor of 
 Thetis, he would not refuse, and in giving assent, nodded 
 his awful head, thus causing Olympus to shake and trem- 
 ble. So Zeus called one of his swift-winged messengers, 
 called a Dream, and said, — 
 
10 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 '*• Fly hence, swift Dream, and to the tent of Agamem- 
 non go ! Bid him lead all the Grecians forth to battle 
 against Troy. Persuade him that the gods intend to give 
 him victory." 
 
 So this false Dream, flying to Agamemnon's side, took 
 to itself the shape of wise old Nestor, whom the king 
 honored more than all beside, and thus the false Nestor 
 counselled, — 
 
 " Sleepest thou, Agamemnon? Arise! for now Zeus 
 declares that the immortal gods are favorable to thy 
 plans, and through thy mighty hosts will send the doom 
 of destruction upon the city of Troy ; and thou shalt reap 
 the eternal glor3^" 
 
 Then Agamemnon awoke from sleep and, little think- 
 ing how he had been duped by this false Dream, quickly 
 donned his tunic, fastened his sandals on his feet, and 
 hung from his shoulders his mighty silver-studded sword. 
 Wrapping his great cloak around him, he took in his right 
 hand his royal sceptre, token of his sovereignty over all 
 the Greeks. Thus attired, in martial grandeur, he went 
 forth and roused his chiefs, and then the heralds called 
 the hosts to battle. Only Achilles sat apart within his 
 tent and went not forth to battle with the Greeks. 
 
 Now, as the two forces were about to fight, Paris, the 
 Trojan prince, rushed forth and challenged the bravest of 
 the Greeks to fight with him. Then Menelaus, whom he 
 had so greatly wronged, leapt from his chariot and rushed 
 to meet his treacherous foe. But Paris was more beauti- 
 ful in form and feature than brave in heart, and seeing 
 the man whom he had so cruelly wronged, he was afraid 
 to fight, and cowardlike ran back into the Trojan ranks. 
 Then his brother, brave Hector, thus rebuked his cow- 
 ardice. 
 
AGAMEMNON. 11 
 
 *' Fair art thou, Paris, beauteous indeed, but ill thy soul 
 supplies a form so fair ! Thou makest us the scoru of 
 the proud Greeks, by thy unmanly fear. Little will it 
 avail thee that thou art in form so stately, when thy soft 
 curling locks and shapely limbs are lying in the dust. 
 Thy silver lyre, nor all thy blandishments, will naught 
 avert thy doom, for thou hast been the curse of Troy and 
 ruin of thy race." 
 
 Then Paris, stricken with just shame, replied, — 
 
 '' Thou speakest well. Hector, and thy rebuke is just. 
 Thy heart is like iron ; yet are beauty and love also the 
 gift of the gods, and not to be despised. Now let Mene- 
 laiis and me fight for the fair Helen and all her posses- 
 sions, and if he prevail, let him take her, and them, and 
 depart to Greece. But if I prevail, then shall the Greeks 
 depart in peace without her." 
 
 This saying, which at last betokened some spirit, pleased 
 Hector well ; and going before the Trojan ranks, holding 
 his spear by the middle, he kept them back. The Greeks 
 would have hurled spears upon him, but Agamemnon 
 cried out, — 
 
 " Hold ! Hector has somewhat to say to us." 
 
 Then Hector announced that Paris would fight with 
 Menelaiis for the fair Helen and all her wealth. To 
 which Menelaiis readily agreed, but demanded that King 
 Priam should himself come and, with King Agamemnon, 
 make a covenant with sacrifice, that the fair Helen and 
 all her wealth should go to the one who should prevail. 
 
 When the heralds went to bring the old King Priam, 
 he was found on the wall with the beautiful Helen near 
 him, to whom he was talking and asking tlie names of 
 brave Grecian heroes whom he beheld among the hostile 
 host. And in this wise he spake to fair Helen, — 
 
12 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 "Come near, my daughter, tell me about these old 
 friends of thine. Who is that warrior, that I see, so fair 
 and strong? There are others taller than he, but none 
 of such majesty." 
 
 And Helen answered, — 
 
 "Ah, my father, would that I had died before I left 
 the fair land of Greece ! That one is King Agamemnon, 
 a good and brave soldier, and my brother-in-law, in the 
 old days. And that one is Ulysses of Ithaca, who is 
 better in craft and counsel than all other men." 
 
 Then Priam said, — 
 
 ' ' Who is that stalwart hero overtopping all others ? " 
 
 "That," said Helen, "is mighty A j ax, the bulwark 
 of the Greeks ; and as for the other chiefs, I could name 
 them all. But I see not my two brothers. Castor and 
 Pollux ;" for she wot not that they were already dead. 
 
 Thereupon came the heralds and told King Priam that 
 the armies had called for him. After the covenant be- 
 tween the Trojan and Grecian kings, Priam and Agamem- 
 non, Hector and Ulysses marked out a space for the fight, 
 and Hector shook two pebbles in a helmet, to decide 
 which one should be the first to throw the spear, Paris or 
 Menelaiis. 
 
 The lot fell upon Paris, and the two warriors having 
 armed themselves, came forth into the space and bran- 
 dished their spears with wrathful eyes. Then Paris 
 threw his spear. It struck the shield of Menelaiis, but 
 pierced it not; and thereupon Menelaiis, with a prayer 
 to Jupiter, cast his long-shafted spear. It struck the 
 shield of Paris, pierced it through, and passing through 
 both corselet and tunic, would have bruised the side of 
 Paris, but he shrank aside, and so was wounded not. 
 Then Menelaiis drew his sword and struck a mighty blow 
 
AGAMEMNON. 13 
 
 upon the top of Paris' helmet ; but the sword brake in 
 four pieces in his hand. Then he ruslied forward and 
 seized Paris by the helmet, and fain would have drao-o-ed 
 him to the Grecian host, but the goddess Aphrodite 
 loosed the strap that was beneath the chin, and the hel- 
 met came off in the hand of Menelaiis, and the goddess 
 snatched Paris away, covering him with a mist, and put 
 him safely in his own palace in Troy. 
 
 Then King Agamemnon said, — 
 
 " Now, ye sons of Troy, give back the fair Helen and 
 her wealth ! " 
 
 But just at this time the goddess Athene took upon 
 herself the shape of Laodocus, and going to Pandarus, 
 the false Laodocus, said, — 
 
 " Darest thou aim an arrow at Menelaiis?'* 
 
 Now Pandarus had a marvellous bow made from the 
 horns of a wild goat and tipped with beaten gold, and 
 Pandarus strung his bow, his comrades, meanwhile, 
 hiding him behind their shields. Then took he a sharp- 
 pointed arrow from his quiver and laid it on the bow- 
 string and let it flv. Right well the aim was made ; but 
 the Sfods decreed that the dart should not be fatal. For 
 though it passed through belt and corselet and strong 
 girdle, and pierced the skin so that the red blood rushed 
 out, which sight filled Menelaiis and King Agamemnon 
 with sore dismay, Menelaiis soon perceived the barb of 
 the arrow, and so knew that the wound was not fatal ; 
 and when it was drawn forth by the physician Machaon, 
 and the blood was staunched with healing drugs. King 
 Agamemnon rejoiced that he should not thus lose his 
 brave brother Menelaiis. 
 
 Then the mighty hosts of Greeks and Trojans went 
 forward to the battle, and on either side the gods urged 
 
14 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 them on, Athene aiding the Greeks, and Ares — called also 
 Mars — strengthening the Trojan warriors. Manj' were 
 the valiant exploits that da}' performed ; but we can men- 
 tion but a few of them. So close pressed host on host, 
 that the armies dashed together, shield on shield and 
 spear on spear. Ajax Telamon slew Simoisius, and 
 Antiphon, son of King Priam, aimed at Ajax, but missing 
 him, slew Leucus, the friend of the valiant Ulysses. 
 
 Whereupon, Ulysses, in great anger, to avenge his 
 death, strode boldly midst the Trojan ranks and hurled 
 his spear at Democoon, a son of Priam, whom he slew. 
 At iengtli the Trojan hosts were borne backward by the 
 might}' onslaught of the Greeks, till Apollo cried from 
 the heights of Pergamos, — 
 
 "On, Trojans 1 The flesh of these Greeks is not stone 
 or iron, that ye cannot pierce it ; and remember that the 
 great Achilles fights not with them to-day ! " 
 
 Athene also urged the Greeks to valiant deeds. This 
 goddess aroused Diomed to battle, making a wondrous 
 fire shine forth from his helmet, which made him seem a 
 god, and he raged through the battle so furiously, that he 
 was now seen amongst the Grecian ranks, now boldly in- 
 vading the Trojan forces, and striking down his foes 
 with 'mighty arm. Then Pandarus aimed an arrow at 
 him and smote him on the shoulder. But the brave 
 Diomed cared not for the arrow, and leaping from his 
 chariot he called to Sthenelus, his charioteer, to draw the 
 arrow from the wound ; and praying to Athene for aid, 
 he rushed madly into the Trojan ranks, slaying a man at 
 every blow. 
 
 Meanwhile, ^neas, driving his swift chariot, said to 
 Pandarus, — 
 
 " Climb up into my chariot, and thou shalt fight, and 1 
 will drive." 
 
AGAMEMNOM. 15 
 
 So Pandiirus mounted the chariot, and the two drove 
 towards Diomed, and as they came near, Pandarus cast 
 his spear, which passed through the shield of Diomed and 
 reached his corselet ; whereupon Pandarus cried, — 
 
 '' Ha, now he bleeds ! Low will this haughty Grecian 
 lie ! " 
 
 But Diomed replied, — 
 
 " Thy dart has erred ! Now I will try my spear." 
 
 And straightway he hurled his keen lance toward his 
 boasting foe. Through nose and jaw it crashed, and cleft 
 the tongue in two ; and the bright point came forth be- 
 neath the chin. 
 
 Pandarus fell from the chariot mortally wounded, and 
 ^neas leapt to the ground with drawn spear to defend 
 the dead body of his friend. But Diomed raised a huge 
 stone and hurled it at ^neas, and crushed his hip-bone, 
 felling him to the earth. 
 
 Then had brave ^Eneas perished, but his goddess 
 mother. Aphrodite, caught him in her white arms and 
 threw her veil about him. But so great was the rage of 
 Diomed, that he spared not even the goddess, but rushing 
 upon her, he wounded her in the wrist, and with a shriek 
 of pain she dropped her son ; but Apollo caught him up 
 and covered him with a thick mist. Thrice Diomed pur- 
 sued, and thrice Apollo drove him back. But as the rash 
 Diomed advanced a fourth time, the god exclaimed, — 
 
 "O son of Tydeus, beware! Nor think to match the 
 immortal gods ! " 
 
 So Apollo carried ^neas out of the battle and placed 
 him in safety in Troy. Meanwhile, fair Venus, pale from 
 the wound which mortal man had dared inflict, was con- 
 ducted by swift-winged Tris to the stern god Mars, her 
 brother ; and Venus begged his car to mount the distant 
 
16 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 ^ 
 
 skies, where in the fair realms of the gods her wounded 
 hand was healed by sacred balm. Then Mars went down 
 upon the field of battle to aid the Trojans, and Hector 
 rushed to the front with the god Mars by his side ; and he 
 dealt death and destruction through the Grecian ranks. 
 Juno and Minerva saw him from Mount Olympus, and 
 they prayed Jupiter to allow them to stop him in his fury. 
 The mighty Zeus consented, and the two goddesses 3'oked 
 horses to the chariot of Juno and passed down to earth 
 with flying strides. Having reached the battle-field, Juno 
 took the shape of Stentor with the lungs of brass, whose 
 voice was as the voices of fifty men, and thus she cried, — 
 
 "Shame, men of Greece! When Achilles fought, the 
 Trojans dare not leave the city ; but now they fight even 
 by the very ships." Then Minerva chided Diomed for 
 want of bravery, to whom he replied: "I know thee, 
 great goddess, daughter of Jupiter! and 'tis thy com- 
 mands I obey. Thou didst bid me fight with none of the 
 immortals save only with Aphrodite ; and therefore I 
 gave place to Hector, for I perceived that he was aided 
 by great Mars." 
 
 But Athene answered: "Heed not Ares! drive thy 
 chariot at him and hurl thy spear. This morning did 
 stern Mars promise to aid the Greeks, and now he joins 
 with our Trojan foes." 
 
 So saying, the goddess pushed the charioteer of Diomed 
 from his place, and herself mounted and seized the reins 
 and lashed the horses furiously. With swift speed they 
 drove together till they found the god Mars, or Ares, 
 where he had just slain Periphas the ^tolian. Minerva 
 was even invisible to the god, for she had donned the hel- 
 met of Hades ; and so Ares, not seeing her, cast his spear 
 at Diomed ; but the goddess caught the spear and turned 
 
AGAMEMNON, 17 
 
 it aside. Then Diomed thrust forth his spear, and Minerva 
 leaned upon it, so that it even pierced the side of the god 
 Mars, who shouted so loudly with the pain that the Greeks 
 and Trojans trembled with fear ; while the god of war, 
 wounded by the fair goddess Athene, covered himself 
 with a thunder-cloud, and in much rage ascended to 
 Olympus. 
 
 When Ares had departed, the Greeks prevailed again ; 
 but the seer Helenus said to Hector and iEneas : " Draw 
 back the Trojan army and encourage them ; and you, 
 Hector, go within the city and bid thy mother queen, 
 with the daughters of Troy, take the costliest robe she 
 hath, and go to the temple of Athene and offer it to the 
 goddess with prayers and sacrifice, that perchance she 
 may relent and have pity on us and keep this terrible 
 Diomed from our walls." 
 
 This counsel prevailed, and Hector departed to the city, 
 whence he dispatched his queen mother to Athene's tem- 
 ple, and exhorted his brother Paris to arm himself and 
 come forth to battle. Hector then took a fond farewell 
 of his much-loved wife Andromache and his only child, 
 called beautiful-headed as a star, and departed with Paris, 
 who came forth clad in shining armor ; and they fell upon 
 the hosts of the Greeks and slew many chiefs of fame. 
 
 Again came Athene to help the Greeks ; and meeting 
 the god Apollo, they agreed to stay the battle for that 
 day ; and to this end inspired Hector and King Agamem- 
 non to agree that Hector should fight alone with the brav- 
 est of the Greeks, while both armies should rest from 
 battle. 
 
 Then Menelaiis desired to meet brave Hector in single 
 combat. But King Agamemnon would not consent to 
 this, fearing his brother would perish. Whereupon it was 
 
18 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 resolved to decide the matter by lot, which fell upon Ajai 
 the Greater, who, having armed himself, stepped forth to 
 battle with the mighty Hector. First Hector hurled 
 his spear, which passed tlirough six folds of Ajax's 
 shield. Then Ajax threw his lance, striking proud Hec- 
 tor's shield. Through shield, corselet, and tunic it passed, 
 but Hector shrank from the sharp point, and the flesh was 
 not pierced. Then again they rushed together with wild 
 fury. And Ajax drove his spear at Hector's shield and 
 grazed his neck, so that the blood leaped forth. Then 
 Hector hurled a might}' stone at Ajax ; but his shield 
 broke not. Whereupon Ajax raised a mightier stone and 
 threw it with such aim that it broke the shield of Hector 
 and felled him backwards to the ground. But Apollo 
 raised him up, and as they drew their swords for deadlier 
 conflict, the heralds held their sceptres between them and 
 bid them cease. So Hector and Ajax, both might}' war- 
 riors and brave of heart, agreed to part as friends ; in 
 token whereof. Hector gave to Ajax a silver-studded 
 sword, and Ajax to Hector a buckler splendid with pur- 
 ple. So they parted, and the conflict was stayed that 
 night. In the morning came Trojan heralds to King Aga- 
 memnon's host, saying: " This is the word of Priam and 
 the sons of Troy. Paris will give back all the treasures 
 of the fair Helen and much more besides, but the fair 
 Helen herself will he not give up. But grant a truce that 
 we may bury our dead." 
 
 So the truce was given, and the dead of both armies 
 were burnt. Then the Greeks and Trojans both feasted 
 through the night. But all through the hours of darkness 
 the terrible thunder rolled on Mount Olympus ; for mighty 
 Zeus was counselling evil against the hapless Trojans. 
 
 When the morning came, the two hosts again went 
 
^1 
 
AGAMEMNON. 19 
 
 forth to battle with each other. Till midday neither side 
 prevailed ; bat then great Jupiter sent fear and panic 
 amidst the Grecian forces, and they fled to their ships in 
 terror. 
 
 As the Greeks were flying in wild confusion, brave 
 Hector driving in his chariot pursued them ; and called to 
 his horses, " Now Xanthus, ^Ethon, Lampus, and Podar- 
 gus, speed ye well ! Ye Flame of Fire, White Foot, and 
 Brilliant, named ! carry me fast, and well repay the ten- 
 der care of my sweet wife Andromache, who often from 
 her fair white hands has fed thee ! For I would win old 
 Nestor's marvellous shield of purest gold, and strip from 
 off proud Diomed his boasted breastplate, wrought by 
 the mighty Vulcan." 
 
 But Jupiter willed not that this should be ; for King 
 Agamemnon prayed aloud to Zeus for succor, and Jupiter 
 heard his prayer, in token whereof he sent a sign, namely ; 
 an eagle flew above the Grecian hosts and dropped a kid 
 out of his claws. Then did the Greeks take courage and 
 renewed the fight with vigor. But the darkness came, and 
 each host rested on their arms. 
 
 Meanwhile, King Agamemnon called a council of war, 
 and fain would have returned to Greece and leave this 
 invincible city of Troy. But brave King Diomed would 
 not receive such craven counsel, and angrily exclaimed, — 
 
 " Even though all the men of Greece depart, yet will I 
 and Sthenelus abide the doom of Troy, for surely the 
 gods have brought us hither." 
 
 To these brave words the Grecian chiefs agreed ; and 
 wise Nestor counselled that King Agamemnon should 
 send to brave Achilles and seek to make peace with him 
 that they might have the strong help of his mighty arm. 
 To which King Agamemnon consented, and sent messen- 
 
20 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 gers to the tent of Achilles to seek his favor, promising 
 him seven Ivettles of brass, ten talents of gold, twenty 
 caldrons, twelve fleet horses, seven women slaves skilled 
 in the work of the loom, and, more than all, the return of 
 the maid Briseis, the cause of all their quarrel ; and when 
 Troy should be taken, much spoil besides. And even 
 more ; for when they should return to Greece, King Aga- 
 memnon promised him one of his own daughters for his 
 wife, and seven cities by the sea. But all this moved not 
 the wrathful soul of stern Achilles, and he would not be 
 appeased ; nor would he come to help the Greeks against 
 the Trojans, but still sat silent in his tent. Then it was 
 decided that Diomed and Ulysses should go that night 
 disguised into the Trojan camp, to spy out, if possible, 
 their strength and plans. This same strategy had Hector 
 also planned, and had already sent one Dolon, swift of 
 foot, towards the Grecian host. But as he ran he met 
 Diomed and UWsses, who seized him, and under threat- 
 enings forced him to reveal the Trojan secrets. Then 
 did they slay Dolon, and forthwith proceeded to where 
 some men of Thrace, allies of the Trojans, lay sleeping. 
 These Thracians possessed most matchless steeds — - 
 horses so fair and tall, whiter than snow and fleeter than 
 the winds. Diomed and Ulysses would fain secure these 
 as a rich prize, and so the}^ slew the sleeping Thracians 
 and led the captured horses back to the Grecian hosts, 
 and arrived in safety at the ships. The next day the 
 battle waged hot again. Ulysses was wounded, and Paris 
 shot an arrow and pierced the brave physician Machaon. 
 Meanwhile, Achilles was standing on his ship and looking 
 upon the conflict. When he beheld Nestor bearing the 
 wounded Machaon to the ships, he called to his friend 
 Patroclus and bid him see if Machaon 's wound was fatal. 
 
AGAMEMNON. 21 
 
 Most fierce the battle raged. On the left, the Grecians 
 prevailed, but on the right brave Hector and his host 
 fought even to the very ships, dealing most deadly blows. 
 So great were the shouts of battle that old Nestor, who 
 was tending the wounded Machaon, was roused ; and 
 going forth he met King Agamemnon, and with him Dio- 
 med and Ulysses, who had been wounded that day. Then 
 they counselled together. Again Agamemnon advised 
 flight ; but the others thought it not good to flee thus, and 
 they counselled King Agamemnon that he should go to 
 the Grecian ranks, bidding them bear themselves bravely 
 and put courage into their hearts. This did he do, and 
 roused their waning strength to fresh exploits. Then 
 Ajax smote brave Hector with a mighty stone, which 
 felled him to the ground ; and the Greeks, with a great 
 cry, rushed forth to bear him to their ranks ; but the 
 Trojans held their shields before him, and his friends 
 lifted him up and carried him to a place of safety. But 
 he was sorely bruised. Then Apollo, at Jupiter's bid- 
 ding, poured courage into his heart and healed him of his 
 wound, so that he rushed once more upon the field of 
 battle, strong and well and valiant as ever. Then were 
 the Greeks struck with dire dismay. Then did Patroclus 
 lament to Achilles on account of the ill fortune of the 
 Greeks, and besought the mighty warrior, if he would not 
 fight himself in their behalf, to let him go accompanied 
 by the valiant Myrmidons, whom Achilles always led to 
 battle. At which the heart of Achilles was moved ; and 
 he said, — 
 
 " I will not go to battle until it reaches my own ships, 
 but thou mayest put my armor upon thee and lead my 
 Myrmidons to the fight." 
 
 So this was done ; and when the Trojans beheld these 
 
22 AGAMEMNOy. 
 
 famous Myrmidons led by one who wore the armor of 
 the mighty Achilles, their hearts were faint with fear, for 
 they supposed great Achilles himself had come against 
 them. Thrice did Patroclus rush against the men of Troy, 
 and each time slew nine chiefs of fame ; but the fourth 
 time Apollo stood behind him and struck him, and his 
 eyes were darkened, and the helmet fell off his head, so 
 that the waving plumes were soiled with dust. Never 
 before had this proud helmet of Achilles touched the 
 ground. Then Apollo broke his spear, and struck the 
 shield from his arms, and loosed his corselet. Then all- 
 amazed, poor Patroclus stood defenceless ; so Hector 
 struck him dead, and seized the matchless armor of the 
 mighty Achilles. 
 
 Fierce was the fight about the body of Patroclus, and 
 many chiefs fell dead striving to obtain the prize. Then 
 fled Antilochus to bear the ill tidings to the great Achilles, 
 who, upon hearing of this dire defeat, poured dust upon 
 his head, and called upon his goddess-mother to come to 
 his aid. 
 
 "Why weepest thou, my son?" said the sea-goddess 
 Thetis, rising from the waves. 
 
 " My friend Patroclus is dead, and Hector has my 
 arms I gave him to wear, and, as for me, I care not to 
 live unless I can avenge myself." 
 
 Thus Thetis said, — 
 
 " Be comforted, my son ; to-morrow I will go to 
 mighty Vulcan ; he shall forge new arms for thee." 
 
 Even as they spoke together, so sore the Trojans 
 pressed the Greeks, that Jupiter sent Iris to Achilles, and 
 bade him show himself to the Greeks that they might be 
 filled with courage. 
 
 " How can I go without arms?" replied Achilles. 
 
 1 
 
AGAMEMNON. 23 
 
 But the gods gave him courage, aud he went, and 
 Athene put her matchless shield upon his shoulders, and 
 wrapped a golden halo round his head, so that he seemed 
 clothed in godlike armor ; and he shouted to the Trojans 
 with a mighty voice, which so filled them with fear that 
 they fell back, and the horses of the Trojan chariots were 
 so terrified at the flaming fire above his head that they 
 thrice fell back, and trampled on the Trojans, as thrice 
 the awful voice of Achilles was heard and his shining 
 form revealed. Thus was the body of Patroclus then se- 
 cured, and carried on a bier, Achilles walking, weeping 
 by his side. 
 
 That night the conflict rested. Meanwhile, Thetis the 
 goddess went to the dread Vulcan, and prayed him make 
 new armor for her son Achilles. To this did stern He- 
 phaestus consent, saying, " Be of good cheer ! I will obey 
 thy wish ; for kind thou wast to me when my mother 
 thrust me forth from heaven because she saw I was 
 deformed and lame. I will make such arms for Achilles 
 as the gods themselves might proudly wear." 
 
 So great Vulcan wrought at his mighty forge. First he 
 made a ponderous shield, and wrought upon it the earth, 
 and sk}^ and sea, and sun, and moon, and stars. He 
 pictured upon it, also, two cities ; one at peace, and one 
 in dire confusion where war raged. In the peaceful city, 
 they led a bride to her home with music and dancing, and 
 women stood to see the show, and in the market-place 
 judges sat, and men bartered. But around the other city, 
 an army was besieging, and soldiers stood upon the walls, 
 defending. Also, he wrought fields where men ploughed, 
 and others reaped, and vineyards where youths and 
 maidens gathered baskets of grapes while minstrels 
 played on harps of gold. Also, he wrought herds of 
 
24 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 oxen going to tlie pasture, and sheepfolds, and a dance 
 of 3'ouths and maidens who wore coronets of gold and 
 belts of silver. Then, too, he pictured a fierce fight be- 
 tween lions and angry bulls. Around the shield he 
 wrought the mighty ocean. He made also a corselet, 
 brightei' than fire, and a helmet of gold. At dawn the 
 ofoddess Thetis brouoht to her son this marvellous armor, 
 which when Achilles saw, his eyes flashed wild with joy ; 
 and seizing them, he put them on most eagerly, and 
 rushed forth to rouse the Greeks to battle. Then an 
 assembly was called, and Achilles stood up in the midst, 
 saying, he had put away his wrath, and King Agamem- 
 non, who had been wounded in the battle, declared that 
 he had been wrong, and straightway commanded to be 
 sent to the tent of Achilles all that he had promised him, 
 including the maid Briseis, which was done. The Greeks 
 o-athered ao-ain to battle. Then did the fioht wao-e sore 
 against the Trojans, who fled within the city gates ; only 
 brave Hector remained outside to meet the mighty Achil- 
 les, who rushed towards him to engage in single combat. 
 Then did King Priam and Queen Hecuba beseech their 
 much-loved son that he would come within the city walls, 
 and not risk his life by thus meeting this dread foe ; but 
 Hector answered, — 
 
 " "Woe is me if I go within the walls ! " 
 
 But as Achilles came near, brandishing his great Pelian 
 spear, while the flash of his arms was as a flame of fire, 
 Hector trembled, and dared not abide to meet him, but 
 fled around the walls, Achilles pursuing. Thrice they ran 
 round the city, while the immortal gods looked down upon 
 them from dread Olympus, and Jupiter said : " My heart 
 is grieved for Hector. Come, ye gods ! shall we save 
 him ? " 
 
AGAMEMNON. 25 
 
 But Minerva — she who was called the goddess of wis- 
 dom, for she sprang forth from the mighty head of Jove 
 completely armed — thus counselled, — 
 
 "Great Sire, is it well to rescue a man already 
 doomed to die ? If it be thy august will, then do it ; but 
 the other gods approve not." 
 
 To whom Zeus answered, — 
 
 " My heart is loath, but be it as thou wilt." 
 
 Then did the goddess descend down from high Olym- 
 pus in hot haste, and Athene lighted from the air at 
 Achilles' side, and whispered: " This is our day of glory, 
 great Achilles ! Hector shall be slain ; but tarry a mo- 
 ment, that I may give him heart to meet thee in battle ; 
 so shalt thou slay him." 
 
 Then Minerva took the form of Dei'phobus, and came 
 near to Hector, saying, " Achilles presseth thee hard, my 
 brother ; let us stay and fight him." 
 
 Then was brave Hector glad to find one of his brothers 
 faithful to him, and answered, — 
 
 "I alwa^'s loved thee best of all my brothers, good 
 Deiphobus, and much more now to know thou darest to 
 stand by my side in this hour of deadly peril." 
 
 Thus was Hector encouraged to meet Achilles, and 
 Hector said to him: "Thrice, great Achilles, hast thou 
 pursued me round the walls of Troy, and I dared not 
 withstand thee ; but now I will meet thee like a warrior. 
 If Jupiter gives me the victory, I will do no dishonor to 
 thy body; only thine armor will I take. Do thou the 
 same to me." 
 
 But Achilles frowned, and answered, — 
 
 " I make no covenants with thee. There is no agree- 
 ment between wolves and sheep. Show thyself a warrior 
 if thou canst. Athene shall kill thee by my spear." 
 
26 AGAMEMNON; 
 
 Then did the}^ meet iu deadliest conflict. Achilles 
 threw his mighty spear ; but Hector, crouching, avoided 
 it, and the great spear fixed itself in the ground beyond. 
 But, unseen by Hector, Athene brought it back to proud 
 Achilles. Whereupon, Hector cried, " Thou hast missed 
 thy aim, great Achilles. Look out for my spear ! " 
 
 And as he spake, he threw his long-shafted spear with 
 so good an aim, that it struck the very middle of Achilles' 
 shield ; but it pierced it not, and it bounded far away. 
 And when Hector turned to his supposed brother, Deipho- 
 bus, to get from him another spear, lo ! he was gone ; 
 and Hector knew then that his doom had come. Then 
 thought he to himself : " Though Athen^ has cheated me, 
 and Jupiter and Apollo are against me, if I must die, I 
 will die in such manner as shall do honor to my name." 
 Then he drew his mighty sword, and rushed upon Achil- 
 les. But at that same instant Achilles charged to meet 
 him, and holding his shining shield before him, with his 
 helmet plumes waving in the air, he raised his long- 
 pointed spear, which gleamed like a star, and drove it 
 through the neck of the brave Hector, so that the point 
 stood out behind ; and Hector fell dying in the dust. 
 Then with his last breath, he besought Achilles to spare 
 his body from the Greeks ; for King Priam would ransom 
 it with much gold and treasure, to give it burial rites. 
 But Achilles, moved with fierce wrath, cried, — 
 
 "Dog, seek not to entreat me! No gold could ran- 
 som thee." 
 
 Then Hector died, and Achilles drew out the spear 
 from the corpse, and stripped off the arms. Then great 
 Achilles did a shocking deed ; for he bound the body of 
 the dead Hector to his chariot, letting the brave and noble 
 head lie in the dust ; and so he dragged the corpse of the 
 
AGAMEMNON. 27 
 
 valiant Trojan round the walls of Troy, even to the 
 Grecian ships. And sorrowing Priam saw him from the 
 walls ; and fair Andromache, the wife of Hector, also 
 beheld this dreadful spectacle, and thereupon fell in a 
 deadly swoon ; and from her beautiful head dropped the 
 golden wreath and diadem, which Aphrodite gave her on 
 her bridal day. 
 
 Then did old King Priam gather rich gifts, and aided 
 by the gods, mount his swift chariot and go to the tent of 
 great Achilles, to beg the body of his much loved son, 
 brave Hector, praying to Jupiter that Achilles might have 
 pity on him. This did Jove grant ; for Achilles received 
 him kindly, and gave up the body of dead Hector, which 
 King Priam carried back into the city of Troy. For nine 
 days the people wailed and mourned, and gathered much 
 wood for a funeral pile, upon which they laid brave 
 Hector ; and when his body was burnt to ashes, they 
 gathered up the white bones and put them in a chest of 
 gold, and covered it with purple. This chest they placed 
 in a coffin and laid upon it man^- stones, even until they 
 had raised a mighty mound above it. Thus did they 
 bury the valiant Hector, bravest of Trojan princes. 
 
 Such is a brief outline of the story of the famous Trojan 
 War, as told by the illustrious Homer in his matchless 
 poem of the " Iliad." Now we return to the few further 
 facts regarding King Agamemnon which can be culled 
 from history. 
 
 There are two different accounts of the final overthrow 
 and capture of Troy. According to one of these, Antenor 
 and ^neas treacherously betra3'ed the Palladium to the 
 Greeks, and at the same time threw open the gates of the 
 city at night. The other account relates that the capture 
 was effected by the stratagem of the wooden horse, which 
 
28 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 vf2i^ planned by the cunning of Ulysses. A huge, hollow I 
 structure resembling a horse, was filled with armed men, | 
 and left standing in the plain, while the Greeks went on 
 board their ships and sailed to the island of Teuedos, 
 which lay not far distant. By an artful manoeuvre, the 
 Trojans were made to believe that this horse was an 
 offering to Minerva, and that they would achieve a great 
 triumph by carrying it into the city. Accordingly they 
 made a breach in the wall, and transported the horse 
 within. In the dead of night the Greeks broke out of 
 their concealment, and set tlie city on fire. The fleet, on 
 a signal given, sailed back from Tenedos ; the aruiy 
 landed. Troy was taken and destroyed. 
 
 This event is usually placed about 1184 b.c. In the 
 division of the spoils, after the taking of Troy, Cas- 
 sandra, one of the daughters of King Priam, fell to the 
 lot of Agamemnon. She was endued with the gift of 
 prophecy, and warned Agamemnon not to return to 
 Mycenae. This warning, however, was disregarded by 
 the king, who, upon his return from Troy, was carried by 
 a storm to tliat part of the coast of Argolis where ^gis- 
 thus, the sou of Thyestes, resided. This king, ^gisthus, 
 had entered into a wicked agreement with Clytemnestra, 
 wife of Agamemnon, to put that monarch to death upon 
 his return from Troy, so that JEgisthus could seize the 
 throne of M^'cenae, and marry Queen Clytemnestra. 
 There are two accounts of the death of Agamemnon. 
 One states that ^gisthus had set a watchman, with a 
 promise of a large reward, to give him the earliest tidings 
 of the return of the king. As soon as he learned that 
 Agamemnon's fleet was on the coast, he went out to wel- 
 come him, and invited him to his mansion. At the ban- 
 quet in the evening, with the consent of Clytemnestra, he 
 
»fr t' 
 
AGAMEMNON. 29 
 
 placed twenty armed men ^ conce* j^ it, who fell on 
 King Agamemnon and killed hun, to,. with Cassandra 
 
 and all their attendants. Another account makes Agi. 
 memnon to have fallen by the hands of his wife Clytem- 
 nestra, after he had just come forth from a bath, and 
 while he was endeavoring to put on a garment, the sleeves 
 of which she had previously sewed together, as well as the 
 opening for his head ; thus giving her time to commit the 
 bloody deed before any succor could reach him. His 
 death, however, was avenged by his son Orestes. 
 
 With regard to the extent of Agamemnon's sway, 
 Homer states that he ruled over many islands, and over 
 all Argos ; meaniug not the city Argos, over which 
 Diomed ruled, but a large portion of the Peloponnesus, 
 including particularly the cities of Mycenae and Tiryns. 
 Homer also says that Agamemnon possessed the most 
 powerful fleet ; and as he was chosen the sovereign of all 
 the Grecian kings, and commander-in-chief of all the 
 Grecian hosts during the Trojan War, he may doubtless 
 be called the greatest and most famous of all the more 
 ancient Grecian rulers. 
 
30 CYRUS THE GREAT, 
 
 t 
 
 ! 
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 599-529 B.C. 
 
 "Death makes no conquest of this conqueror ; 
 For now he lives in fame, though not in life." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 IN a lonely and desolate country, in the depths of a 
 dark forest, at the edge of a yawning precipice, there 
 once lay an infant, robed in costly garments, which be- 
 tokened noble or royal birth. The baby lay in a small 
 basket cradle, made of golden wires and lined with richly 
 embroidered cushions. It seemed to be slumbering, for 
 it moved not, even when the afternoon shadows gathered 
 more densely around it ; and a rapacious bird of prey 
 might have been seen hovering above its dangerous re- 
 treat, and the noise of wild beasts was heard in the dark 
 forests around. Was there no one near to protect and 
 care for this lovely child? Ah, see ! as that vulture swoops 
 down towards its helpless victim, a lonely watcher rushes 
 forth from the forest, and drawing his bow, an arrow flies 
 into the heart of the bird, which falls dead into the awful 
 chasm below. But why does not the babe awake? and 
 why is it left in this desolate spot ? Just then a lion steals 
 out of the brushwood, and after a stealthy glance at the 
 tempting prey so near his reach, he prepares to spring. 
 But again the watcher leaps forth from the shadow, and 
 hurls a sharp javelin with so true an aim that the lordly 
 beast is mortally wounded, and retreats to the forest, 
 roaring with pain. And still the infant sleeps on. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 31 
 
 Just outside of the dreary forest is a poor herdsman's 
 hut. Here, too, might have been found an infant ; but it 
 is crowing and smiling as it raises its chubby fists to its 
 mouth and tries to catch the sunshine, which streams in 
 through the open door, and falls upon the wall over its 
 head. This baby is clothed in the coarse garments of a 
 peasant's child. And yet the infant in the costly robes, 
 in the wild forest, is really the dead child of a poor herds- 
 man ; and this crowing, laughing baby, dressed in peas- 
 ant clothes, and lying in the lowly hut, is none other than 
 the future Cyrus the Great, upon whom hang the destinies 
 of a vast empire. The remarkable story regarding the 
 birth and early boyhood of Cyrus the Great is recounted 
 by Herodotus, one of the greatest and earliest of Grecian 
 historians. Herodotus and Xenophon— a noted Grecian 
 general, as well as historian — are the chief sources of 
 information regarding most of the important historical 
 events of that period of the world. Some parts of their 
 accounts are thought to be historical romances, founded 
 on facts ; but as they have become a part of the history 
 of those times, I shall gather the story of Cyrus from the 
 events related by both these writers. 
 
 About 599 B.C. there were three kingdoms in the centre 
 of Asia : Assyria, Media, and Persia. Astyages was king 
 of Media. One night Astyages awoke from a terrible 
 dream : he had dreamed that a fearful inundation hnd 
 overwhelmed his kingdom. As the deluge seemed in some 
 mysterious manner to be connected in his mind witii his 
 only daughter, Mandane, he imagined that it portended 
 that evil should come to his throne through her children. 
 And so he arranged that she should marry Cambyses, rul- 
 ing prince of Persia. In this manner he hoped to remove 
 her so far distant, and place her in so weak a kingdom, 
 that he need have no fears. 
 
32 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 A year after his daughter's marriage to the king of 
 Persia, Astyages had another dream, — of a great vine 
 which overspread his kingdom. This vine also appeared 
 to be associated in his mind with his daughter. So he 
 called the sootlisayers, who declared that it portended the 
 future power of his daughter's son, who should become a 
 king. 
 
 Astyages was now so alarmed that he determined to 
 destroy the child. So, with seeming kindness, he invited 
 his daughter Mandane to make him a visit. He placed 
 her in a palace and surrounded her with his own spies and 
 servants. As soon as the infant son was born, Astyages 
 sent for an officer of his court, named Harpagus, whom he 
 thought was unscrupulous enough to obey his evil com- 
 mands. Astyages ordered Harpagus to go and request 
 the attendants of Mandane to allow him to see the infant ; 
 and then, under pretence that his grandfather Astyages 
 desired that the infant should be brought to him, Harpa- 
 gus should take the child away, and in some manner cause 
 it to be put to death. 
 
 Harpagus did not dare to refuse, and accordingly went 
 to the palace in which Mandane was residing. Her atten- 
 dants, not suspecting his evil designs, arrayed the infant 
 in its most beautiful robes, and delivered it into his care. 
 Harpagus took the child home and consulted with his wife 
 what he should do. He did not dare to disobey the king, 
 and also, as Mandane was the daughter of the king, he 
 feared to carry out the terrible deed himself. 
 
 In his perplexity he sent for one of his herdsmen, named 
 Mitridates, living near wild and desolate forests. When 
 Mitridates arrived, Harpagus gave the infant to him, com- 
 manding him to expose it in the forests for three days, 
 and when the child was dead, to send him word. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 33 
 
 The herdsman dared not refuse this wicked mission, and 
 took the child home to Jiis hut. His wife Spaco had at 
 that time just lost an infant of the same age, and its dead 
 body was still unburied. When she saw the beautiful babe 
 of Mandane, she implored her husband to let her keep it 
 in place of her dead child, who was accordingly arrayed in 
 the costly robes of the young prince, while the royal baby 
 was dressed in the coarse garments of the little dead peas- 
 ant. The body of the dead infant was then placed in the 
 royal cradle, or basket, in which the little prince had been 
 carried from the palace ; and after being exposed in the 
 forest for three days, attended by watchers to keep away 
 the wild beasts, the herdsman sent word to Harpagus that 
 the infant was dead. Harpagus sent trusty messengers to 
 see if the report was true ; and when they saw the dead 
 infant in the royal robes, they returned with the assurance 
 that his orders had been complied with, and that they had 
 seen the dead child. Harpagus gave orders to have the 
 body buried, and sent word to King Astyages that the 
 infant was dead. 
 
 The truth about the young Cyrus was not discovered 
 until ten years after, and came about in a very strange 
 way. Cyrus had now grown to be a strong, bright boy of 
 ten years of age, and was supposed to be the son of the 
 peasant herdsman. Several of the sons of the Median 
 nobles were accustomed to meet in the neighborhood where 
 he lived, for their sports, and Cyrus was always their 
 leader in all pursuits. The story goes that he was once 
 chosen as their king in a boyish game ; and one of the 
 nobles' sons, being one of his subjects, and having dis- 
 obeyed his commands, the boy king Cyrus punished him 
 very severely. The father of the young noble complained 
 to King Astyages of this ill treatment which his son had 
 
34 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 suffered at the hands of a peasant boy. Whereupon, the 
 herdsman Mitridates and his supposed son were sum- 
 moned to appear at court. 
 
 When the young Cyrus entered the presence of the king, 
 Astyages was astonished at his manly bearing and his 
 unusual beauty, and with an unaccountable feeling of 
 interest in the supposed peasant boy, he inquired if the 
 complaint of the noble was true. The little disguised 
 prince looked up into the face of the dread monarch, in 
 whose presence all his subjects trembled, and with perfect 
 self-possession, replied, — • 
 
 "My lord, what I have done I am able to justify. I 
 did punish this boy, and I had a right to do so. I was 
 king, and he was my subject, and he would not obey me. 
 If you think that for this I deserve punishment myself, 
 here I am ; I am ready to suffer for it." 
 
 Astyages was so surprised at this unlooked-for answer 
 that he hastily commanded that Mitridates should be 
 brought before him ; and under threats of severe punish- 
 ment', he demanded that he should tell him the truth about 
 the lad; for he had grave doubts about his being the 
 peasant's son. Mitridates, frightened by the stern man- 
 ner of the king, confessed the truth, and related all the 
 circumstances regarding the infant who had been com- 
 mitted to him by Harpagus. 
 
 Astyages had deeply regretted his evil intentions towards 
 his grandson, which, as he supposed, had ended in his 
 death, and gladly claimed Cyrus as his own. But with 
 strange inconsistency, he was equally incensed against 
 Harpagus, who had dared to disobey his commands, by 
 not causing the infant to be put to death ; and he deter- 
 mined to celebrate in a strange and most shocking man- 
 ner his joy at the recovery of his grandson, and his anger 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 35 
 
 at the disobedience of Harpagus. So with wicked crafti- 
 ness he sent word to Harpagus that his grandson had 
 been discovered, and commanded that Harpagus should 
 send his son, a boy about thirteen years of age, up to the 
 palace to be a companion for young Cyrus. Furthermore, 
 he announced that he was about to celebrate his joy at 
 the recovery of his grandson, by a grand festival, at which 
 he invited Harpagus to be present. 
 
 Harpagus suspecting no evil, and rejoicing at the 
 happy sequel of that deed which had occasioned him 
 much disquiet, having sent his son to the palace, accord- 
 ing to the command of the king, related to his wife the 
 strange events which had taken place. Neither of them 
 were suspicious of any evil design in this seeming kindli- 
 ness of Astyages, and thought it a fitting honor for their 
 son, that he should be chosen as the companion of Prince 
 Cyrus. Harpagus went to the festival, and was given 
 a seat of honor at the table. Various dishes were set 
 before the guests, and the attendants were especiall}^ 
 attentive to see that Harpagus was most bountifully 
 served. At the end of the feast, Astyages asked Har- 
 pagus how he had liked his fare. Harpagus expressed 
 himself as being well pleased. The king then ordered 
 the servants to bring in a basket, which they uncovered 
 before Harpagus, and he beheld with horror J;he head, 
 hands, and feet of his own son. 
 
 The story relates that Harpagus did not displa}^ his 
 terril^le despair by word or look ; and when the wicked 
 king asked him if he knew what he had been eating, he 
 replied that he did, and whatever was the will of the 
 king was pleasing to him. Such shocking cruelties 
 reveal the wickedness of those despotic times. 
 
 Harpagus satisfied his revenge against the cruel Asty- 
 
36 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 ages, many years afterwards, iu a manner which will be 
 disclosed as this story continues. A king whose greed of 
 power could condemn an own grandson to death would 
 not scruple at other crimes. Astyages now again con- 
 sulted the soothsayers as to his safety in recognizing 
 Cyrus as his grandson and giving him his royal place at 
 court. The Magi now replied, that as Cyrus had already 
 been a king, even though it was only in a childish game, 
 still, as he had been called a king, the oracles had been 
 fulfilled, and Astyages need fear no further danger to his 
 kingdom. Astyages therefore sent Cyrus to his parents 
 in Persia, who received their long-lost son with over- 
 whelming delight ; and the youthful Cyrus was no doubt 
 astonished and rejoiced to find himself the son and grand- 
 son of powerful kings, rather than a simple peasant boy, 
 the son of a poor herdsman. 
 
 Cyrus is described by the historians as being tall and 
 handsome, and excelling in all youthful exploits. 
 
 Xenophon describes the life of young Cyrus in the 
 court of his father Cambyses, king of Persia. The sons 
 of all the nobles and oflficers of the court were educated 
 together in the royal palace. They w^ere not taught to 
 read, as there were no books, but they had certain teachers 
 who explained to them the principles of right and wrong, 
 and described to them the various laws of the land, and 
 the rules by which controversies should be settled. These 
 were put to practical use in deciding the various cases 
 which occurred among the boys themselves ; and judges 
 were chosen from their number who should discuss and 
 decide these questions. Right decisions were rewarded, 
 and wrong ones punished. Cyrus himself was once pun- 
 ished for a wrong decision. The case was this : — 
 
 A larger boy took away the coat of a smaller boy, 
 
I'KKSIAN GUARnSMAN CARKYINt; 
 l'A)\\ AXIJ (ilIVFK. 
 
 PERSIAN SOLDIER W liH 
 BATTLE-AXE. 
 
 PERSIAN FOOT SOLDIERS. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 37 
 
 whose coat was bigger than his own, and gave him his 
 own smaller coat. The smaller boy appealed to Cyrus, 
 who decided that each boy should keep the coat that 
 fitted him. The teacher condemned his decision in these 
 words, — 
 
 "When you are called upon to consider a question of 
 what fits best, then you should determine as you have 
 done in this case ; but when you are appointed to decide 
 whose each coat is, and to adjudge it to the proper owner, 
 then you are to consider what constitutes right possession, 
 and whether he who takes a thino- by force from one who 
 is weaker than himself, should have it, or whether he who 
 made it or purchased it, should be protected in his prop- 
 ert}'. You have decided against law and in favor of vio- 
 lence and wrong." 
 
 The boys at this Persian court were taught many kinds 
 of manly exercises. They were trained to wrestle and 
 run, and were instructed in the use of all kinds of arms 
 then known. P^ach one was furnished with a bow and 
 arrows, a shield, a sword, or dagger, which was worn at 
 the side in a scabbard, and two javelins, one of which 
 they were to throw, and the other to keep in the hand for 
 use in close combat with the wild beasts which they might 
 eucounter in their hunting expeditions. These excur- 
 sions were often long and fatiguing, which they took ])y 
 turns with the king in the neighboring forests. 
 
 They were subjected to long marches, to cold and hun- 
 ger and storms, and sometimes dangerous conflicts. 
 These experiences were considered necessarj' to fit them 
 to become good soldiers in the future. 
 
 Wiien Cyrus was about twelve years of age, he was 
 invited by his grandfather Astyages to make him a visit 
 in Media. When Cyrus arrived in Media with his mother 
 
38 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 Mauclane, he was surprised at the magnificeuce and pomp 
 of the royal court ; as the mauuers and habits of the Per- 
 sians were very simple, aud as he had been sent to Per- 
 sia as soon as his royal rank had been discovered, he had 
 not before had an opportunity of seeing the splendor of 
 his grandfather's court. 
 
 In his first interview with Astyages, Cyrus displayed 
 his great tact and natural courtesy. When he came into 
 the presence of his grandfather, who wore a purple robe 
 richly embroidered with gold and covered with precious 
 stones, and bracelets upon his arms, and a long, flowing- 
 wig, while his face was painted and powdered, Cyrus 
 exclaimed, — 
 
 " Why, mother, what a handsome man my grandfather 
 is ! " 
 
 C3'rus was dazzled by the great display around him, for 
 in the Persian court, Cambyses his father, and all his 
 nobles, were clothed with great simplicity. Mandane 
 then said to Cyrus, — 
 
 "Which one do you think the handsomer man, 3^our 
 father or your grandfather? " 
 
 It was a very unwise question to ask a child, but Cyrus 
 was equal to the emergency, and replied with great tact 
 and politeness, — 
 
 " My father is the handsomest man in Persia, but my 
 grandfather is the handsomest of all the Medes." 
 
 Astyages was much pleased with the aptness of this 
 reply, and Cyrus became a great favorite with his grand- 
 father, who lavished upon him costly garments, rich feasts, 
 rare jewels, and the attentions of a retinue of servants. 
 But after the first novelty had passed away, Cyrus pre-4| 
 ferred his more simple raiment and plainer food. 
 
 At one time, Astyages invited Cyrus and his mother 
 
PERSIAN KING SEATED ON HIS TH 
 
 RONE. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 39 
 
 to one of his grand feasts in his palace, and ordered the 
 rarest viands to be served for Cyras in the most elegant 
 and costly dishes. Instead of being flattered, Cyrns 
 showed no particular pleasure or surprise, and when As- 
 tyages asked him if he did not delight in such rich and 
 delicate food, and if the feast before him was not much 
 finer than any he had seen in Persia, Cyrus replied, — 
 
 " We manage much better in Persia ; it is very trouble- 
 some to eat a little of so many things." 
 
 " How do 3'OU manage in Persia? " asked Astyages. 
 
 "When we are hungry, we eat plain meat and bread, 
 and so we get health and strength and have very little 
 trouble," answered Cyrus. 
 
 Ast3'ages then told Cyrus that he might continue his 
 plain fare in Media, if he thought it was better for his 
 health. Cyrus then asked his grandfather if he would 
 give him all the costly dishes before him to do as he 
 wished with them. To this Astyages consented, and 
 Cyrus, calling up one of the attendants after another, 
 presented to them as gifts the various elegant dishes with 
 their contents. To one he said, " I give you this because 
 you serve the king faithfully" ; to another, " I make you 
 this present because you are faithful to my mother " ; and to 
 another, " Because you have taught me to tln-ow the jave- 
 lin." Thus he went on until all the gifts had been disposed 
 of. Now the king had one servant, whom he honored 
 above all others, who held the office of cup-bearer. 
 
 In those daj'S this was an important trust, for those 
 despotic monarchs possessed so many enemies that they 
 were in constant danoer of assassination or of beincr 
 poisoned. The king's cup-bearer must superintend the 
 food of his master, and taste all wines himself before 
 offering them to the king. 
 
40 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 Great dexterity and grace were necessary to perform 
 the latter service acceptably, as the king's cup must not 
 be placed to the lips of his cup-bearer, but a small por- 
 tion must be poured into the palm of his hand, and lifted 
 gracefully to his mouth. 
 
 Astva2:es' cup-bearer was a Sacian ; he was an officer 
 of high rank, tall and handsome, and magnificently 
 dressed. In distributhig his gifts, Cyrus had neglected 
 this officer, and when Astyages asked him his reason, 
 C3TUS replied that he did not like the Sacian. Astyages 
 inquired the cause of this dislike, and remarked, "Have 
 you not observed how gracefully and elegantly he pours 
 out the wine for me, and then hands me the cup?" 
 
 Cyrus replied that he could pour out the wine and offer 
 the cup as well as the Sacian, and requested his grand- 
 father to allow him to try. To this the amused king con- 
 sented, and Cyrus, taking a goblet of wine in his hand, 
 retired from the room. He soon re-entered with the pom- 
 pous and dignified bearing of the Sacian, and so mim- 
 icked his manner of gravity and self-importance as to 
 occasion much mirth amongst the assembled guests. 
 
 Cyrus, having advanced to the king, presented him 
 with the cup, neglecting not even one single motion of 
 the usual ceremony, except tasting the wine himself. 
 Mandane and the king laughed heartily, and the would- 
 1)6 cup-bearer, becoming the child again, jumped into his 
 grandfather's arms, exclaiming, " Now, Sacian, you are 
 ruined ; I shall get my grandfather to appoint me in your 
 place. I can hand the wine as well as you, and without 
 tasting it myself at all." 
 
 " But why did you not taste it? " asked his grandfather. 
 
 " Because the wine was poisoned," replied Cyrus. 
 
 "What makes you think it is poisoned?" inquired 
 Astyages. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 41 
 
 ''Because," said Cyrus, "it was poisoned the other 
 day when you made a feast for your friends on your 
 birthday. It made you all crazy. The things that you 
 do not allow us boys to do you did yourselves, for you 
 were very rude and noisy ; you all bawled together so 
 that nobody could hear or understand what any other 
 person said. Presently you went to singing in a very 
 ridiculous manner, and when a singer ended his song, you 
 applauded him, and declared that he had sung admirably, 
 though nobody had paid attention. You went to telling 
 stories too, each one of his own accord, without succeed"^ 
 ing in making anybody listen to him. Finally, you got 
 up and began to dance, but it was out of all rule and 
 measure ; you could not even stand erect and steadily. 
 Then you all seemed to forget who and what you were ; 
 the guests paid no regard to you as their king, but treated 
 you in a very familiar and disrespectful manner, and you 
 treated them in the same way ; so I thought that the wine 
 that produced these effects must be poisoned." 
 
 "But have not you ever seen such things before?" 
 asked Astyages. " Does not your father ever drink wine 
 until it makes him merry ? " 
 
 " No," replied Cyrus, " indeed, he does not ; he drinks 
 only when he is thirsty, and then only enough for his 
 thirst, and so he is not harmed." hJ then added in a 
 ' ontemptuous tone, '^ He has no Sacian cup-bearer, you 
 may depend, about him." 
 
 "But why do you dislike this Sacian so much, mv 
 son?" asked Mandane. 
 
 " Why, every time that I want to come and see my 
 grandfather," replied Cyrus, "he always stops me, and 
 will not let me come in. I wish, grandfather, vou would 
 let me have the rule of him for just three days." 
 
42 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 •' What would yon do? " asked Astyages. 
 "I would treat him as he treats me now," answered 
 Cyrus. ^' I would stand at the door, as he does when I 
 want to come in, and wlien he was commg for his dinner, 
 I would stop him and say, ' You cannot come in now ; he 
 is busy.' " Cyrus repeated these words in the tones and 
 with the graye manner of the Sacian. 
 
 "Then," continued Cyrus, "when he was coming to 
 get his supper, I would say, ^ You must not come in now ; 
 he is bathing, or he is going to sleep ; you must come 
 some other time, for he cannot be disturbed.' Thus I 
 would torment him all the time, as he now torments me 
 in keeping me from yon when I want to see you." 
 
 When the time arrived for Mandane to return to Persia, 
 Astyages was Tcry desirous to haye Cyrus remain with 
 hinu Mandane gave her consent if Cyrus should wish to 
 do so. Astyages told Cyrus that if he would stay, the 
 Sacian should torment him no more, but that he should 
 be allowed to come into his presence whenever he wished 
 to do so, and, moreover, he should have the use of all his 
 grandfather's horses. He should also have boys of his 
 own age for companions, and they would be allowed to 
 hunt the animals in the park. They could pursue them 
 on horseback and shoot them with bows and arrows, or 
 throw the javelins at their prey. This pleasure of riding 
 and hunting was a rare one to Cyrus, for the Persians had 
 few horses, and there were no bodies of cavalry in their 
 armies. Cyrus represented to his mother the great ad- 
 vantage it would be to him to be a skilful horseman, as 
 that would give him a superiority over all the Persian 
 youths. Mandane was somewhat anxious lest the luxu- 
 rious habits and haughty manners of his grandfather 
 should prove a bad example for Cyrus, but he assured 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 43 
 
 her that she need have no fears, as his grandfather re- 
 quired all to be submissive to himself, and allowed impe- 
 riousness in no one but the king. So it was decided that 
 Cyrus should remain in Media, and Mandane departed 
 for Persia. 
 
 Cyrus now applied himself with great diligence to 
 acquire all the various accomplishments and arts then 
 most highly prized, such as leaping, vaulting, racing, 
 riding, throwing the javelin, and drawing the bow. In 
 the friendly contests among the boys, Cyrus would cour- 
 teously challenge those superior to himself in these exer- 
 cises, thus giving them the pleasure of winning the prize, 
 and l)enefiting himself by thus having the greater stimu- 
 lus of contesting with attainments higher than his own. 
 He accordingly made rapid progress, and speedily learned 
 to equal and then surpass his companions without occa- 
 sioning any envy or jealousy. 
 
 It was their favorite anuisement to hunt the deer in his 
 grandfather's park ; but at last, so vigorous had been their 
 onslaught, that the animals were wellnigh exhausted, and 
 Astyages went to great trouble to secure further supplies. 
 Cyrus then requested that they be allowed to hunt in the 
 forests, and hunt the wild beasts with the men. As Cyrus 
 had now grown up into a tall, robust young man, able to 
 sustain the fatigues of the hunt, his grandfather con- 
 sented that Cyrus should go out with his son Cyaxares. 
 The party set out in high spirits. There were certain 
 attendants appointed to keep particular guard over Cyrus, 
 and prevent him from rushing rashly into danger. His 
 attendants told him that the dangerous animals were 
 bears, lions, tigers, boars, and leopards ; and as they 
 often attacked man, he must avoid them; but that he 
 could hunt the stags, goats, and wild sheep as much as he 
 
44 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 pleased. They also told liim of the dangers in riding 
 over a rough country where the broken ground and steep, 
 rocky precipices made riding difficult, and hunters driving 
 impetuousl}' over such a country were often thrown from 
 their horses, or fell with them into the chasms and were 
 killed. Cyrus promised to remember their warning ; but 
 no sooner had he entered into the excitement of the chase 
 than he forgot all their counsels, and riding furiouslj^ 
 after a stag, his horse came to a chasm which he was 
 obliged to leap. But the distance was too great, and the 
 horse fell upon his knees as he reached the farther side, 
 and for a moment before he recovered his footing Cyrus 
 was in imminent danger of being precipitated to the 
 bottom of the deep precipice. But Cyrus was fear- 
 less ; and as soon as his horse had regained his feet 
 and cleared the chasm, he pressed on after the stag, over- 
 took him, and killed him with his javelin. As soon as his 
 frightened attendants came up to him, they reproved him 
 for his [reckless daring, and the}' threatened to report to 
 his grandfather. Just at the instant he heard a new 
 halloo, as fresh game had been started, and forgetting 
 all his resolutions, Cyrus sprang upon his horse with a 
 loud shout and followed the chase. The game now 
 started was a dangerous wild boar, and Cyrus instead of 
 shunning the peril, as he should have done in obedience 
 to his grandfather's orders, dashed after the boar, and 
 aimed so true a thrust with his javelin against the beast 
 as to transfix him in the forehead. The boar fell dying 
 upon the ground, and Cyrus waited for the party to arrive, 
 with pride and triumph. When his uncle Cyaxares came 
 near, he reproved Cyrus for running such risks, and said 
 that if his grandfather knew what he had done, he would 
 punish him. " Let him punish me," said Cyrus, "if he 
 
CTRU8 THE GREAT. 45 
 
 wishes after I have shown him the stag and the boar 
 and you may punish me too if you will only let me show 
 him the animals I have killed." Cyaxares consented, and 
 ordered the bodies of the beasts and the bloody javelins 
 to be carried home. Cyrus presented them to his grand- 
 father, who thanked him for the presents, but said he had 
 no such need of game as to require his grandson to thus 
 expose himself to danger. "Well, grandfather," said 
 Cyrus, " if you don't wish the meat yourself, will you let 
 me give it to my friends." Astyages agreed to this, and 
 Cyrus divided his booty amongst all his young compan- 
 ions who had hunted with him in the park. The bovs 
 took their several portions home, giving glowing accounts 
 of the skilful exploits of the giver. Thus was Cyrus 
 thus early ambitious of spreading his own fame. 
 
 When Cyrus was about sixteen years of age he went 
 with his uncle Cyaxares on an excursion for plunder into 
 some neighboring provinces. Neither the kings of those 
 times nor their historians seem to have considered such 
 expeditions as unjust or wrong, but rather as a more 
 noble enterprise than even their favorite hunting. In this 
 expedition Cyrus so distinguished himself by his exploits, 
 that his father, hearing the reports thereof, concluded 
 that if his son was beginning to take part as a soldier in 
 military campaigns, it was time to recall him to his own 
 country. He therefore sent for Cyrus to return home. 
 
 There was great sadness in the Median court when 
 Cyrus departed, for he had become a special favorite 
 with king and people. 
 
 The succeeding events of Cyrus' life take us more out 
 of the field of romance and are more strictly confined to 
 the facts of history. Cyrus on his return to Persia grew 
 rapidly in strength and stature, and soon became distin- 
 
46 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 guished for his raauly beauty, his personal grace, and 
 winning manners, as well as excelling all others in the 
 martial accomplishments he had acquired in Media. He 
 gained great ascendancy over the minds of others, and as 
 he advanced to manhood his thoughts turned from ath- 
 letic sports and hunting to plans of war and ambitions for 
 more extended dominions. 
 
 Meanwhile, Harpagus, who had always meditated re- 
 venge upon Astyages for the horrible death of his son, 
 though at the time he had been too wary to express 
 resentment, was constantly watching every opportunity to 
 work evil against the king. Fifteen years had now 
 passed since the terrible deed was committed. He re- 
 mained all this time in the court of Astyages, where he 
 outwardly demeaned himself as the friend and zealous 
 subject of the king, but meanwhile he plotted revenge. 
 
 He kept up a constant communication with Cyrus, and 
 at last went so far as to try to induce him to collect an 
 army and march into Media against Astyages. The plau- 
 sible motives which he suggested made it appear to Cyrus 
 as though he would only be endeavoring to free his own 
 Persia from ignoble bondage, as Persia was a Median 
 dependency. Meanwhile, Harpagus sympathized with all 
 the disaffected Medians, whose numbers rapidly increased, 
 as the tyranny of Astyages made numerous enemies. 
 
 At length the time came when Harpagus thought the 
 right moment had arrived for a revolt. Cyrus had now 
 determined to attempt the enterprise. Ast^^ages had been 
 guilty of some unusual acts of oppression, by which he 
 had produced great dissatisfaction among his people. 
 Harpagus found the principal men around him willing to 
 enter into the conspiracy, so he desired that Cyrus should 
 come into Media with as large a force as he could raise, 
 
CYUU8 THE GREAT. 47 
 
 and head the insurrection against the government of 
 
 Ast^^ages. 
 
 Harpagus did not dare to trust this message to any 
 messenger, and so he took this novel way of communi- 
 cating with Cyrus. He wrote a letter to Cyrus, and then 
 taking a dead hare he opened tlie body and concealed the 
 letter within, and then neatly sewed up the skin again so 
 that no signs remained of the incision. He then delivered 
 the hare to some trusty servants, who should also carry 
 liunting weapons, as though about to go upon some hunt- 
 ing expedition. He also commanded that they should 
 give the hare to Cyrus himself, and that he should open it 
 alone. The plan was successful; the hare reached the 
 hands of Cyrus in safety, and opening it, he read a letter 
 
 which was in substance as follows : 
 
 " It is plain, Cyrus, that you are a favorite of Heaven, 
 and that you are destined to a great and glorious career.' 
 You could not otherwise have escaped, in so miraculous a 
 manner, the snares set for you in your infancy. Astyages 
 meditated your death, and he took such measures to effect 
 it as would seem to have made your destruction sure. 
 You were saved by the special interposition of Heaven. 
 You are aware by what extraordinary incidents you were 
 preserved and discovered, and what great and' unusual 
 prosperity has since attended you. You know, too, what 
 cruel punishments Astyages inflicted upon me for my 
 humanity in saving you. The time has now come for 
 retribution. From this time the authoritv and the domin- 
 ions of Astyages may be yours. Persuade the Persians 
 to revolt. Put yourself at the head of an army and 
 march into Media. I shall probably myself be appointed 
 to command the army sent out to oppose you. If so, we 
 will join our forces when we meet, and I will enter vour 
 
48 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 service. I have conferred with the leading nobles in 
 Media, and they are all ready to espouse your cause. 
 You may rely upon finding everything thus prepared for 
 you here. Come, therefore, without delay." 
 
 Cyrus determined to comply with the proposal of Har- 
 pagus. He therefore resorted to deceit, or, as he called 
 it, stratagem. Thus war upholds and justifies falseliood 
 and treachery under the name of stratagem. Cyrus had 
 a letter prepared in the form of a commission from As- 
 tyages, appointing him commander of a body of Persian 
 forces to be raised in the service of the king. He then 
 read this false letter at a public assembly, and called 
 upon all the Persian warriors to join him. 
 
 Cyrus did not at first make known to them his designs, 
 but commanded them all to assemble on a certain day at 
 a place named, and each one was to provide himself with 
 an axe. When they were thus mustered, he marched 
 them into the forest, and employed them all day in felling- 
 trees. He gave them, moreover, only the coarsest food. 
 When the day was over, he ordered them all to assemble 
 again on the morrow. When they came the next day, 
 instead of hard work and poor food, most sumptuous 
 feasts had been provided for them, and they spent the 
 day in merriment and revelry. 
 
 In the evening Cyrus called them all together and re- 
 vealed to them his plans, and said to them that if they 
 would follow him, they should live in ease and plenty ; 
 otherwise, if they should continue as they were, they 
 would spend their lives in toil and privation ; and he 
 reminded them of the two days just spent, and asked 
 them which they preferred to live. The soldiers received 
 liis proposals with joy, and eagerly promised to follow 
 him into Media. When everything was ready, Cyrus led 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 49 
 
 his army into Media. In the meantime Astj^ages, hear- 
 ing of his iusiirrection, had collected a large force, and as 
 had been anticipated, placed it under the command of 
 Harpagus. When the battle was joined, the honest part 
 of the Median army fought valiantly at first ; but dis- 
 covering that they were being deserted by their comrades, 
 they fled in confusion. Cyrus, thus reinforced by the 
 deserting Medians with Harpagus at their head, now 
 found himself the leader of a large force, and advanced 
 toward the capital. When Astyages heard of the treachery 
 of Harpagus and the desertion of his army, he was fren- 
 zied with rage. The long-dreaded prediction of his 
 dream seemed about to be fulfilled, and the Magi who 
 had assured him that he was safe, as Cyrus had been a 
 king when a boy, had proved themselves false. 
 
 He directed them all to be seized and crucified. He 
 then ordered every man capable of bearing arms, into the 
 ranks, and putting himself at the head of this large force, 
 he marched against Cyrus. But he was defeated, and he 
 himself was taken prisoner. Harpagus was present when 
 he was taken, and he exulted in triumph over his down- 
 fall. Harpagus asked him what he thought now of the 
 supper in which he had compelled a father to feed upon 
 the flesh of his own child. Astyages asked Harpagus if 
 he thought the success of Cyrus was owing to what he 
 had done. Harpagus replied that it was, and revealed to 
 him how he had schemed for his destruction, and the 
 preparation he had made in aid of Cyrus, so that Astyages 
 might see that his downfall had been eflfected by Harpagus 
 himself, in terrible retribution for the shocking crime he 
 had committed so many years before. 
 
 The result of this battle was the complete overthrow of 
 the power and kingdom of Astyages, and the establish- 
 
50 GtKUS THE GREAT. 
 
 ment of Cyrus on the throne of the united kingdoms of 
 Media and Persia. 
 
 C^^-us treated his grandfather with kindness, though he 
 kept him in a sort of imprisonment. Tiie people rejoiced 
 in his downfall, and were well pleased with the milder 
 and more equitable government of Cyrus. Astyages met 
 Ills death years after, in a strange manner. Cyrus sent 
 for him to come into Persia, where he was then himself 
 residing. The officer who had Astyages in charge, led 
 him into a desolate wilderness, where he perished from 
 hunger and exposure. Cyrus punished the officer for this 
 crime, though it was supposed by some that it was done 
 by the secret order of Cyrus, in retribution, perhaps, for 
 the evil intentions of Astyages toward himself in his 
 infancy, which, if they had been obeyed, would have 
 resulted in his own death from the same cause. 
 
 The character and nobleness of Cyrus, as evinced by 
 numerous generous deeds throughout his life, would, 
 however, seem to refute such a supposition. Harpagus 
 continued in the service of Cyrus, and became one of his 
 most celebrated generals. 
 
 vSuch is one of the stories of the accession of Cyrus to 
 the thrones of Media and Persia. Another account gives 
 a different version of it, and states that Astyages died 
 while king of Media, and was succeeded by his sou 
 Cyaxares, brother to Cyrus' mother Mandane, or Man- 
 dana, as her name is given by some historians. The 
 years of the reign of Cyrus are computed differently. 
 Some make his reign thirty years, beginning from his first 
 setting out from Persia at the head of an army to succor 
 his uncle Cyaxares, who was in war with the Babylonians. 
 Others make the duration of it to be but seven years, 
 because they date only from the time when, by the death 
 
Ornus THE GREAT. 51 
 
 of Cambyses and Cyaxares, Cyrus became sole mouarch 
 of the entire empire of both Media and Persia. But as 
 Cyrus seems to have been the leader in both the Median 
 and Persian empires long before the death of these kino-g, 
 he probably ruled them both in partnership with them; 
 and notwithstanding Cyrus conquered and acquired Baby- 
 lon by his own valor, he complacently allowed his uncle 
 Cyaxares, whose forces had been eugaged with his own, 
 to hold the first rank. This Cyaxares is called in the 
 Bible Darius the Mede ; and it was under his reign in 
 Babylon, which only lasted two years, that Daniel the 
 prophet had several revelations. But as our interest is 
 more particularly in the life and conquests of Cyrhs him- 
 self, rather than those of Cyaxares and Cambyses, and as 
 the vast power and dominion of both Media and Persia 
 seemed to have been owing to the valor and executive 
 ability of Cyrus alone, our story will confine itself to the 
 achievements of Cyrus the Great, without further mention 
 of Cambyses or Cyaxares. 
 
 We now come to the history of Cyrus and Croesus, 
 and before we recount the conquest of the kingdom of 
 Lydia, it will make it more interesting, perhaps, to give a 
 slight sketch of Croesus, king of Lydia, and also to men- 
 tion the oracles which played such an important part in 
 the history of this king. The country of Lydia, over 
 which this famous king ruled, was in the western part of 
 Asia Minor bordering on the J^gean Sea. Croesus, king 
 of Lydia, acquired the enormous riches for which he was 
 so famous, from the golden sands of the river Pactolus, 
 which flowed through his kingdom. The river brought 
 down the gold particles from the mountains above, and 
 the slaves of Croesus washed the sands, thus separating 
 the metal, which was obtained in such vast quantities that 
 
52 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 this king's name has become a proverb for fabulous 
 wealth, in the old saying, " Rich as Cnesus." 
 
 The people of those da^^s, however, had a very different 
 story of the origin of the gold in the river Pactolus. 
 Their legend was that ages before, a certain king named 
 Midas had rendered some service to a god, who there- 
 upon promised to grant him any favor he should ask. 
 Midas prayed that the power might l)e granted him of 
 turning everything he touched into gold. This power 
 was bestowed by the god, and after Midas had turned 
 many objects into gold, he began to find his gift very 
 inconvenient, and was in danger of starving to death in 
 the midst of all his wealth. For no sooner had he 
 touched any food than it straightway became gold. 
 Midas was then as anxious to get rid of his dangerous 
 gift as he had been to secure it. 
 
 He implored the god to take back the gift. 
 
 The god told him to go and bathe in the river Pactolus, 
 and he should be restored to his former state. 
 
 Midas did so, and was saved, but in the operation a 
 great portion of the sands of the river were transformed 
 to gold. 
 
 Croesus was at one time visited by a famous Grecian 
 lawgiver, named Solon. Croesus received Solon with 
 great distinction, and showed him all his treasures. 
 
 One day the king asked Solon, who of all the persons 
 he had ever met, he considered to be the happiest man. 
 
 Of course Croesus imagined that the sage would name 
 himself, the king, as the happiest mortal. But Solon gave 
 him the name of Tellus, a quiet Athenian citizen. 
 
 Croesus asked why he should place such a man before, 
 a monarch occupying such a throne as his own. 
 
 Solon replied, — 
 
 1 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 53 
 
 "You are now at the height of your power, but I can- 
 not decide whether you are a fortunate and happy man, 
 until I know your end." 
 
 Crcesus had two sons. One was deaf and dumb, the 
 other was a young man of much promise ; but he was 
 killed while hunting. 
 
 As soon as C3'rus had become established on his throne 
 as king of the Medes and Persians, his power began to 
 extend westward toward the empire of Croesus, king of 
 Lydia. 
 
 Croesus was roused from the dejection into which he 
 had been plunged by the death of his sou, by the danger 
 which now threatened his kingdom. In his uncertainty 
 regarding the future, he determined to consult the oracles. 
 The three most important of these oracles were situated, 
 one at Delphi, one at Dodona, and the third at the Oasis 
 of Jupiter Ammon. 
 
 Delphi was a small town built on the southern side of 
 Mount Parnassus. This mount was a famous place. 
 From a deep cavern in the rocks there issued a stream of 
 gaseous vapor, which was said to inspire all persons in- 
 haling it with a spirit of divination and poetry. A tem- 
 ple was built upon this mountain, in which a priestess 
 resided, and she gave responses to all who came to con- 
 sult the oracle. When she gave her answers, she sat 
 upon a three-legged stool, which was afterwards caMed 
 the sacred tripod. This oracle became so renowned t^iat 
 many monarchs came great distances to consult it ; and 
 they made very costly presents to the shrine. The deity 
 who was supposed to dictate the predictions was Apollo. 
 Croesus sent messengers to all of the various oracles to 
 ask what should be the result of his contest with Cyrus. 
 The replies were all unsatisfactory, except the Delphic 
 
54 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 oracle. Croesus now decided that this was the oracle 
 upon w^liieh he must rely, and immediately made prepara- 
 tions to send most magnificent and costly presents to the 
 Delphic shrine. Some of the treasures were to be depos- 
 ited in the temple, and some were to be offered as a burnt 
 sacrifice to the god. 
 
 After the ceremonies were completed, everything that 
 had been used in the services, including gold and silver 
 vessels, richly embroidered garments, and numerous other 
 costly articles, were gathered into one vast funeral pile 
 and burnt. So much gold had been employed in making 
 these things, that it melted in the fire and ran into plates 
 of great size. These were then collected and formed into 
 an image of a lion, which was placed in the temple. 
 Croesus also presented the temple with a silver cistern, 
 or tank, large enough to hold three thousand gallons of 
 wine. There was one strange piece of statuarj' which he 
 sent to this shrine, which we must not omit to mention. 
 It was a statue of gold of a woman-servant in the house- 
 hold of Croesus. It was called The Breadraaker. Its 
 origin was this : — 
 
 When Croesus was a child, his mother died, and his 
 father married again. His stepmother desired to have 
 one of her children succeed to the throne instead of Croe- 
 sus. So she gave some poison to the woman who was 
 accustomed to make the bread for the famil}-, telling her to 
 put it in the portion intended for Cra?sus. This servant, 
 however, instead of minding the wicked queen, revealed 
 the plot to Croesus, and put the poison in the bread of the 
 queen's own children. In gratitude for his preservation 
 by this slave, Croesus ordered a statue of gold to be made 
 in her honor, when he came to the throne ; and this he 
 sent to the temple at Delphi. After Croesus had pre- 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 55 
 
 sented all these magnificent gifts to the shrine, he con- 
 sulted the oracle. The answer was as follows : — 
 
 '' If Croesus crosses the Halys and prosecutes a war 
 with Persia, a mighty empire will be overthrown. It will 
 be best for him to form an alliance with the most power- 
 ful states of Greece." 
 
 Croesus was much pleased with this answer, and then 
 asked furthermore, whether his power would ever dechne. 
 
 The oracle replied, — 
 
 '•Whenever a mule shall mount upon the Median 
 throne, then, and not till then, shall great Cra^sus fear 
 to lose his own." 
 
 These replies strengthened the belief of Croesus that 
 he should be victorious ; but as the sequel shows, we will 
 learn how vague and indefinite were the answers of the 
 oracles, and so given that they could correspond with the 
 event, whatever might be the result. 
 
 Croesus now sent ambassadors to Sparta to seek their 
 aid, and meanwhile went on making great preparations 
 for his campaign. When all things were ready, the army 
 commenced its march eastward until it reached the river 
 Halys. 
 
 The army encamped upon its banks until some plan 
 could be formed for crossing the river. Croesus had with 
 his army a very celebrated engineer named Thales. This 
 engineer succeeded in getting the army of Croesus over 
 the river by ordering a large force of laborers to cut a 
 new channel for the river behind the army, into which the 
 water flowed, and Croesus and his force passed on. Cyrus 
 had heard of his approach, and soon the armies were face 
 to face. 
 
 Cyrus had been conquering all the nations in his path, 
 as he went forward to meet Croesus, and thus had been 
 
56 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 reinforced by all of the neighboring people, except the 
 Babylonians, who were allied with Croesus against him. 
 A great battle was fought at Pteria, which continued all 
 day, and at its close the combatants separated without 
 either of them having gained much advantage. 
 
 Croesus thinking that this battle was enough for the 
 present, and supposing that Cyrus would now go home, 
 haviuo- found that he could not overcome him, determined 
 to return to his own city Sardis, and there prepare for a 
 more vigorous campaign in the spring. 
 
 Cyrus quietly remained in his position until Croesus had 
 time to return to Sardis. Whereupon, he followed with 
 his entire army. 
 
 Croesus was now thoroughly alarmed, and collecting all 
 the forces he could command, he marched forth to a great 
 plain just without the city, to meet Cyrus. 
 
 The Lydian army was superior to that of C3'rus in 
 cavalry, and upon this plain they would have a much 
 greater advantage. To avoid this, Cyrus ordered all his 
 large train of camels, which had been emploj^ed as beasts 
 of burden, to be drawn up in line in front of his army, 
 each one having a soldier upon his back, armed with a 
 spear. 
 
 It is said that horses cannot endure the sight or smell 
 of a camel ; and when the two armies met, the cavahy of 
 Croesus, riding furiously to the attack, were confronted 
 by the line of huge, awkward camels, with their soldier 
 riders. The horses were so frightened by the spectacle, 
 that they turned and fled in dismay, trampling down their 
 own forces, and causing complete confusion in the Lydian 
 army. The army of Croesus was totally defeated, and 
 they fled into the city of Sardis and entrenched themselves 
 there. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 57 
 
 Cyrus now besieged the city for fourteen days, endeav- 
 oring to find some place to scale the walls which sur- 
 rounded it. One part of the wall passed over rocky 
 precipices which were considered impassable. At length 
 one of the soldiers of Cyrus, named Hyraeades, observed 
 one of the sentinels, who was stationed on the wall over- 
 looking the precipice, leave his post, and come partwa}^ 
 down the rocks to get his helmet, which had dropped 
 down. Hyrjeades reported this incident to Cyrus, and so 
 an attempt was made to scale the walls at that point. It 
 was successful, and thus the city was taken. It is re- 
 ported that in the confusion and noise of storming the 
 city the life of Croesus was saved by the miraculous 
 speaking of his deaf-and-dumb son. Cj^rus had com- 
 manded his soldiers not to kill Croesus, but that they 
 should take him alive, and he should then be brought to 
 him. As Croesus was escaping with his son a party of 
 Persian soldiers took him prisoner, and were about to kill 
 him, not knowing who he was, when the dumb boy cried 
 out, — 
 
 " It is Croesus ; do not kill him ! " 
 
 Cyrus had not ordered Croesus to be spared from any 
 motives of kindness ; but that he himself might deter- 
 mine his fate. 
 
 He commanded Croesus to be put in chains, and a huge 
 funeral pile to be built in a public square, and Croesus 
 and fourteen of the young Lydian nobles were placed 
 upon the pile. 
 
 Just as the torch was applied, Croesus cried out in a 
 tone of anguish and despair, — 
 
 "Oh, Solon! Solon! Solon!" 
 
 The officers who had charge of the execution asked 
 him what he meant, and Cyrus, also hearing him, and 
 
58 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 being desiious of receiving an explanation of his myste- 
 rious words, commanded the fires to lie put out, and 
 ordered Croesus to be unbound and to be brought to hiui. 
 Cyrus now treated Croesus with much kincbiess. 
 
 CrcBSus was very much incensed against tlie oracle at 
 Delphi for having deceived him by false predictions ; but 
 the priests of the oracle replied that the destruction of 
 the Lj^dian dynasty had long been decreed by fate on 
 account of the guilt of Gyges, the founder of the line, 
 who had murdered the rightful monarch, and usurped the 
 crown. The oracles had foretold that a mighty em[)ire 
 would be overthrown, and Croesus had wrongly imagined 
 that it referred to the destruction of the kingdom of 
 Cyrus. As to the other prediction made by the oracle, 
 that when he should find a mule upon the throne of 
 Media, he would lose his own, this had been fulfilled, as 
 Cyrus, who was descended from the Persians on his 
 father's side, and from the Medians on his mother's, had 
 thus become a hybrid sovereign, represented by the mule. 
 
 In his advance towards the dominions of Croesus in 
 Asia Minor, Cyrus had passed to the northward of the 
 great and celebrated city of Babylon. He had now con- 
 quered all the nations from the ^gean Sea to the river 
 Euphrates. He then subdued Syria and Arabia. After 
 this he entered into Assyria and advanced towards Baby- 
 lon, tlie only large cit}^ of the East 3^et unsubdued. 
 
 The taking of Babylon is one of the greatest events in 
 ancient history, and the principal circumstances with 
 which it was attended were foretold in the Bible many 
 vears before it happened. Babylon, at this time, was the 
 most magnificent city in the world. It was situated in 
 a large plain, and was surrounded by walls which were 
 eighty-seven feet thick, three hundred and fifty feet high, 
 
PERSIAN SUBJECTS BRINGING TRIBUTI 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 59 
 
 and sixty miles in circumference. These walls were in 
 the form of a square, each side of which was fifteen miles 
 long. The}^ were built of large bricks cemented together 
 with bitumen, which bound bricks so firmly together that 
 the mortar soon became harder than the bricks them- 
 selves. This wall was surrounded by a deep, wide trench 
 filled with water. The great wall of Babylon contained 
 200,000,000 yards of solid masonry, or nearly twice the 
 cul)ic contents of the famous wall of China. Each of the 
 bricks was stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 The wall was so wide that four chariots could move 
 abreast upon its summit. Two hundred and fifty towers, 
 each ten feet higher than the walls, rose above the para- 
 pet. One hundred gates of brass opened to as many 
 streets. Each of the fifty streets was fifteen miles long, 
 and one hundred and forty feet broad, crossing each 
 other at right angles ; these avenues divided the city into 
 six hundred and seventy-six squares, each being two and 
 a half miles in circuit. The buildings were erected 
 around these squares with an open court in the centre, 
 containino- beautiful ourdens and fountains. The river 
 Euphrates flowed through the city, and was spanned by 
 a bridge, five hundred feet long and thirty feet wide. 
 Above the bridge rose an obelisk one hundred and 
 twenty -five feet high. As the melting of the snows upon 
 the mountains of Armenia caused the river Euphrates to 
 overflow its banks in the months of June, July, and 
 August, two artificial canals were cut, some distance 
 above the city, which turned the course of these waters 
 into the Tigris before they reached Babylon. To keep 
 the river within its channel, they raised immense artifi- 
 cial banks on both sides, built with bricks cemented with 
 bitumen. In making these works it was necessary to 
 
60 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 turn the course of the river another way. For this pur- 
 pose a prodigious artificial lake was dug, forty miles 
 square, one hundred and sixty in circumference, and 
 thirty-five feet deep. 
 
 Into this lake the whole river was turned by an artificial 
 canal, cut from the west side of it, until the entire work 
 was finished, when the river was allowed to flow into its 
 former channel. This lake was kept, however, as a reser- 
 voir, as a means of irrigating the surrounding fields. 
 
 Along the banks of the river were the famous Hanging 
 Gardens, where the man}" terraces bloomed with brilliant 
 flowers, and were shaded by groves of trees, and cooled 
 by fountains of sparkling water. These beautiful gar- 
 dens, which were considered one of the Seven Wonders 
 of the World, were constructed b}' Nebuchadnezzar to 
 please his wife Amytis, whose native land was Media, as 
 she was the daughter of Astyages. 
 
 Surrounded by a triple wall, and guarded by gates of 
 brass, rose the magnificent royal palace, whose walls were 
 adorned by pictures of the chase, and martial and festive 
 processions, and whose apartments were furnished with 
 the rich carpets of Persia, the costly fabrics of Damascus, 
 and the jewels of Bokhara. 
 
 Rising above all the other structures was the lofty 
 Tower of Belus, or Babel. The tower was six hundred 
 feet high, and was crowned with a statue of Belus, fort}' 
 feet high, made of pure gold, which shone resplendent in 
 the sunlight, or gleamed with matchless beaut}' in the 
 soft moonlight. It is said that this tower far exceeded 
 the greatest pyramid of Egypt in height. The ascent to 
 the top was by stairs round the outside of it ; and as the 
 tower proper was composed of eight stories, each de- 
 creasing gradually in size, tlie entire tower formed a 
 
CHART OF THE COUNTRY AROUND BABYLON. 
 
CYRUS THE GEE AT. 61 
 
 pyramid. In the different stories were many rooms, 
 which were richly adorned with tables, censers, cnps, and 
 other sacred vessels of massive gold. Diodorns, one of 
 the ancient historians, estimates the value of the riches 
 contained in this temi)le to amount to $93,240,000. 
 This temple stood in the time of Xerxes, but on his re- 
 turn from his Grecian expedition, he entirely destroyed 
 it, having plundered it of all its immense treasures. 
 Alexander the Great purposed to rebuild it, and em- 
 ployed ten thousand men to remove the rubbish which 
 had accumulated around it, but after they had labored 
 two months, Alexander died, and that put an end to the 
 undertaking. 
 
 Belshazzar gave a great feast in his palace to all his 
 chief officers and nobles, even though Cyrus tlie Great 
 was then besieging Babylon. It was during this impious 
 feast, after Belshazzar had commanded that the sacred 
 vessels, which had been taken from the Temple of Jeho- 
 vah in Jerusalem, should be desecrated by being used by 
 his drunken guests as wine-goblets, that the marvellous 
 writing appeared upon his palace wall, and the words 
 " Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin " were traced in letters 
 of fire by a mysterious hand. Belshazzar was aroused 
 from his drunken carousal and filled with terror on 
 account of the strange omen. None of his magicians 
 could interpret its meaning. At last his mother. Queen 
 Nitocris, remembered the old prophet Daniel, and his 
 previous wonderful interpretations for Nebuchadnezzar. 
 Daniel, being summoned, declared that it predicted the 
 destruction of his kingdom, which should be divided, 
 and given to the Medes and Persians. 
 
 Swiftly, indeed, did the dread catastrophe overtake the 
 wicked king. Cyrus had caused great ditches to be dug 
 
62 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 on both sides of the city, above and below, so that the 
 water of the river Euphrates might run into thenio 
 That ver}^ night he caused those great receptacles to be 
 opened ; and while Belshazzar and his drunken army were 
 carousing in mad revellings, the channel of the river was 
 emptied, and the hostile forces marched into the dr^' 
 channel in two bodies of troops ; one entering above the 
 city, and one below. A guide who had promised to 
 open all the gates to Cyrus left open the gates of brass 
 which were made to shut up the descents from the quays 
 to the river. 
 
 Thus the army of Cyrus was enabled to penetrate into 
 the very heart of the city without opposition. Arriving 
 at the royal palace, the}' surprised the guards and killed 
 them. Then rushing into the palace, and meeting the 
 king, who had seized a sword, and stood in the midst of 
 his frightened and helpless guests, the soldiers of Cyrus 
 killed Belshazzar. 
 
 Cyrus, having entered the city, put all to the sword 
 who were found in the streets. He then commanded the 
 citizens to bring him all their arms, and afterwards to 
 shut themselves up in their houses. Early the next 
 morning, the garrison which kept the citadel, learning 
 that the city had been taken, and their king killed, sur- 
 rendered themselves to Cyrus. Thus did this prince, 
 ahnost without striking a blow, find himself in possession 
 of the strongest place in the world. 
 
 In the first year after Cyrus conquered Babylon, he 
 published the famous edict permitting the Jews to return 
 to Jerusalem. Cyrus at the same time restored to the 
 Jews all the vessels of the temple of the Lord, which 
 Nebuchadnezzar had brought from Jerusalem, and placed 
 in the temple of his god Belus, or Baal. 
 
SUPPOSED I'LAX OF ANCIENT BABYLON. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT, 63 
 
 After this conquest, Cyrus established his residence in 
 the midst of the countries within his vast dominions. He 
 spent seven months of the year at Babylon in the winter 
 season, because of the warmth of that climate ; three 
 months at Susa in the spring ; and two months at Ecbat- 
 ana, during the heat of summer. 
 
 There is an interesting story, told b}' Xenophon, of a 
 princess, named Panthea, in connection with the expedi- 
 tion of C3'rus against the Assyrians. Among the pris- 
 oners of war taken by his army was a very beautiful 
 princess, Panthea, the wife of Abradates, king of Susi- 
 ana. Her husband was an Assyrian general, though he 
 himself was not captured at this time with his wife. 
 Cyrus committed this princess to the care of one of his 
 young nobles, named Araspes. This nobleman fell in 
 love with Panthea, and ventured to express to her his 
 admiration for her. She was offended ; and when Araspes 
 continued his declarations of love, she complained to Cy- 
 rus. Cyrus severely reproved his officer for proving 
 unworthy of the trust reposed in him. Araspes, morti- 
 fied and repentant, was overwhelmed with fear and re- 
 morse. Cyrus, hearing of this, sent for Araspes, and 
 instead of upbraiding him, sent him upon a trusty and 
 difficult mission as a sp}- among the Assj^rians. The loss 
 of so brave an officer, who was supposed to have gone 
 over to the enemy, greatl}^ affected the army. Panthea, 
 who imagined that she had been the cause of this loss to 
 Cyrus, told him that she would supply the place of 
 Araspes with an officer of equal merit. Accordingly, she 
 sent for her husband Abradates. Upon his arrival, she 
 told him of the kindness and consideration with which 
 she had been treated by Cyrus, the generous conqueror. 
 
 "And how," said Abradates, ''shall 1 be able to 
 acknowledge so important a service ? " 
 
64 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 '*" Bv behaving towards him as he has done towards 
 me," replied Panthea. 
 
 Whereupon, Abradates immediately expressed his grat- 
 itude to C3TUS, and offered to espouse his cause as his 
 faithful all}'. Cyrus received him with a noble and 
 courteous manner and accepted his offer. Abradates 
 then fitted up for Cyrus one hundred chariots at his own 
 expense, and provided horses to draw them, from his own 
 troop. These armed chariots were a very expensive sort 
 of force. The carriages were heavy and strong and were 
 usually drawn by two horses. They had short, scythe-like 
 blades of steel projecting from the axletrees on each 
 side, by which the ranks of the enemy were mowed down 
 when the chariots were driven among them. Each chariot 
 could hold one or more warriors beside the driver of the 
 horses. The warriors stood on the floor of the carriage, 
 and fought with javelins and spears. Abradates made 
 one chariot much larger than the rest for himself, as he 
 intended to command this corps of chariots. 
 
 His wife Panthea took much interest in these prepara- 
 tions, and unknown to Abradates, she furnished from her 
 own treasures a helmet, a corselet, and arm-pieces of 
 ' gold for her husband. She also provided breast-pieces 
 and side-pieces for the horses. When the day arrived for 
 Abradates to go into battle with his chariot corps, Panthea 
 presented her munificent gifts to him, which were most 
 royal. Besides the defences of gold, there were other 
 articles for ornament. There was a purple robe, a violet 
 crest for the helmet, waving plumes, and costly bracelets. 
 Abradates was greatly astonished, and exclaimed with 
 surprise and pleasure, — 
 
 "And so to provide me with this splendid armor and 
 dress, you have been depriving yourself of all your finest 
 and most beautiful ornamenta ! '* 
 
15ABYLONIAN KING. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 65 
 
 u 
 
 No," lovingly replied Pantliea ; "you are yourself 
 my finest ornament, if you appear in the eyes of others as 
 you do in mine ; and I have not deprived myself of you." 
 
 There were many spectators present to see Abradates 
 mount in his gorgeous chariot and drive away ; but the 
 attention of the beholders was centred upon the exquisite 
 beauty of Panthea, as she stood by the side of his chariot 
 to bid adieu to her husband. This was their last parting. 
 
 As Panthea turned away from the royal train, her hus- 
 band waved her a fond farewell. 
 
 On the field of battle Abradates displayed heroic cour- 
 age. His chariot was observed by Cyrus, in the thickest 
 of the fight, rushing fearlessly into the places of the 
 greatest danger. 
 
 The victory was gained by Cyrus ; but Abradates was 
 killed in his chariot ; and when Cyrus inquired about him, 
 it was reported that Panthea was then attending to the 
 interment of the body on the banks of a river which 
 flowed near the field of battle. 
 
 Cyrus immediatel}' went to the spot, where Panthea sat 
 weeping over the remains of her beloved husband. Cyrus 
 leaped from his horse, and knelt beside the corpse, 
 exclaiming, — 
 
 "Alas! thou brave and faithful soul, and art thou 
 gone ? " 
 
 Cyrus said what he could to console Panthea ; but she 
 was unconsolable. He gave directions that everything 
 should be furnished for her comfort. Panthea thanked 
 him for his kindness. 
 
 After Cyrus had left her, Panthea sent away all her 
 servants but her waiting-maid, saying that she wished to 
 be alone with the dead body of her husband. She then 
 drew forth a small dagger, which she had kept concealed 
 
66 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 beneath her robe : and telling her maid to envelop her 
 dead body in the same mantle with her husband, and to 
 have them buried together in the same grave, she pierced 
 her heart with the weapon before her affrighted servant 
 could prevent the fatal wound. Abradates and Panthea 
 were buried together in one grave, as the heart-broken 
 wife had requested, over which Cyrus erected a lofty 
 monument to their memory. 
 
 Cyrus, finding himself master of all the East by the 
 taking of Babylon, did not imitate the example of most 
 other conquerors, who sully the glory of their victories by 
 their cruelties and wicked lives. Cyrus is justly consid- 
 ered one of the wisest conquerors and one of the most 
 accomplished of the princes to be found in profane his- 
 tory. He was possessed of all the qualities necessary to 
 make a great man. Cicero observes, that during the 
 entire time of the rule of Cyrus he was never heard to 
 speak one rough or angry word. 
 
 Cyrus, according to his belief, was very religious. He 
 was^ to be sure, a pagan ; but he reverenced sacred 
 things, and as his deliverance of the Jews showed, he 
 acknowledged the power of Jehovah, even though we 
 have no account of his complete conversion from idol- 
 atry. But his devotion to what he held to be religion is 
 an example for the worshippers of the one true God. 
 
 Cyrus, having established himself in the midst of his 
 wide kingdom, with his chief residence at Babylon, 
 resolved to appear before the people in an august relig- 
 ious ceremony, by marching in a grand cavalcade to the 
 places consecrated to the gods, in order to offer sacrifices 
 to them. He ordered the superior officers of the Persians 
 and allies to attend him ; and he presented each one with 
 a suit of clothes of the Median f-ashion. These were long 
 
PERSIAN CHARIOT. 
 
 TOMB OF CYRUS. 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 67 
 
 garments, of various colors, of the finest and brightest 
 dyes, richly embroidered with gold and silver. One of 
 the historians gives this description of this gorgeous 
 pageant. 
 
 " When the time appointed for the ceremony was come, 
 the whole company assembled at the king's palace by 
 break of day. Four thousand of the guards, drawn up 
 four deep, placed themselves in front of the palace, and 
 two thousand on the two sides of it, ranged in the same 
 order. All the cavalry were also drawn out, the Persians 
 on the right, and that of the allies on the left. The 
 chariots of war were ranged half on one side and half on 
 the other. As soon as the palace gates were opened, a 
 great numl.er of bulls of exquisite beauty were led out, 
 by four and four. These were to be sacrificed to Jupiter 
 and other gods, according to the ceremonies prescribed 
 by the Magi. Next followed the horses that were to be 
 sacrificed to the sun. Immediately after them a white 
 chariot, crowned with flowers, the pole of which was gilt • 
 this was to be offered to Jupiter. Then came a second 
 chariot of the same color, and adorned in the same man- 
 ner, to be offered to the sun. After these followed a 
 third, the horses of which were caparisoned with scarlet 
 housings. Behind came the men who carried the sacred 
 fire in a large hearth. 
 
 '' When all these were on the march, Cvrus himself made 
 his api>€arance upon his car, with his upright tiara upon 
 lus head, encircled with the royal diadem. His under- 
 tunic was of purple mixed with white, which was a color 
 peculiar to kings ; over his other garments he wore a 
 large purple cloak. His hands were uncovered. A little 
 below him sat the master of the horse, who was of a 
 comely stature, but not so tall as Cyrus, for which reason 
 
gg CYBUS THE GREAT. 
 
 the stature of the latter appeared still more advan- 
 
 *'''rton as the people perceived the prince, they all 
 fell prostrate before him and worshipped hin. ; whether 
 it was that certain persons appointed on purpose, and 
 placed at proper distances, led others ^^^^ ^^f^;^ 
 or that the people were moved to do .t of then ow 
 accord bein^ struck by the appearance of so much pomp 
 and magnificence, and with so many awful circumstances 
 
 of majesty and splendor. . 
 
 "The Persians had never prostrated themselves in this 
 .anner before Cyrus t>U on «,is oc~ Wh.r Cyrns^ 
 chariot was come out of the palace, lue luu 
 "nards began to march ; the other two thousand moved a 
 the same time, and placed themselves on each side of the 
 
 '^u S; eunuchs, or great officers of the king's household, 
 to the number of three hundred, richly clad, with javelms 
 i„ their hands and mounted upon stately horses, marched 
 immediately after the chariot. After them were led two 
 hundred horses of the king's stable, each of them having 
 embroidered furniture and bits of gold. Next came the 
 p".ian cavalry divided into four bodies, each consisting 
 ;f ten thousand men; then the Median horse and after 
 those the cavalry of the allies. The chariots of war. four 
 Ibreast, brought up the rear and closed *« Pr-— 
 When thev came to the fields consecrated to *« g^^^' 
 thev offered their sacrifices first to Jupiter and then to 
 the'sun. To the honor of the first, bulls were burnt, and 
 to the honor of the second, horses. They likewise sacri- 
 ficed some victims to the earth, according to the appomt- 
 ment of the Magi ; then to the demigods, the pations 
 and protectors of Syria. In order to amuse he people 
 after this grave and solemn ceremony, Cyrus thought fit 
 
CYRUS THE GREAT. 69 
 
 that it should conclude with games and horse and 
 chariot races. 
 
 '•The place chosen for them was large and spacious. 
 He ordered a certain portion of it to be marked out, and 
 proposed prizes for the victors of each nation, which were 
 to encounter separately and among themselves. He himself 
 won the prize in the Persian horse-races, for nobody was 
 so complete a horseman as he. The chariots ran but two 
 at a time, one against another. Some days after, Cyrus, 
 to celebrate the victory he had obtained in the horse- 
 races, gave a great entertainment to all his chief officers, 
 as well strangers as Medes and Persians. Thev had 
 never yet seen anything of the kind so sumptuous and 
 magnificent. At the conclusion of the feast he made 
 every one a noble present, so that they all went home with 
 hearts overflowing with joy, admiration, and gratitude ; 
 and all-powerful as he was, master of all the East and so 
 many kingdoms, he did not think it descending from his 
 majesty to conduct the whole company to the door of his 
 apartment. 
 
 "Such were the manners and behavior of those ancient 
 times, when men understood how to unite great simplicity 
 with the highest degree of human grandeur." 
 
 There are two accounts given of the death of Cyrus. 
 Herodotus relates that Cyrus made war against the Scyth- 
 ians, and after having attacked them, made a feint of 
 retreating, leaving a great quantity of provisions and wine 
 beliind him. The Scythians, supposing he had indeed 
 departed, seized the booty and were soon thoroughly 
 drunk from the effects of the wine. While they were 
 still in a drunken slumber, they were surprised by Cyrus 
 and completely routed. The son of Tomyris, queen of 
 the Scythians, had commanded the vanquished army, and 
 was taken prisoner. When he recovered from his drunken 
 
^Q CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 fit and found himself iu captivity, with a disgrace hanging 
 over his head wliich he could never hope to w.pe out, he 
 killed himself in despair. His mother, Queen Tomyns, 
 determining to avenge the death of her son, co ec ed a 
 lar<.e force ; and meeting the Persians m a second battle 
 t^iev were defeated, and more than two hundred thousand 
 of "their number were killed, together with then- kmg 
 Cvrus. Tomvris was so enraged against Cyrus that 
 e;en his death did not suffice her vengeance ; but it is 
 said that she ordered his head to be cut off and flung uito 
 a vessel full of blood. This shocking account, however, 
 is not given by Xenophou, who relates that when Cyrus 
 perceived the time of his death to be near he ordered his 
 children and officers of state to be assembled abon him. 
 After thanking the gods for their favors to h.m, he de- 
 clared his oldest son, Cambyses, to be his successor, and 
 loft the other, whose name was Tauaoxares, several 
 important governments. Having taken his leave of them 
 all, he addressed these words to his sons : — 
 
 " I could never imagine that the soul only lived while 
 in a mortal body, and died when separated from it. But 
 if I mistake, and nothing of me shall remain after death, 
 at least fear the gods, who never die, who see ^1 tlnngs 
 and whose power is infinite. Fear them, and let that feai 
 prevent you from ever doing, or deliberating to do, any- 
 thing contrarv to religion and justice. For my body, my 
 sons, when life has forsaken it, enclose it neither in gold 
 or silver, nor anv other matter whatever ; restore it im- 
 mediatelv to the earth. Adieu, my dear children ; may 
 vonr liv'es be h.appy. Carry my last remembrance to 
 Vonr mother. And for you, my faithful friends, receive 
 "this last farewell, and may you live in peace^ Havin 
 said these words, he covered his face and died, siuceiely 
 lamented by all his people. 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 71 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 356-323 B.C. 
 
 " Self-eonquest is the greatest of victories." — Plato. 
 
 QNE day a terrible event transpired in the ancient 
 ^ city of Ephesus. The magnificent temple of Diana 
 one of the famous ScA-en Wonders of the World, was in 
 flames. The people from all parts of tlie co.mtrv flocked 
 to the scene of the imposing conflagration. This mar- 
 vellous temple had been built at the expense of all Asia 
 M.nor. One hundred and twenty-seven kings had con- 
 tributed one hundred and twenty-seven magnificent col- 
 umns of Parian marble, which were sixty feet in heio-ht 
 and wrought by the most famous artists. Pliny says that 
 two hundred and twenty years were occupied in rearing 
 this vast structure. But now the flames mount hio-her 
 aud higher. All the efforts of the distracted people to 
 subdue them are in vain. See ! the rapacious tongues of 
 fire are nearing the sacred image of the goddess, which 
 the Ephesians believed liad fallen from heaven. Whv 
 does not Diana, the great goddess, prevent the destructio;, 
 ot tins, her most imposing and sacred shrine ? The people 
 call upon her in tlteir wild despair ; but still the flames 
 devour with fury the magnificent structure, and the air is 
 rent with the cries of the horror-stricken multitude. 
 That very night, while the heavens were still red with 
 the lurid light of the burning temple, another event oc- 
 curred upon the other side of the ^gean Sea, in the roval 
 
72 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 palace of the kiiigaom of Macedon. A tiny infant first 
 opened its eyes upon this strange world ; and above his 
 royal cradle, king and nobles bent in gratified delight, 
 and welcomed the little stranger with proud joy. But 
 what had this helpless babe to do with the burning temple 
 in P:phesus? This baby was the infant Alexander the 
 Great; and so superstitious were the people of those 
 times that in order to explain the strange fatality of a 
 great goddess like Diana allowing her magnificent temple 
 to be burned and destroyed without any miraculous inter- 
 vention on her part, to punish such a sacrilegious dese- 
 cration of her shrine by wicked mortals, the historians 
 of those days declared that as Diana was at that time 
 lending her aid and presence to insure the future great- 
 ness of the new-born infant Alexander, it was on account 
 of her absence on so beneficent an errand, that her temple 
 was not ouarded from this imi)i()us destruction. 
 
 But what mortal had so dared to insult the gods, as to 
 apply the torch to this most sacred shrine? At last it 
 was discovered that a person named Herostratus had 
 fired the temple ; not by accident, l)ut with wicked intent. 
 Upon being put to the torture in order to force him to 
 confess the motive for so infamous a crime, he declared 
 that it was to immortalize his own name, that he might 
 be known to oil posterity as the destroyer of this famous 
 structure. A decree was then published that all should 
 be prohibited from mentioning his name. But this decree 
 only caused greater curiosity, and scarcely one of the 
 historians of those times have failed to mention the name 
 of this wicked and vain man. 
 
 These events happened about 356 b.c. Alexander was 
 born the heir to the throne of one of the Grecian king- 
 doms. His father was King Philip of Macedon. The 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 73 
 
 kingdom of Macedon was in the northern part of Greece. 
 The mother of Alexander was Olympias, the daughter of 
 the king of Epirus, which was a kingdom lying west of 
 Macedon. Olympias was a woman of very strong charac- 
 ter, but possessed also some unlovely traits. His father, 
 King Philip, was a great warrior, and during the boyhood 
 of Alexander, he made many conquests in various parts 
 of Greece. Alexander was much favored in the circum- 
 stances of his early life, and also in the possession of a 
 superior mind, and handsome face and figure, and most 
 winning manners. He was born to rule ; and had he 
 always used his many gifts as wisely as he employed his 
 executive powers and physical courage, he would have 
 been one of the greatest of men, whereas now he can be 
 called only one of the greatest of conquerors, whose life 
 was marred by some of the most terrible of vices. 
 
 But the boy Alexander is intensely attractive and inter- 
 esting. He seemed to possess few of the faults of youth. 
 He was active, and full of ardor and enthusiasm, and at the 
 same time he was calm and prudent in emergencies, and very 
 thoughtful and far-seeing. He was kind and considerate, 
 faithful to his friends, and generous to his foes. He pos- 
 sessed a remarkable mind, and delighted in study and in 
 improving conversation with his teachers. He was privi- 
 leged to be a pupil of the famous Aristotle. The progress 
 of the pupil was equal to the care and ability of the pre- 
 ceptor. Alexander became very fond of philosophy and 
 metaphysics, even though a young boy ; and he did not 
 omit mathematics and the study of the wonders of nature. 
 But Alexander applied himself chiefly to the study of 
 morality, as it contributes to the good conduct of a prince 
 and the best government of a people. How sad it was 
 that, with all these desirable qualities of heart and mind, 
 
74 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 his later years were marred by the greatest of vices, and 
 his natural noble impulses were deadened by a life of 
 brutal ferocity and drunken debauchery, which tarnished 
 the brightness of his glor}' and sullied the reputation of 
 a great conqueror, whose brilliant actions and intrepid 
 bravery dazzled the eyes of friends and foes ! 
 
 But we must not suppose that the youthful Alexander 
 was a melancholy dreamer or an embryo philosopher. His 
 greatest delight was to read of the exploits of the Grecian 
 heroes, which were described by Homer, an ancient poet 
 who lived four or five hundred years before the time of 
 Alexander. There were then no printed books, but these 
 and other works were written on parchment rolls, which 
 the young scholars were taught to read. As Homer's 
 tales were written in Greek, which was the native lan- 
 guage of Alexander, he could understand them very 
 easily, and was greatly excited with the stirring scenes 
 there depicted. Aristotle ordered a beautiful copy of 
 Homer's poems to be prepared exjjressly for his princely 
 pupil. Alexander afterwards carried this copy with him 
 in all his campaigns ; and years after, when he was fighting 
 the Persians, among the spoils taken from them was a 
 very costly casket, which King Darius had used for 
 jewels or perfumes. This box was always afterwards em- 
 ployed by Alexander as a receptacle for his beautiful copy 
 of Homer ; and he placed it with his sword beneath his 
 pillow at night. Although he was a prince, ha was not 
 brought up in habits of luxury. The Greeks in those days 
 had no firearms, and in 1)attle combatants fought in hand- 
 to-hand conflicts. It was the business of the oflficers to 
 lead the men on, and set them the example of bravery by 
 performing themselves deeds of daring and valor. It was 
 considered necessary to accustom the young, even though 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 75 
 
 princes, to hardship and fatigue. Alexander was full of 
 energy and spirit. He early evinced a great degree of 
 ambition ; and when news of his father's many conquests 
 would be brought to the court in Macedon, Alexander 
 often remarked to his companions, in a tone of sorrow 
 and dejection, — 
 
 " There will be nothing left for us to conquer." 
 The story of Bucephalus, his famous horse, illustrates 
 the courage and also the keen observation of Alexander. 
 A spirited war-horse had been sent to Philip while Alex- 
 ander was quite a young boy. The king and his courtiers 
 w^ent out into one of the parks to view and try the horse ; 
 but so furious was the animal that no one dared to mount 
 him, as he seemed entirely unmanageable. Philip was 
 very much provoked, and gave orders that the horse should 
 be sent back into Thessaly, as useless. 
 
 Alexander had stood quietly by, noticing the actions of 
 the animal and attentively studying his traits. He per- 
 ceived that the horse seemed to be frightened at his own 
 shadow ; and he begged the consent of his father to 
 allow him to try the experiment of mounting him. Philip 
 at last gave a reluctant consent, as the attempt seemed 
 so hazardous for a young boy, when all his experienced 
 grooms condemned the horse as too vicious to be subdued. 
 Alexander, however, quickly turned the frightened creature 
 round, so that he could not see his shadow ; and patting 
 him on the head and neck, reassui-ed him with the gentle 
 tones of his voice ; and as he became less restive, he 
 sprang upon the animal and gave him full rein to run as 
 he pleased. King Philip and his nobles first looked on in 
 terror, then in admiration, as the splendid steed flew over 
 the plains hke the wind, with his intrepid rider seated in 
 calm grace upon his back, evidently perfectly fearless and 
 
7G ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 self-possessed. Having allowed the horse to tire himself 
 with his free run, Alexander reined him in with perfect 
 and returned safely to the king. Philip was so 
 
 ease 
 
 pleased and proud of his son that he embraced Alexander 
 when he had alighted, and kissing his forehead, he said to 
 him, •' My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for 
 Macedon is below thy merit." This Bucephalus after- 
 wards became the famous war-horse of Alexander the 
 Great, and many surprising stories are told of his marvel- 
 lous sagacity. AVhen this horse was saddled and equipped 
 for battle, he seemed to realize his proud position, and 
 would allow no one to approach him but Alexander. 
 When his master wished to mount him, he would kneel 
 upon his forelegs. Some historians relate that when 
 Alexander was fighting in a desperate battle, and had 
 plunged too imprudently amidst his infuriated foes, Bu- 
 cephalus, though severely wounded, bore his master to a 
 place of safety, although iie was himself bleeding to death, 
 pierced with the fatal darts of the enemy. Then, perceiv- 
 ing that Alexander was safe, he fell exhausted, and expired. 
 Others say that Bucephalus lived to be thirty years of age, 
 and that Alexander so mourned for him at his death that 
 he built a city on the spot where his faithf =1 horse had 
 been buried, and called it Bucephalia in honor of tlie 
 noble and trusty steed. 
 
 When Alexander was only sixteen years of age, his 
 father, Philip, made him regent of Macedon while he was 
 absent on a great military campaign against the other 
 Grecian states. 
 
 At this time some ambassadors from the Persian court 
 arrived in Macedon. In the absence of Philip, Alexander 
 received them with courtesy. They, supposing that he 
 would be interested in hearing about the splendors of the 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 77 
 
 Persian court, entertained him with stories of the famous 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon ; and the vine of gold, the 
 grapes of which were emeralds, rubies, and other precious 
 stones; and the marvellous golden plantain-tree. But 
 Alexander, instead of appearing absorbed and delighted 
 with these glowing accounts of fabulous wealth, inq^'uired 
 about the geography of the country, the various roads, and 
 the strength and power of the Persian king. What battles 
 he had fought, how he behaved towards his enemies, and 
 how he governed his people. The ambassadors, astonished 
 at such maturity in one so young, and filled with admiration 
 for the Grecian prince, began to compare among them- 
 selves Alexander and their own Artaxerxes, saying, ''This 
 young prince is great, while our king is only rich." 
 
 When Alexander was eighteen years of age, King 
 Philip took him with him on one of his military cam- 
 paigns, during which Philip fought one of his great battles 
 in Breotia. Philip gave the command of one of the wings 
 of Ills army to Alexander; and so valiantly did he lead 
 his troops, that his wing was victorious, and Philip and his 
 command had to exert themselves to prevent being out- 
 done by the youthful prince. His mother, Olympias, was 
 of a haughty and imperious temper, and Philip himself 
 was headstrong and obstinate, and the result of their 
 frequent quarrels was a final separation, and Philip ob- 
 tained a divorce from his wife, she returning to the court 
 of her father. Philip then married a young and beautiful 
 princess, and at the wedding festivities an incident oc- 
 curred which illustrated the traits of both father and son. 
 The uncle of the new queen, having made some disparag- 
 ing remark about Olympias, the mother of Alexander, 
 that prince threw the cup from wliich he had been 
 drinking at the off*ender's head. Attains, the queen's 
 
78 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 uncle, then threw his cup at Alexander, and Philip, en- 
 raged at such disturbance at the feast, seized his sword, 
 and rushed towards his son. Having a lame foot, he 
 stumbled, and fell upon the floor ; and Alexander, looking 
 upon him with scorn and contempt, exclaimed, "What 
 a fine hero the states of Greece have to lead their armies, 
 a man who cannot get across the floor without tumbling 
 down ! " He then turned away and left the palace, and 
 afterwards joined his mother in Epirus, and espoused her 
 cause in the quarrel with his father. 
 
 Philip had been planning a great expedition into Asia. 
 He had formed a strong combination among the states of 
 Greece, and had raised a large army. Alexander is said 
 to have taken sides with his mother, not so much out of 
 filial devotion, as because he was jealous of his father's 
 conquests, and desirous himself of reaping the glory 
 which seemed to await the Grecian army in the coming 
 campaign. Before setting forth upon this expedition, 
 Philip desired to become reconciled to his son Alexander, 
 and Olympias. He realized the importance of securing 
 the co-operation of Alexander in his plans ; and it would 
 be dangerous to leave his own kingdom with a son so 
 near in open hostility. Whereupon, Philip sent concilia- 
 tory messages to oiympias and Alexander, and he pro- 
 posed that one of his own daughters should marry the 
 present king of Epirus, who was the brother of Olympias. 
 His overtures were peacefully received ; and Olympias and 
 Alexander returned to Macedon, where great preparations 
 were made for the proposed wedding festivities. Philip 
 determined that this event should be celebrated with most 
 gorgeous pomp and splendor. 
 
 He received very costly presents from the other states 
 of Greece ; and though their professions of friendship 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 79 
 
 were veiy hollow on both sides, he took this occasion to 
 pay marked attention to their kings and generals ; and 
 they sent him golden crowns, most beautifully wrought, 
 and large embassies, expressing their good wishes. 
 Athens, the seat of literature in Greece, sent a poem, in 
 which the histor}^ of Philip's expedition into Persia was 
 related in anticipation, and in which he was described as 
 being most triumphantly successful. 
 
 The wedding was at length celebrated with much splen- 
 dor, and the day after the nuptials was devoted to games 
 and processions. In one of the latter, which was a 
 religious ceremou}-, twelve statues of the gods, carved 
 with marvellous art, were carried with great pomp through 
 the streets. A thirteenth, which surpassed them all in 
 magnificence, was a statue of Philip, representing him 
 as a god. The procession was moving towards a great 
 theatre, where games and spectacles were to be exhibited. 
 At length Philip himself appeared in the procession. 
 He had ordered that a wide space should be left around 
 him, so that he might be more plainly visible to the 
 populace, and also as a proof of his confidence in the love 
 of his people, thus to expose himself without a guard. 
 He was clothed in white robes, and adorned with a spark- 
 ling crown. Just as the statues of the gods had been 
 carried into the theatre, and as that of Philip was about 
 to be born in, an officer of the guards, a young Mace- 
 donian nobleman, named Pausanias, advanced quickly 
 towards King Philip, and before the spectators suspected 
 his design, he plunged his dagger into the heart of the 
 king, w4io fell dead upon the ground. All was now con- 
 fusion. The murderer was instanth' cut to pieces by the 
 guards ; and an officer of state hastened to inform Alex- 
 ander of his father's death, and his succession to the 
 
80 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 throne. An assembly of the leading statesmen wao 
 hastily summoned, and Alexander was proclaimed king. 
 It was by some supposed that the motive which induced 
 Pausanias to murder Philip was a private revenge for a 
 personal insult he had received from the uncle of Philip's 
 present wife, which insult Philip would not notice. But 
 others believed that the murder was instigated by the 
 other states of Greece, who were hostile to Philip. 
 Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, was Philip's bitterest 
 enemy, and he used his eloquence in stirring up the 
 Grecians against him. These orations were called his 
 Philippics. 
 
 Alexander's first measures were to punish his father's 
 murderers. Although it could not be ascertained who 
 were involved in the plot, several were suspected, and put 
 to death. Alexander decided not to make any change 
 in his father's appointments, and to carry out his proposed 
 campaigns. There were two officers in particular, who 
 were the especial confidants of Philip, — Antipater and 
 Parmenio. Antipater had charge of the civil, and Par- 
 menio of military affairs. Alexander, at this time, was 
 only twenty years of age ; and Parmenio, a very distin- 
 guished general, was sixty 3'ears old. But the genius, 
 power, and enthusiam of Alexander's character made 
 even men of such age and experience willing to obey his 
 orders, and aid in the execution of his plans. 
 
 The Macedonians advised Alexander not to attempt to 
 hold all the states of Greece ; but to relinquish the con- 
 quests of PhiUp, and join with them in an alliance. But 
 Alexander determined to march boldl}^ into their midst, 
 and demand their continued subjection, which his father 
 had gained. This was a bold measure for so young a 
 prince. He thereupon collected his forces, and set forth 
 
XDUMO § I!S]E10: §, 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 81 
 
 at their head. He first marched his troops to the banks 
 of the Danube, which he crossed in one night. He de- 
 feated the king of the Triballi in a great battle, and sub- 
 dued several barbarous nations. While he was thus 
 engaged, several of the Grecian cities, inflamed by the 
 eloquence of Demosthenes, who harangued the people, 
 calling Alexander '' a child, a hare-brained boy," formed 
 a powerful alliance against him. A false report that 
 Alexander was dead inspired the Thebians with a bold- 
 ness which proved their ruin. Alexander, having secured 
 his kingdom from the barbarians, marched with much ex- 
 pedition towards Greece, and passed the Strait of Ther- 
 mopylae. He then said to his army, "Demosthenes 
 called me, in his orations, a child, when I was in Illyria, 
 and among Triballi ; he called me a young man, when I 
 was in Thessaly ; and I must now show him, before the 
 walls of Athens, that I am a man grown." At the Pass 
 of Thermopylae, a great council was held between Alex- 
 ander and the Thessalians, who were favorable to his 
 claims. Alexander now appeared so suddenly before the 
 city of Thebes, as to astonish them. He demanded only 
 that the}^ should deliver up to him the two ringleaders of 
 the revolt against him, and then he promised a general 
 freedom to the citizens. But the Thebans insultingly re- 
 plied that they would only comply, if two of his generals 
 wTre delivered to them. Alexander now determined upon 
 a speedy punishment, and attacked them so vigorously, 
 that the city was taken, and a large number of the Thebans 
 were killed. Alexander then resolved to make Thebes a 
 warning to all the Grecian states, and the cit}' was accord- 
 ingly destroyed, and thirty thousand of the Thebans were 
 sold into slavery. He, however, set the priests at liberty ; 
 and those who had opposed the revolt, and also the descen- 
 
82 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 dauts of Pindar, the famous poet. Alexander now sent 
 word to Athens, and demanded that they should deliver 
 up to him ten orators, wlioni he supposed had influenced 
 the people against Philii) and himself. The Athenians, 
 though in this dilemma, were still unwilling to deliver up 
 their orators to death ; and at last, one Demades, who was 
 a friend of Alexander's, offered to undertake the embassy 
 alone, and plead for them. Alexander, having now 
 satiated his revenge, and believing that the C4recians 
 were enough subdued to be controlled, waived his demand. 
 
 He then summoned all the monarchs and potentates of 
 Greece, to meet him at Corinth, that he might obtain 
 from them the same supreme command against the Per- 
 sians which had l)een conferred by them upon his father 
 Phihp. The deliberations of the assembly were short, 
 and Alexander was appointed generalissimo against the 
 Persians. 
 
 There is a story told of Alexander and the philosopher 
 Diogenes, who was then at Corinth. Alexander supposed 
 that Diogenes would of course come with the officers and 
 governors of cities, and philosophers, who waited upon 
 him innnediately to congratulate him upon his election. 
 But Diogenes did not come, and so Alexander, having 
 curiosity to see a man who would thus slight a king, con- 
 descended to call upon Diogenes. Attended by his cour- 
 tiers, he paid the philosopher a visit. 
 
 Diogenes was found l3-ing in the sun, and seeing the 
 crowd of people advance toward him, he sat up and fixed 
 his eyes upon Alexander. 
 
 That prince was surprised to see so great a philosopher 
 in such seeming poverty, and accosting him kindly, asked 
 him courteously if there was anything he wanted. 
 
 "Yes," replied Diogenes, "that you would stand a 
 little out of my sunshine." 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 83 
 
 The courtiers of the monarch were astounded at such 
 audacious boldness ; but Alexander exclaimed, — 
 
 "Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." For 
 Alexander perceived, that even with all his wealth and 
 power, he was in some sense inferior to a man to whom 
 he could give, and from whom he could take, nothing. 
 
 Alexander now returned to Macedon to prepare for his 
 great expedition into Asia. As king of Macedon he pos- 
 sessed large estates and revenues, which were his own 
 personal property, independent of the state. He appor- 
 tioned these among his othcers and generals, both those 
 who were to go with him, and those who were to remain 
 to guard his kingdom, over which he placed Antipater 
 as viceregent durino- his absence. 
 
 H'e displayed such generosity in his gifts, that his 
 friends asked him what he had reserved for himself. 
 
 " Hope," replied Alexander. 
 
 After all things were ready, Alexander celebrated the 
 religious sacrifices and ceremonies. This great Macedo- 
 nian festival was held in honor of the Muses, as well as 
 Jupiter. The Muses, according to the belief of the 
 Greeks, were nine singing and dancing maidens, who 
 were very beautiful in face and form, graceful in motion, 
 and brilliant in mind. They were supposed to have first 
 come from Thrace, and having gone to Mount Olympus, 
 they were made goddesses by Jupiter. At last they se- 
 lected for their place of residence a palace in Mount 
 Parnassus. They were worshipped all over Greece and 
 Italy as the goddesses of music and dancing. After- 
 wards arts and sciences were assigned to them, — one 
 being the goddess of history, another of astronomy, 
 another of tragedy, etc. 
 
 Alexander celebrated these festivities with great mag- 
 
84 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 nificence and pomp, and then bid a long farewell to his 
 native land. His army consisted of about thirty thousand 
 foot and four or five thousand horse. But they were all 
 brave men. His officers were experienced men of sixty 
 years of age, who had served under Philip his father. 
 Parmenio commanded the infantry, Philotas his son the 
 cavalr\^ Alexander sent a fleet of one hundred and fifty 
 galleys over the ^gean Sea, to land at Sestos, to be 
 ready to transport his army across the Hellespont. The 
 army marched to Sestos by land. Having arrived there, 
 Alexander left Parmenio to conduct the transportation of 
 the army, while he himself went in a single galley to 
 visit the ruins of Troy, which city was the scene of 
 Homer's poems, which had so charmed Alexander in his 
 early years. So Alexander resolved that his first landing 
 in Asia should be at Troy. As they approached the 
 Asiatic shore, Alexander took the helm and steered the 
 galley himself, and just before he reached the land, he 
 stood upon the prow and threw a javelin at the shore as 
 he approached, as a sign of his purpose to take posses- 
 sion. He then leaped upon the land before any of his 
 crew, and afterwards offered sacrifices to the gods, having 
 erected altars on the shore to Jupiter, Minerva, and to 
 Hercules. 
 
 A large part of Asia Minor had been settled by the 
 Greeks, and sometimes these cities had been under Grecian 
 rule, and sometimes under Persian. They were now in- 
 cluded in the dominion of Persia. One of these cities, 
 called Lampsacus, had incurred the anger of the Greeks, 
 because it had formerly revolted from their rule. Alex- 
 ander determined to destroy this cit}'. The ambassador 
 sent by the city to implore his mercy was a famous histo- 
 rian, who had once been Alexander's teacher. Alexan- 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 85 
 
 der knowing his errand, and fearing his former friendship 
 might weaken liis resolve, declared with a solemn oath, 
 as the ambassador approached him, that he would not 
 grant the request he was about to make. The witty histo- 
 rian replied, — 
 
 " I have come to implore j^ou to destroy Lampsacus." 
 
 Alexander, pleased with the readiness of the reply, 
 kept his oath ; and of course the cit}' was saved. 
 
 In his progress onward, Alexander found himself 
 obliged to cross either Mount Ida, or a river which de- 
 scended from its slopes, called the Granicus. As they 
 neared the river, some of the Grecian scouts, or as they 
 were called by the Greeks, prodromi, reported that the 
 opposite side was lined with Persian troops, waiting to 
 dispute the passage. 
 
 Parmenio counselled Alexander against an immediate 
 crossing, but Alexander was unwilling to delay. Accord- 
 ingly, the army advanced to the banks in order of battle. 
 The centre portion of the Grecian troops was arranged in 
 a peculiar manner, and was called a phalanx. The men 
 composing it were heavil}^ armed. They bore a shield 
 upon the left arm, and they carried spears sixteen feet 
 long and pointed with iron, which they clasped firmly 
 with both hands, with the points projecting in front. 
 These men were placed in line, one behind another, to 
 the number of sixteen, all facing the enemy. So that a 
 phalanx contained sixteen thousand men. The spears 
 were so long, that when drawn up in close lines, the points 
 of eight or ten of the ranks projected in front, forming a 
 bristling wall of sharp points of steel. This wall no force 
 could penetrate ; men, horses, elephants, rushed upon it, 
 only to meet inevitable destruction. If their enemies 
 threw javelins from a distance, the shields upon their 
 
$6 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 arms were held in such a manner as to form a mass of 
 close scales of metal, upon which the javelins fell harm- 
 lessly. The troops upon the sides of the phalanx were 
 called the wings, and were composed of cavalry and foot- 
 soldiers, who were more lightly armed, and could there- 
 fore move with greater speed. 
 
 Alexander commanded one wing, and Parmenio the 
 other. The Persians had assembled in vast numbers 
 upon the opposite shore. The Grecian army, led by Alex- 
 ander, descended into the stream, and moved on through 
 the water. The Persians dashed down the farther banks, 
 and strove to oppose their landing. A terrible battle en- 
 sued, the soldiers grappling with each other in the midst 
 of the waves, and the Granicus ran red with the blood 
 of the wounded. Alexander was fearless and n-resistible, 
 and his long white plume, waving from his shining helmet, 
 was a conspicuous target for the arrows and javelins of 
 the enemy. At one time, meeting the foe in close com- 
 bat, a Persian horseman aimed a blow at his head with a 
 sword. The weapon took off the white plume, and cut 
 into the helmet of Alexander, wlio immediately stabbed 
 his antagonist through the heart. Just as a second Per- 
 sian had raised his sword to strike a fatal blow npon the 
 exposed head of the Grecian hero, a Macedonian general 
 cut the uplifted arm from the assailant's body, and saved 
 the life of Alexander the Great. The Persians were de- 
 feated, and Alexander landed his brave band of warriors 
 upon the opposite bank, while the terrified Persians fled 
 in dire confusion. 
 
 Darius himself had not commanded this Persian force, 
 and he employed all of the following winter in preparing 
 for a vigorous defence of his dominions from the en- 
 croachino- foe. 
 
ALEXANDEE THE GREAT. 87 
 
 Alexander, however, did not remain idle during the 
 winter. He marched from province to province, meeting 
 with many adventures. During this time Parmenio had 
 remained in the western part of Asia Minor, with quite a 
 large force. As the spring approached, Alexander or- 
 dered him to meet him at Gordium. One reason which 
 influenced Alexander in this plan was the desire to at- 
 tempt to untie the famous Gordian knot. The story of 
 the Gordian knot was this : — 
 
 Gordius was a sort of mountain farmer. One day he 
 was plowing, and an eagle flew down and alighted upon 
 his yoke, and remained there until he had finished his 
 plowing. This was an omen ; but Gordius did not know 
 what it meant. So he went to a neighboring town to con- 
 sult the prophets and soothsayers. On his way he met a 
 maiden who was going forth to draw water. Gordius fell 
 into conversation with her, and related to her the occur- 
 rence which had just transpired. The maiden advised 
 him to go back and offer a sacrifice to Jupiter. Finally 
 she consented to go back with him and aid him. The 
 affair ended in her becoming his wife, and they lived in 
 peace and happiness for many years upon their farm. 
 They had a son named Midas. The father and mother 
 were accustomed to go out in their wagon drawn by oxen, 
 with Midas as their driver. One day they were going into 
 the town in this manner, at a time when it happened that 
 there was an assembly convened, which was in a state of 
 great perplexity, on account of civil dissensions in the 
 country. They had just inquired of an oracle what they 
 should do. The oracle said that " a cart would bring 
 them a king who would terminate their eternal broils." 
 Just then Midas came up, driving the cart in which his 
 father and mother were seated. The assembly thought 
 
88 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 at once that this must be the cart meant by the oracle, 
 and they made Gordius king by acclamation. Tliey took 
 the cart and yoke to preserve as sacred rehcs, consecrating 
 them to Jupiter, and Gordius tied the yoke to the pole of 
 the cart by a thong of leather, making a knot so close 
 and complicated that nobod}' could untie it again. It 
 was called the Gordian knot. The oracle afterwards said 
 that whoever should untie this knot should become mon- 
 arch of all Asia. Thus far, nobody had succeeded. 
 
 Alexander was very desirous of examining this wonder- 
 ful knot and trying his own fortune. He accordingly 
 went into the temple where the sacred cart had been 
 placed, and after looking at the knot, he became con- 
 vinced that it could not be untied, whereupon he cut it to 
 pieces with his sword. 
 
 From this story comes the old saying, when any one 
 gets out of a difficulty by very violent means, "He has 
 cut the Gordian knot." 
 
 After leaving Gordium, Alexander proceeded with his 
 whole army against Darius, who was now advancing to 
 meet him. 
 
 On a very warm day, after a long and fatiguing march, 
 the Grecian army reached the river Cydnus, a small stream 
 which came down from Mount Taurus, near the city of 
 Tarsus. Alexander, warm and weary, plunged into the 
 cold mountain stream, and was taken with a violent chill, 
 and as he was lifted out of the water, he fainted away. 
 He was borne to his tent. A severe and protracted fever 
 came on. Alexander bewailed this enforced delay, and 
 summoned his physicians, to whom he said, — 
 
 " The present condition of my affairs will not admit 
 either of slow remedies or fearful physicians. A speedy 
 death is more eligible to me than a slow cure. In case 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 89 
 
 the physicians think it is in their power to do me an}^ 
 good, tliey are to know that I do not so much wish to 
 live as to fight." 
 
 All his physicians but one, however, were afraid to dare 
 any violent and hazardous remedies, especially as an un- 
 favorable result would endanger their honor ; for Darius 
 had published that he would reward with a thousand tal- 
 ents the man who should kill Alexander. 
 
 His old family physician, named Philip, who had at- 
 tended him from childhood, offered to give him a dose of 
 medicine which would be speedy in its effects, but desired 
 three days to prepare it. During this interval of waiting- 
 Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, who had been 
 left behind in Cappadocia, warning him against this phy- 
 sician Philip, and stating that Darius had bribed him by 
 promising a thousand talents, and his sister in marriage. 
 Alexander courageously refrained from divulging its con- 
 tents, and placed the letter under his pillow. 
 
 When Philip entered the tent with the medicine, Alex- 
 ander took the cup, and handing the letter at the same 
 time to the physician, he swallowed the dose without 
 waiting his perusal of it. After reading the letter, Philip 
 replied, — 
 
 "Royal sir, your recovery will soon clear me of the 
 guilt of murder, with which I am charged." 
 
 Three days after, Alexander showed himself to his 
 army, who were filled with delight at his wonderful recov- 
 ery ; and the accused plwsician was now the recipient of 
 the most lavish praises, and looked upon with the deep- 
 est reverence, because he had saved the life of their 
 sovereign. 
 
 Slowly Darius marched in stately grandeur to meet his 
 advancing enemy. A description of his martial proces- 
 
90 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 sion reads more like a picture of a grand tournament 
 than the march of an army. One of the historians thus 
 describes this gorgeous pageant : — 
 
 "The king advanced with his troops towards the Eu- 
 phrates. It was a custom long used by the Persians never 
 to set out upon a march till after sunrise, at which time 
 the trumpet was sounded for that purpose from the king's 
 tent. Over this tent was exhibited to the view of the 
 whole army the image of the sun set in crystal, as the 
 Persians were worshippers of the sun and fire. 
 
 "The order they observed in their march was as follows : 
 First, they carried silver altars, on which there was 
 fire, called by them sacred and eternal ; and these were 
 followed by the Magi, singing hymns after the manner of 
 their country. They were accompanied by three hundred 
 and sixty -five youths, corresponding to the number of 
 days in a year, clothed in purple robes. Afterwards came 
 a chariot consecrated to Jupiter, drawn by white horses, 
 and followed by a courser of a prodigious size, to whom 
 the}' gave the name of the sun's horse ; and the equerries 
 were dressed in white, each having a rod of gold in his 
 hand. 
 
 " Ten chariots, adorned with sculptures in gold and sil- 
 ver, followed after. Then marched a body of horse, 
 composed of twelve nations, whose manners and customs 
 were various, and all armed in a different stjle. Next 
 advanced those whom the Persians called the Immortals, 
 amounting to ten thousand, who surpassed the rest of the 
 barbarians in the sumptuousness of their apparel. They 
 all wore gold collars, were clothed in robes of gold tis- 
 sues, with surtouts completely covered with precious 
 stones. Then followed those called the king's relations, 
 to the number of fifteen thousand, in habits very much 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 91 
 
 resembling those worn by women, and more remarkable 
 for the vain pomp of their dress than the glitter of their 
 arms. Then came the king's guards ; they carried the 
 cloak of the monarch, and walked before his chariot, in 
 which he seemed to sit as on a high throne. This chariot 
 was enriched on both sides with imao-es of the orods in 
 gold and silver ; and from the middle of the yoke, which 
 was covered with jewels, rose two statues a cubit in 
 height, the one representing war, the other peace, having 
 a gold eagle between them, with wings extended, as 
 readv to take its flis^ht. 
 
 " But nothing could equal the magnificence of the king. 
 He was clothed in a vest of purple, striped with silver, 
 and over it a long robe glittering all over with gold and 
 precious stones, that represented two falcons rushing 
 from the clouds and pecking at one another. Around 
 his waist he wore a gold girdle, called cidaris, after the 
 manner of women, from which hung his scimitar, the 
 scabbard of which flamed all over with gems. On his 
 head he wore a tiara, or mitre, round which was a fillet of 
 blue mixed with white. On each side of him walked two 
 hundred of his nearest relations, followed by ten thousand 
 pikemen, whose pikes were adorned with silver and tipped 
 with gold ; and lastly, thirty thousand infantry, who com- 
 posed the rear-guard. These were followed by the king's 
 horses, four hundred in number, all of which were led. 
 
 "Then came the chariots of his wife Statira and his 
 mother Sysigambis, with the several female attendants 
 of both queens, riding on horseback. After them came 
 fifteen large chariots, in which were the king's children 
 and those who had the care of their education, escorted 
 by a band of household officers. Then followed three 
 hundred and sixty carriages, containing the ladies of the 
 court, dressed in the costumes of princesses. 
 
92 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 "After these marched six hundred mules and three 
 hundred camels, wliicli carried the king's treasure, and 
 were o-uarded by a great body of archers. After these 
 came other chariots, in which rode the wives of the crown 
 officers and of the greatest lords of the court ; then the 
 sutlers and servants of the army. In the rear were a 
 body of light-armed troops, with their commanders, who 
 closed the imposing procession." 
 
 Darius, at tlie head of six hundred thousand men, and 
 surrounded with this mighty pomp, considered himself 
 invincible, and imagined that he had only to show his 
 o-oro-eous armv to the few Grecian troops led by the boy 
 Alexander, in order to inspire such awe as should cause 
 them to tly in terror. 
 
 The two opposing forces came in sight of each other 
 upon a plain near the city of Issus. It was now evening. 
 At midnight the army of Alexander had reached a defile 
 in the chain of mountains called Mount Taurus. Among 
 these mountains there are various tracts of open country, 
 and upon one of these the army of Darius was encamped. 
 Alexander ascended one of the eminences from whence 
 he could look down upon the great plain beyond, which 
 was dimly illuminated by the smouldering fires of the 
 Persian encampment. Alexander there sacrificed by 
 torchlight to the gods of the Grecians, and returning to 
 his army, prepared for an early conflict. In the morning, 
 at break of day, Alexander began his march down to the 
 plain. The battle waged hotly all day, and at sunset all 
 the valleys and defiles around the plain of Issus wer^ 
 thronged with the vast masses of the Persian hosts, flying 
 in confusion from the victoi'ious Macedonians. The 
 flight of Darius had been so sudden that he had left his 
 wife and mother and children and nmch of his treasure 
 
DARIUS. 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 93 
 
 behind in the deserted camp. He pressed on in his 
 chariot as far as he could, and then mounted a horse and 
 fled for his life. Alexander and his army soon abandoned 
 the pursuit, and returned to take possession of the Persian 
 camp. The tents of King Darius were filled with gold 
 and silver vessels, caskets, boxes of rich perfumes, and 
 many articles of luxury. The greater part of his vast 
 treasures, however, he had previously sent to Damascus, 
 where the}^ were afterwards captured b}' Parmenio. So 
 that Alexander came into possession of all his splendid 
 tieasures, upon which he had so prided himself. Alex- 
 ander treated the captive wife, mother, and children of 
 Darius with great kindness, and gave them every atten- 
 tion he would have paid to honored guests. 
 
 Darius got together a small remnant of his army and 
 continued his flight. After he had crossed the Euphrates, 
 he sent an ambassador to Alexander to make propositions 
 for peace. He offered him any sum he desired as a ran- 
 som for his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to be- 
 come his ally and friend if he would deliver them up and 
 depart to his own dominions. Alexander replied by a 
 brief letter. He reminded him that the Persians had 
 been the first to invade Greece. "I am acting only on 
 the defensive," wrote Alexander. " The gods, who al- 
 ways favor the right, have given me the victory. I am 
 now monarch of a large part of Asia, and your sovereign 
 king. If you will admit this, and come to me as my sub- 
 ject, I will restore your wife, mother, and child without 
 an}"- ransom. And, at any rate, whatever you decide in 
 respect to these proposals, if you wish to communicate 
 with me on any subject hereafter, I shall pay no attention 
 to what you send unless you address it to me as your 
 king." 
 
94 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 As the vast army of the Persian king had now been 
 defeated, none of \he smaller kingdoms or provinces 
 thought of resisting. They yielded one after another, and 
 Alexander appointed governors of his own to rule over 
 them. He then advanced along the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, until he reached the city of Tyre. 
 
 The Tyrians wished to avoid a quarrel if possible, and 
 so sent complimentary congratulations to Alexander, pre- 
 sentino- him with a golden crown. Alexander replied 
 courteously, and stated that his reason for coming to 
 Tyre was to offer sacrifices to Hercules, a god whom the 
 Tyrians worshipped. The Tyrians, fearful of allowing 
 him to enter the city, sent him word that it would not be 
 in their power to receive him in the city, but that he could 
 offer the sacrifice on the site of ancient Tyre, as there 
 was a temple sacred to Hercules among the ruins there. 
 
 This answer displeased Alexander, and he now deter- 
 mined to build a broad causeway from the mainland to 
 the island upon which the present city of Tyre stood. 
 This causeway he would build out of the ruins of old 
 Tyre, and then march his army over it and take the new 
 city. His soldiers accordingly commenced this work. 
 But the Tyrians constantly harassed the workers ; now 
 attacking them with arrows and javelins ; then they took 
 a large galley and filled it with combustibles, and towing 
 it neir The enemy's works, they set fire to it ; and putting 
 it in motion towards the pier where there was the largest 
 collection of engines and machines, the vessel drifted 
 down upon Alexander's works, and notwithstanding the 
 most strenuous efforts of the Macedonians, the whole 
 mass was destroyed. Not long after this the sea itself 
 came to the aid of the Tyrians, and a fearful storm de- 
 stroyed the portions of the work which had escaped the 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 95 
 
 fire. Whereupon the Tyrians deridingly inquired, 
 " Whether Alexander was greater tlian Neptune, and 
 if they pretended to prevail over that God?" 
 
 But Alexander was not to be defeated by fire, or storm, 
 or the hostile Tyrians, and again ordered his men to 
 repair the pier. Meanwhile, Alexander himself collected 
 and equipped a fleet, and sailed into the Tyriau seas. 
 
 The fleet of galleys now protected the men at work on 
 the pier, and Alexander began to prepare for the final 
 assault. He proposed to force his entrance on the south- 
 ern side of the city, where there was a large breach in 
 the wall. 
 
 The plan was successful. He prepared a number of 
 ships, with platforms raised upon them in snch a manner 
 that on getting near the walls they could be letdown, and 
 form a sort of bridge, over which the men could pass to 
 the broken fragments of the wall, and thence ascend 
 through the breach above. 
 
 The ships advanced to the proposed place of landing. 
 The bridges were lowered, and before the Tyrians realized 
 their danger the city was filled with thirty thousand infu- 
 riated soldiers, who showed them no mercy. Thus the 
 city was stormed. 
 
 Alexander here displayed a brutal ferocity which tar- 
 nished the brightness of his victory. The inhabitants 
 v/ere put to the sword, some were executed, some thrown 
 into the sea ; and it is said that two thousand were cruci- 
 fied along the seashore. 
 
 Prosperity and power were beginning to exert a bane- 
 ful influence upon the character of Alexander. He be- 
 came naughty, imperious, and cruel. About this time 
 Darius sent him a second communication, proposing terms 
 of peace. Darius offered him a large sum of money for 
 
96 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 the ransom of his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to 
 give him all the country he had conquered. He also 
 offered him his daughter Statira in marriage. He recom- 
 mended that he should be content with his conquests, and 
 added that he could not hope to succeed in crossmg the 
 mighty rivers of the East, which were in the way of his 
 ma'i'ch toward the Persian dominions. 
 
 Alexander replied - that if he wished to marry the 
 dau-hter of Darius, he could do it without his consent ; 
 as to ransom, he was not in want of money ; and as to 
 the offer of Darius to give him all the territory west of 
 the Euphrates, it was absurd for a man to speak of giving 
 what was no longer his own ; that he had crossed too 
 manv seas in his military expeditions, since he left Mace- 
 don,^o feel any concern about the rivers that he might 
 find in his wav ; and that he should continue to pursue 
 Darius wherever he might retreat in search of safety and 
 protection, and he had no fear but that he should find 
 and conquer him at last." 
 
 The siege and storming of Tyre has been considered 
 one of the greatest of Alexander's exploits. 
 
 After the subjugation of Tyre, Alexander commenced 
 his march for Egypt. His route led him through Judea. 
 This was about three hundred years before the birth of 
 Christ. A Jewish writer, named Josephus, who lived and 
 wrote a few years after Christ, relates the circumstances 
 of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem. 
 
 When Alexander had been besieging Tyre, he had sent 
 to Judea for supplies, which were refused, as the Jews 
 were subjects of Darius. Hearing that Alexander was 
 about to pass through Jerusalem, they began to fear a 
 fate like that of Tyre. Accordingly the high priest Jad- 
 dus, who was the chief magistrate at Jerusalem, caused 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 97 
 
 great sacrifices to be offered to Almighty God, and public 
 and solemn prayers were made, to implore his guidance 
 and protection. 
 
 The day after these services he told the people that 
 they need fear nothing ; for God had appeared to him in 
 a dream, and directed him what to do. " We are not to 
 resist the conqueror," said he, '4)ut go forth to meet him 
 and welcome him. We are to strew the city with flowers, 
 and adorn it as for a festive celebration. The priests are 
 to be dressed in their pontifical robes, and lead the pro- 
 cession, and the people are to follow. In this way we are 
 to go out to meet Alexander as he advances, and all will 
 be well." 
 
 When Alexander met this procession he stopped, and 
 appeared both pleased and surprised. He advanced to 
 meet the high priest with an air of the profoundest rev- 
 erence. 
 
 Parmenio, astonished at such a sudden change in his 
 sovereign, asked for an explanation. To which Alexan- 
 der replied, — 
 
 "When I was in Macedon, before setting out on this 
 expedition, one night I had a remarkable dream. In my 
 dream this very priest appeared before me, dressed just 
 as he is now. He exhorted me to banish every fear, to 
 cross the Hellespont boldly, and to push forward into the 
 heart of Asia. He said that God would march at the 
 head of my army, and give me the victor}- over the Per- 
 sians. I recognize this priest as the same person who 
 appeared to me then. It is through his encouragement 
 and aid that I am here, and I am ready to worship and 
 adore the God whose service he administers." 
 
 Alexander then joined the high priest in the procession, 
 and returned with him to Jerusalem. The high priest 
 
98 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 afterwards read and interpreted to Alexander some of the 
 prophecies of Daniel, which were supposed to refer to that 
 conqueror ; and Alexander then assured the Jews that 
 they should be protected in their rights, and especially in 
 their religious worship. 
 
 Alexander next proceeded to the city of Gaza. This 
 was a place of considerable importance, and was under 
 command of a governor, named Betis, whom Darius had 
 appointed. This Betis refused to surrender the place to 
 Alexander; whereupon, he besieged it for two months. 
 Having captured the city, Alexander treated the wretched 
 captives with extreme cruelty. He cut the garrison to 
 pieces, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. Tlien be- 
 coming still more brutal, his punishment of Betis was 
 most shocking. He ordered him into his presence, and 
 said to him, '' You are not going to die the simple 
 death that you desire. You must suffer the worst tor- 
 ments that revenge can invent." 
 
 Betis calmly looked at Alexander, without reply. This 
 still more incensed the cruel conqueror. 
 
 "Observe his dumb arrogance," said Alexander ; " but 
 I will conquer him. I will show him that I can draw 
 groans from him, if nothing else." 
 
 He then ordered holes to be made throu2:h the heels of 
 his helpless victim ; and passing a rope through the 
 wounds, commanded the body to be fastened to a chariot, 
 and dragged about the city until the poor captive was 
 dead. Thus had prosperity and conquest degraded the 
 character of Alexander. 
 
 Having destroyed Gaza, with such inhuman brutalit}', 
 Alexander now formed a more ambitious project. The 
 heroes of Homer were represented as sons of the gods ; 1 
 and Alexander now began to aspire to supernatural hon- 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 99 
 
 ors, and accordingly resolved that he should be declared 
 to be the son of a god. He determined to visit the temple 
 of Jupiter Ammon, in the Oasis of Sivvah, and bribe the 
 priests there to declare his divine origin. 
 
 The priests at the great temple of Jupiter Ammon 
 received Alexander with marks of distinction and honor. 
 After most solemn and magnificent ceremcoiies, the priests, 
 pretending to confer with the god in the temple, declared 
 that Alexander was indeed his son ; and accordingly they 
 paid him almost divine honors. Alexander, in his subse- 
 quent orders and decrees, styled himself Alexander king, 
 son of Jupiter Ammon. 
 
 On his return from the Oasis, Alexander began build- 
 ing a city at the month of the river Nile. This city he 
 called Alexandria. This city is the only monument of his 
 greatness which still remains. Upon an island near the 
 coast, opposite the city of Alexandria, a magnificent light- 
 house was erected, which was considered in those days 
 one of the Seven Wonders of the world. It was said to 
 have been five hundred feet high. 
 
 The building of the city of Alexandria was one of the 
 most beneficent acts of Alexander. How much better for 
 the world, as well as for his own true glory, if good deeds 
 had been the rule instead of the exception in the life of 
 this famous man ! 
 
 Alexander was now master of Asia Minor, Phoenicia, 
 Judea, and Egypt. He now continued his pursuit of 
 Darius. 
 
 The Persian army had crossed the Tigris river, and 
 encamped upon the extensive plain of Arbela. Here 
 Darius waited the approach of his relentless foe. 
 
 The night before the noted battle between Alexander 
 and Darius, the conqueror, who had come within sight of 
 
100 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 the Persian host, having completed his arrangements for 
 the morrow's conflict, retired to rest. Early in the morn- 
 ing Parmenio awoke him, and expressed surprise at his 
 sleeping so quietl}' when such vast issues were at stake. 
 " You seem as calm," said he, " as if you had fought the 
 battle and gained the victory." 
 
 " I have done* so," replied Alexander ; " I consider the 
 whole work done, when we have gained access to Darius, 
 and forced him to give us battle." 
 
 Alexander is thus described as he appeared at the head 
 of the army on this important occasion. " He wore a 
 short tunic, girt close around him, and over it a linen 
 breastplate, strongl}' quilted. The belt by which the 
 tunic was held was embossed with figures of beautiful 
 workmanship. Upon his head was a helmet of polished 
 steel, surmounted with a white plume. He wore also a 
 neck-piece of steel, ornamented with precious stones ; he 
 carried a shield, lance, and sword." 
 
 The Persians employed elephants in their wars. They 
 also had chariots, armed with long scythes. But the terri- 
 ble Macedonian phalanx, with columns of infantry and 
 flying troops of horsemen on either side, cut through the 
 mighty mass of their enemies with irresistible force. The 
 elephants turned and fled. The Persian troops were 
 routed, and Darius himself was obliged to flee. Alex- 
 ander went to Babylon, where he was received as a con- 
 queror. The storehouse of the Persian treasures were at 
 Susa, a strong city east of Babylon. Alexander then 
 marched to Susa, and took possession of the vast treas- 
 ures collected there. Besides these treasures, Alexander 
 here found a number of trophies which had been brought 
 from Greece by Xerxes, some hundred j^ears before. Alex- 
 ander sent them all back to Greece. He then proceeded 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 101 
 
 in a triumphal march to Persepolis, the great Persian capi- 
 tal. Here Alexander exhibited another striking instance 
 of wicked weakness. He was giving a great banquet to his 
 officers. Among the women at this feast was a vain and 
 foolish woman named Thais. While the guests were half 
 intoxicated from the effects of wine, this Thais, seizing a 
 burning torch and waving it above her head, proposed 
 that they should set fire to the great palace of Persepolis, 
 which had been built by Xerxes, and amuse themselves 
 by watching the imposing conflagration. Alexander, 
 flushed with wine, consented ; and the drunken guests 
 sallied forth, alarming the inhabitants with their boister- 
 ous shouts and flaming torches. Arriving at the magni- 
 ficent palace, they applied their torches, and the gorgeous 
 structure was soon a frightful mass of lurid flames. Alex- 
 ander, sobered b}^ the sublime and awful spectacle, re- 
 pented of his wild folly. He ordered the fire to be 
 extinguished ; but it was too late ; the infamous deed 
 was done ; the grand old palace was a hopeless mass of 
 ruins, and another blot, which never can be effaced, tar- 
 nished the fame and character of Alexander. 
 
 Notwithstanding Alexander's evil deeds, he was kind 
 to his mother. He sent her rich presents after his con- 
 quests ; and though she was proud and imperious, and 
 made Antipater, whom Alexander had left in command 
 in Macedon, much trouble, so that Antipater was forced 
 to complain of her, Alexander said that a single tear of 
 his mother's would outweigh ten thousand accusations 
 against her. Olympias, however, did not repay his devo- 
 tion with equal nobleness ; she wrote frequent letters to 
 him full of petty fault-finding, and making unkind com- 
 ments upon his officers and generals ; and thougli Alex- 
 ander showed her respect, he evinced more love towards 
 
102 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 the mother of Darius, treating her and the captive children 
 of his foe with the greatest kindness and consideration. 
 After the battle of Arbela, while Alexander marched to 
 Babylon and Susa, Darius had fled to Ecbatana. He was 
 thus in one of the Persian royal palaces, while his family 
 were with his conqueror at another. The wife of Darius 
 had died before this time, while still a captive in the Gre- 
 cian camp. Many of the forces of Darius had gone over 
 to Alexander's side, about forty thousand remaining 
 faithful to him. But among these seeming friends were 
 treacherous foes. A general, names Bessus, formed the 
 plan of seizing Darius, and making him a prisoner, and 
 then taking the command of the army himself. If Alex- 
 ander should be likely to conquer him, he would then try 
 to save himself by giving up Darius. If, on the other 
 hand, their forces should be successful, he would then get 
 Darius out of his way by assassinating him, and usurping 
 the throne. Bessus communicated his plans to many of 
 the chief officers, who agreed to become parties in the 
 plot. The Grecian soldiers in the Persian army revealed 
 this conspiracy to Darius, but he would not believe in the 
 treachery of his countrymen. As Alexander advanced, 
 Darius had retreated from Ecbatana, and Alexander 
 followed him. While halting for rest, a Persian noble- 
 man came into the Macedonian camp, and informed Alex- 
 ander that the enemies' forces were two days' march in 
 advance. Bessus was in command, and Darius deposed, 
 the plot having been successfully carried out. Alexander 
 immediately set forward in pursuit of Bessus and his 
 royal prisoner. Alexander had now been two years ad- 
 vancing from Macedon into the heart of Asia, in pursuit 
 of Darius. His conquest would not be complete until 
 that monarch was captured. As soon as Bessus and the 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 103 
 
 Persian army found that Alexander was close upon them, 
 they attempted to hurry forward in the hope of escaping. 
 Darius was in a chariot. The}' urged this chariot on, but 
 it was too cumbersome for rapid flight. Bessus and his 
 chief conspirators then called upon Darius to mount a 
 horse and escape with them, leaving the rest of the army 
 to its fate. Darius refused. Having become convinced 
 of their treacher}', he said he would rather trust himself 
 in the hands of Alexander than to such traitors as they. 
 Bessus and his confederates, exasperated by this reply, 
 thrust their spears into Darius' bod}^ as he sat in the 
 chariot, and galloped away. Darius remained in his 
 chariot, wounded and bleeding. His many sorrows had 
 at last overwhelmed him. His kingdom was lost ; his 
 beloved wife was in the grave ; his family were in captiv- 
 ity ; his cities were sacked ; his palaces and treasures 
 plundered ; and now, betrayed and abandoned, he was 
 dying, slain by his treacherous countrymen, whom he 
 had trusted as his friends. Alone, deserted by all the 
 world, he, the once mighty monarch of vast dominions, 
 now lay there, faint and bleeding, waiting the coming of 
 death or his victorious conqueror. 
 
 The Macedonians at last discovered the chariot in 
 which Darius was lying pierced with spears. The floor 
 of the chariot was covered with blood. They raised him 
 a little, and he spoke ; he called for water. A Macedo- 
 nian soldier went to get some ; others hurried to find Alex- 
 ander, and bring him to the spot where his long-pursued 
 enem}' was dying. When the soldier returned with the 
 water, Darius received the drink, and then said to those 
 about him, " That he charged them to tell Alexander that 
 he died in his debt, though he had never obliged him ; 
 that he gave him a multitude of thanks for the great 
 
104 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 humanity he had exercised towards his wife, mother, and 
 his children, whose lives he had not only spared, but treated 
 them with the greatest consideration and care, and had 
 endeavored to make them happy ; that he besought the 
 gods to give victory to his arms, and make him monarch 
 of the universe ; that he thought it was not necessary to 
 entreat him to revenge his murder, as this was the com- 
 mon cause of kings." Then taking Polystratus, one of 
 the Macedonians who had brought him the desired w\ater 
 to relieve his agonizing thirst, he continued, "Give Alex- 
 ander thy hand, as I give thee mine, and carry him in my 
 name the only pledge I am able to offer, — of my grati- 
 tude and affection." Saying these words, Darius breathed 
 his last. 
 
 Alexander, coming up a moment after, was shocked at 
 the spectacle before him, and wept bitterly. He then 
 spread his own military cloak over tlie dead monarch. 
 Having ordered the body to be embalmed, it was then 
 enclosed in a costly coffin, and sent to Sysigambis, the 
 mother of Darius, in order that it might be buried with 
 the ceremonies usually paid to Persian monarchs, and be 
 entombed with his ancestors. 
 
 The Persian generals under Bessus now resolved to 
 betra}' him, as he had betrayed his master. They sent 
 word to Alexander that they would deliver him into his 
 hands if he w^ould send a small force to the place where 
 they designated. Accordingly this command was en- 
 trusted to a Macedonian officer named Ptolemy, who 
 found Bessus in a small walled town, to which he had 
 fled for refuge. 
 
 When Bessus was brought to Alexander, that monarch 
 ordered the prisoner to be publicly scourged, and then 
 caused his face to be mutilated in a manner customary in 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 105 
 
 those days when a criminal was condemned to be stamped 
 with a perpetual mark of infamy. Alexander then sent 
 the traitor as a second present to Sysigambis, to be dealt 
 with as her revenge for the death of Darius might dictate. 
 After being terribly tortured, the miserable Bessus paid 
 the last penalty of his crimes by a most shocking death, 
 inflicted upon him by Sysigambis, to avenge her m^'urdered 
 
 son. 
 
 Alexander was now twenty-six years of age. He was 
 now the undisputed master of all western Asia. His 
 wealth was boundless, his power was supreme, but his 
 character was fearfully- demoralized. He lived in the 
 palaces of the Persian kings, and gave himself up to all 
 sorts of vices. He spent his time in drunken debauch- 
 eries. The strong sentiment of love and respect .with 
 which he had formerly inspired all around him was gone, 
 and conspiracies and treason prevailed. When the sus- 
 picions of Alexander were aroused, he put to death some 
 of his most trusted officers. 
 
 At last there was a conspiracy, in which Philotas, the 
 son of the faithful Parmenio, was imi)licated. Being 
 arrested and put to the torture, Philotas accused his 
 father, in the hopes of saving himself. Though there was 
 no evidence against that trusty general, Alexander caused 
 them both to be put to death. 
 
 The death of Parmenio and his son, in this violent 
 manner, raised much unfavorable feeling against Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Another case exemplifies the wicked deeds of Alex- 
 ander when under the influence of wine, and puffed up 
 with vain-glorious pride. 
 
 One of his oldest and most faithful generals, named 
 Clitus, was present at one of the frequent banquets given 
 
106 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 by Alexander. That monarch, excited with wine, had 
 been boastfully recounting his own exploits, and had 
 spoken disparagingly of those of his father Philip in com- 
 parison. Clitus, also heated witli wine, began to praise 
 Philip, under whom he had fought; and then growing 
 bolder, he upbraided Alexander for the death of Par- 
 menio. Alexander, frenzied with wine and rage, seized 
 a javelin, hurled it at Clitus, and struck him down, saying, 
 " Go then, and join Philip and Parmenio." Alexander, 
 as soon as he came to himself, was overwhelmed with 
 remorse and shame. He could not, however, restore Cli- 
 tus to life, or remove the disgrace from his own name. 
 
 Alexander continued for two or three years his expedi- 
 tions and conquests in Asia. He penetrated into India as 
 far as the banks of the Indus. But liis soldiers refused to 
 go further. He made an address to his army, but he 
 could not change their decision. At last one of his officers 
 said to him : — 
 
 " We have done all for you that it was possible for man 
 
 to do. We have crossed seas and land. We have marched 
 
 to the end of the world, and you are now meditating the 
 
 conquest of another, by going in search of new Indias, 
 
 unknown to the Indians themselves. Such a thought may 
 
 be worthy of your courage and resolution, but it surpasses 
 
 ours, and our strength still more. Look at tiiese ghastly 
 
 faces, and these bodies covered with wounds and scars. 
 
 Remember liow numerous we were when first we set out 
 
 with you, and see how few of us remain. The few who 
 
 have escaped so many toils and dangers have neither 
 
 courage nor strength to follow you any further. They all 
 
 long to revisit their country and their homes, and to enjoy 
 
 for the remainder of their lives the fruits of all their toils. 
 
 Forsive them these desires so natural to man." 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 107 
 
 Alexander was bitterly disappointed, but found himself 
 obliged to relinquish further conquest. He returned to 
 Babylon, where his triumphal entrance was a scene of 
 magnificence and gorgeous splendor. 
 
 But his life soon evinced the hopeless degradation into 
 which he had fallen. He not only indulged in vice him- 
 self, but encouraged others to follow his evil example. 
 He would offer prizes at his banquets to those who would 
 drink the most, thus causing forty deaths at one of his 
 entertainments. 
 
 Alexander now entered upon a life of the most effemi- 
 nate luxury and profligate dissipation. He separated 
 himself more and more from his old Macedonian friends, 
 and delighted in Persian associates. He married Statira, 
 the eldest daughter of Darius, and gave the youngest 
 daughter to his particular friend Hephsestion, who was 
 his chosen companion in all his drunken revels. 
 
 Alexander's habits of intoxication and vice rapidly in- 
 creased. On one occasion, after he had spent a whole 
 night in drinking and carousing, some of the guests pro- 
 posed that they should begin a second banquet instead 
 of retirino;. 
 
 Alexander half intoxicated, agreed. There were twenty 
 present at this new feast. Alexander, to show how much 
 he was able to drink, pledged each one separately, and 
 then all together. 
 
 There was a very large cup, called the bowl of Her- 
 cules, which he now called for, and having filled it to the 
 brim, he drank it off, and again filled the huge bowl, and 
 again drank the entire contents. His strength soon failed 
 him, and he sank to the floor. 
 
 They bore him away to his apartments. A violent fever 
 followed this terrible debauch, which his physicians in 
 
108 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 vain tried to allay. At last, finding he must die, he drew 
 his signet ring off from his finger ; this was the token that 
 he felt all was over. He handed the ring to one of his 
 friends, saying, " When I am gone, take my body to the 
 temple of Jupiter Ammon, and inter it there." 
 
 Being asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied : 
 "To the most worthy." Thus died Alexander the Great, 
 at the age of thirty- two. 
 
 Preparations were now made to convey his body with 
 royal pomp to its last resting-place, in accordance with 
 
 his orders. 
 
 A very large and magnificent funeral carriage was built. 
 "The spokes of the wheels were overlaid with gold, and the 
 axles were adorned upon the outside with massive golden 
 ornaments. The platform, or floor, of the carriage was 
 eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide. Upon this there 
 was erected a magnificent pavilion, supported by Ionic 
 columns, profusely ornamented, both within and without, 
 witli purple and gold. The interior of the pavilion was 
 resplendent with gems and precious stones. 
 
 "A throne was raised in the centre of the platform, 
 richly carved and gilded. It was empty ; but the crowns 
 of the various nations over which Alexander had ruled 
 were hung upon it. At the foot of the throne was the 
 coflfin, made of soUd gold, containing the remains of the 
 great conqueror. The arms of Alexander were placed 
 between the throne and the coflfin. 
 
 " On the four sides of the carriage were sculptured fig- 
 ures representing Alexander. There were Macedonian 
 soldiers, Persian squadrons, elephants of India, troops of 
 horse, and various other emblems of the departed hero's 
 conquests, sculptured upon this magnificent funeral car- 
 riage. Around the pavilion was a network of golden lace, 
 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 109 
 
 to which bells were attached, which tolled mournfully as 
 the carriage moved slowl}' along. Sixt3'-four mules, se- 
 lected for their great size, drew this ponderous car. Their 
 harness was mounted with gold and enriched with precious 
 stones." 
 
 Notwithstanding all this gorgeous pomp, the body of 
 Alexander nev^er reached its first destination. Ptolemy, 
 the officer, to whom Egypt was given in the division of 
 Alexander's empire, came forth to meet this solemn pro- 
 cession, and preferring that the body of Alexander should 
 be buried in the city of Alexandria, it was interred there, 
 and an imposing monument was erected over his grave. 
 This monument is said to have remained standins: for fif- 
 teen hundred years, though no remains of it are to be 
 found. 
 
 The most fitting comment upon the life and character 
 of Alexander the Great will be found in these brief words 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte, who said of Alexander: "He 
 commenced bis career with the mind of Trajan, but closed 
 it with the heart of Nero and the morals of Heliogabalus." 
 
no JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 100-44 B.C. 
 
 " Tlie elements 
 So mix'd in liim, that Nature might stand up 
 And say to all the world, This was a man ! " 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 THERE was wild tumult in the ancient city of Rome. 
 Tlie populace thronged the streets, carrying stones 
 and bludgeons. Armed troops hurried hither and thither. 
 The members of the Senate, a sort of House of Lords, 
 were assembled in confusion ; and their blanched faces 
 denoted the terror which rendered them powerless to help. 
 Several of the principal citizens had been murdered, and 
 the other Roman lords, or patricians, knew not how soon 
 their doom might come. But who was their terrible foe? 
 Had some wild barbarian horde invaded their land and 
 taken possession of their proud and magnificent city? 
 Why did the nobles and men of rank tremble ; and why 
 were the common people roused to this wild outburst of 
 fury ? 
 
 It was no barbarian enemj', but civil discord amongst 
 themselves, which thus filled the streets with murderers 
 and the patricians with terror. Two powerful rivals were 
 fighting for the possession of the Eternal City, which, at 
 that time, was mistress of the world. 
 
 Marius, the plebian, or champion of the common peo- 
 ple, had roused the populace to fight against Sylla, the 
 patrician, who had been absent with his army in Ital3\ 
 
-^, 
 
 A^- 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 ^c^ 
 
 j)(u][Loyi ©^i^[^n 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. Ill 
 
 SjHla had been appointed by the Senate to command the 
 iorces which were to wage war with Mithridates, a 
 powerful Asiatic monarch. But during his absence, his 
 enemy, Marius, had contrived to have this appointment 
 revoked, and to gain for himself this coveted command. 
 Two officers, called tribunes, were sent to Sylla's camp, 
 to inform him of this advantage which his rival had gained 
 over him. Sylla killed the two officers for daring to 
 bring him such a message, and immediately marched 
 towards Rome. 
 
 Marius, in retaliation, caused some of Sylla's friends in 
 the city to be put to death, and with his bands of soldiers 
 endeavored to resist the entrance of Sylla and his army 
 ])y throwing stones upon the troops from the roofs of the 
 houses as the}' entered the city. Sylla then ordered every 
 house to be set on fire, from which missiles had been 
 thrown, and thus the helpless citizens were endangered 
 by lawless and infuriated mobs on the one side, and re- 
 lentless flames on the other. Marius was conquered, and 
 obliged to flee for his life. He was an old man of seventy 
 years of age. The Senate declared him a public enemy, 
 and ofl^ered a large sum for his head. Alone and friend- 
 less, Marius wandered from place to place, enduring the 
 greatest privations, and encountering many dangers, till 
 at last he crossed the Mediterranean Sea, and took refuge 
 in a poor hut among the ruins of ancient Carthage. 
 Surely it would seem that his days of conquest were 
 over. Alone, starving, helpless, old, and banished, with 
 a heavy price set upon his head, his fortunes seemed 
 indeed hopeless. 
 
 Leaving this fallen champion in his hut, amidst the 
 ruins of a past power which could only remind him of 
 his own hopeless prospects, we must return to the city 
 of Rome, and look upon another scene. 
 
112 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 A religions procession is wending its way through the 
 famous Forum. This Forum was a magnificent square, 
 surrounded by splendid edifices and adorned with sculp- 
 tures and statues and many gorgeous trophies of past 
 victories. There were vast colonnades forming covered 
 porticoes, where the populace assembled and where courts 
 of justice were held. This Forum was constantly embel- 
 lished with new monuments, temples, statues, arches, and 
 columns by the successful generals, as they returned in 
 triumpli from foreign campaigns. Here the various ora- 
 tors delivered their famous orations which inflamed the 
 people to arms, or moved them to wild outbursts of en- 
 thusiastic applause in favor of some successful candidate, 
 or calmed their boisterous tumult into silent and breath- 
 less attention to the impassioned and eloquent words 
 which fell from the lii)S of these intellectual monarchs 
 over the minds of their less gifted countrymen. It is night 
 now in this great public square, and as the procession of 
 priests and attendants slowly pass beneath a row of 
 majestic colonnades and enter one of the temples, we 
 note the face and figure of the foremost one. He is 
 scarcely more than a boy, but he wears the purple robe 
 called Imna, and a conical mitre known as the apex, which 
 mark his distinguished rank as holding the office of Fla- 
 men Dialis, or High Priest of Jupiter. This youth, 
 seventeen years of age, is tall and fair, and though slen- 
 der in form, is handsome and noble in bearing. He is 
 descended from patrician families of high rank and proud 
 position ; and as he passes within the portal of the sacred 
 temple, the beholder would involuntarily cast upon him 
 an admiring glance, and if a stranger, would surely inquire 
 who was this comely, noble youth who so early in life was 
 distinguished by so high an office and royal bearing. 
 
JULIUS CAESAR. 113 
 
 Again we enter the Forum, but it is now high noon. A 
 noted orator has ascended the pulpit, where public speak- 
 ers were accustomed to stand when addressing the assem- 
 blies. This pulpit was ornamented with brazen beaks of 
 ships, which had been taken by the Romans in their many 
 wars. Such a beak was named a rostrum, and the pulpit 
 so adorned was called the Rostra^ or the Beaks, — often 
 termed in modern books a rostium. As the orator of 
 the day began to speak, a youth might have been seen 
 pressing through the crowd, and listening with wrapt at- 
 tention to the eloquent words which fell from the speaker's 
 lips. As the burst of impassioned appeal became more 
 persuasive, the dark eyes of the youth flashed with re- 
 sponsive fire, and his cheek glowed with a flush of kind- 
 ling enthusiasm. Though he wears now the robes of a 
 Roman patrician, we recognize him as the same person 
 whom we beheld at midnight entering the temple in the 
 attire of a High Priest of Jupiter. 
 
 Again the scene changes to midnight, but it is not in 
 the Roman Forum, but at a grand feast in one of the 
 sumptuous palaces of a Roman lord. Amidst a party of 
 gay and joyous 3'oung men, seemingly intent only upon 
 luxurious pleasures, we see once more the face and figure 
 of this same youth who has already so attracted our inter- 
 est and admiration. Priest, student, devotee of pleasure, 
 little did his companions or acquaintances imagine that this 
 young Julius Caesar, patrician born, but at the same time 
 personally inclined towards the plebeian party, would be- 
 come Julius Caesar, future Master of Rome, and therefore 
 ruler of nearly all of the then known world. This Julius 
 Caesar became the greatest hero of Roman history, and 
 ranks as one of the three heroes of ancient days, — Alex- 
 ander of the Greeks, Hannibal of the Carthaginians, and 
 Julius Caesar of the Romans, forming the famous trio. 
 
114 JjrLIlJS CyESAR. 
 
 Again we must return to the old exile among the ruins 
 of Carthage. One day he is awakened from his hopeless 
 despoudenc}' by wild rumors from Rome. His rival and 
 enemy, Sylla, had equipped a fleet and sailed away to 
 wage war wath Mithridates. The friends of Marius now 
 i-ally again, and the old exile is brought back from Africa 
 in triumph and given the command of a large arm3\ As 
 he pretended to be the friend of the common people, they 
 flocked to his standard. Vast multitudes of revolted 
 slaves, outlaws, and desperadoes joined his forces, Avhich 
 now advanced toward Rome. As soon as Marius oained 
 possession of the city, he began a dreadful work of mur- 
 der and destruction. He beheaded one of the consuls, 
 and ordered his head to be set up as a spectacle of horror 
 in the public square. Blood ran like a red river in the 
 streets of Rome. Patricians of the highest rank and 
 station were everywhere seized without warning, without 
 trial, and put to torture and death. 
 
 It is midnight in the great city, and under cover of the 
 darkness, the evil deeds of blood-thirsty men, fired ])y 
 hatred and lawless ambition, are renewed with fresh 
 ferocity. 
 
 Against his bitterest enemies Marius contrived special 
 modes of execution, in order to wreak upon them his 
 insatiable revenge for his exile, and consequent suiferings 
 and privations. 
 
 See ! a party of men, composed of soldiers, and an en- 
 furiated mob of people are dragging a lord of noble rank 
 up to the top of a high rock, known as the Tarpeian 
 Rock, from the summit of which state criminals were 
 hurled down the precipice, upon sharj:) rocks below, where 
 they were left to die in awful torture. This patrician, or 
 Roman noble, had incurred the especial animosity of 
 
JULIUS C^JSA H. 
 
 115 
 
 Marias, and so hy his orders, the proud okl man is torn 
 from family and friends; and without trial, with the 
 senate i)owerless to help, he is dragged here at midnight 
 to suirer the ignominious and terrible death of a state 
 criminal. This noted Tari)eian Rock still stands in 
 Rome, and it received its name from this ancient storv. 
 In early times there was a Roman girl, named Tarpeia, 
 living in the ancient city, when it was besieged by an 
 army from a neighboring country. The soldiers of the 
 besieging forces wore golden bracelets upon their arms, 
 as well as shields ; and upon demanding that Tarpeia 
 should open the gates to them, she declared that if they 
 would give her, " those things they wore upon their arms,'' 
 she would comply with their demands. She meant, of 
 course, tlieir bracelets ; but not knowing the word' Ijy 
 which they were designated, she brought upon herself 
 a fearful doom. The soldiers agreed to grant her desire, 
 and so she opened to them the gates. As they passed 
 within, they threw their shields upon the poor girl, in 
 proud derision, instead of giving her the coveted^race- 
 lets, exclaiming, '^ Here are the things we wear upon our 
 arms." Tarpeia was crushed to death beneath the 
 weight of the ponderous shields ; and so the spot where 
 she fell became a rock of blood, and was ever afterwards 
 called, in remembrance of her sad fate, the Tarpeian 
 Rock. There is a fuither legend connected with this spot, 
 for some of the ignorant people believe that in the interior 
 of one of the many caverns, which have been found per- 
 forating this rock, Tarpeia still sits, enchanted, covered 
 with gold and jewels. But should any one attempt to 
 find her, he is fated to lose his way, and never to return 
 from his reckless adventure. But the ])loodv triumph of 
 Marius was of short duration. He was seized with a 
 
II g JULIUS CuESAR. 
 
 fatal sickness, and the cruel tyrant was obliged to meet 
 an enemv he could not conquer. Deatli meted out to hnn 
 some of the horrible torments he had inflicted upon others, 
 as he died in delirious ravings, haunted by the presence 
 of phantom foes. His son Marius assumed liis fatlier's 
 power ; but Sylla, having returned from the Asiatic wars, 
 and in his turn taking possession of the city of Rome, 
 the followers of Marius were put to death with the same 
 ferocity with which they had murdered others, and Sylla 
 even exceeded the bloody deeds which had so brutally 
 been performed by his hated rival. Thus the city of 
 Rome was again plunged into wild confusion, and the 
 scenes of murder and massacre, with all their shocking 
 horrors, were re -en acted. 
 
 It is at this time that the young Julius Caesar first 
 becomes a prominent figure in that bloody drama. Al- 
 thoucrh Julius Csesar was a patrician by birth, he was 
 favorable to the plebian party. The elder Marius had 
 married his aunt, and Citsar himself had married a 
 daughter of Cinna, who was four times consul, and was 
 a powerful and ardent partisan of the party of Marius. 
 Julius Caisar, although at this time a very young man, 
 was too prominent a person to be overlooked by Sylla, 
 in his vengeance against the plebian party. The friends 
 of Julius C*sar tried to plead his youth with Sylla, 
 saying that surely such a mere boy could do no harm. 
 But Svlla had marked the aspiring spirit of the young 
 nobleman, who with all his love of gayety and pleasure 
 had not neglected his studies, and who was already gam- 
 ing the dangerous reputation of an eloquent orator. Sylla 
 now demanded that Julius Caesar should divorce his wife 
 Corneha, the daughter of Cinna. Caesar absolutely re- 
 fused, partly from devotion to his wife, and partly from 
 
JULIUS C/ESAR. 
 (From Photograph of Bust in Capitol Rome.) 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. jjy 
 
 .1 proud indomitable spirit, which thus early was a promi 
 nent trait in his character, and which made him brave 
 any danger rather than allow himself to be controlled 
 Knowing that punishment for his refusal to comply with 
 the commands of Sylla would be destruction, Ca3sar fled 
 from Rome. Sylla deprived him of his rank and titles 
 confiscated the property of his wife and his own estates' 
 and placed his name on the list of public enemies. 
 
 Cffisar was now a fugitive and exile. He was also 
 suffering from intermittent fever, and was obliged to Jeek 
 some new place of refuge each day, as a price was set 
 upon his head. He was at one time seized by a cen- 
 turion, but Caesar offered him a bribe sufficient to secure 
 his release. After various adventures, he wandered into 
 Asia Minor, and coming to the kingdom of Bithynia he 
 joined himself to the court of the king Nicomedes, Lnd 
 remained some time in that countrv. After leavino- 
 Bithynia, Julius CaDsar, while sailing near the isle o'f 
 Pharmacusa, was taken prisoner by some pirates from a 
 inountainous country called Cilicia. These Cilician pirates 
 were half sailors and half mountaineers. They built swift 
 galleys, and made excursions over the Mediterranean 
 Sea for conquest and plunder. C.Tsar asked the pirates 
 what sum they demanded for his ransom. They repHed 
 twenty talents, whereupon Caesar laughed at sucl^a paltry 
 sum being considered sufficient for his ransom, and told 
 them they evidently did not know who he was. He then 
 declared he would give them fifty talents, and forthwith 
 sent all of his companions and attendants to the shore to 
 go to the cities where he was known, and secure the sum 
 required. Meanwhile he boldly remained among these 
 rough men, with no attendants but a phvsichau and 
 two servants. Caesar now assumed command over his 
 
jjg JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 very captors, giving orders, and demanding quiet ^-l^en he 
 wished to sleep. He joined them m the>r sports, and 
 wrote and read orations to them as though he was hen- 
 ruler His boldness and skill elicited their profound ad- 
 miration. The pirates one day asked him what he would 
 do to them if he should ever capture them after obtammg 
 las own release. He replied laughingly that he would 
 crucifv them all. This, though a seeming jest, was well 
 fulfilled. His .attendants, having returned with the ransom 
 monev. Julius Caesar was released. He proceeded immedi- 
 atelv'to Miletus, equipped a small fleet, then sailed back to 
 the place where the ships of the pirates still lay at anchor, 
 and having attacked them, he recovered the ransom 
 monev, seized their ships, and took all the men prisoners 
 He earned his captives to the land, and having cut all 
 their throats he hung their dead bodies upon crosses, in 
 fuUilment of his threat. _ 
 
 Jnhus Ci^sar then went to Rhodes, where his former 
 teacher ApoUonius, a nole<l philosopher and rhetoncan, 
 resided. Cicero was also one of the pupils of this philos- 
 o„her Cssar at lenglli obtained pardon from bylla, 
 throuol. the intercession of the vestal virgins and some of 
 l„s fiTends. When Sylla at last yielded to their impor- 
 tunitv, he exclaimed, " Your suit is granted; but know 
 that "this man. for whose safety you are so extreme y 
 anxious, will some day or other be tlie ruin of the par y 
 of the nobles, in defence of which you are leagued witl, 
 me, for in this one Caesar you will find many a Marius. 
 SvUa had since died, and though the aristocratical party 
 were still in the ascendency, the party of Marius were 
 recoverino- somewhat from their overthrow. 
 
 Julius Caesar now returned to Rome, and boldly espoused 
 the popular cause. His first public act was the arraign- 
 
JULIUS CASHAR. Ijn 
 
 ment of Dolabella, governor of the province of Macedonia 
 Wlieu tlie tnal came on Ciesar appeared in the Forum 
 and gamed great applause for his eloquence and darino' 
 Dolabella was defended by noted orators, and was a" 
 quitted by the Senate. But Julius C^sar had displayed 
 his marvellous powers of eloquence, which immodiatelv 
 gave lum great renown. 
 
 Ca.sar now devoted himself to public speaking in the 
 I'onnn and acquired nu,ch celebrity. He pronounced 
 a splendid panegyric upon the wife of Marius at lier funer- 
 al ; and also upon his wife Cornelia, who died soon after 
 Caesar now became ambitious of securing public offices 
 and lavished large sums in shows and spectacles to 
 amuse the people and secure tiieir votes. He thus be- 
 came deeply involved in debt, but he was still successful 
 '11 nsmg from one office to still higher positions, until he 
 obtained that of quwstor in the province of Spain. This 
 w.as the secoiul office in command, the first officer beiu- 
 ca led a prmtor. During his absence in Spam, Caesar 
 beheld a statue of Alexander the Great, which adorned 
 cue of the public buildings in the city of Cadiz, or Hades 
 as it was then called. C=«sar was now about th.rty-five 
 years of age, and reflecting upon the conquests of Alex- 
 ander, who had died when only thirty-two vears of a<.e, 
 Caesar sighed o^■er liis own tardy accomi)lishment of his 
 lofty ambitions, and leaving his post, returned to Rome, 
 determined to seek higher honors. 
 
 He was chosen mdile by the people. He now had 
 charge of the public ediflees of the city, and of the games 
 and spectacles which were exhibited m them. The ar- 
 rangements made by him for the amusement of the peo- 
 ple were on the most magnificent and extravagant scale. 
 He exhibited three hundred and twenty pair of gladiators, 
 
J 20 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 and he made great additions to the public buildings. He 
 now endeavored to have Egypt assigned to him as a prov- 
 ince ; but the senate resisted this plan, and Caesar was 
 obUged to abandon it. About this time, Caesar obtained 
 a triumph over the senate, who were very jealous of his 
 increasing power. He replaced the statues and trophies 
 of Maruis in the capital, which had been taken down and 
 destroyed by the order of Sylla when he returned to 
 power. In their place, Caesar had ordered magnificent 
 new ones to be made, and put up secretly in the night. 
 The senate endeavored to take them down again, but the 
 people rallied in such vast numbers, as to prevent the 
 work of destruction, and Caesar was triumphant. 
 
 A dangerous conspiracy, headed by the notorious Cati- 
 line, was'' now discovered, and several conspirators were 
 arrested. It was when the senate was debating whether 
 they should be put to death, that Caesar made his noted 
 speech which was replied to so hotly by Cato. 
 
 Caesar was by some accused of being cognizant of this 
 plot, if he were not indeed a participant. 
 
 After the death of Cornelia, Caesar had married Pom- 
 peia, but he afterwards divorced her. Julius Cresar now 
 beoan to plan for a still higher office, and upon the death 
 of Metellus, the chief pontiff, Ca?sar solicited the office. 
 
 He was now so heavily involved in debt, that he faced 
 ruin if defeated, or glory if elected. When the day of 
 election came, Caesar parted with his mother, saying, — 
 '' You will see me this day either chief pontiff or an exile." 
 But he succeeded in gaining the election. Having ob- 
 tained this added power, he desired to procure the posi- 
 tion of prcEtor m Spain. This he also secured, but so 
 large were his debts, that Crassus, a man of immense 
 wealth, was, by Caesar's promises of using his political 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 121 
 
 power in his behalf, persuaded to lend him the sum needed 
 to satisfy his creditors. 
 
 Caesar was very successful in his province in Spain, 
 and he returned in a short time with military glory, and 
 with money sufficient to pay his debts, and furnish fresh 
 supplies for further bribes to secure still higher positions. 
 He now aspired to the office of consul, which was the 
 highest office in the Roman state. 
 
 At this time, Pompey was the military idol of the people, 
 and Crassus, powerful on account of his vast wealth, was 
 Pompey's bitter enemy. Ciiisar conceived the plan of 
 reconciling these two dangerous foes, and availing himself 
 of the aid of both to further his own ambitious projects. 
 
 Caesar was successful in this plan, and they then formed 
 a triple league, binding themselves to promote the political 
 elevation of each other. Having secured such powerful 
 adherents, Caesar now pushed his claims for consulsliip. 
 He chose a man of great wealth, named Lucceius, to be 
 associated with himself, who agreed to pay all the ex- 
 penses of the election, for the sake of the honor of beino- 
 consul with Caesar. But the political enemies of Caesar, 
 knowing that they could not defeat his election, deter- 
 mined to place Bibulus, in the place of Lucceius, as the 
 associate of Caesar. Accordingly they raised as much 
 money to expend for Bibulus as Lucceius should employ. 
 The result was the election of Caesar and Bibulus as the 
 two consuls. But having entered upon the duties of that 
 office, Caesar so completely ignored Bibulus, and assumed 
 so entirely the whole control of the consular power, that 
 Bibulus retired to his house in chagrin and mortification, 
 and allowed Caesar to have his own way. Two consuls 
 were always required by law, and so the wags of the city, 
 in speaking of Caisar's consulship, instead of saying, ^' In 
 
122 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 the year of Caesar and Bibiilns, consuls," according to the 
 usual form, would often say, " Jn the year of JuUus and 
 Ctesar, consuls," ignoring the name of Bibulus, and taking 
 the two names of Csesar to denote his supreme rule. 
 
 Caesar's ambition was not yet satisfied. He had secured 
 the highest place in the state, and now he aspired to mili- 
 tary glory and foreign conquest. Having obtained the 
 command of an array, he entered upon a campaign in the 
 heart of Europe, which he continued for eight years. 
 
 The large tract of country now known as Northern 
 Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and p:ngland, was 
 then spoken of as Gaul. The part on the Italian side of 
 the Alps was called Cisalpine Gaul, and that which lay 
 ])eyond was termed Transalpine Gaul. 
 
 Cflesar now plnccd liimself at the head of nn army of 
 three Roman legions, and set out for Gaul. The first 
 battle he fought was with the German king Ariovistus. 
 Cj^sar was victorious, and the Germans were put in com- 
 plete subjection. Other provinces of Gaul now submitted 
 without resistance, and those who determined to league 
 together to resist this new military power were soon 
 brought to submission. 
 
 One of the most interesting of the various excursions 
 made by Cffisar during tiiese eight years was his expedi- 
 tion into Great Britain. 
 
 When CcTsar arrived on the northern shores of France, 
 he began to inquire of all the travelling merchants whom 
 he met, and who in those days iourneyed from one nation 
 to another to buy and sell goods, about the best manner 
 of crossing the channel, and regarding the people on the 
 English side of the water. But the merchants could give 
 him little information, and so he fitted out a galley, manned 
 with many oarsmen, and placing it under the command of 
 
C.i;SAK IN GAUL. 
 
 I 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 123 
 
 an officer, he directed him to cross the channel and dis- 
 cover the best harbors to land on the other side, and then 
 to return and report. This officer was gone five days, and 
 upon his return, Ct\?sar determined to transport his troops 
 across the channel. C?esar had collected a large number 
 of sailiug vessels upon which he embarked his forces, 
 and upon a given day, at one o'clock m the morning, the 
 fleet set sail. 
 
 The Britons had in the meantime learned of C<Tsar's in- 
 tended invasion, and they collected in vast numbers to 
 guard the shore. 
 
 When the Roman fleet approached the land, the cliffs 
 were everywhere lined with troops of Britons, and every 
 available point was well guarded. 
 
 C{\?sar now proceeded with his fleet along the shore, 
 the Britons following on the land until a level plain was 
 reached. Here Cjvsar determined to attempt to disem- 
 bark. A dreadful struggle ensued. The Britons plunged 
 into the water, and the Romans shot darts and arrows 
 from the decks of the vessels upon the assailants of their 
 comrades, who were endeavoring to make the landing. 
 The Britons were at last driven back, and Caesar succeeded 
 in obtaining possession of the shore. 
 
 These campaigns of Caesar, in a military point of view, 
 were a succession of magnificent exploits. The people at 
 Rome were unbounded in their enthusiastic praise, and 
 decreed him triumph after triumph, and were prepared to 
 welcome him with high honors when he should return. 
 Plutarch says of these eight years of foreign conquest, 
 that Caisar took eight hundred cities, conquered three 
 luindred nations, fought pitched battles, at separate 
 times, with three millions of men, took one million of 
 them prisoners, and killed another million on the field. 
 
124 JULIUS CAESAR. 
 
 From a humane standpoint, however, what a fearful 
 destruction of human lives, to satisfy the insatiable ambi- 
 tion of one man. How much more desirable would have 
 been the fame of blessing, rather than destroying and 
 injuring three millions of his fellow men. The time was 
 now drawing near for Ca3sar's return to Rome. During 
 his absence a dangerous rival had become the idol of the 
 fickle people. After the death of Pompey's wife Julia, 
 who was the daughter of Julius Csesar, the former alliance 
 ]>etween these two powerful rivals had been broken, and 
 they were now open foes. While Caesar was absent in 
 Gaul, he had not neglected to endeavor to retain his 
 hold upon the populace of Rome. He had distributed 
 vast sums for the adornment of the city. He expended 
 over four million dollars in purchasing ground for the en- 
 largement of the Forum ; and when he heard of the death 
 of his daughter Julia, the wife of Pompey, he ordered her 
 funeral to be celebrated with gorgeous splendor. He dis- 
 tributed corn in immense quantities among the people, 
 and sent home many captives to be trained as gladiators 
 to amuse the populace in the theatres. Men were as- 
 tounded at the magnitude of these vast expenditures ; but 
 Pompey was, nevertheless, fast securing the heart of the 
 people. Pompey, in his vanity, imagined that he was so 
 far above Caesar that he need feel no solicitude at the 
 return of his rival, and therefore took no precautions to 
 resist any hostile designs. Caesar had now advanced 
 toward the Rubicon, which was a little stream that formed 
 the boundary line between the north of Italy, which was 
 a Roman province called Hither Gaul, and the immediate 
 jurisdiction of the city of Rome. 
 
 Generals commanding in Gaul were never allowed to 
 pass this river with an army. Hence, to cross the Rubi- 
 
THE LANDING OF JULIUS C.«;SAR IN BRITAIN. 
 
 Z.r.]ij,Uint,iCuiff 
 
 \Jv: 
 
% 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 125 
 
 con with an armed force, was rebelliou and treason. 
 When Caesar arrived at the farther shore of this small 
 but significant stream, he halted at a small town called 
 Ravenna, and established his headquarters there. Pom- 
 pey now sent to him to demand the return of a legion he 
 had lent him when they were friends. Cfesar returned 
 the legion immediately, adding some of his own troops to 
 show his indifference to the size of his own force. 
 
 In the meantime, the partisans of Caesar and Pompey 
 in the city of Rome, grew more threatening in their strug- 
 gles. The friends of Caesar demanded that he should be 
 elected consul. The friends of Pompey replied that 
 Caesar must first resign the command of his army, and 
 come to Rome and present himself as a candidate in the 
 character of a private citizen, as the constitution of the 
 state required. Cassar replied that if Pompey would lay 
 down his arms, he would also do so ; but otherwise, it 
 was unjust to require it of him. This privilege he de- 
 manded as a recompense for the services he had rendered 
 to the state. A large part of the people sided with Cae- 
 sar ; but the partisans of Pompey, with the inflexible 
 Cato at their head, withstood the demand. The city 
 was much excited over the impending conflict. Pompey 
 displayed no fear, and urged the Senate to resist all of 
 Caesar's claims, saying, that if Caesar should presumptu- 
 ously dare to march with his forces to Rome, he could 
 raise troops enough to subdue him by merely stamping 
 on the ground. Caesar meanwhile had been quietly mak- 
 ing his preparations at Ravenna. It was his policy to 
 move as privately as possible. Accordingly, he sent 
 some cohorts to march secretly to the banks of the river, 
 and encamp there, while he employed himself in his usual 
 occupation. He had established a fencing school, and on 
 
120 JULIUS C.^SAR. 
 
 the very eve of his departure he went as usual to this 
 school, then feasted with his friends, going afterwards 
 with them to a public entertainment. As soon as it was 
 dariv enough, and the streets were deserted, he stole away 
 with a few attendants. During the night, Caesar and his 
 guides found themselves lost, and they wandered about 
 until nearly break of day, when a peasant guided them to 
 the shore, where he found his troops awaiting him. Hav- 
 ino- arrived at the banks of the stream, Ciesar stood for 
 some moments musing upon the step he was about to 
 take. If he crossed that narrow stream retreat would 
 be impossible. The story is told that a shepherd coming 
 up took the trumpet from one of Caesar's trumpeters, 
 and sounded a charge, marching rapidly over the bridge 
 at the same time. "An omen! a prodigy !" exclaimed 
 Csesar. " Let us march where we are called by such a 
 divine intimation — Tlie die is cast ! " 
 
 As soon as the bridge was crossed, Cissar called an 
 assembly of his troops, and made an eloquent appeal to 
 them, urging them to stand faithful to him, and promis- 
 ing them large rewards should he be successful. The 
 soldiers responded with enthusiastic applause. As Caesar 
 advanced towards Rome, several towns surrendered to 
 him without resistance. He met with but one opposition. 
 The Senate had deposed Caesar from his command dur- 
 ing the hot debates preceding his crossing of the Rubi- 
 con, and had ai~)pointed Domitius to succeed him. That 
 general had crossed the Apennines at the head of an 
 army, and had reached the town of Corhnium. Caesar 
 advanced and besieged him there. The town was soon 
 captured ; and Caesar, to the surprise of everyone, who 
 supposed he would wreak vengeance upon his foes, re- 
 ceived the troops into his own service, and let Domitius 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 127 
 
 go free. News had now reached the city of Rome, of 
 Caesar's crossing the Rubicon, and rapid advance. The 
 Senate were terribly alarmed, and looked to Pompey in 
 vain for help. Pompey himself was terrified, but could do 
 nothing ; and the Senate then derisively called upon him 
 to raise the promised army of which he had boasted, tell- 
 ing him they thought it was high time to stamp with his 
 feet, as he declared that by so doing he could secure a 
 force large enough to defeat Caesar. Cato and many of 
 the prominent men fled from the city. 
 
 Pompey, calling upon all his partisans to follow him, 
 set forth at night to retreat across the country towards 
 the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 Caesar was rapidly advancing toward Rome. As all 
 supplies of money were cut off by his crossing the Rubi- 
 con, which severed his connection with the government, 
 his soldiers voted to serve him without pay. His treat- 
 ment of Domitius was much applauded by the people. 
 He himself says, in a letter written to a friend at the 
 time, "I am glad that you approve of my conduct at 
 Corfinium. I am satisfied that such a course is the best 
 one for us to pursue, as by so doing we shall gain the 
 good will of all parties, and thus secure a permanent vic- 
 tory. Most conquerors have incurred the hatred of man- 
 kind by their cruelties, and have all, in consequence of 
 the enmity they have thus awakened, been prevented 
 from long enjoying their power. Sylla was an exception, 
 but his example of successful cruelty I have no disposi- 
 tion to imitate. I will conquer after a new fashion, and 
 fortify myself in the possession of the power I acquire by 
 generosity and mercy." 
 
 Caesar now pursued Pompey to Brundusium, whither 
 Pompey had retreated. Caesar laid siege to the city, but 
 
J 28 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 J>ompey secretly made preparations for embarking his 
 troops He caused all the streets to be barricaded, except 
 two which led to the landing, and in the darkness of the 
 night, he began embarking his forces as fast as possible 
 on board of transports already provided. C^sar was 
 made aware of this fact, and his army qnickly bronght 
 ladders and scaled the walls of the city, but the barricaded 
 streets so impeded their progress through the darkness of 
 the nio-ht, thatPompey and his troops succeeded in sailing 
 away^ As Caesar had no ships, he continued his march to 
 Rome, and entering the city without opposition, re-estab- 
 lished the government and took control. After various 
 subsequent campaigns in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Gaul, 
 which resulted in completely subjugating these nations to 
 his dominion, he commenced the pursuit of Pompey, across 
 
 the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 As Pompey had cleared the seas of every vessel which 
 could aid him in his flight, Caesar had great difficulty in 
 procuring even a sufficient number of galleys to transport 
 a part of his army, and embarking with these he landed 
 on the opposite shore, and sent back the galleys for the 
 remainder of his forces, while he pursued Pompey with 
 the troops already with him. Some of Pompey's generals 
 intercepted a part of Caesar's galleys, and destroyed them ; 
 the sea also, becoming very boisterous, the troops were 
 afraid to embark, not being stimulated to courage by the 
 presence and voice of Cffisar. Julius Caesar still pursued 
 Pompey, who constantly retreated ; and the winter wore 
 away with no decided battle, and leaving both armies in 
 a suffering condition. At last, one stormy night, Caesar 
 determined to embark upon a galley and return to the 
 Italian side, and bring the remainder of his army over. 
 Csesar disguised himself in a long cloak, with his head 
 
JULIUS CJS8AR. 129 
 
 muffled in his mantle, and thus got aboard the galley and 
 ordered the men to row him across. A violent wind arose, 
 and the waves were so high that at last the rowers declared 
 they could go no further ; Caesar then came forward, threw 
 off his mantle, and exclaimed : " Friends, you have noth- 
 ing to fear ; you are carrying Cagsar ! " Thus inspired 
 the men put forth herculean efforts, but all to no purpose, 
 and Caesar was obliged, reluctantly, to turn back. His 
 army on the Itahan shore, however, hearing of this brave 
 deed were inspired with new courage, and making another 
 attempt, they were successful in joining Caesar, who, thus 
 strengthened, planned for a vigorous attack in the spring. 
 A parley had been held several times between the hostile 
 hosts, but to no effect ; and many skirmishes and partial 
 conflicts took place, but no decided battle. At one time, 
 Pompey's troops so hemmed in the army of Caesar that 
 his forces suffered for want of food, but his soldiers 
 bravely made use of a sort of root which they dug from 
 the ground, and made into a kind of bread, telling Caesar 
 they would live upon the bark of trees rather than aban- 
 don his cause. At length the army of Pompey was in 
 turn hemmed in by Caesar's forces, and becoming verv 
 desperate, on account of the distress occasioned by want 
 of food and water, Pompey made some successful attacks 
 upon Caesar's lines, and broke away from his enemy's 
 grasp. 
 
 At last, however, they came to open battle on the plain 
 of Pharsalia. As Pompey's forces far outnumbered those 
 of Caesar he felt confident of victory. "The hour at 
 length arrived ; the charge was sounded by the trumpets, 
 and Caesar's troops began to advance with loud shouts and 
 great impetuosity toward Pompey's lines. There was a 
 long and terrible struggle, but the forces of Pompey began 
 
130 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 finally to give way. Notwithstanding the precautions 
 which Pompey had taken to guard and protect the wing 
 of his army which was extended toward the land, Caesar 
 succeeded in turning his flank upon that side by driving 
 off the cavalry, and destroying the archers and slingers ; 
 and he was thus enabled to throw a strong force upon 
 Pompey 's rear. The flight then soon became general, and 
 a scene of dreadful confusion and slaughter ensued. The 
 soldiers of Caesar's army, maddened with the insane rage 
 which the progress of a battle never fails to awaken, 
 and now excited to frenzy by the exultation of success, 
 pressed on after the aff'righted fugitives, who trampled 
 one upon another or fell pierced with the weapons of their 
 assailants, filling the air with their cries of agony and 
 their shrieks of terror." 
 
 When Pompey perceived that all was lost he fled from 
 the field, and having disguised himself as a common sol- 
 dier, he retreated with a few attendants until he reached 
 the Vale of Tempe in Thessaly. Here, in this picturesque 
 spot, noted for its beautiful scenery, the fallen Pompey 
 took his weary wa}' . Having at length reached the ^gean 
 Sea, he took refuge in a fisherman's hut ; hearing still of 
 Caesar's pursuit he did not dare to rest, but embarked the 
 next morning in a little vessel, with three attendants. He 
 was afterwards taken up by the commander of a merchant 
 ship, and was at length conveyed to the island of Lesbos, 
 where his wife, Cornelia, was residing ; Pompey had mar- 
 ried her after the death of Julia, Caesar's daughter. 
 Cornelia now provided a small fleet, and, determining to 
 accompany her husband, they set sail upon the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea. At last Pompey decided to seek refuge in 
 Egypt. Some years before Pompey had been the means 
 of restoring a king of Egypt to his throne ; this king had 
 
JULIUS CJESAR. 131 
 
 since died, but had left his daughter, the famous Cleo- 
 patra, on the throne, to rule, conjointly, with a ^^ounger 
 brother, named Ptolemy. At this time, the Egyptian min- 
 isters, who acted for the young prince, who was not old 
 enough to be invested with the royal power, had dethroned 
 Cleopatra that they might thus govern alone. 
 
 Cleopatra went into Syria to raise an army to recover 
 her lost throne, and Ptolemy's ministers had gone forth to 
 battle with her. It was then that Pompey arrived in 
 Egypt, and thinking that the young prince Ptolemy would 
 receive him on account of the services Pompey had ren- 
 dered to the Egyptian king, father of Ptolemy, Pompey 
 and Cornelia, with their little fleet, approached the shore 
 intending to land. A messenger was sent to the young 
 king to solicit a kind reception. The Egyptian ministers 
 of Ptolemy persuaded him that it would be dangerous 
 either to grant or refuse Pompey's request, and therefore, 
 counselled that he might be invited to their camp, and then 
 that he should be killed ; this would please Caesar, who 
 was now so powerful, and it would put Pompey oiut of 
 their way. This ungrateful counsel prevailed, and an 
 Egyptian was appointed to perform the bloody deed. A 
 courteous invitation was sent to Pompey to land, who, 
 however, parted with his wife, Cornelia, with many 
 forebodings of evil. As the boat of the Egyptians reached 
 Pompey's galley the officers hailed him with every mark of 
 respect; bidding Cornelia farewell, Pompey, with two 
 centurions, stepped into the Egyptian boat and was rowed 
 to the shore. Just as he was about to step from the boat 
 the assassins drew their swords, and Pompey was slain 
 before the very eyes of his wife, who beheld the bloody 
 scene from the deck of her galley, and her piercing shriek 
 was wafted to the ears of her dying husband. The 
 
132 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 Egyptians then cut off the head of Pompey, leaving the 
 headless body lying upon the shore. The two centurions 
 who had accompanied Pompey, afterwards burned the 
 bod}^, and sent the ashes to the heartbroken Cornelia. 
 
 Caesar, in pursuit of Pompey, soon after reached Alex- 
 andria, where he learned of his death ; and the Egyptians, 
 hoping to please him, presented to him the bloody head of 
 his late enemy. But though Caesar was very ambitious, 
 he was not blood-thirsty, nor brutal in his wars. Instead 
 of being pleased with such a ghastly gift, Caesar turned 
 from the shocking spectacle in horror. While Caesar 
 was in Alexandria many of Pompey's officers came and 
 surrendered themselves to him ; and Caesar, finding him- 
 self so powerful, determined to use his authority as 
 Roman consul, to settle the dispute between Cleopatra and 
 her brother Ptolem}'. It was at this time that Cleopatra, 
 in order to plead her cause, was brought by her commands 
 to Caesar's quarters, rolled up in a bale of carpeting, and 
 carried upon the shoulders of a slave. As all the avenues 
 of approach to Caesar's apartments were in the possession 
 of her enemies she feared falling into their hands. Caesar 
 espoused her cause, and determined that she and her 
 brother Ptolemy should reign jointly. Ptolem}- was so 
 incensed against his sister, for thus securing Caesar's 
 allegiance, that a violent war was waged between the 
 Egyptians and Cassar. This is called in history the Alex- 
 andrine AYar. In the course of this contest CViesar took 
 possession of the famous lighthouse of Pharos, one of 
 the Seven Wonders of the world. During the progress of 
 this war a great disaster occurred, which was the burning 
 of the famous Alexandrian library. The number of v6l- 
 umes, or rolls of parchment there collected, was said to have 
 been seven hundred thousand. When we remember that 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 133 
 
 the people in those clays possessed no printed books, and 
 that each one of these rolls had been written by hand, 
 with immense labor, and at vast expense, the loss to the 
 world of works which could never be reproduced was 
 irreparable. Caesar was victorious in this war. The young- 
 king Ptolem}' was defeated, and in attempting to retreat 
 across one of the branches of the Nile he was drowned. 
 Csesar finally settled Cleopatra and a younger brother upon 
 the throne of Egypt and returned to Rome. While Ca?sar 
 was in Egypt three great powers had arisen against him, 
 in Asia Minor, in Africa, and in Spain. 
 
 He first went to Asia Minor and so quickly defeated 
 his enemies there, that it was in reference to this battle 
 that he wrote the famous inscription for his banner, which 
 appeared in his triumphal procession, " Veni^ VicU, Vlci,'' 
 I came, I saw, I conquered. Cfiesar then proceeded to 
 Africa, where his old enemy Cato had raised a large 
 force against him. Caesar was successful also in this 
 contest, and finally shut up Cato in the city of Utica. 
 Cato, finding defence hopeless, killed himself. 
 
 From Africa, Caesar returned to Rome for a short time, 
 and then went to Spain to put down the rebellion there 
 which was led by the sons of Pompey. Here also he was 
 successful, and the conqueror returned to Rome the undis- 
 puted master of the whole Roman world. Then came his 
 magnificent triumphs. Caesar celebrated four triumphs 
 for his four great campaigns, in Egypt, in Asia Minor, in 
 Africa, and in Spain. These were celebrated upon sep- 
 arate days. These triumphs were gorgeous in the ex- 
 treme. Forty elephants were employed as torch-bearers 
 in one triumph which took place at night, each elephant 
 holding a great blazing flambeau in his proboscis and 
 waving it proudly in the air. These triumphal proces- 
 
134 JULIUS C^SAB. 
 
 sions are thus described by one historian. "In these 
 triumphal processions everything was borne in exhibition 
 which could serve as a symbol of the conquered country 
 or a troph}' of victory. Flags and banners, taken from 
 the enem}' ; vessels of gold and silver and other treas- 
 ures loaded in vans ; wretched captives conveyed in open 
 carriages, or marching sorrowfully on foot, and destined, 
 some of them, to public execution when the ceremony of 
 the triumph was ended ; displays of arms and implements 
 and dresses and all else which might serve to give the 
 Roman crowd an idea of the customs and usages of the 
 remote and conquered nations ; the animals they used 
 caparisoned in the manner in which the}' used them ; 
 these and a thousand other trophies and emblems were 
 brought into the line to excite the admiration of the 
 crowd, and to add to the gorgeousness of the spectacle. 
 In these triumphs of Caesar a young sister of Cleopatra, 
 wearing chains of gold, was in the line of the Egyptian 
 procession. In that devoted to Asia Minor was a great 
 banner containing the words already referred to, Veni, 
 Vidi, Vici. There were great paintings, too, borne aloft, 
 representing battles and other striking scenes. Of course, 
 all Rome was in the highest state of excitement during 
 the days of the exhibition of this pageantry. 
 
 "The whole surrounding countrj' flocked to the capital to 
 witness it, and Caesar's greatness and glory were signal- 
 ized in the most conspicuous manner to all the world. 
 After these triumphs, a series of splendid public enter- 
 tainments were given, over twenty thousand tables having 
 been spread for the populace of the city. Shows of every 
 character and variety were exhibited. There were dra- 
 matic plays and equestrian performances in the circus, and 
 gladiatorial combats, and battles with wild beasts, and 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 135 
 
 dances and chariot races and every other amusement 
 which could be devised to gratify a population highly cul- 
 tivated in all the arts of life, but barbarous and cruel in 
 heart and character. Some of the accounts which have 
 come down to us of the magnificence of the scale on which 
 these entertainments were conducted are absolutely incred- 
 ible. It is said that an immense basin was constructed near 
 the Tiber, large enough to contain two fleets of galleys, 
 which had on board two thousand rowers each and one 
 thousand fighting men. These fleets were then manned 
 with captives, — the one with Asiatics, and the other with 
 Egyptians, — and when all was ready, they were compelled 
 to fight a real battle for the amusement of the specta- 
 tors who thronged the shores, until vast numbers were 
 killed, and the waters of the lake were d3"ed with blood. 
 It is also said that the entire Forum and some of the 
 great streets in the neighborhood, where the principal 
 gladiatorial shows were held, were covered with silken 
 awnings to protect the vast crowds of spectators from 
 the sun, and thousands of tents were erected to accom- 
 modate the people from the surrounding country, whom 
 the buildings of the city could not contain." 
 
 All open opposition to Caesar's power was now put down. 
 The Senate vied with the people to do him honor He 
 was first made consul for ten years, and then perpetual 
 dictator. They conferred upon him the title of "The 
 Father of his Country." Caesar now began to form plans 
 for immense improvements which should benefit his empire. 
 He completed the regulation of the calendar. " The sys- 
 tem of months in use in his day corresponded so imper- 
 fectly with the annual circuit of the sun, that the months 
 were moving continually along the 3'ear in such a manner 
 that the winter months came at length in the summer, 
 
136 JULIUS CyESAR. 
 
 and the summer months in the winter. This led to great 
 practical inconveniences. For whenever, for example, 
 anything was required by law to be done in certain 
 months, intending to have them done in the summer, and 
 the specified month came at length to be a winter month, 
 the law would require the thing to be done in exactly the 
 wrong season. Csesar remedied all tliis by adopting a 
 new system of months which should give three hundred 
 and sixty-five days to the year for three years, and three 
 hundred and sixty-six for the fourth ; and so exact was 
 the system which he thus introduced that it went on un- 
 changed for sixteen centuries. The months were then 
 found to be eleven days out of the way, and a new cor- 
 rection was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII., and it will 
 now go on three thousand years before the error will 
 amount to a single day. Caesar employed a Greek as- 
 tronomer to arrange the system he adopted, and for this 
 improvement one of the months was called July, after 
 Julius Caesar. Its former name was Quintilis." 
 
 Caesar commenced the collection of vast libraries ; 
 formed plans for draining the Pontine Marshes, and for 
 bringing great supplies of water into the city b}' an aque- 
 duct ; and he intended to cut a new passage for the Tiber 
 from Rome to the sea. He also planned a road along the 
 Apennines, and a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, 
 and intended to construct other vast works which sliould 
 make Rome the wonder of the world. 
 
 But in the midst of all these grand projects he was sud- 
 denly stricken down. Although the Romans disliked the 
 thought of being ruled by a king, they preserved certain 
 ■statues of their kings in some of the public buildings, and 
 the ambition of Caesar led him very foolishly to place his 
 own statue among them. He also had a seat prepared 
 
JULIUS CAESAR. 137 
 
 for himself in tlie Senate in the form of a throne. On 
 one occasion, when the members of the Senate were to 
 come to him in a temple to announce certain decrees they 
 had passed to his honor, Caesar received them sitting upon 
 a magnificent chair, which seemed a throne, so gorgeous 
 was it ; and he did not even rise to welcome them, as was 
 the usual custom, thus showing that he would receive 
 them as a monarch, who never rises in the presence of 
 inferiors. This incident, small as it may seem, aroused 
 much indignation. His statue was also found adorned 
 with a laurel crown, to which was fastened a white fillet, 
 which was an emblem of royalty. On another occasion, 
 at a public entertainment, an oflflcer placed a diadem upon 
 the head of Caesar, who pretended to be disinclined to 
 receive it, and taking it off, it was ofll'ered twice again, and 
 refused, when Caesar sent the diadem to a temple near 
 by as an offering to Jupiter. Although he thus appeared 
 to reject the honor, his manner indicated that he only 
 desired to be more warmly pressed to receive it. There 
 was now formed a strong conspiracy against Caesar, 
 headed by Cassius, who had for a long time been Caesar's 
 enemy. Cassius at last succeeded in persuading Marcus 
 Brutus to join him. The plan was then divulged to such 
 men as the conspirators thought most necessary to the 
 success of their plot. It was agreed that Cffisar must be 
 slain. They at length decided that the Roman Senate 
 was the proper place. As it had been rumored that 
 Caesar's friends were about to attempt to crown him as a 
 king on the Ides of March, that day was chosen by the 
 conspirators as a fitting one on which Julius Caesar should 
 meet his doom. Caesar received many warnings of his 
 approaching fate, and the soothsayers reported many 
 strange omens which betokened some portentous event. 
 
138 JULIUS CAESAR. 
 
 One of these soothsayers informed Caesar that he had 
 been warned, by certain signs at a pubUc sacrifice, that 
 some terrible danger threatened his life on the Ides of 
 March ; and he besought him to be cautious until that day 
 should have passed. The Senate were to meet on the Ides 
 of March in a new and magnificent edifice, which had been 
 erected by Pompey. In this Senate Chamber was a 
 statue of Pompey. The day before the Ides of March, 
 some birds of prey from a neighboring grove came flying 
 into this hall, pursuing a little wren which had a sprig of 
 laurel in its beak. The birds tore the poor wren to 
 pieces, and the laurel fell from its bill to the marble pave- 
 ment below. As Caesar had been crowned w^ith laurel 
 after his victories, and always wore a wreath of laurel on 
 public occasions, this event was thought to portend some 
 evil to him. The night before the Ides of March, both 
 Caesar and his wife Calpurnia awoke from terrible dreams. 
 Caesar dreamed that he ascended into the skies and was 
 received by Jupiter, and Calpurnia, awakening with a 
 wild shriek, declared that she had di'eamed that the roof 
 of the house had fallen in, and that her husband had been 
 stabbed by an assassin. When morning came, Calpurnia 
 endeavored to persuade Caesar not to go to the Senate, 
 and he had consented to comply with her wish, until one 
 of the conspirators, who had been appointed to accom- 
 pany Caesar to the Senate, came to the house of Julius 
 Caesar, and by his declarations that the people were wait- 
 ing to confer upon their dictator the title of king through- 
 out all the Roman dominions excepting Italy alone, he at 
 length persuaded Caesar to go with him. On the way to 
 the Senate, a Greek teacher, having learned something of 
 the plot, wrote a statement of it, and as Caesar passed 
 him he gave it to him, saying, " Read this immediately ; 
 
JULIUS C^SAR. 139 
 
 it concerns yourself, and is of the utmost importance." 
 Caesar made the attempt to do so, but the crowd of peo- 
 ple who pressed towards him and handed him various 
 petitions, as was the usual custom when a state officer 
 appeared in public, prevented Caesar from thus learning 
 of the dreadful fate awaiting him. There was one warm 
 friend of Caesar, named Marc Antony, whom the conspir- 
 ators feared might interfere with the successful comple- 
 tion of their plot, and so it was arranged that one of their 
 number should engage the attention of Antony, while the 
 petitioner chosen should advance and make his appeal to 
 Caesar, which should be the signal for the bloody deed. 
 This conspirator made a pretence of asking Caesar for the 
 pardon of his brother, which request, as they had expected, 
 Caesar declined to grant. This occasioned an outburst of 
 pretended fury, under cover of which the conspirators 
 rushed upon Caesar and stabbed him with their swords. 
 Caesar at first attempted to defend himself, but as Brutus, 
 his former friend, also plunged his dagger into his side, 
 he exclaimed, "And you, too, Brutus?" and drawing his 
 mantle over his face, he fell at the feet of Pompey's 
 statue and expired. Now again the city of Rome was in 
 wild tumult. 
 
 The conspirators marched boldly through the streets 
 with their bloody swords. They boasted of their shock- 
 ing deed, and announced that they had delivered their coun- 
 try from a tyrant. The people, stunned by the daring of 
 this terrible act, knew not what to think or do. Some 
 barricaded their houses in fear ; others hurried through 
 the streets with blanched faces ; and still others excitedly 
 seized any kind of weapon near at hand, and joined a 
 mob, which threatened to break out in awful violence, to 
 avenge the death of Caesar, their idol. 
 
140 JULIUS C^SAR, 
 
 During all this time tlie body of Caesar lay unhcedcfl at 
 the foot of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three 
 wounds, made by the hands of men he thought were his 
 friends. Three slaves were his only guardians ; and at 
 last they lifted the poor bruised, bleeding, and ghastly 
 corpse, and carried it home to the distracted Calpurnia. 
 The next day, Brutus and the other conspirators called 
 tlie people together in the Forum, and there addressed 
 them, endeavoring to persuade them that the deed had 
 been committed only in the interests of the people, to rid 
 them of a tyrant. But the subsequent famous funeral 
 speech of Marc Antony, roused the people to such a wild 
 frenzy of revenge, that the conspirators were only saved 
 from death with great difficulty by the intervention of 
 the Senate. 
 
 The Field of Mars had been chosen as the place for the 
 funeral pile ; but after the speech of Marc Antony in the 
 Forum, where the body of Caesar had been placed on a 
 gilded bed covered with scarlet and cloth of gold, under 
 a gorgeous canopy made in the form of a temple, the 
 people in their wild outbursts of love for Caesar, as they 
 had then learned from his will, which Antony read aloud 
 to them, of his munificent bequests to the Roman citizens, 
 became ungovernable in their desires to do him reverence. 
 As a crier, by Antony's order, read the decrees of the 
 Senate, in which all honors, human and divine, had been 
 been ascribed to Caesar, the gilded bed upon which he lay 
 was lifted and borne out into the centre of the Forum ; and 
 two men, having forced their way through the crowd, with 
 lighted torches set fire to the bed on which the body of 
 Caesar lay, and the multitudes with shouts of enthusiastic 
 applause, seized everj^thing within reach and placed them 
 upon the funeral pile. The soldiers then threw on their 
 
JULIUS (J^SAR. 141 
 
 lances and spears ; musicians cast their instruments into 
 the increasing flames ; women tore off their jewels to add 
 to the gorgeous pile, and all vied with each other to con- 
 tribute something to enlarge the blazing funeral pile. So 
 fierce were the flames that the\' spread to some of the 
 neighboring buildings, and a terrible conflagration which 
 would have given Caesar tlie most majestic funeral pile in 
 the annals of the world, for it would have been the blazing 
 light from the burning city of Rome itself, was only pre- 
 vented by the most strenuous efforts. 
 
 Some time after, Octavius Csesar, the successor of Ju- 
 lius Ca?sar, and Marc Antony, waged war with Cassius 
 and Brutus ; and at the battle of Philippi, where Cassius 
 and Brutus were defeated, and while they were fleeing 
 from the field, hopeless of further defence, they both 
 killed tliemselves with their own swords. 
 
 Caesar died at the age of fifty-six. The Roman people 
 erected a column to his memor^^ on which tliey placed 
 the inscription, "To the Father of His Country." A 
 figure of a star was placed upon the summit of this memo- 
 rial shaft, and some time afterwards, while the people 
 were celebrating some games in honor of Caesar's memory, 
 a great comet blazed for seven nights in the sky, which 
 they declared to be a sign that the soul of Caesar was 
 admitted among the gods. 
 
^^2 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 742-814 A.D. 
 
 " To whom God will, there be the victory." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 rpHERE was great terror and dismay among the inliabi- 
 X tants of the city of Paris, called in those early days, 
 
 Lutetia. 
 
 The Gauls, who dwelt in that part of the country, 
 were now menaced by a foe even more terrible than the 
 Roman soldiers led by the famous Julius Caesar, who had 
 invaded their land about 500 years before, and made then- 
 country a Roman province. 
 
 But now a fearful war-cry rings through the an' ; and 
 as the frightened Gauls hastily arm themselves for resist- 
 ance, a horde of Teutonic giants, with light complexions, 
 long 'yellow hair waving in the wind, and eyes so bright 
 and cat-like that they fairly shone with a green glare of 
 animal-like ferocity, which was heightened by their cloth- 
 ing made of the skins of the bear, the boar, and the wolf, 
 making them look in the distance like a herd of wild 
 beasts^ came rushing like an avalanche of destruction 
 over the peaceful homes of the Gauls. These hordes ad- 
 vanced in a mighty wedge-like phalanx, formed of their 
 bravest warriors, each man carrying in his right hand a 
 long lance, and in the left a buckler, or skin-covered 
 shiSd, while his girdle held a sharp two-edged axe, which 
 became, with dexterous handling, amost dangerous weapon, 
 and was hurled from a distance with marvellous aim. With 
 mounted warriors protecting the wings of this invincible 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 
 (From Early Engraving.) 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 143 
 
 phalanx, on came this fierce, wild tribe, charging to battle 
 with a terrible war-whoop, wiiich they made more shrill 
 by placing the edge of the buckler to the mouth. 
 
 In vain the Gauls looked to Rome for help. There was 
 too much trouble in Italy for the Roman government to 
 help any one. So these giant Franks came rushing un- 
 checked on to Paris, while the frightened Gauls were 
 powerless to resist them. The leader of this horde was 
 called Hilperik, the son of Meerwig ; and having taken 
 possession of Paris, and several surrounding provinces, 
 he founded the kingdom afterwards called France, from 
 this tribe who Avere called Franks. 
 
 The stor}' of kings is too often a story of l)lood and 
 cruelty, and the kingdom which the great Charlemagne 
 inherited had been the scene of fearful and continual con- 
 flicts. 
 
 The Goths, one of the fierce German nations, had con- 
 quered a large part of Gaul after it had become a Roman 
 province, and in the year 451, the Huns, a more terrible 
 nation still, whose chief was the famous Attila, who 
 called himself the "• Scourge of God," invaded Gaul with 
 his army, — horrible looking men, whose faces had been 
 gaslied by their savage parents in their infancy, that they 
 might look more dreadful. The poor Gauls thouglit 
 .rightly, tiiat it was more fearful to fall into their hands 
 than into those of the Franks ; but the Huns came no 
 further than Orleans, where an army, composed of Gauls, 
 Franks, Goths, Burgundians, all under the Roman general 
 ^tius, attacked the Huns at ChMons-sur-Marne, beat 
 them, and drove them back. Chylous was the last victory 
 in Gaul, won under the Roman banners, and now the 
 poor Gauls were obliged to meet their enemies alone. The 
 chief tribes of those warlike races, who swarmed over 
 
144 CHA RLE MA GNE. 
 
 Europe, both north and south, were the Goths who con- 
 quered Rome, and settled in Spain ; the Longbeards or 
 Lombards, who spread over the north of Italy ; the Bur- 
 oundians, or town-livers, who held all the countrv around 
 the Alps ; the Swabians and Germans, who stayed in the 
 middle of Europe ; the Saxons, who dwelt south of the 
 Baltic, and finally conquered South Britain ; the North- 
 men, who found a home in Scandinavia ; and the Franks, 
 who had been long settled on the rivers Sale, Meuse, and 
 Rhine. Their name meant freemen, and they were noted 
 for usins; an axe, called after them. Of the Franks there 
 were two noted tribes, — the Salian, from the river Sale, 
 and the Ripuarian. Tliey were great horsemen, and the 
 Saliftns had a family of kings, who were supposed to have 
 descended from one of then- warlike gods, called Odin. 
 Although the Franks were a ferocious and sometimes 
 cruel race, they were in some respects superior to the 
 other barbaric tribes, and were liked better by the Gauls 
 than any other of those various nations. 
 
 After Caesar's conquest many of the Romans had re- 
 mained in Gaul, and had built and conquered cities, and 
 lived under Roman laws. The}* taught the Gauls to speak 
 Latin, and organized many schools and colleges among 
 them. The Gauls adopted the Roman dress and religion. 
 The relioion of the ancient Gauls had been tauoht to 
 the people by priests, called Druids. Druidism was a 
 confusion of mingled ideas of Oriental dreams and tradi- 
 tions, borrowed from the mythologies of the East and the 
 North ; and although it was degraded by barbaric prac- 
 tices such as human sacrifices in honor of the gods or of 
 the dead, it possessed one germ of truth, for the Druids 
 believed in the immortality of the soul. Their priests 
 were old and wise men, who had studied often for twenty 
 
.\>r^:*:^^ 
 
 THE HUNS AT CHALONS. 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 145 
 
 years before they were considered wise enough to become 
 '' Men of the Oak," as tlie chief Druids were called. 
 They made laws for the people and settled questions of 
 dispute. Once every year the Druids went out to look 
 for the mistletoe, which they considered a sacred plant. 
 When a mistletoe was found growing upon an oak, the 
 people came from all parts of the country and stood around 
 the tree. Then a Druid, clothed in white, climbed up the 
 oak-tree, and cut off the sacred mistletoe with a solden 
 sickle, and the much prized plant was caught by the 
 other Druids below, in a white cloth, and was carried 
 away to be preserved as a great treasure. 
 
 But the Gauls living in those provinces conquered by 
 the Romans, had given up their old Druidical religion, and 
 adopted that of their conquerors, which was no improve- 
 ment, for it was also a paganism, and was such a mass of 
 superstition and idolatry, derived from Grecian m3'thologv 
 and old traditions, that it did not even possess the vital 
 force of the Druidical belief. For the Druids worshipped, 
 as the}' thought, living deities, while the Graeco-Roman 
 paganism was a dead religion, with onl}^ dead gods, buried 
 beneath their still standing altars. Such were the supersti- 
 tions and false religions with which the Christians of the 
 early centuries had to contend in laboring to convert the 
 then known world to the worship of the one true and 
 living God and His Son Jesus Christ, who had already 
 lived his holy life upon this earth, and given himself a 
 sacrifice for the salvation of mankind. Alread}^ the dis- 
 ciples of Christ had founded Christian churches in Asia 
 Minor and Palestine, and many of them had died as 
 martyrs for the faith. St. Paul had preached at Athens 
 and at Rome, and having finished his glorious work he 
 had received his crown of martyrdom. And all down 
 
1 46 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 these early centuries teachers had been sent out by the 
 Christian churches, to endeavor to convert the heathen 
 world around to a belief in the one true and only religion 
 which could secure the salvation of the immortal soul. 
 The Roman emperors had all persecuted the Christians 
 and sought to uphold paganism. But when a.d. 312, the 
 Emperor Constantine declared himself a Christian, 
 "paganism fell, and Christianity mounted the throne." 
 Previous to the conquest of Gaul by the Franks, the Gauls 
 had adopted Christianity, and when Hilperik, king of the 
 Franks, conquered Paris and the surrounding country, 
 and at his death left this kingdom to his son, named 
 Hlodwio;, or Clovis, there were manv Christians and 
 churches and monasteries in Gaul. Clovis conquered 
 many of the surrounding provinces, and at last became 
 the ruler of nearly the whole of Gaul. Clovis had 
 married a Burgundian maiden, named Clothilda, and as 
 she was a Christian he allowed her to worship God in the 
 Christian churches. But in the great battle of Tolbiacum, 
 which Clovis fought with the Germans, when it seemed 
 as though the Franks would be defeated, Clovis took an 
 oath that if the God of his wife would give him the vic- 
 tory he would become a Christian. The Franks were 
 victorious, and Clovis was baptized with all his chief 
 warriors. 
 
 When Clovis died, he left four sons, among whom he 
 divided his kingdom. One was the king of Paris ; an- 
 other, king of Orleans ; a third, king of Soissons ; and 
 the fourth, who reigned over that part of Gaul nearest 
 Germany and the Rhine, was called king of Metz. In 
 a battle with the Burgundians, the king of Orleans, Clo- 
 domir, was killed, leaving three young sons who were 
 placed in the care of their grandmother Clothilda. At 
 
"thrust him away, or thou DIEST IN HIS STEAD. 
 
CHAELEMAGNE. 147 
 
 length the kings of Paris and Soissons became jealous 
 of these children of their elder brother Clodomir, and 
 sent for the children, under pretence of placing them 
 upon the throne of their father. But as soon as thej' had 
 them in their cruel power, they sent a pair of scissors and 
 a sword to Clothilda, with a message, saying : " We wait 
 thy wishes as to the three children ; shall they be slain or 
 shorn ? " meaning, shall they be killed or shut up in 
 monasteries? Clothilda, in despair, cried out: "Slain, 
 rather than shorn ! " and the messengers, not waiting to 
 hear her further words, returned to the cruel kings, and 
 announced that they had secured the consent of Clothilda 
 for the shocking deed. The wicked kings then hastily 
 entered the room where the three helpless boys were im- 
 prisoned, and having slain the eldest, the second one clung 
 to the knees of his uncle Childebert, king of Paris, who 
 was for a moment moved with pity, and asked liis brother 
 Clotaire to spare the bo}'. But the wicked Clotaire, 
 king of Soissons, exclaimed iu wrath, "Thrust him away 
 or thou diest in his stead ! " Whereupon, Childebert 
 tried no more to save him, and Clotaire seized the poor 
 boy, wlio was now shrieking with terror, and plunged a 
 hunting-knife into his side, as he had his brother's, and 
 slew him. These murdered children were onW ten and 
 seven years old. The third brother was snatched up by 
 some brave friends, and hidden away where the cruel 
 uncles could not find him. He was afterwards placed in 
 a monastery, and became a monk, and founded a monas- 
 tery near Paris, called after him, St. Cloud. After the 
 sons of Clovis there followed a line of kings in France 
 called the Meerwings, or long-haired kings, known in his- 
 toiT as the Merovingians ; and only two of them are im- 
 portant enough to be mentioned, and those only on 
 
148 CHA RLE MA GNE. 
 
 account of their crimes. One of the sons of Clovis left 
 four sons ; and two of these, named Hilperik and Sieg- 
 bert, married the two daughters of the king of the Goths, 
 in Spain. These sisters were called Galswinth and 
 Bruneliild. Hilperik loved a slave girl he owned, named 
 Fredegond, and either with or without his consent, his 
 wife Galswinth was found strangled in her bed, and 
 he afterwards married the murderess, Fredegond, who, 
 though most atrociously wicked, became a powerful 
 queen. Brunehild persuaded her husband Siegbert to 
 make war upon Hilperik, to avenge the death of her sis- 
 ter. Hilperik was defeated, but the Queen Fredegond 
 contrived to have Siegbert murdered, and afterwards 
 killed her husband's other children, thus leaving her own 
 son heir to the throne. She then ordered her husband 
 also to be put to death, so that she could reign alone in 
 the name of her infant son. The four kingdoms left by 
 Clovis had been now merged into three, — Neustria, which 
 is now the north of France ; Austrasia, which is now the 
 north-east corner of France, and part of Belgium, and 
 part of the western side of Germany ; and the third king- 
 dom was called Burgundy. The Neustrians and the 
 Austrasians were usually at war with each other, the 
 Burgundians taking now one side of the quarrel and now 
 the other. Queen Fredegoud's part of Gaul was Neus- 
 tria, while Queen Brunehild governed Austrasia. But 
 Brunehild quarrelled with the chiefs of the country ; and 
 after many years of wars, plots, and murders, she was at 
 last brutally killed by the son of Fredegond, who be- 
 came king of all the Franks ; and in Neustria every one 
 obeyed him ; but in Austrasia the great chiefs and 
 bishops were opposed to him. The bishops had by this 
 time become rich and powerful, for a great amount of 
 
VHAitLEMAGNE. 149 
 
 land had been left to the church b}^ the wills of dying 
 Christians, or as gifts from kings and chiefs. When 
 Clotaire, son of Fredegond, died, he left two sons ; one 
 of them named Dagobert made himself master of Neus- 
 tria and Austrasia, and gave his brother land in the 
 south part of the country, which had not been visited 
 before by a Frankish king. Dagobert took Paris for his 
 chief town ; he made himself a splendid court, took jour- 
 nej's through his kingdom, doing justice to his subjects, 
 and encouraged the building of churches, and had copies 
 of the old Frankish laws written out and sent throughout 
 his kingdom. The people liked him ; but the powerful 
 chiefs and the bishops, who had become so worldly that 
 they thought a great deal more about piling up riches 
 than in turning the people to Christianity, were filled with 
 dismay to have so wise and just a king, who was fast 
 gaining a great power over the people. After ten 3'ears 
 Dagobert died and left two sons ; one was king of Aus- 
 trasia ; and the younger king of Neustria. After these, 
 there followed three more kings in Neustria, and four in 
 Austrasia, but they had no power, and were only called 
 kings, while the government was really in the hands of a 
 new set of men, from which line the illustrious Charle- 
 magne sprang. The chief man next the king in these 
 countries was called the Mayor of the Palace. He had 
 the chief command in times of war, and at last became in 
 truth the sovereign ruler ; and they only put up one of 
 their do-nothing kings as a figure-head. After the death 
 of Dagobert, there was no other Frankish king of any 
 importance in the line of the Merovingians. The Faine- 
 ants, or do-nothing kings, as they were called, sat on the 
 throne and pretended to rule, but the ma3^or of the pal- 
 ace told them what they must say to the people and what 
 
150 CHA RLE MA GNE. 
 
 they must do. This weut on for nearly a hundred years. 
 When Dagobert died, the mayor of the palace was named 
 Pepin, and through several reigns he really governed both 
 Austrasia and Neustria. He made war against the Ger- 
 mans, and sometimes when they were very troublesome 
 he went with an army and subdued them ; and at other 
 times he sent monks to try and convert them to Chris- 
 tianity. When Pepin died, his son Karl became the 
 mayor of the palace. Now Karl wished to secure money 
 to give to his chiefs, so that they would fight for him, 
 and so he took away from the bishops tlie rich lands 
 which belonged to the church, and gave them to his 
 warriors. Karl had first to fight the Saxons, whom he 
 defeated, and then there appeared a new foe. The 
 Arabs lived in Arabia, on the east side of the Red Sea, 
 in Asia. 
 
 They had always been a poor, wandering people. But 
 about one hundred and fifty years before this time, an 
 Arab had appeared among his countrymen, claiming to 
 be a mighty prophet, and teaching them a new religion. 
 It was not the Christian religion ; but this man, who was 
 named Mohammed, claimed that he had been sent by God 
 to teach the people ; and so the religion he proclaimed 
 was called Mohammedanism. Now the Arabs had never 
 left their own country before, but they determined to go 
 forth and conquer the world, and make all the nations 
 Mohammedans. They conquered Persia, Egypt, Spain, 
 and a part of Africa. When they overcame any nation, 
 if the people would consent to become Mohammedans, 
 the Arabs treated them with kindness ; but if they re- 
 fused, they made slaves of them, and sometimes put 
 them to death. Having conquered Spain, the Arabs 
 wished to become masters of France. 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 151 
 
 When they had passed the Pyrenees, Karl went forth to 
 meet them. There was a great battle, known in history 
 as the Battle of Tours, and at length Karl conquered the 
 Mohammedans, and drove them out of France. Some 
 accounts state that three hundred thousand Arabs were 
 killed. 
 
 This mayor of the palace has been called Karl the 
 Hammer, or in French, Charles Martel, in memory of the 
 blows he inflicted upon these Mohammedan enemies. 
 He was afterwards called the Duke of the Franks. 
 
 In the time of Charles Martel, several kings became 
 monks. An English monk named Winfrid had been 
 sent l)y the Pope and Charles Martel to preach to tlie 
 Saxons. After persuading thousands of the people to be 
 baptized, this monk was made bishop and then arch- 
 bisiiop. But he thought more of converting the heathen 
 than of wearing honors, and leaving his bishopric to 
 another, he went forth into a wild part of the country to 
 preach Christianity. When a large number of people had 
 assembled to be baptized, an armed force of the heathen 
 attacked them, killing Winfrid and all the Christian peo- 
 ple. This good monk is called also St. Boniface. 
 
 After the death of Charles JMartel his two sons ruled 
 for six years together, and then one of them went into a 
 monastery, leaving the younger, Pepin, who now became 
 the only duke of the Franks. 
 
 The people began to think it absurd to have a useless 
 set of lazy, do-nothing, Merovingian, or long-haired kings, 
 who were only puppets in the hands of the reigning duke. 
 So Pepin, also called Le Bref, or the Short, asked the 
 Pope to make him king, instead of the figure-head who sat 
 upon the throne, who at that time bore the name of Hil- 
 perik. The answer of the Pope was, "He who has the 
 power ought also to have the name of king." 
 
152 CHA RLE MA GNE. 
 
 As the Pope had thus consented to the change, all the 
 Franks were delighted, and they took the useless king 
 from his throne, cut off his long yellow hair, which was 
 his sign of royalty, and shut him up in a monastery. He 
 died two years afterwards, and was the last of the Mero- 
 vingian kings. 
 
 Pepin was now crowned by St. Boniface, as this event 
 preceded the death of that king, and thus he became the 
 first of the Carlovingiau kings, so called from Carolus, 
 tlie Latin for Charles, which was the name of Pepin's 
 father, and his still greater son. 
 
 Pepin now aided the Pope by marching into Italy and 
 fighting the Lombards; and having conquered them, he 
 took their lands and gave them to the Pope, which prop- 
 erty afterwards descended from one pope to another, so 
 that the popes at last became masters of quite a kingdom 
 in Italy. Pepin also besieged a town in Southern Gaul, 
 belonging to the Arabs, and after seven years captured it, 
 and drove the Arabs over the Pyrenees, into Spain. He 
 reigned for sixteen years, and dying left his kingdom to 
 his two sons Karl and Karloman, who divided it between 
 them; but Karloman lived but three years, when Karl 
 became the king of France. 
 
 While his Austrasian subjects, who spoke German, 
 called him Karl, the Neustrians, whose language was a 
 mino-lins of the Latin and the German, which has since 
 become the French language, called him Charles ; and 
 after he became so famous, the Latin word magnus, mean- 
 ing great, was added, and Charles-Magnus thus became 
 the Charlemagne of history. 
 
 Very little can be learned regarding the early life of 
 Charlemagne. One of the old writers, named Eginhard, 
 who afterwards became the secretary of Charlemagne, 
 
JiaLiClukL. 
 
 Parlonwaip. 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 153 
 
 records that neither he himself, nor any one then living, 
 knew anything about the birth of this prince, nor about 
 his infancy, nor even youth. His father. King Pepin, 
 had his two sons associated with himself, when he received 
 the title of king from the Bishop of Rome ; but neither 
 of them received any separate government during their 
 father's life. They were taught, with the other young 
 nobles, by Peter of Pisa, whom Pepin retained at his 
 court for this purpose. It is supposed that King Pepin 
 took the young princes witli him in his Italian expeditions, 
 and that Charlemagne accompanied his father in the Aqui- 
 tanian war. When King Pepin died, his eldest son was 
 twenty-six years and a half old, while the younger was 
 barely nineteen. Both were already married to wives of 
 the Frank race. Charles, or Charlemagne, to Himil- 
 trude, and Carloman to Gerberge. 
 
 The first battle in which Charlemagne engaged was 
 soon after his father's death, with the Aquitanians, who 
 were the people living in the south-west part of France. 
 The brother-kings raised troops to meet them, but Carlo- 
 man through jealousy withdrew his forces, leaving Charle- 
 magne to cany on the war alone. He was victorious, 
 and the Aquitanians submitted. The queen-mother 
 Bertrada now used her inflaence to secure a permanent 
 alliance between the Lombards and the Franks, and 
 persuaded Charlemagne to divorce his wife and marry 
 Desiderata, the daughter of Didier the Lombard king. 
 This Charlemagne consented to do, even against the ad- 
 vice of the Pope, and he suffered for his folly, or wicked- 
 ness ; for so it was, even though his mother did sanction 
 it, for he was so unhappy with Desiderata, that in about 
 a year he put her away and married Hildegarde. In those 
 days kings married and divorced their wives as often as 
 
154 CHARLEMA GNE. 
 
 they pleased, and Charlemagne, with all his greatness and 
 his aid to Christianity, was in this particular very culpa- 
 ble, and his domestic life was not at all in keeping with 
 the majesty, and goodness, and uprightness of his public 
 life. After the death of Hildegarde, he married two 
 other wives. One Fastrada, an Austrasian, was a very 
 wicked woman, and caused him much trouble. The last 
 one, whom he loved the most, was named Luitgarda. 
 She was kind and gentle, and her influence over Charle- 
 magne was very beneficial after the wicked Fastrada had 
 led him into so much trouble. The French have an old 
 legend, which relates that the evil influence which Fas- 
 trada exercised over the strong mind of the great king, 
 leading him to acts of injustice and tyranny, which alien- 
 ated the affections of his nobles, was due to the magic 
 spell of a ring which she wore. On her death, the ring 
 came into possession of a bishop, for whom Charlemagne 
 immediately showed such admiration, that the bishop 
 found it unpleasant, and cast the ring into a neighboring- 
 lake. Here it also exercised its magic charm, and the 
 king would sit for hours gazing into the waters of the 
 lake, as though spell-bound. But this legend cannot dis- 
 guise the weak side of Charlemagne's character, and we 
 can only turn from it and fix our attention upon his great 
 career. 
 
 He was one of the wisest and most powerful of kings. 
 His life was one of constant war. He fought the Saxons 
 for thirty-three years, but at last he conquered Witikind, 
 the great Saxon leader, in 785, and persuaded him to 
 be baptized. Charlemagne made him Duke of Saxony, 
 and he lived in good faith to tlie new vows he had taken. 
 Notwithstanding this victory over the Saxons, Charle- 
 magne foresaw the evils which should come upon Europe 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 155 
 
 through the formidable Northmen. The monk of 8t. Gall 
 relates this incident : " Charlemagne arrived unexpectedly 
 in a certain town of Narbonnese Gaul. Whilst he was at 
 dinner, and was as yet unrecognized of any, some cor- 
 sairs of the Northmen came to ply their piracies in the 
 very port. When their vessels were descried, they were 
 supposed to be Jewish traders according to some, Afi'ican 
 according to others, and Bi'itish in the opinion of others ; 
 but the gifted monarch per^ceiving by the build and light- 
 ness of the craft that they l)are not merchandise, but 
 foes, said to his own folk, ' These vessels be not laden 
 with merchandise, but manned with cruel foes.' At these 
 words, all the Franks, in rivalry one with another, ran to 
 their ships, but uselessly, for the Northmen, indeed, hear- 
 ing that yonder was he whom it was still their wont to 
 call Charles the Hammer, feared lest all their fleet should 
 be taken or destroyed in the port, and the}' avoided by a 
 flight of inconceivable rapidity not only the blows, but 
 even the eyes of those who were pursuing them. 
 
 " Pious Charles, however, a prey to well-grounded fear, 
 rose up from table, stationed himself at a window looking 
 eastward, and there remained a long while, and his eyes 
 were filled with tears. As none durst question him, this 
 warlike prince explained to the grandees who were about 
 his person the cause of his movement and of his tears. 
 'Know ye, my lieges, wherefore I weep so bitterly? Of 
 a surety I fear not lest these fellows should succeed in 
 injuring me by their miserable piracies ; but it grieveth 
 me deeply that whilst I live, they should have been nigh 
 to touching at this shore, and I am a prey to violent sor- 
 row when I foresee what evils they will heap upon my 
 descendants and their people.' " 
 
 But during all the years of the Saxon wars, Charlemagne 
 
156 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 had been cnrrying on various campaigns elsewhere. The 
 Lombards were again at war with the Popes, and the 
 king of Lombards, Didier, wliose daughter Charlemagne 
 had married and so soon divorced, had now become his 
 bitter foe. The new Pope, Adrian I., sought the aid of 
 Charlemagne in this war with the Lombards, and he pre- 
 pared for this Italian expedition. He raised two armies, 
 — one to cross the Valais and descend upon Lombardy 
 by Mount St. Bernard, and the other, to be led by Charle- 
 magne, was to go by the way of Mount Cenis. Didier 
 had with him a famous Dane, named Ogier, who had quar- 
 relled with Charlemagne and taken refuge in Lombard}'. 
 One of the monks of that time thus describes Charle- 
 magne's arrival before Pavia, where Didier and the Dane 
 Ogier had shut themselves up, as it w^as the strongest 
 place in Lombardy. 
 
 " AYhen Didier and Ogger (for so the monk calls him) 
 heard that the dread monarch was coming, they ascended 
 a tower of vast height, whence they could watch his arri- 
 val from afar off and from every quarter. They saw, 
 first of all, engines of wars, such as must have been 
 necessary for the armies of Darius or Julius Caesar. ' Is 
 not Charles,' asked Didier of Ogger, ' with this great 
 army?' But the other answered, 'No.' The Lombard, 
 seeing afterwards an immense body of soldiery gathered 
 from all quarters of the vast empire, said to Ogger, 
 ' Certes, Charles advauceth in triumph in the midst of 
 this throng.' 'No, not yet; he will not appear so 
 soon,' was the answer. ' What should we do, then,' re- 
 joined Didier, who began to be perturbed, ' should he 
 come accompanied by a larger band of warriors ? ' ' You 
 will see what he is when he comes,' replied Ogger ; ' but 
 as to what will become of us I know nothing.' As they 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 157 
 
 were thus parleying appeared the body of guards that 
 knew no repose, and at this sight the Lombard, overcome 
 with dread, cried, ' This time 'tis surely Charles.' ' No,' 
 answered Ogger, ' not yet.' In their wake came the 
 bishops, the abbots, the ordinaries of the chapels royal, 
 and the counts ; and then Didier, no longer able to bear 
 the li"ht of dav or to face death, cried out with oroans, 
 ' Let us descend and hide ourselves in the bowels of the 
 earth, far from the face and the fury of so terrible a foe.' 
 Trembling the while, Ogger, who knew by experience 
 what were the power and might of Charles, and who had 
 learned the lesson by long usage in better days, then 
 said, ' When ye sliall l)ehold the crops shaking for fear in 
 the fields, and the gloomy Po and the Ticino overflowing 
 the walls of the city with their waves blackened with 
 steel (iron), then may ye think that Charles is coming.' 
 He had not ended these words when there beoan to be 
 seen in the west, as it were, a black cloud, raised b}' the 
 north-west wind or by Boreas, which turned the bright- 
 est day into awful shadows. But as the emperor drew 
 nearer and nearer, the gleam of arms caused to shine on 
 the people shut up within the city a day more gloomy 
 than any kind of night. And then appeared Charles 
 himself, that man of steel, with his head encased in a hel- 
 met of steel, his hands garnished with guantlets of 
 steel, his heart of steel and his shoulders of marble 
 protected by a cuirass of steel, and his left hand armed 
 with a lance of steel which he held aloft in the air, for 
 as to his right hand, he kept that continually on the hilt 
 of his invincible sword. The outside of his thighs, which 
 the rest for their greater ease in mounting a horseback 
 were wont to leare unshackled even by straps, he wore 
 encircled by plates of steel. What shall I say concerning 
 
1 58 C HARLEM A GNE. 
 
 his boots? All the iirmy were wont to have them invaria- 
 bly of steel ; on his buckler there was nought to be seen 
 but steel ; his horse was of the color and the strength of 
 steel. All those who went before the monarch,* all those 
 who marched at his side, all those who followed after, 
 even the whole mass of the army, had armor of the like 
 sort, so far as the means of each permitted. The fields 
 and the highways were covered with steel ; the points of 
 steel reflected the rays of the sun; and this steel, so 
 hard, was borne by a people with hearts iitill harder. 
 The flash of steel spread terror throughout the streets of 
 the city. 'What steel! alack, wliat steel!' Such were 
 the bewildered cries the citizens raised. The firmness of 
 manhood and of youth gave way at sight of the steel, and 
 tlie steel paralyzed the wisdom of the gray beards. That 
 which I, poor tale-teller, mumbling and toothless, have 
 attempted to depict in a long description, Ogger perceived 
 at one rapid glance, and said to Didier, ' Here is what 3^e 
 have so anxiously sought'; and whilst uttering these 
 words he fell down almost lifeless." 
 
 But notwithstanding all King Didier's fear, he and the 
 Lombards ©vinced such resistance, that Charlemagne was 
 obliged to gettle down before Pavia in a long siege. His 
 camp without the city became a town, so that he sent for 
 his wife. Queen Hildegarde, and her court, also his chil- 
 dren and their attendants, and said to the chiefs of his 
 army, "Let us begin b}' doing something memorable." 
 So men were at once set to work to build a basilica, and 
 within a week it was completed, with its walls, roofs, and 
 painted ceilings, w^hich would seemingly have required a 
 3^ear to erect. 
 
 In this chapel, Charlemagne, and his family, court, and 
 warriors, celebrated the festival of Christmas, 773. But 
 
CHA RLE MA GNE. 159 
 
 just before Easter, 774, Charlemagne determined to leave 
 his lieutenants to continue the siege, and attended by a 
 numerous and brilliant retinue, he set off for Rome. On 
 Holy Saturday, when Charlemagne was about three miles 
 from Rome, the magistrates and citizens and pupils of 
 the schools came forth to meet him, bearing palm-branches 
 and singing hymns. At the gate of the city, Charlemagne 
 dismounted before the cross, and entered Rome on foot, 
 and having ascended the steps of the ancient basilica of 
 St. Peter, he was received at the top by the Pope himself. 
 Then a chant was sung by the people all around him : 
 " Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord." 
 
 According to the custom of pilgrims, Charlemagne 
 visited all the basilicas in Rome. He confirmed his 
 father's gift to the former Pope, and added new gifts of 
 his own. The Pope gave to Charlemagne a book con- 
 taining a collection of the canons written by the pontiffs 
 from the origin of the church. This he dedicated to 
 Charlemagne, and wrote in it, "Pope Adrian, to his 
 most excellent son Charlemagne, king." 
 
 Charlemagne then returned to his camp before Pavia, 
 and having captured the city, received the submission of 
 all the Lombards. In 778 Charlemagne had a war with 
 the Arabs in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees and went 
 as far as the Ebro, but the Arabs gave him large gifts of 
 gold and jewels, and persuaded him to spare their fine 
 cities. As he was returning over the mountains, his army 
 was attacked by a wild people called the Basques ; and 
 several of his bravest leaders were killed, among them 
 the famous Roland, concerning whom various stories are 
 told, one being that he blew a blast on his bugle with his 
 last breath, to warn Charlemagne, who was far in the front, 
 of this unexpected danger. Another legend makes him to 
 
160 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 have possessed herculean strength, in token of which a 
 o-reat cleft is shown in the Pyrenean Hills, said to have 
 been made b}' one stroke of his sword, and it bears the 
 name of the '' La Breche de Roland." Pfalgraf, or 
 Count of the Palace, was the name given to some of the 
 bravest Frank lords, and in old romances Roland and 
 others are called the Paladins. 
 
 Charlemagne had three sons, Carl, Pepin, and Lodwig, 
 afterwards called Louis le Debonnaire. In 781 Charle- 
 magne took his two 5^oanger sons, Pepin, aged four, and 
 Louis, only three 3^ears of age, to Rome, where they were 
 anointed by Pope Adrian I., — Pepin as king of Italy, and 
 Louis as king of Aquitaine. On returning from Rome, 
 Charlemaone sent the babv Louis at once to take formal 
 possession of his kingdom. He was carried to Orleans 
 in a cradle, and then the little prince was clad in a tiny 
 suit of armor, and attendants held him up on horseback 
 as he entered his kingdom of Aquitaine. He was accom- 
 panied by many officers and men of state who were to 
 form his council of guardians. Afterwards the poor 
 baby king was taken back to his father's palace to be 
 educated. 
 
 Charlemagne founded Aix-la-Chapelle and made it his 
 favorite winter residence. He went out to fight each 
 summer, and came back to his kingdom in the winter. He 
 was very seldom defeated in war, for he was wise and 
 energetic, and moved his army about so quickly that he A 
 was a match for much larger forces than his own. He 
 held a council of war every Easter when all his chiefs 
 assembled, and Charlemagne made known to them his 
 plans for his coming campaign. He made improvements 
 in the armor and weapons of his soldiers. Their helmets 
 were provided with visors which could be brought down 
 
DEATH OF ROLAND. 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 161 
 
 to protect their faces in battle, aud their shields were 
 long and large, instead of the small round skin-covered 
 bucklers of the early Gauls. His soldiers fought with 
 sharp-pointed, two-handed swords, and they employed 
 also heavy clubs covered with iron knobs, which were 
 most formidable weapons. Charlemagne's forces were 
 mounted on strong fleet horses from the Rhine, and so 
 great was his knowledge of all the surrounding countries, 
 that he could despatch an army to an}- part of his king- 
 dom at short notice, and with perfect accuracy as to 
 route. 
 
 On the 2od of November, 800, Charlemagne arrived 
 at Rome, where he was met by Pope Leo III., whom he 
 had several times aided in conflicts with his enemies, at 
 one time receiving Leo into his own palace for a year, 
 when conspirators at Rome were seeking the Pope's life. 
 In return for these favors, and to secure the help of so 
 mighty a warrior. Pope Leo crowned Charlemagne Em- 
 peror of Rome. The ceremony was performed on Christ- 
 mas day, 800. Eginhard thus described the scene : " The 
 king came into the basilica of the blessed St. Peter, apos- 
 tle, to attend the celebration of mass. At the moment 
 when in his place before the altar he was bowing down 
 to pray. Pope Leo placed upon his head a crown, and all 
 the Roman people shouted, ' Long life and victory to 
 Charles Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific 
 emperor of the Romans ! ' After this proclamation the 
 pontiff prostrated himself before him, and paid him ado- 
 ration according to the custom established in the days of 
 the old emperors ; and thenceforward Charles, giving up 
 the title of patrician, bore that of emperor and Augus- 
 tus." Charlemagne had now become emperor of France, 
 of Germany, and of Italy. 
 
162 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 But it is not only as a great warrior that Charlemagne 
 is famous. His government was a model for those times, 
 and he held his subjects, so diverse as to nationality and 
 education, under a most wise and powerful authority ; and 
 out of a chaos of different nations — the wild anarch}' of 
 ruined Rome, and the ill-regulated force of barbaric 
 hordes — he founded a monarchy strong in him alone, and 
 though it fell at his death, each piece of his great empire 
 possessed enough of the vitalizing force, which his mind 
 and wisdom had given to it, to enable it to rise an empire 
 by itself. So, though Charlemagne's kingdom could not 
 be preserved by his successors, from that great power 
 rose the separate empires of France, German}', and Italy. 
 One of Charlemagne's humane acts was his care for the 
 slaves in Gaul. At that time all the chiefs were warriors, 
 while their lands were tilled by serfs, or slaves, who went 
 with the land as part of the property, whether bought or 
 captured. He made laws to protect the slaves as far as 
 possible against unjust and cruel masters. 
 
 Charlemagne was also fond of study. He learned 
 Latin and Greek, and improved his native German lan- 
 guage by inventing German words for the months and 
 the winds. He paid great attention to astronomy and 
 music, and in theological studies evinced a strong inter- 
 est. He caused to be commenced the first Germanic 
 grammar. But with all his learning there was one thing 
 he could not accomplish, which was to write a good hand, 
 though he zealously practiced the art, even putting his 
 little tablets under his pillow that he might catch at any 
 odd moments day or night to perfect his imperfect writ- 
 ing. At whatever palace Charlemagne was residing, he 
 always formed there a school called the School of the 
 Palace, where many learned men were gathered together, 
 
CHA RLE MA GNE. 163 
 
 and where members of the royal famil3-, inchuling Charle- 
 magne himself, and his cliildren, took lessons in the 
 different sciences, grammar, rhetoric, and theology. Two 
 names are famous among these wise men, who became 
 the particular advisers and confidants of Charlemagne, 
 Alcuin and Eginhard, who afterwards became the biog- 
 rapher of Charlemagne, and the adviser of his son Louis 
 le Debonnaire. It was the custom for members of this 
 school to assume other names than their own : thus 
 Charlemagne was called David; Alcuin, Flaccus ; Angil- 
 bert, Homer; and Eginhard, Bezaleel, — that nepliew of 
 Moses to whom God had granted the gift of knowing how 
 to work skilfully in wood and all materials needed for 
 the ark and tabernacle. All of these scholars afterwards 
 ])ecame great dignitaries in tlie church. Ciiarlemagne 
 was of a cheerful disposition, and fond of hunting and 
 other sports. He was especially expert in swimming. 
 He sometimes played jokes upon his chiefs and nobles, and 
 the old monks of his time tell several stories regarding 
 his sly Immor. At one time when he thought his cour- 
 tiers were too much given to fine clothes, he commanded a 
 party of them when decked out in their finest trappings, to 
 follow iiim in the chase through the rain, mud, and bram- 
 bles. He was of a tall figure, and though his dress was 
 rich and gorgeous when the occasion demanded it, he was 
 not fond of finery. His appearance is thus described by 
 P^ginhard : — 
 
 " Charlemagne was large and robust in person, his 
 stature was lofty, though it did not exceed just propor- 
 tion, for his height was not more than seven times the 
 length of his foot. The summit of his head was round, 
 his eyes large and bright, his nose a little long, beautiful 
 white hair, and a smiling and pleasant expression. There 
 
164 CHA RLE MA ONE. 
 
 reigned in his whole person, whether standing or seated, 
 an air of grandeur and dignity ; and tliough his neck was 
 thick and short, and his bod}^ corpulent, yet he was in 
 other respects so well proportioned that these defects 
 were not noticed. His walk was firm, and his whole 
 appearance manly, but his clear voice did not quite har- 
 monize with his appearance. His health was always 
 good, except during the four years which preceded his 
 death. He then had frequent attacks of fever, and was 
 lame of one foot. In this time of suffering he treated 
 himself more accordingly to his own fancies than by the 
 advice of the physicians, wiiom he had come to dislike 
 because they would have had him abstain from the roast 
 meats he was accustomed to, and would have restricted 
 him to boiled meats. His dress was that of his nation ; 
 that is to say, of the P^ranks. He wore a shirt and 
 drawers of linen, over them a tunic bordered with silken 
 fringe, stockings fastened with narrow bands, and shoes. 
 In winter, a coat of otter or martin fur covered his shoul- 
 ders and breast. Over all he wore a long l)lue mantle." 
 
 He would not adopt the short mantle worn by the later 
 Franks, but preferred the long cloak of the ancient 
 Franks, which made him a distmguished and royal-look- 
 ing person amidst his short-cloaked courtiers. He was 
 alwa^'s girded with his sword, which became so famous 
 that it received the name of Joyeuse, whose hilt was 
 of gold and silver, his girdle being also of gold. Upon 
 solemn festive occasions this sword was replaced by one 
 enriched with precious stones. After he became Emperor 
 he sometimes wore the long tunic, the chlamys. and the 
 sandals of the Romans. At great feasts or festivals his 
 dress was embroidered with gold, and his shoes adorned 
 with precious stones. His mantle was fastened with a 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 165 
 
 brooch of gold, and he wore upon his head a ghstenhio- 
 diadem of gold and gems;' but his usual dress was sim- 
 ple. He avoided all excesses at the ta,ble, particularly 
 that of drinking, for lie abhorred drunkenness. While 
 he was dining he liked to have histories or poems read to 
 him. He took great pleasure in the works of St. Augus- 
 tine. He was endowed with a natural eloquence whicii 
 rendered his speech delightful. His chosen name of 
 David was not inappropriate, for he was a founder and 
 benefactor of the church, and was very devout in the out- 
 ward observances of the Christian religion ; but his domes- 
 tic life was an irretrievable blot upon his character, whicli 
 no plea of the laxity of those times can remove. It is 
 true that the same fault mars the greatness of Alexan- 
 der, Julius Caesar, and other famous rulers ; but Alex- 
 ander and C?esar were not Christians, while Charlemacrue 
 stands forth as the great champion and upholder of the 
 religion of the spotless Christ. Charlemagne caused to 
 be erected at Aix-la-Chapelle a magnificent basilica, or 
 chapel, which he adorned with gold and silver, and with 
 screens and gates of brass from Rome, and marbles and 
 columns from Ravenna. He always attended service here 
 night and morning, and often arose to assist at some espe- 
 cial worship in the night. He introduced great improve- 
 ments in the lessons and the psalmody, and is said to 
 have composed several h3^mns, among them the "Veni 
 Creator Spiritus," that invocation of the Holy Spirit 
 which is sung at ordinations. Charlemagne was always 
 ready to help poor Christians, not only in his own king- 
 dom, but in Syria, Egypt, in Africa, at Jerusalem, Alex- 
 andria, Carthage, and elsewhere. Of all the holy places 
 he had most veneration for the Church of St. Peter at 
 Rome. He sent rich gifts of gold and silver and pre- 
 
166 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 cions stones to that cathedral, for he desired to make it 
 surpass all other churches in its decorations and riches. 
 But he was only able to go four times during his reign of 
 fortv-seven years, to visit that cherished place. Toward 
 the end of his vigorous life and magnificent career, the 
 Emperor Charlemagne met with severe family losses. In 
 less than two years his sister, daughter, and his sons, the 
 two Pepins, one of whom was a hunchback, died; and 
 lastly his son Charles, whom he intended should be 
 crowned emperor, also died, leaving only Louis and sev- 
 eral daughters. But Louis was the worthiest of all the sons 
 of Charlemagne to succeed his illustrious father. In the 
 vear 813 Charlemagne, fearing that his end was drawing 
 near, assembled all his chief men at Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
 in a grand ceremonial in the chapel he caused his son to 
 be declared emperor, bidding him take the diadem himself 
 from the altar, and place it on his own head, whereupon 
 Charlemagne exclaimed, " Blessed be the Lord, who hath 
 granted me to see my son sitting on my throne ! " But 
 he did not at that time resign the crown. Louis went 
 back to his kingdom in Aquitaine ; and Charlemagne, in 
 spite of his growing infirmities, continued through the 
 autumn his usual hunting excursions, returning to Aix in 
 November. In January Charlemagne was seized with a 
 fever, but he determined to doctor himself, as was his 
 usual method, which was to "starve" the fever. But 
 pleuris}^ set in, and still refusing to be ministered to by 
 physicians, on the seventh day after he had taken to his 
 bed, having received communion, he expired about nine 
 o'clock in the morning on the 28th of January, 814, in 
 the seventy-first year of his age, and the forty-seventh 
 year of his reign. He was buried with unusual grandeur. 
 A large and beautifully carved sarcophagus of classical 
 
CHARLEMA GNE. \ 7 
 
 workmanship, was lying empty in the basilica of Aix. 
 But they placed Charlemagne in a large marble chair in 
 the crypt beneath the dome of his great basilica. The 
 chair was ornamented with gold, and Charlemagne was 
 clad in his royal robes with his sparkling crown upon his 
 head, and his royal sceptre in his hand, and the oood 
 sword Joyeuse, which had served him in so many famous 
 battles, was girded to his side, while his pilgrim's pouch 
 was suspended from his girdle, and a copy of the Gospels 
 was laid upon his knees. Thus was he seated on the 
 throne chair, with his feet resting in the carved sarcopha- 
 gus, as though the great emperor was not to be shut up 
 in a coffin like common mortals, but even in death still 
 sat upon his throne in royal state. Beneath the dome, 
 on the stone which closed the entrance to the toml), was 
 carved the following epitaph in Latin : — 
 
 " In this tomb reposeth the body of Charles, great and 
 orthodox emperor, who did gloriously extend the king- 
 dom of the Franks, and did govern it happily for forty- 
 seven years. He died at the age of seventy 3'ears, in the 
 year of the Lord, 814, in the seventh year of the Indica- 
 tion, on the fifth of the Kalends of February." 
 
 This crypt was opened two hundred years afterwards 
 by the Emperor Otho III., when he found the remains of 
 Charlemagne, as described above. A huge black flag- 
 stone now lies under the dome, bearing the inscription, 
 '' Carolo Magno," and it is supposed to cover the entrance 
 to the tomb of Charlemagne. Over it hangs a large 
 golden candelabrum which the Emperor Barbarossa gave 
 to burn above the grave. In the time of Barbarossa, the 
 church enrolled the name of the great emperor in its 
 Calendar as St. Charlemagne. 
 
 No sovereign ever rendered greater service to the civil- 
 
168 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 ized world than Charlemagne, by stopping in the north 
 and south ,the flood of barbarians and Arabs, Paganism 
 and Islamism. This was his great success, and although 
 he ultimately failed in founding a permanent empire 
 which should exist in unity and absolute power after his 
 death, though at one time he seemed to be Caesar, 
 Auo-ustus, and Constantine combined, his death ended 
 his empire ; but he had opened the way for the Christian 
 relio'ion and human liberty to establish other and more 
 lasting governments. The illustrious French writer, 
 Guizot, thus sums up the life and achievements of Charle- 
 magne. '' Great men are at one and the same time in- 
 struments and free agents in a general design which is 
 infinitely above their ken, and which, even if a glimpse 
 of it be caught, remains inscrutable to them, — the 
 design of God towards mankind. Charlemagne had this 
 singular good fortune, that his misguided attempt at im- 
 perialism perished with him, whilst his salutary achieve- 
 ment, the territorial security of Christian Europe, has 
 been durable to the great honor, as well as great profit, of 
 European civilization." 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 169 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 849-901 A.D. 
 
 "An honest man's the noblest work of God." 
 
 Pope, 
 
 Q TORY and song imvc immortalized the romantic tradl^ 
 f^ tions regarding the early inhabitants of the British 
 realm, and although many of them are no doubt fabulous 
 tales, the romantic history of Alfred the Great would be 
 robbed of much of its weird fascination if no mention 
 were made of these fantastic but cliarming traditions. 
 King Alfred's reign was eight hundred years after the 
 Christian Era. Authentic history takes us back through 
 those eight hundred years to the time of Julius C^str 
 and his invasion of Great Britain, and traditions carry 
 us still farther back, for eight hundred years more, t^ 
 the days of .Solomon. 
 
 There is a story that at the close of the Trojan war 
 whieli we have described in the life of Agamemnon, ^neas 
 landed in Italy with a company of Trojans. They settled 
 near the spot upon which Rome was afterwards bnilt. 
 One day, while Brutus, the great-grandson of ^neas, 
 was htmtmg in the forests, he accidentallv killed his father 
 With an arrow. Brutus, fearing evil consequences from 
 tins terrible accident, fled from Italy. Going to Greece, 
 he collected a band of Trojans, and they made war upon 
 a king named Pandrasus. Brutus conquered this kina 
 but promised to make peace with him if he would ao-ree 
 to provide a fleet of ships for Brutus, and give him"his 
 
170 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 daughter in marriage. This Pandrasus did, and Brutus 
 sailed with his bride and fleet, until they arrived at a de- 
 serted island, upon which they found the ruins of a city 
 and an ancient temple of Diana, where there still remained 
 an image of the goddess. 
 
 The story goes that Brutus consulted this oracle of 
 Diana, and received the following answer : — 
 
 "Far to the West, in the ocean wide, 
 Beyond the realm of Gaul, a land there lies ; 
 Sea-girt it lies, where giants dwelt of old. 
 Now void, it fits thy people ; thither bend 
 Thy course ; there shalt thou find a lasting home." 
 
 Brutus followed this direction, and proceeded westward 
 through the Mediterranean Sea. He arrived at the Pil- 
 lars of Hercules, which was the name given in those days 
 to the E-ock of Gibraltar, and then he turned northward 
 and coasted along Spain. At length they arrived on the 
 shores of Britain. They found the island covered with 
 rich verdure, and in the forests were mau}^ wild beasts 
 and the remnants of a race of giants. 
 
 Brutus and his forces drove the wild beasts into the 
 mountains of Wales and Scotland, and killed the giants, 
 and seized upon the island as their own. Man}' wild 
 adventures are told of his successors, down to the time 
 of the invasion of Julius Caesar. Such is the story in 
 brief of the earl}- Britons. 
 
 After the conquest by Caesar, the Romans retained pos- 
 session of the island for four hundred years. During 
 this time there were man}^ rebellions in the various prov- 
 inces, until at last the Britons submitted to their sway. 
 Now another enemy advanced against this picturesque 
 island. The Picts and Scots, hordes of lawless bar- 
 barians, who inhabited the mountains of Ireland and 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 171 
 
 Scotland, made continual expeditions for plunder into 
 the fair land of the Britons. At length one of the 
 Roman emperors named Severus, visited the island of 
 Britain, and endeavored to conquer the Picts and Scots. 
 It was at this time that the famous Wall of Severus was 
 built. The wall extended across the island, from the 
 mouth of the Tyne on the German Ocean, to the Sol way 
 Frith, nearlv seventv miles. This wall was a oood de- 
 fence against the barbarians, as long as Roman soldiers 
 remained to guard it. But about two centuries after the 
 time of Severus, the Roman soldiers were required by 
 their own government at home, and the Britons were left 
 to fight with the Picts and Scots alone. During this 
 time another brave and warlike race had arisen. The 
 Anglo-Saxons had now become powerful sea-rulers on 
 the German Ocean and Baltic Sea. They delighted in 
 storms and tempests, and cared not whether it was sum- 
 mer or winter when they sailed the seas, so brave and 
 fearless were they. They would build small vessels of 
 osiers, covering them with skins, and in these frail boats 
 they courageously sailed amidst the rough winds and 
 foaming surges of the German Ocean, in search of con- 
 quest and wild adventure. If they fought they con- 
 quered, and if they pursued their enemies they were sure 
 to overtake them, and if they retreated they successfully 
 made their escape. Neither wnnds, waves, nor enemies 
 could quell this adventurous and brave race, which was 
 fast rising into power and renown. They were clothed 
 in loose and flowing garments, and wore their hair long, 
 floating about their shoulders. They had much skill in 
 fabricating arms of superior workmanship, which gave 
 them a great advantage over their enemies. The landing 
 of a few boat-loads of these determined and fearless 
 
172 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, on a small island near the mouth of the 
 Thames, was an event which marks an important epoch 
 in English history, as it was the real beginning of British 
 o-reatness and power. The names of the commanders 
 who headed the expedition of the Anglo-Saxons which 
 first landed in Britain, were Hengist and Horsa. They 
 were brothers. The island where they landed was called 
 Thanet. The name of the king of Britain at this time 
 was Vortigern. When the Anglo-Saxons arrived, his 
 kingdom was distracted by the constant incursions of the 
 Picts and Scots. In this danger, Vortigern appealed to 
 the Anglo-Saxons for help. He offered to give them a 
 large tract of territory in the part of the island where 
 they had landed, if they would aid him in liis contest 
 with his enemies. Hengist and Horsa agreed to this pro- 
 posal, and they thereupon engaged in battle with the 
 Picts and Scots, and defeated them, and they were driven 
 back to their mountains in the north. The Anglo-Sax- 
 ons now established themselves in the part of tiie island 
 assigned to them, and it is related that Hengist gave his 
 daughter Rowena in marriage to King Vortigern, to 
 strengthen the alliance more closely. At last the Britons 
 became alarmed at the increasing power of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, and the result was a fierce contest. It is related 
 that King Vortigern, with three hundred of his oflficers, 
 were invited by Hengist to a feast, and a quarrel liaving 
 arisen, an affray occurred in which the Britons were all 
 killed, except Vortigern who was taken prisoner, and was 
 only ransomed by ceding three whole provinces to his 
 captors. 
 
 The famous King Arthur, whose Knights of the Round 
 Table have been so celebrated in fable and song, was a 
 king of the Britons during these wars between his people 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 173 
 
 and the Saxons. He is said to have performed marvel- 
 lous exploits of strength and valor. He was of pro- 
 digious size, and undaunted courage. He slew giants, 
 killed the most ferocious wild beasts, gained many splen- 
 did victories, and is said to have made long expeditions 
 into foreign countries, once even going to Jerusalem on 
 a pilgrimage to obtain the Holy Cross. He was after- 
 wards killed in a combat with his nephew, who had 
 gained the affections of Arthur's wife during his absence. 
 Arthur had been a deadly enemy of the Saxons. He 
 fought twelve great pitched battles with them, in every 
 one of which he gained the victory. It is related that he 
 killed with his own hand, four hundred and seventy men 
 in one of these contests. The landing of the Saxons, 
 under Hengist and Horsa, is supposed to have been in 
 the year 449. It was more than two hundred years after 
 this before the Britons were entirely subdued, and the 
 Saxon power became supreme. In one or two centuries 
 more the Saxons had, in their turn, to meet an implaca- 
 ble and powerful enemy. These new invaders were the 
 Danes. 
 
 The territory of Britain was divided into seven or eight 
 Saxon kingdoms, each under a separate king. This 
 power is known in historj- as the Saxon Heptarchy. 
 The Danes were not exclusively the natives of Denmark. 
 They came from all the shores of the Northern and Bal- 
 tic Seas. They were a race of bold naval adventurers, 
 as the Saxons themselves had been two or three centuries 
 before. They were banded together in large hordes, each 
 ruled by a chieftain, called a sea-king. One of the most 
 famous of these sea-kings was named Raonar Lodbroo;. 
 His father was a prince of Norway, and Ragnar had 
 married a Danish princess, and had acquired a sort of 
 
174 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 right to a Danish kingdom, which right was disputed by 
 one Harald. The Franks aided Harald in this contest, 
 and Ragnar was defeated. But he now brought the other 
 sea-kings under his control, and raising a hirge force, he 
 invaded France, and landing at Rouen he marched to 
 Paris. The king of the Franks finding himself com- 
 pletely in his power, bought off the sea-kings by paying 
 a large sum of money, and Ragnar and his hordes re- 
 turned to the Baltic Sea with riches and wide renown for 
 their daring adventures. Ragnar afterwards invaded 
 Spain, and finally grew bold enough to attack the Anglo- 
 Saxons on the island of Britain. For this contest, Rag- 
 nar had prepared two enormous ships, and, filling* them 
 with picked men, he sailed down the coast of Scotland 
 until he reached Northumbria. Here he encountered a 
 large force of Saxons under their king Ella. A terrible 
 struggle ensued. Ragnar was defeated and taken pris- 
 oner, and was afterwards put to death in a barbarous 
 manner by the Saxons. They filled a den with poison- 
 ous snakes, and drove the captive Ragnar amongst these 
 horrid reptiles, by whose venomous fangs he was killed. 
 In 851 a large horde of Danes landed on the island of 
 Thanet, and afterwards advanced boldly up the Thames. 
 They plundered London and Canterbury, and marched 
 thence into one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, called 
 Mercia. Although the Danes were there defeated by a 
 large force of Saxons, new hordes were continually arriv- 
 ino-, and becoming more formidable. At length an im- 
 mence force of Danes landed, under the command of 
 Guthrum and Hubba. This horde was led by eight 
 kings and twenty earls. Hubba was one of Ragnar's 
 sons, and many of the horde were his relatives and 
 friends, who swore venojeance for his cruel death. It 
 
THE NORTHMEN INVADING FRANCE. 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 175 
 
 was at this time that young Alfred appears prominently 
 upon the scene of English history. 
 
 Alfred was the youngest child of Ethel wolf, king of 
 the West Saxons. Under Egbert, the father of Ethel- 
 wolf, the kingdoms of the West Saxons had been united ; 
 and Egbert is called king of the English, he havino- 
 iiiven the name of Anglia to the whole kinodom. 
 
 When young Alfred was fiye years old, his father sent 
 him to Rome to see the Pope, and to be anointed by him 
 as king of the West Saxons ; as Ethelwolf intended to 
 pass oyer his elder sons and give his throne to his favor- 
 ite son Alfred. This journey was made with great pomp 
 and splendor ; and a large train of nobles and ecclesias- 
 tics accompanied the young prince, who was received 
 with splendid entertainments as he passed through 
 France. Two years after this journey, Alfred's father 
 Ethelwolf determined himself to go to Rome, and his 
 favorite son accompanied him. Ethelwolf placed his 
 elder sons in command of his affairs at home, and with 
 a magnificent retinue crossed the channel, and landed in 
 France on his way to Rome. King Ethelwolf and Prince 
 Alfred were received with great distinction b}' King 
 Charles of France, and after a short stay in the French 
 court they proceeded to Rome. The king of England 
 carried most costly presents to the Pope. Ethelwolf had 
 been educated for the monastery, as he was a younger 
 son, but the death of his father and elder brother placed 
 him on the throne instead of in an ecclesiastical office. 
 Therefore his religious inclinations were always very 
 strong, and this pilgrimage to Rome was made as a re- 
 ligious ceremony as well as for political objects, and his 
 offerings were very magnificent. One gift was a crown of 
 pure gold, weighing four pounds. Another was a sword 
 
176 ALFRED THE ORE AT. 
 
 richly mounted in gold. There were also iniiuy vessels 
 of "old and silver, and several robes richly adorned. 
 Kino- Ethelwolf also distributed money to all the inhabit- 
 ants of Rome ; giving gold to the nobles and clergy, and 
 silver to the people. So great was his munificence, and 
 so maonificent was his courtly retinue, that this visit 
 attracted universal attention, and made the little Alfred, 
 on whose especial account the journey was performed, an 
 object of great interest. King Ethelwolf remained a 
 vear at Rome, to give young Alfred the benefit of the 
 advantao-es of the schools which had been established 
 there. As they returned home through France, King 
 Ethelwolf was married to the young daughter of the king 
 of France, Princess Judith, who was only twelve or 
 fourteen years of age. The mother of Alfred had died 
 about three years before, and although this marriage 
 occasioned much trouble in the kingdom of Ethelwolf, 
 the young bride Judith was a kind and affectionate step- 
 mother to Alfred, who was at this time about eight 3'ears 
 of age. The story is related, that on one occasion Juditli 
 was showing Alfred and his older brothers a manuscript 
 of some Saxon poems. Although much care had been 
 bestowed upon the education of Alfred, he could not yet 
 read. Indeed, very few even of the princes or kings in 
 those davs ever learned to read. Readino- was considered 
 as a necessar}' art, only for those who were to become 
 professional teachers. Alfred expressed so much delight 
 in this manuscript, which was beautifully illuminated with 
 hand drawings, that Judith promised the volume to the 
 one who should first learn to read it. Alfred's brothers, 
 although much older, did not aspire to this honor, and 
 Alfred made such diligent use of his time, that with the 
 help of his teachers he was soon able to read the poems 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. I77 
 
 fluently, and so claimed and received the prize. About 
 two years after, the father of Alfred died, and Judith be- 
 came the wife of Ethelbald, the eldest brother of Alfred, 
 who succeeded to the throne. He died soon after, how- 
 ever, and Judith returned to France, where she married 
 a Flemish noble, whom her father afterwards made Count 
 of Flanders. We cannot stop to trace the life of Judith 
 any farther, but we must mention that Alfred the Great 
 afterwards gave his daughter Elfrida in marriage to the 
 second count of Flanders, who was the eldest son of 
 Judith. Through this marriage the English sovereigns 
 trace their descent from Alfred the Great. 
 
 There is a strange story connected with the youth of Al- 
 fred, which is best given in the quaint language of one of 
 the biographers of this good and brave king. "As he 
 advanced through the years of infancy and youth, his 
 form appeared more comely than those of his brothers, 
 and in look, speech, and manners he was more graceful 
 than they. He was already the darling of the people, who 
 felt that in wisdom and other qualities he surpassed all 
 the royal race. Alfred, then, being a youth of this fair 
 promise, while training himself diligently in all such learn- 
 ing as he had the means of acquiring, and especially in 
 his own mother tongue and the poems and songs which 
 formed the chief part of Anglo-Saxon literature, was not 
 unmindful of the culture of his body, and was a zealous 
 practiser of hunting in all its branches, and hunted with 
 great perseverance and success. But before all things he 
 was wishful to strengthen his mind in the keeping of 
 God's commandments ; and finding that worldly desires 
 and proud and rebellious thoughts which the devil, who is 
 ever jealous of the good, is apt to breed in the minds of 
 the young, were likely to have the mastery of him, he 
 
■^r-g ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 used often to rise at cock-crow in the early mornings, and 
 repairing to some church or holy place, there cast himself 
 before God in prayer, that he might do nothing contrary 
 to His holy will. But finding himself still hard tempted, 
 he began at such times to pray, as he lay prostrate before 
 the altar, that God in his great mercy would strengthen 
 his mind and will by some sickness, such as would be of 
 use to him in the subduing of his nature, but would not 
 show itself outwardly, or render him powerless or con- 
 temptible in worldly duties, or less able to benefit his 
 people. For King Alfred from his earliest years held in 
 great dread leprosy and blindness, and every disease 
 which would make a man useless or contemptible in the 
 conduct of affairs. And when he had often, and with 
 much fervor, prayed to this effect, it pleased God to afflict 
 him with a very painful disease, which lay upon him with 
 little respite until he was in his twentieth year. At this 
 age he became betrothed to her who was afterwards his 
 ^^^ife, Elswitha, the daughter of Ethelred, the Earl of the 
 Gaini in Mercia. Alfred, then, at that time being on a 
 Yisit to Cornwall for the sake of hunting, turned aside 
 from his sport, as his custom often was, to pray in a cer- 
 tain chapel in which was buried the body of St. Guerir. 
 There he entreated God that he would exchange the sick- 
 ness with which he had been up to that time afflicted for 
 some other disease, which should in like manner not ren- 
 der him useless or contemptible. And so, finishing his 
 prayers, he got up and rode away, and soon after per- 
 ceived within himself that he was made whole of his old 
 sickness. So his marriage was celebrated in Mercia, to 
 which came great numbers of people, and there was feast- 
 ing which lasted through the night as well as by day. In 
 the midst of which revelry Alfred was attacked by sudden 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 179 
 
 and violent pain, the cause of which neither the}^ who were 
 then present, nor indeed any physician in after years, 
 could rightly ascertain. At the time, however, some 
 believed that it was the malignant enchantment of some 
 person amongst the guests ; others, that it was the special 
 spite of the devil ; others again, that it was the old sick- 
 ness come back on him, or a strange kind of fever. In 
 an}' case, from that day until his forty-fourth year he was 
 subject to this same sickness, which frequently returned, 
 giving him the most acute pain, and, as he thought, mak- 
 ing him useless for every duty. But how far the king was 
 from thinking rightly in this respect, those who read of 
 the burdens that were laid upon him, and the work which 
 he accomplished, can best judge for themselves." Such 
 is this quaint account of Alfred's religious devotion, and 
 his patient endurance of suffering. 
 
 According to the will of Ethelwolf , the father of Alfred, 
 Ethelbald, his eldest son, was to retain tlie throne of Wes- 
 sex until his death, when he should be succeeded by his 
 two youngest brothers, Ethelred and Alfred, in succes- 
 sion ; while Ethelbert, the second son, should be king of 
 Kent, Sussex, and Surrey. Plis estates and other prop- 
 erty were divided amongst his children. From 85<S until 
 860 Ethelred and Alfred lived in Kent with their brother 
 Ethelbert. Upon the death of Ethelbald in 860, Ethel- 
 red and Alfred both waived their rights, and allowed 
 Ethelbert to ascend the throne of Wessex. In ^QQ Ethel- 
 bert also died, and Ethelred now became the sovereign, 
 and Alfred the crown prince. Alfred was very fond of 
 study, and also very devout, as the above description 
 from the old annals shows. During his youth he had 
 gathered together the Services of the Hours, called Cele- 
 brationes Horarum^ with many of the Psalms, which he had 
 
jgQ ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 written in a small handbook that he always carried with 
 him • and on battle-field, or exiled in the wild forests, or 
 ruling the nation as a proud king, this little book of devo- 
 tion was always within reach, and constantly perused. 
 
 Within six weeks after his marriage he was called to 
 arms by the invasion of the Danes, already mentioned, 
 under Guthrum and Hubba ; and within a few short 
 months his brother P:thelred had been killed in battle, he 
 himself had become king, and nine pitched battles had 
 been fought in his own kingdom of Wessex under his 
 
 leadership. 
 
 To understand more clearly the character of the Danes, 
 a sUght description of their weird and fantastic religious 
 ideas is necessary. Woden was the chief figure in their 
 ancient mythology. He was the god of battles, ^^ who 
 o-iveth victory, who re-animates warriors, who nameth 
 those who are to be slain." This Woden had been an 
 inspired teacher as well as a conqueror, and had given to 
 these wild Northmen a Scandinavian alphabet, and songs 
 of battle. Their traditions related that Woden had led 
 theni from the shores of the Black Sea to the fiords of 
 Norway, the far shores of Iceland. Having departed 
 from them, he drew their hearts after him, and lived ever 
 after m Asgard, the garden of the gods. There in his 
 own great hall, Valhalla, the hall of Odin, he dwelt. 
 And it was believed that the brave slain in battle should 
 be permitted to go to Valhalla, and feast there with the 
 
 mighty Odin. 
 
 There were also supposed to be other gods in this hall 
 of Valhalla. Chief of these was Balder, the sun-god, 
 white, beautiful, benignant ; and Thor, the thunder-god, 
 with terrible smiting hammer and awful brows, engaged 
 mainly in expeditious into Jotun land, a chaotic world. 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 181 
 
 the residence of the giants, or devils, known as frost, fire, 
 tempest, and the like. Thor's attendant was Thealfi, 
 or manual labor. This thunder-god was described to be 
 full of unwieldly strength, simplicity, and rough humor. 
 There w^as supposed to be a tree of life also in the unseen 
 world, — Igdrasil, wdth its roots in Hela, the kingdom of 
 death, at the foot of which sit the three Nomas, known 
 as the past, present, and future. They also believed that 
 there would some day be a struggle of the gods and Jo- 
 tuns, or dwellers in the chaotic world, and that at last the* 
 gods, Jotuns, and Time himself would all sink down into 
 darkness, from which in due season there should issue 
 forth a new heaven and a new earth, in which a higher 
 god and supreme justice shall at last reign. 
 
 So their religion was only a religion of war ; and, to be 
 brave in battle, they thought the most pleasing devotion 
 they could show to their warlike gods. So this contest 
 between the Danes and Saxons was not only one for the 
 possession of the fruitful land of England, but was a 
 contest between Paganism and Christianity. King Alfred 
 was a devout Christian, and although the Saxons' ideas of 
 religion were mixed with much superstition and bigotry', 
 they believed in the true God, Jehovah, and in salvation 
 through the redemption of Jesus Christ ; although the 
 pure Gospel, as taught by Christ himself when on the 
 earth more than eight hundred 3^ears before this time, had 
 become mixed with all sorts of legends of saints and 
 marvellous stories fabricated by the priests, and handed 
 down as traditions among the people, whose ignorance 
 placed them completely under the sway of the only class 
 of men who were educated sufficientl}^ to read and write, 
 and by whom all copies were made of such books as they 
 possessed at that day, which consisted only of rolls of 
 
182 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 parchment, penned laboriously by hand in the various 
 monasteries, scattered throughout the different kingdoms 
 of the then civilized world. The most famous battle 
 between the Saxons and the Danes is known as the 
 battle of Ashdown, and is thus described in the old Eng- 
 lish annals : — 
 
 "At early dawn the hosts were on foot. Alfred 
 marched up promptly with his men to give battle, but 
 King Ethelred stayed long time in his tent at prayer hear- 
 hig the mass. Now the Christians had determined that 
 King Ethelred with his men should fight the two pagan 
 kings, and that Alfred his brother, with his men, should 
 take the chance of war against the earls. Things being 
 so arranged, the king remained long time in prayer, while 
 the pagans pressed on swiftly to the fight. Then Alfred, 
 though holding the lower command, could no longer sup- 
 port the onslaught of the enemy without retreating, or 
 charging upon them without waiting for his brother. A 
 moment of fearful anxiety was this foi^he young prince, 
 who thus no doubt mused : ' Bagsac and the two Sidrocs 
 at the top of the down with double my numbers, already 
 overlapping my flanks: Ethelred still at mass — dare I 
 go up at them? In the name of God and St. Cuthbert, 
 yes ! ' and with a strong heart, brave for this great crisis, 
 Alfred puts himself at the head of his men, and leads 
 them up the slope against the whole pagan host, ' With 
 the rush of a wild boar.' For he too relied on the help 
 of God. He formed his men in a dense phalanx to meet 
 the foe, which was never broken in that long fight. Mass 
 being over, Ethelred comes up to the help of his Ijrother, 
 and the battle raged along the whole hillside. The 
 pagans occupied the higher ground, and the Christians 
 came up from below. There was also in that place, a 
 

 mini iff' 
 
 
 ■Ill 
 
 ilia 
 
 m 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 183 
 
 single stunted thorn-tree. Round this tree the opposing 
 hosts came together with loud shouts from all sides, the 
 one party to pursue their wicked course, the other to fight 
 for their lives, their wives and children, and their country. 
 And, when both sides had fought long and bravely, at 
 last the pagans, by God's judgment, gave way, being no 
 longer able to abide the Christian onslaught ; and after 
 losing a great part of their army, broke in shameful flight. 
 One of their two kings and five earls were there slain, 
 together with many thousand pagans, who covered with 
 their bodies the whole plain of Ashdown. And all the 
 pagan host pursued its flight, not only until night, but 
 through the next day, even until they reached the strong- 
 hold from which they had come forth. The Christians 
 followed, slaying all they could reach until dark. Nei- 
 ther before nor since was ever such slaughter known since 
 the Saxons first gained England by their arms." 
 
 Alfred's decision and promptness, in that time of emer- 
 gency, not only won the day, but hardened his own nerve 
 to flint, and his judgment, amid the clash of arms, to 
 steel. Through all the weary years of battle and misfor- 
 tune that followed, there was no sign of indecision and 
 faint-heartedness. He had conquered fear and hesitancy 
 there, as valiantly as he had conquered temptations to 
 evil in his earlier youth. About two months after the 
 battle of Ashdown, Ethelred and Alfred fought for the 
 last time together, against their unwearied foes. In this 
 contest Ethelred was mortally wounded, and died soon 
 after, and was buried by Alfred with kingly honors in 
 Wimborne Minster. 
 
 Alfred, now at the age of twenty-three, ascended the 
 tlirone of his fathers, which seemed at that time tottering, 
 and was not an inheritance to be desired in the vear of 
 
184 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 871, when Alfred succeeded bis brother. It would not 
 be surprising if for a moment be lost heart and hope, and 
 allowed himself to doubt whether God would by his hand 
 deliver his afflicted people from their relentless foes. In 
 the eight pitched battles which had been fought with the 
 pagan army, the flower of the youth of the Saxon nation 
 had fallen. Kent, Sussex, and Surrey were at the mercy 
 of the Danes. London had l)een pillaged and was in 
 ruins, and several provinces in his own AVessex had been 
 desolated. The Danes were even then striking into new 
 districts, and if the rich lauds yet unplundered were to 
 be saved from their voracious grasp, it would only be 
 by prompt and decisive action. 
 
 A month has passed since the death of Alfred's brother 
 and his succession to this tottering throne. Alfred, with 
 the greatest difficulty, collects enough men to take the 
 field openly. The first great battle that Alfred fought, 
 as king, was at Wilton. At first Alfred's troops carried 
 all before them, but the tide turned in favor of the Danes, 
 and Alfred and the Saxons were driven from the field. 
 There was immense loss upon both sides, and a treaty 
 was agreed upon between Alfred and Hubba, the Danish 
 chieftain. B3' this treaty, the Danes were to retire from 
 Alfred's dominions, provided that he would not interfere 
 with their conquests in other parts of England. Alfred 
 has been censured for making this treaty ; but he was 
 obliged to choose between protection for his own realm, 
 and perhaps the entire destruction and overthrow of not 
 only his dominions, but of all England. He had no 
 power to aid others, and therefore endeavored to protect, 
 if possible, his own subjects. The Danes then went to 
 Mercia. The king of Mercia was Buthred, the brother- 
 in law of Alfred. Buthred paid the Danes large sums of 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 185 
 
 money to leave his kingdom. The Danes departed for 
 a while, but treacherously returned, and were again 
 bought off. Hubba scarcely left the kingdom this time, 
 but spent the money received, and then went to plunder- 
 ing as before, regardless of all promises. Buthred, in 
 despair, fled the country and went to Rome, where he 
 died soon after of grief. The Danes then took posses- 
 sion of Mercia, and set over the people a king from whom 
 they demanded an annual tribute. In the meantime, new 
 hordes of Danes arrived in England ; and one place after 
 another was plundered b}^ them, and they obtained pos- 
 session of the town of Exancester (now Exeter), which 
 was a great loss to Alfred. King Alfred then determined 
 to meet the Danes upon their own element ; and he built 
 and equipped a small fleet, and was successful in his first 
 encounter with his enemies, having defeated a fleet of 
 Danish ships in the channel, and having captured one of 
 the largest of their vessels. 
 
 But after all, Alfred gained no decisive victor}- over his 
 foes. He then tried to bind the Danes by Christian 
 oaths, in making a treaty with them. The Danes were 
 accustomed to swear by a certain ornament which they 
 wore, when they wished to impose a very solemn religious 
 oath ; and to swear by this bracelet was to place them- 
 selves under the most solemn obligations they could 
 assume. Alfred, however, was not satisfied with this 
 pagan ceremony, but obliged them, in one treaty, to 
 swear by certain Christian relics, which were held in 
 great awe and sacredness by the Saxons. But the 
 Danes broke their treaties with the most reckless defi- 
 ance ; and, as years passed, Alfred found his army 
 broken, his resources exhausted, his towns and castles 
 taken, until about eight years after his coronation at 
 
186 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 Winchester, as monarch of the most powerful of all the 
 Saxon kingdoms, he found himself unable to resist the 
 further attacks of the Danes, who had come over in fresh 
 hordes, and captured his kingdom of Wessex ; which 
 calamity Alfred was powerless to prevent. 
 
 The Saxon chieftains and nobles fled in terror, and 
 Alfred himself, with only one or two trusty friends, 
 retired to the vast forests, which skirted the remote 
 western frontiers of his once proud realm. It was during 
 these homeless wanderings that the incident is said to 
 have occurred, which has ever since been related of tliis 
 bitter experience of want and misery in the life of 
 Alfred the Great. The story is, that Alfred, wear}^ and 
 hungry, sought shelter in the miserable hut of a cow-herd, 
 who gave him such poor fare as his lowly lot allowed. 
 Alfred, while remaining with these simple folks, was one 
 day engaged in mending his arrows, when the cow-herd's 
 wife, totally unconscious of the rank and station of her 
 guest, requested him, in no polite terms, to watch her 
 cakes which were baking in the coals, while she em- 
 ployed herself in other labors. King Alfred, absorbed 
 in his sorrowful musings, forgot the injunctions of the 
 ill-natured woman, and so allowed her cakes to burn ; 
 which, when she perceived, she gave him a good scolding ; 
 saying, " You man ! you will not turn the bread you see 
 burning, but you will be very glad to eat it when it is 
 done!" This unlucky woman little thought she was 
 addressing the great King Alfred. 
 
 Alfred, though restless and wretched in his apparently 
 hopeless seclusion, bore his privations with patience and 
 fortitude, and did not cease to plan some wa}' by which 
 he might reorganize his forces and rescue his country 
 from the ruin into which it had fallen. Alfred now estab- 
 
 1 
 
ALFRED AND THE CAKES. 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 187 
 
 lished himself at a place called Ethelne}' ; and, having 
 gradually collected a few followers, they built a kind of 
 fortress, where Alfred's family at length joined him, and 
 to which numbers of his old troops began to repair. 
 The following incident is recorded in the old annals con- 
 cerning this time in King Alfred's life. It was very difti- 
 cult to supply his little garrison with food, and sometimes 
 they found themselves in sore want. At one time the 
 provisions in the house were nearly exhausted, and to add 
 to their distress, it was also in the winter. All of Alfred's 
 little band having gone away with their fishing apparatus 
 and bows and arrows in the hope of securing some food, 
 Alfred was left alone with onlv one attendant. Kino- 
 Alfred was sitting reading, when a beggar came to the 
 door and asked for food. Alfred, looking up from his 
 book, inquired of his attendant what food there was in the 
 house. It was found that there was onh' a single loaf 
 of bread remaining, and a little wine in a pitcher. This 
 would not be half enough for their own wants, should the 
 hunting party return unsuccessful. Alfred ordered half 
 of the loaf to be given to the stranger ; but when he had 
 been served he was seen no more, and the loaf remained 
 whole, as though none had been taken from it, and the 
 pitcher was now full to the brim. Alfred, meantime, had 
 turned to his reading, over which he fell asleep, and 
 dreamed that St. C'uthbert stood b}- him and told him it 
 was he who had been his guest ; and that God had seen 
 his afflictions and those of his people, which were now 
 about to end, in token whereof his people would return 
 that day from their expedition with a great take of fish. 
 And while Alfred yet mused on this strange dream from 
 which he had awakened, his servants came in, bringing 
 fish enough to have fed an army. The legend also goes 
 
188 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 on to say, that on the next morning King Alfred went 
 forth in the forests and wound his horn thrice, which drew 
 to him before noon five hundred men. Another story is 
 told of the manner in which King Alfred discovered the 
 number and power of his enemies' forces. It is said that 
 he assumed the garb of a minstrel, and with one attend- 
 ant visited the camp of the Dane Guthrum. Here lie 
 stayed, amusing the Danish king and nobles with his 
 songs and harp, boldly venturing into their very tents, 
 until he had learned all he desired to know concerning 
 their plans. 
 
 Whereupon he returned to Ethelney ; and the time hav- 
 ing arrived for a great effort, he sent word to his people 
 to meet him at a place called P^gbert's Stone. Here, on 
 the 12th of May, 878, King Alfred met his gathered 
 forces, and losing no time, moved forward toward Guth- 
 rum's camp. Alfred encamped for the night on an emi- 
 nence from which he could watch the movements of his 
 enemies. That night, as he was sleeping in his tent, he 
 had a remarkable dream. St. Neot appeared to him, and 
 told him to have no fear of the immense army of pagans 
 whom he was about to encounter on the morrow, as God 
 had taken him under his special protection, having ac- 
 cepted his penitence for all his faults ; he might now go 
 forward into the battle without fear, as God was about to 
 give him the victory over all his enemies. 
 
 The king related this dream to his army the next morn- 
 ing, and the men were inspired with new ardor and enthu- 
 siasm as Alfred led them to the camp where their enemies 
 lay ; for it was Alfred's intention to surprise the Danes. 
 The Saxons advanced to the attack ; and the Danes, sur- 
 prised and terror-stricken, soon began to yield. At last 
 the flight among the pagans became general. They were 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 189 
 
 pursued b}' Alfred's victorious columns. The retreating 
 army was in a short time reduced to a small force, which, 
 with Guthrum at their head, reached a castle, where they 
 took refuge. Guthrum, shut up in this castle, was now 
 besieged by Alfred's forces ; and when many of his men 
 were raving in the delirium of famine and thirst, or dying 
 in dreadful agony, he could resist no longer, but surren- 
 dered to Alfred. Thus King Alfred was once more in 
 possession of his kingdom. The treaty which Alfred now 
 made with the Danes evinces his generous Christian for- 
 giveness ; and perhaps even the pagan Guthrum. in accept- 
 ing the terms proposed, was influenced by emotions of 
 gratitude and admiration for the example of Christian 
 ^■irtue which Alfred exhi])ited. As the Danes had now 
 become so interminoled with the Saxons bv their lono- 
 residence in England and frequent intermarriages, Alfred 
 determined to expel only the armed forces from his domin- 
 ions, allowing those peaceably disposed to remain in quiet 
 possession of such lands in other parts of the island as 
 they already occupied. Instead, therefore, of treating 
 Guthrum with harshness and severity as a captive enemy, 
 he told him that he was willing to give him his liberty, 
 and to regard him, on certain conditions, as a friend and 
 an ally, and to allow him to reign as king over that part 
 of England which his countrymen already possessed. The 
 conditions were that Guthrum was to go away with his 
 forces out of Alfred's kingdom under solemn oaths never 
 to return ; that he was to give hostages for the faithful fulfil- 
 ment of these stipulations ; and that Guthrum should be- 
 come a convert to Christianity, and publicly avow his adhe- 
 sion to the Saxon faith by being baptized in the presence of 
 the leaders of both armies in the most open and solemn 
 manner. These conditions were accepted, and some weeks 
 
190 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 after the surrender, the baptism was performed in the pres- 
 ence of many chieftains of both nations. Guthrum's Chris- 
 tian name which he received at this ceremony was Ethelstan. 
 Kino- Alfred was his god-father. The various ceremonies 
 connected with the baptism were protracted through sev- 
 eral days, and were followed by a number of festivities 
 and public rejoicings. The admission of the pagan chief- 
 tain into the Christian church did not mark, perhaps, any 
 real change in his personal opinions, but it prepared the 
 way for the reception of the Christian faith b}^ his follow- 
 ers ; and Alfred, in leading Guthrum to the baptismal 
 font, was achieving, in the estimation of all England, 
 France, and Rome, a far greater and nobler victory than 
 when he conquered his enemies on the field of battle. A 
 full and formal treaty of peace was now concluded be- 
 tween the two sovereigns ; for Guthrum received the title 
 of king, and was to hold a separate kingdom in the do- 
 minions assigned to him. Guthrum endeavored to keep 
 this treaty faithfull}*, and whenever other parties of Danes 
 came upon the coast of England, the}' found no favor or 
 assistance from him against the Saxons. 
 
 The generosity and nobleness of mind displayed in his 
 treatment of Guthrum made a great impression on the 
 world at that time, and has never ceased to throw a halo 
 of glory around the memory of this good and great king. 
 Many stories are told to illustrate the kindness of Alfred 
 the Great. It is said that once, while hunting in the 
 forest with a party, he heard the cries of a child, which 
 seemed to come from the air above their heads. It was 
 found, after much searching, that the sounds proceeded 
 from an eagle's nest in the top of a lofty tree. On 
 climbing to the nest, it was discovered that a child had 
 been carried by the eagle to its nest, and the infant was 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 191 
 
 screaming with pain and terror. Alfred ordered the boy 
 to be brought to his castle, and not being able to find the 
 parents of the child, he adopted him as his own son, gaA^e 
 him a good education, and provided for him well when he 
 grew to manhood. King Alfred manifested great inter- 
 est in the arts of peace, notwithstanding the warlike 
 influences and habits of his life. He was the ruler of a 
 race capable of appreciating intelligence, order, justice, 
 and system ; and, foreseeing the future power of this peo- 
 ple, his chief attention during all the years of his reign 
 was devoted to their advancement in learnino- settino- 
 them an example in his own case by pressing forward 
 diligently in his own studies, even in the midst of his 
 overwhelming cares. It was not possible in those days 
 to educate the masses, as there were no books ; but 
 Alfred made great efforts to promote the intellectual 
 improvement of his people, which was all tlie more re- 
 markable at that time when all other monarchs were 
 ambitious only of their own power and personal glor}'. 
 King Alfred wrote and translated many books, which 
 were copied and, so far as it was possible, circulated 
 amongst those who could read them. These writings of 
 King Alfred exerted a wide influence. They remained in 
 manuscript until the art of printing was invented, when 
 many of them were printed. Some of the original manu- 
 scripts may still be seen in various English museums. 
 One of the greatest of King Alfred's measures was the 
 founding of the great university of Oxford. He also 
 repaired the castles, which had become dilapidated in the 
 wars. He rebuilt the ruined cities, organized govern- 
 ments for them, restored the monasteries, and took pains 
 to put men of learning and piety in charge of them. He 
 revised the laws of his kingdom. Through all his reign. 
 
192 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 his desire was to lay lasting foundations for the perma- 
 nent prosperity of his realm. His own life was governed 
 by fixed principles of justice and of duty ; and his calm, 
 patient, unselfish character gave him a wide influence 
 over his people, and made him a shining example of the 
 truths he endeavored to impress upon them. King Alfred 
 invented a plan for marking the different hours of the 
 day by the burning of wax candles, so exactly made as to 
 size that they would each burn a certain fixed time. 
 The candles were each a foot long, and would burn four 
 hours. They were divided into inches by marks upon 
 them, and each inch would last twenty minutes. A large 
 number of these candles were prepared, and a person was 
 appointed to keep a succession of them burning in a 
 chapel, and to ring bells to designate the successive 
 periods of time denoted by their burning. There was 
 one difficulty, however, which interfered somewhat with 
 their exactness, which was that the blowing of any slight 
 breeze or draught would make the burning uncertain. 
 To obviate this trouble, King Alfred contrived a kind of 
 lantern made of sheets of horn so thin that they were 
 almost transparent. A plate of horn was set in each of 
 the four sides of a box, which was fastened over the can- 
 dle, thus forming a sort of rude lantern. This was the 
 first lantern in England, and King Alfred is generally 
 credited with being their first inventor ; but as Diogenes, 
 the Greek philosopher, was said to have carried a lantern 
 in the old story, the English lantern of King Alfred may 
 not have been the earliest ever invented. Alfred the 
 Great was very systematic about the employment of his 
 own time. He was accustomed to give one-third of the 
 twenty-four hours to sleep and refreshment, one-third to 
 business, and one-third to religious duties. Under this last 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. 193 
 
 head was probably included study, writing, and the man- 
 agement of ecclesiastical affairs. At length, however, at 
 the close of King Alfred's life, a famous Northman 
 leader, named Hastings, landed in England, at the head 
 of a large force, so that Alfred's reign ended as it had 
 begun, — in desperate and protracted conflicts with the 
 Danes. Hastings had made one previous invasion into 
 England, but Guthrum, faithful to his promise to Alfred, 
 repulsed him. But Guthrum was now dead, and so King- 
 Alfred was forced to meet this tireless and implacable foe 
 again. Year after year passed, during which a succes- 
 sion of battles were fought between the two nations, 
 now the Danes gaining an advantage, now the Saxons. 
 Hastings was finalW expelled from P^ngland in 897, and 
 once more Alfred's kingdom was at peace. But King 
 Alfred's life was now drawing very near its close. His 
 children had now grown to manhood, and repaid his love 
 and care by endeavoring to imitate their illustrious 
 father's example. His eldest son Edward was to suc- 
 ceed King Alfred on the English throne. A daughter 
 named Ethelfleda, who was married to a prince of Mercia, 
 was famed all over England for the superiority of her 
 mind, her many accomplishments, and her devoted piet}'. 
 Alfred the Great was fifty-two years of age when he died. 
 His body was interred in the great cathedral at Win- 
 chester, and the kingdom passed peacefully to his son. 
 His own dying farewell to his son Edward is the best 
 memorial encomium which can be passed upon his life, 
 and he most truly earned the title of Alfred the Great, — 
 great in wisdom, great in power, and, best of all, great 
 in goodness ; and his purified spirit passed from earth 
 with these truly great words upon his dying lips : — 
 "Thou, my dear son, sit thee now beside me, and I 
 
194 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 will deliver thee true instructions. I feel that my hour is 
 coming. My strength is gone ; my countenance is wasted 
 and pale ; my da}^ are almost ended. We must now 
 part. I go to another world, and thou art left alone in 
 the possession of all that I have thus far held. I pray 
 thee, my dear child, to be a father to th}- people. Be the 
 children's father and the widow's friend. Comfort the 
 poor, protect and shelter the weak, and, with all thy 
 might, right that which is wrong. And, my sou, govern 
 thyself hy laiv. Then shall the Lord love thee, and God 
 himself shall be thy reward. Call thou upon Him to 
 advise thee in all thy need, and He shall help thee to 
 compass all thy desires." 
 
RICHARD CCELR DE LION. 195 
 
 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 A.D. 1157-1199. 
 
 "Yet looks he like a king ; behold his eye, 
 As bright as is the eagle's, lightens forth 
 Controlling majesty." — Shakespeare. 
 
 THE history of Richard Coeur de Lion is a history of 
 the third crusade, and the most memorable one of 
 all. Upon the side of the Mussulmans was Saladin, 
 sultan of Egypt and Syria. Saladin, whose name means 
 '^ splendor of religion," was a noble and generous man, 
 and though a Mohammedan, he often evinced a far more 
 humane and commendable spirit than many of his foes, 
 who called themselves Christians. Upon the side of the 
 Mohammedans, as well as that of the Christians, this 
 conflict was regarded as a holy war ; for the Christians 
 were fighting to obtain Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre, 
 where the body of Jesus Christ was supposed to have 
 lain, while the Mohammedans were just as zealously fight- 
 ing to retain Jerusalem ; and Saladin's answer to the 
 Christians, when they demanded the surrender of that 
 city was, "Jerusalem never was yours, and we may not 
 without sin give it up to you ; for it is the place where 
 the mysteries of our religion were accomplished ; and the 
 last one of my soldiers will perish before the Mussulmans 
 renounce conquests made in the name of Mohammed." 
 
 Before the time of Richard the Lion -Hearted, Jerusa- 
 lem had been conquered by the Christians, and they had 
 
190 RICHARD CCECR DE LION. 
 
 set up in it a king. This was in 1099, when the cru- 
 saders elected Godfrey de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem. 
 But he reigned but one year and died. In the space of 
 one hundred and seventy-one 3'ears, from the coronation 
 of Godfrey de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem in 1099, to 
 the last crusade under Louis IX. of France, in 1270, 
 there were seven crusades which were undertaken by the 
 kings of France and England, the emperors of Germany, 
 the king of Denmark, and various princes of Italy. They 
 all failed in the end of accomplishing the permanent pos- 
 session of the city of Jerusalem b}' the Christians ; but 
 these various crusades called forth a number of devout 
 and self-sacrificing monks and bishops, and gave occasion 
 for brave and valiant deeds by many knights and kings, 
 and none were so brave, and none became so famous in 
 the annals of these holy wars as Richard I., king of 
 England, called by the Christians Coeur de Lion, the 
 Lion-hearted, on account of his valor, and for the same 
 reason feared among the Mohammedans, and called by 
 them Malek-Rik ; and so great a terror did this name 
 become, that when St. Louis, more than fifty years after, 
 led the French to another crusade, they heard the Saracen 
 mothers scolding their children, and threatening them 
 with punishment by the dreadful Malek-Rik, who had 
 never been forgotten. The first of the crusades had been 
 inspired b}' a zealous monk, called Peter the Hermit. 
 From the earliest days of Christianity, many pious per- 
 sons had made pilgrimages to Palestine, to visit the 
 graves of saints and other places. After a time, these 
 pilgrimages had been extended to Jerusalem ; and that 
 city at length, having fallen into the hands of the Turks, 
 the Christian people were treated with cruelty, and many 
 of the clergy were imprisoned and even killed. Peter the 
 
RICHARD C(EUR UE LION. 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 197 
 
 Hermit had been to Jerusalem, and having himself been 
 an eye-witness of the cruelties of the Turks towards the 
 Christians, he obtained permission of the Pope to go to 
 the principal courts in Europe, and exhort all Christian 
 warriors to take up arms against the infidels in the Holy 
 Laud. Peter the Hermit walked from court to court, 
 barefoot and clothed in rags. He was listened to as a 
 prophet, and succeeded in inspiring man}' knights and 
 crowds of people to enlist in what they considered a 
 sacred cause. The symbol of this enlistment was a cross 
 of red stuff sewed to the shoulder of the cloak ; hence the 
 name crusade. France was at this time roused to great 
 excitement. The barons sold and pledged their lands to 
 obtain the means of joining the expedition. The Pope 
 promised a full remission of sins to all who assumed the 
 cross ; and as the mass of the people were so ignorant in 
 those days that the word of the Pope was held to be as 
 sacred as a voice from heaven, and his blessing or excom- 
 munication was regarded b}^ them as powerful enough to 
 raise them to Paradise, or call down upon them everlast- 
 ing destruction, thousands of wicked persons, whose sins 
 were so many that it would have required years of pen- 
 ance to have gained the much-coveted absolvance from 
 the Pope, eagerW seized upon this method of winning 
 earthly glory, and, as they supposed, heavenly honor. It 
 is said that a crowd of more than a milUon of persons, 
 including beggars, women and children, soon pledged 
 themselves to this crusade. Three hundred thousand of 
 such a motley company started, with Peter the Hermit and 
 Walter the Penniless marchino- at their head. Nearlv the 
 entire number fell victims to the fury of their assailants 
 in the countries through which they passed. This com- 
 pany of helpless beggars, women and children, were fol- 
 
198 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 lowed by three hundred thousand fighting men, who had 
 been preparing in the different kingdoms, mostly in 
 France. Of this large host, only a small remnant under 
 Godfrey de Bouillon, arrived at Jerusalem, and captured 
 that city in 1099, and planted the standard of the cross 
 on its walls. 
 
 8t. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, roused the people 
 again for the second crusade, for it was discovered that 
 the Turks had massacred the Christians in Palestine, and 
 that Jerusalem was in danger. King Louis VII. of 
 France, and the emperor Conrad III. of Germany, 
 espoused the cause. Although Louis and Conrad entered 
 the city of Jerusalem and determined upon the siege of 
 Damascus, nothing permanent was accomplished. The 
 siege of Damascus was abandoned, and the crusade- 
 sovereigns returned to their respective kingdoms. 
 
 During the forty years' interval between the end of the 
 second and the beginning of the third crusades, the rela- 
 tive positions of the West and East, Christian Europe 
 and Mussulman Asia, remained much the same. But in 
 1187, news again reached Europe of repeated disasters to 
 the Christians in Asia. Egypt had become tlie goal of 
 ambition, and Saladin, the most illustrious as well as the 
 most powerful of Mussulman sovereigns, being sultan 
 of Egypt and Syria, had fought against a Christian army 
 near Tiberias. The oriental chronicles thus describe the 
 conflict: "The Christian army was surrounded by the 
 Saracens, and also, ere long, by the fire, which Saladin 
 had ordered to be set to the dry grass which covered the 
 plain. The flames made their way and spread beneath 
 the feet of men and horses. There the sons of Paradise 
 and the children of fire settled their terrible quarrel. 
 Arrows hurtled in the air like a noisy flight of sparrows. 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LIOX, 199 
 
 and the blood of warriors dripped upon the ground like 
 rain-water. Hill, plain, and valley were covered with 
 their dead ; their banners were stained with dust and 
 blood, their heads were laid low, their limbs scattered, 
 their carcasses piled on a heap like stones." Four days 
 after the battle of Tiberias in July, 1187, Saladin took 
 possession of St. Jean d'Acre, and in the following Sep- 
 tember, of Ascalon. In the same month he laid siege to 
 Jerusalem. The Holy City contained at that time, it is 
 said, nearly one hundred thousand Christians, who had 
 fled for safet}^ from all parts of Palestine. Saladin's 
 taking of Jerusalem is thus described by Guizot. "On 
 approaching its walls, Saladin sent for the principal 
 inhabitants, and said to them, ' I know as well as you 
 that Jerusalem is the house of God, and I will not have 
 it assaulted if I can get it by peace and love, I will give 
 you thirty thousand byzants of gold if you promise me 
 Jerusalem, and you shall have liberty to go whither you 
 will and do your tillage, to a distance of five miles from 
 the cit}'. And I will have 3'ou supplied with such plenty 
 of provisions that in no place on earth shall they be so 
 cheap. You shall have a truce from now to Whitsuntide, 
 and when this time comes, if you see that you may have 
 aid, then hold on. But if not, you shall give up the cit}', 
 and I will have you conveyed in safety to Christian terri- 
 tory, yourselves and your substance.' ' We may not yield 
 up to you a city where died our God,' answered the 
 envoys, 'and still less may we sell you.' The siege 
 lasted fourteen days. After having repulsed several 
 assaults, the inhabitants saw that effectual resistance was 
 impossible, and the commandant of the place, a knight, 
 named Balian d'Ibelin, an old warrior who had been at 
 the battle of Tiberias, returned to Saladin, and asked for 
 
200 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 
 
 the conditions back again which had been at first rejected. 
 Saladin, pointing to his own banner akeady planted upon 
 several parts of the battlements, answered, ' It is too late, 
 you surely see that the city is mine.' ' Very well, my 
 lord,' replied the knight, ' we will ourselves destroy our 
 city, and the mosque of Omar, and the stone of Jacob, 
 and when it is nothing but a heap of ruins, we will sally 
 forth with sword and fire in hand, and not one of us will 
 go to Paradise without having sent ten Mussulmans to 
 hell.' Saladin understood enthusiasm and respected it, 
 and to have had the destruction of Jerusalem connected 
 with his name would have caused him deep displeasure. 
 He therefore consented to the terms of capitulation 
 demanded of him. The fighting men were permitted to 
 retreat to Tvre or Tripolis, which cities were in the powder 
 of the Christians, and the simple inhabitants of Jerusalem 
 had their lives preserved, and permission given them to 
 purchase their freedom on certain conditions ; but, as 
 many amongst them could not find the means, Malek- 
 Adhel, the sultan's brother, and Saladin himself, paid the 
 ransom of several thousands of captives. All Christians, 
 however, with the exception of Greeks and Syrians, had 
 orders to leave Jerusalem within four days. When the 
 day came, all the gates were closed except that of David, 
 b}' which the people were to go forth, and Saladin, seated 
 upon a throne, saw the Christians defile before him. 
 First came the patriarch, followed by the clergy carrying 
 the sacred vessels and the ornaments of the church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre. After him came Sibylla, queen of Jeru- 
 salem, who had remained in the city, whilst her husband, 
 Guy de Lusignan, had been a prisoner at Nablous since 
 the battle of Tiberias. Saladin saluted her respectfully, 
 and spoke to her kindly. He had too great a soul to take 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 201 
 
 pleasure in the humiliation of greatness." The capture 
 of Jerusalem again roused Europe to arms, but the stor}' 
 of this third crusade will be more fully narrated, as we 
 proceed with the personal history of Richard the Lion- 
 hearted, who became the chief and most illustrious figure 
 in the annals of this third holy war. 
 
 Eleanor, the mother of Richard Coeur de Lion, had 
 herself participated in the second crusade. Eleanor's 
 grandfather was duke of Aquitaine, a rich kingdom in 
 the south of France. His son, the father of Eleanor, had 
 been killed in the first crusade, and the duke of Aqui- 
 taine determined to resign his kingdom in favor of his 
 grand-daughter, and marry her to Prince Louis VIL, then 
 heir to the throne of France. This was accomplished, and 
 King Louis VI. of France, dying soon after the marriage, 
 Eleanor became queen of France, as well as duchess of 
 Aquitaine. This princess had been well educated for 
 those times, and was even celebrated for her learning, as 
 she possessed the rare accomplishments of being able to 
 read and write, as well as to sing the songs of the Trou- 
 badours, which was the fashionable music of the courts. 
 King Louis VII., her husband, was a very pious man, 
 much more fond of devotion than of pleasure, so he de- 
 termined to go on a crusade, and Queen Eleanor, from 
 a gay love of adventure, resolved to accompany him. 
 Eleanor and her court ladies laid aside their feminine 
 attire, and clothed themselves as Amazons, taking good 
 care, however, to provide a most cumbersome amount of 
 baggage, containing their usual rich costumes and deli- 
 cate luxuries, which proved so great a burden in trans- 
 portation that the king remonstrated against such a 
 needless and troublesome excess of useless finery. But 
 the ladies carried their point, and the crusading expedition, 
 
202 RICHARD CCEUR DE LIOX. 
 
 which should have been composed of an army of valiant 
 warriors, became an immense train of women and bag- 
 gao-e, requiring the constant care of the princes, barons, 
 and kniohts, many of them reluctant participants, who 
 had been shamed by the taunts of these ladies into join- 
 ing an expedition which had been organized upon so wild 
 and heedless a plan as to insure only disaster and failure. 
 But the gay ladies exclaimed to any man who dared to 
 express any thoughts of remaining at home, "We will 
 send you our distaffs as presents. We have no longer 
 any use for them, but as you are intending to stay at 
 home and make women of yourselves, we will send them 
 to you, so that you may occupy yourselves with spinning 
 while we are gone." 
 
 Notwithstanding this apparent zeal which Eleanor and 
 her court ladies displayed, their caprices and freaks con- 
 tinued to harass and interfere with the expedition, dur- 
 ing the entire crusade, and Queen Eleanor so displeased 
 King Louis by her gay and frivolous conduct, that a long 
 and serious quarrel arose between them, and he declared 
 that he would obtain a divorce from her. But his min- 
 isters tried to prevent this, as Eleanor possessed the rich 
 kingdom of Aquitaine in her own right, which would be 
 lost to Louis by a separation. So they returned from the 
 Holy Land to Paris, still as king and queen of France. 
 But in about two years after, Eleanor determined to be 
 divorced from King Louis of France, so that she might 
 marry Prince Henry Plantagenet, who afterwards became 
 Henry II., of England. Prince Henry's father had 
 received the name Plantagenet from a habit he had 
 of wearing a spra}' of broom blossom in his cap. The 
 French name for this plant is genet, and so he was nick- 
 named Plantagenet, and his son Henry II. was the first 
 
RICHARD CCEUR BE LION. 203 
 
 king in that family, also called the House of Anjou. Al- 
 though Henry H. was king of England, by his marriage 
 with Eleanor, which took place only a short time after 
 she obtained a divorce from King Louis of France, Henry 
 gained the great dukedom of Aquitaine, and as he already 
 possessed Normandy and Anjou, he really was lord of 
 nearly half of France. He ruled England well, but he 
 cared more for power than what was right, and he often 
 indulged in such exhibitions of fierce rage, that he would 
 roll on the floor and bite the rushes with which it was 
 strewn. At the time of his marriage with Eleanor, Henry 
 was duke of Normandy, and was only twenty years of 
 age, while Eleanor was thirty-two ; but she was very much 
 in love with him, and as she could bring him such a rich 
 kingdom, and furnish him men and money to help him se- 
 cure the crown of England, which was at that time held 
 by King Stephen, whom Henry declared was a usurper, he 
 was willing to accept Eleanor as his wife, although she 
 was nearly twice his own age, and was also the divorced 
 wife of King Louis. Some historians place the blame of 
 the divorce upon Eleanor, some upon Louis ; but all unite 
 in condemning her previous conduct, for she occasioned 
 many scandalous remarks by her undignified, un wifely, 
 and even culpable actions. After she became queen of 
 England, however, she changed in this respect, and her 
 after quarrels with Henry were occasioned by her am- 
 bitions and his conduct regarding a lady called the Fair 
 Rosamond, who afterwards became a nun in a convent 
 near Oxford. Some historians think that Henry was in 
 reality married to Rosamond before he was persuaded to 
 espouse Eleanor, in order to gain her rich possessions. 
 Though Eleanor had equally wronged her former husband, 
 Louis, she made no excuse for King Henry's devotion to 
 
204 RICHARD CCEUR 1)E LION. 
 
 Rosamond, and when she discovered Henry's affection 
 for her, she ordered that she should be shut up in a con- 
 vent out of the way. To this King Henry consented, but 
 the jealousy of the queen against her rival was never 
 abated, and added great bitterness to the other causes of 
 discord between herself and King Henry, which at last 
 broke out in the open rebellion of Queen Eleanor and her 
 sons against the king, so that Henry would often be 
 obliged to raise armies to put down the various disturbances 
 caused by first one son, then another, then all together, 
 encouraged by their mother Eleanor, who however seemed 
 to have inspired more love and devotion in the hearts of 
 her sons than their father. Almost all the early years of 
 the life of Richard were spent in wars which were waged 
 by different members of his father's family against each 
 other. These wars originated in the quarrels between 
 King Henry and his sons, in respect to the family prop- 
 erty. As Henry II. held a great many possessions which 
 he had inherited through his father, grandfather, and his 
 wife Eleanor, he was duke of one countr}-, earl of a sec- 
 ond, king of a third, and count of a fourth. Henry had 
 five sons, of whom Richard was the third, and be was 
 born about three years after Eleanor was crowned queen 
 of England, when, upon the death of King Stephen, Henry 
 became king of that countr}^ Henry II. was a generous 
 father, and as his sons became old enough, he gave them 
 provinces of their own. But they were not contented 
 with the portions allotted to them, and demanded more. 
 Sometimes Henry would yield, at other times resist, when 
 the sons would raise armies and rebel against their father, 
 and then would follow the shocking spectacle of husband, 
 wife, and sons, all fighting against each other. These 
 wars continued for many years, the mother usually taking 
 
RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 205 
 
 sides with her sons, until King Henry shut her up in a 
 castle, in a sort of imprisonment, where he kept her con- 
 fined for sixteen years. 
 
 It was during the reign of Henry II. that the famous 
 archbishop, Thomas a Becket, was murdered, under the 
 following circumstances : Thomas k Becket had been one 
 of Henry's most devoted friends and intimate counsellors, 
 and Henry had raised him to the office of Chancellor. 
 Afterwards Henry made Thomas a Becket bishop of Can- 
 terbury, but from that time serious differences arose be- 
 tween them. The king made many laws, one being, that 
 if a priest or monk was thought to have committed an}' 
 crime, he should be tried by civil judges, like other men ; 
 whereas Becket, in the name of the church, maintained 
 that the clergy should be tried only by the bishops. 
 This quarrel was so serious that Becket was forced to 
 leave England and take refuge with the king of France. 
 After six years, a half reconciliation took place, and the 
 archbishop of Canterbury returned to England. Thomas 
 a Becket soon again incurred the king's displeasure, and 
 Henry exclaimed in anger, "Will no one rid me of this 
 turbulent priest?" Whereupon four of his knights who 
 had heard this remark, and thought that they would gain 
 power over the king by carrying out this wish, immedi- 
 ately went to Canterbury, and finding the archbishop in 
 the cathedral by the altar, they slew him. At first Henry 
 was secretl}' glad, but the people and priests considered 
 Thomas a martyr, and raised such an outcry of indigna- 
 tion, that three years after. King Henry went to the cathe- 
 dral of Canterbury, and in order to show his penitence, 
 he entered barefoot, and kneeling by the tomb of Thomas 
 a Becket, he commanded every priest to strike him with 
 a knotted rope upon his bare back. This he endured as 
 
 -T 
 
206 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 
 
 an act of penance for causing the death of the arch- 
 bishop. 
 
 The first important event of Ricliard's childhood was 
 his betrothment. When he was about four years of age 
 he was formally affianced to Alice, the child of Louis, 
 king of France. Alice was three years of age. Another 
 of King Louis' children had been married in the same way 
 to Richard's eldest brother Henry, and the English king 
 complained that the dowry of the young French princess 
 was not sufficient, and this quarrel was settled b}' an 
 agreement that King Louis should give his other daughter 
 Alice to Richard, and with her another province. These 
 infant marriages, or betrothments, were made by kings 
 in order to get possession of rich territories, for the father 
 of the husbands became the guardians of the provinces, 
 and received any sum of money agreed upon, which they 
 usually appropriated to their own use. This betrothment 
 of Richard became the cause of future differences between 
 himself and Philip, the brother of Alice, when Richard 
 had become king of England, and Philip king of France. 
 At length, in the midst of one of the frequent wars be- 
 tween the king of England and his sons, his eldest son 
 Henry was taken very sick, and being at the point of 
 death, he sent to his father to obtain his forgiveness, and 
 to beg that he would come to see him. The king, fearing 
 it was only some stratagem to get him into the power of 
 the rebellious young prince, who had often broken his 
 word, did not dare to go, but sent an archbishop to Prince 
 Henry, with a ring as a token of his forgiveness. The 
 poor prince who was really dying, and very penitent for 
 his un filial conduct, pressed the ring to his dying lips 
 with frantic tears of remorse, and commanded his attend- 
 ants to lay him upon a bed of ashes, which he had ordered 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 207 
 
 prepared, that he might die there as a sign of his sincere 
 repentance. When King Henry heard of the sad death 
 of his eldest son, he was moved to tears, and releasing 
 his wife Queen Eleanor from her imprisonment, he be- 
 came reconciled to her for a time. But soon again the 
 family dissensions arose. Prince Geoffrey, the second 
 son of King Henry, was killed in a tournament, and 
 Richard, who had now reached manhood, demanded that 
 his father should give him the Princess Alice in marriage, 
 and with her the lands and money intrusted to his care 
 by the king of France. This King Henry refused to do. 
 Some said, because he wished to keep the rich lands him- 
 self ; others said, because he himself loved the Princess 
 Alice, and that he was determined to seek a divorce from 
 Queen Eleanor, so that he might marry the young princess. 
 Whatever was his motive, King Henry refused to have 
 Richard's marriage with Alice consummated, and kept 
 the princess shut up in a castle. Whereupon Richard 
 rebelled against his father, and persuaded his younger 
 brother John to espouse his cause. Of course Eleanor 
 took sides with her sons, so she was again shut up in a 
 castle by King Henry, and Richard and John set off for 
 Paris and gained the support of Philip II., of France, 
 who was now king, as Louis was dead. King Henry had 
 determined to divide his kingdom, and as John was his 
 favorite as well as youngest, he resolved to have him 
 crowned king of England, leaving his French possessions 
 to Richard. Whereupon Richard carried off his young 
 brother, and with the help of Philip, raised an army to 
 fight against his father. In this war King Henry, who 
 was now old and broken -spirited by his many sorrows, 
 was so far defeated that he was obliged to submit to 
 negotiations for peace. While the terms were being ar- 
 
208 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 
 
 ranged, King Henry fell very ill, and when the articles of 
 treaty were brought to his bedside, he found that the 
 name of his youngest son John, his darling, who had 
 never rebelled against him before, now headed the list of 
 the princes, barons, and nobles who had gone over to 
 Richard's side. This quite broke his heart, and he ex- 
 claimed with tears, " Is it possible that John, the child of 
 my heart, he whom I have cherished more than all the 
 rest, and for love of whom I have drawn down on my own 
 head all these troubles, has verily betrayed me? Then," 
 said he, falling back helplessly upon the bed, " let every- 
 thing go on as it will, I care no longer for myself, nor for 
 anything else in the world." The king grew more and 
 more excited, until at last he died in a raving delirium, 
 cursing his rebellious children with his last breath. Thus 
 Richard I. became king of England when he was about 
 thirty-two years of age. The sad death of his father oc- 
 casioned some remorse in the heart of Richard, and he 
 joined in the funeral solemnities. King Henry had died 
 in Normandy, and was buried in an abbey there. 
 
 King Richard now sent at once to England, and ordered 
 the release of his mother Queen Eleanor, and invested her 
 with power to act as regent there, while he himself re- 
 mained in Normandy to secure his French possessions. 
 Queen Eleanor was regent in England for two months, 
 and employed her power in a very beneficent manner. 
 Her imprisonment and sorrows had no doubt disposed her 
 to kindness towards others, and remorse for her past evil 
 deeds prompted her to many acts of mercy. 
 
 King Richard now arranged with King Philip of France, 
 to go upon a crusade. Richard was brave, though he was 
 not a good man. His greatest delight was in fighting, 
 and as his claims to his own kingdom were now undis- 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 209 
 
 puted, he was eager to enter into a campaign in the Holy 
 Land. His brother Prince John was very willing that 
 Richard should go, and made no claims to any of the 
 provinces of his father, for he hoped that Richard would 
 be killed in the Holy War, and thus the rich kingdoms 
 of Enoland and Normandv would fall to him. Though 
 Richard was brave, he was neither wise nor provident in 
 the administration of his government. His one absorbing 
 idea was how to gain fresh glory as a valiant knight in 
 the war with the Saracens, and he levied heavy taxes 
 upon all his dominions to raise the necessary funds re- 
 quired for the equipment of his army. 
 
 These Holy Wars were very costly expeditions. The 
 princes, barons, and knights required very expensive 
 armor, and rich trappings for their horses, and ships were 
 to be bought and equipped, arms and ammunition pro- 
 vided, and large supplies of food purchased. Though the 
 pretense was religious zeal in going out to fight for the. 
 recoverj' of the Holy Sepulchre, the real motive which 
 animated most of the participants in the several crusades, 
 was love of glory and display. 
 
 Upon King Richard's arrival in England, he proceeded 
 at once to Winchester, where his father had kept his 
 treasures. Richard found here a large sum of money, 
 rich plate, and precious gems of great value. These he 
 placed under the care of trusty officers. 
 
 The former adherents of Richard, when he was a prince 
 rebelling against the lawful king his father, now supposed 
 that they would be held by him in high esteem. But in 
 this the}' were greatly disappointed. King Richard was wise 
 enough to know that those who had aided his rebellions, 
 might likewise aid others against his own supremacy. So 
 he retained his father's oflScers and experienced men of 
 state. 
 
210 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 The day upon which the coronation of Richard I. was 
 celebrated by a very magnificent ceremony in Westminster 
 Abbey, has become historical not only on that account, 
 but in consequence of a great massacre of the Jews, which 
 resulted from a riot that broke out in Westminster and 
 London immediately after the crowning of the king. 
 The Jews had been persecuted by all the Christian nations 
 of Europe, and the people imagined that they were serv- 
 ing the cause of religion in oppressing them, as they were 
 considered little better than infidels and heathen. As 
 Philip had banished the Jews from France, and confis- 
 cated their property, the Jews in England determined to 
 send a delegation to conciliate Richard's favor, and they 
 accordingly came to Westminster at the time of his coro- 
 nation, bearing rich presents. As Richard had com- 
 manded that no Jew or woman should be present at this 
 ceremony, when the Jewish deputation came in and offered 
 their presents amongst the rest, there was loud murmur- 
 ing throughout the crowd. 
 
 King Richard gladly accepted their rich gifts, but as a 
 Jew was attempting to enter at the gate, a bystander 
 cried out, " Here comes a Jew ! " and struck him a blow. 
 Others now assailed him, and as he was escaping, bruised 
 and bleeding, the cry was raised that the Jews were ex- 
 pelled b}' the king's orders, and as a riot was now raised 
 in the streets, which became a bloody fight between Jews 
 and Christians, the rumor went forth that the king had 
 ordered all the Jews to be killed. The mob instantly at- 
 tempted to carry out this supposed order, and Jews were 
 murdered everywhere, in the streets, in their homes ; and 
 when they barricaded their dwellings, the mob set fire to 
 them, and men, women, and children perished in the 
 flames. 
 
RICHARD C(EUR BE LION. 211 
 
 The king and his nobles were meanwhile feasting in 
 the great banqueting-hall at Westminster, and for a time 
 took no notice of the disturbance. At leno-th officers 
 were sent to suppress the mob, but it was too late. The 
 enfuriated people paid no attention to the few soldiers 
 sent to quell them, and only rested from their bloody 
 work, from sheer exhaustion, about two o'clock the next 
 day. 
 
 A few of the men engaged in the riot were afterwards 
 brought to trial and punished, but King Richard found 
 that so many of his chief men were implicated, that he 
 let the matter drop, oul^' issuing an edict, forbidding the 
 Jews to be injured any more. 
 
 King Richard now entered upon his preparations for 
 the crusade, with intense zeal. His great need was 
 money, and he seemed to think that the sacred cause was 
 an excuse for most unkingly measures. Richard was en- 
 dowed with a sort of reckless lion-like courage, which led 
 him to look upon fighting as a sport, and as he had no 
 one to fight at home, he espoused eagerly any pretense of 
 a sacred cause which would give him the pleasure of 
 killing as many men as he pleased, and thereby winning 
 not disapprobation from the world, but loud plaudits for 
 bravery, and zealous devotion to a holy enterprise. 
 Strange delusion ! That men should go forth to murder, 
 rob, and devastate the land in the name of the meek 
 and lowly Christ. Only ignorance and superstition could 
 allow the human soul to be so infatuated with not only 
 false, but most atrociously wicked, ideas, which were in 
 entire opposition to the teachings of the Divine Leader 
 whom they professed to follow. 
 
 In securing money for the crusade. King Richard re- 
 sorted to many very questionable expedients. He pro- 
 
212 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 ceeded to sell the ro3iil domains which he had inlierited 
 from his father, and in this manner disposed of castles, 
 fortresses, and towns to the highest bidder. When re- 
 monstrated with for thus diminishing the crown property, 
 he replied, "I would sell the city of London itself, if I 
 could find a purchaser rich enough to buy it." 
 
 Richard also sold high offices and titles of honor ; and 
 the historians state that King Richard's presence-chamber 
 became a regular place of trade, where castles, titles, 
 offices, and honors were for sale, to whomsoever would 
 give the best bargain. But the most disreputable manner 
 of raising money was by imposing fines as a punishment 
 for crimes, and then endeavoring to fix crimes upon the 
 wealthy, so that they would be obliged to pay large sums 
 to free themselves. Lastl}', Richard sold the nominal 
 regency of England to two wealthy courtiers, one a bishop, 
 the other an earl. Or if he did not sell it to them out- 
 right, he arranged that they were to receive the power, 
 and were to give him a large sum of money. He, however, 
 stipulated that his brother John and his mother should 
 have their share of influence in deciding upon measures 
 concerning the government. 
 
 Notwithstanding Richard's quarrels with his father, re- 
 garding his marriage with the Princess Alice when he 
 became king, Richard seemed in no hurrj^ to fulfil his en- 
 gagement, and even determined to set it aside altogether, 
 for he had met and loved a Spanish princess named Be- 
 rengaria. But, lest this should cause a fresh quarrel with 
 Philip, the brother of Alice, Richard resolved to keep his 
 plans a secret. So he sent his mother Queen Eleanor to 
 Spain to secure Berengaria for his wife, and Eleanor 
 having been successful in her mission, the two ladies, with 
 a train of barons and knights, set out for Italy, where 
 Richard intended to meet them. 
 
RICHARD CCEUR BE LION. 213 
 
 Meanwhile, the two kings, Philip and Richard, had con- 
 tinued their preparations for the crusade. As Philip had 
 no ships of his own, he made arrangements with the re- 
 public of Genoa to furnish him with ships, and so he 
 departed for that place. Richard, having a large fleet, 
 which he had sent round to Marseilles with orders to 
 await him there, marched his army across France by land. 
 So little reliance did either Pliilip or Richard place in 
 each other, that neither of them would have thought it 
 safe to leave his own dominions unless the other had 
 been going also. They made a final treaty of alliance 
 before starting, that they would defend the life and honor 
 of the other upon all occasions ; that neither would desert 
 the otlier in time of danger ; and that they would respect 
 the dominions of each other. 
 
 When King Richard reached Marseilles, he found that 
 his fleet had not arrived. It had been delayed by a storm. 
 Richard, not waiting for his fleet, hired ten large vessels 
 and twenty galleys, and embarked with a portion of his 
 forces, leaving orders for the remainder to follow in the 
 fleet, and to meet him at Messina, in Sicily. 
 
 Joanna, the sister of King Richard, had married the 
 king of Sicily. He was now dead, and the throne had 
 been seized by one Tancred, and Joanna had been shut 
 up in a castle. King Richard determined to redress his 
 sister's wrongs, and after arriving at Genoa, where he 
 found Philip, Richard set out on his way to Messina, 
 stopping at Ostia, Naples, and Salerno, by the way. 
 Having arrived at Messina, where Philip had also landed, 
 Richard, having met his own fleet on the Italian side of 
 the strait, entered the harbor with his ships and galleys 
 fully manned and gayly decorated, while musicians were 
 stationed on the decks, to blow trumpets and horns as the 
 
214 RICHARD CmUR DE LION. 
 
 fleet sailed along the shore. The Sicilians were quite 
 alarmed to behold such a formidable host of foreign sol- 
 diers, and his allies, the French, did not like this grand 
 display any bettex', for Philip had arrived with disabled 
 ships, and immediately began to be very jealous of the 
 oTowino- fame of King Richard. Philip determined to 
 leave Messina as speedily as possible, and proceed on his 
 way towards the Holy Land, but having attempted it, and 
 encountered a severe storm, he was obliged to turn back 
 again. As winter had now set in, both kings found tbiit 
 they must remain there until spring. As soon as Richard 
 landed his troops at Messina, he formed a great encamp- 
 ment on the seashore near the town, and then sent an 
 embassy to Tancred, demanding Joanna's release. Tan- 
 cred, awed by Richard's power, immediately complied 
 with this demand, and Joanna being safely out of the 
 power of her eneni}^, Richard forthwith attacked the city 
 of Messina, and having captured it, Tancred made peace 
 with Richard upon the following terms : — 
 
 Richard had a nephew about two years of age, named 
 Arthur. Tancred had an infant daughter. So it was 
 agreed that Arthur and this young daughter of Tancred 
 should be affianced, and that Tancred should pay to 
 Richard twent}^ thousand pieces of gold as her dowry. 
 Richard was to receive this money as guardian of his 
 nephew, and also twenty thousand pieces of gold besides, 
 in full settlement of all claims of Joanna. 
 
 This treaty was drawn up in due form. and signed, and 
 sent for safe keeping to the Pope at Rome, and Richard 
 having received the money, began immediately to lavish 
 it in costly presents to the barons and knights in both 
 armies, which gave King Philip cause for suspicions, as 
 he thought Richard was endeavoring to buy the allegiance 
 
RICHABD CCEUE DE LION. 215 
 
 of his troops, and soon an open quarrel occurred between 
 the two sovereigns. Richard's use of this trust money 
 demonstrates the small regard he had for the just rights 
 and claims of others. But the distrust which existed 
 between Richard and Philip was no longer concealed. 
 Tancred sliowed Richard a letter, which was said to have 
 been written by Philip, in which Richard was bitterly 
 denounced as a treacherous foe. Richard indignantly 
 showed this letter to Philip, who denied having written it, 
 and the two kings were soon in a hot dispute. Philip 
 then declared that Richard was endeavoring to break his 
 engagement with his sister Alice. Whereupon Richard 
 retorted that he would never marry her. 
 
 The matter was finally settled by a compromise. Rich- 
 ard promised to pa}' a large sum of money to Philip, who 
 agreed to relinquish all claims on the part of Alice. 
 So Philip sailed away in March, and Richard selected 
 from his fleet a few of his most splendid galleys, and with 
 a chosen company of knights and barons, proceeded to 
 the port in Ital}', where Berengaria was sta^^ing, under 
 the care of Joanna, Queen Eleanor having returned to 
 England ; and King Richard conducted the ladies to Mes- 
 sina. It being the season of Lent, the marriage was still 
 postponed ; and Joanna and Berengaria were provided 
 with a strong and well-manned ship, and sailed with the 
 expedition ; it being the purpose of Richard to land at 
 some port, after Lent, where the marriage ceremony would 
 be performed. King Richard's fleet consisted of nearly 
 two hundred vessels. There were thirteen great ships, 
 and over fifty galleys, besides a large number of smaller 
 vessels. Richard sailed at the head of his fleet, in a 
 splendid galley, called the Sea-Cutter. This fine fleet 
 sailed out of the harbor with flying banners, affording the 
 Sicilians an imposing spectacle. 
 
216 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION, 
 
 But storms overtook this brilliant array of ships, and 
 soon the fleet was dispersed. Some of the vessels were 
 driven to Rhodes ; others took refuge in Cyprus. Rich- 
 ard's galley went to Rhodes ; but the ship containing 
 Berengaria and Joanna was swept onward by the gale to 
 the mouth of the harbor of Limesol, the princii^al port of 
 Cyprus. The king of Cyprus, in accordance with the 
 custom of those times, had seized upon the wrecks of 
 several vessels belonging to Richard's fleet ; and the com- 
 mander of the ship in which the princess and queen had 
 sailed, feared to land, lest some harm should come to the 
 royal ladies. 
 
 After the storm, Richard set out with his part of the 
 fleet, to find the missing vessels ; and having arrived 
 before Cyprus, he found the galley of Berengaria and 
 Joanna safe, but learned that the king of Cyprus had 
 seized upon several of his wrecked vessels, and claimed 
 them as his prize. This was a common practice at that 
 time, and the king of Cyprus had acted in accordance 
 with a customary law, which, though a violation of the 
 real rights of property, gave a person the libert}' to con- 
 fiscate wrecked vessels or goods. In later times, this law 
 was annulled, but the king of Cyprus had the law upon 
 his side ; notwithstanding, Richard immediately^ prepared 
 for war, for he was only too glad to find some pretext for 
 attacking and capturing the fair isle of Cyprus. Rich- 
 ard's assault upon Limesol was successful ; and King 
 Richard, having signaled the galle}' of Joanna to advance, 
 the whole army landed, and the ladies were lodged in one 
 of the most magnificent of the palaces of the king of 
 Cyprus. The daughter of the king of Cyprus was very 
 beautiful, and was greatly terrified when she was brought 
 into the presence of her father's conqueror. Richard 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 217 
 
 gave her as an attendant to Berengaria, and sent the 
 defeated king of Cyprus to Tripoh, in Syria, where he 
 was shut up in a dungeon, and secured with chains, which, 
 however, in honor of his rank, were made of silver, over- 
 laid with gold. But what mattered it to the poor impris- 
 oned monarch tluit his galling chains were of costly 
 metals, when he was shut up in a gloom}' dungeon, and 
 his daughter a prisoner in the hands of his enemy ? 
 
 This poor king died in captivity, broken-hearted, four 
 years after. Now, at last, the marriage of King Richard 
 and Berengaria was celebrated with ro3'al splendor. After 
 the marriage ceremony, there was a coronation, when 
 Richard was crowned king of Cyprus, and Berengaria as 
 queen of both England and C3'prus. 
 
 The appearance of King Richard and Berengaria on 
 this occasion was very striking. King Richard wore a 
 rose-colored satin tunic, which was fastened by a jeweled 
 belt about his waist. Over this was a mantle of striped 
 silver tissue, brocaded with silver half-moons. He wore 
 also a costly sword ; the blade was of Damascus steel, the 
 hilt of gold, and the scabbard was of silver, richly en- 
 graved. On his head was a scarlet bonnet, brocaded in 
 gold, with figures of animals. He carried in his hand a 
 truncheon, which was a sort of sceptre, very elaborately 
 adorned. He was tall and well-formed, with yellow curls 
 and a bright complexion ; and when mounted upon his 
 magnificent charger, he appeared a perfect model of mili- 
 tary and manly grace. This horse was named Faunelle, 
 and became quite a historical character, acquiring great 
 fame by his strength and courage, and by the marvellous 
 sagacity he displayed in the various battles in which he 
 was engaged with his master. His trappings were very 
 rich ; the bit, stirrups, and all the metallic mountings of 
 
218 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 the saddle and bridle were of gold, and the crupper was 
 adorned with two golden lions. The costume of Queen 
 Berengaria was equally magnificent. The veil was fas- 
 tened to her head by a royal diadem, resplendent with 
 o-old and gems, and was surmounted by njleur de lis, with 
 so much foliage added to it that it had the appearance of 
 being a double crown, symbolizing her double queenship, 
 both of England and Cyprus. 
 
 The chief landing-point for expeditions of crusaders to 
 the Holy Land was Acre, called also St. Jean d'Acre. 
 It received its name from a military order, known as the 
 Knights of St. John, who founded a monastery there for 
 the safety and entertainment of pilgrims. This place 
 was at this time in the hands of the Saracens ; and Philip, 
 the French king, who arrived before Richard, had in vain 
 tried to capture it. King Richard, having left Cyprus, 
 together with his bride and sister, proceeded on his way 
 to join Philip at Acre ; but he met with one adventure 
 which is worthy of note. In sailing along, his fleet fell in 
 with a ship of large size. Richard ordered his galle3's to 
 press on, as the ship seemed to be endeavoring to escape. 
 As they came nearer, they perceived that the strange ship 
 was filled with Saracens. King Richard thereupon ordered 
 his men to board the ship and capture it. The Saracens, 
 feeling that escape was hopeless, scuttled the ship, deter- 
 mined to sink with her rather than fall into the hands of 
 the Christians. Then a dreadful combat ensued. Each 
 side fought with ferocious energy ; for although the Sara- 
 cens expected to die, they were resolved to first wreak 
 their fury upon their foes. The Saracens employed Greek 
 fire, which was a celebrated means of warfare in those 
 days. It was some kind of combustible matter, which 
 was set on fire and thrown at the enemy. Nothing could 
 
 m 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 519 
 
 extinguish it, and besides the great heat it produced, it 
 threw forth dense volumes of poisonous and stifling gases, 
 whicli soon suffocated those near by. It was thrown on 
 the ends of darts and arrows, and even water did not 
 extino-uish it ; so that the sea all around this Saracen 
 ship was a mass of lurid flames. Although many of Rich- 
 ard's men were killed, the Saracen ship was captured 
 before it had time to sink, and the Christians, rushing on 
 board, transferred to their own vessels nearly all of its 
 valuable cargo. But their treatment of their Saracen 
 foes was barbarous in the extreme. They killed and 
 threw into the sea all but about thirty-five men out of 
 twelve or fifteen hundred. These were saved, not from 
 humanity, but in the hope of securing large sums for their 
 ransom. King Richard afterwards defended this brutal 
 conduct by declaring that they had found on board the 
 Saracen ship large jars filled with poisonous snakes, which 
 the infidels were about taking to Acre, to let them loose 
 near the crusaders' camp. 
 
 Wlien Richard's fleet arrived at Acre, the crusaders 
 encamped there were much encouraged ; for their situa- 
 tion was getting very critical, and they had accomplished 
 little or nothing. 
 
 The crusaders were not as well disciplined as the Sara- 
 cen army, which was united under the command of the 
 valiant and powerful Saladin. Among the Christians 
 there were constant quarrels, caused by the petty jealous- 
 ies and hostilities of the knights and barons. There was 
 one great wrangling over the title of King of Jerusalem, 
 which, although it was an empty title (for the city was 
 still in the hands of the Saracens), there were many 
 claimants for ; and each one of them intrigued incessantly 
 to gain partisans to his side. A short time after Richard 
 
22ft RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 landed with his bride and army at Acre, fresh quarrels 
 arose between the two kings ; and so serious was the dif- 
 ference, that when Philip planned an assault, Richard 
 would not assist him ; and when Richard, likewise, made 
 an attack, PhiUp refused to aid. So that neither assault 
 was successful against their common foe, while large 
 numbers of their own men were killed. 
 
 Although the allies failed to capture Acre by assault, 
 the town was at length obliged to surrender to the Chris- 
 tians on account of the famine, which caused such dis- 
 tress that the Saracens entered into negotiations for sur- 
 render, which were as follows: "The city was to be 
 surrendered to the allied armies, and all the arms, ammu- 
 nition, military stores, and property of all kinds which it 
 contained, were to be forfeited to the conquerors. The 
 troops and the people of the town were to be allowed to 
 go free on pa3'ment of a ransom. The ransom by which 
 the besieged purchased their lives and liberty was to be 
 made up as follows : The wood of the cross on which 
 Christ was crucified, which was alleged to be in Saladin's 
 possession, was to be restored. Saladin was to set at 
 liberty the Christian captives which he had taken in the 
 course of the war from the various armies of crusad- 
 ers, and which he now held as prisoners. The number 
 of these prisoners was about fifteen hundred. Saladin 
 was to pay two hundred thousand pieces of gold. Rich- 
 '"ard was to retain a large body of men — it was said that 
 there were five thousand in all — consisting of soldiers of 
 the garrison, or inhabitants of the town, as hostages for 
 the fulfilment of these conditions. These men were to be 
 kept forty days, or, if at the end of that time Saladin had 
 not fulfilled the conditions of the surrender, they were all 
 to be put to death." 
 
RICHARD TEARING DOWN THE AUSTRIAN BANNER. 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 221 
 
 Saladin was not within tiie city, but was encamped with 
 his army upon the surrounding mountains ; and finding 
 that he could not aid the besieged inhabitants, he agreed 
 to these overbearing terms, which King Philip had in vain 
 tried to make more honorable. Although the treat}'' had 
 been made in the names of both the kings, Richard en- 
 tered the city as the conqueror, assigning to Philip a 
 secondary place ; and having taken possession, Richard 
 established himself and Berengaria in the principal palace, 
 leaving Philip to secure quarters as best he might. Rich- 
 ard also enraged the archduke of Austria, who was also 
 one of the crusaders, b}' pulling down the banner of the 
 duke, which he had ventured to place on one of the 
 towers. 
 
 Now, again, the disputes regarding the title of the 
 King of Jerusalem were renewed. Two knights, Guy of 
 Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, claimed this title, 
 and Philip and Richard espoused opposite sides, Philip 
 agreeing to help Conrad's claims, and Richard taking 
 part with Guy. This occasioned so much hard feeling 
 that Philip, who had been sick, announced that he was 
 too ill to remain longer in such an unhealthy climate ; and 
 leaving ten thousand French troops under the command 
 of the duke of Burgundy, King Philip returned to France. 
 
 We now come to the barbarous massacre of the five 
 thousand Saracen prisoners, by the orders of King Rich- 
 ard, which shocking deed has left a dark blot upon the 
 fame of Richard, even though he gloried in the act and 
 considered it a proof of his zeal in the cause of Christ. 
 The writers of those da3's praised it, and maintained that, 
 as the Saracens were the enemies of God, whoever killed 
 them did God service. How they could be so blinded by 
 ignorance and superstition we cannot understand ; and it 
 
222 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 appears very amazing that the religion of love which 
 Jesus of Nazareth preached, by his words and his exam- 
 ple, could have been so misunderstood by the perverted 
 minds of men ; that such a diabolical spirit of ferocious 
 brutality could be esteemed as commendable worship of 
 Almighty God. 
 
 The time which had been agreed upon for Saladin to 
 comply with the stipulations of the surrender of Acre 
 having expired, Richard ordered the five thousand prison- 
 ers, which he held as hostages, to be brutally beheaded; 
 and a false rumor having been raised, that Saladin had 
 put to death his Christian prisoners, the soldiers of Rich- 
 ard were easil}^ infuriated to be willing to execute this 
 barbarous order. In the face of Saladin's humane treat- 
 ment of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, when he captured 
 that city, Mussulman though he was, this shocking bar- 
 barity of the crusading army, while calling themselves 
 Christians, was an atrocious crime, which no plea of sup- 
 posed zeal or ignorant superstition can excuse. 
 
 Saladin and his army were now retreating towards Jeru- 
 salem, which city was his chief point to defend. Rich- 
 ard, having repaired the walls of Acre, and placed a 
 garrison to hold it, proceeded with thirty thousand men 
 in pursuit of the Saracens. The recovery of the Holy 
 Sepulchre was the great object of the crusaders. All 
 their efforts were considered of no avail, if they failed to 
 accomplish this important end. Richard's army were to 
 follow the sea-shore to Jaffa, which was a port nearly 
 opposite Jerusalem. This band of crusaders presented a 
 brilliant appearance. The knights wore costly armor, 
 and were mounted on horses richly caparisoned. Some 
 of the horses were protected like their riders, with armor 
 of steel. The columns were preceded by trumpeters and 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 223 
 
 bearers of flags and banners, with very gorgeous decora- 
 tions. When the expedition halted at night, heralds 
 passed through the several camps, to the sound of trum- 
 pets, and at a signal all the soldiers knelt, and the 
 heralds exclaimed, " God save the Holy Sepulchre ! " and 
 all the soldiers shouted, " Amen." 
 
 Thus the Christian army advanced to Jaffa. The two 
 armies. Christian and Saracen, then met on a plain near 
 the seashore, called Azotus. Saladin commenced the 
 attack upon the wing of Richard's army, composed of the 
 French troops under the command of the duke of Bur- 
 gundy. They resisted and drove the Saracens back. 
 Then Richard gave the signal for a charge, and rode for- 
 ward at the head of his troops, mounted on his famous 
 charger, and flourishing his heavy battle-axe. This axe 
 was a ponderous weapon. Richard had ordered it made 
 before leaving England, and it was so immense that few 
 men could lift it. But as Richard Coeur de Lion was a 
 man of marvellous strength, he wielded this huge weapon 
 with prodigious force. When it came down upon the 
 head of a steel-clad knight, on his horse, it often crushed 
 both man and steed to the ground. The darts and jave- 
 lins of the Mohammedans glanced oflT from King Richard's 
 steel armor, without inflicting any wound, while Saracen 
 after Saracen was felled to the earth by the blows from 
 his ponderous battle-axe. 
 
 It was not long before Saladin's army was flying in all 
 directions, pursued by the crusaders. After this battle 
 Richard established his army in Jaffa. In the meantime 
 Saladin was collecting forces for a more vigorous resist- 
 ance. Historians have condemned this inactivity of 
 Richard's army for so many weeks at Jaffa, thus enabling 
 Saladin to rally his men and become more determined in 
 
224 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 his defence. During the time while Richard's army was 
 resting and feasting at Jaffa, King Richard and Saladin 
 entered upon several negotiations, which were carried on 
 through Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, who was pro- 
 vided with a safe conduct through the enemies' lines. 
 One of these propositions was that Richard and Saladin 
 should cease hostilities and become allies, and that their 
 difficulties should be settled by a marriage between Joanna, 
 Richard's sister, the ex-queen of Sicil}', and Saphadin, the 
 brother of Saladin. But this, and all other propositions, 
 at length came to naught, and in November, Richard ad- 
 vanced with his army as far as Bethan}^, with a forlorn 
 hope that they might find themselves strong enough to 
 attack Jerusalem. But this hope was vain. Richard's 
 men were d^'ing from sickness and famine, caused by a 
 large amount of their provisions being spoiled by the fall 
 rains which had now set in, and many of the discouraged 
 soldiers deserted. These losses so thinned King Richard's 
 ranks, that he was obhged to retreat to Acre. While they 
 were at Bethany, a band of crusaders had ascended a 
 mountain overlooking Jerusalem. King Richard was 
 asked to come and see the holy city in the distance. 
 " No," said he, covering his face with his cloak, " those 
 who are not worthy of conquering Jerusalem should not 
 look upon it." 
 
 While at Acre, Richard learned that Saladin was be- 
 sieging Jaffa. The historian Guizot thus describes the 
 rescue of Jaffa from the Saracens : — 
 
 "When King Richard arrived at Jaffa, the crescent 
 alread}^ shone upon the walls ; but a priest who had cast 
 himself into the water in front of the royal vessel told 
 Richard that he could yet save the garrison, although the 
 town was already in the hands of the enemy. The ship 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 225 
 
 bad not yet reached the landing-stage, and ah-eady the 
 king was in the water, which reached to his shoulders, 
 and was uttering the war-cry ' St. George ! ' The in- 
 fidels, who were then plundering the city, took fright, and 
 three thousand men fled, pursued by four or five knights 
 of the cross. The little corps of Christians intrenched 
 themselves behind planks of wood, and tuns ; ten tents 
 held the whole of the army. Day had scarcely dawned, 
 when a soldier flew to Richard's bedside. ' O king, we 
 are dead men ! ' he cried ; ' the enem}' is upon us.' The 
 king sprang up from his bed, scarcely allowing himself 
 time to buckle on his armor, and omitting his helmet and 
 shield. ' Silence ! ' he said to the bearer of the bad news, 
 ' or I will kill you.' Seventeen knights had gathered round 
 C(jeur de Lion, kneeling on the ground, and holding their 
 lances ; in their midst were some archers, accompanied by 
 attendants who were recharging their arquebuses. The 
 kino; was standing; in the midst. The Saracens endeavored 
 in vain to overawe this heroic little band ; not one of them 
 stirred. At length, under a shower of arrows, the knights 
 sprang on their horses, and swept the plain before them. 
 They entered Jafla towards evening, and drove the Mus- 
 sulmans from it. From the time of 'daybreak Richard 
 had not ceased for a moment to deal out his blows, and 
 the skin of his hand adhered to the handle of his battle- 
 axe." 
 
 Still more graphically do the old chronicles thus describe 
 this battle : — 
 
 " Where the fight was fiercest there rode King Richard, 
 and the Turks fell beneath his flashing sword. Then the 
 galley-men, fearing for their lives, left the battle and took 
 refuge in their boats, and the Turks thought to seize the 
 town while the armv was fiojhtino^ in the field. But the 
 
226 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 king, taking witli him but two knights and two cross- 
 bowmen, entered the town and dispersed the Turks who 
 had entered, and set sentinels to guard it, and then, 
 hasting to the galleys, gathered together the men, and 
 encouraging them with his words, brought them back to 
 the fight. And as he led them to the field, he fell upon 
 the enemy so fiercely, that he cut his way all alone into 
 the midst of the ranks, and they gave way before him. 
 But they closed around him, and he was left alone, and 
 at that sight our men feared greatly. But alone in the 
 midst of his enemies he remained unmoved, and all as 
 they approached him were cut down like corn before the 
 sickle. And there rode against him a great admiral, dis- 
 tinguished above all the rest by his rich caparisons, and 
 with bold arrogance assayed to attack him, but the king 
 with one blow of his sword cut off his head and shoulder 
 and right arm. Then the Turks fled in terror at the sight, 
 and the king returned to his men, and lo ! the king was 
 stuck all over with javelins, like the spines of a hedge- 
 hog, and the trappings of his horse with arrows. The 
 battle lasted that day from the rising to the setting sun, 
 but the Turks returned to Saladin, and he mocked his 
 men, and asked them where was Malek-Rik, whom they 
 had promised to bring him. But one of them answered, 
 ' There is no knight on earth like Malek-Rik ; nay, nor 
 ever was from the beginning of the world.' " 
 
 King Richard's forces were now so weakened, that he 
 found it would be hopeless to endeavor to take Jerusalem. 
 The Archduke Leopold, of Austria, had left the army 
 with his men and gone home. This was caused by a 
 quarrel between liimself and King Richard. Saladin hav- 
 ing left Ascalon, Richard hastened to repair its fortifica- 
 tions. In order to encourage his soldiers, he himself 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 227 
 
 carried stones to the workers, urging the archduke to do 
 the same. " I am not the son of a mason," replied the 
 Austrian, haughtily. Whereupon, Richard, in auger, 
 struck him a blow in the face, which indignit}' so enraged 
 the archduke, that he immediately took his forces and re- 
 turned to Austria. 
 
 Another event occurred at this time, the blame of which 
 some historians lay upon King Richard. Conrad of Mont- 
 ferrat, one of the claimants to the title of King of Jerusa- 
 lem, was murdered by two emissaries, sent by the "Old 
 Man of the Mountain," who was a famous chieftain, 
 living with his baud of bold robbers among the moun- 
 tains. The men under this chieftain were trained to 
 obey without any dissent the commands given by their 
 leader. A story was spread abroad that these men were 
 hired by King Richard to kill Conrad. The friends of 
 Richard declared, however, that it was caused b}^ a quar- 
 rel between Conrad and the Old Man of the Mountain. 
 
 Two incidents are related of Saladin's 'generosity 
 towards Richard, his foe. At one time King Richard 
 was very sick with fever, and Saladin supplied him with 
 cooling drinks and fresh fruits, thus kindly ministering 
 to the comfort of his sick enemy. At another time, dur- 
 ing a battle with the Saracens, Saladin beheld King 
 Richard standing on a little knoll, surrounded by his 
 knights. " Wh}^ is he on foot?" asked Saladin, for 
 Richard's famous charger had been killed that day in the 
 battle. " The king of England should not fight on foot, 
 like a common soldier," exclaimed Saladin, and forthwith 
 he sent Richard a splendid horse as a present. When 
 the steed was brought to the king, one of his knights 
 mounted him to try his speed. Whereupon, the intelli- 
 gent animal immediately turned and ran with his rider to 
 
228 RICHARD C(EUR DE LION. 
 
 the camp of the Saracens. Saladin was so chagrined at 
 this unlooked-for occurrence, and fearing lest Richard 
 should imagine his kindly present had only been sent as 
 a treacherous stratagem, immediately placed the Christian 
 knight upon a more gentle horse, and sent with him a 
 still handsomer charger, as a present to the English king, 
 which Richard gladly received. 
 
 Disquieting news now reached King Richard from P^ng- 
 land. His brother John, aided by Philip of France, had 
 deposed the chancellor, and caused himself to be made 
 governor-general of the kingdom. Under these circum- 
 stances, and the hopelessness of capturing Jerusalem, 
 King Richard concluded a truce with Saladin, giving up 
 Ascalon to him, but keeping Jaffa, Tyre, and the fort- 
 resses along the coast, and promising to refrain from any 
 hostilities during a period of three years, three months, 
 three wrecks, three days, and three hours. "Then I will 
 come back," said Richard, " with double the men that I 
 now possess, and will reconquer Jerusalem." Saladin 
 answered: "that if the Holy City was to fall into the 
 hands of the Christians, no one was more worthy of con- 
 quering it than Malek-Rik." 
 
 On the 9th of October, 1192, Richard Coeur de Lion 
 left Palestine to return to his own kingdom. The queens 
 embarked first in their vessel, followed soon after by Rich- 
 ard in his war-ship. As the shore of the Holy Land was 
 receding from view, Richard gazed upon it from the deck 
 of his galles' ; and stretching out his arms towards it, 
 exclaimed, — 
 
 "Most holy land, farewell! I commend thee to 
 God's keeping and care. May He give me life and 
 health to return and rescue thee from the hands of the 
 infidels." 
 
"MOST HOLY LAND, FAREWELL 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 229 
 
 A storm soon arose, and the vessels of King Richard's 
 fleet were separated. The queens arrived safely in Sicily, 
 but King Richard was driven to the Island of Corfu. Here 
 he hired three small vessels to take him to the head of the 
 Adriatic Sea, and then he endeavored to cross throuo-h 
 Germany by land. He assumed the garb of a merchant, 
 lest his many enemies should discover him. Thus he 
 travelled through the mountains of the Tyrol. But havino- 
 sent a ring with a messenger to the governor of Goritz, 
 seeking a passport, the governor exclaimed, " This ring 
 belongs to no merchant, but only to the king of England." 
 
 Thus was King Richard discovered ; and he was seized 
 by his old enemy, Duke Leopold of Austria, and put 
 into prison. Which event, coming to the knowledge of 
 the emperor of Germany, he himself claimed the illustri- 
 ous captive, saying, "A duke cannot possibly keep a 
 king." 
 
 So King Richard was shut up in the castle of Trifels by 
 the emperor, where he languished for two years. Mean- 
 while neither his wife nor mother could obtain any trace 
 of him; and even after his brother John learned that 
 Richard was imprisoned by the emperor of Germany, he 
 joined King Philip of France in making propositions to 
 the German emperor, promising to pay him large sums of 
 money if he would keep the king of England in prison. 
 The place of King Richard's imprisonment was said to 
 have been discovered by a celebrated troubadour named 
 Blondel, who had known Richard in Palestine, and was 
 now travelling through Germany. As he went along in 
 front of the castle where Richard was confined, he was 
 singing one of the troubadour songs. When he had fin- 
 ished one stanza, King Richard, who knew the song, sang 
 the next verse through the bars of his prison window. 
 
230 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 Blondel recognized the voice, and perceiving that Richard 
 was a prisoner, he made all speed to go to England and 
 inform King Richard's friends of his sad situation. It is 
 said that the first news Berengaria received of Richard's 
 fate was by seeing a jewelled belt offered for sale in Rome. 
 This belt she recognized as one which King Richard wore 
 when he left Acre. But upon inquiry, she could only 
 learn that Richard was somewhere in Germany. The 
 news that King Richard Coeur de Lion was a prisoner in 
 Germany roused great excitement in England and in 
 Rome. The Pope excommunicated Duke Leopold for 
 havino; seized Richard, and threatened to excommunicate 
 the emperor if he did not release him. Finally the empe- 
 ror agreed to set the king of England free upon the pay- 
 ment of a certain sum of money, two- thirds of which were 
 to be received before the king should be released. At 
 length, in Februar}-, 1194, about two years after Richard 
 was first imprisoned, the first payment was made, and 
 King Richard Coeur de Lion was allowed to go free ; and 
 he arrived in England in March, when the people gave 
 him a magnificent reception. As soon as Richard had 
 arranged his affairs, he determined to be crowned a sec- 
 ond time as king of England, lest the two years of his 
 captivity might have weakened his claims. He was ac- 
 cordingly recrowned with the greatest pomp and splendor. 
 At the request of his mother he pardoned his brother 
 John, saying, "I hope that I shall as easily forget the 
 injuries he has done me as he will forget mj' forbearance 
 in pardoning him." But Richard treated Berengaria with 
 great unkindness and open neglect, until he was suddenly 
 seized with a severe illness, which so alarmed him that he 
 called for a great number of monks and priests, and 
 began to confess his sins, vowing, if God would spare 
 
RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 231 
 
 his life, he would abandon his profligate and wicked hab- 
 its, and treat his wife with kindness. He recovered, and 
 he so far kept his vows as to send for his wife, and be- 
 come, outwardly at least, reconciled to her. But the fault 
 was all on his side ; for poor Berengaria had given him 
 no cause for his cruel treatment of her. The reiorn of 
 Richard Coeur de Lion was soon to end, however, and the 
 cause was one which shed neither glory nor honor upon 
 his fame. A rich treasure had been found by one of his 
 vassals, the viscount of Limoges. Richard at once 
 claimed it, and the viscount sent him half. But Richard 
 determined to secure the whole of it, and accordingly 
 went to the castle of Chaluz, where the treasure was, and 
 laid siege to the place. It was well defended, but provi- 
 sions becoming short, the garrison wished to capitulate. 
 "No," said Richard, "I will take your place by storm, 
 and cause vou all to be hano-ed on the walls." 
 
 While King Richard was examining the point of attack, 
 a 3'oung archer, named Bertrand de Gourdon, shot an 
 arrow at the king, and wounded him upon the shoulder. 
 The town was taken and all the garrison were hung. 
 King Richard's wound, through the unskilful handling of 
 the surgeons, proved to be fatal. As he was dying he 
 sent for Gourdon. "Wretch!" said Richard to the 
 archer, " what had I done to you that you should have 
 attempted my life ? " 
 
 " You have put my father and two brothers to death," 
 said Bertrand, " and you wanted to hang me." 
 
 The dying king, at last struck with remorse for his 
 many cruel deeds, said, " I forgive you," and he ordered 
 the chains of the archer to be removed, and that he should 
 receive one hundred shillings. This humane command, 
 however, was not obeyed, and Bertrand was flayed alive. 
 
232 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION. 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion died on the 6th of April, 1199, at 
 the ao-e of forty- two, and was buried, according to his 
 request, at the foot of the grave of Henry II., his father, 
 in Fontevraud Abbey. The figures in stone of the father, 
 mother, and son, who quarrelled so much while living, all 
 lie now on one monument. Richard Coeur de Lion was 
 well called the Lion-Hearted. His glory consisted in his 
 reckless and brutal ferocity. He pretended to be the 
 champion and defender of the cause of Christ, but he used 
 the sacred name of Christianity only as a means of grati- 
 fvino; his own wild ambitions and his inhuman thirst for 
 blood. Tliough he won the fame of a brave and valorous 
 knight, his savage barbarity and reckless cruelties tar- 
 nished all the brightness of his glory, and brought dis- 
 grace and dishonor upon tlie sacred cause of true religion, 
 of which he pretended to be the most zealous upholder. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 233 
 
 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 1274-1329 A.D. 
 
 " Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled, 
 Scots, whom Bruce has aften led, 
 Welcome to yom- gory bed. 
 On to victorie ! " — Burks. 
 
 " I )RUCE to the rescue! Bruce to the rescue!" was 
 
 -*--^ the war-cry of the vahant little band of Scottish 
 chiefs who gathered under the banner of Robert Bruce, 
 who was the seventh lord of Annandale, and also earl 
 of Carrick. 
 
 The heroic AVilliam Wallace had already endeavored to 
 free his country from the yoke of bondage in which they 
 were held by the English king, Edward 1. 
 
 Alexander III., the ninety-fifth king of Scotland, had 
 died in 1286, leaving his grand-daughter Margaret, the 
 Fair Maid of Norway, heir to the Scottish throne. This 
 child-princess was betrothed to the son of the English 
 king; but when quite young, as she sailed from her 
 father's castle in Norway to her future home in Scotland, 
 she died on the voyage thither. Thus the crown of Scot- 
 land became the cause of dispute amongst thirteen noble- 
 men, descendants of members of the royal family, who 
 set up claims to the vacant throne. 
 
 There were but two claimants whose pretensions were 
 based upon sufficient grounds to insure any prospect of 
 success. These were John Baliol and Robert Bruce, 
 
234 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 grandson and son of the two elder daughters of David, 
 earl of Huntingdon, who was the younger brother of 
 King William, the Lion, who was the ninety-third king 
 of Scotland. This Robert Bruce was the grandfather of 
 the hero who is the subject of this sketch. 
 
 King Edward of England, having been requested by 
 the Scots to act as arbitrator amongst all these claimants, 
 decided to give the preference to John Baliol, who 
 was crowned king in November, 1292, having sworn 
 fealty to Edward, king of England. Thus did the wily 
 English sovereign place upon the Scottish throne a king 
 weak enough to be used as his tool. And poor John 
 Baliol soon found, to his sorrow, that he was a king only 
 in name ; but in reality a slave in the hands of his ambi- 
 tious and powerful neighbor. 
 
 Edward, having placed the feeble Baliol upon the 
 throne of Scotland, spared him no humiliation. Ever}' 
 time an}' Scottish petitioner appealed to Edward, Baliol's 
 liege lord, regarding any decision of the king of Scot- 
 land which had failed to satisfy his subject, Edward 
 would summon Baliol to appear at his court, to render an 
 account of his judgment. This occurred four times the 
 first year of his reign. At length Baliol refused to com- 
 ply longer with these demands of Edward, whereupon 
 the English king advanced with an army against the 
 Scots. After a fearful massacre at Berwick, and the 
 capture of several castles by the English, Baliol begged 
 for peace, and was sent to the Tower in lionorable cap- 
 tivity. He subsequently ended his life in his domains in 
 Normandy. Robert Bruce at once claimed the crown. 
 But Edward exclaimed, angrily, "Do you think that I 
 have nothing else to do but to conquer kingdoms for 
 you?" 
 
WARREN, EARL OF SURREY, GOVERNOR OF SCOTLAND UNDER 
 EDWARD L 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 235 
 
 Scotland was now treated as a conquered country ; and 
 Warrene, earl of Surrey, was appointed governor, Hugh 
 de Cressingliam, treasurer, and William Ormesby, chief 
 justicier. 
 
 Robert Bruce the grandfather, and also Robert Bruce' 
 the father of our hero, considered it the better part of 
 discretion to resign all pretensions to the throne of Scot- 
 land. They therefore swore fealty to King Edward. 
 
 Robert de Bruce, the sixth lord of Annandale, had 
 accompanied Edward, when prince of England, and 
 Louis I. of France, to the HoW Land, where he acquired 
 great renown. A romantic story is told of his courtship 
 and marriage. 
 
 One da}' this knight of the crusades was riding 
 through the domains of Turnberr}^ As he was pro- 
 ceeding leisureh' along through the majestic forests, 
 charmed with the beauty of the sylvan scenery, watching 
 the glinting sunbeams dance athwart the leaves, and pla}- 
 hide-and-seek with the shadows, in the cosey nooks where 
 moss-banks nestled, he was startled by the sound of a 
 hunting-horn ; and shortly a gay cavalcade of lords and 
 ladies dashed through the forest on their way to the 
 castle near by. One of the ladies, Margaret, countess 
 of Carrick, the owner of this castle, and hostess of this 
 splendid retinue, being captivated by the lordly bearing 
 of the handsome, unknown knight, with the freedom and 
 natural courtesy of one who felt her independence upon 
 her own domain, reined in her higli-bred steed, whose 
 wild spirits were curbed by slightest touch of her fair 
 fingers, and, bowing to the knight with queenly dignity, 
 she invited him to join her visitors, and share her hospi- 
 tality. Robert de Bruce, knowing the high position of 
 this gracious lady, and fearing to accept too eagerly such 
 
236 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 an unexpected honor, courteously declined the kind invi- 
 tation, which he supposed had been offered only out of a 
 courtly hospitality, as he had been found a stranger 
 within her own domains. But the beautiful countess, 
 moved b}^ some strange attraction, which she did not 
 stop to analyze, gaily laid hold of the reins of his steed, 
 and laughingly replied : — 
 
 " Ah, noble knight ! no trespasser on my grounds ever 
 escapes imprisonment in my castle ; " and thereupon she 
 led him away, like a captive knight, to her castle of 
 Turnberry. 
 
 For fifteen days he was the honored guest amidst all 
 the festivities at the castle, and the first in the chase, by 
 the side of the bewitching countess ; and, having obtained 
 her heart, as well as her hand, they were married, with- 
 out the consent of the king, whose ward she was, or the 
 knowledge of her relatives ; in consequence of which the 
 estates and castle of the young countess were seized by 
 the sovereign, and were only saved to her by the pay- 
 ment of a large fine to the crown. 
 
 The eldest son of this brave knight and beautiful coun- 
 tess, who had risked so much for love, and whose mar- 
 riage was as romantic as any described in Scottisli tales 
 of fiction, was Robert the Bruce, our hero, who was after- 
 wards King Robert I. of Scotland. He was born on the 
 21st of March, 1274. He spent his early youth at Car- 
 rick, where he was distinguished for his brave spirit and 
 persevering energy. 
 
 The grandfather of Robert the Bruce, Robert, lord of 
 Annandale, refusing to take the oath of homage to his 
 rival, John Baliol, when King Edward of England decided 
 in his favor, gave up his Scottish domains in Annandale 
 to his son, the earl of Carrick, lest he should hold them 
 
nOBEKT BRUCE. 237 
 
 as Edward's minion. This proceeding was also followed 
 by the earl in 1293, in behalf of his son, Robert the 
 Bruce, who was then serving the king of England. Not- 
 withstanding the sympathy of young Bruce with the cause 
 of Scotland, and his resolve to assert his claims to the 
 Scottish crown, he had, during the greater part of the 
 reign of his weak rival, adhered to the fortunes of Ed- 
 ward, deeming it better policy to yield himself to the 
 uncontrollable necessity of circumstances, rather than 
 risk his cause by undue haste. Sometimes he appeared 
 to assert his own pretensions to the crown, and the inde- 
 pendence of his country ; and then, again, he yielded 
 submission to the superior power of the English king, 
 whose good-will he wished to keep until a favorable 
 opportunity should offer itself of openly asserting his 
 rights. Robert might have obtained the crown if he 
 would have acknowledged the superior power of Eng- 
 land, and submitted himself as a vassal to the English 
 king, as Baliol had done. But he would not receive it on 
 any other terms than as a free crown, which had been 
 worn by his ancestors, and of right belonged to him. 
 
 When John Baliol was raised to sovereign power, the 
 family of Bruce, although looking upon his elevation with 
 envy, deemed it prudent to conceal their dissatisfaction, 
 and the father of young Robert, who possessed the earl- 
 dom of Carrick, in right of the countess his wife, resigned 
 to his son these possessions, who was admitted to do 
 homage to Baliol, the Scottish king, and thus became 
 earl of Carrick. 
 
 When John Baliol had rebelled against Edward, king 
 of England, young Bruce deemed it unsafe to rank under 
 the banner of his natural sovereign, and therefore joined 
 the side of Edward. Whereupon, the Scottish king, John 
 
238 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 Baliol, confiscated his estate of Annandale, as that of a 
 traitor, and gave it to one of his followers, Comyn, earl 
 of Buchan. Some of the English peers, suspecting the 
 fidelity of young Bruce, who had now retired to the family 
 estate in England, summoned him to Carlisle to do hom- 
 age. He forthwith obeyed, and swore fidelity to the 
 cause of Edward, and in order to show his loyalty, he 
 assembled some of his followers, and overran the lands 
 of Sir William Douglas, a Scottish patriot, and even 
 carried away his wife and children. Stung with remorse, 
 however, for this treacherous act, which was really ex- 
 torted from him, young Bruce then joined the Scottish 
 army, which Wallace, the brave patriot, together with the 
 bishop of Glasgow, and steward of Scotland, had raised. 
 The Scottish leaders were too much at variance amongst 
 themselves to make a resolute stand. The English, 
 knowing of their dissensions, sent messengers to treat 
 with them. With the exception of William Wallace, they 
 sued for peace, and threw down their arms without strik- 
 ing a blow. Bruce deemed it prudent to submit with his 
 countrymen to the P^ngiish king, but such had been the 
 inconstancy of this nobleman, that the English demanded 
 security for his future fidelity. Whereupon the bishop of 
 Glasgow, the lord steward, and Alexander de Lindesay, 
 came forward as his securities, until he should deliver 
 over his daughter Marjory as an hostage for his loyalty. 
 The conduct of young Bruce seems to us vacillating and 
 unpatriotic, viewed from the present age ; but he must be 
 judged by the spirit of those troublesome times, and his 
 after heroic deeds in his country's behalf must soften a 
 stern judgment regarding his changeable and uncertain 
 conduct at this time. By the side of the staunch patriot- 
 ism of the brave William Wallace, various acts of Robert 
 
.'JV 
 
 -'jaff'-"'" 
 
 
 EUTUS I. MEX SCOT' 
 AXNO DOM. 3yiC C CATl. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 239 
 
 Bruce, at this period of his life, are thrown into an on- 
 favorable light, but his seeming treachery he regarded as 
 actuated by a prudent policy. Whether he would have 
 gained the deliverance of his country sooner, or suffered 
 irretrievable defeat, had he earlier and more steadfastly 
 espoused the patriotic cause, we find ourselves at a loss to 
 determine, after a careful study of that conflicting epoch. 
 The history of Robert Bruce would not be complete 
 without a brief account of William Wallace, which will 
 help to give a clearer idea of the affairs of Scotland at 
 that time. 
 
 William Wallace was descended from an ancient family 
 in the west of Scotland. Having been provoked and in- 
 sulted by an English officer, Wallace had put him to 
 death, and therefore was obliged to flee for safety to the 
 forests. Here he collected a large band of bold men. 
 Some of these were outlawed for crimes ; others, on ac- 
 count of bad fortune or hatred of the English, were will- 
 ing participants in this daring scheme. William Wallace 
 possessed gigantic strength of body as well as heroic 
 courage, and so was admirably suited to become a leader 
 in such a perilous enterprise. 
 
 This little band of Scottish warriors made many suc- 
 cessful raids upon their English foes, until the fame of 
 their exploits became so wide-spread that the English 
 were filled with terror, and their enslaved countrymen 
 were inspired with hopes of freedom from the galling 
 yoke of oppression which fettered their hitherto^ inde- 
 pendent country. 
 
 Wallace now determined to strike a decisive blow 
 against the English government. Warrene, the governor 
 of Scotland, had retired to England on account of his 
 health, so that the administration of Scotland was left in 
 
240 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 the hands of Ormesby, the justiciary, and Cressingham, 
 who held the office of treasurer. Wallace formed a plan of 
 attacking Ormesby, at Scone ; but the justiciary being in- 
 formed of such intentions, fled in terror to England. All 
 the other English officers imitated his example. The 
 Scots, encouraged by these events, sprang to arms. 
 
 Many of the principal barons, including Sir William 
 Douglas, openly countenanced the party of Wallace. 
 Meanwhile, ATarrene, earl of Surrey, collected an army 
 of forty thousand men, in the north of P^ngland, and in- 
 vaded Scotland. He suddenly entered Annaudale, and 
 came up with the enemy at Irvine, before the Scottish 
 forces were prepared for battle. Many of the Scottish 
 nobles, alarmed at this unforeseen event, submitted to the 
 English, and renewed their oaths of fealty, and gave 
 hostages for their fidelity, whereupon they received par- 
 don for their rebellion. Others, who had not openly de- 
 clared themselves, thought best to side with the English, 
 and wait a better opportunity for avowing themselves as 
 partisans of the Scottish cause. But Wallace persevered 
 in his bold enterprise, and marclied northwards and es- 
 tablished his little army at Cambuskenneth. When AYar- 
 rene advanced to Stirling, he found Wallace on tlie 
 opposite banks of tlie Forth. Wallace had chosen a 
 position near a narrow bridge which spanned the Forth, 
 and as the English, with thoughtless precipitation, com- 
 menced to cross, Wallace attacked them before they were 
 fully formed, and put them to rout, gaining a complete 
 victory. Among the slain was Cressingham, who was so 
 hated 1)y the Scots that they flayed his dead body, and 
 made saddle-girths of his skin. Warrene, finding his re- 
 maining forces much dismayed by this defeat, returned 
 again to England. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 241 
 
 Wallace was now made regent, or guardian of the 
 country, by his enthusiastic followers ; and his brave- band, 
 not content with their past exploits, invaded England, 
 and laid waste many counties, returning to their native 
 land loaded with spoils, and crowned with glory. 
 
 But now factions amongst the Scots themselves caused 
 a disaster which deprived them of all they had gained. 
 The Scottish nobles were unwilling that Wallace should 
 be placed over them in power ; and that patriot, to avoid 
 jealousies and dissensions, resigned his authority as re- 
 gent, retaining only his command over that body of war- 
 riors who refused to follow any other leader than the 
 brave Wallace, under whose banner they had so often 
 been led to victor}'. 
 
 The Scottish army was now divided into three bands. 
 The chief power devolved on the steward of Scotland, and 
 Comyn of Badenoch. The third band was commanded 
 by the valiant Wallace. Edward, having collected the 
 entire military force of England, Wales, and Ireland, 
 marched into Scotland with an arm}^ of nearly one hun- 
 dred thousand men. 
 
 When the two forces met in battle at Falkirk, the Eng- 
 lish archers chased the Scottish bowmen off the field, then 
 shooting their arrows amongst the pikemen, they were 
 thrown into confusion, and the English cavalry soon put 
 the Scots to rout, with great slaughter. Some historians 
 state that the loss of the Scots, upon this occasion, was 
 fifty or sixty thousand men. In this general rout of the 
 Scottish army, Wallace's superior militar^^ skill and pres- 
 ence of mind enabled him to keep his band together, and 
 retiring to the farther bank of a small river called the 
 Carron, he marched along its banks protected from the 
 enemy. Bruce, who was serving in the English army, 
 
242 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 recognized the valiant Scottish chief, and calling out to 
 him, desired a conference. This being granted, he en- 
 deavored to convince Wallace of the helplessness of his 
 rash enterprise, and advised him to submit. But the in- 
 trepid Wallace replied, that if he had hitherto acted alone 
 as the champion of his country, it was because no other 
 would assume the place. He exhorted Bruce to espouse 
 the cause of his enslaved land, representing to him the 
 glory of the enterprise, and hope of opposing success- 
 fully the power of the English. With enthusiasm he de- 
 clared that he would prefer to give his own life, and the 
 existence of the nation, when they could only be pre- 
 served b}^ receiving the chains of a haughty victor. 
 
 Bruce was greatly moved by these sentiments of brave 
 patriotism, and regretting his engagements to Edward, 
 the enemy of his people, resolved to embrace the cause 
 of his oppressed country. 
 
 We cannot follow tlie brave and valiant Wallace through 
 his after career, and will but note his sad and unworthy 
 fate. He was betrayed into Edward's hands by Sir John 
 Monteith, who had been his friend. Edward ordered 
 Wallace to be carried in chains to London, where he was 
 tried as a rebel or traitor, though he had never sworn 
 fealty to England ; and he was executed on Tower Hill. 
 This barbarous crueltv of the Eno-lish king; only inflamed 
 the Scots to fresh rebellions ; and they now again sprang 
 to arms, shouting, " Bruce to the rescue ! " 
 
 Robert Bruce had long resolved to attempt to free his 
 enslaved country. The death of William Wallace, and 
 the memory of his patriotic exhortation after the battle of 
 Falkirk, on the banks of the river Carron, added fresh 
 impetus to this resolve ; and his open avowal could be no 
 longer delayed on account of two incidents which hap- 
 pened about this time. 
 
•'BRUCE WAS NOT SLOW IN TAKING THE WARNING. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 243 
 
 Bruce had ventured to disclose this resolve to John 
 Coniyn, surnamed the Red, a powerful nobleman and 
 warm friend. He found Comyn apparently in full accord 
 with his avowed sentiments. But that nobleman after- 
 wards treacherously revealed the secret to the Enolish 
 king. Edward did not immediately seize and imprison 
 Bruce, because he desired also to ensnare his three 
 brothers, who resided in Scotland. But he placed spies 
 over Bruce ; and a nobleman, Gilbert de Clare, one of the 
 lords in Edward's court, but also a friend of Robert 
 Bruce, having learned of the danger which threatened 
 him, and fearing to risk his own position by an open 
 warning, sent Bruce a pair of golden spurs and a purse 
 of gold by his servant, with this message: " My master 
 sent these to thee, and bid me say, that the receiver 
 would have sagacity enough to determine quickly to what 
 use they should be put." 
 
 Bruce was not slow in taking the warning. Evidently, 
 some one at court had betrayed him ! Ah, he had it ! 
 surely it could be no other than the Red Comyn ! 
 
 There is a story told, that three days previous to this 
 event, Robert Bruce was praying at the altar, in a chapel 
 where afterwards stood St. Martin's church. It was mid- 
 night, and Bruce was alone. With tearful eyes he ex- 
 claimed, — 
 
 " Yes, at the foot of this high altar, I'll swear forthwith 
 to fling the yoke from off me, in spite of hostile man and 
 misleading fiend ; knowing that if I put trust in, and pay 
 obedience to, the King of kings, m^' triumph shall be sure, 
 my victory complete ! " 
 
 "Amen to that!" whispered a sweet and plaintive 
 voice in the ear of the kneeling earl. 
 
 Bruce sprang to his feet, exclaiming, " Who art thou? " 
 
244 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 But he saw only a muffled figure glide swiftly behind one 
 of the pillars. Bruce piu'sued ; but the same soft voice 
 replied : — 
 
 " I am neither foe to Scotland's cause, nor shall be to 
 him whose it is to see her righted, laggard although he be 
 in responding to the urgent call. Farewell to the valiant 
 Bruce ! We may meet again, 3'et nevermore in this holy 
 place ; for even three days must not elapse and find him 
 loitering near the stern and subtle Edward, or it will be 
 woe to Scotland and to Scotland's mightiest lord ! Let 
 the Bruce find bis way to the altar, upon which I place 
 a token for his keeping and his use — the bugle-horn of 
 the immortal Wallace ; with which he summoned to his 
 standard his faithful countrymen, and led them to victory, 
 till he was overcome by treachery and death. Take this 
 sacred bugle-horn, and sound the call for Scotland's 
 freedom ! " 
 
 Ere the astonished Bruce could answer, a figure shot 
 past him, and was lost in the darkness. The earl, grop- 
 ing his way in the dim light to the altar, found there the 
 precious relic promised ; and he went forth under the star- 
 lit midnight sk}-, vowing to strike a blow for his enslaved 
 country. Bruce needed no second warning of his danger, 
 but the very night upon which he received the gilt spurs 
 and purse of gold, he ordered two of his horses to be 
 shod with reversed shoes, so that their course might not 
 be traced, as snow had fallen, and the prints of the 
 horses' feet would therefore be plainly visible. Then 
 Bruce and one faithful attendant, named Walter Kennedy, 
 hastily mounted their horses, and rode out of London 
 under cover of the darkness of the night. 
 
 As they left the great city behind them, Walter Ken- 
 nedy ventured to say, — 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 245 
 
 " If I may be so bold, good master, where gang we on 
 sic a night? Thou bidst me tell our talkative host at the 
 inn, that Carrick's lord had a love adventure on foot. 
 But me thinkst thou art too true a knight for that." 
 
 " AYell said, my faithful Walter!" replied Bruce. 
 " 'Tis in truth a love adventure, but concerns no lady 
 fair, for my good wife is fairer to me than all other 
 women. But 'tis for love of country we go forth, — to 
 free our bonny Scotland. Surely that were love adven- 
 ture worthy of both a valiant knight and loyal husband. 
 Still it is for sake of lovely woman also ; for my sweet 
 wife and fair daughters are e'en now in Scotland, and 
 I fear me that their liberty, if not their lives, will soon be 
 in danger, as I am warned that the wily King Edward 
 is m}' bitter eneni}' and treacherous spy." 
 
 "Ha! 'tis well spoken, good master!" exclaimed 
 Kennedy, with enthusiasm, and lifting his Scotch bonnet 
 from his head, he cried aloud, " Bruce to the rescue.'* 
 
 "Hist, man!" said Bruce, laying his hand upon the 
 bridle-rein of his faithful and loyal retainer; " knowest 
 thou not that these English forests secrete hostile ears, to 
 whom thy wild cry wouldst betray us? Not till I have 
 gathered my forces and blown the bugle-horn of the 
 valiant Wallace, will it be safe to openly sound that 
 war-cr}^" 
 
 The snow still fell thickly, and it was difficult to follow 
 the right route through the blinding storm ; but ere long 
 the moon shone out with brightness, and seemed to smile 
 upon their perilous adventure, and promise success. 
 
 After a few days Bruce arrived at Dumfries, in Annan- 
 dale, the chief seat of his family interests. Here he found 
 a great number of the Scottish noblemen assembled, and 
 among the rest the treacherous John Comyn. These 
 
246 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 noblemen were astonished at the appearance of Bruce 
 amongst them, and still more when he avowed his deter- 
 mination to live or die with them in the defence of the 
 liberty of Scotland. All the nobles declared their unani- 
 mous resolution to rise to arms in the cause of their en- 
 slaved country. Comyn alone opposed this measure. 
 Bruce, already sure of his treachery, followed Comyn on 
 the dissolution of the assembly, and attacked him in the 
 cloisters of the Gray Friars, through which he passed, 
 and piercing him with his sword, left him bleeding on the 
 ground. As Bruce rushed into the street, pale and agi- 
 tated, Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, one of his friends, asked 
 him if all was well. " I fear I have slain Comyn," replied 
 Bruce, as he hastily mounted his horse. 
 
 " Such a matter must not be left to doubt," exclaimed 
 Kirkpatrick; "I'll mak sicker!" — and dashing into 
 the sanctuary, he ran his dagger into the heart of the 
 dvins; Comvn. 
 
 This deed of Bruce and his friend, which would be justly 
 condemned in the present age, was at that time regarded 
 as an act of valiant patriotism and commendable policy. 
 The family of Kirkpatrick were so proud of the deed that 
 they took for the crest of their arms a hand with a bloody 
 dagger, and chose for their motto those words, " I'll mak 
 sicker ! " meaning, " I will make sure of it." 
 
 Bruce now raised the standard of independence. Some 
 priests and lords gathered round him, and boldl}' crowned 
 him at Scone. On the day of the Annunciation, 1306. 
 Scotland received her ninety-seventh king in the person 
 of the valiant Robert Bruce ; and all Scotland rang with 
 the joyful war-cry, " Bruce to the rescue ! " 
 
 The undertaking of Bruce was one of a gigantic nature. 
 Yet amidst all the seemingly insurmountable obstacles 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 247 
 
 which surrounded him from P^ugiish foes and Scottish 
 grandees, — who were many of them in league against him, 
 for tlie faction of Baliol and the powerful family of Comvn 
 were his avowed enemies, — and though he was subjected 
 to frequent perils, dangerous ambuscades and escapes, 
 and many individual conflicts of daring courage, Robert 
 Bruce persisted firmly in his patriotic design of restoring 
 his enslaved country to freedom, and giving protection to 
 the people who had formerly called his ancestor their 
 king. 
 
 Edward I. had now become aged and unwieldly, so that 
 he could not readily mount on horseback. Wlien he was 
 informed of this daring attempt of Bruce to wrest from 
 his power a kingdom which liad cost him so much to gain 
 and hold, he despatched a messenger to the Pope, pray- 
 ing liim to issue the thunders of the Vatican against tliis 
 l)old traitor and nnnxlerer of Comyn, and that he would 
 place under interdict all who should endeavor to aid him 
 or draw a sword in defence of liberty. This sentence of 
 interdict, which the Pope often issued against sovereigns 
 for the most trivial offences, involved a nation in the 
 greatest misery. The people were deprived of all the ser- 
 vices of the church ; no sacred rite was performed for 
 them except the baptism of infants, and tiie administra- 
 tion of the communion to the dying. 
 
 The churches were deserted, and the altars were 
 stripped of all the sacred ornaments. The dead lay 
 uninterred, for the consecrated ground was prohibited ; 
 and when at last the corpses must be buried, they were 
 hurriedl}' piled up in ditches and covered over, with- 
 out any church service to soothe the surviving mourners 
 or hallow the last rites to the dead. The thunders of the 
 Roman pontiff, however, fell powerless upon Robert the 
 
248 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 Bruce, for he had previously secured the alUance of the 
 Scottish clergy ; and as they wished to remain independ- 
 ent of the English bishops, they braved the thunders of 
 the hierarchy, and persisted in celebrating divine worship, 
 notwithstanding its prohibition by the head of the church. 
 
 In spite of old age and sickness, King Edward began 
 to make extensive preparations for marching personally 
 against the Scots. Prince Edward, his son, was twent}'- 
 two years of age, and having not yet been kniglited, the 
 king conferred this distinction upon him and bestowed 
 upon him his spurs. Whereupon the 3'oung knight then 
 conferred the same honor upon two hundred and seventy 
 young lords who were about to become his comrades in 
 arms. All the company then met at a magnificent ban- 
 quet. A golden net was placed upon the table, contain- 
 ing two swans, emblems of constanc}^ and fidelit}'. Then 
 the king, placing his hands upon their heads, swore to 
 avenge the death of Comyn and to punish the rebels of 
 Scotland, without sleeping for two nights in the same 
 place, and to start immediately afterwards for Palestine, 
 in order to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. The 3'oung men 
 swore the same oath as the king, and then they started 
 for the frontiers, the king following more slowly, as he 
 was too feeble to travel except upon a litter. 
 
 The earl of Pembroke had been sent by King Edward, 
 with a small army, into Scotland while the king was pre- 
 paring his forces. Pembroke met the Scots at Methven, 
 where a battle was fought in which the Scots were de- 
 feated, and many of them killed and taken prisoners ; 
 these were afterwards put to death with great cruelty by 
 Edward's orders. Bruce retired into the mountains with 
 five hundred men. King Edward had only been able to 
 proceed as far as Carlisle ; but on his dying bed he was 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 249 
 
 cruelly ordering the Scottish prisoners to be beheaded, 
 and still directing the operations of his troops. Bruce 
 was living in the forests with a few faithful companions. 
 His wife, daughter, and sister shared his adventuresome 
 life. 
 
 But as winter approached, the ladies were sent to the 
 castle of Keldrummie, but they met with a sad fate here. 
 The castle was stormed and taken by the English ; Nigel 
 Bruce, Robert's younger brother, was cruelly put to death, 
 and tlie queen of Scotland and her daughter, and also the 
 sister of Bruce, were sent to England, where the queen 
 was imprisoned, and the daughter and sister of King Rob- 
 ert were shut up in wooden cages at Berwick and Rox- 
 burgh, and were exposed to the public gaze. 
 
 Bruce's little band were attacked by Lord Lorn, the 
 Red Comyn's nephew, and therefore a bitter foe. Find- 
 ing that his faithful followers were falling under the 
 battle-axes of their enemies. King Robert sounded a re- 
 treat ; and with marvellous bravery Robert Bruce, mounted 
 upon his war-horse and clad in armor, took his position in 
 the defile and defended the approach alone. At length 
 three men, famous for their strength, sprang forward to- 
 gether upon the royal champion, who calmly held his long 
 sword on guard, and whose bright ej-es glittered beneath 
 his helmet. One seized the bridle of the horse ; but 
 Bruce raised his sword, and the arm of the assailant fell 
 helpless, his hand being severed. Another fastened him- 
 self on the leg of the horseman ; but the fiery war-horse 
 reared, and again the invincible sword split his head open. 
 The third now clutched the king's cloak ; but again the 
 sword dealt its fatal blow, and the three assailants soon 
 lay dead, while the valiant king escaped without a wound. 
 Robert Bruce was now obliged to flee, and he took refuge 
 
250 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 in the small island of Rachrin. His retreat was unknown 
 to his enemies, and a large reward was offered to whoever 
 would give news of "Robert Bruce, lost, stra^^ed, or 
 stolen." 
 
 During this time the Scottish king met with many ad- 
 ventures. One day, leaving the island of Rachrin, he 
 sailed with his little band in some small boats to the isle 
 of Arran. On landing they met a woman, of whom the 
 king inquii'ed if there had been any militar}' arrivals. 
 
 "Surely, sir," she replied, "I can tell you of some 
 who lately blockaded the English governor's castle. They 
 maintain themselves in the woods near by." 
 
 Robert Bruce, thinking that it was of brave Douglas of 
 whom she spoke, blew his horn. It was answered b}' Sir 
 James Douglas, who recognized the bugle of his sovereign, 
 and when he hastily approached the king, they kissed for 
 joy at such fortunate meeting. The small bands of King 
 Robert and Douglas now crossed in boats to the opposite 
 shore, and concealed themselves in a cavern, called the 
 Cave of Colean. Learning that a large part}' of English 
 were settled in the town of Turnberry, Bruce made a bold 
 attack upon them, with three hundred men, and put two 
 hundred of the English to the sword. The garrison, in 
 the castle near hy^ were afraid to sally forth, as it was a 
 dark night, and Bruce carried off the spoil, among which 
 were the war-horses and household plate of the governor. 
 Bruce now retired with his brave band to a green hill, 
 called afterwards the " Weary Neuk." Here they rested 
 for three daj^s, when they returned to the mountains to 
 wait for reinforcements. It was then that King Robert 
 learned of the sad fate of his wife, daughter, and sister, 
 and the cruel death of his brother. But he humanely 
 spared the life of every captive who fell into his hands. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 251 
 
 and did not yield to the temptation to revenge himself bv 
 their death, in retaliation for the wrongs he had suffered. 
 In consequence of his privations and exposures, he was 
 attacked with a severe sickness, and having found relief 
 from a certain medicinal s|)riug, wdien he had afterwards 
 established himself upon his throne, he founded a priory 
 of Dominican monks there, and ordered houses to be built 
 around the spring for eight lepers, and a certain sum of 
 money and meal was settled upon the lands of Fulhirton, 
 for their support. In compliment to Sir William Wallace, 
 the relatives and descendants of that knight were in- 
 vested with the right of placing the lepers upon this es- 
 tablishment, known as the '• King's Ease." This was se- 
 cured b}- charter, and the leper's charter-stone, which was 
 a large stone of elliptical shape, has been handed down 
 to modern times. 
 
 King Robert had some very narrow escapes from death. 
 It is reported that at one time. Sir Ingram Umfraville 
 bribed an inhabitant of Carrick, with his two sons, to kill 
 Bruce. These peasants, knowing that the king was ac- 
 customed at an earlv hour everv mornino- to retire for 
 meditation, accompanied by a single page, who carried 
 his bow and arrows, determined to select such time for 
 the attack. As the assailants approached, Bruce sus- 
 pecting their design, took his bow and arrows from his 
 attendant, bidding him retire to a place of safety, saying, 
 "If I vanquish these traitors, you will have a sufficiency 
 of arms, and if I fall, you can flee for you life." 
 
 As the peasants drew near, the king discharged an 
 arrow, which hit the father in the eye ; upon wdiich, the 
 son, brandishing his battle-axe, rushed to the combat, but 
 missing his blow, he stumbled and fell, and Robert sev- 
 ered his head in two at one stroke. The third peasant, 
 
252 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 with spear in hand, then rushed upon the king, but Bruce 
 cut off the steel-head of the spear, and laid him also dead 
 at his feet. When the page approached, he found the 
 king wiping his good sword, while he remarked, " These 
 would have been three gallant men had they not fallen 
 victims to covetousness." 
 
 At another time, King Kobert was surprised by a party 
 of two hundred men wath bloodhounds. Bruce was ac- 
 companied b}' only two men. The king was in a most 
 perilous situation, but he stationed himself in a narrow 
 gorge and despatched his companions in haste for succor. 
 But before his band of brave Scots arrived. King Robert 
 had slain with his dreadful sword, fourteen of his enemies, 
 who were found piled up in the gorge, men and horses 
 above each other. 
 
 A party of English, under the command of John Lorn, 
 now determined to search for the brave Bruce among the 
 mountains of Carrick, where he was intrenched ; and in 
 order to track the valiant Scottish king, Lorn carried with 
 him a sagacious bloodhound which belonged to Bruce. 
 This bloodhound proved of great use to Lorn, for it dis- 
 covered his master by its scent, and the English pursued 
 him so closely that Bruce divided his men in small bands 
 and dispersed them, that they might thus more easily flee. 
 Still being pressed sorely by the relentless foe, Robert 
 dismissed all his men, each one to look out for his own 
 safety ; and attended only by his foster-brother, who would 
 not leave him, the brave Scottish king fled, still pursued 
 by five of Lorn's men, led on by the bloodhound who 
 tracked his master with sure scent. Meanwhile the dog 
 was outrun by the five powerful mountaineers, and the 
 king and liis foster-brother at last stood at bay to receive 
 them. Bruce singled three of these assailants, leaving 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 253 
 
 his companion to combat with two. As the first ap- 
 proached, the king cleft him through the skull with one 
 blow of his weapon, and as the other two fell back for a 
 moment, stunned by this unexpected disaster, Bruce 
 sprang to the assistance of his foster-brother, whom he 
 saw was in danger, and severing the head of one of his 
 assailants from his body, he quickly laid his other two 
 enemies dead, while the fifth was killed by his companion. 
 When the king graciously thanked his faithful foster- 
 brother for his aid, "It's like you to say so," he replied, 
 " but you your-self slew four of the five." 
 
 But now the cry of the hound was heard again, for 
 Lorn and his band were on the trail. The kins and his 
 companion hastily entered a small stream near by, to 
 break the scent of the hound, and as the dog bounded up 
 and down the banks, having lost all scent of his master, 
 the foster-brother of King Robert shot him dead with an 
 arrow, from their retreat in the forest. They then fled in 
 safety from their pursuers, who gave up the chase. But 
 King Robert had escaped from the bloodhound only to 
 fall into other dangers. Three freebooters, pretending to 
 be friends of the Scottish king, joined him and his foster- 
 brother in their retreat through the forest. Bruce, sus- 
 pecting these companions, desired them to walk at some 
 distance before. 
 
 " We seek the Scottish king," said the strangers : " you 
 need not mistrust us." 
 
 "Neither do I," replied Robert; "but until we are 
 better acquainted, 3'ou must walk thus." 
 
 When they came to a ruinous hut, where they rested for 
 the night, the king ordered the strangers to remain at the 
 other end of the room. But the past fatigues overcoming 
 them, at last Bruce and his foster-brother fell asleep. 
 
254 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 The kiug was roused from his slumbers by the approach 
 of the three villauous freebooters, with arms in their 
 hands, intent on his assassination. Robert laid hold of 
 his sword, and stepping heavih* over his foster-bi'other, 
 to awaken him, he rushed upon the assassins. After a 
 fierce combat, in which his faithful foster-brother was 
 killed, Bruce succeeded in overcoming these three villains, 
 and left them dead on the spot. 
 
 It was durino- these wanderings that Bruce was one day 
 resting in a ruined hut in the forests. He was lying upon 
 a handful of straw, and considering whether he should 
 continue this strife to maintain his right to the Scottish 
 throne, or if it were best to abandon an enterprise at- 
 tended with such danger, and seeming at times almost 
 hopeless, and go to the Holy Land and end his days in 
 the wars wdth the Saracens. While thus musing, his 
 attention was arrested by the moAx^ments of a spider on 
 the roof of the hut above his head. This spider was 
 trying to fix its w^eb on the rafters, and was swinging 
 itself from one eave to another. The king was amused 
 with the patience and energy displayed by the tiny insect. 
 It had tried six times to reach one place, and failed. 
 Suddenly the thought struck the Scottish monarch, " I 
 have fought six times against the enemies of my country." 
 He thereupon resolved that he would be guided in his 
 future actions by the failure or success of this indefatiga- 
 ble little insect. The next effort of the spider was suc- 
 cessful, and King Robert then determined that he would 
 make the seventh attempt to free his country, feeling 
 confident that he should yet achieve the liberty of Scot- 
 land. It is hence esteemed unlucky for a Bruce to kill a 
 spider. Meantime Edward, the brother of Robert Bruce, 
 and Sir James Douglas had made many successful raids 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 255 
 
 against the English. The}^ now joined their forces with 
 those of King Robert, and they then overran Kyle, Car- 
 rick, and Cunningham, which places had been in the pos- 
 session of the English. 
 
 In 1307 Pembroke advanced against Bruce with three 
 thousand men. But though the Scottish king's band num- 
 bered but six hundred men, they charged so valiantly with 
 their long Scottish spears, that Pembroke's forces were 
 completely routed, and he himself was obliged to flee for 
 safety to the castle of Ayr. King Edward was so enraged 
 by these events that he determined to march himself 
 against this bold foe. But the English king had not pro- 
 ceeded three leagues from Carlisle when death met him. 
 With his dying breath he ordered his remains to be 
 carried with the army, and not to be interred until the 
 enemy was conquered. He had previously caused his son 
 to sv/ear in the most solemn manner, that when he should 
 die, he would boil his body in a caldron and separate the 
 flesh from the bones, and having bui'ied the former, the 
 bones were to be carried with the army to inspire his men 
 with hatred against the Scots, while his heart was to be 
 taken to the Holy Land. But Edward II., instead of 
 obeying his father's dying commands, interred his body in 
 Westminster ; and disbanding the army, the troops re- 
 turned to England. The death of Edward I. gave new 
 courage to the Scots. By this inglorious retreat of the 
 English king, he lost all the advantages which his father 
 had so dearly purchased for him. Edward Bruce, the 
 brother of Robert, one of the most chivalrous knights, had 
 conquered the I^nglish in Galloway, taking, in one 3'ear, 
 thirteen castles. Meanwhile, Lord Douglas had recovered 
 his ancient estate of Douglas from the English and made 
 many conquests. 
 
256 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 The north and the south being now reduced to obedi- 
 ence, the united troops of Bruce and Douglas proceeded 
 to the west to subdue the proud lord of Lorn. By a 
 series of well-contested engagements in which no ordinary 
 deo-ree of skill as a general was displayed, and the greatest 
 personal courage, Bruce succeeded in wresting his much- 
 injured country from the power of the English. Twice 
 had the king of England attempted an expedition to re- 
 conquer Scotland, but he had returned without result. 
 The authority of Bruce was rapidly being established 
 throughout his country. The castles of Perth, Dunbar, 
 and Edinburgh were in his hands. Many stories are told 
 of his heroic bravery in these contests, but we can only 
 stop to note the taking of Perth. This was a strongly 
 fortified garrison. The fortress was enclosed by a lofty 
 wall and towers, surrounded by a deep moat filled with 
 water, which set at defiance the efforts of the Scots for 
 several weeks. At last. King Robert made a feint of 
 raising the siege, struck his tents, and departed to some 
 distance. But one night, when least expected, he ap- 
 proached unperceived to the foot of the rampart, and 
 walking up to his throat in the water, he seized a ladder 
 and mounted to the wall's parapet, where he found a 
 Scottish maiden whom the English had imprisoned, and 
 who had escaped to the top of the wall, but could get no 
 farther, as the frightful moat surrounded her on all sides. 
 "It is but now to descend by these corded steps," 
 whispered Bruce to the captive maiden, " and I'll ferry 
 you across this muddy water." But the maiden was as 
 brave as she was fair, and knowing that ^ny delay would 
 risk the taking of the fortress by the brave Bruce, she 
 heroically answered : — 
 
 "Please your Grace, no! Allow me the keeping of 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 257 
 
 your dagger till you return with further scaling-gear and 
 3'our valiant baud. Thus armed, I'll know how to defend 
 myself, and I will watch these enemies till 3^ou return." 
 
 So King Robert, leaving the brave girl as a sentinel 
 upon the parapet, quickly waded again through the murky 
 waters of the moat, and having regained his band, re- 
 ported his experience. Immediately fifty of his most 
 daring men, selected for their great height, plunged into 
 the dark waters of the moat, led by the valiant Bruce. 
 
 " Saw ye ever the like of that?" exclaimed a French 
 knight who had lately joined the Scottish patriots. 
 "What shall we say to our lords, when so worthy a 
 knight and noble a monarch exposeth himself to such 
 great peril to win a wretched hamlet? " 
 
 With this he gaily threw himself into the water, followed 
 by the rest of the Scottish army. When Bruce again 
 reached the maiden she said, " The late revellers are now 
 in their slumbers ; the watchword with them is ' The Lost 
 /Standard.' " The brave maiden then aided the kino; to 
 adjust the rope ladders, by which the Scots scaled the 
 wall, one by one, until a strong force stood at their side. 
 " ' The Lost Standard ' is the word," said the king ; " and 
 now for the citadel ! " It was, indeed, a Lost Standard 
 to the drows}' guards and sleeping revellers. The fortress 
 was soon taken, and the captives set free. King Robert 
 afterwards besieged the fortress of Stirling, when the 
 governor. Sir Philip Mowbra}', contrived to make his 
 appeals for succor reach the English king. Edward 
 roused himself from his natural indolence, and raised 
 a large army to march against Scotland. The forces of 
 the English amounted to nearly one hundred thousand 
 men. This brilliant army, with banners flying and lances 
 glistening in the sunlight, presented a grand array. 
 
258 
 
 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 Meanwhile, King Robert was concealed in the forests 
 with an army of only forty thousand men, nearly all on 
 foot, awaiting the enemy, and preparing barriers to check 
 the onslaught of the English. On the morning of the 
 23d of June, 1313, the two armies met near Bannockburn. 
 The night had been passed in prayer in the Scottish camp, 
 and in'feasting and drunkenness by the English. At day- 
 break the young English king was astonished at the good 
 order observed in the Scottish ranks. 
 
 " Do you think they will fight?" he asked of Sir Ingle- 
 tram d'Umfreville. Just then the abbot of Inchaffray 
 appeared before the Scottish troops, holding a crucifix in 
 his hand ; all bent their knees with uncovered heads. 
 " They are asking for mercy," cried King Edward. 
 "Yes, sire," replied Umfreville, with a bitter smile; 
 "but of God, not of you, sire. These men will win the 
 battle or die at their posts." 
 
 The sight of the vast English army might well cause 
 the brave hearts of the small band of Scots to tremble ; 
 but with the intrepid Bruce at their head, they awaited 
 their foes with dauntless courage. So vast were the 
 EngUsh forces, that it is said the country seemed on fire 
 by the brightness of the shields and burnished helmets 
 gleaming in the morning light. So vast was the multitude 
 of embroidered banners, of standards, of pennons, and 
 spears ; so apparently endless the crowds of knights, blaz- 
 ing in their rich-colored and gemmed surcoats ; so large 
 the extent of country occupied by their numerous tents, 
 — that one might have thought all the warriors of the 
 world were marching against this handful of valiant Scots. 
 The English had hastened their march and arrived with 
 some disorder in front of the Scottish army. King Robert 
 Bruce, with a golden crown on his helmet, was riding 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 259 
 
 slowly before the line of his troops. As the brave king 
 tlins rode along upon his favorite palfrey, clad in armor 
 and carrying his battle-axe in his hand, encouraging his 
 men by his calm voice and brave words, the English king- 
 took special note of him, and remarked, "Doubtless 
 yonder solitar}^ rider is of the foe, although he is almost 
 as nigh to our front as to that of the rebels. Canst tell. 
 Sir Knight, of what account he is, and wherefore this 
 manoeuvre? " 
 
 "My liege," replied Sir Giles d'Argentine, to whom 
 King Edward had spoken, " he who yonder marshalleth 
 the Scottish host was once my frequent associate, and is 
 well known to me, as I clearly descr}' from the jewelled 
 diadem which glittereth on his helmet. It is none other 
 than Bruce himself." 
 
 "If it is the arch-traitor Bruce," exclaimed Edward, 
 ' ' I marvel that no knight amongst you all is brave enough 
 to challenge so audacious a foe." 
 
 Whereupon Sir Henry Bohun, mounted on a magnifi- 
 cent war-horse, came dashing against the Scottish mon- 
 arch, whose small palfrey seemed an ill match for so 
 strong and large a steed. " See ! the foeman coucheth 
 his lance and pusheth at full speed against his victim, 
 who recklessly advanceth, and now doth take his stand 
 motionless as a rock, awaiting the onset of his enemy. 
 Breathlessly the Scots and English watch the two 
 combatants. On comes the impetuous Bohun. Surely 
 some half score more plunges of the superb animal that 
 bears him will unhorse the hero-king, unless unwonted 
 presence of mind, nimbleness of movement, and dexterity 
 of arm shall save him from the onrush of the powerful 
 horse and gleaming spear. But the gallant Bruce has 
 risen in his stirrups, and as his enemy rushes upon him, 
 
2(30 itOBERT BRUCI!. 
 
 the lance is driven aside b}' the sweep of his strong arm, 
 and the battle-axe, wielded with rare dexterity, stops not 
 in its swing of meteor-like speed till down it falls upon 
 the helmet of his foe with such true aim and mighty force 
 that the weapon shatters the helmet and fractures the 
 skull of Sir Henry Bohun, whose fiery steed bears his 
 dead body back to the Enghsh ranks. Bruce returned 
 slowly to his forces, and while some of his frieuds sur- 
 rounded him, reproaching him for so rashly risking his 
 life, the Scottish hero laughingly answered, while looking 
 sorrowfully at his notched axe, ' See ! I have spoiled my 
 o;ood battle-axe.' " 
 
 The battle was commenced by the English at the order 
 of Kins: Edward. The shock of the first charge of the 
 English cavalry was terrible ; and as they were received 
 on the spears of the Scottish infantry, the crash was heard 
 at a great distance, and many English knights were 
 dashed from their saddles by their furious steeds, which 
 had been stabbed by the invincible spears of the Scots. 
 The centre division, under the gallant Randolph, stood in 
 a steady body to receive the charge of the English. These 
 compact squares of the Scottish army were well calculated 
 to break the masses which were opposed to them, and 
 they suffered only from the arrows of the archers. The 
 English cavalry charged with the greatest impetuosity, 
 and endeavored to pierce through the phalanx of the 
 Scottish spearmen ; but they received them like a wall of 
 iron, while the English receded from the shock like broken 
 waves which had spent their fury on the rocks. When 
 both armies joined battle, the great horses of England 
 rushed upon the Scottish lances as if upon a thick wood, 
 and one mighty sound arose from the breaking of tlie 
 lances, the shock of falling horsemen, and the shrieks of 
 
"see! j have spoiled mv good battle-axe," 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 261 
 
 the dying. The knights sang their war-cries, and rushed 
 on to the charge. Groom fought Uke squire, and squire 
 Uke knight, and yet vScotland's lion waved proudly over 
 her bands, while the English banners rose and fell, and 
 many of them were dyed in blood. At last the English 
 began to hesitate. " They fly ! they fly ! " cried the Scots. 
 Just then the camp followers of the Scottish army, who 
 had been posted on an adjacent hill, excited by the ardor 
 of the struggle, began to descend in a mass towards the 
 field of battle. The Enoiish imao'ined themselves about 
 to be attacked by a fresh army, and began a disorderly 
 retreat. Upon which Robert Bruce charged valiantly with 
 his reserves, and quickly decided the fate of the day. The 
 earl of Pembroke seized the bridle of King Edward's 
 horse and dragged him away from the battle-field. Sir 
 Giles d'Argentine accompanied his king out of danger, 
 and then rode back fearlessly amidst the conflict, exclaim- 
 ing, "It is not my custom to fly!" This brave knight 
 was cut down by the Scots. The victor v was complete. 
 The fortress of vStirliiig surrendered immediately. The 
 earl of Hereford, who had shut himself up in Bothwell 
 castle, offered to capitulate, and was exchanged for the 
 wife, daughter, and sister of the king of Scotland, who 
 had been imprisoned in England for several years. Thus 
 had the independence and freedom of Scotland been ob- 
 tained by the brave Bruce and his dauntless little band of 
 patriot warriors. Tlie swords of those who fought at 
 Bannockburn were hung up in the halls of their descend- 
 ants, and handed down to modern times as trophies of the 
 liberty and independence which they achieved. The ben- 
 eficial effects of this signal victory secured forever the 
 independence of Scotland ; and when the two kingdoms 
 were afterwards united, Scotland received equal rights 
 
262 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 with England, and the national church of Scotland, with 
 her universities and schools, were guaranteed to the people 
 of Scotland forever. This famous battle taught the Scot- 
 tish nation a lesson which it never forgot : that a phalanx 
 of Caledonian spears, wielded by brave and disciplined 
 men on foot, was superior to all the vaunted chivalry of 
 the most renowned cavaliers. In 1327 King Edward II. 
 of England was dethroned, and his young son was crowned 
 in his place. The young prince was but fifteen years of 
 age. Scotland had been recovering from her misfortunes 
 under the firm and wise government of Robert Bruce. 
 The independence of that kingdom had been acknowledged 
 by England. The crown jewels, which had been formerly 
 seized by Edward I., had been returned, and the little 
 princess Joan, who was betrothed to David, tlie young 
 son of Robert Bruce, had been taken to Berwick, accom- 
 panied by the queen-dowager of England and a splendid 
 retinue of attendants. The marriage was soon after cele- 
 brated with great magnificence. Englishmen and Scots, 
 who for half a century had met only as foes upon the 
 field of battle, were now joined in friendly courtesies 
 through this marriage. King Robert's wife Elizabeth had 
 died before she saw this happy termination of the long 
 hostilities. 
 
 The Scottish king did not long survive these events. 
 He was seized with a severe complaint, then supposed to 
 have been leprosy, which at length proved fatal. When 
 upon his death-bed he called around him his earls and 
 1)arons, and commended to their care his young son Da- 
 vid ; and the prince was thereupon crowned king of Scot- 
 land. Robert Bruce, having settled the affairs of his 
 kingdom and throne, summoned to his bedside his brave 
 and faithful friend and o-allaut knig;ht. Sir James Douo;- 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 263 
 
 las, and entreated him to take his heart from his body 
 after death, and have it embahned, and carry it to the 
 Holy Laud, and leave it there in the Holy Sepulchre, in 
 obedience to a vow he had made. "When I was hard 
 beset," said the dying king, "I vowed to God that if I 
 should live to see an end of my wars and Scotland free, I 
 would raise the sacred standard against the enemies of 
 my Lord and Saviour. But as I cannot myself accomplish 
 this vow, I know no knight more worthy for the mission 
 of bearing the heart of King Robert of Scotland to the 
 Holy Land." To this affecting request Lord Douglas re- 
 plied, with tears in his eyes, " Ah, most gentle and noble 
 king ! A thousand times I thank you for the great honor 
 3'ou have done me in making me the bearer of so great 
 and precious a treasure. Most faithfully and willingl}^, 
 to the best of m}^ power, shall I obey your commands." 
 Then the dying king answered, — 
 
 " Now praised be God ! for I shall die in peace, since I 
 am assured, by the faith you owe to 3'our God and the 
 order of knighthood, that the best and most valiant knight 
 of my kingdom has promised to achieve for me that which 
 I myself could never accomplish." 
 
 Thus died Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in the fifty- 
 fifth year of his age and the twenty-fourth of his reign. 
 His remains were deposited in the church of Dumfermline, 
 where he was enshrined under a rich marble monument 
 from Paris. The censures of excommunication pro- 
 nounced by the Pope having been removed some time 
 before, the religious services at his burial were performed 
 by many prelates and bishops. 
 
 Many years afterwards his tomb was opened, and the 
 lead in which his bod}' had been wrapped was found 
 twisted into the shape of a rude crown, covered with a 
 
264 ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 rich cloth of gold, which had been thrown over it. It 
 was ascertained that the breast-bone had been sawn asun- 
 der in order to fulfil his request of taking out his heart ; 
 but that proud form, before which the king of England 
 had trembled on his throne, had crumbled into dust. 
 Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, is one of the most ex- 
 alted warriors to be found in those early times. The vir- 
 tues of his character were formed, and acquired their 
 bright polish, in the school of adversity. One of the early 
 writers says of him, "If any one should undertake to 
 describe his individual conflicts and personal success, those 
 courageous and single-handed combats in which, by the 
 favor of God and his own great strength and courage, he 
 would often penetrate into the thickest of the enemy, now 
 becoming the assailant and cutting down all who opposed 
 him, at another time' acting on the defensive, and escap- 
 ino; from inevitable death, — if anv writer shall do this, he 
 will prove, if I am not mistaken, that he had no equal in 
 his own time either in knightly prowess or in strength and 
 vigor of body." The true greatness of Robert Bruce 
 appeared in his humanity, moderation, and pity for the 
 sufferings of others, which led him in the hour of victory 
 to be generous to his prisoners even though he had suf- 
 fered such bitter wronos at the hands of his Eno;lish foes. 
 His manners were kingly and engaging, his disposition 
 singularly gentle, courteous, and without selfishness. 
 Yet he was high-spirited, and full of noble energy and 
 enthusiasm. In person he was tall and well proportioned, 
 being five feet ten inches high. His shoulders were broad, 
 his chest capacious, and his limbs powerful and possess- 
 ing marvellous strength. He possessed an open and 
 cheerful countenance, shaded by short curled hair. His 
 forehead was low, his cheek-bones strong and prominent. 
 
ROBERT BRUCE. 265 
 
 with a wound on his lower jaw. Though the expression 
 of his face was usually pleasing and kindly, he could as- 
 sume a look of stern, kingly dignit}', which awed his ene- 
 mies, and gained him the necessary respect due to his rank 
 and commanding position as Scotland's king, and also her 
 bravest and most valiant knight. He was one of the most 
 successful military leaders of the age. Well may Scot- 
 land boast of her brave Robert Bruce, the most famous of 
 all her rulers, the deliverer of her enslaved people, the 
 upholder of her liberty, her hero-king and most chivalrous 
 knight ! 
 
266 FEDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 1452-1516 A.D. 
 " Every monarch is subject to a mightier one." — Seneca. 
 
 FOR many years after the great Saracen invasion in 
 the eighth century, Spain was divided into various 
 small states. In the fifteenth century these were so 
 united as to form four, — Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and 
 the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The province of 
 Granada was all that remained to the Moslems of their 
 once vast possessions in the peninsula. On the 10th of 
 March, 1452, in the little town of Sos, Ferdinand, son of 
 King John of Aragon, was born. The early Spanish his- 
 torians note with care the good omens attending this 
 event. The sun, which had been obscured with clouds 
 during the whole day, suddenly broke forth with unwonted 
 splendor. A crown was also beheld in the sky, composed 
 of various brilliant colors, like those of a rainbow. All 
 which appearances were interpreted by the spectators as 
 an omen that the child then born would be the most illus- 
 trious among men. As this event was also nearly con- 
 temporary with the capture of Constantinople, it was 
 afterwards regarded by the Catholic Church as a provi- 
 dential provision in behalf of the religion of which Ferdi- 
 nand became such a staunch supporter, as his zealous life 
 might be regarded as an ample counterbalance to the loss 
 of the capital of Christendom. One year before this time, 
 in the palace of the king of Castile, on the 22d of April, 
 
FERDINAND OF ARAGON. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 267 
 
 1451, a little princess had been born, and christened Isa- 
 bella. This Spanish princess was descended, both on her 
 father's and mother's side, from the famous John of 
 Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 
 
 But around the cradles of these two ro3'al babies many 
 contentions arose, which we cannot stop to note. When 
 Isabella was four 3ears of age, her father died, and her 
 half-brother Henry became king of Castile ; and, as she 
 had still another brother, Alfonso, there did not seem to 
 be much probability that she would succeed to the throne. 
 She retired with her mother to the small town of Arevalo, 
 where she was educated with care, and instructed in les- 
 sons of practical piety, until she reached her fourteenth 
 year. 
 
 Meanwhile, the little Prince Ferdinand, in Aragon, was 
 surrounded with constant contentious between his father, 
 king of Aragon, and his half-brother Carlos. Joan, the 
 mother of Ferdinand, was the second wife of King John. 
 She was a proud, ambitious woman, much younger than 
 her husband, and was of the blood royal of Castile, being 
 the daughter of Don Frederic Henriquez, admiral of that 
 kingdom. She liated her step-sou Carlos, who was heir 
 to tlie throne, as she regarded him as an obstacle to the 
 advancement of her own child, Ferdinand. We cannot 
 stop to note all the family broils occasioned b}^ Joan's 
 jealousy. Prince Carlos seems to have been a youth of 
 many attractions of mind and body, and was the idol of 
 the people. So, when King John, influenced by his wife 
 Joan, succeeded in having Carlos arrested, and placed in 
 strict confinement, the entire kingdom was thrown into 
 excitement. The people sprang to arms, determined to 
 release the prince ; and they were so threatening that 
 King John fled with his wife to Saragossa. The insur- 
 
268 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 rection now spread throughout Aragou, Valencia, and 
 Navarre, and even into King John's possessions in Sar- 
 dinia and Sicil}^ At length, the frightened king saw the 
 necessity of releasing his prisoner. Prince Carlos was 
 received by the people with wild enthusiasm ; and the 
 king could only make peace with his subjects by a public 
 acknowledgment of Carlos as his rightful heir and suc- 
 cessor. But Carlos did not long survive this triumph. 
 He fell sick of a fever, and died in 1461. Some histo- 
 rians hint that the prince was poisoned, to make way for 
 the youthful Ferdinand, now ten years of age, and who 
 was immediatel}' declared heir to the throne. The queen- 
 mother then took Ferdinand to Catalonia, to receive the 
 homage of that province ; but the Catalonian nobles, who 
 were exasperated against the king on account of his treat- 
 ment of Carlos, displayed so much hostility that the young 
 prince and his mother were obliged to take refuge in the 
 fortress of Gerona. Here they were at last relieved by 
 Kino; John. But the Catalans then seceded from the 
 authority of the king of Aragon, and they presented the 
 crown to the duke of Lorraine, who marched with an 
 army of eight thousand men against the old king of Ara- 
 gon, whose treasury was empty, and who had become 
 totally blind. In this emergency, the mother of Ferdi- 
 nand, who was a brave woman, placed herself at the head 
 of such forces as she could collect ; and, with her young 
 son Ferdinand riding by her side, she heroically marched 
 against the enemies of her husband, and attacked the 
 duke of Lorraine with such impetuosity that she drove 
 him in confusion from Gerona. In this encounter, young- 
 Ferdinand came near being taken captive. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Princess Isabella was nearl}' sacrificed 
 to the ambition of her half-brother, who was king of Cas- 
 
ISABELLA OF CASTILE. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN 269 
 
 tile. The beautiful priucess, who had now been brought 
 from her retirement in Arevalo to her brother's court, had 
 many suitors for her hand. Her half-brother, King Henry, 
 promised his sister in marriage to a rich but wicked old 
 nobleman ; and great preparations were made for the 
 wedding. The anguish of the poor Princess Isabella was 
 so great that she shut herself up in her apartment, pray- 
 ing to God, with groans and tears, that He would deliver 
 her from this impending doom. Still, the wedding prepa- 
 rations went on. Meanwhile, the wicked old nobleman 
 set out from his palace to claim his youthful and beautiful 
 bride. But God had heard the prayers of the afflicted 
 princess ; and, as the aged bridegroom reached a small 
 village, at the end of the first da^^'s travel, he was sud- 
 denly seized with an attack of quinsy, which terminated 
 his life. 
 
 The nobles of Castile now entreated Isabella to allow 
 herself to be proclaimed Queen of Castile, in opposition to 
 her brother, whom they all hated. Her other brother, 
 Alfonso, who would have been heir, had previously died. 
 But Isabella was too noble to seek such revenge upon her 
 cruel brother ; but the nobles forced the king to declare 
 her his successor to the throne, and to promise that she 
 should not be forced to marr}' against her will. 
 
 The king of Portugal now desired to secure Isabella 
 for his bride ; and her brother threatened to imprison her 
 unless she would yield. As overtures had been made by 
 the 3'oung and handsome Prince Ferdinand of Aragon for 
 the hand of the fair Isabella, and as her heart was also 
 inclined towards this handsome prince, she determined, in 
 spite of her brother, to accept the proffered hand of Fer- 
 dinand. The marriage articles were signed on the 7th of 
 January, 1469. Isabella was aided by the archbishop of 
 
270 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 Toledo, who raised a regiment of dragoons, and carried 
 her in triumph to VaUadolid, where she was greeted by 
 the people with the wildest enthusiasm. Meanwhile, her 
 brother attempted to prevent Ferdinand from entering 
 Castile to marry Isabella. As the father of Ferdinand 
 was so pressed by a war with his nobles, he could not 
 afford his son an armed escort sufficient to secure his 
 safety. So Ferdinand resolved to go disguised as a mer- 
 chant. With half a dozen companions, Ferdinand started 
 upon this adventuresome expedition to secure his lovel}" 
 bride, in spite of hostile foes. Amidst many perils they 
 pressed on their way. One night, at an inn, they lost 
 their purse, containing all their money. At length they 
 were met by an escort, sent by Isabella for their protec- 
 tion. The fair princess, with her little court, was at 
 VaUadolid. Ferdinand, accompanied by four attendants, 
 rode privately to VaUadolid, where he was received by the 
 bishop of Toledo, and conducted to tl^e presence of Isa- 
 bella. The young prince was very handsome, tall and 
 fair, with an intelligent countenance and intellectual brow. 
 He was eighteen years of age. He was well educated, 
 and of temperate habits. He was graceful and courtly in 
 manner, and seemed a fitting mate for the beautiful prin- 
 cess of nineteen, of whom a contemporary writer says, 
 " She was the handsomest lady whom I ever beheld, and 
 the most gracious in her manners." 
 
 Isabella was highly educated for those times, and spoke 
 the Castilian language with grace and purity. After a 
 brief lover's interview of two hours, Ferdinand returned 
 to Duenas, where he had left his companions. Prepara- 
 tions were immediately made for the marriage, which was 
 solemnized at the palace of one of the nobles in VaUadolid, 
 on the morning of the 19th of October, 1469. Ferdinand, 
 
SiiaoVlA : Tiliu ALCAZAH AND CATHEDRAL. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 271 
 
 having lost his slender purse by the way, was without 
 money ; and Isabella, being a fugitive from her brother's 
 court, was also without means. But the royal couple 
 readily borrowed the money necessary to defray the ex- 
 penses of the wedding. King Henr}- now determined to 
 cast aside Isabella, and place upon the throne Joanna, the 
 daughter of his second wife. This was a blow to Isabella, 
 for now the court of Castile, aided by the king of France, 
 were combined against her. Ferdinand and Isabella held 
 their little court at Duenas, in humble style. In 1474, 
 the brother of Isabella, Henry IV., king of Castile, died, 
 and she was proclaimed queen. Isabella was at that time 
 in Segovia. Attended by an imposing retinue, she rode 
 upon a beautiful steed, whose bridle was held by two high 
 officers of the crown, and she was escorted to her seat 
 upon the splendid tlu'one, which had been erected in one 
 of the public squares of the city. As the people gazed 
 with admiration upon their beautiful queen, a herald 
 cried, — 
 
 " Castile, Castile, for the king Don Ferdinand, and 
 his consort Dona Isabella, queen proprietor of these 
 kingdoms ! " 
 
 The queen took the oath of office, and then repaired to 
 the cathedral, to pray at the altar. Ferdinand was at 
 this time in Aragon, and when he returned he was greatly 
 displeased with the document prepared by the dignitaries 
 of Castile, in which Isabella alone was declared heir to 
 the throne of Castile, but Ferdinand was associated with 
 her in the performance of many acts of royalty. But, 
 persuaded by his wife, he agreed to submit. 
 
 Alfonso v., the king of Portugal, now invaded Castile. 
 Ferdinand and Isabella raised an army and met the foe 
 at Toro. The powerful bishop of Toledo, exasperated by 
 
272 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 the independence of opinion which Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella displayed, whom he had supposed would be pliant 
 tools in his hands, joined Alfonso against them. The 
 strife was too desperate to last long. There was a hand- 
 to-hand fight along the entire line. At length a storm 
 arose. A dark night came down upon the conflicting 
 iiosts. A deluge of rain fell, and the field was flooded 
 with mingled blood and water. The Portuguese were 
 utterly routed. Ferdinand displayed great humanit}' to 
 his prisoners, furnishing them with food, clothing, and a 
 safe return to their own countr}'. 
 
 Isabella was awaiting the issue of the battle at Tordi- 
 sillas, twenty miles above on the river. When she re- 
 ceived tidings of the victory, she ordered a procession to 
 the Church of St. Paul, as an expression of her gratitude 
 to God, and she herself walked barefoot in the garb 
 of a penitent. In a few months, the entire kingdom of 
 Castile acknowledged the supremacy of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella. 
 
 In 1479, the king of Aragon died, leaviug the kingdoms 
 of Aragon and Navarre to his son Ferdinand. Aragon, 
 Castile, and Navarre, being thus united under these two 
 illustrious monarchs, the great Spanish monarchy was 
 thereby founded. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella now commenced the enterprise 
 of conqueriug Granada, thus expelling the Moors from 
 their last foothold in Spain. Malaga, on the coast of the 
 Mediterranean, was one of the principal Moorish towns. 
 The Moors were aware of the importance of this position, 
 and had strongly fortified it. The Moors were as brave 
 as the Christians, and were led by famous chieftains. 
 In April, 1487, Ferdinand, at the head of fifty thousand 
 men, arrived before Malaga, and commenced its seige. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 273 
 
 There were continual ambuscades, and nightly sallies. 
 One day, while Ferdinand was dining in his tent, which 
 commanded a view of the field of conflict, he perceived a 
 party of Christians, who had been sent to fortify an emi- 
 nence, retreating in confusion, pursued b}' the Moors. 
 King Ferdinand leaped upon his horse, not delaying for 
 any defensive armor, rallied his men, and charged against 
 the enemy. Having thrown his lance, he endeavored to 
 draw his sword from its scabbard. But the sword held 
 fast, the scabbard having been by some accident, indented. 
 Just then several Moors surrounded him. The king would 
 have been slain had not two brave cavaliers rushed to his 
 rescue. The nobles remonstrated with the king for so 
 risking his life, but Ferdinand uuselfishh' answered, — 
 
 " I cannot stop to calculate chances, when my subjects 
 are perilling their lives for my sake." 
 
 After a siege of ten days, one of the outposts of Malaga 
 was captured by the Spaniards, who now pressed tri- 
 umphantly forward to assault the city itself. Ferdinand 
 first attempted to induce the Moors to capitulate, by gen- 
 erous offers, to the commander. But he loyally replied, 
 " I am stationed here to defend the place to the last ex- 
 tremity. The Christian king cannot offer a bribe large 
 enough to induce me to betray my trust." Ferdinand 
 then encompassed the city by sea and by land. Queen 
 Isabella joined him, and her presence inspired the Span- 
 iards with fresh courage. When she arrived with a brill- 
 iant train of ladies and cavaliers, an imposing escort was 
 sent to meet her, and she was conducted to the encamp- 
 ment with great magnificence of parade, and many de- 
 monstrations of joy. 
 
 The assault was now renewed more fiercely than ever. 
 Famine at length caused great suffering amongst the 
 
274 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 Moors. They bad consumed most of their ammunition, 
 while the Spanish army was constantly re-enforced by 
 new volunteers. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella 
 maintained strict religious discipline in their camp. Nei- 
 ther oaths nor gambling was allowed, and the rites of 
 the Roman Catholic Church were performed with impos- 
 ing ceremony. Gradually the Christians gained ground. 
 They succeeded in blowing up one of the towers, thereby 
 obtaining entrance into the city. The citizens of Malaga, 
 suffering from pestilence and famine, had been reduced to 
 living upon the flesh of horses, dogs, and cats. Every- 
 where the most appalling miser}^ was seen. Manj- were 
 dying in the streets. In view of their sufferings, Ilamet 
 Zeli, the Moorish commander, gave the citizens permission 
 to make the best terms they could with their conqueror. 
 Ferdinand would listen to nothing, however, but uncon- 
 ditional surrender. At length the citizens sent a deputa- 
 tion to Ferdinand, declaring that they were willing to 
 resign to him the city, the fortifications, and all the ])rop- 
 erty, if he would spare their lives, and give them their 
 freedom. " If these terms are refused," they added, 
 " we will take the six hundred Christian captives, who are 
 in our hands, and hang them like dogs on the battlements. 
 We will then enclose our old men, women, and children 
 in the fortress, set fire to the town, and sell our lives as 
 dearl}' as possible, in the attempt to cut our way through 
 our enemies. Thus if you gain a victory, it shall be such 
 a one as will make the name of Malaga ring throughout 
 the world, to ages yet unborn." 
 
 In answer, Ferdinand replied, " If a single hair of a 
 Christian's head is harmed, I will put to the sword every 
 man, woman, and child in the cit^^" 
 
 The citizens in hopeless despair, cast themselves upon 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 275 
 
 the mercy of Ferdinand, unconditionally surrenderino- the 
 city. 
 
 On the 18th day of August, 1487, the Spanish army, 
 headed by Ferdinand and Isabella, with great military and 
 ecclesiastical pomp, entered the city, and repaired to the 
 cathedral, where the Te Deum was for the first time per- 
 formed within its walls. The Christian captives were 
 liberated from the Moorish dungeons. The^^ presented 
 a dreadful spectacle, which drew tears from all eyes. 
 This band of sufferers, many of whom had languished in 
 dark cells for fifteen years, were brought forth, haggard, 
 emaciated, and heavily manacled with chains. Beino; 
 freed from their fetters, Ferdinand and Isabella addressed 
 to them kind words of sympathy, and dismissed them with 
 rich gifts. 
 
 The heroic Moorish chieftain, who had so gallantly 
 defended the city, was brought loaded with chains before 
 his conqueror. Upon being questioned why he had so 
 long persisted, he replied, ''I was commissioned to de- 
 fend the place to the last extremity. Had I been properh* 
 supported, I would have died sooner than have surren- 
 dered." 
 
 Then came the doom of the Moors. The entire popu- 
 lation of the city, amounting to about twent}^ thousand, 
 were condemned to slavery. Men, women, and children 
 were alike sentenced by the Christians. One-third were 
 sent to Africa in exchange for Christians imprisoned 
 there. Another portion were sold to the highest bidder, 
 to procure money to defray the expenses of the war. The 
 Pope at Rome received one hundred Moorish soldiers. 
 The Moorish girls were renowned for their great beauty ; 
 fifty of the most beautiful of these were sent by Isabella 
 as a gift to the Queen of Naples, and thirty to the Queen 
 
276 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 of Portugal. All the propert}' of the victims was seized 
 by the crown. Cruel as this doom appears to us, it was 
 regarded at that time as mild and humane, though now 
 one shudders at such unchristian barbarity. But in jus- 
 tice, the excuse must be made for Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 that they supposed that thereby the Moslem Moors would 
 be more likely to become converts to the Christian religion, 
 even in slavery. It is said that Isabella was urged by the 
 clergy to put all the captured Moors to death, as a warn- 
 ino- to others. Tlie city of Malaga was now re-inhabited 
 by the Spaniards. 
 
 In the next year, Ferdinand, with a force of twenty 
 thousand men, marched against Granada, the capital of 
 the Moorish kingdom. The Christians were driven back 
 in confusion into their own territory. The 3'ear following, 
 King Ferdinand collected an army of ninety-five thousand 
 men. The cavalry was composed of the highest nobilit}'' 
 of the realm. The Christians advanced upon Baza. The 
 Moors sallied forth from the cit}' to meet their foes ; a 
 fierce battle lasted for twelve hours, when the Moors wei"e 
 forced to retreat within the city walls. The conflict had 
 been so severe, however, that the Spanish generals coun- 
 selled an abandonment of the siege. Ferdinand, relying 
 upon the wisdom and great mental endowments of his 
 wife, sent dispatches to Jaen, where Isabella then was, 
 asking her advice. Her reply was so encouraging that 
 the siege was renewed. The summer and winter passed 
 away ; the Christians suffered much during the floods of 
 rain which inundated their camp. The energetic queen, 
 however, came to their rescue, and sent six thousand 
 pioneers to repair the roads ; and she even i)awned the 
 crown jewels and her own ornaments, to raise money to 
 furnish her husband's forces with supplies. The Moorish 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 211 
 
 women within the city displayed heroism equal to that of 
 the Christian queen. At length, as the Spanish troops 
 began to despond, Ferdinand sent for his brave wife to 
 come to the camp, that her presence might inspire them 
 with fresh courage. An historian thus describes the 
 coming of the queen : — 
 
 " On the 7th of November, the queen, accompanied by 
 her daughter Isabella, several ladies of honor, a choir of 
 beautiful maidens, and a brilliant escort, entered the camp 
 of Ferdinand. The inhabitants of Baza crowded their 
 walls and towers to gaze upon the glittering pageant as it 
 wound its way through the defiles of the mountains and 
 emerged upon the plain, with gold-embroidered banners 
 . and strains of martial music. The Spanish cavaliers 
 sallied forth in a body from their camp to receive their 
 beloved queen and to greet her with an enthusiastic recep- 
 tion. The presence of this extraordinary woman, in whose 
 character there was combined with feminine grace so much 
 of manly self-reliance and energy, not only reanimated the 
 drooping spirits of the besiegers, but convinced the 
 besieged that the vSpanish arm}' would never withdraw 
 until the place was surrendered. Though there was no 
 want of food for the beleagured Moors, their ammunition 
 was nearly expended, and the garrison was greatly re- 
 duced by sickness, wounds, and death." 
 
 Soon after the arrival of Isabella, the Moorish garrison 
 offered to capitulate. Ferdinand was so anxious to secure 
 the place, that he agreed to allow the army to march out 
 with the honors of war, and the citizens to retire with 
 their propert}^ at their pleasure. The fall of Baza secured 
 the surrender of many other important strongholds of the 
 Moslems. Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom, 
 was still in the possession of the Moors. Ferdinand, in 
 
278 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 1491, having raised another army, encamped within six 
 miles of this city. Abdallah, the king of the Spanish 
 Moors, was in personal command at Granada. The city 
 possessed a population of two hundred thousand people. 
 
 The situation of Granada was exceedingly picturesque. 
 A wild, rugged mountain range, whose summits were 
 crowned with snow, protected the city upon the south. 
 On the north was a beautiful plain, blooming with flowers, 
 and beyond, groves and vinej'ards reached for thirty 
 leagues. But upon this lovely spot occurred scenes of 
 blended heroism and revolting carnage, which have made 
 the fall of Granada famous for all time. 
 
 Sometimes a company of Moors, clad in armor, and 
 mounted upon their fiery Arabian chargers, would ride 
 forth from the gates, while bugle-blasts rang shrill upon 
 the air, and challenge an equal number of Christian 
 knights to combat. Promptly the defiance was met. All 
 the citizens of Granada crowded the house-tops, battle- 
 ments, and towers of the cit}', to watch the exciting con- 
 flict. Both armies rested upon their arms, breathlessly 
 awaiting the issue. Again, some brave Christian knight 
 would ride forth alone and challenge a Moorish cavalier 
 to combat. The ladies of the two hostile courts cheered 
 their respective champion with their fair presence and 
 encouraging smiles ; and never did knight or cavalier fight 
 more valiantly to win the prize of victory. The memory 
 of these brilliant but deadly tourneys still inspires the 
 songs of the Castilians. Spanish ballads glow with 
 thrilling descriptions of these knightly tourneys ; and the 
 prowess of Moslem, as well as Christian warriors, sheds 
 undying glory over the conquest of Granada. 
 
 Queen Isabella took an active part in all the military 
 operations of the Spanish army. She often appeared upon 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 279 
 
 the field, encased in full armor, mounted upon a splendid 
 steed ; and her presence always inspired her troops to 
 fresh deeds of valor. Isabella occupied in the camp 
 a pavilion, richly draped with silken hangings. One 
 night, a gust of wind blew the fringes of one of the cur- 
 tains into the flame of a lamp, and soon the entire pavilion 
 was in a blaze. The conflagration spread to other tents, 
 and it was only with great difficulty that the entire camp 
 was preserved from destruction. Tlie queen and her 
 children were in o-reat danoer of beino- destroved. In 
 consequence of this accident, Ferdinand, to prevent a like 
 occurrence, ordered a city of substantial houses to be built 
 upon the spot occupied by his army. In three months, 
 a large and statel}' city arose. The soldiers wished to 
 call it Isabella, in honor of their idolized queen, but she 
 named it Santa Fe, in recognition of her faith in Provi- 
 dence. The city still stands. 
 
 The Moors were now convinced that their Spanisli foes 
 were determined to remain until the Crescent should give 
 place to the Cross. The citizens of Granada were suffer- 
 ing from famine. Abdallah, therefore, surrendered 
 Granada to the Christians on the second day of January, 
 1492. 
 
 This last great act in one of the sublimest of historical 
 dramas — the invasion of Spain by the Moors — was per- 
 formed with the most imposing martial and religious rites. 
 The Alhambra was first taken possession of by veteran 
 Christian troops, including the body-guard of the king. 
 Ferdinand, surrounded by a very brilliant cortege glitter- 
 ing in polished armor, took his station near an Arabian 
 mosque, now called the hermitage of St. Sebastian. At 
 a short distance in the rear the queen Isabella took her 
 position, accompanied by a no less splendid retinue, her 
 
280 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 high-born warriors proudly displajdng the armorial bear- 
 ings of their families. The immense column of the Chris- 
 tian army commenced its march up the Hill of Martyrs 
 into the city. Abdallah, accompanied by fifty cavaliers, 
 passed them, descending the hill to make the surrender 
 of himself to P'erdinand. The heart-broken Moor threw 
 himself from his horse, and would have seized the hand 
 of Ferdinand to kiss it in token of homage, but the Chris- 
 tian king magnanimously spared him the humiliation, and 
 threw his arms around the deposed monarch in a respect- 
 ful and affectionate embrace. Abdallah then presented 
 the keys of the Alhambra to the conqueror, saying, — 
 
 "They are thine, O king, since Allah so decrees it. 
 Use thy success with clemency and moderation- " 
 
 He then, not waiting for the words of consolation which 
 the king was about to utter, rode on to offer the same acts 
 of submission and homage to Queen Isabella. In the 
 mean time the Castilian army, winding slowly up the hill 
 and around the walls, entered the city by the gate of Los 
 Molinos. The large silver cross which Ferdinand had 
 ever borne with him in his crusade against the Moors was 
 now elevated upon the Alhambra, while the banners of 
 the conqueror were proudly unfurled from its towers. 
 '- ' It was the signal for the whole army to fall upon its 
 knees in recognition of that providence which had granted 
 them so great a victory. The solemn strains of the Te 
 Deum^ performed b}^ the choir of the ro^^al chapel, then 
 swelled majestically over the prostrate host. The Span- 
 ish grandees now gathered around Isabella, and kneeling, 
 kissed her hand, in recognition of her sovereignty as queen 
 of Granada." 
 
 Abdallah, however, did not remain as a sad witness of 
 these scenes. With a small band he took his way to the 
 
PATIO JJE LUS LEUNEb (COURT OF LIONS), ALHAMBRA, 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN 281 
 
 mountains. From one of the rocky eminences he sorrow- 
 fully gazed upon the beautiful realms over which his 
 ancestors had reigned for more than seven hundred 3'ears. 
 AYith eyes filled with tears he exclaimed, ''Alas! when 
 were woes ever equal to mine ! " 
 
 Whereupon his mother cruelly replied, " You do well to 
 weep as a woman for what you could not defend like a 
 man ! " 
 
 Thus " The Last Sigh of the Moor," and the cruel yet 
 Spartan-like heroism of the Moorish queen-mother, have 
 passed into the romantic annals of history. 
 
 While Ferdinand and Isabella were at Santa Fe, Colum- 
 bus arrived at their camp. We have not space to give 
 here a history of Christopher Columbus. We can but 
 note a few important incidents. The Atlantic Ocean was 
 then unexplored. Columbus, who was employed in the 
 construction of maps and charts, became convinced that 
 countries existed upon the other side of the globe. He 
 was laughed at as an enthusiast, and when he declared 
 that the world was round, one of the sages of the fifteenth 
 century replied, " Can any one be so foolish as to believe 
 that the world is round, and that there are people on the 
 side opposite to ours who walk with their heels upward 
 and their heads hanging down, like flies clinging to the 
 ceiling ? that there is a part of the world where trees grow 
 with their branches hanoino- downwards, and where it 
 rains, hails, and snows upwards?" 
 
 The doctrine of Columbus was not only regarded as 
 absurd, but it was thought to be heretical. Columbus, 
 fully convinced of the truth of his ideas, appealed first to 
 the kino- of Portugal for means to fit out a fleet to start 
 out on a voyage of discovery. Meeting with refusal, he 
 visited the Spanish court in 1487. At this time Ferdi- 
 
282 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 nancl and Isabella were with the army, encamped before 
 Malaga. The war with the Moors continuing, the Span- 
 ish sovereigns declared that they could give the matter no 
 attention until the conclusion of the war. Disheartened, 
 Columbus was about to apply to the king of France, when 
 the prior of the convent of La Rabida, at Palos, who 
 firmly believed in the scheme of Columbus, and who had 
 formerly been confessor to Isabella, wrote to the queen, 
 urging that Spain might not lose so great an opportunity. 
 Isabella was so much impressed by the letter of the wor- 
 thy prior that she immediately requested that Columbus 
 should come to Santa Fe, where she was then residing, as 
 the Spanish army were still besieging Granada. Colum- 
 bus arrived there just as the Moorish banner was torn 
 down, and the flag of Spain was unfurled upon the towers 
 of the Alhambra. In the midst of these rejoicings Co- 
 lumbus presented his plans. "I wish," said he, "for a 
 few ships and a few sailors to traverse between two and 
 three thousand miles of the ocean, thus to point out a new 
 and short route to India, and reveal new nations, majes- 
 tic in wealth and power. These realms are peopled by 
 immortal beings, for whom Christ has died. It is my mis- 
 sion to search them out, and to carry to them the Gospel 
 of salvation. Wealth will also flow in from this discov- 
 er}'. With this wealth we can raise armies, and rescue 
 the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the hands of the 
 infidels. I ask only in return that I may be appointed 
 viceroy over the realms I discover, and that I shall re- 
 ceive one-tenth of the profits which may accrue." 
 
 The Spanish courtiers were astonished at what they 
 deemed audacious demands, and persuaded the queen to 
 refuse. Whereupon, Columbus sadly saddled his mule to 
 retrace his steps, and to offer his services to the king of 
 
COLUMBUS. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 283 
 
 France. Isabella was troubled, as she thought over these 
 offers and requests of Columbus, and she expressed to 
 Ferdinand her perplexities. He replied, " The royal 
 finances are exhausted by the war. We have no money 
 in the treasury for such an enterprise." The queen then 
 enthusiastically exclaimed, — 
 
 " I will undertake the enterprise for my own crown of 
 Castile ; and I will pledge my private jewels to raise the 
 necessar}^ funds." 
 
 Thus the discovery of a continent hung upon the vanity, 
 or heroism, of a woman ! But the character of Isabella 
 was equal to the emergency. The matter was quickly 
 settled. A courier was sent to overtake the disappointed 
 Columbus, who was pursuing his weary way through the 
 sand, overwhelmed with gloom. For eighteen years he 
 had been in vain endeavoring to carr}^ out his cherished 
 plans. Jo3'fully he returned to Santa F^, where the queen 
 received him with great kindness, and assented to his 
 demands. Columbus succeeded in obtaining three small 
 vessels, — two furnished by the Spanish government, and 
 one by Martin Alonzo Pinzon, a wealthy Spaniard. The 
 total number who joined the expedition was one hundred 
 and fift}'. 
 
 The enterprise was deemed so hazardous that it was 
 with great difficulty that a crew could be obtained. This 
 was in the fifteenth century. In view of the marvellous 
 progress in knowledge, discover}-, invention, and an 
 enlightened Christianity, in the past four hundred years, 
 in comparison with the ignorance and superstitions of pre- 
 ceding epochs, an}' student of history will be led most 
 emphatically to exclaim, Surely the world was never so 
 advanced in knowledge, true civilization, and pure religion 
 as to-day ! With all the wickedness at the present time, 
 
284 FERDINAND F. OF SPAIN. 
 
 the study of history reveals the fact, that the world was 
 never so good, pure, and Christian as now. 
 
 On the 3d of August, 1492, the small squadron unfurled 
 its sails for the momentous voyage. At the close of a 
 week they arrived at the Canary Islands, which were on 
 the frontiers of the known Avorld. On the 6th of Septem- 
 ber, the}' again set sail. 
 
 Day after day passed ; but no land came in sight. 
 Sixty-seven days had now passed since the Highlands of 
 vSpain had disappeared from their view. They had met 
 with indications which made them hope that land was 
 near. A branch of a shrub, with leaves and berries upon 
 it, had been picked up ; and a small piece of wood, curi- 
 ously carved, had been found drifting upon the water. It 
 was the 11th of October. As the sun went down, and the 
 stars appeared, Columbus took his stand upon the poop of 
 his vessel. About ten o'clock, he was startled by the 
 gleam of what seemed to be a torch far in the distance. 
 For a moment it blazed, then disappeared. Was it a 
 meteor, or a light from the land? Not an eye was closed 
 on the ships that night. At two o'clock in the morning, 
 a sailor at the mast-head shouted, " Land, land, laud! " 
 The day dawned ; and a glimpse of paradise seemed to 
 have been unveiled before their enraptured gaze. A 
 beautiful island was spread out, luxuriously green, and 
 adorned with every varietj' of tropical vegetation. The 
 boats were lowered, and manned. The banner of Spain, 
 emblazoned with the cross, floated from every prow. 
 Columbus, richly attired in a scarlet dress, entered his 
 boat, and was rowed towards the shore, where multitudes 
 of the natives stood, gazing, spell-bound, upon the strange 
 sight. Columbus leaped upon the shore, and, falling 
 upon his knees, gave thanks to God. With imposing 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 285 
 
 ceremony, the Imnuer of Spain was planted upon the soil ; 
 and the island was called San Salvador, in recognition of 
 the protecting care of Providence. We have not space 
 to note the other discoveries of Columbus upon this voy- 
 age. Continuing his explorations in that part of the 
 countr\', he discovered the islands of Exuma, Yuma, and 
 Cuba. Of Cuba, Columbus wrote, " It is the most beau- 
 tiful island that eyes ever beheld." During a short tour 
 up one of the picturesque streams of Cuba, Columbus met 
 with a bulbous I'oot, about as large as an apple, which the 
 natives used as food, roasting it in the ashes. The}' 
 called it batatas. Columbus and his men were hunting 
 for gold ; but this discovery of the indispensable potato 
 has proved a much riclier prize to mankind. Here, also, 
 he saw the natives rolling up in their hands dried leaves 
 of a certain plant, which they lighted and smoked. These 
 leaves they called tobacco. This discovery has proved a 
 curse, rather than a blessing, to the world. 
 
 After discovering the islands of the Nativity and 
 Hayti, or Saint Domingo, Columbus determined to return 
 to Spain, to secure a more efficient fleet. The return voy- 
 age was extremely tempestuous. During the gloomy 
 hours of storm and danger, fearing that they should never 
 see land again, Columbus wrote an account of his discov- 
 eries upon parchment, wrapped it in waxed cloth, and, 
 enclosing it in a water-tight cask, set it adrift. A copy, 
 similarly prepared, was kept upon the ship. On the 15tli 
 of March, not quite seven months and a half from the 
 time of his departure, Columbus, with his little crew, 
 entered the harbor of Palos. Ferdinand aud Isabella 
 were at Barcelona. They immediatel}' wrote to Colum- 
 bus, requesting him to repair to their court. His journey 
 thither was a triumphal march. Ferdinand and Isabella 
 
286 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 were seated beneath a silken canopy, to receive him with 
 the most imposing ceremonies of state. As a remarkable 
 act of condescension, both Ferdinand and Isabella rose, 
 upon the approach of Columbus, and offered him their 
 hands to kiss. The Indians and other trophies from the 
 New World which he had brought back with him, occa- 
 sioned the greatest surprise. Then Columbus narrated 
 to the Spanish sovereigns the story of his voyage. But 
 we are obliged to give an account of the shame, as well 
 as glory, of the Spanish court. Ferdinand and Isabella 
 were rioid Catholics ; so much so, that Ferdinand is called 
 in history "Ferdinand the Catholic," and Isabella received 
 also the same title. The Inquisition, which had existed 
 somewhat mildly before, was re-established by them. We 
 cannot give the details of those persecutions here, which 
 we narrate more fully when the Inquisition appears with 
 greater cruelty and ferocity in the life of Philip II. 
 During the reign of Ferdinand, the persecution fell mostly 
 upon the Jews. Just as the Spanish sovereigns were 
 about entering into engagements with Columbus to send 
 him in search of a new world, that Christianity might be 
 carried to the heathens there, the unchristian and cruel 
 edict was issued for the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 
 We have not space to describe the heart-rending sufferings 
 of this persecuted people. 
 
 While at Barcelona, in 1492, Ferdinand narrowly es- 
 caped being killed by an assassin. King Ferdinand had 
 not much intellectual culture ; and Isabella was far supe- 
 rior to her husband in literary attainments. But Ferdi- 
 nand was a capable man in the military and practical 
 affairs of his kingdom. The children of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella received unusual education for those times, and 
 acquired X'are attainments. Prince John, heir to their 
 

 
 PRISON OF THE INQUISITION AT BARCELONA. 
 
FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 287 
 
 throne, was reared with the greatest care. But just after 
 the marriage of the young prince to Princess Margaret, 
 daughter of the Emperor Maximilian of Austria, which 
 was celebrated with great magnificence. Prince John was 
 stricken with a fever, and died. Thus perished their only 
 son. Their eldest daughter, Isabella, who had married 
 the king of Portugal, died soon after the death of her 
 brother. Prince John. This daughter left a babe, who 
 thus became heir to Portugal, Aragon, and Castile ; but 
 ere a year had passed the infant also sank into the grave. 
 Their daughter Joanna was married to the archduke 
 Philip, son and heir of Maximilian. This unhappy prin- 
 cess was the mother of Charles V. of Spain. But her life 
 was clouded with gloom, occasioned by her husband's 
 neglect, which at last caused her insanity. The youngest 
 daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catharine of Aragon, 
 afterwards had the misfortune to many the infamous 
 Henry VIII. of England. Thus, the last days of these 
 illustrious sovereigns were overshadowed with heart-rend- 
 ing sorrows. We can barel}^ note the subsequent discov- 
 eries of Columbus. Before his second voyage, while at 
 Barcelona, he was invited by the grand cardinal of Spain 
 to dine with him. An envious guest inquired of Colum- 
 bus if he thought that there was no man in Spain capable 
 of discovering the Indies, if he had not made the discov- 
 ery. Columbus, without replying to the question, took 
 an Qgg from the table, and asked if there was any one who 
 could make it stand on one end. They all tried, but 
 failed. Whereupon Columbus, by a slight blow, crushed 
 the end of the egg, and left it standing before them, 
 saying, " You see how easy it is to do a thing after some 
 one has shown you how." 
 
 In his second voyage he discovered the island of 
 
288 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 Jamaica and several other islands. Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella received him with kindness upon his return ; but two 
 vears passed before he could obtain another squadron. 
 It was during this third voyage that complaints reached 
 Isabella that Columbus was enslaving the inhabitants of 
 Hayti. An officer named Bobadilla was sent to Hayti to 
 investigate the matter. He was unscrupulous and envi- 
 ous ; and, falsely using his official authority, he ordered 
 Columbus to be sent back to Spain in chains. These out- 
 rages, inflicted upon a man so illustrious, roused indigna- 
 tion throughout the world. Ferdinand and Isabella were 
 shocked and alarmed upon hearing of this outrageous 
 treatment, and sent in the greatest haste to release him 
 from his fetters, and to express their sympathy and regret 
 for the indignities he had sufTered. Some months after, 
 Columbus started upon his fourth and last voyage. After 
 encountering storms and perils, Columbus reached the 
 continent at what is now called Central America, near 
 Yucatan. Notwithstanding the importance of having at 
 last touched the American continent, this voyage was a 
 series of disappointments and disasters. He was detained 
 for a year on the island of Jamaica, on account of the 
 loss of his ships, which were wrecked in the storms. At 
 leno-th, two vessels arrived at the island, and Columbus 
 embarked for his return to Spain. When he at last 
 reached that country, he was broken down by old age, 
 sickness, and mental suffering. Poverty stnred him in 
 the face. Isabella was upon her death-bed ; and Ferdi- 
 nand was heartless, and would not offer liim any relief. 
 After all his achievements in behalf of mankind, Colum- 
 bus thus sadly writes to his son: " I live by borrowing. 
 Little have I profited by twenty years of service, with 
 such toils and perils, since at present I do not own a roof 
 
TOMB OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA IN THE CATHEDRAL 
 OF GRANADA. 
 
FERDIXAND V. OF SPAIW. 289 
 
 in Spain. If I desire to eat or sleep, I have no resort but 
 an inn, and for the most times have not wherewithal to 
 pay my bill." In the midst of such sorrow and poverty, 
 the heroic Columbus passed his last days on earth. He, 
 was buried in the Convent of St. Francisco, at Seville. 
 Thirty years afterwards, his remains were removed to St. 
 Domingo, on the island of Hayti. Upon the cession of 
 the island to the French, in 1795, they were transferred 
 by the Spanish* authorities to the Cathedral of Havana, in 
 Cuba. 
 
 Queen Isabella was now broken in health, from her 
 many domestic sorrows. She died in November, 1504. 
 The last years of Ferdinand afford a sad contrast to his 
 early life and brilliant manhood. As the death of Queen 
 Isabella took from Ferdinand the crown of Castile, Philip, 
 the husband of the poor crazy Joanna, daughter of Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, seized upon the throne of Castile. A 
 bitter family quarrel ensued. In order to secure the help 
 of France, Ferdinand, though it was only eleven months 
 after the death of his deeply loved wife, was married to 
 the princess Germaine, a gay and frivolous girl of eigh- 
 teen, daughter of one of the sisters of Louis XII. 
 
 " It seemed hard," says one writer, "that these nuptials 
 should take place so soon, and that, too, in Isabella's own 
 kingdom of Castile, where she had lived without peer, and 
 where her ashes are still held in as much veneration as 
 she enjoyed while living." The marriage ceremony took 
 place at Duenas, where, thirt3'-six years before, he had 
 pledged his faith to Isabella. In 1513 the health of Fer- 
 dinand began to fail. Dropsy and partial paralysis made 
 his life a torment. Hoping to gain relief, he travelled 
 southward ; but, having reached the small village of Mad- 
 rigalejo, he was unable to proceed farther. On the 22d 
 
290 FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. 
 
 of January, 151 G, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 
 Ferdinand breathed his last. He died in a small room 
 in an obscure village. ' ' In so wretclied a tenement did 
 the lord of so man}- lands close his eyes upon the world." 
 Thus ended the lives of Ferdinand and Isabella, shrouded 
 with gloom and disappointment. 
 
 " A crown ! What is it ? 
 It is to bear the miseries of a people, • 
 To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents, 
 And sink beneath a load of splendid care." 
 
PHILIP 11. OF SPAIN. 291 
 
 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 1527-1598 A.D. 
 
 " Princes who would their people should do well, 
 Must at themselves begin, as at the head ; 
 For men, by their example, pattern out 
 Their imitations and regard of laws : 
 A virtuous court a world to virtue draws." — Ben Jonson. 
 
 CHARLES V. of Spain, the father of Philip II., was 
 the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. Throuoh 
 liis father he inherited the Netherlands and part of Bur- 
 gundy, and at the age of nineteen became emperor of 
 German3\ He had received the throne of Spain when 
 sixteen years of age. When his son Philip had attained 
 sufficient age to assume the throne, Charles V. abdicated 
 in his favor, and retired to a convent, where he died in 
 1558 in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Philip II., his 
 son, was born at Valladolid in 1527. His mother, Isa- 
 bella, was the daughter of Emanuel, king of Portugal. 
 Philip was but twelve years old at the time of his mother's 
 death. In 1543 Philip married Mary, daughter of the 
 king of Portugal. Both bride and bridegroom were 
 eighteen years of age. Mary died in a short time, leav- 
 ing an infant son named Don Carlos. Catharine of Ara- 
 iion, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 married Kinoj Henry VIII. of Enoland. Their dauohter 
 Mary became the second wife of King Philip II. of Spain. 
 She was eleven years older than Philip, and was unattrac- 
 tive in person and a bigot in religion. Her cruelty in 
 
292 PHTLir II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 persecuting those whom she regarded a,s heretics has 
 given her in history the name of " Bloody Mary." 
 
 The marriage contract was signed before either of them 
 had seen each other. As tlie son of an emperor, Philip 
 set out in royal state to obtain his bride. The marriage 
 ceremony was performed in the cathedral at Winchester. 
 Philip was dressed in a suit of white satin, the gift of 
 Mary. It was richly decorated with golden embroidery, 
 and encrusted with precious stones. Mary's wedding 
 dress was also white satin embroidered with gold. It 
 was thickly studded and fringed with costly jewels. 
 
 As Mary was at this time queen of England, her mar- 
 riage was celebrated with the greatest magnificence. The 
 pompous rites of the wedding ceremony occupied four 
 hours, during which time Philip and Mar}' were seated 
 upon a throne draped with a ro3'al canopy. The vast 
 edifice was thronged with the nobility of England, Flan- 
 ders, and Spain. After a few days, devoted to public 
 festivities in Winchester, Philip and Mary went to Lon- 
 don, and were received by the people and court with 
 great demonstrations of rejoicing. Her father. King 
 Henry VIII., had quarrelled with the Pope at Rome, but 
 Mary and Philip were zealous Catholics, and desired to 
 re-establish the relations of the English Church with 
 Rome. Parliament met at Whitehall. Mar}', the queen 
 of England, sat with Philip under a canopy. By her side 
 sat the Pope's legate. A petition was presented by the 
 chancellor of the realm, praying for reconciliation with 
 the Papal See. The whole assembly knelt before the 
 Pope's legate, who pronounced upon them absolution and 
 a benediction. Then began the fires of persecution. 
 Many who would not consent to become Catholics were 
 burned at the stake. 
 
QUEEN MARY ILIGIITING HER TROTH TO PHILIP. 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIX. 293 
 
 Philip, who had now wearied of his elderly and unat- 
 tractive wife, and also of being regarded as only the 
 husband of the queen, was rejoiced at the summons of his 
 father, Charles V., who desired him to return to Spain to 
 receive the kingdom, that Charles might retire into con- 
 vent life. By the abdication of Charles V., Philip 11. 
 became one of the most powerful monarchs in the world. 
 He was king of united Spain ; he was also king of Naples 
 and Sicily, and duke of Milan ; he was sovereign of the 
 Low Countries ; and as husband of the queen of England, 
 who was devotedly attached to him, he had great influence 
 in the affairs of that nation. The Cape Verde Islands 
 and the Canaries were under his swa3^ A large portion 
 of the Mediterranean coast in Africa was under his domin- 
 ion ; also the Philippine and Spice Islands, in Asia. 
 He inherited those islands wliich Columbus had conferred 
 upon Spain in the West Indies, and also the vast realms 
 of Mexico and Peru. 
 
 Such was the immense power now placed in the hands 
 of this young prince not ^et thirty years of age. Philip 
 II. esta])lished his court at Madrid, and from his palace 
 there sent forth his edicts over his wide domains. In 
 1558 Queen Mary of England died, being succeeded by 
 her half-sister Elizabeth. 
 
 Philip's onlj' regret for his wife was, no doubt, the loss 
 of his hold upon the English crown. Before a year had 
 elapsed he was married to the daughter of the king of 
 France. This young princess, Elizabeth, — called in Spain, 
 Isabella, — was only fourteen years of age, and had been 
 previously betrothed to the son of Philip, Don Carlos, 
 who was of the same age. 
 
 The death of this young prince a few years afterwards, 
 under very suspicious circumstances, caused many to 
 
294 PHILIP 11. OF SPAIX. 
 
 think that he had been poisoned by the command of his 
 father, wlio had imprisoned the prince at the time. Don 
 Carlos and his father had frequent quarrels, and at last 
 Carlos was said to have confessed to a priest that he de- 
 sired to kill his father, and he asked absolution, which tha 
 priest refused to grant. The king was informed of all 
 this. The young prince was thereupon imprisoned, with 
 a strong guard to watch him, and he was reported to be 
 mad. In the course of a few months Don Carlos died. 
 
 Two stories regarding that event were told. Some his- 
 torians consider Philip innocent of any attempt upon the 
 life of his son, but others state that the physician of the 
 prince was informed that it was ver\' desirable that the 
 death of Carlos should appear to result from natural 
 causes ; and that medicine was administered to the unsus- 
 pecting patient in such doses as slowly' to accomplish the 
 desired end. Philip II. was a fanatic in religion, and the 
 terrible persecution of the Protestants during his reign has 
 filled the world with horror, as the shocking stories have 
 been told. 
 
 Philip had not forgotten his father's command to pun- 
 ish heretics with the utmost rigor. The Reformation had 
 been silently and rapidly advancing in Spain. Now the 
 terrible persecutions of the Inquisition were turned against 
 this heroic little band of fearless Christians by those pro- 
 fessing to worship the same merciful God, and to be 
 followers of the same loving and sinless Christ. How 
 such awful crimes could have been perpetrated in the 
 sacred name of religion seems at the present day incom- 
 prehensible, and we shudder at the recital of such savage 
 barbarity, more especially when committed by the enlight- 
 ened and civilized nations of the world less than four 
 centuries ago. 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 205 
 
 The bigoted Philip issued mi edict '-' thtit all who 
 bought, sold, or read prohibited works were to be burned 
 alive." Every person suspected of heresy was arrested 
 and thrown into prison. In Seville alone, eight hundred 
 were arrested in one day. The accused were then draa:2:ed 
 from their dungeons and subjected to the horrors of the 
 most merciless tortures to induce them to give np their 
 Protestant faith ; and these shocking deeds were per- 
 formed in the name of religion. The awful details of 
 those barbarous crimes are too horrible to relate. What 
 must the reality have been to the poor victims of this in- 
 human persecution ! 
 
 The first act of burning, under the decrees of the Pope, 
 Philip II., and the Spanish inquisitor-general, Valdes, 
 took place in May, 1559, at Valladolid. This terrible 
 ceremony was called auto de /e, or act of faith ; and so 
 common did they at length become, that Catholics would 
 engage to meet each other at the '•'•auto de /e','' ^s in 
 modern times appointments are made to meet at the 
 theatre, opera, or other place of public gathering. One 
 of the historians thus describes the second auto de fe in 
 Valladolid, in October, 1559: "The Pope wished to in- 
 vest the scene with all the terrors of the Day of Judgment. 
 That he might draw an immense crowd, an indulgence of 
 forty days was granted to all who should be present at 
 the spectacle. 
 
 " The tragedy was enacted in the great square of the 
 citj'. At one end of the square a large platform was 
 erected, richly carpeted and decorated, where seats were 
 arranged for the inquisitors. A royal galler}' w\as con- 
 structed for the king and his court. Two hundred thou- 
 sand spectators surrounded the arena. At six o'clock in 
 the morning all the bells of the city began to toll the 
 
296 PHILIP IL OF SPAIN. 
 
 funeral knell. A solemn procession emerged from the 
 dismal fortress of the Inquisition. A body of troops led 
 the van. Then came the condemned. There were two 
 classes : the first consisting of those who were to be pun- 
 ished with confiscation and imprisonment ; and the second, 
 of those who were to suffer death. The latter were cov- 
 ered with a loose gown of yellow cloth, and wore upon 
 the head a paper cap of conical form. Both the gown 
 and cap were covered with pictures of flames fanned and 
 fed by demons. Two priests were by the side of each 
 one of the victims, urging him to abjure his errors. Those 
 who were merely to endure loss of propert}' and to be 
 thrown into the dungeons of the Inquisition were clothed 
 in garments of black. A vast concourse of dignitaries of 
 state, and of the common people, closed the procession. 
 The fanaticism of the times was such, that probably but 
 few of the people had any sympathy with the sufferers. 
 The ceremonies were opened with a sermon by the bishop 
 of Zamora. Then the whole assembled multitude took an 
 oath, upon their knees, to defend the Inquisition and the 
 purity of the Catholic faith, and to inform against any 
 one who should swerve from the faith. Then those who, 
 to escape the flames, had expressed penitence for their 
 errors, after a very solemn recantation, were absolved 
 from death. But heresy was too serious a crime to be 
 forgiven.) even upon penitence. All were doomed to the 
 confiscation of property, and to imprisonment — some for 
 life — in the dungeons of the Inquisition. Their names 
 were branded with infamy, and in many cases their im- 
 mediate descendants were rendered ineligible to any public 
 office. These first received their doom, and under a strong 
 guard were conveyed back to prison. 
 
 "And now all eyes were turned to the little band of 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 297 
 
 thirty, who, in the garb of ignominy, and with ropes 
 around their necks, were waiting their sentence. Many 
 of these were men illustrious for rank, and still more re- 
 nowned for talents and virtues. Their countenances 
 were wan and wasted, their frames emaciated, and many 
 of them were distorted by the cruel ministry of the rack. 
 Those who were willing to make confession were allowed 
 the privilege of being strangled before their bodies were 
 exposed to the torture of the fire. After being strangled 
 by the garrote^ their bodies were thrown into the flames. 
 Enfeebled by suffering, all but two of them thus pur- 
 chased exemption from being burned alive. 
 
 "One of these, Don Carlos de Seso, was a Florentine 
 noble. He had married a Spanish lady of high rank, and 
 had taken up his residence in Spain, where he had adopted 
 the principles of the Reformation. For fifteen months, 
 with unshaken constancy, he had suffered in the dungeons 
 of the Inquisition. When sentence of death at the stake 
 was pronounced upon him, he called for pen and paper in 
 his cell. His judges supposed that he intended to make 
 confession. Instead of that he wrote a very eloquent 
 document, avowing his unshaken trust in the great truths 
 of the Reformation. De Seso had stood very high in the 
 regards of Philip's father, Charles V. As he was passing 
 before the royal gallery to be chained to the stake, he 
 looked up to Philip, and said, ' Is it thus that you allow 
 your innocent subjects to be persecuted ? ' The king re- 
 plied, ' If it were my own son, I would fetch the wood to 
 burn him, were he such a wretch as thou art.' 
 
 " He was chained to the stake. As the flames slowly 
 enveloped him in their fiery wreaths, he called upon the 
 soldiers to heap up the fagots, that his agonies might 
 sooner terminate. Soon life was extinct, and the soul of 
 
298 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN; 
 
 the noble martyr was borne on angel wings to heaven. 
 The fellow-sufferer of De Seso was Domingo de Rexas, 
 son of the marquis of Posa. Five of this noble family, 
 including the eldest son, had been victims of the Inquisi- 
 tion. De Rexas had been a Dominican monk. In ac- 
 cordance with usage, he retained his sacerdotal habit until 
 he stood before the stake. Then in the midst of the jeers 
 of the populace his garments were one by one removed, 
 and the vestments of the condemned, with their hideous 
 picturings, were placed upon him. He attempted to ad- 
 dress the spectators. Philip angrily ordered him to be 
 gagged. A piece of cleft wood was thrust into his mouth, 
 causing great pain. He was thus led to the stake and 
 burned alive. The cruel exhibition occupied from six 
 o'clock in the morning until two o'clock in the afternoon." 
 
 Such were some of the shocking and barbarous scenes 
 connected with the notorious vSpanish Inquisition. This 
 persecution raged year after year. So fiercely did these 
 fires of persecution burn throughout all Spain, that nearl}^ 
 all traces of the Protestant religion were eradicated from 
 the kingdom. The Spaniards degenerated into semi-bar- 
 barism. Education was discouraged, all human rights 
 were trampled upon, and Spain became one of the most 
 debased, impoverished, and miserable nations in Europe. 
 Thus had religious fanaticism turned this fair province of 
 Philip's into a desert. In regard to the blame which rests 
 upon Phihp II., for this deplorable state of things, his 
 own words will answer. He wrote to his sister, whom he 
 had appointed his regent in the Netherlands, thus : — 
 
 '' I have never had any object in view than the good of 
 my subjects ! In all that I have done I have trod in the 
 footsteps of my father, under whom the people of the 
 Netherlands must admit that thev lived contented and 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 299 
 
 happy. As to the Inquisition, whatever people may say 
 of it, I have never attempted anything new. With re- 
 gard to the edicts, I have been always resolved to live and 
 die in the Catholic faith. I could not be content to have 
 my subjects do otherwise. Yet I see not how this can 
 be compassed without punishing the transgressors. God 
 knows how willingly 1 would avoid shedding a drop of 
 Christian blood ; but I would rather lose a hundred thou- 
 sand lives, if I had so many, than allow a single change 
 in matters of religion." 
 
 In the Netherlands persecutions and rebellions caused 
 constant strife. Scarcely forty years had elapsed since 
 Luther had publicly burned the papal bull at AVittenburg. 
 Since that time his doctrines had been received in Den- 
 mark and Sweden. In England, under Queen Elizabeth, 
 Protestantism had become the established religion of the 
 state. The Reformation had reached the hills and valleys 
 of Scotland, and tens of thousands had gathered to hear 
 the preaching of Knox. The Low Countries, or Nether- 
 lands, which now constitute Holland and Belgium, were 
 the ""debatable laud," on which the various sects of 
 reformers, the Lutherans, the Calvinists, and the P^nglish 
 Protestants, contended for mastery over the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church. Calvinism was embraced by some of the 
 cantons of Switzerland, and had also spread widely 
 through France, where the adherents to the Protestant 
 faith were known as the Huguenots. The cry of the 
 Reformation had passed the Alps, and was heard even 
 under the walls of the Vatican, and had crossed the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 The king of Navarre declared himself a Protestant, and 
 the spirit of the Reformation, as we have related, had 
 also secretly spread into Spain. But there already the 
 
300 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 terrible iDqiiisition, with Philip II. at its head, had crushed 
 out Protestantism from Spain. It was not to be expected 
 that Philip, having exterminated heresy in one part of 
 his dominions, would tolerate its existence in any other, 
 least of all in so important a country as the Netherlands. 
 So the persecutions commenced there. During the latter 
 part of the fifteenth century, and the beginning of the 
 sixteenth, the pontifical throne had been filled by a suc- 
 cession of popes, notorious for their religious indifference, 
 and the carelessness and profligacy of their lives. This 
 was one of the prominent causes of the Reformation. 
 But before the close of the sixteenth century, a line of 
 popes had arisen, of stern and austere natures, without a 
 touch of sympathy for the joys and sorrows of mankind, 
 and entirely devoted to the work of regaining the lost 
 powers of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius the 
 Fifth was such a pontiflT. He wrote to Philip, urging him 
 not to falter in the good cause, and to allow no harm to 
 the Catholic faith, but to march against his rebellious 
 vassals at the head of his army, and wash out the stain of 
 heresy in the blood of the heretic. To him Philip replied : 
 that the Pope might rest assured that the king would con- 
 sent to nothing that could prejudice the service of God, 
 or the interests of religion. He deprecated force, as that 
 would involve the ruin of the country. Still he would 
 march in person, without regard to his own peril, and em- 
 ploy force, though it should cost the ruin of the provinces ; 
 but he would bring his vassals to submission. " For he 
 would sooner lose a hundred lives, and every rood of em- 
 pire, than reign a lord over heretics." 
 
 With such a pope, and such a king, no wonder that the 
 Inquisition flourished. 
 
 The situation of the Netherlands was such that the 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIX. 301 
 
 various opinions of the surrounding nations were easily 
 transferred to their shores. On the south were the 
 Lutherans of Germany ; on the west, the French Hugue- 
 nots ; while by the oeean, they held communication with 
 England and the nations of the Baltic. The soldier quar- 
 tered on their territor}', the seaman who visited their 
 shores, the trader who trafficked in their towns, brought 
 with them different forms of the '' JSfew Religion.'''' As 
 most of the people were able to read, books from France 
 and Germany were circulated amongst them. Philip II. 
 understood the importance of his position. His whole 
 life proves that he felt it to be his especial mission 
 to restore the tottering fortunes of Catholicism, and stay 
 the torrent which was sweeping away the Roman Catholic 
 faith. Philip had made his half-sister, Margaret, regent 
 in the Netherlands. 
 
 In order to a clearer understanding of the revolt in the 
 Netherlands, a brief sketch of William, prince of Orange, 
 will be necessar}'. He was descended from ancestors who 
 had given an emperor to Germany ; AYilliam's parents 
 were both Lutherans, and he was educated in that faith. 
 But Charles V. obtained the consent of his parents to 
 remove him to Brussels, when in his twelfth year, and he 
 was brought up in the family of the Emperor's sister. In 
 this household, the young prince was instructed in the 
 Catholic faith. When fifteen years of age, William 
 became the page of Charles V. On the abdication of that 
 monarch, he commended William to Philip 11. , who at 
 first received the prince of Orange with much favor. 
 William married for his second wife, Anne, the daughter 
 of Maurice, the great Lutheran champion ; and though he 
 did not openly espouse the cause, but continued in the 
 service of Philip, a writer of the times says of him : " The 
 
302 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 prince of Orange passed for a Catholic among Catholics. 
 and a Lutheran among Lutherans." But this portrait of 
 him was hy an unfriendly hand, and a truer declaration is 
 that of Prescott, '^ that he possessed a spirit of toleration, 
 the more honorable that in that day it was so rare. He 
 condemned the Calvinists as restless and seditious, and 
 the Catholics for their bigoted attachment to a dogma. 
 Persecution, in matters of faith, he totally condemned, 
 for freedom of judgment in such matters he regarded as 
 the inalienable right of man. These conclusions, at which 
 the world, after an incalculable amount of human suffer- 
 ing, has been three centuries in arriving, must be allowed 
 to reflect great credit on the character of William, prince 
 of Orange." 
 
 There was now formed in the Netherlands a league 
 called "The Gueux." Some of this party of confeder- 
 ates demanded entire liberty of conscience ; others would 
 not have stopped short of a revolution, that would enable 
 the country to shake off the Spanish yoke. Though this 
 party was a political rather than a religious organization, 
 they joined hands with the Lutherans and Calvinists, and 
 became, for a time, a great aid to the Reformation. The 
 origin of their name, which became the fanatical war-cry 
 of the insurgents, happened thus : Two or three hundred 
 of these confederates went to Brussels, to petition Mar- 
 garet, the regent, to mediate with Philip in their behalf, 
 that they should have more political liberty, and be freed 
 from the edicts and the Inquisition. During the week 
 spent by the league in Brussels, a banquet was given, 
 where three hundred of the confederates were present. 
 During the repast, Brederode, one of their number, 
 described the manner in which their petition had been 
 received by the regent. " She seemed at first discon- 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 303 
 
 certed," he said, "by the number of the confederates, 
 but was reassured by Barlaimont, who told her that ' they 
 were nothing but a crowd of beggars.' " 
 
 Some of the company were much incensed at this 
 treatment, bat Brederode, taking it good-humoredl}-, said, 
 "that he and his friends had no objection to the name, 
 since they were ready at any time to become beggars for 
 the service of their king and country." This witty sally 
 was received by the company with great applause, who 
 shouted, " Viveyit les Gueux!" — "long live the beggars !" 
 Brederode, finding the jest took so well, left the room, 
 and soon returned with a beggar's wallet and a wooden 
 bowl, such as were used by the mendicant fraternity in the 
 Netherlands. Then pledging the company in a bumper, 
 he swore to devote his life and fortune to the cause. The 
 wallet and the bowl went round the table, and as each of 
 the merry guests drank, the shout arose, "-Vivent les 
 Gueux! " In every language in which the history of these 
 acts has been recorded, the French term, Gueux, is em- 
 ployed to designate this party of malcontents in the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 The league now adopted the dress and symbols of men- 
 dicants. They affected their garments as a substitute for 
 their family liveries, dressing their retainers in the asii- 
 gray habiliments of the begging friars. Wooden bowls, 
 spoons, and knives became in great request, though they 
 were richly inlaid with silver, according to the wealth of 
 the possessor. Pilgrims' staffs were carried, elaborately 
 carved. Medals resembling those stuck by the beggars 
 in their bonnets were worn as a badge. The "Gueux 
 penny," as it was called, a gold or silver coin, was hung 
 from the neck, bearing on one side the effigy of Philip, 
 with the inscription, '•'• Fideles mi roi," and on the other, 
 
304 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 two hands grasping a beggar's wallet, and the words, 
 ''jusqaes a porter la besace,'' — "Faithful to the king, 
 even to carrying the wallet." The war-cr}^ of " Vivent 
 les Giieux'' soon resounded through the Netherlands. 
 
 Philip paid little or no attention to the frequent appeals 
 of Margaret, his regent, that he should come to some 
 concessions which should satisfy the people and bring the 
 rebellion to an end. But while Philip was procrastinating, 
 the Iconoclasts rose in fury, and inspired by a false zeal, 
 committed many terrible, sacrilegious outrages, which cast 
 dishonor upon the upholders of the Reformation. These 
 Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, were simply armed mobs 
 of ignorant people, who imagined they were doing a ser- 
 vice to God by breaking into the Catholic churches, and 
 ruthlessly destroying everything they could lay their hands 
 on. Prescott thus describes the destruction caused by 
 this band of rioters in Antwerp : — 
 
 "When the rest of the congregation had withdrawn, 
 after vespers, the mob rushed forward, as by a common 
 impulse, broke open the doors of the chapel, and dragged 
 forth the image of the Virgin. Some called on her to cry, 
 ' Vivent les Gueux ! ' while others tore off her embroidered 
 robes and rolled the dumb idol in the dust, amidst the 
 shouts of the spectators. 
 
 " This was the signal for havoc. The rioters dispersed 
 in all directions on the woi"k of destruction. High above 
 ilie great altar was an image of the Saviour, curiously 
 carved in wood, and placed between the effigies of the two 
 thieves crucified with him. The mob contrived to get a 
 rope round the neck of the statue of Christ, and dragged 
 it to the ground. They then fell upon it with hatchets 
 and hammers, and it was soon broken into a hundred 
 fragments. The two thieves, it was remarked, were 
 spared, as if to preside over the work of rapine below. 
 
DESTROYING STATUES, ETC., IN THE CATHEDRAL AT ANTWERP. 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 305 
 
 " Their fury now turned against the other statues, 
 which were quickly overthrown from their pedestals. 
 The paintings that lined the walls of the cathedral were 
 cut into shreds. Many of these were the choicest speci- 
 mens of Flemish art, even then, in its dawn, o-ivino- 
 promise of the glorious day which was to shed a lustre 
 over the land. But the pride of the cathedral and of 
 Antwerp was the great organ, renowned throughout the 
 Netherlands, not more for its dimensions than its perfect 
 workmanship. With their ladders the rioters scaled the 
 lofty fabric, and with their implements soon converted it, 
 like all else they laid their hands on, into a heap of 
 rubbish. 
 
 "The ruin was now universal. Nothing beautiful, 
 nothing holy, was spared. The altars — and there were 
 no less than seventy in the vast edifice — were overthrown 
 one after another, their richly embroidered coverings 
 rudely rent away, their gold and silver vessels appro- 
 priated by the plunderers. The sacramental bread was 
 trodden under foot, the wine was quaffed by the mis- 
 creants, in golden chalices, to the health of one another, 
 or of the Gueux, and the holy oil was profanely used to 
 anoint their shoes and sandals. The sculptured tracery 
 on the walls, the costly offerings that enriched the shrines, 
 the screens of gilded bronze, the delicately carved wood- 
 work of the pulpit, the marble and alabaster ornaments, 
 all went down under the fierce blows of the Iconoclasts. 
 The pavement was strewed with the ruined splendors of 
 a church, which in size and magnificence was perhaps 
 second onh' to St. Peter's among the churches of 
 Christendom. 
 
 "As the hght of day faded, the assailants supplied its 
 place with such light as they could obtain from the can- 
 
306 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 dies which they snatched from the altars. It was mid- 
 night before the work of destruction was completed. The 
 whole number engaged in this work is said not to have 
 exceeded a hundred, men, women, and boys. 
 
 " When their task was completed, they sallied forth in 
 a body from the doors of the cathedral, roaring out the 
 fanatical war-cry of " Viveyit les Gueux!" Flushed with 
 success, and joined on the way by stragglers like them- 
 selves, they burst open the doors of one church after 
 another, and by the time morning broke, the principal 
 temples in the city had been dealt with in the same ruth- 
 less manner as the cathedral. 
 
 " No attempt, all this time, was made to stop these 
 proceedings, on the part of the magistrates or citizens. 
 As they beheld from their windows the bodies of armed 
 men hurrying to and fro, by the gleam of their torches, 
 and listened to the sound of violence in the distance, they 
 seem to have been struck with a panic. The Catholics 
 remained within doors, fearing a general uprising of the 
 Protestants. The Protestants feared to move abroad, 
 lest they should be confounded with the rioters. For 
 three days these dismal scenes continued. . . . The fate 
 of Antwerp had its effect on the country. The flames of 
 fanaticism, burning fiercer than ever, quickly spread over 
 the northern as they had done over the western provinces. 
 . . . In Holland, Utrecht, Friesland, — everywhere in 
 short, with a few exceptions on the southern borders, — 
 mobs rose against the churches." 
 
 Cathedrals, chapels, monasteries, and nunneries, and 
 even hospitals, were destroyed by these ignorant fanatics. 
 The great library of Vicogne, one of the noblest collec- 
 tions in the Netherlands, perished in the flames kindled 
 by the mob. Four hundred churches were sacked by the 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 307 
 
 insurgents in Flanders alone. The damage to the cathe- 
 dral at Antwerp was said to amount to four hundred 
 thousand ducats. The whole work of this terrible devas- 
 tation, occupied less than a fortnight. This wholesale 
 destruction, perpetrated by the Iconoclasts, cannot be 
 estimated. It is a melanchoh^ fact that they pretended 
 to be actuated b}' a zeal for the Reformation, thus dis- 
 honoring the great and glorious cause, by their ignorant 
 fanaticism. An irreparable loss was occasioned by the 
 destruction of manuscripts, statuary, and paintings. 
 But the misguided Iconoclasts, ruthless as was their terri- 
 ble destruction of magnificent cathedrals and priceless 
 gems of art, must in justice have this excuse offered in 
 their behalf, that they had been enfuriated by the in- 
 famous Inquisition which had turned Spain into one great 
 auto de fe of burning martyrs, and which threatened, 
 through the bigotry of Philip II., to invade their own land 
 with its fiendish cruelties. Compared with the Inquisition, 
 with its scarlet hands reeking with the life-blood of its 
 tortured victims, the retaliation of the Iconoclasts is 
 scarcely to be wondered at. 
 
 The tidings of the tumult in the Netherlands was re- 
 ceived by Philip with the greatest indignation, and he 
 exclaimed : "It shall cost them dear ; by the soul of my 
 father, I swear it, it shall cost them dear ! " 
 
 These troubles in the Netherlands caused a chans^e in 
 the mind of AYilliam, prince of Orange. He saw the work- 
 ings of Catholicism under a fearful aspect. He beheld 
 his countrymen dragged from their firesides, driven into 
 exile, thrown into dungeons, burned at the stake ; and all 
 this for no other cause than because they dared to dis- 
 sent from the dogmas of the Romish Church. His 
 parents had been Lutherans, his wife also was a Protes- 
 
308 PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. 
 
 tant, and William of Orange embraced the doctrines of 
 the Reformation. We cannot follow his career. After 
 quelling a mob at Antwerp, which threatened to destroy 
 the city, realizing that he could place no reUance upon 
 Philip, or Margaret his regent, and as they now looked 
 upon him with suspicion, William of Orange determined 
 to retire to his estates in Germany. He there occupied 
 himself with studying the Lutheran doctrine, and making 
 himself acquainted with the principles of the glorious 
 Reformation of which he was one day to become the 
 champion. The regency of Margaret continued in the 
 Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 ; and in the last years she 
 succeeded in putting down the revolt. Philip, through 
 his regent, and the aid of the Pope, had now, by several 
 successful contests in the Netherlands, quelled the re- 
 bellion, and the party of reform had disappeared, and its 
 worship was everywhere proscribed. On its ruins the 
 Catholic party had risen in greater splendor than ever. 
 Margaret now resigned the regency, and the duke of Alva 
 was appointed in her place. He created a new tribunal, 
 wliich is known in history' by the terrible name it received 
 from the people, as the " Council of Blood." 
 
 In order to jnstif}^ his cruel proceedings against the 
 Netherlands, Philip now submitted the case to the Inqui- 
 sition at Madrid, and that ghostly tribunal came to the 
 following decision : " All who had been guilty of heresy, 
 apostasy, or sedition, and all, moreover, who, though pro- 
 fessing themselves good Catholics, had offered no resist- 
 ance to these, were, with the exception of a few specified 
 individuals, thereb}^ convicted of treason in the highest 
 degree." This sweeping judgment was followed by a 
 royal edict, dated on the same day, in which, after re- 
 citing the language of the Inquisition, the whole nation, 
 
FHILIP II., KING OF SPAIN. 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN'. 309 
 
 with the exception above stated, was sentenced, without 
 
 distinction of sex or age, to the penalties of treason, 
 
 death and confiscation of property ; and this, the decree 
 went on to say, " witliout any hope of grace whatever, 
 that it might serve for an example and a warnino- to all 
 future time ! " 
 
 Then followed the awful work of the "Council of 
 Blood." Men, women, and children were dragged to the 
 gallows. Blood ran through the streets of the cities like 
 a red river. The poor martyrs were tortured with horri- 
 ble contrivances even at the scaffold, that their dyin^ 
 cries might cause merriment for their fiendish foes. 
 
 And thus Philip II. vindicates his conduct during this 
 reign of terror: "What I have done has been for the 
 repose of the provinces, and for the defence of the Catho- 
 lic faith. If I had respected justice less, I should have 
 despatched the whole business in a single day. No one 
 acquainted with the state of affairs, will find reason to 
 censure my severity. Nor would I do otherwise than I 
 liave done, though I should risk the sovereignty of the 
 Netherlands, — no, though the world should fall in ruins 
 around me ! " 
 
 The young Queen Isabella having died, Philip II. mar- 
 ried for his fourth wife, Anne of Austria, who had also 
 been affianced to his son Carlos. Then came the re- 
 bellions of the Moriscoes, who were the descendants of 
 the Moors in southern Spain. In 1569, the Moriscoes 
 rose in a general insurrection against the Christians. 
 Many a Moor had perished in the flames of the Inquisi- 
 tion, and they now retaliated with bloodthirsty ferocity. 
 The horrors which ensued cannot be described. Before 
 these Moors had been goaded by the cruel edicts of 
 Philip, they had been kind neighbors. The cruelties com- 
 
310 PHILIP 11. OF SPAIN. 
 
 mitted by the Spanish troops sent against the Moors, 
 were as shocking as the deeds of the barl)arians. The 
 Spanish army, before entering into a battle, knelt in 
 prayer, invoking God's blessing ; and after a victory, reek- 
 ing with the blood of their victims, they marched, under 
 the banner of the cross, to the cathedrals, and chanted the 
 Te Deum. Thus was religion turned into a mockery of 
 a merciful God, and a cloak for the vilest of crimes, 
 
 Philii) brought his fourth bride, Anne of Austria, to the 
 magnificent palace or monastery of the Escurial. She 
 lived ten years. Her children all died in infancy, except 
 one son, who lived to succeed his fatlier on the throne as 
 Philip III. Spain was now rapidh' on the decline. Civil 
 war. persecution, banishment and emigration, were fast 
 depopulating the country. The population diminished 
 from ten to six millions. 
 
 As Queen Elizal)eth of England had warmW espoused 
 the Protestant cause, there was enmity between that na- 
 tion and Spain. In 1558, Philip II., of Spain, who had 
 been for three years preparing the famous Spanish Ar- 
 mada, ordered the fleet to sail against England. This 
 splendid armada set sail from Lisbon with high hopes. 
 But next day they met with a violent storm, which scat- 
 tered some of the ships, and sunk others, and forced the 
 rest to take shelter in the Groine. After the damages 
 had been repaired, the armada again set forth. The fleet 
 consisted of one hundred and thirt}^ vessels, and many of 
 them were of greater size than had ever before been em- 
 ployed in Europe. The plan of the king of Spain was, 
 that the fleet should sail to the coast opposite to Dunkirk 
 and Newport, and having joined the fleet of the duke of 
 Parma, should make sail to the Thames, and having 
 landed the whole Spanish army, complete at one blow the 
 
PHILIP II. OF SPAIN-. 311 
 
 conquest of England. The armada reached Calais. 
 Here the English admiral practised a stratagem upon the 
 Spaniards. He took eight of his smaller vessels and 
 filled them with combustibles, and setting them on fire, 
 sent them amongst the Spanish fleet. In the confusion 
 caused by this incident, the Enghsh fell upon the Spanish, 
 and captured or destro3ed twelve of their ships. The 
 Spanish admiral thereupon started to return home. A 
 violent tempest overtook the armada after it passed the 
 Orkneys. The ships were driven upon the western isles 
 of Scotland, and coast of Ireland, and were miserably 
 wrecked. Thus was the famous Spanish armada destroyed. 
 It was almost a death blow to the Spanish monarchy. 
 At length Philip 11. , with a bankrupt treasury, while his 
 mind was filled with gloom and his body tortured with a 
 loathsome and terrible disease, died on the 13th of Sep- 
 tember, 1598. In view of his great opportunities, vast 
 l)ower, and the hopeful promise of his early career, and 
 the miserable ending of his wrecked life, brought upon 
 himself bv his barbarous cruelties and relio-ious bio;otrv 
 and superstitions, we are reminded of the saying quoted 
 at the commencement of the sketch, and are more fully 
 convinced that no people can be prosperous unless their 
 rulers are humane and virtuous. In the light of such 
 shocking events as we have just been describing, and of 
 such barbarous deeds performed in the name of religion, 
 it seems to be an indisputable fact that the world has 
 surely made vast progress in an enlightened civilization 
 and in true Christianity. 
 
312 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 1594-1632 A.D. 
 
 "Ay, every inch a king ! " — Shakespeare. 
 
 THE oldest account of the nations of Europe in the far 
 north is that given by Pytheas, who lived three hun- 
 dred and fift}' 3^ears before the Christian Era. His voy- 
 ages carried him to the shores of Britain and Scandinavia. 
 The Goths were the most ancient inhabitants of Scandi- 
 navia, occupying the south, and were earlier in Sweden 
 than the Sueones. These two tribes were at war for 
 many years, but finally united and formed the Swedish 
 nation. During twelve centuries after the visit of Pytheas 
 to northern countries, nothing was known of the Scandina- 
 vian people in their own homes, although wild tribes 
 from the north overran soutliei'n Europe, and were known 
 as the Cimbri, Teutons, Germans, and Goths. But in 
 the time of Alfred the Great, two travellers from Scan- 
 dinavia visited the court of the English king. From the 
 account they gave of their travels, King Alfred wrote a 
 brief history and made a chart of modern Europe. In 
 this book Scandinavia was described. 
 
 Of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden did not 
 become known to the nations of southern Europe as soon 
 as Denmark and Norway. Like the Danes, the Swedes 
 traced the descent of their early kings back to Odin. 
 Olaf was the first Christian king of Sweden, and received 
 Christian baptism about the year 1000 a.d. 
 
GUSIAVUS ADOLBirUS. 
 
GUSTAVU8 ADOLPHUS. 313 
 
 The son and successor of Charlemagne, Louis le De- 
 bonnaire, took an ardent interest in sending Christian 
 missionaries to the pagans of the north. The union of 
 the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway was 
 consummated in 1387. In 1523 the union with Denmark 
 was dissolved, and Gustavus Vasa was proclaimed king 
 of Sweden. This king was one of the ablest of the mon- 
 archs of the sixteenth century. He was the grandfather 
 of Gustavus Adolphus. Charles IX., the father of Adol- 
 phus, came to the throne of Sweden in 1604. During the 
 reigns of the elder brothers of Charles, there had been 
 constant conflicts with Denmark. Charles IX. died in 
 1611, leaving an unfinished war with Denmark to be com- 
 pleted by his illustrious son, Gustavus Adolphus, then 
 seventeen years of age. His father, Charles, had entered 
 into friendly alliances with all the principal Protestant 
 powers, and for the first time Sweden had been brought 
 into important political relations with the more influential 
 European nations. Gustavus Adolphus was born at the 
 royal palace in Stockliolm, Dec. 9, 1594. His mother, 
 Christine, was the daughter of Adolphus, duke of Schles- 
 wig-Holstein, and grand-daughter of Frederic I., king of 
 Denmark. 
 
 Tycho Brahe, the famous astronomer, had announced, 
 when a comet appeared in 1572, that there would spring 
 up in Finland a prince destined to accomplish great 
 changes in Germany, and deliver the Protestant people 
 from the oppression of the popes. His countrymen ap- 
 plied to Gustavus this prediction of the Danish astronomer. 
 Gustavus possessed a vigorous constitution, which was 
 rendered robust by his childish experiences and manner of 
 life. His early years were passed in the midst of con- 
 stant wars between Sweden and Denmark. This account 
 
314 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 is given of the education and boyhood of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus : — 
 
 " To be the tutor of the prince was appointed Master 
 John Skytte, and Otto von Morner his chamberlain. 
 The last named was marshall of the court of Charles IX., 
 and born of noble parents in Brandenburg. He had ac- 
 quired extensive learning and distinguished manners in 
 the numerous countries in which he had travelled. John 
 Skytte, after having employed nine years in visiting for- 
 eign lands, had become one of the secretaries of the 
 king's government. Gustavus received all the instruc- 
 tions necessary to a prince destined to reign. Skytte 
 directed him in the study of Latin, of histor^^, and of the 
 laws of his country. 
 
 '' As Charles was a strict ruler and martial prince, and 
 as Christine had, besides her beauty, the soul proud and 
 courageous, the education of the prince was free from 
 softness. He was habituated to labor. At times in his 
 early youth, particularly after he had arrived at his tenth 
 year, he was more and more allowed b}^ his father to at- 
 tend the deliberations of the Council. He was habituated 
 also to be i)resent at the audiences of the foreign embas- 
 sies, and was finally directed by his royal father to answer 
 these foreign dignitaries in order thus to accustom him to 
 weighty affairs and their treatment. 
 
 "As it was a period of warlike turmoils, there was much 
 resort to the king's court, especially by othcers, — not 
 onl}' Swedes, but also Germans, French, English, Scots, 
 Netherlanders, and some Italians and vSpaniards, — who, 
 after the twelve years' truce then just concluded between 
 Spain and Holland, sought their fortune in Sweden. 
 These often waited upon the young prince by the will and 
 order of the king. Their conversation relating to the 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 315 
 
 wars waged by other nations, battles, sieges, and disci- 
 pline, both by sea and land as well as ships and naviga- 
 tion, did so arouse and stimulate the mind of the young 
 prince, by nature already thus inclined, that he spent 
 almost every day in putting questions concerning what 
 had happened at one place and another in the wars. Be- 
 sides, he acquired in his youthful years no little insight 
 into the science of war, especially into the mode and 
 means, — how a regular war, well directed and suited to 
 the circumstances of Sweden, should be carried on, hav- 
 ing the character and rules of Maurice, prince of Orange, 
 as a pattern before his eyes. By the intercourse and 
 converse of these officers, in which each told the most 
 glorious acts of his own nation, the young prince was en- 
 kindled to act like others, and if possible, to excel them. 
 In his early years he gained also a complete and ready 
 knowledge of many foreign languages ; so that he spoke 
 Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Italian as purely as 
 a native, and besides had some knowledge of the Russian 
 and Polish tongues. When he was of the age of sixteen 
 years, his father made him grand duke of Finland, and 
 duke of Esthonia and Westmanland, and presently be- 
 stowed upon him the town of Vesteras, with the principal 
 portion of Westmanland, over which was placed John 
 Skytte to be governor." 
 
 It is also stated that Gustavus knew Greek, and read 
 Xenoplion in that tongue, of whom he said " that he knew 
 of no writer better than he for a true military historian." 
 
 For some years after Gustavus ascended the throne, he 
 is said to have devoted an hour each day to reading, pre- 
 ferring to all others the works of Grotius, especially his 
 treatise on " War and Peace." 
 
 Young Gustavus possessed great courage, to which was 
 
316 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 joined striking benignity of character which he did not 
 inherit from his parents. King Charles was stern and 
 somewhat heartless, and he was persuaded by his wife, 
 the mother of Adolphus, to great acts of cruelty towards 
 the victims of his civil wars, which obscured his nobler 
 qualities. The mother of Gustavus, though possessed of 
 a strong and positive character, was too tyrannical to be 
 attractive, and too unrelenting to exert a loving influence 
 in her household, and the severity of both husband and 
 wife came often in collision. Adolphus was the only 
 member of the ro3'al family who dared attempt to pacify 
 his father when he was angry. Though Gustavus inherited 
 the strong characteristics of his parents, and possessed 
 his father's failing of a quick temper, his nature was so 
 sympathetic and unselfish that his winning manners at- 
 tracted the hearts of all as much as the unrelenting stern- 
 ness of his parents repelled. Their sternness became in 
 the household only exacting selfishness ; whereas all the 
 severity of his character manifested itself only in unflinch- 
 ing allegiance to the right and true, and the steadfast up- 
 holding of high and noble principles of state or religion. 
 Gustavus was scarcely fifteen 3'ears of age when he re- 
 quested to be placed in command of troops in the war 
 against Russia. But his father, deeming him too j^oung, 
 refused. When he was seventeen ^^ears of age, war hav- 
 ing been declared with Denmark, young Gustavus was 
 pronounced in the Diet — as the assembly of the Swedish 
 nobles was called — fit to bear the sword, and he was, 
 according to ancient custom, invested with this dignity 
 with most splendid ceremony. 
 
 In this expedition young Gustavus endured his first 
 trial of warfare, being present at all the remarkable 
 encounters, holding chief command in most of them. 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 317 
 
 For during this war King Charles died, and the command 
 was left to Gustavus, then seventeen years of age. In 
 the first month of his eighteenth year, he received the 
 crown in the presence of all the representatives of the 
 estates of Sweden, at the Diet of Nykoping. He took 
 the title of his father, — king-elect and hereditary prince 
 of Sweden, of the Goths, and of the Wends. Since the 
 death of Gustavus Vasa, his grandfather, a period of 
 more than fifty years, Sweden had not enjoyed a single 
 year of peace. 
 
 When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne, 
 in 1611, being then in his eighteenth year, he found an 
 exhausted treasury, an alienated nobilit}-, and not undis- 
 puted" succession, and, with all this, no less than three 
 wars upon his hands, — one with Denmark then raging, — 
 also the seeds of two other wars, with Russia and with 
 Poland, which soon after burst forth. The first fifteen 
 years of his reign were occupied in bringing these wars to 
 a conclusion ; and in these struggles he won an experience 
 which afterwards proved of great service in making him 
 illustrious upon a more conspicuous battle-field. We 
 have not space to describe at length the wars between 
 Sweden and Denmark, nor her conflicts with Russia and 
 Poland, but must pass on to the more important period of 
 the history of Gustavus Adolphus, which gives him a 
 place in the foremost ranks of leadership, and places his 
 name with Napoleon I., Alexander the Great, Julius 
 Caesar, and Charlemagne. It was not so much what he 
 himself personally accomplished, — though that was much, 
 for death met him long before the glorious end was 
 reached, — but it was on account of the vast and momen- 
 tous train of circumstances he set in motion, because he 
 stood forth, the only man capable of taking the helm of 
 
318 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUS. 
 
 the great ship of the Reformation, which, but for liim, 
 aided by the almighty ruling of an Omniscient Providence, 
 seemed to the finite vision of mankind doomed to de- 
 struction. It was not as a conqueror of vast empires, 
 like Alexander, Julius Caesar, and Napoleon, that Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus is iUustrious ; but it is because, tlu'ough the 
 providence of God, he was made the instrument in help- 
 ing to achieve the more important conquest of gaining 
 spiritual liberty of soul from the bondage of bigotry and 
 superstition. As the champion of the Reformation, the 
 name of Gustavus Adolphus must be placed amongst the 
 foremost of the famous rulers of the world. 
 
 Gustavus was now thirty-four years of age. He had 
 prosecuted wars with Denmark, Russia, and Poland, and 
 secured advantageous terms of peace with these nations. 
 Before he had reached his twentieth year, he had driven 
 back the invaders of his countr}^, and gained indepen- 
 dence for Sweden. In four years more, liis victories over 
 his eastern enemies enabled him to declare, " Russia can- 
 not now, without our consent, launch a single boat on the 
 Baltic." 
 
 For twelve years Gustavus had watclied the bloody 
 strife between the defenders of the Reformed Faith in 
 German}' and the powers of the Catholic league of the 
 Em[)ire and of Spain. What Philip II. of Spain was to 
 the Catholics as a leader and upholder of the infamous In- 
 quisition, such a power did Gustavus Adolphus become, 
 in behalf of the Protestants, as a leader and defender of 
 the Reformation. Holland, England, and France had 
 earnestly pressed him to conclude the Polish wars ; for 
 the eyes of the suffering adherents of the Reformed Faith 
 in Germany were turned in hope toward the 3^outhful king 
 of Sweden as their deliverer. In setting out upon this 
 
g!i>'* 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHLIS, FROM A PICTURE BY VAN DYCK. 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUH. 319 
 
 distant enterprise, Gustavus Adolphus encountered the 
 gravest obstacles, which he himself did not fail to realize ; 
 for when his resolution was fully formed, and the consent 
 of his Estates obtained, he exclaimed, " For me there re- 
 mains henceforth no more rest but the eternal." 
 
 Though he left Sweden full of hope and courage, it was 
 with the sure presentiment that he would never return. 
 Gustavus had married Marie Eleonore, daughter of the 
 elector of Brandenburg ; and at the time of his German 
 expedition left a little daughter behind him, only four 
 years of age, who was sole heir to the Swedish throne. 
 Gustavus Adolphus was one of the most skilful com- 
 manders of his age. Napoleon I. was wont to set him 
 among the eight greatest generals whom the world has ever 
 seen, placing him in the same rank with Alexander the 
 Great, Hannibal, Julius Ciiesar, in the ancient world, 
 with Turenne, Prince Eugene, Frederic the Great, and 
 himself, in the modern. 
 
 Before his time, the only artillery brought into the open 
 field consisted of huge, heavy guns, slowly dragged along 
 by twelve, sixteen, or twenty horses or oxen, which, once 
 placed, could only remain in one position, even though 
 the entire battle had shifted elsewhere. Gustavus was 
 the first who introduced flying artiller}-, capable of being 
 rapidly transferred from one i^art of the field to another. 
 At a siege, this valiant Swedish king would in the same 
 day " be at once generalissimo, chief engineer to lay out 
 the lines, pioneer, spade in hand and in his shirt digging 
 in the trenches, and leader of a storming party to dislodge 
 the foe from some annoying outwork. If a party of the 
 enemy's cavalry were to be surprised in a night attack, 
 he would himself undertake the surprise. He, indeed, 
 carried this quite too far, obeying overmuch the instinct 
 
320 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HITS. 
 
 mid impulses of his own courageous heart. And yet there 
 was also a true humility in it all, — a feeling that no man 
 ought to look at himself as indispensable. ' God is 
 immortal,' he was wont to reply, when remonstrated with 
 on this matter, and reminded of the fearful chasm, not to 
 be filled by any other, which his death would assuredly 
 leave." Richelieu said of him, ''The king of Sweden 
 is a new sun which has just risen, young, but of vast 
 renown. The ill-treated or banished princes of Germany 
 in their misfortunes have turned their eyes towards him as 
 the mariner does to the polar star." 
 
 Gustavus was admitted b}' the a])lest statesmen of 
 Europe to be the ablest general of his time. He was 
 familiar with the military tactics of ancient and modern 
 times, and he devised a more effective system of warfare 
 than his predecessors had known. In answer to the ques- 
 tion. Why did Gustavus Adolphus enter into the religious 
 contests of Gei-many, and assume the commanding place 
 he filled in that terril)lc struggle known as the "Thirty 
 Years' War " ? an able writer gives thus briefly tiie 
 reason : — 
 
 ''First, a deep and genuine sympatliy with his co-reli- 
 gionists in Germany, and with their sufferings, joined to 
 a conviction that he was called of God to assist them in 
 this hour of their utmost need. 
 
 " Secondly, a sense of the most real danger which 
 threatened his own kingdom, if the entire liberties, politi- 
 cal and religious, of northern Germany were trodden out, 
 and the free cities of the German Ocean, Stralsund and 
 the rest, falling into the hands of the emperor, became 
 hostile outposts from which to assail him. He felt that 
 he was only going to meet a war which, if he tarried at 
 home, would sooner or later inevitably come to seek him 
 there. * 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 321 
 
 " And, lastly, there was working in his mind, no doubt, 
 a desire to give to Sweden a more forward place in the 
 world, with a consciousness of mighty powers in himself, 
 which craved a wider sphere for their exercise." 
 
 In answer to John Skytte, who remarked that war put 
 his monarchy at stake, he responded: "All monarchies 
 have passed from one famiW to another. That which 
 constitutes a monarchy is not men, it is the law." 
 
 At length, in 1630, Gustavus landed on the island of 
 Usedom, at the mouth of the Oder. 
 
 " So we have got another kingling on our hands," the 
 emperor exclaimed in scorn, when the news reached 
 Vienna. Little did the enemies of the Reformation then 
 imagine what a terrible and irresistible foe this despised 
 " kingling " would prove to be. The army of Gustavus 
 consisted of only fifteen thousand men ; but, if his army 
 was small, the material was indeed valuable. Gustavus 
 said of his staff of officers, " All these are captains, and 
 fit to command armies." And when his early death left 
 them without a leader, these same officers led the Swedish 
 armies so successful^ that, even after France had become 
 her ally, Sweden was not obscured, but still held a promi- 
 nent place in the mighty contest. Gustavus had deter- 
 mined not to hazard a battle until he was joined by German 
 allies. As soon as they landed on the island of Usedom, 
 Gustavus, having leaped first upon the shore, at once fell 
 upon his knees, and sought the aid and blessing of God ; 
 and then the working and the praying went hand in hand. 
 He was the first to seize a spade ; and, as tlie troops 
 landed, one half were employed in raising intrenchments, 
 while the other half stood in battle array, to repel any 
 attacks of the enemy. It was a long time before any 
 German ally appeared ; for, though gallant little Hesse 
 
322 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 Cassel boldW announced its allegiance, it was a power too 
 small and too distant to count for much. The two most 
 powerful of the German Protestant princes were his 
 brother-in-law, the elector of Brandenburg, and the elector 
 of Saxony. John George of Saxony was a great hunter, 
 having killed with his own hand or seen killed 113,629 
 wild animals. He was, however, such a great drunkard 
 that he was called the Beer King. But this bold Nimrod, 
 who could fight wild animals so courageously, was too 
 cowardly to come forward against the enemies of his 
 country, and only joined Gustavus when the terrors of 
 the Catholic lea2;ue forced him to seek safetv in such an 
 alliance. 
 
 As to the brother-in-law of Gustavus, little was to be 
 obtained from him. He was so vacillating in character 
 and in politics that Carlyle says of him, " Poor man, it 
 was his fate to stand in the range of these huge collisions, 
 when the Titans were hurling rocks at one another, and 
 he hoped b}- dexterous skipping to escape share of the 
 game." 
 
 The arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was at 
 first looked upon with indifference b}' the imperial court. 
 The emperor Ferdinand said carelessl}', "We have another 
 little enemy before us." At Vienna they made sport of 
 Gustavus and of his pretensions to require himself to be 
 called "Your majesty," like the other kings of Europe. 
 " The snow-king will melt as he approaches the southern 
 sun," they exclaimed derisively. But the valiant Swedes 
 worked on at their fortifications at Pomerania, indifferent 
 to the sneers of their foes, inspired l)y the example of 
 their loved leader, whose watchword was, " to prav often 
 to God with all your heart is almost to conquer." In a 
 short time, the army was enclosed in an intrenched camp. 
 
GU8TAVUS ADOLPHUS. 323 
 
 defended b}^ cannon. The king of Sweden then addressed 
 these stirring words to his soldiers : — 
 
 '^ It is as much on your account as for your religious 
 brethren in Germany that I have undertaken this war. 
 You will there gather imperishable glory. You have 
 nothing to fear from the enemy ; they are the same whom 
 you have already conquered in Prussia. Your bravery 
 has imposed on Poland an armistice of six years ; if 3^ou 
 continue to fight as valiantl}^, I hope to obtain an honora- 
 ble peace for your country and guaranties of security for 
 the German Protestants. Old soldiers, it is not of yes- 
 terday you have known war ; for you have shared with 
 me all the chances of fortuiie. You must not lose cour- 
 age if you. experience some wants. I will conduct you to 
 an enemy who has enriched himself at the expense of that 
 unhappy country. It is only with the enemy you can find 
 money, abundance, and all which you desire." 
 
 Thus did Gustavus appeal to their courage, their patri- 
 otism, their religious enthusiasm, and their personal neces- 
 sities, and inspire his soldiers with irresistible valor. 
 
 The severe discipline of the Swedish troops excited not 
 less admiration than the personal virtue of their king. 
 Richelieu, in his memoirs, says, " As to the king of Swe- 
 den personall}', there was seen in his actions but an inex- 
 orable severit}^ towards the least excess of his soldiers, an 
 extraordinary mildness towards the people, and an exact 
 justice on all occasions." 
 
 It was at the time of the landing of the Swedes that the 
 noted general Wallenstein had fallen into disgrace with 
 the German emperor, and had been discharged from the 
 imperial service. His place was filled by Tilly, a military 
 chieftain of high renown. Tilly had made himself the 
 terror of the Protestants by his bigoted zeal for the Cath- 
 
324 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 olic religion and his fierce spirit of persecution towards 
 the Reformed Faith ; but his military insight made him 
 just enough to thus generously describe his famous antag- 
 onist : — 
 
 ' ' The king of Sweden is an enemy both prudent and 
 brave, inured to war, and in the flower of his age. His 
 plans are excellent, his resources considerable, his sub- 
 jects enthusiastically attached to him. His army, — com- 
 posed of Swedes, Germans, Livonians, Finlanders, Scots, 
 and English, — by its devoted obedience to their leader, is 
 blended into one nation. He is a gamester, in playing 
 with whom not to have lost is to have won a great deal." 
 
 Gustavus was beginning to make a strong position in 
 northern Germany, when he received an envoy from the 
 elector of Brandenburg, urging him to consent to an ar- 
 mistice, the elector offering himself as a mediator between 
 the Swedish king and the Catholic league. Gustavus 
 thus answered this weak and cowardly advice of the 
 elector : — 
 
 "I have listened to the arguments by which my lord 
 and brother-in-law would seek to dissuade me from the 
 war, but could well have expected another communication 
 from him ; namely, that God having helped me thus far, 
 and come, as I am, into this land for no other end than 
 to deliver its poor and oppressed estates and people from 
 the horrible tyranny of the thieves and robbers who have 
 plagued it so long, above all, to free his highness from 
 like tribulation, he would rather have joined himself with 
 me, and thus not failed to seize the opportunity which 
 God has wonderfully vouchsafed him. Or does not his 
 highness yet know that the intention of the emperor and 
 of the league is this, — not to cease till the evangelical 
 religion is quite rooted out of the empire, and that he 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 325 
 
 himself has nothing else to look forward to than to be 
 compelled either to deny his faith or to forsake his land ? 
 For God's sake, let him bethink himself a little, and for 
 once grasp manly connsels. For myself, I cannot go back. 
 ... I seek in this work not mine own things, no profit at 
 all except the safety of my kingdom ; else have I nothing 
 from it bnt expense, weariness, toil, and danger of life 
 and limb. . . . For this, 1 say plainly beforehand, I will 
 hear and know nothing of nentrality ; his highness must 
 be friend or foe. When I come to his borders, he must 
 declare himself hot or cold. The battle is one between 
 God and the devil. Will his highness hold with God, let 
 him stand on my side ; if he prefer to hold with the devil, 
 then he must fight with me." 
 
 The elector of Brandenburg still vacillating, the king of 
 Sweden was as good as his word, and advanced with his 
 arm}^ with loaded cannon and matches burning, to the 
 gates of Berlin. Whereupon, the treaty of alliance was 
 quickly signed by the elector of Brandenburg ; and not 
 long after, the outrages of the imperial commander obliged 
 the elector of Saxony also to join the Swedish king. 
 During the first 3'ear in Germany, the Swedes had cap- 
 tured Greiffenhagen and Gartz ; and soon after New 
 Brandenburg, Loitz, Malchin, and Demmin were in 
 their power. We have no space to note the particulars 
 regarding these important conquests, and can only men- 
 tion the taking of Demmin. The Imperialists had placed 
 the garrison here under the command of Duke Savelli, 
 who had been ordered to defend the place three weeks, 
 when Tilly had promised to come to his aid. Among the 
 Imperialists was Del Ponte, a man who had been deep in 
 a conspiracy to assassinate the king of Sweden, which 
 had come near being successful. As Del Ponte feared 
 
326 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 the vengeance of the king whose life he had thus sought, 
 he left the fortress secretl}', leaving his baggage and 
 wealth behind him. Savelli offered to capitulate, on con- 
 dition that he might pass out with arms and baggage. As 
 Gustavus was now on the eve of meeting Tilly, he did 
 not think best to prolong the siege, and so agreed to 
 the proposal of Savelli. The entire garrison passed out 
 with ensigns flying, followed by the baggage train. As 
 Savelli, brilliantly and carefully dressed, passed the Swed- 
 ish king, Gustavus addressed him: "Tell the emperor 
 I make war for civil and religious liberty. As to you, 
 duke, I thank you for having taken the trouble to quit the 
 splendid feasts of Rome to combat against me, for your 
 person seems to me more in its place at courts than in 
 the camps." After the Italian general passed, Gustavus 
 remarked to his officers, "That man reckons much on the 
 good nature of the emperor ; if he was in my service, he 
 would lose his head for his cowardice." 
 
 As the baggage of the treacherous Del Ponte was 
 noticed in the train, some of the Swedish officers sug- 
 gested that it would be well to retain what belonged to 
 that traitor, to which Gustavus responded, " I have given 
 my word, and no one shall have the right to reproach me 
 for having broken it." As to the energy and bravery of 
 Gustavus, one of his Scotch officers thus testifies: "I 
 serve with great pleasure such a general, and I could find 
 with difficulty a similar man who was accustomed to be 
 the first and the last where there is danger ; who gained 
 the love of his officers b}^ the part he took in their troubles 
 and fatigues ; who knew so well how to trace the rules of 
 conduct for his warriors according to times and circum- 
 stances ; who cared for their health, their honor ; who 
 was always ready to aid them ; who divined the projects 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 327 
 
 and knew the resources of his enemies, their plans, their 
 forces, their discipline, likewise the nature and position of 
 the places they occupied. He never hesitated to execute 
 what he had ordered. He arrested an officer who, while 
 the fortifications of Settin were being repaired, stated 
 that the earth was frozen. In affairs which had relation 
 to the needs of the war, he did not admit of excuses. 
 The lack of good charts and the great importance he at- 
 tached to knowledge of the ground, caused him to go en 
 reconnaismnce in person, and expose himself very near to 
 danger, for he was short-sighted." 
 
 At the siege of Demmin he had gone to reconnoitre, 
 and held a spy-glass in hand, when he plunged half- 
 leg deep in the marsh, in consequence of the breaking of 
 the ice. The officer nearest to him prepared to come to 
 his aid. Gustavus made a sign to him to remain tranquil, 
 so as not to draw the attention of the enemy who, not 
 less, directed his fire upon him. The king raised himself 
 up in the midst of a shower of projectiles, and went to 
 dry himself at the bivouac fire of the officer, who reproached 
 him for having thus exposed his precious hfe. The king 
 listened to the officer with kindness and acknowledged his 
 imprudence, but added, "It is my nature not to believe 
 well done except what I do myself ; it is also necessary 
 that I see everything by my own eyes." Gustavus now 
 advanced boldly into the heart of Germany, and met the 
 forces of the Catholic League on the plains of Leipsic. 
 As the Swedes drew up in line of battle, Gustavus rode 
 from point to point, encouraging his soldiers, tilling them 
 " not to fire until they saw the white of the enemies' 
 eyes." 
 
 Then the Swedish king rode to the centre of his line, 
 halted, removed his cap with one hand and lowered his 
 
328 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUB. 
 
 sword with the other. His example was follcwed by all 
 near him. Oustavus then offered this brief prayer in a 
 powerful voice, which enabled him to be heard by a large 
 number of his army : — 
 
 "Good God, thou who boldest in thy hand victory 
 and defeat, turn thy merciful face to us thy servants. 
 We have come far, we have left our peaceful homes to 
 combat in this country for liberty, for the truth, and for 
 thy gospel. Glorify thy holy name in granting us vic- 
 tory." 
 
 Then the Swedish king sent a trumpeter to challenge 
 Till}' and his army. The battle ensued, in which Gusta- 
 vus defeated Tilly, the victor on more than twenty battle- 
 fields. The king of Sweden so shattered and scattered 
 the Catholic army in this conflict, that for a while all 
 Germany was open to him. Gustavus was now ever}^- 
 where hailed by the down-trodden Protestants of Germany, 
 whose worship he re-established, and whose churches he 
 restored to them, as their saviour and deliverer. The 
 very excess of their gratitude would sometimes make him 
 afraid. Only three days before his death he said to his 
 chaplain, "They make a god of me ; God will punish me 
 for this." 
 
 The appearance of Gustavus at this time is thus de- 
 scribed : "He was one 'framed in the prodigality of 
 nature.' His look proclaimed the hero, and at the same 
 time, the genuine child of the North. A head taller than 
 men of the ordinary stature, yet all his limbs were per- 
 fectly proportioned. Majesty and courage shone out 
 from his clear gray ej-es ; while, at the same time, an air 
 of mildness and honliommie tempered the earnestness of 
 his glance. He had the curved eagle nose of Cfesar, of 
 Napoleon, of Wellington, of Napier, — the conqueror's 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 329 
 
 nose as we may call it. His skin was fair, his hair blonde, 
 almost gold- colored, so that the Italians were wont to call 
 him. Re d 'oro or the Gold-lving. In latter years he was 
 somewhat inclined to corpulence, though not so much as 
 to detract from the majesty of his appearance. This made 
 it, however, not easy to find a horse which was equal to 
 liis weight. 
 
 Gustavus now carried his victorious arms to the banks 
 of the Rhine, where there still stands, not far from Ma^^- 
 ence, what is known as the Swedish column. On the 
 banks of the Lech he again met Tilly, who would have 
 barred the way. Some of the officers in the Swedish 
 arm}' counselled that the king should not meet Tilly, but 
 should march to Bohemia. 
 
 The Lech was deep and rapid, and to cross it in the 
 face of an enemy was ver}' hazardous. In case of failure 
 the entire Swedish army would be lost. But Gustavus ex- 
 claimed, "What! have we crossed the Baltic, the Oder, 
 the Elbe, and the Rhine, to stop stupefied before this mere 
 stream, the Lech? Remember that the undertakings the 
 most difficult are often those which succeed best, because 
 the adverse party regard them as impossible." 
 
 Gustavus threw over the Lech a bridge under the cross- 
 fire of seventy-two pieces of cannon. The king stimu- 
 lated his troops by his own example, making with his own 
 hand more than sixt}' cannon discharges. The enemy 
 did their utmost to destroy the works, and Tilly was un- 
 daunted in his exertions to encourage his men, until he 
 was mortally wounded by a cannon-ball, and victory soon 
 was on the side of the lieroic Swedes. 
 
 This crossing of the Lech in the face of an enemy is es- 
 teemed the most signal military exploit of Gustavus. 
 The emperor was now forced to recall Wallenstein to lead 
 
330 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 the hard-pressed Imperialists against this invincible Swed- 
 ish king. 
 
 But with the battle of Liitzen, where the Swedes en- 
 countered the Imperialists under Wallenstein, we come 
 also to the lamentable but heroic death of Gustavus 
 Adolphus. We cannot recount the further conflicts of 
 the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 The work of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was con- 
 tinued by his able generals and allies, until at length the 
 treaty, concluded at Westphalia in 1G48, gave security 
 and permanence to the work which the king of Sweden 
 and his brave soldiers had in a large degree achieved 
 before his death. A wound which Gustavus had received 
 in his Polish wars, made the wearing of armor very pain- 
 ful to him, and upon the morning of the day upon which 
 the battle of Liitzen was fought, when his armor was 
 brought to him, he declined to put it on, saying, " God is 
 my armor." 
 
 His death is thus described. Learning that the centre 
 of the Swedish lines were wavering, Gustavus hastened 
 thither. "Arriving at the wavering centre, he cried to 
 his troops, ' Follow me, my brave boys ! ' and his horse 
 at a bound bore him across the ditch. Only a few of his 
 cavaliers followed him, their steeds not being equal to 
 his. Owing to his impetuosity, perhaps also to his near- 
 sightedness and the increasing fog, he did not perceive 
 to what extent he was in advance, and became separated 
 from the troops he was so bravely leading. An imperial 
 corporal, noticing that the Swedes made way for an ad- 
 vancing cavalier, pointed him out to a musketeer, saying, 
 he must be a personage of high rank, and urged him to 
 fire on him. The musketeer took aim, his ball broke the 
 left arm of the king, causing the bone to protrude, and 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 331 
 
 the blood to rim freely. ' The king bleeds ! ' cried the 
 Swedes near him. ' It is nothing ; march forward my 
 boys ! ' responded the wounded hero, seeking to calm 
 their disquietude by assuming a smiling countenance. 
 But soon overcome by pain and loss of blood, he re- 
 quested Duke Lauenburg, in French, to lead him out of 
 the tumult without being observed, which was sought to 
 be done by making a detour^ so as to conceal the king's 
 withdrawal from his brave Smolanders he was leading to 
 the charge. Scarcely had they made a few steps, when 
 one of the imperial regiment of cuirassiers encountered 
 them, preceded by Lieut.-Col. Falkenberg, who, recog- 
 nizing the king, fired a pistol shot, hitting him in the 
 back. ' Brother,' said he to Lauenburg, with a dying 
 voice ; ' I have enough. Look to 3^00 r own life.' Falken- 
 berg was immediately slain by the equerry of the duke of 
 Lauenburg. At the same moment the king fell from his 
 horse, struck by several more balls, and was dragged 
 some distance by the stirrups. The duke of Lauenburg 
 fled. Of the king's two orderlies, one lay dead and the 
 other wounded. Of his attendants, only a German 
 page, named Leubelfing, remained by him. The king 
 having fallen from his horse, the page jumped from his 
 own, and offered it to the dying hero. The king stretched 
 out his hands, but the young man had not strength suffi- 
 cient to lift him from the ground. Meanwhile the im- 
 perial cuirassiers hastened forward, and demanded the 
 name of the wounded officer. The loyal page would not 
 reveal it, and received wounds from which he died soon 
 after. But the dying Gustavus bravely answered, ' I am 
 the king of Sweden.' Whereupou his cruel enemies shot 
 a ball through his head, and thrust their swords through 
 his bleeding body. His hat, blackened with the powder 
 
332 GUSTAVUS ADOLF HUS. 
 
 and pierced with the ball, is still to be seen in the arsenal 
 at Vienna ; his bloody bnff coat as well. More is not 
 known of the final agony, except that, when tlie tide 
 of battle had a little ebbed, the body of the hero-king 
 was found with the face to the ground, despoiled and 
 stripped to the shirt, trodden under the hoofs of horses, 
 trampled in the mire, and disfigured with all these 
 wounds." 
 
 Such was the end of the imposing and kingly bodily 
 presence ; but this was not the end of the accomplish- 
 ment of that heroic soul. When the horse of the fallen 
 Gustavus, with its empty saddle covered with ])lood, 
 came running amongst the Swedish troops, they knew 
 what had happened to their king. Duke Bernhard, riding 
 through the ranks, exclaimed, " Swedes, Finlanders, and 
 Germans ! your defender, the defender of our liberty, is 
 dead. Life is nothing to me if I do not draw bloody 
 veno;eance from this misfortune. Whoever wishes to 
 prove he loved the king, has only to follow me to avenge 
 his death." The whole Swedish army, fired by a common 
 enthusiasm nerved by desperation, advanced to the attack, 
 and so valiantly did they fight, that their gallant charge 
 completed the victory of Liitzen. Thus died the " Gold- 
 king of the North " ; but his d3'ing hours were gilded by 
 the sunset glories of immortal fame, and the "Snow- 
 king," of Sweden, leaves a name as pure and glistening 
 as the Starr}' snow-flakes. 
 
 " Great men, far more than any Alps or coliseums, are 
 the true world-wonders, which it concerns us to behold 
 clearl}^ and imprint forever on our remembrance. Great 
 men are the fire-pillars in this dark pilgrimage of man- 
 kind ; they stand as heavenly signs, ever-living witnesses 
 of what has been, — prophetic witnesses of what may 
 
DEATH OF GUSTAVUS-AND HIS PAGE. 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 333 
 
 Still be; the revealed embodied possibilities of human 
 nature, which greatness he who has never with his whole 
 heart passionately loved and reverenced, is himself forever 
 doomed to be little." 
 
334 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 1638-1715 A.D. 
 
 "To do what one pleases with impunity, 
 That is to be King." — Sallust. 
 
 THE reign of Louis XIV., whether regarded politically, 
 socially, or morally, was undoubtedly the most strik- 
 ing which France has ever known. The splendor of his 
 court, the successes of his armies, and the illustrious 
 names that embellished the century over which he ruled, 
 drew the attention of all Europe to the person of the 
 monarch who, every inch a king, assumed the authority 
 and power of regality as well as its mere visible attributes. 
 All Europe looked to France, all France to Paris, all 
 Paris to Versailles, all Versailles to Louis XIV. 
 
 The centre of all attraction, he, like the eagle, embraced 
 the whole glory of the orb upon which he gazed ; and 
 seated firmly upon the throne of France, ruling by the 
 " right divine," he ushered in the golden age of literature, 
 himself the theme and gaze and wonder of a dazzled 
 world. 
 
 The morning of the 5th of September, 1638, dawned 
 bright and clear. In the forest of St. Germain, the birds 
 sang merrily in the trees, and the timid deer sought shel- 
 ter in the deepest shade, all unconscious that ere the set- 
 ting of the sun a royal prince would look upon it for the 
 first time. 
 
■"*<' 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 335 
 
 The park and palace were filled with an eager and ex- 
 cited throng ; earls, princes, dukes, and bishops anxiously 
 awaited the announcement that an heir was born to the 
 crown of France. In the grand salon of Henry IV., 
 King Louis XIII., the Duke d'Orleans, the bishops of 
 Lisieux, Meaux, and Beauvais, impatiently awaited the 
 long-expected tidings. And now the folding-doors are 
 thrown back, and the king is greeted with the welcome 
 intelligence that he is the father of a dauphin. Tenderly 
 he takes the child, and stepping upon the balcony, exhib- 
 its him to the crowd, exclaiming joyfully, "A son, gen- 
 tlemen! a son!" and park and palace re-echo with the 
 shouts of '' Vive le Hoi T' '^ Vive le Dauphin!'' 
 
 Thus this baby prince, when first he saw the lidit, was 
 greeted by the homage of a court — an homage which, 
 during a life of seventy-seven years, he ever exacted 
 and received, until as Louis XIV., the Gimid Monarque, 
 in obedience to Him who is King of kings and Lord of 
 lords, he laid aside his sceptre and his crown, and slept 
 with his fathers in the royal vaults of St. Denis. The 
 birth of the dauphin afforded Louis XIII. such delight 
 that for a time he threw aside his melancholy manner ; 
 but his health, never robust, failed rapidly, and on the 
 20tli of April, 1643, feeling that his end could not be far 
 distant, he declared the regency of the queen, and desired 
 the christening of the dauphin. It accordingly took place 
 on the following day with much pomp in the chapel at St. 
 Germain. The king desired he should be called Louis, 
 and after the ceremony, when the little prince was carried 
 to his bedside in order to ascertain if his wiehes had been 
 fulfilled, he demanded, "What is your name, my child?" 
 And the little dauphin replied promptly, " I am Louis 
 XIV." 
 
336 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 "Not yet, my son, not yet!" said the dying- king ; 
 " but I pray to God that it may soon be so." 
 
 From this time his health failed rapidly, and on the 14th 
 of May, lG4o, he expired, having reigned thirty-three 
 3' ears. 
 
 The little dauphin early displayed that haughtiness and 
 self-will which were to be the ruling principles of his life. 
 His education had been grossly neglected, and through 
 this came many of his after faults ; and though he ex- 
 celled in every punctilio of court etiquette, and was the 
 very essence of politeness, yet in other things he was far 
 behind the other youths of his age. This was exactly as 
 Cardinal Mazarin intended that it should be, that by thus 
 dwarfing the intellect of the king, he might the longer 
 grasp the reins of government. The wily cardinal fully 
 understood the character of the young prince with whoni 
 he had to deal, and upon one occasion, when some one 
 remonstrated with him concerning the course he had 
 adopted toward the king, he replied, "Ah, you do not 
 know His Majesty ! he has the stuff in him to make four 
 kino;s and an honest man." 
 
 The hatred and dislike of Louis for the cardinal in- 
 creased day by da}^ The state affected by him jarred 
 upon his natural haughtiness, and, boy as he was, it was 
 impossible that he could contrast the extreme magnifi- 
 cence of his mother's minister with his own neglected con- 
 dition without feeling how insultingly the cardinal had 
 profited by his weakness and want of power. On one 
 occasion at Compifegne, as the cardinal was passing with 
 a numerous suite along the terrace, the king turned away, 
 saying contemptuously, without any attempt to lower his 
 voice, " There is the Grand Turk going by." 
 
 A few days afterwards, as he was traversing a passage 
 
LOnS XIV. OF FRANCE. 337 
 
 in which he perceived one of the cardinal's household 
 named Bois Ferme, he turned to M. de Nyert, who was 
 following him, and observed, " So the cardinal is with 
 mamma again, for I see Bois Ferm^ in the passage. Does 
 he always wait there?" 
 
 •'Yes, sire," replied Nyert; "but in addition to Bois 
 Ferme there is another gentleman upon the stairs and two 
 in the corridor." 
 
 "There is one at every stride, then," said the young 
 kinjj dryly. 
 
 But the boy-king was not the only one who found the 
 arrogance of the haughty cardinal unbearable. There 
 had gradually sprung up a deadly feud between the court 
 and Mazarin on one side, and the Parliament on the 
 other. 
 
 The people of Paris were in sympathy with the Parlia- 
 ment ; and nobles, even of royal blood, oat of enmity to 
 Mazarin, joined the popular cause. 
 
 Thus commenced the famous civil war of the Fronde ; 
 for as the cardinal contemptuously remarked, "The 
 Parliament are like school-boys fronding in the Paris 
 ditches,'' and the Parliament of Paris accepted the title, 
 and adopted the Fronde, or sling, as the emblem of theh' 
 party. There were riots in Paris, and affairs grew 
 threatening. Mazarin and the court part}' were alarmed 
 and fled to St. Germain. 
 
 Thus there were two rival courts in France, — the one at 
 St. Germain, where all was want and destitution ; the 
 other at the Hotel de Ville in Paris, wdiere all was splen- 
 dor, abundance, and festive enjoyment. The court and 
 Mazarin soon tired of the life at St. Germain, and the 
 king sent a herald to the Parliament. The Parliament 
 refused to receive the herald, but sent a deputation to the 
 
338 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 kino-, and at last, after a lengthy conference, a not very 
 satisfactory compromise was agreed upon, and on the 5th 
 of April, 1650, the royal fugitives returned to Paris. 
 
 "Thus ended the first act of the most singular, bootless, 
 and we are almost tempted to add, burlesque war, which 
 in all probability, Europe ever witnessed. Through its 
 whole duration society appeared to have been smitten with 
 some moral hallucination. Kings and cardinals slept on 
 mattresses ; princesses and duchesses on straw ; market- 
 women embraced princes ; prelates governed armies ; 
 court-ladies led the mob, and the mob in its turn ruled 
 the city." 
 
 On the 5th of September, 1G51, the minority of the 
 dauphin ceased. He had now entered upon his fourteenth 
 3^ear, and, immature l)oy as he was, he was declared to be 
 the absolute monarch of France. On the seventli of the 
 month, the king held his ])ed of justice. The ceremony 
 was attended with all the pomp the wealth of the empire 
 could furnish. The young king left the Palais Royal 
 attended by a numerous and splendid retinue. Observed 
 of all observers, " handsome as Adonis, august in majesty, 
 the pride and joy of humanity," he sat his splendid steed ; 
 and when the horse, frightened by the long and enthusi- 
 astically prolonged cries of, '' Vive le Roi!^' reared and 
 plunged with terror, Louis managed hira with a skill and 
 address which called forth the admiration of all beholders. 
 After attending mass, the young king took his seat in the 
 Parliament. Here the boy of thirteen, covering his head 
 while all the notabilities of France stood before him with 
 heads uncovered, repeated the following words : — 
 
 "Gentlemen, I have attended my Parliament in order 
 to inform you that, according to the law of my king- 
 dom, I shall myself assume its government. I trust 
 
LOUIH XIV. OF FRANCE. 3^9 
 
 that by the goodness of God it will be with piety and 
 justice." 
 
 The chancellor then made a long address, after which 
 the oath of allegiance was taken by all the civil and eccle- 
 siastical notabilities. The royal procession then returned 
 to the gates of the Palais Royal. Thus, a stripling, wiio 
 had just completed his thirteenth year, was accepted by 
 tlie nobles and by the populace as the absolute and un- 
 trammelled sovereign of France. •' He held in his hands, 
 virtually, unrestrained by constitution or court, their liber- 
 ties, their fortunes, and their live«." Two years later, in 
 1G53, the coronation of the king took place at Rheims. 
 France at this time was at war with Spain, and, immedi- 
 ately after the coronation, the king, then sixteen years of 
 age, set out from Rheims to place himself at the head of 
 the army. He went to Steuay, on the northeastern fron- 
 tier of France. This ancient cit^^ protected by strong 
 fortifications, was held by the Prince de Coiide. The 
 royal troops were besieging it. There were marches and 
 counter-marches, battles and skirmishes. The young king 
 displayed intrepidity which secured for him the admira- 
 tion of the soldiers. Turenne and Fabert fought the 
 battles and gained the victories. Stenay was soon taken, 
 and the army of the Prince de Conde driven from all its 
 positions. '' There is nothing so successful as success ;" 
 and the young king, a hero and a conqueror, returned to 
 Paris to enjoy the congratulation of the populace, and to 
 offer public thanksgiving in the cathedral of Ndtre Dame. 
 Though the king was nominally the absolute ruler of 
 France, still there was the influence of his mother, Anne 
 of Austria, which up to this time had exerted over him a 
 great control ; but this was soon to end. 
 
 Henrietta Maria, the widowed queen of the unfortunate 
 
340 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 Charles I., was theu residing at the French court. Her 
 claugliter Henrietta, as grand-daughter of Henry IV. and 
 daughter of Charles I., was entitled, through the purity 
 of her royal blood, to the highest consideration at the 
 court. When, then, at a ball given for these unfortunate 
 guests, the music summoned tlie dancers upon the floor, 
 and the king, in total disregard of his young and royal 
 cousin, advanced, according to his custom, to lead out the 
 Duchesse de Mercann*, the queen was shocked at so gross 
 a breach of etiquette, and, rising hastily, she withdrew his 
 hand from that of the duchess, and said in a low voice, 
 '' You should dauce first, my son, with the princess of 
 England." 
 
 Louis replied sullenly, *■' I am not fond of little girls." 
 Both Henrietta and her daughter overheard this dis- 
 courteous remark. The English queen hastened to Anne 
 of Austria, and entreated her not to attempt to constrain 
 the wishes of his majesty. The position was exceedingly 
 awkward for all parties ; but the proud spirit of Anne of 
 Austria was aroused. Resuming her maternal authority, 
 she declared that if her niece, the princess of J^ngland, 
 remained a spectator at the ball, her son should do the 
 same. Thus constrained, the king very ungraciously led 
 out the English princess upon tlie floor. After tlie de- 
 parture of the guests, the mother and son had their first 
 serious quarrel. Severely Anne of Austria rebuked the 
 king for his shameful and uncourteous conduct. Louis 
 faced his mother haughtily. " Madam, who is lord of 
 France, Louis the king or Anne of Austria? Too long," 
 he said, " I have been guided by your leading strings. 
 Henceforth, I will be my own master ; and do not you, 
 madam, trouble yourself to criticise or correct me. I 
 am the king." And this was no idle boast; for from 
 
1 , 
 
 M 
 
 1, 
 
 
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 1 \w 
 
 tip 
 1 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 - - -- -< — fn-y 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA AND CARDINAL MAZARIN. 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 341 
 
 tlitit tearful evening of the queen's ball to the day of his 
 death, sixty-one years after, Louis of Bourbon, called 
 The Great, ruled as absolute lord over his kinodom of 
 France ; and the boy who could say so defiantly, "Hence- 
 forth, I will be my own master," was fully equal to that 
 other famous declaration of arrogant authority, made years 
 after in the full tide of his power, ^^ I am the state!'' 
 
 But Anne of Austria was not the only one destined to 
 feel the imperious will of the young sovereign. The Par- 
 liament of Paris refused to register certain decrees of the 
 king. Louis heard of it while preparing to hunt in the 
 woods of Vincennes. He leaped upon his horse, and 
 galloped to Paris. At half-past nine o'clock in the morn- 
 ing, the king entered the Chamber of Deputies, in full 
 hunting dress. He heard mass, and, whip in hand, ad- 
 dressed the l)ody : '' Gentlemen of the Parliament, it is 
 my will that in future my edicts be registered., and not 
 discussed. Should the contrary occur, I shall return, and 
 enforce obedience." 
 
 The trumpet sounded, and the king and his courtiers 
 galloped back to the forest of Vincennes. The decrees 
 were registered. Pai'liament had ventured to try its 
 strengtli against Cardinal Mazarin, but did not dare to 
 disobey its king. 
 
 The marriage of the king was a matter of much impor- 
 tance, and was much talked of. The aspirants for his 
 hand and the throne of France were numberless. Maria 
 Theresa, the daughter of the king of Spain, was very 
 beautiful. vSpain and France were then engaged in petty 
 and vexatious hostilities, and a matrimonial alliance would 
 secure friendship. 
 
 So negotiations were begun ; and on the 10th of June, 
 16G0, Louis, then in the twenty-second year of his age, 
 
342 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 was joined in marriage, at the Isle of Pheasants, to Maria 
 Theresa, infanta of Spain. On the 26th of August, the 
 king and his young bride made their public entr}- into 
 Paris. Triumphal arches spanned the thoroughfares, gar- 
 lands of flowers and hangings of tapestry covered the 
 fronts of the houses, and sweet-scented herbs strewed the 
 pavements, upon which passed an apparentl}' interminable 
 procession of carriages, horsemen, and footmen ; and in 
 the midst of the clangor of trumpets, the boom of cannon, 
 and the shouts and acclamations of the multitude, came 
 the chariot of the young queen, who, radiant and spark- 
 ling with brilliant gems, beheld from her loftv height all 
 Paris striving to do her honor. By her side rode the 
 king. His garments, of velvet richly embroidered with 
 gold, and covered with jewels, had been prepared at an 
 expense of over a million of dollars. The gorgeousness of 
 this gala day lived long in the minds of the splendor- 
 loving Parisians. For succeeding weeks and months, 
 the court luxuriated in one continued round of gayety. 
 '•There was a sound of revelry by night" in the salons 
 of the Louvi'e and the Tuileries, while lords and ladies 
 trod the floors in the mazy evolutions of the dance. And 
 yet, to maintain all this state, all this splendor, all this 
 reckless extravagance, thousands of the peasantry of 
 France were compelled to live in mud hovels, to wear 
 the coarsest garb, to eat the plainest food, while their 
 wives and daughters toiled barefoot in the fields. 
 
 The Cardinal Mazarin was old and dying. For eigh- 
 teen years he had been virtually monarch of France. 
 Avaricious and penurious to the last degree, he had 
 amassed enormous wealth. Cursed by the peasantry 
 whom he had ground to the earth, hated by the king 
 whom he had tried to rule, despised by the court which 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 843 
 
 he had attempted to humble, ou the 9th of March, 1661, 
 at his Chateau Mazarin, the cardinal breathed his last. 
 From that moment until the day of his death, Louis XIV. 
 sat all-powerful upon his throne. And when the president 
 of the Ecclesiastical Assembly inquired of the king to 
 whom he must hereafter address himself on questions of 
 public business, the emphatic and laconic response was, 
 '' To myself:' 
 
 M. Fouquet, the Minister of the Treasury, was rolling 
 in ill-gotten wealth. His palace of Vaux le Vicomte, 
 upon which he had expended fifteen millions of francs, 
 eclipsed in splendor the royal palaces of the Tuileries 
 and Fontainebleau. The king disliked him. He knew 
 he was robbing the treasury, and it was more than his 
 self-love could endure, that a subject should live in state 
 surpassing that of his sovereign. Fouquet most impru- 
 dently invited the king and all the court to a fete at the 
 chateau. No step could have been more ill-advised ; for 
 the king was little likely to forget, as he looked upon the 
 splendors of Vaux le Vicomte, by which St. Germain and 
 Fontainebleau were utterly eclipsed, that its owner had 
 derived all his wealth from the pul)lic coffers ; and at a 
 time, too, when he was himself in need of the funds here 
 lavished with such reckless profusion. Every one in 
 France, who bore a distinguished name, was bidden to 
 the princely festival, which was destined to be commemo- 
 rated by La Fontaine and by Benserade, by Felisson and 
 by Moli^re. Fouquet met the king at the gates of the 
 chateau, and conducted him to the park. Here, notwith- 
 standing all he had heard of the splendors of Vaux le 
 Vicomte, the king was unprepared for the scene of mag- 
 nificence which burst upon his view. The play of the 
 fountains, the beauty of the park, and the spbndor of 
 
344 LOUT!< XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 the chateau ^vere long rememl)ered by the guests at this 
 princely festival. But to Louis XIV. it was gall and 
 wormwood ; and when he took leave of his obsequious 
 liost, he remarked bitterly : ''I shall never again, sir, 
 venture to invite you to visit me. You would find your- 
 self inconvenienced." 
 
 Fouquet felt the keen rebuke, and turned pale. The 
 king and his courtiers returned to Paris, lint in the mind 
 of Louis XIY. there loomed up distant visions of the 
 palaces of Versailles and the great hydraulic machine at 
 INIarly. On the 8th of January, 1606, Anne of Austria 
 died. Tt was a gloomy winter's night when the remains 
 of her who had been both queen and regent of France 
 were borne to their last resting-place in the vaults of St. 
 Denis. In his previous campaigns, Louis had taken 
 Flanders in three months, and Franche-Comte in three 
 weeks. Alarmed by these rapid conquests, Holland, 
 Switzerland, and Fngland entered into an alliance to 
 resist further encroachments, should they be attempted. 
 That such a feeble state as Holland should think of limit- 
 ing his conquests, aroused the anger of the Grand Mo- 
 narqjie. Armies were mustered, munitions of war got 
 together, and ships prepared ; and on the 12th of June, 
 1072, at the head of an army of one hundred and thirty 
 thousand men, Louis crossed the Khine, and made his 
 ti-iumphal entry into the city of Ltrecht. Then, indeed, 
 Holland trembled ; Amsterdam trembled ; Louis was at 
 llic gates. r>ut, rising in the frenzy of despair, the}' 
 pierced the dikes, which alone protected the country from 
 tiie sea. In rushed the flood, and Amsterdam rose like a 
 mighty fortress in the midst of the waves, surrounded by 
 slni)s of war, which found depth to flont where ships 
 never floated before. Thus suddenlv Louis Xl\'. found 
 
LOUIS XIV. TAKING LKAVK OF FOUQUET. 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 345 
 
 himself checked in his proud career. Chagrined at see- 
 ing his conquest at an end, he left his army under the 
 command of Turenne, and returned to his palaces in 
 France. 
 
 Louis XIV. had never recovered from the mortification 
 he had experienced at the fete at Vaux. He resolved to 
 rear a palace so magnificent that no subject, whatever 
 might be his resources, could approach it ; so magnificent 
 that, like the pyramids of Egypt, it should be a lasting 
 monument of the splendor of his reign. In 1664, Louis 
 selected Versailles as the site for this stupendous pile of 
 marble, which, reared at a cost of thousands of lives, and 
 two hundred millions of money, decorated l\v the genius 
 of Le Notre, of Mansard, and Le Brun, twenty-five years 
 after its commencement, was ready to receive its royal 
 occupants ; and, resting proudly upon its foundations, 
 presented to admiring Europe the noblest monument of 
 the reign of Louis XIV. The splendors of the fetes 
 which attended the completion of this palace transformed 
 it into a scene of enchantment, and filled all Europe with 
 wonder. 
 
 The most magnificent room in the palace, the Gallerie 
 des Glaces, called the Grand Gallery of Louis XIV., is 
 two hundred and forty-two feet long, thirty-five feet 
 broad, and forty-three feet high. German}', Holland, 
 Spain, Rome even, bend the knee in the twentj'-seven 
 paintings which ornament this grand gallery. But to 
 whom do they bow ? Is it to France ? No ; it is to 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 " Louis XIV. and his palace not only afforded conver- 
 sation for Europe, but their fame penetrated the remote 
 corners of Asia. The emperor of Siam sent him an 
 embassy. Tln-ee o'pras, high dignitaries of the empire. 
 
34G TAtJ^Ts XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 eiiilit mandarins, and a crowd of servitors landed at 
 liii'st, charged with magnilicent presents and a letter 
 from the emperor. Arrived at Versailles, they were 
 feted witli unheard-of splendor. The day of their public 
 audience, tlie fountains played in the gardens ; llowers 
 were strewn in the paths ; the sumptuous Gobelin carpets 
 were paraded, as well as the richest works of the gold- 
 smith. The cortege of ambassadors was received with 
 tlie most refined forms of etiquette, and led through 
 apartments filled with the court, glittering in diamonds 
 and embroidery, and at length reached the end of the 
 grand gallery, where Louis XIV., clad in a costume that 
 cost twelve millions, stood on a throne of silver placed on 
 an estrade elevated nine steps above the floor, and covered 
 with (lobelin carpets and costh" vases. Tiiere the Siamese 
 prostrated themselves three times, with hands clasped, 
 l)efore the ^Majesty of the West, and then lifted their 
 eyes to him." 
 
 Louis spent millions on Versailles, millions on his 
 pleasures, millions on his pomps, millions in his wars ; he 
 lavished gold on his favorites, his generals, and his 
 lackeys. And all ended in national ])ankruptc3'. 
 
 Let us, then, in imagination look upon the grand gallerie 
 of Louis XIV. during one of those gorgeous fetes which 
 attracted the attention of all Europe. Before us is the 
 grand salon., with its glittering candelabra and thousand 
 brilliant lights, reflected in prismatic rays from the costl>' 
 mirrors which line the walls. Tender foot, a i)avement of 
 variegated marble, shining and polished as a floor of 
 glass ; and overhead the gorgeous frescoes of Le Lrun, 
 setting forth in glowing colors the great achievements 
 of the Grand Monarque, Tlie highest nobilit}' of the 
 realm, the grande noblesse of France, throng this splendid 
 gallery. ^ 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 347 
 
 The costly costumes of the cavaliers and the gorgeous 
 robes of the Grande Barnes, the waving plumes and 
 flashing jewels, all conspire to render the scene of mar- 
 vellous magnificence. And now, as the impatient throng 
 turn their gaze in the direction of the Salon of War, in 
 expectation of the approach of royalty, the folding-doors 
 are thrown back, and the stentorian voice of the usher 
 resounds throughout the gallery: "His Majesty the 
 King ! " and upon the threshold, in a costume resplendent 
 with sparkling gems, stands Louis XIV., the Grand 
 Moiiarque. As a parterre of blooming flowers bends low 
 before a rushing gust of wind, so bow these titled lords 
 and ladies 'l)efore his piercing glance ; wiiile Louis, full 
 conscious of his kingly majesty, walks slowly, and with 
 measured step, all down the long and glittering lines, 
 pausing ever and anon to address those whose rank 
 entitles them to this inestimable boon. 
 
 " It was not only on festive occasions that Versailles 
 w^ore an air of grand gala. It was its habitual aspect. 
 At Vaux, nature had contributed quite as nmch as art, to 
 the marvellous beauty of the scene. At Versailles, she 
 had done nothing, and Louis' pleasure was the greater, in 
 that he considered it the unrivalled creation of his own 
 genius. Versailles, with its palace, its gardens, its 
 fountains, its statues, and water-works, Trianon, and 
 ai)pendages, was a work of art to gaze upon with wonder. 
 Let us ascend ; for, in whatever place you may be, it 
 is necessary to mount, to reach this palace ; at whatever 
 point you may stand to look at it, you see its roofs, 
 apparently touching the clouds. It crowns the hill like a 
 diadem. If you come from Paris, it rises above the 
 town, which lies prostrate at the feet of its majesty ; if 
 you ai)proach from the park, it lifts itself above the 
 
348 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 gigantic trees, above the terraces which pile themselves 
 up towards it, above the jets of water which surround 
 it ; the groves seem to support it upon their tall heads, 
 and the whole forest serves as its footstool. Let us 
 ascend, for the doors are open ; people are going and 
 coming. The ladies smile, the mirrors reflect them, the 
 chandeliers light them, the ceilings throw their golden 
 coloring upon them. The courtiers stare in the midst of 
 the riches of this magnificent dwelling ; but, amid all this 
 stir, all these surprises, all these wonders, only one man is 
 calm, — this man Louis XI Y. 
 
 " He feels as much at ease in this palace as in a vestment 
 made for him ; and, contemplating the work to which his 
 pride gave birth, he exclaims, in the fulness of his satis- 
 faction, ' Versailles is myself ! ' 
 
 " Yet, upon a bright spring day, or soft summer 
 evening, when Louis, disposed for one of those long 
 promenades he was accustomed to take sometimes twice 
 a day, descended to the gardens from the grand terrace 
 of the palace, followed by his numerous court, the coup 
 d'oeil from a distance must have been charmingly effec- 
 tive. And, when enlivened by sauntering, chatting, 
 flirting, laughing groups of picturesquely dressed ladies 
 and gentlemen of the court, — a numerous retinue of 
 lackeys following, no less resplendent in dress than their 
 masters, — the admirable fitness of the gardens and 
 grounds of Yersailles for the purpose which Louis, no 
 doubt, had in his mind when the designs were approved, 
 must have been very striking. In the centre of this 
 throng of feathers and swords, satins and laces, flashing 
 jewels, fans and masks, solemnly paced the magnificent 
 Louis, with the air of lord of the universe, monarch of all 
 he surveyed, and of all who surveyed him ; for his courtiers 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 34n 
 
 lived onh' in the light of his countenance. Yet the 
 countenance of this god was grandly cold, serene, and 
 unchangeable, as that of any of the marble deities that 
 presided over his fountains. It was no mean advantaoe 
 to him that nature had kindly exalted him, at least, three 
 inches above almost every other man of his court. The 
 French were not generally a fine race of men ; but the 
 dress of the period — tlie high heels, the wig, the lofty 
 plume, and the looped-up, broad-brimmed hat — gave to 
 the grandees an appearance of height, which, as a rule, 
 thev had not. And above them all towered their king, 
 like Jupiter, in Olympus, in the midst of the inferior gods, 
 or as the sun, with lesser lights revolving around him, 
 and shining only in the refulgence of liis rays. 
 
 " Red-heeled boots, slashed doublets, and flowing wigs, 
 cordeliers of pearls, Moorish fans, masques, patches and 
 paint, monumental head-dresses, and the thousand other 
 items indispensable to the toilets of the lords and ladies 
 of the Louis XIY. period, have a charmingly picturesque 
 effect, seen through the long vista of two centuries, and 
 heightened by the glamour of la grande x>olitesse^ et la 
 grande gala,nterie of the Grand Moiiarque and his court. 
 Life seems to have been with them, one long fancy-dress 
 ball, a never-ending carnival, a perpetual whirl, an end- 
 less succession of fetes and carousals." 
 
 Louis XIV. now found nearly all Europe in arms 
 against him. He sent twenty thousand men, under 
 Marshal Turenne, to encounter the forces of the emperor 
 of Germany ; and fort}' thousand, under the Prince de 
 Cond^, to assail William, prince of Orange. In his 
 defence of the frontiers of the Rhine, Turenne acquired 
 a reputation which has made his name famous in military- 
 annals. With twenty thousand men, he defeated and 
 
850 LOUL"^ XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 dispersed the Imperial army of seventy thousand ; and it 
 adds not a little to his celebrity, that, following his own 
 judgment, he achieved the victory in direct opposition to 
 the orders from the minister of war. A merciless war- 
 rior, he allowed no consideration of humanity to interfere 
 with his military operations. He laid in ashes the beauti- 
 ful country of the Palatinate, embracing, on both sides of 
 the Rhine, about sixteen hundred square miles, and having 
 a population of over three hundred thousand souls, in 
 order that the armies of his enemies might be deprived 
 of sustenance ; while tlie wail of widows and orphans 
 rose over the smouldering ruins of their dwellings, over 
 the bleak and barren fields. 
 
 On the 27th of June, 1675, a cannon ball struck 
 Turenne, and closed, in an instant, his earthly career. 
 Few men have ever lived who have caused such wide- 
 spread misery. For two 3^ears the war continued, with 
 sometimes varying success, but with unvarying blood and 
 misery. At last, on the 14th of August, 1678, peace, 
 the peace of Nimegeun, was made. Louis XIV. dictated 
 the terms. 
 
 Now, at the height of his grandeur, having enlarged 
 his dominions by the addition of Franche-Comte, Dun- 
 kirk, and half of Flanders, worshipped by his courtiers 
 as a demi-god, the court of France conferred upon him, 
 with imposing solemnities, the title of Louis le Grcutd. 
 In 1685, the Queen, Maria Theresa, breathed her last. 
 Amiable, unselfish, warm-hearted, from the time of her 
 marriage she devoted herself to the promotion of her 
 husband's happiness. His neglect caused her to shed 
 many tears. The king could not be insensible to her 
 many virtues, and perhaps remorse, mingled with the 
 emotions which compelled him to weep bitterly' over 
 
UHATH OF TUKKNNE. 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 351 
 
 her death, caused him to exclaim, as he gazed upon the 
 lifeless remains, " Kind and forbearing friend, this is 
 the first sorrow you have caused me throughout twenty 
 years." For ten days the royal corpse lay in state at 
 Versailles, and perpetual masses were performed for the 
 soul of the departed. On the day of the funeral, the 
 king, in the insane endeavor to obliterate from his mind 
 all thoughts of death and burial, ordered out the hounds, 
 and plunged into the excitement of the chase. His horse 
 pitched the monarch over his head into a ditch of 
 stagnant water, dislocating one of his shoulders. 
 
 In 1685, also died Jean Baptiste Colbert, the king's 
 minister of finance. As superintendent of buildings, arts, 
 and manufactures, he had enlarged the Tuileries and the 
 Louvre, completed gorgeous Versailles, reared the mag- 
 nificent edifice of the Invalides, and founded the Gobelins. 
 As minister of finance, he had furnished the king with the 
 money he needed for his expensive wars and luxurious 
 indulgence. Now old, forgotten, exhausted by incessant 
 labor, he was on his dying bed. The heav}' taxes he had 
 imposed upon the people rendered him unpopular. The 
 curses and imprecations of a starving peasantry rose 
 around his dying couch. The king condescended in cour- 
 tesy to send a messenger inquiring after the condition of 
 his minister, but the dying sufferer turned awa}^ his face, 
 saying, " I will not hear that man spoken of again. If 
 for God I had done what I have for him, I should have 
 been saved ten times over. What my fate now may be, I 
 know not." 
 
 And so worn out by toll, anxiety, and grief, he died. 
 On the following day, without any marks of honor, his 
 remains were conveyed to the church of St. Eustache. 
 
 Genoa had oflfended the king by giving assistance to 
 
352 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 the Algerines. He seized, by a lettre de cachet^ the 
 Genoese ambassador, and plunging him into one of tlie 
 dungeons of the Bastile, sent a fleet of fifty vessels to 
 chastise those who had offended him, with terrible severity. 
 On the 19th of May, 1G84, the ships entered the harbor 
 of Genoa, and immediately opened upon the city a terrific 
 fire, so that in a few hours, a large portion of those mar- 
 ble edifices, which had given to the city the name of 
 " Genoa the Superb," were crumbled into powder. Tlie 
 city was threatened with total destruction, and in terror 
 the authorities implored the clemency of the conqueror. 
 Haughtily the Grand Monarqve demanded that the doge 
 of Genoa, and four of his principal ministers, should re- 
 pair to the [)alace of Versailles, and humbly implore his 
 pardon. Utterly powerless, the doge was compelled to 
 submit to these humiliating terms. 
 
 On the loth of May, 1685, Louis ordered his throne to 
 be placed at the end of the grand gallery, by the side of 
 the "Salon of Peace." The doge entered with four 
 senators Genoa had sent to accompany him. He was 
 dressed in red velvet, witli a cap of the same. Tn order 
 to preserve all the dignity his misfortune allowed him, 
 the doge remained covered until he entered the presence 
 of the king. The king allowed the princes to remain 
 covered during the audience. The doge discharged his 
 sad mission with a firmness that created astonishment. 
 His bearing was more impressive than his discourse. A 
 few days after he attended the levee, dined with the king, 
 was shown the park and all the fountains, and was present 
 at a ball given in the grand apartment. Afterwards he 
 had his audience of leave-taking, and when one of the 
 senators asked liim what surprised him most at Xvv- 
 sailles, he replied with an air of more chagrin than usual, 
 
JEAN HAPTISTE COLBERT. 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 353 
 
 "At seeing myself there." The doge and senators did 
 not stay long in France. They saw in haste the wonders 
 shown them, and then returned to Genoa. Arrived at 
 home, they talked over the things they had seen. One 
 senator spoke of the dazzling spectacles, the vast apart- 
 ments, the sumptuous ornaments ; and said no mind was 
 powerful enough to carry away the remembrance of all the 
 riches of the palace, its paintings, its statues, its tapestry, 
 its ceilings, its gold, and its marble. The doge replied, 
 there was more than its exterior magnificence, and luxury 
 of its interior ; that the palace was the whole French 
 monarch}'. You read the origin of the monarch}^ in the 
 chateau built by Louis XIII. The architects wished to 
 pull it down ; the king replied, that, if it would not last, 
 they must take it down, but reconstruct it on its first plan. 
 He wished the work of his father to remain, to contrast 
 with the edifice he was going to erect. One part of the 
 building only projects immensely in the long outline, 
 that is where the master dwells. The king walks alone 
 in the first rank, the courtiers follow, and support the 
 train of the royal mantle. If you mount by the grand 
 staircase, you find a suite of immense salons^ covered 
 with beautiful paintings. The Salon of Plent}', then 
 Venus, then Diana, then Mars, then Mercury, and then 
 Apollo. Of what use are they? The master does not 
 inhabit them. But go on farther, pass through empty 
 galleries, you will at length find his apartments. All this 
 suite of magnificent salons, all these galleries, serve as 
 an ante-chamber only to the place in which he dwells. 
 Mars and -Apollo, gods formerly, are nothing now but 
 lackeys to the king of France. 
 
 In the year 1598, King Henry IV., feeling the need of 
 the support of the Protestants to protect his kingdom from 
 
854 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 the perils by which it was surrounded, and having himself 
 been educated a Protestant, had granted to the Protestants 
 the world-renowned edict of Nantes. B\' this edict, Pi'ot- 
 estants were allowed libert}^ of conscience ; were per- 
 mitted, in certain designated places, to hold public worship ; 
 were declared to be eligible to offices of state, and in cer- 
 tain places, were allowed to publish books. Louis XIV. 
 was a Catholic, a bigoted Catholic ; hoping in some 
 measure to atone for his sins, by liis supreme devotion to 
 the interests of the church, and while assuring the Prot- 
 estant powers of Europe that he would continue to I'espect 
 the edict of Nantes, he commenced issuing a series of or- 
 dinances in direct o[)position to that contract. In 1680 
 he excluded Protestants from all public offices, whatsoever. 
 A l*rotestant could not be employed as a i)liysician, 
 lawyer, apothecary, bookseller, printer, or even as a 
 nurse. 
 
 In some parts of the kingdom, the Protestants com- 
 posed nearly the entire population. Here it was impossi- 
 ble to enforce the atrocious decree. Kiots and bloodshed 
 followed. Affairs went from bad to worse, and on the 
 18th of October, 1685, the king, yielding to the wishes of 
 his confessor and other high dignitaries of the Church, 
 signed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In this 
 act of revocation, it was declared that, "the exercise of 
 the Protestant worship should nowhere be tolerated in the 
 realm of France. All Protestant pastors were ordered to 
 leave the kingdom within fifteen days, under pain of 
 beins sent to the o-allevs. Parents were forbidden to in- 
 struct their children in the Protestant relio-ion. Everv 
 child in the kingdom was to be baptized and educated b}^ 
 a Catholic priest. All Protestants who had left France, 
 were ordered to return within four months, under penalty 
 
REVOCATlc;.N OK THE EDICT OF NANTES. 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 355 
 
 of confiscation of their possessions. Any Protestant man 
 or woman who should attempt to emigrate, incurred the 
 penalty of imprisonment for life." 
 
 This infamous ordinance caused an amount of misery 
 which can never be gauged, and inflicted upon the pros- 
 perity of France the most terrible blow it had ever re- 
 ceived. Only one year after the revocation, Marshal 
 Vauban wrote, " France has lost one hundred thousand 
 inhabitants, sixty millions of coined money, nine thousand 
 sailors, twelve thousand disciplined soldiers, six hundred 
 ottlcers, and her most flourishing manufactures." 
 
 The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes was the great 
 blot upon the reign of Louis XIV. From that hour the 
 fortunes of the ' Grand Monarque began manifestly to 
 decline. 
 
 Louvois, minister of war, had for a long time been all- 
 powerful at court. Through his influence, the king had 
 been induced to revoke the Edict of Nantes, and to order 
 the utter devastation of the Palatinate. But that influ- 
 ence was upon the wane. The king had become weary 
 of his haughty assumptions, and the conflagration of the 
 Palatinate had raised a cr}' of indignation that even he 
 could not fail to hear. Treves had escaped the flames. 
 Louvois solicited an order to burn it. The king refused. 
 Louvois insolently gave the order himself, and entering 
 the royal presence, exclaimed calmly, " Sire, I have com- 
 manded the burning of Treves, in order that I might 
 spare your Majesty the pain of issuing such an edict." 
 
 Louis was furious ; and springing up, with flashing- 
 eyes, forgetful of all the restraints of etiquette, he seized 
 the tongs from the fireplace, and would have broken the 
 head of his minister, had not Madame de Maintenon 
 rushed between them. The king despatched a messenger 
 
356 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 to countermand the order, and declared that if but a 
 single house were burned, the liead of the minister should 
 be the forfeit. Treves was saved. 
 
 On one occasion, when Louis XIV. went to examine 
 the progress of the building of the Trianon, accompanied 
 bv Louvois, he remarked that a particular window was 
 out of proportion, and did not harmonize with the rest ; 
 but the minister, jealous of his dignity as controller of 
 the roj^al works, would not admit the objection, but main- 
 tained that it was similar to the others. 
 
 The king desired Le Notre to declare his opinion as to 
 the size of the disputed window. Le Notre, fearful of 
 offending either the monarch or his minister, endeavored 
 to give an evasive answer. Upon wliicli, Louis com- 
 manded hira to measure it carefully, and he was reluc- 
 tantly compelled to obey. The result of the trial proved 
 that the king was right, the window was too small ; and 
 the monarch had no sooner ascertained the fact, than he 
 turned angrily to his minister, exclaiming, " M. Louvois, 
 I am weary of your obstinacy. It is fortunate that I 
 myself have superintended the work of building, or the 
 facade would have been ruined." 
 
 As this scene had taken place not only in the presence 
 of the workmen, but of all the courtiers who followed the 
 king upon his promenade, Louvois was stung to the 
 quick ; and on entering his own house, he exclaimed 
 furiously, "I am lost if I do not find some occupation for 
 a man who can interest himself in such trifles. There is 
 nothing l)ut a war which can divert him from his building, 
 and war he shall have. I will soon make him abandon 
 his trowel." 
 
 He kept his word : and Europe was once more plunged 
 into a general war, because a window had been made a 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 357 
 
 few inches too narrow, and a king had convicted a minis- 
 ter of error. 
 
 In 1691, the French were besieging Mons. The 
 haughty minister, uniutimidated even by the menace of 
 the tongs, ventured to countermand an order which the 
 king had issued. The lowering brow of the monarch 
 convinced him that his ministerial reign was soon to close. 
 The health of the minister began rapidly to fail. A few 
 subsequent interviews wdth the king satisfied him that his 
 disgrace and ruin were decided upon ; and about the mid- 
 dle of June, meeting the monarch in his council-chamber, 
 although he was unusually complaisant, Louvois so thor- 
 oughly understood him, that he retired to his residence in 
 utter despair. He ordered that his son, the Marquis de 
 Barbesieux, might be requested to follow him to his 
 chamber. In five minutes the summons w^as obe3^ed, but 
 it was too late ; for when the marquis entered the room, 
 his father had already expired. Louvois had judged 
 rightly, for the king had already drawn up the lettre de 
 cachet which was to consign him to the oubliettes of the 
 Bastile. 
 
 "Civil war was now also desolating unhappy France. 
 The Protestants, bereft of their children, robbed of their 
 property, driven from their homes, dragged to the gal- 
 lows, plunged into dungeons, broken upon the wheel, 
 hanged upon scaffolds, rose in several places in insurrec- 
 tionary bands ; and the man who was thus crushing be- 
 neath the iron heel of his armies the quivering hearts of 
 the Palatinate, and who was drenching his own realms 
 with tears and blood, was clothed in purple, and faring 
 sumptuously, and reclining upon the silken sofas of 
 Marly and Versailles." 
 
 On the 1st of November, 1700, Charles II. of Spain 
 
358 LOUHS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 died, having no heirs. Urged b}' the Pope, he left the 
 throne to the children of tlie dauphin of France. As the 
 duke de Bourgoyne was direct heir to the throne of 
 France, the dauphin's second son, the duke d'Anjou, was 
 proclaimed king of Spain, under tlie title of Philip V. 
 On the 14th of tiie montii, Louis XI\\ summoned the 
 Spanish ambassador to an audience at Versailles. The 
 king presented his grandson to the minister, saying, 
 "•This, sir, is the duke d'Anjou, whom you may salute 
 as your king." Tiien, contrary' to his custom, he ordered 
 the folding doors of his cabinet to be thrown back, and 
 the crowd of courtiers assembled in the grand gallery 
 l)Oured into the apartment. 
 
 The Spanish ambassador dropped upon his knee ])efore 
 the young prince witii expressions of profound homage ; 
 while the king, embracing the neck of liis grandson with 
 his left arm, and pointing to him with his right hand, pre- 
 sented him to the assembled court, exclaiming, " Gen- 
 tlemen, this is the king of Spain. His birth calls him to 
 the crown. The late king has recognized his rii>:ht bv his 
 will. All the nation desires his succession, and has en- 
 treated it at my hands. It is the will of heaven, to which 
 I conform with satisfaction." 
 
 To his grandson he added, " Be a good Spaniard, but 
 never forget that yon were born a Frenchman. Carefully 
 maintain the union of the two nations. Thus only can 
 3^ou render them both happy." 
 
 Preparations were immediately made for the departure 
 of the boy-king to take possession of the Spanish throne. 
 The Grand Monarqne regarded it as a signal stroke of 
 policy, and a great victory on his part, that notwithstand- 
 ing the remonstrances of other nations, he had placed a 
 French Bourbon prince upon the throne of Spain. He 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 359 
 
 saw the domain of France extending far southward to the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 "Henceforth," exclaimed Louis XIV., exultingly, 
 " there are no more P^^enees ! " 
 
 Louis XIV. reigned everywhere, — over his people, 
 over his age, often over Europe, —but nowhere did he 
 reign so completely as over his court. Never were the 
 wishes, the defects, and the vices of a man so completely 
 a law to other men, as at the court of Louis XIV. durino- 
 the whole period of his long Hfe. When near to him in 
 the palace at Versailles, men lived, hoped, trembled, 
 everywhere else in France, even at Paris, men vegetated. 
 The existence of the nobles was concentrated in the court 
 about the person of the king ; and so abject was their 
 submission, that Louis XIV. looked on all sides for a 
 great lord, and found about him only courtiers. 
 
 When the king learned that certain of the nobility 
 affected to despise the plebian genius of the great drama- 
 tist, Moliere, he invited the comedian to his table ; and 
 when at the grande entree the nobles thronged the apart- 
 ment, he turned to them haughtily, exclaiming, " Gentle- 
 men of the court, you see me breakfasting with Moliere, 
 whom my nobles do not consider worthy of their notice." 
 It was enough. From that moment the great dramatist 
 found all the nobility of France at his feet. 
 
 Never did man give with better grace than Louis XIV., 
 or augment so much in this way the price of his benefits. 
 Never did man sell to better profit his words, even his 
 smiles, — nay, his looks. 
 
 Never did disobliging words escape him ; and if he had 
 to blame, to reprimand, or correct, which was very rare, 
 it was nearly always with goodness, never with anger or 
 severity. Never was man so naturally polite, or of a 
 
360 LOUISi XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 politeness so measured, so graduated, so adapted, to per- 
 son, time, and place. Towards women his politeness was 
 without parallel. Never did he pass the humblest petti- 
 coat without raising his hat. For ladies he took his hat 
 off completely, but to a greater or less extent ; for titled 
 people half off, holding it in his hand, or against his ear, 
 some instants. He took it off for the princes of the blood 
 as for the ladies. If he accosted ladies, he did not cover 
 himself until he had quitted them. His reverences, more 
 or less marked, but always light, were incomparable for 
 their grace and manner. As, after the battle of Seneff, 
 fought Aug. 11, 1674, against William of Orange, Mon- 
 sieur le Prince, le Grand Conde, was walking slowly, 
 from the effects of gout, up the grand staircase at Ver- 
 sailles, he exclaimed to the king, who awaited him upon 
 the landing above, " Sire, I crave your majesty's pardon, 
 if I keep you waiting ; " to which Louis replied, " Do not 
 hurry, my cousin ; no one could move more quickly who 
 was so loaded with laurels as you are." It was the lan- 
 guage of the court; and again, when in May, 1706, Mar- 
 shal Villeroi returned worsted at the battle of Ramillies, 
 in bis encounter with Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 
 the Grand Monarque gave utterance to one of those deli- 
 cate remarks he knew so well how to make, and which 
 sounded almost like a compliment: "Ah, Monsieur le 
 Marshal," exclaimed the king, when he presented himself 
 at Versailles, " at our age one h no longer fortunate." 
 
 " The king loved air and exercise very much, as long 
 as he could make use of them. He had excelled at danc- 
 ing, at tennis, and at mall. On horseback he was admir- 
 able, even at a late age. He liked to see everything done 
 with grace and address. To acquit yourself well or ill 
 before him was a merit or a fault. He was very fond of 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 361 
 
 shooting, and there was not a better or more graceful shot 
 than he. He was very fond, also, of stag-himtino-, but in 
 a caUche, since he broke his arm while hunting at Fon- 
 tainebleau, immediately after the death of the Queen. He 
 rode alone in a species of " box," drawn by four little 
 horses, and drove himself with an accuracy and address 
 unknown to the best coachmen. He liked splendor, mao-- 
 nificence, and profusion in everything; you pleased him 
 if you shone through the brilliancy of your houses, your 
 clothes, your table, and your equipages. As for the king 
 himself, nobody ever approached his magnificence." 
 
 Old age had crept fast upon Louis XIV. For seventy- 
 two years he had proudly sat upon the throne of his ances- 
 tors ; but the time was near at hand when he must lay aside 
 his sceptre and his crown. Still the more deeply he be- 
 came conscious of his physical weakness, the more deter- 
 mined and extraordinary were his efforts to preserve intact 
 the interests of the state. 
 
 Richard, in his war-tent on the bloody field of Bosworth, 
 never contemplated a train of more appalling shadows 
 than those evoked by the memory of Louis XIV., as he 
 sat, supported by cushions and pillowed upon velvet, in 
 his sumptuous apartment. Maria Theresa, the Queen ; the 
 grand-dauphin; his son, the duke de Bourgoyne ; and 
 last of all, the duke de Berri, the sole prop to that throne 
 which must soon be empty, dead, all dead, save a frail 
 infant, — such were the thoughts that crowded upon his 
 last reveries ; and well might the poor old man in his 
 solitary moments bend down that proud head which had 
 no longer strength to bear a crown, and laying aside the 
 arrogance of those years in which he had assumed the 
 bearing of a demi-god, confess to his own heart that he 
 was but human. 
 
862 LOUI!< XIV. OF FRAXrE. 
 
 On the third of May, 1715, the king rose at an early 
 hour, to witness an eclipse of the sun. Strange coinci- 
 dence that he, who had taken for his emblem a rising sun, 
 should witness the eclipse of that brilliant orb, while he 
 himself was sinking .toward the grave. In the evening- 
 he retired early, complaining of extreme fatigue. The 
 advanced age of the king and his many infirmities ren- 
 dered even a slight indisposition alarming. The report 
 spread rapidly that the king was dangerously sick. The 
 foreign ambassadors promptly despatched the news to 
 their respective courts, — a circumstance which soon 
 reached the ears of the monarch, who, indignant at such 
 indecent precipitancy, and to prove, not only to the court, 
 but to all Europe, that he was still every inch a king, com- 
 manded that preparations should forthwith be commenced 
 for a grand review of the household troops at Marly. On 
 the twentieth of June this magnificent exhibition took 
 l)lace, when for tlie last time the troops of gendarmes and 
 light-horse, in their splendid uniforms, defiled before the 
 terrace of Marly ; which they had no sooner done, than 
 the monarch appeared at the principal entrance of the 
 palace, habited in the costume of his earlier years ; and, 
 descending the marble steps, mounted his horse, and for 
 four long hours sat proudly in his saddle, under the eyes 
 of those foreign envois who had announced his approach- 
 ing death to their sovereigns. It was the expiring effort 
 of his pride. During the whole of the last year of his life, 
 it had been the study of Louis XIV. to deceive himself, 
 and, above all, to deceive others, as to the extent of the 
 physical debility induced by his great age. He rose at a 
 late hour, in order to curtail the fatigues of the day ; re- 
 ceived his ministers, and even dined, in his bed ; and 
 once, having prevailed upon himself to leave it, passed 
 
LOUIS XTV. OF FRAXrE. 363 
 
 several hours in succession in his cushioned clmir. In 
 vain his physician urged upon him the necessity of exer- 
 cise, in order to counteract his tendency to revery and 
 somnolency ; the swollen state of his feet and ankles ren- 
 dered it impossible for him to rise from his chair without 
 severe pain, and he never attempted to do so until all his 
 attendants had left the room, lest they should perceive 
 the state of weakness to which he was reduced. Great, 
 therefore, had l:»een the effort we have described, when 
 the monarch had for a time conquered the man, and where 
 pride had supplied the place of strength. The only exer- 
 cise which he ultimately consented to take was in the 
 magnificent gardens of Versailles, where he was wheeled 
 through the stately avenues, which he had himself planted, 
 in a l)ath-chair; a prey to pain, which was visibly de- 
 l)icted upon his countenance, but which he supported with 
 cold and silent dignity, too haughty to complain. The 
 king grew daily worse. The disease was mortal, and he 
 felt he was beyond the power of human aid. Bitterly 
 Louis XIV. upon his death-bed expiated the faults and 
 excesses of his past life. He wept over the profligacy of 
 iiis youth, deplored the madness of 4iis ambition, by which 
 he had brought mourning into every corner of his king- 
 dom. On the twenty-sixth of August, the king com- 
 manded ail the great dignitaries and officers of the 
 household to meet in his apartment, and addressed them 
 in a firm voice, saying, •'Gentlemen, I die in the faith 
 and obedience of the Church. I desire your pardon for 
 the bad example which I have set 3^ou. I have greatly to 
 thank 3^ou for the manner in which you have served me, 
 and request from you the same zeal and the same fidelity 
 toward the dauphin. Farewell, gentlemen ; I feel that 
 this parting has affected not only myself, but you also. 
 
364 LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 Forgive me. I trust thut 3^011 will sometimes tliink of me 
 wlieii I am gone." 
 
 How sad the scene ! " The gray -haired king, half- 
 sitting, half-l3ing, in his gorgeous bed, whose velvet hang- 
 ings, looped back with their heavy ropes and tassels of 
 gold, were the laborious offering of the pu[)ils of St. Cyr ; 
 the groups of princes in their gorgeous costumes, dispersed 
 over the vast apartment ; the gilded cornices, the priceless^ 
 the tapestried hangings, the richh-carpeted floor, the 
 waste of luxury on every side, the pride of man's intellect 
 and of man's strength ; and in the midst, decay and death, 
 a palsied hand and a dimmed eye." For a few moments 
 there was unbroken silence. The king then requested his 
 great-grandchild, who was to be his successor, to be 
 brought to him. A cushion was placed at the bedside, 
 and the little prince, clinging to the hand of his gover- 
 ness, knelt upon it. Louis XIV. gazed for a moment 
 upon him with mingled anxiety and tenderness, and then 
 said impressively, " My child, you are about to become 
 a great king ; do not imitate me, either in my taste for 
 building, or in my love of war. Endeavor, on the con- 
 trary, to live in peace with the neighboring nations ; ren- 
 der to God all that you owe him, and cause his name to 
 be honored b}' 3'our subjects. Strive to relieve the bur- 
 dens of your people, in which I have been unfortunate 
 enough to fail ; and never forget the gratitude that 3^ou 
 owe to Madame de Ventadour." 
 
 Louis XV. caused these last words, addressed to him 
 bv his grandfather, to be inscribed on vellum, and 
 attached to the head-cloth of his bed. Words to which 
 his life for fifty years was but a hollow mockery. The 
 following days were ones of agony to the expiring king. 
 His intervals of consciousness were rare and brief. Mor- 
 
LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 
 
 365 
 
 tification extended rapidly, and toward midday, on the 
 31st of August, his condition became so much exas- 
 perated that it was found necessary to perform the service 
 for the dying without further delay. The mournful cere- 
 mony aroused him from his lethargy, and his voice was 
 heard, audibly and clearly, mingled with those of the 
 priests. At the termination of the prayers, he reco<r- 
 nized the Cardinal de Rohan, and said calmly, "These 
 are the last favors of the Church." He then repeated 
 several times, " Nunc et in liora mortis'' ; and finally he 
 exclaimed, with earnest fervor, " O, my God, come to my 
 aid, and hasten to help me ! " He never spoke again ; 
 his head fell back upon the pillow, one long-drawn ligh,' 
 and all was over. The spirit of Louis XIV. had passed 
 the earthly veil, and entered the vast unknown. An 
 immense concourse had assembled in the marble court 
 at Versailles, anticipating the announcement of his death. 
 The moment he breathed his last, the captain of the body- 
 guard approached the great balcony, threw open the 
 massive windows, and, looking down upon the multitude 
 below, raised his truncheon above his head, broke it in 
 the centre, and, throwing the fragments down into the 
 court-yard, he cried sadly, " The king is dead !" Then, 
 instantly seizing another staff from the hands of an 
 attendant, he waved it joyfully above his head, and 
 shouted triumphantly, " Long live the king, Louis XV. !" 
 And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately- 
 deserted apartment answered as buoyantly, " Long live 
 the king ! " 
 
 Thus, on the 1st of September, 1715, in his palace, 
 at Versailles, died "one of the world's most powerful 
 monarchs, Louis of Bourbon, Louis the Great, Louis the 
 God-given, Louis the Grand Monarque^ Louis the worn- 
 
800 LOUIS XI V. OF FRANCE 
 
 out, unloving, and unloved old man, of magnificent 
 Versailles." And when Massillon, called to preach the 
 funeral sermon of Louis XIV., as he looked upon the 
 magnificent . draperies and insignia of ro^^alty around 
 him, and thought of the title the deceased king had 
 borne during his life, he began his discourse, with the 
 simple and striking w^ords, which amazed the pleasure- 
 loving courtiers of Versailles, '" Ood alone is great, my 
 brothers." And now, after two hundred years have 
 rolled away, at this present time, in this nineteenth 
 century, after the scaffold of Louis XVI., after the 
 downfall of Napoleon, after the exile of Charles X., 
 after the flight of Louis Phili})pe, after the French 
 Revolution, — in a word, that is to say, after this renewal, 
 complete, absolute, prodigious, of principles, opinions, 
 situations, influences, and facts ; standing upon the ter- 
 race of magnificent Versailles, and looking upon those 
 scenes, where, for so many years, he was the central 
 light and figure, — we bid a last adieu to Louis XIV., 
 the Grand Monarqae, greatest of all the Bourbons. 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 367 
 
 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 A.D. 1672-1725. 
 
 " No true and permanent fame can be founded, except in labors 
 which promote the happiness of mankind." 
 
 Charles Sumner. 
 
 ONE thousfiiid 3'ears ago, Russia was inhabited by 
 disunited, Slavonic tribes, who were frequently at 
 war witli each other. Then Scandinavian tribes were 
 called in, and the Russian nation grew from the two 
 centres of Novgorod and Kief. Christianity was intro- 
 duced from Constantinople. Trade had been commenced 
 with the west of Europe, when the whole country was 
 over-run by the Mongols and Tartars, and the people 
 were obliged to submit to their 3'oke. The country had 
 been divided into various Russian states, which were not 
 ruled directly by the Mongols, but became vassals. 
 These states were each governed by its own prince, 
 who were all subject to Tartary. One state after another 
 was at length swallowed up by the Grand Duchy of 
 Moscow, and the autocracy was established ; which, after 
 freeing Russia from the Mongol yoke, reached its highest 
 development, under Ivan the Terrible, in 1533. The 
 death of Ivdn gave a blow to autocracy, and brought the 
 nobility into power. In 1598, nearly the whole of the 
 Russian people were reduced to serfdom, which was an 
 institution then first legally established. Then came 
 a period, called the Troublous Time, when pretender 
 
368 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 vied with pretender, find the son of the king of Poland 
 was crowned Czar of Moscow. Finally, the Poles were 
 turned out, and young Michael Romdnof was elected 
 Czar. Then followed continual wars with Poland and 
 Sweden. In the reign of Alexis, in 1645-76, an arbitrary 
 government was formed. Henceforth, the Czar managed 
 all matters, both great and small, according to his own 
 will and pleasure. The Czar Alexis was of a gentle 
 and amiable nature, and was called by his subjects, 
 " The most Debonnair." But his good qualities, in the 
 end, rendered him one of the worst sovereigns of Russia ; 
 for he was entirely in the hands of wicked men, who, as 
 his favorites, exercised all the power, and, in realit}', 
 governed the country. 
 
 Then arose the dissent in the Russian Church. The 
 Patriarch, Nikon, undertook the correction of all tlie 
 printed and manuscript copies of the liturgy ; and by a 
 decree of an Ecclesiastical Council, the corrected books 
 were ordered to be the only ones used, and the command 
 was given that all others should be destro3'ed. This 
 measure excited the greatest hostility. It seems strange 
 that passions should be roused, and people be found 
 willing to suffer mart3^rdom, for such seemingly unim- 
 portant questions, — as to whether the name of Jesus 
 should be pronounced, " Isus," or " Yisus " ; whether, 
 in a certain portion of the morning service, the word 
 "Hallelujah" should be repeated twice or thrice; and 
 whether the si^jn of the cross should be made with the 
 two fore-fingers extended, or with the fore-fingers and the 
 thumb, as denoting the Trinity. But such was the case ; 
 and so great was the commotion, that arms were resorted to 
 by the Court, at Moscow, to enforce these innovations ; and 
 some of the most obstinate opposers were even executed. 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 369 
 
 In the cast of Russia, the inhabitants of whole villaoes 
 shut themselves up in their houses, and setting fire to 
 them, perished in the flames, rather than accept a new, 
 and what they called a diabolical, religion. The o-6vern- 
 nient was at length successful, however, and revised 
 service-books w^ere introduced into the churches. 
 
 At the present day, nearly one-half of the Russians be- 
 long in spirit, if not openly, to the Dissenters ; and the 
 reconciliation betw^een them and the official church has onlv 
 been accomplished by relaxing the rigor of the laws of per- 
 secution. During the reign of Alexis, the father of Peter 
 the Great, much importance was attached to the length 
 and fulness of the Czar's title. An accidental omission of 
 a single word or letter from this long and cumbrous offi- 
 cial title was considered an act of personal disrespect t(^ 
 the prince, almost equal to high treason, and was punished 
 far more severely than many terrible crimes. The shortest 
 title of the Czar that could possibly be used, and which it 
 was necessary to repeat every time that the Czar's name 
 was mentioned in document, petition, or discourse, was 
 " The Great Lord Czar and Grand Duke Alexis Micht4ilo- 
 vitch, of all Great and Little and White Russia Autocrat." 
 The complete title contained one hundred and twenty-three 
 words, which we have not space to give. Alexis, having 
 lost his first wife, in 1669, married for his second wife 
 Natalia Naryshkin, who was a ward of Matveief, the 
 chief minister of the Czar. Their meeting was in this 
 manner : One evening, when the Czar was at Matv^ief's 
 house, the wife and pretty ward of the prime minister 
 came into the room, bringing the usual refreshments of 
 cups of vodka, the caviare, and smoked fish, which are 
 eaten by the Russians before dinner or supper. The wid- 
 owed Czar was struck bv the pretty face of the tall, 
 
370 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 shapely, black-eyed girl, and, on going away, said to 
 Matveief that he would find a bridegroom for his pretty 
 ward. It was the custom, when the Czar was in want of 
 a bride, for all the Russian maidens, of suitable position 
 and beauty, to assemble at the palace on a certain day, 
 that a bride might be chosen from their number for the 
 prince. AYord was now sent to Natalia Naryshkin to 
 appear with the other maidens, and it was soon reported 
 that she was the chosen bride. The daughters of the 
 Czar objected to so young a step-mother ; but, in spite of 
 opposition, both political and from his family, Alexis was 
 married to Natalia, on the 1st of February, 1671. The 
 Czar had several daughters of his first wife still living, 
 and two sons, Theodore, who was very infirm and sickly, 
 and John, or Ivdu, wdio was almost blind, and had a defect 
 of speech, and was nearly an idiot. But his favorite 
 child was Peter, the son of his second wife, Natalia, who 
 was born June 9, 1672. The birth of Peter was hailed 
 with great joy, and Alexis ordered a most splendid cere- 
 monial in honor of the event Then came the christen- 
 ing. The ceremony was performed at the Cathedral of 
 the Annunciation ; and the infant Peter was borne to the 
 church in a cradle placed on wheels, while the priest most 
 venerated for his sanctity sprinkled the path with holy 
 water. The next day after the christening the feast 
 occurred. The expense and account books, which have 
 been preserved, show that on this occasion the tables were 
 loaded with large pieces of sugar-work, representing 
 eagles, swans, and other birds, larger than life ; also rep- 
 resentations of the Muscovite arms and a model of the 
 Kremlin, the palace of the Czar, and also a large fortress 
 with cannon. One of the first ceremonies after the l)irth 
 of a Russian prince was what was called " taking his meas- 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 371 
 
 lire." The measure of Peter was taken on the third day 
 after his birth, and was performed in this manner: a 
 board of either cypress or linden-wood was cut the exact 
 length and breadth of the child, which in his case was 
 nineteen and a quarter inches long and five and a quarter 
 inches broad. Upon this board a picture, representing the 
 Holy Trinity, together with the Apostle Peter, was painted 
 b}' a famous artist. This birth-measure of Peter was 
 carefully preserved, and now hangs over his tomb in the 
 Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, in the fortress at St. 
 Petersburg. A nurse and governess were then selected 
 for the infant Peter ; and he had a special staff of dwarfs 
 who should be his companions and servants. The infant 
 prince had his own apartments, some of which were hung 
 with leather, stamped with silver, and others with fine red 
 cloth ; while the furniture was covered with crimson, em- 
 broidered with blue and yellow, and the walls and ceilings 
 were decorated with paintings. 
 
 The curious books of accounts enumerate some of the 
 articles ordered for him in the first years of his childhood. 
 Among them were "cradles covered with gold-embroi- 
 dered Turkish velvet ; sheets and pillows of white silk ; 
 coverlets of gold and silver stuffs ; coats, caps, stockings, 
 and shoes of velvet, silk, and satin, embroidered with gold 
 and pearls ; buttons and tassels of pearls and emeralds ; 
 a chest for his clothes, covered with dark blue velvet, 
 ornamented with mother-of-pearl • and a miniature car- 
 riage, drawn by ponies, in which he was taken out to 
 drive. Among his to^^s were musical instruments of vari- 
 ous kinds, and all sorts of military equipments." Peter 
 grew rapidly. He was able to walk when six months old. 
 Being the pet of his parents, he accompanied them in all 
 their excursions and visits. When he was three years of 
 
372 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 age, he was presented with a small carriage drawn by four 
 ponies, in which he was driven by the court dwarfs, and 
 he began to take part in the public processions of the 
 court. One scene is thus described : " Immediately after 
 the carriage of the Czar, there appeared from another 
 gate of the palace the carriage of the Czarina. In front 
 went the chamberlains with two hundred runners, after 
 which twelve large snow-white horses, covered with silk 
 housings, drew the Czarina. Then followed the small 
 carriage of the youngest prince, all glittering with gold, 
 drawn by four dwarf ponies. At the side of it rode four 
 dwarfs on ponies, and another one behind." The pres- 
 entation of Peter at court is tluis described : — 
 
 " The door on one side suddenly opened, and Peter, 
 three ^ears old, a curly-headed boy, was seen for a mo- 
 ment, holding his mother's hand, and looking at the 
 reception." 
 
 At this time, there were a dozen princesses living at the 
 palace, — the sisters and the aunts and the six daughters 
 of the Czar Alexis. All were unmarried. They were 
 forbidden to marry any below their own rank ; and since 
 the Tartar invasion, only two attempts had been made to 
 marry a Russian princess to a foreigner. None of these 
 princesses, except Sophia, who had shared the lessons of 
 her brother Theodore, had more than the rudiments of an 
 education. Most of the princesses were disposed of by 
 placing them in convents. Natalia, the mother of Peter, 
 having been ln"ought u}) by a Scotchwoman, had seen 
 more of society than the other royal ladies ; and she was 
 allowed a greater decree of freedom than had been vouch- 
 safed to her predecessors, who had been rigidly secluded 
 within their own apartments. 
 
 In 1676, the Czar Alexis died, and the throne descended 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 373 
 
 to his eldest son, Theodore. It was the custom in Russia 
 for the relations of the Czar's wife to liave great power ut 
 court ; and when Theodore came to the throne, the 
 Milosldvsky family, who were liis mother's relations, 
 assumed great power, wliile the family of Peter's mother, 
 the Czarina Natalia, lost their influence for the time. 
 
 Both Theodore and Ivdn were feeble and sickly chil- 
 dren, while Peter was strong and robust. But the law of 
 descent was inexorable, and on the death of Alexis, Theo- 
 dore became Czar. As lie was only fourteen years of a^e, 
 the administration of the government was left to the min- 
 isters of state. Now his sister, the Princess Sophia, who 
 was very ambitious, formed schemes for getting the power 
 into her own hands. She therefore so devoted herself to 
 the care of Theodore, who was sick most of the time, that 
 she gained complete ascendency over him ; and she met 
 all the courtiers, who came to visit the sick Czar, with 
 such affable manners, and showed such intelligence, that 
 she won a strong party of the nobles over to her support. 
 There was in Russia, at this time, a very powerful body 
 of troops, which had been organized by the emperors as 
 an imperial guard. These troops were called the Streltsi. 
 The Princess Sophia paid great attention to the officers of 
 these guards, and thus gained their good-will. Theodore 
 soon after died, and named Peter as his successor, passing 
 over his brother Ivdn, as his many infirmities rendered it 
 impossible for him to reign. It is probable that it was 
 through the influence of some of the nobles who were op- 
 posed to Sophia, that Theodore was induced to name 
 Peter as his successor. Peter, although but ten years of 
 age, was proclaimed emperor by the nobles, innuediately 
 after Theodore's death. Sophia now determined to resist 
 the transfer of the supreme power to Peter. She secretly 
 
874 PKIKR TIIK GREAT. 
 
 engaged the Streltsi, or giuirds, on her side. She caused 
 a report to be spread, that the late emperor had been 
 poisoned, and that the Narvshkins luid murdered the 
 C'zarewitz Ivan, and that tlie Narvslikins wished to kill all 
 the royal family. Tiuis were the relations of tlie Czarina 
 Natalia, the mother of Peter, accused of desiring the 
 death of all the children of the first wife of Alexis, tliat 
 Peter might gain the throne. Such was the falsehood 
 that the Princess So[)hia is said to have originated in 
 order to secui'e the power. The cry then arose, '' To 
 arms ! Punish the traitors ! To the Kremlin I Save the 
 Czar I " A general alarm was sounded. The Streltsi, 
 fully armed, advanced from all sides towards the Kr<^mlin, 
 and surrounded the palace, demanding the Czarewitz Ivdn. 
 Tlie Czarina Natalia was advised to go out on the red 
 staircase with the Czar Peter and the Czarewitz Iviin, 
 tliat the Streltsi might be convinced of the falsity of the 
 rumor. Trembling with terror, Natalia took by the hand 
 her son and stepson, and accompanied 1)y the nobles, 
 went out upon the red staircase. ''Here is the Czar 
 Peter and the Czarewitz Iviin ! " cried the nobles, to the 
 mob below. " There are no traitors in the royal family ! " 
 The Streltsi placed ladders against the rails, and some of 
 them climbed up to the platform where the little Czar 
 stood. Peter looked at them without blanching, or show- 
 ing any signs of fear. But even this did not quiet the 
 disturbance, and the Streltsi burst into the palace. Na- 
 talia took Peter and fled for safety to the monastery of 
 the Trinity. The soldiers pursued her even into the 
 sanctuary, and to the foot of the altar ; but there the 
 sacredness of the spot arrested their vengeance, and they 
 left their victims with sullen oaths. In the meantime, the 
 connnotion in the city continued for several days, and the 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 375 
 
 brother of the Empress Natalia, and others of her friends, 
 were slain. At last a compromise was effected, and it 
 was agreed that IvAu should be proclaimed Czar in con- 
 junction with his brother Peter, and that the Princess 
 Sophia should be regent. Sophia, knowing that Ivdn, 
 the poor idiot, would be but a tool in her hands, en- 
 deavored in every way possible to prevent her half- 
 brother Peter from becoming so intelligent and energetic 
 that he would take the power away from her. She there- 
 fore caused his teacher to be dismissed, and commenced 
 to carry out her plan to ruin the bright and talented boy, 
 by taking away from him all restraint, and indulging him 
 in every pleasure and whim. Peter was now established 
 in a household of his own, at a palace in a small village 
 some distance from Moscow, and Sophia selected fifty 
 ])oys to live with him as playmates. These boys were 
 provided with every possible means of indulgence, subject 
 to little restraint. It was the intention of Sophia that 
 they should do just as they chose, so that they would all 
 grow up idle, vicious, and good-for-nothing ; and she had 
 also the hope that Peter might so impair his health as to 
 bring him to an early grave. 
 
 But Peter had already been too well instructed, or pos- 
 sessed too much native good sense, to fall into this snare, 
 and instead of giving up his studies, he even contrived to 
 turn his companions into scliolars also. He organized 
 a kind of military school, where they practised the evolu- 
 tions and discipline necessary in a camp. He caused 
 himself to be taught to drum, so that he could execute all 
 the signals used in camp and on the battle-field. He 
 studied fortification, and set the boys to work with him to 
 construct a batter}^ in a regular and scientific manner. 
 He learned the use of tools, and the wheelbarrow he used 
 in making the fortification was one he made himself. 
 
370 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 As he grew older, he continued to introduce higher 
 brandies of military art into the school, and he adopted 
 the uniforms and equipments for the pupils, such as were 
 used in the military schools of other nations of Europe. 
 The result was, that when he was eighteen years of age, 
 and the time came for him to leave the place, the institu- 
 tion had become a well-organized and Avell-appointed 
 military school, and it continued in successful operation 
 for a long time afterwards. So this wicked plan of the 
 ambitious Sophia liad completely failed. Tlie energy and 
 talent that Peter had displayed caused many of the leading- 
 nobles to attach themselves to his cause, by which means 
 he was finally enabled to depose Sophia from her regency, 
 and to take the i)ower into his own hands. But before 
 this took place, we must note a still more wicked and evil 
 design of the ambitious princess. 
 
 The party of nobles who now espoused Peter's cause 
 thought it expedient that he should marry, and the cou.n- 
 cillors accordingly chose for his wife, Eudoxia Lopukhin, 
 a young lad}' of noble birth. The Princess Sophia did all 
 in her power to prevent this match, but she was unsuc- 
 cessful, and the marriage took place in February, 1689. 
 It was thought that a good stay-at-home wife would be 
 likely to keep him from taking his long excursions for 
 military mamjeuvres, and for ship-building, of which he 
 was so fond. But he had scarcely been married two 
 months before he started off again for his boat-building 
 on Lake Plestch^ief. Here he immediately set to work 
 with his carpenters to complete the boats, and he wrote to 
 his mother as follows : — 
 
 " To my most beloved and, while bodily life endures, 
 my dearest little mother, Lady Tsaritsa and Grand 
 Duchess Natalia Kirilovna. Thv little son, now here at 
 
PETER THE GREAT. Zll 
 
 work, Petrushka, I ask thv blessing, and desire to hear 
 about thv health ; and we, through thy prayers, are all 
 well, and the lake is all got clear from the ice to-day, and 
 all the boats, except the big ship, are finished, only we are 
 waiting for ropes ; and therefore I beg your kindness that 
 these ropes, seven hundred fathoms long, be sent from 
 the artillery department without delaying, for the work 
 is waiting for them, and our sojourn here is being pro- 
 longed." 
 
 And ao-ain he writes : — 
 
 "Hey! I wish to hear about thy health, and beg thy 
 blessing. We are all well, and about the boats, I say 
 again that they are mighty good, and Tikhon Nikititch 
 will tell you about all this himself. Thy unworthv 
 Petrus." 
 
 Peter with his young wife resided in a country palace 
 a few miles from Moscow. This place was called Obro- 
 gensko. Meanwhile, the Russian government had been 
 engaged in the Crimean War. 
 
 The Poles, having become involved in a war with the 
 Turks, proposed to the Russians, or Muscovites as they 
 were often called, that they should aid them in an attempt 
 to conquer the Crimea. In this war occurred the inci- 
 dent relating to the famous Mazeppa, whose frightful 
 ride through the tangled thickets of a wild countrv, bound 
 naked to an untamed horse, was so graphically described 
 by the poet Byron. Mazeppa was a Polish gentleman, 
 and having offended a Polish nobleman, he was thus 
 cruelly punished by his enemy. Some Cossack peasants 
 rescued the poor Mazeppa from his terrible position, and 
 he afterwards became a chieftain amongst them. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in these campaigns in the Crimean war, 
 fought b}' the Muscovites against the Tiuks and Tartars 
 
378 VKTEIi THE a UK AT. 
 
 durinix the regcnoy of the Princess Sophia. This w:ir 
 was not successful, and I'rince Golitsyn, who led tiu- 
 Russian forces, was obliged to retreat; but fearing to 
 have the state of the case known, he sent word to Mos- 
 cow that he had been successful, and was received by 
 Sophia upon his return with great honors, liut the young 
 Peter, who had been studying military tactics, was so dis- 
 pleased and disgusted with tlic military operations of 
 Golitsyn that, when that general was received hy Sophia 
 at ISIoscow with great state, the rewards could not then be 
 read, as Peter had refused to sign them. He, however, 
 was afterwards persuaded to grant them. But this un- 
 fortunate campaign of Golitsyn's was the turning point in 
 the struggle between the aristocratic party which espoused 
 the side of Peter, and the government of Soi)hia. Now 
 there was formed a dark and wicked i)lot, and some his- 
 torians accuse Sophia of being a party to it, if she did not 
 even propose it. This was the assassination of the young 
 
 Czar Peter. 
 
 The commander of the Streltsi selected a band of six 
 hundred of the imperial guards to go with him to (Jl)i()- 
 gensko. Their plan was to seize Peter at night while in 
 his bed. This plot was, however, frustrated by two of 
 the soldiers who revealed it to Peter. He could not at 
 first l)elieve that Sophia would resort to such a terrible 
 crime, and messengers were sent to the city to learn the 
 truth of the matter. These messengers met the imperial 
 guards when they had gone half-way to Moscow ; and, 
 concealing themselves by the wayside until the troops had 
 passed, they hastened back by a shorter j-oute to inform 
 Peter of his impending danger. Peter had just time to 
 flee with his wife and mother to the monastery of the Trin- 
 ity, when the Streltsi reached his palace, and sought him 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 379 
 
 in vain. They returned, discomfited and alarmed, to the 
 Princess Sophia, and reported that Peter had escaped. 
 From his retreat in the monastery, Peter sent a message 
 to Sophia, charging her with having sent the imperial 
 guards to take his life. The princess, greatly alarmed, 
 denied her guilt. The excitement increased. The leadino- 
 nobles flocked to the monastery to declare their adherence 
 to Peter. Sophia endeavored to keep the Streltsi upon 
 her side, but they at last went over to Peter, and he de- 
 manded that the leader of the band who attempted his 
 assassination should be delivered into his hands. This 
 Sophia was obliged to do ; and the man was put to the 
 torture, and revealed the plot. He said that the design 
 had been to kill Peter himself, his mother, and several 
 other near relations. The Princess Sophia was accused 
 of being the originator of the plot, and many other per- 
 sons were also implicated, including Prince Golitsyn, the 
 commander of the Russian forces in the Crimean War. 
 The leader of the band of guards who thus attempted the 
 life of Peter was beheaded. Prince Golitsyn and his family 
 were banished to Siberia, and many others implicated 
 were put to death, imprisoned for life, or banished. Thus 
 ended this conspiracy against the young Czar Peter. The 
 Princess Sophia was shut up in a convent, where she was 
 imprisoned for fifteen years, when she died. Iv^n, the 
 brother-Czar with Peter, was too feeble and inefficient to 
 take any part in the government, and he died about seven 
 years after this time. The aristocratic party now filled 
 the offices of state, and administered the government. 
 
 As Peter was yet so young, he left everything in the 
 hands of his counsellors, and for several years took 
 merely a formal part in the administration. He employed 
 himself in military exercises and boat-building, and in 
 
380 I'KTKR riiE (;rkat. 
 
 the iiKlnlgcnce of liis niochanical tastes. As Peter 
 grew older, ;iiul took more direction of the affairs of the 
 government, lie made choice of two very able men, whom 
 he afterwards raised to positions of great honor. The 
 name of one of these statesmen was Le Fort, and the 
 other was Menshik6f . Le Fort was the son of a merchant 
 of Geneva. He had from childhood evinced a strong 
 desire to he a soldier ; bnt his father preferred that he 
 shonld become a merchant, and he was taken into the 
 counting-house of one of the great merchants of Amster- 
 dam. This merchant was constantly sending vessels to 
 different parts of the world, and Le Fort was sent in 
 charge of the cargo of one vessel to Copenhagen. At 
 this time, an ambassador was to be sent from Denmark to 
 Russia ; and, as Le Fort knew something of the Russian 
 language, he secured the place of interpreter in the suite 
 of the ambassador, and went with him to INIoscow. On 
 one occasion, when the Czar Peter was dining at the 
 house of the ambassador, he noticed Le Fort, and ob- 
 served that he spoke the Russian language remarkably for 
 a foreigner. He was at once interested in him, and soon 
 secured Le Fort as his own interpreter, as he found that 
 he also spoke other languages. Le Fort became a great 
 favorite of the emperor's, and continued in his service 
 nntil his death. The first improvement which Le Fort 
 introduced into Russia related to the dress and equipment 
 of the troops. The imperial guards had been accustomed 
 to wear an old-fashioned Russian uniform, consisting of 
 a long outer coat or gown, which much impeded their 
 movements. Li conversing with the Czar, Le Fort sug- 
 gested that the dress of the soldiers of the western nations 
 was more convenient for military nse. Peter at once 
 desired to see it ; and Le Fort immediately repaired to 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 3<S1 
 
 the tailor of the Danish ambassador, aud ordered him to 
 make two military suits in the style worn by the royal 
 guards at Copenhagen, one for an officer and the other for 
 a soldier in the ranks. Peter was so pleased with these 
 suits, when they were shown to him, that he said he should 
 like to have a company of guards dressed and equipped 
 in that manner, and drilled according to the western style. 
 Le Fort undertook the task of organizing and equipping 
 such a band. When this company was completed, and 
 clothed in the new uniform, and had been properly drilled, 
 Le Fort placed liimself at their head, and marched them, 
 with drums beating and colors flying, before the pal- 
 ace gates. The Czar came to the window to see them 
 pass, and was so pleased that he said he would join the 
 company himself. He accordingly ordered a dress to be 
 made for his own use, and he took his place in the ranks, 
 and drilled as a common soldier. From this beginning, 
 the entire imperial army was reformed. The Czar now 
 proposed to Le Fort to make arrangements for bringing 
 into the country a great number of mechanics and arti- 
 sans from Denmark, Germany, France, and other Euro- 
 pean countries, in order that their improved methods 
 might be introduced into Russia. To accomplish this end, 
 the tariff of duties on the products and manufactures of 
 foreign countries was oreatlv reduced. This increased 
 the importation of goods from foreign countries, and pro- 
 moted the intercourse of the Russians with foreign mer- 
 chants, manufacturers, and artisans, and accustomed the 
 people to a better style of living by improving their dress, 
 furniture, and equipages. Also, the new system greatly 
 increased the revenues of the empire. Among other 
 reforms instituted by Peter, was that of the dress of his 
 people. The Russians had been accustomed to wear long 
 
382 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 gowns, similar to those worn now in Oriental countries. 
 As this costume was inconvenient for soldiers, workmen, 
 and artisans, Peter required it to be changed. This de- 
 scription is given of one strange style of dress among the 
 ancient Russian ladies : — 
 
 " They wore a sort of dress, of which the sleeves were 
 ten or twelve yards long. These sleeves were made very 
 full, and were drawn up upon the arm, in a sort of puff ; 
 it being the fashion to have as great a length of sleeve as 
 could possibly be crowded on, between the shoulder and 
 the wrist. The customary salutation between ladies and 
 gentlemen in society, when this dress was in fashion, was 
 performed through the intervention of the sleeves. On the 
 approach of the gentleman, the lady, by a sudden and dex- 
 terous motion of her arm, would throw off the end of her 
 sleeve to him. The sleeve, being so very long, could be 
 thrown in this way half across the room. The gentleman 
 would take the end of the sleeve which represented, we are 
 to suppose, the hand of the lady, and, after kissing and 
 saluting it in a most respectful manner, he would resign 
 it, and the lady would draw it back again upon her arm." 
 
 Peter required the people to change this dress, and he 
 sent patterns of the coats worn in Western Europe, to all 
 parts of the country. He, however, met with a good deal 
 of difficulty in inducing the people to follow these new 
 fashions, especially regarding the shaving of their mus- 
 taches and beards. He thereupon assessed a tax upon 
 beards, requiring every gentleman who wore one to pay 
 a hundred rubles a year ; and if any peasant entered the 
 cit}^ wearing a beard, he was stopped at the gates, and re- 
 required to pay a fine of a penny. The officers of the cus- 
 toms, who were stationed at the gates of the towns, were 
 ordered to stop ever}' man who wore a long dress, and 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 383 
 
 compel him to pay a fine of fifty cents, or else kneel down, 
 and have all the part of his coat which lay upon the ground 
 cut off with a pair of big shears. The Czar first set an 
 example also, of rapid motion through the streets. It had 
 been the custom for all the nobles to move about attended 
 by a vast retinue ; and as it was considered more stately to 
 move slowly, and as all those lower in rank must stand, 
 with uncovered heads, in the presence of their masters, 
 the streets were often blocked in the snow and rain 
 by these vast cavalcades of royalty ; and crowds were 
 obliged to stand in the cold and wet, with bare heads 
 exposed to the inclemency of the weather. Peter the 
 Great was attended, therefore, only by a few persons, 
 when going out in carriage or sleigh, and his coachman 
 was ordered to drive at a quick pace ; and he limited the 
 attendants of his nobles to a certain number. This story 
 is told of the manner in which the Czar's attention was 
 attracted to young Menshik6f, who became one of his 
 chief officers. Alexander Mensliik6f was the son of a 
 laboring man, in the service of a monastery, on the banks 
 of the Volga. Young Menshik6f afterwards went to 
 Moscow, and was there employed in a pastry-cook's 
 shop. It was his part of the work to go out in the 
 streets and sell pies and cakes. In order to attract 
 customers, he often sang songs. At one time Peter was 
 passing, and stopped to listen to the songs of the young 
 pastr3^-boy. Finally, the Czar asked him what he would 
 take for his whole stock of cakes and pies, basket and all. 
 The boy promptly stated the sum he would take for his 
 wares, but as for the basket, as it belonged to his master, 
 he could not sell it; but he dryly added: " Still, every- 
 thing belongs to Your Majesty, and Your Majesty has, 
 therefore, only to give me the command, and I shall 
 deliver it up to you." 
 
384 PETER THE a RE AT. 
 
 This reply so pleased the Czar, that he took the boy 
 into his service. When Peter the Great first became the 
 sole ruler of Russia, after the downfall of Sophia, he was 
 about twenty years of age. Ilis word was law. Life 
 and death hung upon his will. His dominions extended 
 so far, that, when he wished to send an ambassador to 
 one of his neighbors — the emi)eror of China — it took 
 the messenger more than eighteen months of constant 
 travelling to go from the capital to the frontier. As to 
 Peter's character, he was talented, ambitious, energetic, 
 and resolute ; but he was also quick-tempered, imperious, 
 merciless, towards his enemies, and possessed an indomi- 
 table will. Peter thus describes his first trial of the open 
 sea: — 
 
 " For some years I had the lill of my desires on Lake 
 Percy aslilvl, but finally it grew too narrow for me. I 
 then went to the Kubensky Lake, but that was too slial- 
 low. I then decided to see the open sea, and began often 
 to beg the permission of my mother to go to Archangel. 
 She forbade me such a dangerous journey, but, seeing my 
 great desire, and my unchangeable longing, allowed it, in 
 spite of herself." 
 
 So, in 1693, Peter set out from Moscow, with a suite 
 of a hundred persons, to go to Archangel. Having 
 arrived there, the smell of the salt water was too inviting 
 to be resisted ; and Peter put out to sea on a little yacht, 
 called St. Peter, which had been built for him. His 
 mother, who had exacted a promise that he would not 
 go to sea, hearing that he had gone on a sea journey, was 
 much alarmed, and wrote to him, urging his return. She 
 even had a letter written to him, in the name of his little 
 son, Alexis, then three years old, begging him to come 
 back. To this he replied : — 
 
CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AND PAUL IN THK FORTRESS. 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 385 
 
 " By thy letter I sec, oh ! oh ! that thou hast been 
 mightily grieved, and why? Why dost thou trouble thy- 
 self about me? Thou hast deigned to write that thou 
 hast given me into the care of the Virgin. When thou 
 hast such a guardian for me, why dost thou grieve? " 
 
 While at Archangel, besides the time which Peter gave 
 to the study of commerce and ship-building, he found 
 leisure for inspecting various industries and for practising 
 both at the forge and at the lathe. A chandelier made of 
 walrus teeth, turned b}' him, hangs now over his tomb in 
 the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, at St. Peters- 
 burg ; and carved work in bone and wood, and iron bars 
 forged by him at this time, are still preserved. P>esides 
 the balls and dinners which he attended at Archangel, to 
 which he had also been nnich given at Moscow, he fre- 
 (]uently attended a neighboring church, where he himself 
 read the Epistle, sang with the choir, and made great 
 friends with the archbishop. In 1694 his mother Natalia 
 died, and soon he repudiated his wife Eudoxia and shut 
 her up in a convent, where he kept her confined all the 
 rest of lier life. Peter had only married this wife to 
 please his mother and his nobles, and having never loved 
 her, soon tired of her. She had been brought up in the 
 old-fashioned Russian way, and was very ignorant ; but 
 as she appeared to love him devotedly, his treatment of 
 her was wicked and cruel, and in his after domestic life 
 there is much to condemn. Althouoh he did much for 
 the advancement of Russia, and his public enterprise and 
 achievements are greatly to be admired, in character he 
 was brutal and selfish, and his tastes were low and vicious. 
 He was fond of drunken carousals, and sank the dignity 
 of his rank in his associations with inferior and profligate 
 companions. As a man, there is little to admire in him, 
 
386 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 but as a public benefactor of his country, he is greatly to 
 be commended. As an artisan, statesman, and general, 
 he introduced wise and good reforms iuto his realms, and 
 raised his people from semi-barbarism to rank with the 
 other civilized nations of Europe. 
 
 Though he was not a scholar, he encouraged learning. 
 There was, about this time, a second attempt made to 
 assassinate the Czar. As Peter was often accustomed to 
 attend conflagrations in Moscow, these conspirators 
 formed the plan of setting fire to some building near the 
 royal palace, and when the emperor, as was his wont, 
 should come out to help extinguish the flames, he was to 
 be assassinated. Tiiey then determined to go to the con- 
 vent where Sophia was confined, release her, and proclaim 
 her empress. This plot was, however, revealed to the 
 Czar, and he thereupon ordered a small Ijody of men to 
 attend him, and he went at once to the houses of the vari- 
 ous conspirators and arrested them. They were after- 
 wards executed in a most barbarous manner. Tiie crimi- 
 nals were brought out one by one. First their arms were 
 cut off, then their legs, and finally their heads. The am- 
 putated limbs and heads were then hung upon a coUimn 
 in the market-place in Moscow, where thej' were left as a 
 bloody warning to others, as long as the weather remained 
 cold enough to keep them frozen. Thus ended the sec- 
 ond conspiracy against the life of Peter the Great. In 
 1695 the Czar, in conjunction with other P^uropean pow- 
 ers, declared war again against the Turks and Tartars. 
 Peter acquired great renown throughout Europe for his 
 successful siege against Azof, to obtain which was one of 
 the chief objects of the campaign. This success also in- 
 creased Peter's interest in the building of ships. He 
 dotormined to establish a lars^e fleet on the Black Sea, 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 387 
 
 and in order to ascertain the best modes of ship-buildino-, 
 Peter resolved to make a journey to Western Europe. 
 
 That he might not be burdened by fetes and ceremo- 
 nies, he adopted a disguise. Macaulay said of this jour- 
 ney, " It is an epoch in the history, not only of his own 
 country, but of ours and of the world." 
 
 Various reasons have been given by different writers for 
 this step of the Czar. Pleyer, the secret Austrian agent, 
 wrote to the Emperor Leopold that the whole embassy was 
 " merely a cloak for the freedom sought by the Czar, to 
 get out of his own country and divert himself a little. 
 A document in the archives at Vienna states that the 
 " cause of the journey was a vow made by Peter, when in 
 danger on the White Sea, to make a pilgrimage to the 
 tombs of the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome." 
 Voltaire said, "He resolved to absent himself for some 
 years from his dominions, in order to learn how better to 
 govern them." Napoleon said, "Pie left his country to 
 deliver himself for a while fiom the crown, so as to learn 
 ordinary life, and remount l)y degrees to greatness." But 
 later writers say, " Peter went abroad, not to fulfil a vow, 
 not to amuse himself, not to become more civilized, not 
 to learn the art of government, but simply to become a 
 good shipwright." 
 
 His mind was filled with the idea of creating a navy on 
 the Black Sea, and his tastes had always been mechani- 
 cal. In order to give the Czar greater freedom of action, 
 the purpose of his journey was concealed by means of a 
 great embassy, which should visit the chief countries of 
 western Europe. In the suite of the ambassadors were 
 twenty nobles and thirty-five called volunteers, who were 
 going for the study of ship-building. Among these was 
 the Czar himself. These volunteers were chiefly young 
 
388 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 men who biid l)cen comrades of Peter in his play-regi- 
 ments and boat-building. During the absence of the Czar 
 the government was intrusted to a regency of three per- 
 sons, the uncle of the Czar and two princes. We have 
 not space to describe this journey in full, and can only 
 mention certain incidents. The Czar is thus described 
 by the electress of Hannover and her daughter, whom 
 Peter met at Koppenbriigge : — 
 
 " My mother and I began to pay him our compliments, 
 but he made Mr. Le Fort reply for him, for he seemed 
 shy, hid his face in his hands, and said, ' Ich IxCinn iiicht 
 sprechen.' But we tamed him a little, and then he sat 
 down at the table between my mother and myself, and 
 each of us talked to him in turn. Sometimes he replied 
 with promptitude, at others, he made two interpreters 
 talk, and assuredly he said nothing that was not to the 
 point on all subjects that were suggested. As to his 
 grimaces, I imagined them worse than I found them, and 
 some are not in his power to correct. One can see also 
 that he has had no one to teach him how to eat properly, 
 ])ut he has a natural unconstrained air which pleases me." 
 
 Her mother also wrote: "The Czar is very tall, his 
 features are fine, and his fio;ure verv noble. He has o^reat 
 vivacity of mind, and a read}' and just repartee. But, 
 witli all the advantages with which nature has endowed 
 him, it could be wished that his manners were a little less 
 rustic. I asked him if he liked hunting. He replied 
 that his father had been very fond of it, but that he him- 
 self, from his earliest youtii, had liad a real passion for 
 navigation and for fireworks. He told us that he worked 
 himself in building ships, showed us his hands, and made 
 us touch the callous places that had been made by work. 
 He has quite the manners of his country. If he had 
 
I'ETER THE GREAT IN THE DUTCH SHIPYARD. 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 389 
 
 received a better education, he would be an accomplished 
 man, for he has many good qualities, and an infinite 
 amount of native wit." 
 
 The Czar proceeded to Holland, and in the little town 
 of Saardam, not far from Amsterdam, may still be seen 
 the shop wliich Peter occupied while there. The histo- 
 rians sa}', he entered himself as a common ship-carpenter, 
 at Amsterdam, and worked for several months among the 
 other workmen, wxariug the same dress they wore. In 
 moments of rest, the Czar, sitting down on a log, with his 
 hatchet between his knees, was willing to talk to any one 
 who addressed him simply as carpenter Peter, but turned 
 away without answering if called Sire or Your Majesty. 
 Peter's curiosity was insatiable. He visited workshops, 
 factories, cabinets of coins, anatomical museums, botani- 
 cal gardens, hospitals, theatres, and numerous other 
 places ; and inquired about everything he saw, until he 
 was recognized by his usual questions, " What is that for? 
 How does that work? That will I see." He made him- 
 self acquainted with Dutch home and family life. Every 
 market day he went to the Botermarkt, mingled with the 
 people, and studied their trades. 
 
 He took lessons from a travelling dentist, and experi- 
 mented on his servants. He mended his own clothes, and 
 learned enough of cobbling to make himself a pair of 
 slippers. He visited Protestant churches, and did not 
 forget the beer-houses. The frigate upon which Peter 
 worked so long, was at last launched, and proved a good 
 ship. He had seen some English ships which pleased him 
 so much, that he determined to set out for England, which 
 he did in 1G98, leaving his embassy in Holland. 
 
 King William of England made Peter a present of an 
 English yacht, with which he was much delighted. Peter 
 
390 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 spent much of his time in England, looking for suitable 
 persons to employ in arts and mechanics in Russia. He 
 avoided all court\)omp and etiquette during this journey, 
 and travelled incognito, as much as possible. He visited 
 also the mint in England, for he was pleased with the 
 excellence of the English coinage, and he designed recoiu- 
 iug the Russian money, which he afterwards accom- 
 pUshed, coining copper, silver, and gold to the extent of 
 $18,000,000 in the space of three years, to replace the bits 
 of stamped leather formerly used. At length he returned 
 to Amsterdam, where his embassy awaited him. When 
 Peter the Great was excited by anger or emotion, the ugly 
 aspect of his countenance and demeanor was greatly 
 aggravated by a nervous affection of the head and face, 
 which attacked him, particularly when he was in a passion, 
 and which produced convulsive twitches of the muscles, 
 that drew his head by jerks to one side, and distorted his 
 face in a manner dreadful to behold. It was said that 
 this disorder was first induced in his childhood, by some 
 one of the terrible frights through which he passed. This 
 distortion, together with the coarse and savage language 
 he employed when in a passion, made him appear at times 
 more like some ugly monster of fiction than like a man. 
 He disliked court etiquette, and avoided pompous cere- 
 monies. Of course there was much curiosity to see him 
 in the various cities he visited, but he generally avoided 
 the crowds ; and when his splendid embassy entered a city 
 in royal state, and the people collected in vast numbers to 
 behold the famous Czar, while they were straining their 
 eyes, and peering into every carriage of the royal proces- 
 sion in hopes of seeing him, Peter himself would slip into 
 the city by some quiet street, in disguise, and meeting the 
 merchants, with whom he delighted to associate, he would 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 391 
 
 go to some inn and indulge in his pipe and beer, leaving 
 his embassy to represent royalty. At last his diso-uise 
 was discovered, and then the news was circulated that the 
 Czar could be easily recognized by his great height, — 
 nearly seven feet, — by the twitching of his face, by his 
 gesturing with his right hand, and by a small mole on the 
 right cheek. His appearance is thus described by one 
 who saw him at this time : — 
 
 " He is a prince of very great stature, but there is one 
 circumstance which is unpleasant. He has convulsions, 
 sometimes in his eyes, sometimes in his arms, and some- 
 times in his whole body. He at times turns his eyes so 
 that one can see nothing but the whites. I do not know 
 whence it arises, but we must believe that it is a lack of 
 good breeding. Then he has also movements in the legs, 
 so that he can scarcely keep in one place. He is very 
 well made, and goes about dressed as a sailor, in the 
 highest degree simple, and wishing nothing else than to 
 be on the water." 
 
 But the Cardinal Kollonitz, primate of Hungary, gives 
 a more flattering picture of Peter the Great : — 
 
 " The Czar is a youth of from twenty-eight to thirty 
 years of age, is tall, of an olive complexion, rather stout 
 than thin, in aspect between proud and grave, and with a 
 lively countenance. His left eye, as well as his left arm 
 and leg, were injured by the poison given him during the 
 life of his brother ; but there remain now only a fixed and 
 fascinated look in hi"s eye, and a constant movement of 
 his arm and leg, to hide which, he accompanies this forced 
 motion with continual movements of his entire body, 
 which, by many people in the countries which he has 
 visited, has been attributed to natural causes, but really it 
 is artificial. His wit is lively and ready ; his manners 
 
092 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 rather civil than barbarous, the journey he has made 
 having improved him, and the difference from the begin- 
 ning of his travels and the present time being visible, 
 although his native roughness may still be seen in him ; 
 but it is chiefly noticeable in his followers, whom he holds 
 in check with great severity. He has a knowledge of 
 geography and history, and, wiiat is most to be noticed, 
 he desires to know these subjects better ; but his strongest 
 inclination is for maritime affairs, at which he himself 
 works mechanically, as he did in Holland ; and this work, 
 according to many people who have to do with him, is 
 indispensable to divert the effects of the poison, which 
 still very much troubles him. In person and in aspect, as 
 well as in his manners, there is nothing which would dis- 
 tinguish him or declare him to be a prince." 
 
 During his visit to Paris, the Czar often astonished the 
 polite Parisians. "On one occasion he went with the 
 duke of Orleans to the opera, where he sat on the front 
 bench of the large box. During the performance the 
 Czar asked if he could not have some beer. A large 
 goblet on a saucer was immediately brought. The regent 
 rose, took it, and presented it to the Czar, who, with a 
 smile and bow of politeness, took the goblet without any 
 ceremony, drank, and put it back on the saucer, which the 
 regent kept holding. The duke then took a plate with 
 a napkin, which he presented to the Czar, who, without 
 rising, made use of it, at which scene the audience seemed 
 astonished." 
 
 Notwithstanding his rough rnanners, the history, char- 
 acter, and achievements of the Czar, together with his 
 exact knowledge in so many directions, and his interest 
 in everything that was scientific and technical, made a 
 deep impression upon those who met him. St. Simon 
 
PETER I., CZAR OF RUSSIA. 
 (Ffonri Original Copperplate Engraving.) 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 393 
 
 thus describes him : " He was a very tall man, well made 
 not too stout, with a roundish face, a high forehead, and 
 fine eyebrows, a short nose — but not too short — laro-e at 
 the end ; his lips were rather thick, his complexion a ruddy 
 brown ; fine black eyes, large, lively, piercing, and well 
 apart ; a majestic and gracious look when he wished, 
 otherwise severe and stern, with a twitching which did not 
 often return, but which disturbed his look and his whole 
 expression, and inspired fear. That lasted but a moment, 
 accompanied by a wild and terrible look, and passed away 
 as quickly. His whole air showed his intellect, his reflec- 
 tion, and his greatness, and did not lack a certain grace. 
 He wore only a linen collar, a round brown peruke 
 without powder, which did not touch his shoulders ; a 
 brown, tight-fitting coat, plain, with gold buttons ; a waist- 
 coat, breeches, stockings, no gloves nor cuffs ; the star of 
 his order on his coat, and the ribbon underneath, his coat 
 often quite unbuttoned ; his hat on a table, and never on 
 his head even out of doors. With all this simplicity, and 
 whatever bad carriage or company he might be, one could 
 not fail to perceive the air of greatness that was natural 
 to him." 
 
 While at Vienna, Peter learned of another revolt of the 
 Streltsi, and thereupon hastened back to Moscow to put 
 down the insurrection. The rebellion was soon quelled ; 
 but the tortures and executions which followed were bar- 
 barous. Some were beheaded ; some were broken on the 
 wheel, and then left to die in horrible agonies ; many 
 were buried alive, their heads only being left above the 
 ground. It is said that Peter took such a savage delight 
 in these punishments that he executed many of the vic- 
 tims with his own hand. At one time, when half intoxi- 
 cated, at a banquet, he ordered twenty prisoners to be 
 
394 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 brought in, and between his drinks of brandy cut off their 
 heads himself, being an hour in cutting off the twenty 
 
 heads. 
 
 As Peter thought Sophia was implicated in this revolt, 
 he ordered the arm of the ringleader of the plot to be cut 
 off, and an address which he found, written to Sophia, to 
 be placed in the stiffened hand, and by his order this 
 ghastly relic was fastened to the wall in Sophia's apart- 
 ment. When the trials were over, a decree was issued, 
 abolishing the Streltsi ; and they were all sent into 
 exile. Peter was now involved in a war with Sweden for 
 the possession of the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. 
 At first, the Swedes were victorious ; but in about a year 
 the Czar gained possession of a considerable portion of 
 the Baltic shore, and he thereupon determined to build a 
 new city there, with the view of making it the naval and 
 commercial capital of his kingdom. This plan was suc- 
 cessfully carried out, and the building of the great city of 
 St Petersburg was one of the most important events in 
 the reign of Peter the Great. 
 
 At length, Charles XII., king of Sweden, began to be 
 alarmed at the increasing power of the Czar in that part 
 of the country, and he invaded Russia with an army. 
 The famous battle of Pultowa, by which the invasion of 
 the Swedes was repelled, was fought in 1709 ; and this 
 was almost the only serious danger from any foreign source 
 which threatened the dominions of Peter the Great during 
 
 his reign. 
 
 Peter, having been previously privately married to 
 Catherine, determined, in 1712, to have a public cere- 
 mony. Peter's first wife had one son, Alexis, who occa- 
 sioned his father the most serious trouble. Alexis was 
 indolent and most vicious in his habits of life ; and so 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 395 
 
 outrageous was his conduct that at last his father caused 
 him to be imprisoned. It was then discovered that Alexis 
 had been planning a revolt, and Peter referred his case 
 to a grand council of civil authorities, and also a convoca- 
 tion of the clergy to determine upon the sentence to be 
 pronounced upon this rebellious son. The council declared 
 that he was worthy of death, and the Czar confirmed the 
 judgaient of the council, and a day was appointed on 
 which Alexis was to be arraigned in order that sentence 
 of death might be solemnly pronounced upon him. But 
 before the appointed day arrived, Alexis was attacked 
 with convulsions, caused by his terror ; and the Czar vis- 
 ited him in the fortress where he was dying. 
 
 The dying prince besought forgiveness of his father 
 with such prayers and tears that Peter and his ministers 
 were overcome with emotion. The Czar gave Alexis his 
 forgiveness and his blessing, and took his leave with tears 
 and lamentations. Soon after, Alexis expired. The 
 funeral rites were performed by the Czar and his family 
 with much solemnity. At the service in the church a 
 funeral sermon was pronounced by the priest from the 
 appropriate text, '•' O Absalom! my son ! my son Absa- 
 lom ! " Thus ended this dreadful tragedy. 
 
 The heir to the throne was now the little son of Cather- 
 ine, Peter Petrowitz. The birth of this son, which oc- 
 curred about three years before the death of Alexis, was 
 such a delioht to Peter the Great that he celebrated the 
 event with public rejoicings. At the baptism of the babe, 
 two kings — those of Denmark and of Prussia — acted as 
 oodfathers. The christeninsf was attended with most 
 gorgeous banquets. Among other curious contrivances 
 were two enormous pies, — one served in the room of the 
 gentlemen and the other in that of the ladies. From the 
 
396 ■ PETER THE GEE AT. 
 
 ladies' pie, there stepped out, when it was opened, a 
 young dwarf, very small, and clothed in a fantastic man- 
 ner. The dwarf brought out with him from the pie some 
 glasses and a bottle of wine, and he walked around the 
 table, drinking to the health of the ladies, who were in- 
 tensely amused by his droll manners. In the gentlemen's 
 room the pie was similar, from which a female dwarf 
 stepped forth and performed the same ceremony. Peter 
 the Great was much attached to his wife Catherine, whose 
 romantic life we have not space to describe. Her influ- 
 ence over the Czar was most beneficial. 
 
 About a year after the death of Alexis, the little Peter 
 Petrowitz, the idolized son of the Czar, also died. Peter 
 the Great was completely overwhelmed with grief at this 
 new calamity. P^ven Catherine, who usually had power 
 to soothe his fits of frenzy, anger, or grief, and whose 
 touch would often stop the contortions of his face, could 
 not comfort him now ; for the sight of her only reminded 
 him more keenly of his loss. It was feared at this time 
 that grief would kill the Czar ; for he shut himself up 
 alone, and would not allow any one to come near him for 
 three days and nights. Peter the Great, however, lived 
 sixteen years after this event. During these last years 
 he continued the reforms in his empire and increased the 
 power and influence of his government among surround- 
 ing nations. As both of his sons were dead, he deter- 
 mined to leave the government in the hands of Catherine, 
 and she was crowned empress with most imposing cere- 
 monies. In less than a year after this event, the Czar was 
 attacked with a sudden illness during the ceremonies of 
 rejoicings connected with the betrothal of one of his 
 daughters to a foreign duke. His death took place on 
 the 28th of January, 1725. Another of his daughters 
 
PETER THE GREAT. 397 
 
 having died a short time after her father, their bodies 
 were interred together. The funeral obsequies were so 
 protracted, and were conducted witli so much pomp and 
 ceremony, that six weeks elapsed before the remains of 
 Peter the Great were finally committed to the tomb. The 
 fame of Peter the Great differs from that attained by 
 other famous rulers of the world ; for it was not conse- 
 quent upon renowned foreign conquests, but the triumph 
 which Peter achieved was the commencement of a work of 
 internal improvement and reform which now, after a cen- 
 tury and a half has passed, is still going on. 
 
398 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 A.D. 1712-1786. 
 
 " Kings are like stars, — they rise and set, they have 
 The worship of the world, but no repose." — Shelley. 
 
 " A man's a man ; 
 But when you see a king, you see the work 
 Of many thousand men." — George Eliot. 
 
 CARLYLE accused Schiller of "oversetting fact, 
 disregarding realit}^, and tumbling time and space 
 topsy-turvy." That there is great danger of doing the 
 latter, in condensing such a life as that of Frederick the 
 Great into the small space allotted to these sketches, can- 
 not be denied ; but fiction itself could scarcely overstate 
 the facts connected with this weird but most fascinating 
 glimpse of historical events. Carlyle says : "With such 
 wagon -loads of books and printed records as exist on the 
 subject of Frederick, it has always seemed possible, even 
 for a stranger, to acquire some real understanding of him ; 
 though practically, here and now, I have to own it proves 
 difficult beyond conception. Alas ! the books are not 
 cosmic ; they are chaotic." 
 
 True it is, it is not want of material, but the overwhelm- 
 ing multiplicity of documents, which renders it difficult to 
 trace out a clear-cut sketch of Frederick the Great ; and 
 that we may do it more concisely, and 3'et entertainingly, 
 a series of panoramic pictures will perhaps be the best 
 method of achievino- the desired end. 
 
FREDERICK 11., KING OF PRUSSIA, .ET. 58. 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 399 
 
 *' About one hundred years ago there used to be seen 
 sauntering on the terraces of Sans Souci for a short time 
 in the afternoon — or you might have met him elsewhere 
 at an earlier hour, riding or driving in a rapid business 
 manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy woods 
 and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region 
 — a highly interesting, lean little old man, of alert though 
 slightW stooping figure, whose name among strangers was 
 King Friedrich the Second^ or Frederick the Great of Prus- 
 sia, and at home among the common people, who much 
 loved and esteemed him, was Vater Fritz., Father Fred. 
 
 "He is a king, every inch of him, though without the 
 trappings of a king. He presents himself in a Spartan 
 simplicity of vesture : no crown but an old military 
 cocked hat, generally old, or trampled and kneaded into 
 absolute softness if new ; no sceptre but one like Aga- 
 memnon's — a walking-stick cut from the woods, which 
 serves also as a riding-stick ; and for royal robes a mere 
 soldier's blue coat with red facings, coat likely to be old, 
 and sure to have a good deal of Spanish snuff on the breast 
 of it ; rest of the apparel dim, unobtrusive in color or cut, 
 ending in high over-knee military boots, which may be 
 brushed, but are not permitted to be blackened or var- 
 nished. 
 
 "The man is not of god-like physiognomy, anymore 
 than of imposing stature or costume : close-shut mouth 
 with thin lips, prominent jaws and nose, receding brow, 
 by no means of Olympian height ; head, however, is of 
 long form, and has superlative gray eyes in it ; not what 
 is called a beautiful man, nor yet, by all appearance, what 
 is called a happy. The face bears evidence of many sor- 
 rows, of much hard labor done in this world. Quiet stoi- 
 cism, great unconscious, and some conscious, pride, well 
 
400 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 tempered with a cheery mockery of humor, are written on 
 that old face, which carries its chin well forward in spite 
 of the slight stoop about the neck ; snuffy nose rather flung 
 into the air, under its old cocked hat, like an old snuffy 
 lion on the watch, and such a pair of eyes as no man, or 
 Hon, or lynx, of that centur3'bore elsewhere. Those eyes, 
 which, at the bidding of his great soul, fascinated you 
 with seduction or with terror ; most excellent, potent, 
 brilliant eyes, swift-darting as the stars, steadfast as the 
 sun ; gray, we said, of the azure-gray color ; large enough, 
 not of glaring size ; the habitual expression of them vigi- 
 lance and penetrating sense, and gives us the notion of a 
 lambent outer radiance springing from some great inner 
 sea of light and fire in the man. The voice, if he speak 
 to you, is clear, melodious, and sonorous ; all tones are 
 in it: ingenuous inquiry, graceful socialif}', light-flowing 
 banter up to definite word of command, up to desolating 
 word of rebuke and reprobation." 
 
 Such is the picture of Frederick the Great in his later 
 days ; but now we will turn back our panoramic views, 
 and behold the setting of his early ^^ears : and, to a clearer 
 understanding of those events, an aid may be found in 
 glancing at his native country, Prussia. For many cen- 
 turies the country on the southern coasts of the Baltic Sea 
 was inhabited by wild tribes of barbarians, almost as sav- 
 age as the beasts which roamed in their forests. After a 
 time the tribes, tamed and partly civilized, produced a 
 race of tall and manly proportions, fair in complexion, 
 with flaxen hair, stern aspect, great physical strength, 
 and most formidable foes in battle. Centuries passed, of 
 which history notes only wars and woes, when from this 
 chaotic barbarism order emerged. Small states were or- 
 ganized, and a political life began. In 1700 one of the 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 401 
 
 petty provinces was called the Marquisate of Branden- 
 burg, whose marquis was Frederick, of the familj- of 
 Ilohenzollern. To the east of this province was a duchv, 
 called Prussia, which was at length added to the domains 
 of Frederick, the marquis of Brandenburg, and he ob- 
 tained from the emperor of Germany the recognition of 
 his dominions as a kingdom, and assumed the title of 
 Frederick I. of Prussia. On the ICth of November, 1700. 
 his ambassador returned triumphantly from Vienna. •• The 
 Kaiser has consented ; we are to wear a royal crown on 
 the tx^p of our periwig." Thus Prussia became a king- 
 dom. AVhen Frederick was crowned king of Prussia, most 
 gorgeous was the pomp, most royal was the grandeur, of 
 the imposing ceremonies. Carlyle says : — 
 
 ••The magnificence of Frederick's processionings into 
 Konigsburg, and of his coronation ceremonials there, what 
 pen can describe it ! what pen need ! Folio volumes with 
 copper-plates have been written on it, and are not yet all 
 pasted in band-boxes or slit into spills. • The diamond 
 buttons of his majesty's coat' (snuff-colored or purple, I 
 cannot recollect) cost £1,500 apiece. By this one feature 
 judge what an expensive Herr. Streets were hung with 
 cloth, carpeted with cloth, no end of draperies and cloth ; 
 your oppressed imagination feels as if there was cloth 
 enough of scarlet and other bright colors to thatch the 
 Arctic Zone ; with illuminations, cannon-salvos, fountains 
 running wine. Frederick himself put the crown on his 
 head, * King here in my own right, after all,' and looked 
 his royalest, we may fancy. — the kind eyes of him, al- 
 most fierce for moments, and the • cheerfulness of pride ' 
 well blending with somethincr of awful." 
 
 And now we must hang up the picture of Frederick the 
 srrandfather, for there has another Frederick come to 
 
402 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 claim our attention. "Courage, poor old grandfather! 
 Poor old man ! he got his own back half broken by a 
 careless nurse letting him fall, and has slightly stooped 
 ever since, much against his will, for he would fain have 
 been beautiful. But here is a new edition of a Frederick, 
 the first having gone off with so little effect. This one's 
 back is still unbroken. Who knows but Heaven may be 
 kinder to this one? Heaven was much kinder to this one. 
 Him Heaven had kneaded of a more potent stuff ; a 
 mighty fellow, this one, and a strange ; of a swift, far- 
 darting nature this one, like an Apollo clad in sunbeams 
 and in lightnings, and with a back which all the world 
 could not succeed in breaking." 
 
 Between the old grandfather and this famous Frederick 
 there hangs the picture of still another Frederick, only a 
 little less famous, — Frederick Wilhelm, crown prince of 
 Prussia when his famous son was born, afterwards second 
 king of Prussia, and withal most ferocious in his nature, 
 part bear and part maniac ; his picture is thus graphically 
 sketched. 
 
 "The new monarch, who assumed the crown with the 
 title of Frederick William, not with that of Frederick II. , to 
 the utter consternation of the court dismissed nearly every 
 honorary official of the palace, from the highest dignitary 
 to the humblest page. His flashing eye and determined 
 manner were so appalling that no one ventured to remon- 
 strate. A clean sweep was made, so that the household 
 was reduced to the lowest footing of economy consistent 
 with the supply of indispensable wants. Eight servants 
 were retained at six shillings a week. His father had 
 thirt}' pages ; all were dismissed but three. There were 
 one thousand saddle-horses in the royal stables ; Frederick 
 William kept thirty. Three-fourths of the names were 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 403 
 
 struck from the pension list. For twenty-seven years this 
 strange man reigned. He was like no other monarch. 
 Great wisdom and shrewdness were blended with unutter- 
 able folly and almost maniacal madness. Though a man 
 of strong powers of miud, he was very illiterate. ' For 
 spelling, grammar, penmanship, and composition, his semi- 
 articulate papers resemble nothing else extant, — are as 
 if done by the paw of a bear ; indeed, the utterance gen- 
 erally sounds more like the growling of a bear than any- 
 thing that could be handily spelled or parsed. But there 
 is a decisive human sense in the heart of it, and such a 
 dire hatred of empty bladders, unrealities, and hypocritical 
 forms and pretenses, which he calls wind and humbug, as 
 is verv strans-e indeed.' 
 
 " His energy inspired the whole kingdom, and paved 
 the waj- for the achievements of his son. The father 
 created the machine with which the son attained such 
 wonderful results. He commuted the old feudal service 
 into a fixed money payment. He goaded the whole realm 
 into industry, compelling even the apple-women to knit 
 at the stalls. 
 
 " The crown lands were farmed out. He drained bogs, 
 planted colonies, established manufactures, and in every 
 way encouraged the use of Prussian products. He carried 
 with him invariably a stout rattan cane. Upon the slight- 
 est provocation, like a madman, he would thrash those 
 who displeased him. He was an arbitrary king, ruling at 
 his sovereign will, and disposing of the liberty, the prop- 
 erty, and the lives of his subjects at his pleasure. Every 
 year he accumulated large masses of coin, which he de- 
 posited in barrels in the cellar of his palace. He had no 
 powers of graceful speech, but spent his energetic, joyless 
 life in grumbling and growling. He would allow no drapery, 
 
404 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 no stuffed furniture, no carpets in his apartments. He 
 sat upon a plain wooden chair. He ate roughly of roast 
 beef, despising all delicacies. His dress was a close mili- 
 tary blue coat, with red cuffs and collar, buff waistcoat 
 and breeches, and white linen gaiters to the knee. His 
 sword was belted around his waist. A well-worn, bat- 
 tered triangular hat covered his head. He walked rap- 
 idly through the streets which surrounded his palaces at 
 Potsdam and Berlin. If he met any one, he would ab- 
 ruptly inquire, ' Who are you? ' When his majesty took 
 a walk, every human being fled before him, as if a tiger 
 had broken loose from a menagerie. If he met a lady 
 in the street, he gave her a kick, and told her to go 
 home and mind her children. If he saw a clergyman 
 staring at the soldiers, he admonished the reverend gen- 
 tleman to betake himself to study and prayer, and enforced 
 his pious advice by a sound caning administered on the 
 spot. But it was in his own house that he was most un- 
 reasonable and ferocious. His palace was hell, and he 
 the most execrable of fiends." 
 
 And now we will turn this unlovely picture of the bearish 
 Frederick William to the wall, while we examine a portrait 
 of the young Fritz, afterwards Frederick the Great. 
 
 In the palace of Berlin, on the 24th of January, 1712, 
 a small infant opened its eyes upon this world. Though 
 small, he was of great promise and possibility, " and thrice 
 and four times welcome to all sovereign and other persons 
 in the Prussian court and Prussian realms in those cold 
 winter days. His father, they say, was like to have stifled 
 him with his caresses, so overjoyed was the man, or at 
 least to have scorched him in the blaze of the fire, when 
 happily some much suitabler female nurse snatched this 
 little creature from the rough paternal paws, and saved it 
 for the benefit of Prussia and mankind." 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 405 
 
 Then they christened this wee fellow, aged one week, 
 with immense magnificence and pomp of ceremony, Karl 
 Frederick ; but the Karl dropped altogether out of prac- 
 tice, and Frederick {Rich in Peace) became his only title ; 
 until his father became king of Prussia, and Fritz stepped 
 into the rank of crown prince, and subsequently became 
 the most renowned sovereign of his nation, and took his 
 place in the foremost rank of the famous rulers of the 
 world. 
 
 Frederick William had married, when eighteen years of 
 age, his pretty cousin, Sophie Dorothee, daughter of 
 George I. of England. Little Fritz had an elder sister, 
 named Wilhelmina. There were several younger children 
 afterwards, but our story mostly concerns Fritz and his 
 sister Wilhelmina, for whom he showed greater affection 
 than for any other person. 
 
 Frederick William was very desirous that Fritz should 
 be a soldier, but the beautiful laughing Fritz, with his 
 long golden curls and sensitive nature, was fonder of 
 books and music than of war and soldiering, which much 
 offended his stern father ; and so great was his abhorrence 
 of such a feminine employment as he esteemed music, that 
 little Fritz and Wilhelmina must needs practice in secret ; 
 and had it not been for the aid of their mother, the Queen 
 Sophie Dorothee, they would have been denied this great 
 pleasure. But the music-masters were sent to the forests 
 or caves by the queen, and there the prince Fritz and 
 Wilhelmina took their much-prized music-lessons. But 
 one day the stern king found Fritz and Wilhelmina march- 
 ing around together, while the laughing prince was proudly 
 beating a drum, much to his own and sister's delight. 
 The king was so overjoyed at this manifestation of sup- 
 posed military taste in his son, that he immediately called 
 
406 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 the queen to witness the performance, and then employed 
 an artist to transfer the scene to canvas. This picture 
 still hangs upon the walls of the Charlottenburg Palace. 
 
 When Fritz was but six years old, a military company 
 was organized for him, consisting of about three hundred 
 lads. This band was called " The Crown Prince Cadets." 
 Fritz was very thoroughly drilled in his military duties, 
 and a uniform was provided for him. An arsenal was 
 built on the palace grounds at Potsdam, where he mounted 
 batteries and practised gunnery with small brass ordnance. 
 Until Fritz w^as seven 3^ears of age, his education had 
 been under the care of a French governess ; but at that 
 age he was taken from his lady teachers and placed under 
 tutors. These tutors were militarv officers of great re- 
 nown. 
 
 The following directions were drawn up by Frederick 
 William, regarding his son's education : — 
 
 *' My son must be impressed with love and fear of God, 
 as the foundation of our temporal and eternal welfare. 
 No false religions or sects of Atheist, Arian, Socinian, or 
 whatever name the poisonous things have, which can 
 easily corrupt a young mind, are to be even named in his 
 hearing. He is to be taught a proper abhorrence of 
 Papistry, and to be shown its baselessness and nonsensi- 
 cality. Impress on him the true religion, which consists 
 essentially in this : that Christ died for all men. He is 
 to learn no Latin, but French and German, so as to speak 
 and write with brevity and propriety. Let him learn 
 arithmetic, mathematics, artillery, economy, to the very 
 bottom ; history in particular ; ancient history only 
 slightly, but the history of the last one hundred and fifty 
 years to the exactest pitch. He must be completely mas- 
 ter of geography, as also of whatever is remarkable in 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 407 
 
 each country. With increasing years you will more and 
 more, to an especial degree, go upon fortification, the 
 formation of a camp, and other war sciences, that the 
 prince may from youth upward be trained to act as officer 
 and general, and to seek all his glory in the soldier pro- 
 fession." 
 
 Frederick William took little Fritz with him from early 
 childhood on all his military reviews, and in going from 
 garrison to garrison the king employed a common vehicle 
 called a sausage-car. This consisted of a mere stuffed 
 pole, some ten or twelve feet long, upon which they sat 
 astride. It rested upon wheels, and the riders, ten or a 
 dozen, were rattled along over the rough roads through 
 dust and rain, in winter's cold and summer's heat. This 
 iron king robbed his child even of sleep, saying, "Too 
 much sleep stupefies a fellow." Sitting astride of this 
 log carriage, the tender and delicate Fritz, whose love 
 was for music, poetry, and books, was forced to endure 
 all kinds of hardship and fatigue. When Fritz was ten 
 years of age, his exacting father made out a set of rules 
 which covered all the hours of this poor boy's life. Not 
 even Saturday or Sunday was left untrammelled by his 
 stern requirements. 
 
 Fritz was a remarkably handsome boy, with a fine fig- 
 ure, small and dehcate hands and feet, and flowing blonde 
 hair. His father, despising all the etiquette and social 
 manners of life and dress, ordered his beautiful hair to be 
 cut off, and denied him every luxury of the toilet and 
 adornment. Frederick William early displayed an aver- 
 sion for his handsome son, which soon amounted to actual 
 hatred. As Wilhelmina and the mother of Fritz both took 
 his part against the angry and brutal king, the wrath of 
 that almost inhuman monster was also meted out to them. 
 
408 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 When Fritz was fourteen years of age, he was ap- 
 pointed by his father as captain of the Potsdam Grena- 
 dier Guards. This regiment was the glor}' of the king, 
 and was composed entirely of giants. The shortest of 
 the men were nearly seven feet high, and tlie tallest 
 nearly nine feet in height. Frederick William did not 
 scruple to take any means of securing these coveted 
 giants, and his recruiting officers were stationed in 
 many places for the purpose of seizing any large men, no 
 matter what their nationality or position. When the 
 rulers of neighboring realms complained at this unlawful 
 seizure of their subjects, the Prussian king pretended that 
 it was done without his knowledge. If any young woman 
 was found in his kingdom of remarkable stature, she was 
 compelled to marr}^ one of the king's giants. This guard 
 consisted of 2,400 men. 
 
 The queen-mother, Sophie Dorothee, had set her mind 
 upon bringing about a double marriage, between Wilhel- 
 mina and her cousin Fred, son of the king of England, 
 and Fritz and his cousin, the princess Amelia, the sister 
 of Fred. But though all her schemes came to naught, 
 they occasioned much trouble in her family, and brought 
 down upon the heads of poor Wilhelmina and Fritz much 
 brutal persecution from their inhuman father. 
 
 Frederick William took his son Fritz to visit Augustus, 
 king of Poland. This king was an exceedingly profligate 
 man, and the young Fritz learned vicious habits at this 
 court, which lured him into evil ways which ever after left 
 their blot upon his character and morals. This fatal visit 
 to Dresden occurred when Fritz was sixteen years of age, 
 and the dissipation of those four weeks introduced the 
 crown prince to habits which have left an indelible stain 
 upon his reputation, and which poisoned his life. The 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 409 
 
 king's previous dislike to his son was now converted into 
 contempt and hatred, as he became aware of his vicious 
 habits ; for though the iron king was a maniac in temper, 
 and cruel as a savage, he had no weakness towards an 
 immoral life. King Frederick William was now confined 
 to his chair with gout, and poor Wilhelmina and Fritz 
 were the victinis upon whom his severest tyrannies fell. 
 The princess Wilhelmina was very beautiful, and had it 
 not been for his love for this sister, upon whom the whole 
 weight of his father's resentment would then fall, Fritz 
 would have escaped from his home and the terrible ill- 
 treatment he there received. 
 
 We have not space to give the pictures of the family 
 broils in this unhappy household. Now the crabbed old 
 man would snatch the plates from the table at dinner and 
 fling them at the heads of his children, usually at hapless 
 Wilhelmina or Fritz ; then, angered at Wilhelmina be- 
 cause she refused to take whatever husband her cruel 
 father might select, irrespective of her inclination or 
 wishes, he shut the poor princess up in her apartment, 
 and tried to starve her into submission ; for, as she writes, 
 " I was really dying of hunger, having nothing to eat but 
 soup made with salt and water and a ragout of old bones, 
 full of hairs and other dirt." At last she yielded to her 
 father's demands ; but then she incurred the anger of her 
 mother, who had set her heart upon the match with the 
 prince of Wales. 
 
 So the poor princess' days were full of bitterness. But, 
 fortunately, the prince of Baireuth, whom she married, 
 turned out to be a kind husband ; but as he was absent 
 most of the time on regimental duty, and had but his 
 small salary, and the old marquis of Baireuth, her hus- 
 band's father, was penurious, irascible, and an inebriate, 
 
410 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 she often suffered for the necessaries of Ufe. The home 
 of her step-parents was unendurable, and the home of her 
 childhood was still more so. Unhappy princess ! and 
 yet, in the midst of all this misery, her bright and graphic 
 letters form one of the greatest delights to students of 
 history, and give true pictures of the home of Frederick 
 the Great, which can be found nowhere else. 
 
 Fritz had now so seriously offended his father, that the 
 king openly exposed him to contempt. He even flogged 
 the prince with his rattan in the presence of others ; and the 
 3'oung heir-apparent to the throne of Prussia, beautiful in 
 person, high-spirited, and of superior genius, was treated 
 by his father with studied insult, even in the presence of 
 monarchs, of lords and ladies, of the highest dignitaries 
 of Europe ; and after raining blows upon his head, he 
 exclaimed in diabolical wrath, as if desirous of goading 
 his son to suicide : " Had I been so treated by \T\y father, 
 I would have blown my brains out. But this fellow has 
 no honor. He takes all that comes." 
 
 But at last Fritz decided not to take longer all that 
 came, and so he prepared for flight. On the 15th of July, 
 1730, the king of Prussia set out with a small train, 
 accompanied by Fritz, to take a journey to the Rhine. 
 When near Augsburg, Fritz wrote to Lieutenant Katte, 
 one of his profligate friends, stating that he should em- 
 brace the first opportunity to escape to the Hague ; that 
 there he should assume the name of the Count of Alber- 
 ville. He wished Katte to join him there, and to bring 
 with him the overcoat and the one thousand ducats which 
 he had left in his hands. Just after midnight the prince 
 stole out to meet his valet, who had been commanded to 
 bring some horses to the village green. But as Keith, the 
 valet, appeared with the horses, he was accosted by one 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 411 
 
 of the king's guard ; and the prince, although disguised 
 with a red overcoat, was recognized and forced to with- 
 draw to his own quarters and give up the attempt for that 
 time. The king was informed of these things, and now 
 the poor prince was put in the care of three of the guard, 
 and they were informed if the prince was allowed to 
 escape, death would be their doom. Upon the king's 
 arrival at Wesel, he ordered his culprit son to be brought 
 before him. A terrible scene ensued. As the king would 
 give no assurance that his friends who had aided him 
 should be pardoned, the crown prince evaded all attempts 
 to extort from him confessions v/hich would implicate 
 them. "Why," asked the king, furiously, "did you at- 
 tempt to desert?" 
 
 "I wished to escape," the prince boldly replied, " be- 
 cause you did not treat me like' a son, but like an abject 
 slave." 
 
 "You are a cowardly deserter," the father exclaimed, 
 " devoid of all feelings of honor." 
 
 " I have as much honor as you have," the son replied ; 
 " and I have only done that which I have heard you say a 
 hundred times you would have done yourself, had you been 
 treated as I have been." 
 
 The infuriated king was now beside himself with rage. 
 He drew his sword and seemed upon the point of thrust- 
 ing it through the heart of his son, when General Mosel 
 threw himself before the king, exclaiming, " Sire, you may 
 kill me, but spare your son." The prince was then placed 
 in a room where two sentries watched over him with fixed 
 bayonets. As the prince had held the rank of colonel in 
 the army, his unjust father declared he was a deserter, 
 and merited death. Frederick William, whose brutal 
 cruelty exceeds our powers of belief, then sent a courier 
 with the following despatch to his wife : — 
 
412 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 " I have arrested the rascal Fritz. I shall treat him as 
 his crime and his cowardice merit. He has dishonored 
 me and all my family. So great a wretch is no longer 
 worthy to live." 
 
 His Majesty is in a flaming rage. He arrests, punishes, 
 and banishes where there is trace of co-operation with 
 deserter Fritz and his schemes. It is dangerous to have 
 spoken kindly to the crown prince, or even to have been 
 spoken to by him. Doris Ritter, a young girl who was a 
 good musician, and whom the unfortunate Fritz had pre- 
 sented with music and sometimes joined in her singing in 
 the presence of tlie girl's mother, is condemned to be 
 publicly wliipped through the streets by the beadle, and 
 to be imprisoned for three years, forced to the hard labor 
 of beating hemp. The excellent tutor of the crown prince 
 is banished, the accusation against him being that he had 
 introduced French literature to the prince, which had 
 caused him to imbibe infidel notions. The wicked old 
 king never seemed to think that his own brutal conduct 
 miglit have influenced the prince to be indifferent to the 
 religion which he hypocritically professed to believe, but 
 so poorly practised. 
 
 Meanwhile the crown prince was conveyed from Wesel 
 to the castle of Mittenwalde, where he was imprisoned in 
 a room without furniture or bed. Here Grumkow, one 
 of the king's ministers, was sent to interrogate him. 
 Though the cruel old minister threatened the rack of tor- 
 ture to force him to confess, Fritz had the nerve to 
 reply : — 
 
 " A hangman, such as you, naturally takes pleasure in 
 talking of his tools and of his trade, but on me they will 
 produce no effect. I have owned everything, and almost 
 regret to have done so. I ought not to degrade myself 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 413 
 
 by answering the questions of a scoundrel such as you 
 are." 
 
 The next day the crown prince was sent to the fortress 
 of Ciistrin, about seventy miles from Berlin. 
 
 "The strong, dungeon-like room in which he was in- 
 carcerated consisted of bare walls, without any furniture, 
 the light being admitted by a single aperture so high that 
 the prince could not look out of it. He was divested of 
 his uniform, of his sword, of every mark of dignity. 
 Coarse brown clothes of plainest cut were furnished him. 
 His flute was taken from him, and he was deprived of all 
 books but the Bible and a few devotional treatises. He 
 was allowed a dail}' sum amounting to twelve cents for 
 his food, — eight cents for his dinner and four for his 
 supper. His food was purchased at a cook-shop near by 
 and cut for him. He was not permitted the use of a 
 knife. The door was opened three times a day for ven- 
 tilation, — morning, noon, and night, — but not for more 
 than four minutes each time. A single tallow candle was 
 allowed him ; but that was to be extinguished at seven 
 o'clock in the evening." 
 
 For long months this prince of nineteen was imprisoned 
 in absolute solitude, awaiting the doom of his merciless 
 father. But the savage king had reserved still greater 
 torture for the unfortunate Fritz. By the order of the 
 king, Fritz, who also had been condemned to die, was 
 brought down into a lower room of the fortress, and there 
 compelled to witness the execution of Lieutenant Katte, 
 his friend, whom the king had condemned as guilty of 
 high treason. As Fritz was led into the lower apartment 
 of the fortress, the curtains which concealed the window 
 were drawn back, and Fritz, to his horror, beheld the 
 scaffold draped in black placed directly before the window. 
 
414 FllKDKRUJK THE GREAT. 
 
 The frantic young prince was in an agony of despair, and 
 exclaimed, with eyes full of tears, " In the name of God, 1 
 heg you to stop the execution till I write to the king ! I am 
 ready to renounce all my rights to the crown if he will 
 pardon Katte." But the attendants knew the iron will 
 of the merciless monarch, and his cries and tears were 
 unheeded. As the condemned was led by the window to 
 ascend the scaffold, Fritz cried out to him, in tones of 
 deepest anguish, " Pardon me, m}^ dear Katte, pardon 
 me ! Oh, that this should be what I have done for you ! " 
 
 "Death is sweet for a prince I love so well," replied 
 the heroic Katte with calm fortitude, and ascending the 
 scaffold, the bloody execution was performed, while four 
 ofrenadiers held Fritz with his face to the window so that 
 he must perforce look 'ipon the ghastly scene. But as 
 Katte's gory head rolled upon the scaffold, the prince 
 fainted. 
 
 When the poor tortured prince regained his conscious- 
 ness, his misery plunged him into a fever, and in his 
 wild delirium he sought to take his life. AVhen the fever 
 abated, he sank into hopeless despair, looking forward to 
 nothing but a like horrible death. 
 
 With strange inconsistency, the ferocious king, who 
 could thus torture the body and mind of the prince, ex- 
 pressed the greatest anxiety for the salvation of his soul. 
 It is not strange that the example of such a father stag- 
 gered the faith of his son, and failing to see that the 
 religion professed by his father was bigoted fanaticism 
 instead of the religion of the pure and saving truths in- 
 culcated by a sinless Christ, the crown prince became in 
 after-life an infidel. 
 
 In accordance with a promise made by the king that 
 his life should be spared if he would acknowledge his 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 415 
 
 guilt, which word was brought to the lonely captive by 
 Chaplain Miiller, the crown prince took an oath of sub- 
 mission to the king, and soon after wrote this letter to his 
 father : — 
 
 ' ' All-serenest and All-graciousest Father, — To your 
 royal majesty, my all-graciousest father, I have, by my 
 disobedience as their subject and soldier, not less than by 
 my undutifulness as their son, given occasion to a just 
 wrath and aversion against me. With the all-obedientest 
 respect I submit myself wholly to the grace of my most 
 all-gracious father, and beg him most ail-graciously to 
 pardon me, as it is not so much the withdrawal of my 
 liberty in a sad arrest as my own thoughts of the fault I 
 have committed that have brought me to reason, who, 
 with all-obedientest respect and submission, continue till 
 my end my all-graciousest king's and father's faithfully- 
 obedient servant and son, Frederick." 
 
 Though the prince had been brought by his terrors and 
 sorrows to make such an humble appeal, his father's anger 
 was not entirely removed. The prince was still forced to 
 dwell in the town of Ciistrin, in a house poorly furnished ; 
 and though allowed to wear his sword, his uniform was 
 forbidden him. He was debarred all amusements, and 
 was forbidden to read, write, or speak French, and was 
 denied his flute, of which he was exceedingly fond. Three 
 persons were appointed constantly to watch him. His 
 only recreation was the order to attend the sittings of the 
 Chamber of Counsellors in that district. At last, through 
 the intercession of his sister Wilhelmina, the king con- 
 sented to allow Fritz to come home. 
 
 In March, 1732, the crown prince was betrothed to 
 Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of the duke of Bevern. 
 The sufferings of this unhappy princess cannot now be 
 
416 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 related. The queen of Prussia received her with bitter 
 hatred because this match would crush her cherished plans 
 of marrying her son to Princess Amelia of England ; and 
 Fritz himcelf, forced to be betrothed against his will, 
 treated her with utter neglect. 
 
 In June, 1733, the crown prince was married to Eliza- 
 beth, she being eighteen, and he twenty-one years of age. 
 
 Frederick I. of Prussia had reared a very magnificent 
 palace in Berlin ; and in spite of all his stinginess in his 
 household, Frederick William added masses of silver to 
 the ornamentation of this palace, for he prided himself on 
 his army and his money, as giving him power and influ- 
 ence in Europe. He had stored away many barrels of 
 money in the vaults of his palace, and as there do not 
 seem to have been banking institutions in his realms in 
 those days, he ordered vast quantities of silver to be 
 wrought into chandeliers, mirror-frames, and balconies, 
 w^iich gave him a great reputation for wealth, and could 
 at any time be converted into money. This hoarded 
 wealth saved his son from ruin, when involved in after 
 wars which exhausted his treasury. 
 
 The crown prince having married a niece of the empe- 
 ror of Germany, and being also of age, his father lost 
 much of his control over him. Frederick was now the 
 rising sun, and his father the setting luminary. All the 
 courts of Europe were anxious to gain the favor of the 
 coming king of Prussia. The king allowed his son a petty 
 income, but the crown prince borrowed large sums of 
 money from the empress of Germany, from Eussia, and 
 from England, who were quite ready to supply his wants, 
 being assured of payment when he should receive the 
 throne. Fritz did not forget his sister Wilhelmina, but 
 gave her money to relieve her wants. War now broke 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 417 
 
 out between France and Germany, and Frederick William 
 became an ally of the emperor. 
 
 The crown prince accompanied the king of Prussia to 
 the siege of Philipsburg. The campaign continued for 
 some time, but the prince saw little of active service. The 
 king of Prussia being broken down in health by gout and 
 intemperance, now became very ill, and was obliged to 
 return home. 
 
 Though Frederick returned from this campaign neither 
 socially nor morally improved, he had become very am- 
 bitious of high intellectual culture and of literary renown. 
 He was now living at the village of Reinsburg, in a castle 
 which the king had purchased and assigned to his son. 
 He here gathered around him a number of scholarly men, 
 and commenced and persevered in a severe course of 
 study, devoting his mornings to his books, and the re- 
 mainder of the day to recreation and music. The old king 
 grumbled at his son's studies and his recreations, but Fred- 
 erick was now a full-grown man, whose heirship to the 
 crown made him a power in Europe ; and the snarling old 
 king was confined to his room with drops\' and gout, 
 growling away his last hours. The companions of Fred- 
 erick's hours of recreation were gay and profligate young 
 men, who scoffed at religion and ever}' virtue. No wonder 
 that with such godless companions, and with such an in- 
 consistent and irreligious example in his father, even while 
 professing the most fanatical devotion to the church and 
 religion, the mind of the talented young prince should have 
 been turned into the wandering wilds of unbelief. Vol- 
 taire was at this time about forty years of age. His re- 
 nown as a man of genius already filled Europe. Frederick 
 became an ardent admirer of Voltaire, and a correspond- 
 ence was commenced between them. 
 
418 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 But now the grim old king of Prussia is forced to meet 
 a still grimmer antagonist, who will not take " no " for an 
 answer. He has fought the world, fought all human affec- 
 tions, fought all feelings of humanit}-, fought every good 
 spirit within his heart except a brutal fanaticism, which he 
 ignorantly and superstitiously called religion ; fought gout, 
 dropsy, and manifold complaints of the flesh ; fought his 
 wife, fought his children, tried to tight the devil, but 
 ended in being his slave ; but he cannot tight grim Death, 
 which now clutches him in his ghastly grasp. But not to 
 be outdone, even by this enemy^ while the death-gurgle 
 was even rattling in his throat, he solemnly abdicated in 
 favor of his son Frederick, and with his lingers trembling 
 with the chill of the grave, he signed the deed, and falling 
 back, expired. So the obstinate old king was determined 
 that his ivill, not deaths should hand over the crown of 
 Prussia, which he could no longer clutch with his own 
 cruel hands. 
 
 Voltaire said of his reign, " It must be owned Turkey 
 is a republic in comparison to the despotism exercised by 
 Frederick William." 
 
 Frederick the Great was twenty-eight years of age when 
 he became king of Prussia. He was very handsome and 
 of graceful presence. In rapid succession the young king 
 announced certain sentiments which were so amazing in 
 the eyes of the rulers of that age as to be considered phe- 
 nomena. The day after his accession to the throne he 
 summoned his ministers and declared, ''Our grand care 
 will be to furtlier the country's well-being, and to make 
 every one of our su])jects contented and happy." 
 
 Strange ideas ! when all sovereigns had hitherto thought 
 only of their own contentment. Next, he al)()lis]ied the 
 use of torture in criminal trials. More wonderful still, 
 
FKH1;EK1CK THE GREAT, 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 419 
 
 the world said. Soou he issued this marvellous edict, 
 wliic'h struck consternatiou in the midst of the upholders 
 of bigotry and fanatical superstition : — 
 
 '' All religions must be tolerated, and the king's solici- 
 tor must have an eye that none of them make unjust en- 
 croachments on the other ; for in this country everv man 
 must get to heaven his own way." 
 
 ILurope was electrified, priests trembled, bigotry and 
 religious persecution hung their heads and slunk away. 
 But more surprises! "The press is free!" thundered 
 forth this powerful young Frederick the Great; and all 
 these phenomena accomplished in the first year of his reign. 
 No wonder Europe turned their eyes to the rising mon- 
 arch. Sad pity that he did not continue in this line of 
 action, bringing blessings instead of woes upon mankind. 
 But the angel of wise reform was soon driven from his 
 heart and mind by the subtle and poisonous demon of 
 selfish ambition. 
 
 The young king soon abolished the Giant Guards. He 
 no longer coveted fine clothes, no longer indulged in the 
 luxury of slippers and French dressing-gown, which had 
 raised the ire of his ease-hating father. His hours were 
 rigidl}^ counted, and various duties assigned them, in reg- 
 ular routine. 
 
 Though he treated his nominal wife, Queen Elizabeth, 
 politely in company, he utterly neglected her in his domes- 
 tic life, and in later years rarely ever addressed a word 
 to her. 
 
 On the south-west frontier of Prussia was an Austrian 
 realm, Silesia. For more than a century it had been a 
 portion of the Austrian kingdom. Maria Theresa had 
 inherited the crown of Austria. Frederick, wishing to 
 enlarge his own domains, determined to invade Silesia. 
 
420 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 History has severely condemned this unprovoked inva- 
 sion. In January, 1741, the Prussian army were en- 
 camped before Neisse. On Sunday morning, Jan. 15, 
 the deadly fire of shot and shell was opened upon the 
 crowded city, where women and children, wounded and 
 bleeding, ran to and fro, frantic with terror. For five 
 days the deadly missiles rained down upon the city almost 
 without intermission. 
 
 Not wishing entirely to destroy the city, Frederick then 
 converted the siege into a blockade, and leaving his troops 
 before the place, returned to Berlin. Frederick, in this 
 six weeks' campaign, had let loose the dogs of war, and 
 he must now meet the consequences. The chivalry of 
 Europe were in sympathy with the young and beautiful 
 Austrian queen. Every court in Europe was aware of 
 the fact that it was owing to the intervention of the father 
 of Maria Theresa that the life of Frederick was spared, 
 and that he was rescued from the scaffold, when the exas- 
 perated and ferocious Frederick William had condemned 
 his own son to death. France had no fear of Prussia, 
 but France did fear the supremacy of Austria over Europe ; 
 therefore, France was leaning towards the side of Freder- 
 ick. England was the foe of France, therefore England 
 sympathized with Austria. The puerile king of England, 
 George II., hated his nephew, Frederick of Prussia, which 
 hatred Frederick vigorously returned. Spain was at war 
 with England and ready for alliance with her foes. The 
 father of the infant czar of Russia was the brother of 
 Frederick's neglected wife Elizabeth. Russia had not 
 yet displayed her partisanship to either side. Minor 
 powers might be constrained by terror or led by bribes. 
 
 Meanwhile the heroic Maria Theresa was resolved not 
 to part with one inch of her territory, and the patriotism 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 421 
 
 of the Austrian court, inspired by her, determined them 
 to seek to drive the Prussians out of Silesia. A rumor 
 comes that England, Poland, and Russia are contemplat- 
 ing invasion of the Prussian realms. Frederick imme- 
 diately despatched a force to Hanover to seize upon that 
 continental possession of the king of England upon the 
 slightest indication of hostility. This menace alarmed 
 George 11. Young Prince Leopold had assaulted and 
 captured Glogau from the Austrians, which Frederick 
 considered an important achievement, and sent Prince 
 Leopold a present of ten thousand dollars. 
 
 Frederick next proceeded to push the siege of Neisse, 
 but upon neariug that place, he found that General Neip- 
 perg, with a large force of Austrians, were coming against 
 him. The siege of Neisse was abandoned, and the en- 
 tire Prussian army gathered around the king. The night 
 before the contemplated battle, Frederick wrote to his 
 brother, Augustus William, — who, as Frederick had no 
 children, was heir to the throne and crown priuce of Prus- 
 sia,— informing him of his danger, of the coming battle, 
 and bidding farewell to himself and his mother in case of 
 his death. No word of affectionate remembrance was 
 sent to his neglected wife. 
 
 On the morrow, which was Sunday, a snow-storm 
 raged so furiously that neither army could move. On 
 Monday the battle began. The Prussians advanced 
 boldly with waving banners and martial music, and 
 valiantly charged the enemy. But the Austrians returned 
 the charge with such fury that the Prussian right wing, 
 where Frederick himself commanded, was routed and 
 put to flight. Frederick, struck with terror, lost his 
 presence of mind, and ingloriously fled with the rest. As 
 with his little band of fugitives he rushed into the gloom 
 
422 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 of night, be exclaimed in despair, " O my God, my God, 
 this is too mnch ! " 
 
 But as the crestfallen king waits under the shelter of a 
 mill, a courier rides up and cries, " Tlie Prussian army has 
 (jained the victory!" Thus the Prussian kin^ had been 
 galloping from the battle-field in fear and terror, while 
 his valiant troops were achieving the victory. This inci- 
 dent caused unlimited merriment amongst the sarcastic 
 foes of Frederick, and he himself Was never known to 
 allude to this humiliating adventure. The picture of the 
 heroic and intrepid Maria Theresa encouraging lier troops 
 to patriotism and valor in the very face of her foes, and 
 that of the terror-stricken Frederick rushing from the 
 field of battle, do not form a comparison very flattering 
 to the bravery of the young Prussian king. But as some 
 actors on the stage who have had the worst stage-frights 
 have afterwards made the most brilhant stars, so the 
 ignominious flight of the king did not prevent him from 
 becoming one of the greatest generals of the world. 
 Gradually the secret alliance of France, Bavaria, and 
 Prussia was made known. Under the threatening dan- 
 ger which menaced ruin, Maria Theresa, urged by her 
 council and by the English court, consented to propose 
 terms of compromise to Frederick. To the English min- 
 isters, sent from Vienna to offer a million dollars to the 
 Prussian king if he would consent to relinquish this en- 
 terprise and retire from Silesia, Frederick answered : 
 "Retire from Silesia, and for money? Do you take me 
 for a beggar? Retire from Silesia in the conquest of 
 which I have expended so much blood and treasure ! No, 
 sir, no ! I am at the head of an army which has already 
 vanquished the enemy, and which is ready to meet the 
 The countrv which alone I desire is alreadv 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 423 
 
 conquered and securely held. If the queen do not now 
 grant me all I require, I shall in four weeks demand four 
 principalities more. I now demand the whole of Lower 
 Silesia, Breslau included. With that answer you can 
 return to Vienna." 
 
 These tidings caused consternation in the Austrian 
 council. Again the high-spirited queen was forced by 
 her circumstances and influenced bv her council and Eno- 
 laud to accede to the compromise, and she agreed to sur- 
 render the whole of Lower Silesia to Frederick. But 
 when such word was brought to the Prussian camp, the 
 king replied, " I will not see the minister; the time has 
 past. I will not now listen to a compromise." Now 
 followed a dark and deceitful manoeuvre on the part of 
 Frederick, which even the stratagems of war cannot war- 
 rant. He entered into secret negotiations with Austria 
 that if Silesia was delivered to him, he would form an 
 alliance with them against the French, whose armies were 
 already joined with his own ; at the same time apparently 
 keeping faith with the French, but promising to betray 
 them to the Austrians, meanwhile stating that he must 
 keep up sham attacks to deceive the French. 
 
 Frederick now invested Neisse, and pretending a sham 
 attack, he really so vigorously assaulted it that it surren- 
 dered, and having thus obtained the last fortress in Sile- 
 sia, he caused himself to be crowned sovereign duke of 
 Lower Silesia, and returned to Berlin in triumph. 
 
 Having by this stratagem obtained vSilesia, he assured 
 the French of his unchanging fidelity, and denied that he 
 had ever entered into any arrangements with Austria. In 
 commencing this war he had said, "Ambition, interest, 
 and the desire to make the world speak of me vanquished 
 all, and war was determined on." He had indeed made 
 
424 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 the world speak of him. All Europe spoke of him. Some 
 extolled him, others denounced his amazing perfidy'. 
 Admiration for his sagacit}" and fear of his power made 
 many courts of Europe seek his alliance. Carlyle thus 
 comments on these events : — 
 
 " Of the political morality of this game of fast-and- 
 loose, what have we to say, except that the dice on both 
 sides seem to be loaded ; that logic might be chopped 
 upon it forever ; that a candid mind will settle what 
 degree of wisdom (which is always essential veracity) and 
 what of folh'^ (which is alwa3's falsity) there was in Fred- 
 erick and the others ; and, in fine, it will have to be 
 granted that you cannot work in pitch and keep hands 
 evidently clean. Frederick has got into the enchanted 
 wilderness populous with devils and their work. Alas ! it 
 will be long before he get out of it again ; his life waning 
 toward night before he get victoriously out." 
 
 This selfish rapacity of the Prussian king set the exam- 
 ple to others. The whole world sprang to arms. Macau- 
 lay says: "On the head of Frederick is all the blood 
 which was shed in a war which raged during many years, 
 and in ever}' quarter of the globe, — the blood of the 
 column of Fontenoy, the blood of the brave mountaineers 
 who were slaughtered at CuUoden. The evils produced 
 by this wickedness were felt in lands where the name of 
 Prussia was unknown. In order that he might rob a 
 neighbor whom he had promised to defend, black men 
 fought on the coast of Coromandel, and red men scalped 
 each other by the great lakes of North America." 
 
 In the winter of 1742 Frederick was engaged in a cam- 
 paign to deliver Moravia, which was overrun by the Aus- 
 trians. But in this he was not successful. On the 
 morning of the 17th of May, 1742, Frederick again faced 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 425 
 
 the Austrians at the battle of Chotusitz. In this famous 
 battle Frederick was victorious, and the Austrians, under 
 Prince Charles, were obliged to retreat. It required nine 
 acres of ground to bur}^ the dead after this bloody conflict. 
 Frederick did not pursue the Austrians after this vic- 
 tory, and on the 11th of June the treaty of Breslau was 
 signed. By this treaty Silesia was ceded to Frederick, 
 and he agreed to withdraw from the French alliance and 
 enter into friendly relations with Maria Theresa. In 
 1744, however, Maria Theresa, having been joined by 
 England, had been achieving so many victories on the 
 field, that Frederick, deciding that she was gathering her 
 forces to reconquer Silesia, again entered into an alliance 
 with France and took the field against the Austrians. 
 But in this campaign Frederick himself narrowly escaped 
 being taken prisoner, and returned a defeated monarch, 
 leaving a shattered army behind him. He had already 
 exhausted nearly all the resources which his father had 
 accumulated. Already the sumptuous chandeliers and 
 silver balconies had been melted up. His disastrous 
 Bohemian campaign had cost him three hundred and fifty 
 thousand dollars a month. The least sum with which he 
 could commence a new campaign for the protection of 
 Silesia was four million five hundred thousand dollars. 
 In spite of these apparently insurmountable diflflculties, 
 the administrative genius of Frederick made a way by 
 which he succeeded in raising another army. On the 4th 
 of June, 1745, the battle of Hohenfriedberg was fought, 
 by which victory Frederick escaped utter destruction, and 
 the Austrians were forced sullenly to retire. All Europe 
 was now in war, caused b}' the personal ambition of one 
 man, who did not pretend that it involved any question of 
 human rights. Frederick had openly avowed that he 
 
426 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 drew his sword and led his hundred thousand soldiers to 
 death and destruction that he might enlarge his territories 
 and achieve renown. All the nations of Europe wished 
 to borrow. None but England had money to lend, and 
 P^ngland was fighting Erederick, and supplying his foes 
 with aid and money. Frederick realized that Maria 
 Theresa, whom he had despised as a woman, was fully 
 his equal in ability to raise and direct armies and in 
 diplomatic intrigue. Berlin was almost defenceless. All 
 Saxony was rising behind Frederick. In this hour of 
 peril, with an army of twenty-six thousand men, Frederick 
 was obliged to meet his 'foes at Sohr. Defeat to Fred- 
 erick would have been utter ruin ; but the brave determi- 
 nation of the Prussian king animated his troops with 
 desperate valor to conquer or die. And conquer they did, 
 and the victory of Frederick was complete. 
 
 On the 25th of December, 1745, the peace of Dresden 
 was signed. The demands of Frederick were acceded to. 
 Augustus III. of Saxonv, Maria Theresa of Austria, and 
 George II. of England became parties to the treaty. 
 Frederick now entered upon a period of ten years of 
 peace. The Prussian king now constructed for himself a 
 beautiful villa, on a pleasant hilltop near Potsdam, which 
 he called Sans Souci, which Carlyle quaintly translates 
 " No Bother." He had three other palaces, far surpass- 
 ing Sans Souci in magnificence, — Charlottenburg, at Ber- 
 lin, the new palace at Potsdam, and his palace at 
 Reiusberg. 
 
 Voltaire made a long visit to the Prussian king. Fred- 
 erick had been for many years greatly fascinated with 
 that talented writer, but graduall}'^ Voltaire lost favor 
 with the king. Frederick prided himself upon his literary 
 abilities, and at first Voltaire flattered him ; but on one 
 
ARREST OF VOLTAIRE BY ORDER OF FREDERICK. 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 427 
 
 occasion, when tlie king had sent him a manuscript to 
 revise, he sarcastically exclaimed to the royal messenger, 
 " When will his Majesty be done with sending me his 
 dirty linen to wash ? " 
 
 This speech was repeated to the king. Frederick did 
 not lose his revenge. Voltaire had been made chamber- 
 lain. His duties were to give an hour a day to the Prus- 
 sian king, and, as Voltaire said, "to touch up a bit his 
 works in prose and verse." 
 
 But Voltaire used his sarcastic pen against the king, 
 and especially against the president of the academv 
 founded by the king at Berlin. A bitter pamphlet, enti- 
 tled La Diatribe du Docteur Akakia^ appeared, and the 
 satire was so scathing that the Prussian king ordered all 
 copies to be burned. Voltaire, though allowing the whole 
 edition to be destroyed before his eyes, managed to send 
 a copy to some safe place, where it was again published, 
 and arrived at Berhn by post from Dresden. People 
 fought for the pamphlet. Everybody laughed ; the satire 
 was spread over all Europe. Frederick was enraged, and 
 Voltaire thought it safe to leave Prussia. The king had 
 previously presented him with a copy of his own poems, 
 
 and fearing that Voltaire had him now in his power as 
 
 this volume contained some very wicked and licentious 
 burlesques, in which Frederick had scoffed at everything 
 and everybody — he ordered Voltaire to be arrested at 
 Frankfort, and the book of poems recovered. Either by 
 Frederick's malice or the stupidity of his agent, Freytag, 
 Voltaire and his friends were subjected to an imprison- 
 ment for twelve days in a miserable hostelry. The inti- 
 macy between Frederick and Voltaire was thus destroyed, 
 and a lasting friendship made impossible. 
 
 In 1756 Frederick invaded Saxony. Thus was com- 
 
428 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 raeneed tlie Seven Years' War, which proved to be one 
 of the most bloody and cruel strifes ever waged. It 
 gave Frederick the renown of being one of the ablest 
 generals of the world. In 1757 France, Russia, Austria. 
 Poland, and Sweden were combined against Frederick. 
 Tlie entire force of the Prussian king did not exceed 
 eighty thousand men. There were marching against him 
 combined armies amounting to four hundred thousand 
 men. On the battle-field of Leuthen P^rederick met and 
 conquered his foes. 
 
 But still, peace was out of the question without further 
 fighting. England, at last alarmed at the growing power 
 of France, came to the aid of Frederick. But France, 
 Austria, Sweden, and Russia prepared for a campaign 
 against him. 
 
 On Aug. 25, 1758, occurred the bloody battle of 
 Zorudorf, l)etween the Russians and the Prussians. It 
 was an awful massacre. The stolid Russians refused to 
 fly. The Prussians sabred them and trampled them be- 
 neath their horses' feet. It is considered the most bloody 
 battle of the Seven Years' War, and some claim it was 
 the most furious ever fought. Frederick was again vic- 
 torious. But in October, 1758, on the field of Hochkirch, 
 Frederick was defeated by the Austrians. Just after the 
 dreadful defeat came the tidings of the death of his sister 
 Wilhelmina. Thus ended the third campaign in clouds 
 and darkness for the Prussian king. 
 
 The destinies of Europe were now held in the hands of 
 three women : Maria Theresa, who by common consent 
 had good cause for war, and was fighting in self-defence ; 
 Madame de Pompadour, who, virtually sovereign of 
 France, by reason of her supreme control of the infamous 
 Louis XV., as Frederick had stung her by some insult, 
 
FBEDKRICK THE GREAT. 429 
 
 (lid not hesitate to deluge Europe in blood ; and Catherine 
 11., empress of Russia, who was also Frederick's foe on 
 account of personal pique. 
 
 Frederick himself was undeniably an unscrupulous ag- 
 gressor, and some call him " a highway robber." 
 
 The cause of Maria Theresa alone could have been 
 called honorable. In the fourth campaign of 1759 the 
 terrible battle of Kunersdorf was fought in August. At 
 first the Prussians were victorious, but tlie Russians at 
 length routed them with fearful loss. So great was the 
 despair of Frederick that it is said he contemplated suicide. 
 
 For a year the struggle continued. The Prussian army 
 left in Silesia was utterly destroyed by the Austrians. 
 But at length the tide turned, and Frederick routed the 
 Austrians at the battle of Liegnitz. But the position of 
 Frederick was still most hazardous. He was in the heart 
 of Silesia, surrounded by hostile armies, three times larger 
 than his own. Weary weeks of marching, fighting, blood, 
 and woe, passed on. Sieges, skirmishes, battles innu- 
 merable, ensued. , 
 
 At length the allies captured Berlin ; whereupon Fred- 
 erick marched quickl}- to the rescue of his capital. At his 
 dread approach the allies fled. Frederick followed the 
 Austrians. 
 
 We have no space to give details of the end of the 
 ])loody war. Frederick attacked the Austrians, under 
 Marshal Daun, at Torgau, saying to his soldiers : — 
 
 " This war has become tedious. If I beat him, all \\m 
 army must be taken prisoners or drowned in the Elbe. 
 If we are beaten we must all perish." 
 
 After a day of hard fighting the Prussians held the 
 field. Frederick, who was a very profane man, replied 
 to a soldier, who inquired if they should go into winter 
 
430 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 quarters, " By all the devils I shall not till we have taken 
 Dresden." But Dresden he did not take at that time, and 
 went into winter quarters at Leipsic. The fifth campaign 
 of the Seven Years' War closed with the winter of 1760. 
 
 The Russians aud Austrians had concentrated in Bohe- 
 mia. The summer and autumn wore away with little ac- 
 complished ; the allies feared to attack Frederick, and 
 the Russians retreated for winter quarters. But the Aus- 
 trians captured Schweidnitz and so could winter in Silesia. 
 This was a terrible blow to Frederick, but no word be- 
 trayed the anguish of the hard-pressed Prussian king. 
 Taking his wear}", suffering troops to Breslau, Frederick 
 sought shelter for the winter of 1761-62. At this dark 
 time he wrote : — 
 
 "The school of patience I am at is hard, long-contin- 
 ued, cruel ; nay, barbarous. I have not been able to 
 escape my lot. All that human foresight could suggest 
 has been employed, and nothing has succeeded. If For- 
 tune continues to pursue me, doubtless I shall sink. It 
 is only she that cau extricate me from the situation I am 
 in. I escape out of it by looking at the universe on the 
 great scale like an observer from some distant planet. 
 All then seems to me so infinitely small, and I could 
 almost pity my enemies for giving themselves such trouble 
 about so very little." 
 
 Poor blinded Frederick ! He could not even see that 
 his own selfish ambition had tempted him to commence 
 an unjust war, and thus to bring upon his own head all 
 these sorrows. 
 
 On the 24th of November, 1762, the belligerents entered 
 into an armistice until the 1st of March. All were ex- 
 hausted. On the 15th of February, 1763, peace was 
 concluded. The bloody Seven Years' War was over, and 
 
EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, .tT. T^. 
 
FREDERICK THE GREAT. 43 j 
 
 its immense result was, Frederick the Great had ca^>tured 
 and retained Silesia. 
 
 The expense of the war had been eight hundred and fifty- 
 three thousand lives, which had perished on the battle-field 
 Of the hundreds of thousands of men, women, and chil- 
 dren who had died from exposure, famine, and pestilence, 
 no note is taken. The population of Prussia had dimin- 
 ished five hundred thousand. The world had run red with 
 blood. The air had resounded with wails and cries and 
 groans. Prussia was laid waste by the ravages of the 
 war; and what had been accomplished? Frederick had 
 achieved his renown; he had made himself talked of. 
 Silesia had been captured, and Frederick the Great had 
 been placed in the foremost ranks of the world's generals. 
 Compared with the achievements of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, whose victories had laid the foundation for the suc- 
 cess of the Ee formation, how petty had been the prize 1 
 One, a Christian king, upholding liberty of conscience 
 and religions freedom ; the other, an infidel king fighting 
 in an unjust war for his own glory and aggrandizement. 
 But the world applauded. Berlin blazed with illumina- 
 tions and rang with the shouts of rejoicing. For twentv- 
 three years Frederick the Great still lived to bear his 
 honors. He must have the credit of endeavoring, during 
 the remainder of his life, to repair the terrible desolation 
 and ruin which his wars had brought upon Prussia. 
 
 We have but space to glance at his last hours. Dark 
 was the gloom which shrouded his closing days. His 
 worst enemies were the scoffing devils of unbelief he had 
 let loose within his own soul. No Christian hopes illu- 
 minated the vast unknown into which he must so soon 
 pass. To him the grave was but the awful portal to the 
 direful abyss of annihilation. 
 
432 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 To his patient, cruelly neglected wife, he* penned these 
 last cold words: "Madam, 1 am much obliged by the 
 wishes 3'^ou deign to form, but a heavy fever 1 have taken 
 hinders me from answering you." 
 
 With no companions near him but his servants and his 
 dogs, he awaited the coming of his last despairing end. 
 And thus this lonely, hopeless old man fought his last 
 battle of life; and on the 17th of August, 1786, the 
 fight was ended, the battle lost, and Frederick the Second 
 
 — Frederick the Great — was carried to tlie tomb, and 
 laid by the side of his father. What a warning to the 
 world ! What a warning to parents ! The inconsistent, 
 brutal life of his father made him an infidel. 
 
 His own selfish ambition made him more of a curse 
 than a blessinsj to mankind. In the eves of the Great 
 and Just Judge of the world, both lives were terrible 
 failures. 
 
 History has decreed that Frederick the Great gained a 
 foremost place amongst the famous rulers of the world, 
 and that his name stands in the first rank of the world's 
 conquerors. 
 
 But history has also written over his career the verdict, 
 
 — He was an ambitious aggressor in an unjust war, which 
 plunged all Europe into the horrors of famine, pestilence, 
 bloody conflicts, and desolated battle-fields piled up with 
 heaps of ghastly corpses, above which rose the direful 
 wails of anguished hearts and the relentless flames of 
 ruined homes. 
 
NAPOLEON I. 43^J 
 
 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 1769-1821 A.D. 
 
 " He doth bestride the narrow worhl like a Colossus." 
 
 Shakespkare. 
 "Fameeomes only when deserved, and then is as inevitable as 
 destniy ; for it is destiny." — Longfellow. 
 
 TT was not physical force, it was the magnetic majesty 
 -^ of mind, which looked forth from those awe-iuspii^ 
 mg eyes, and gave him Jovesque grandeur and dignity 
 and sovereign pre-eminence among mankind. No merely 
 mortal man stands beside him upon the same level on 
 the heights of fame. Upon the highest mountain peak 
 ot human achievement and earthly greatness he stands 
 alone, looking with calm, deep eyes and eagle oLance 
 upon the rolling centuries which preceded his marvellous 
 career. 
 
 In spite of all the contradictory views which have been 
 presented of Napoleon ; in spite of hostile historians 
 who have stigmatized him as a usurper ; in spite of foes 
 who have denounced him as a tyrant, inexorable as Nero ; 
 in spite of calumny which has proclaimed him a blood- 
 thirsty monster ; in spite of English literature and English 
 criticism, which have denounced him as a scourge of' the 
 race, as a ^' cook roasting whole continents and popula- 
 tions in the flames of war" ; in spite of many a Judas, 
 such as Bourrienne, Augereau, Marmont, Berthier, Ber- 
 uadotte, Moreau, and others among those whom his own 
 genius had lifted into prominence and power ; in spite of 
 
434 NAPOLEON I 
 
 obstacles, such as no other mortal man ever conquered, 
 Napoleon the Great stands forth the most amazing phe- 
 nomenon of human achievement, personal magnetism, and 
 mortal greatness. 
 
 '' A man who raised himself from obscurity to a throne ; 
 who changed the face of the world ; who made himself 
 felt through powerful and civilized nations ; who sent the 
 terror of his name across seas and oceans ; whose will 
 w^as pronounced and feared as destiny ; whose donatives 
 were crowns ; whose ante-chamber was thronged by sub- 
 missive princes ; who broke down the awful barrier of 
 the Alps, and made them a highway ; and whose fame 
 was spread beyond the boundaries of civilization to the 
 steppes of the Cossack and the deserts of the Arab, — a 
 man who has left this record of himself in history has 
 taken out of our hands the question whether he shall be 
 called great. All must concede to him a sublime power 
 of action, an energy equal to great effects." 
 
 " Whether we think of his amazing ganius, his unparal- 
 leled power of embracing vast combinations, while he lost 
 sioht of none of the details necessary to insure success, 
 his rapidity of thought and equally sudden execution, his 
 tireless energy, his ceaseless activity, his ability to direct 
 the movements of half a million of soldiers in different 
 parts of the world, and at the same time reform the laws, 
 restore the finances, and administer the government of 
 his country, or whether we trace his dazzling career from 
 the time he was a poor, proud charity boy at the military 
 school of Brienne to the hour when he sat down on the 
 most brilliant throne of Europe, he is the same wonderful 
 man, — the same grand theme for human contemplation." 
 
 In this short sketch we have no space for argumients ; 
 nor does Napoleon need arguments to substantiate his 
 
NAPOLEON. 
 
NAPOLEON I. 435 
 
 claims to greatness. Facts only can prove the supremacy 
 of his fame, aud/ac^s proclaim him unparalleled in history. 
 Lies only defame him and make him out a tyrant. That 
 he was without fault or blemish we would not maintain ; 
 that sad mistakes brought upon him evil consequences 
 which he himself was the first to trace to their source, we 
 do not deny. But that amongst all these famous rulers of 
 the world, his is the greatest name, unprejudiced history 
 has decreed. 
 
 Of all these mighty conquerors of the world, Napoleon 
 stands second to none. 
 
 " When the sword of Alexander overthrew the Persian 
 throne and subjugated the East as far as the Indus, he 
 did but extend the civilization of Athens. The refine- 
 ment of the age of Pericles, the acquirements of Attica, 
 the philosophy of the academy and the lyceum, followed 
 in the train of his victories. 
 
 "When Cagsar subjugated Parthia and Germany, and 
 carried the Roman eagles from the summit of Caucasus to 
 the hills of Caledonia ; when he passed from Gaul to 
 Italy, from Rome to Greece, from the plains of Pharsalia 
 to the shores of Africa, from the ruins of Carthage to the 
 banks of the Nile and the Euxine ; when he traversed the 
 Bosphorus and the Rhine, the Taurus and the Alps, the 
 Atlas and the Pyrenees, — in all these triumphal courses 
 lie propagated under the protection of his personal glory, 
 the name, the language, and manners of civilized Rome. 
 If Alexander carried with him the Age of Pericles, and 
 Caesar that of Augustus, if they were accompanied in 
 their triumphs by the genius of Homer and of Sophocles, 
 of Plato and Aristotle, of Virgil and Horace, Napoleon 
 carried with him an age that the arts, sciences, and phi- 
 losophy have rendered equally illustrious, and his enter- 
 prise is no less than that of his predecessors." 
 
436 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Though the aristocrac}' of Europe denounced him as an 
 odious despot and an insatiable conqueror, in the hearts 
 of his people — the artisan, the laborer, and the soldier — 
 he is still cherished as the "Man of the people, as the 
 personification of that spirit of equality which pervaded 
 both his administration and the camp." His name is still 
 religiousl}' respected b}' the peasant in his cottage. His 
 tomb is still cherished as the most sacred spot on earth 
 b}^ the French people. Never did mortal man inspire 
 such love and adoration in the hearts of his soldiers. 
 This unprecedented idolatry of a nation is the best refuta- 
 tion of the malign accusations of his enemies, "that 
 Napoleon usurped the sovereignty of France ; that having 
 attained the supreme power, he was a tyrant, devoting 
 that power to the promotion of his own selfish aggrandize- 
 ment ; that the wars in which he was incessantly engaged 
 were provoked b}' his arrogance." 
 
 Should the testimony of disappointed sycophants, whose 
 pens are dipped in the venom of thwarted ambition and 
 vanity, or the accusations of bitter foes, whose opinions 
 are biassed by political intrigues, be believed against the 
 character of Napoleon, rather than his own noble utter- 
 ances, and the testimony of his incorruptible friends? 
 
 That his invasion of Egypt was aggressive and unjust, 
 we will admit ; but should England be the one to make 
 the loudest outcry" against this expedition, when it was 
 onl}' following her own polic}^ when she increased her 
 possessions by her conquests in India? And even the 
 superiority of English literature and English writers 
 should not make us blind to the unjust prejudices of 
 English critics. Had Napoleon not quelled the insurrec- 
 tion, and given the final death-blow to the Revolution, how 
 can any monarchy in Europe be certain that all thrones 
 
NAPOLKOX T. 437 
 
 in Europe might not liave tottered and fallen ; that all 
 European kingdoms might not have had to face a revolu- 
 tion? Had Napoleon died upon the throne of France, 
 even his English foes, who feared the lonel}^ exile, whom 
 their duplicity and treachery had banished to the dreary 
 rock of St. Helena, more than they feared any European 
 monarch, would doubtless have joined the plaudits of the 
 world in honor of the Hero of Success, irrespective of 
 methods or motives. It is only because Napoleon out- 
 lived his marvellous and almost miraculous success that 
 the world condemns, and his enemies malign him. Had 
 our own Washington been unsuccessful, then would he 
 have been hung as a rebel, and our own glorious Revolu- 
 tion would have been called a rebellion, and none would 
 have been so loud in the outcry against us as England. 
 
 But our success has compelled her recognition, and our 
 marvellous growth in strength, power, and resources has 
 gained her reluctant admiration. It is hardly to be ex- 
 pected that England should ever forget how Napoleon 
 made her tremble, and how near she came to being the 
 conquered rather than the conqueror. 
 
 From an earthly point of view, his was the greatest life 
 of mortal man ; Init from a heavenly standpoint, even his 
 greatness crumbles into dust, and his own higher nature 
 was true enough to realize and acknowledge the instabil- 
 ity of earthly renown, and the failure of even such phe- 
 nomenal greatness as his own, to satisf}' the higher cravings 
 of the immortal soul. 
 
 To properly estimate the genius of Napoleon, and his 
 achievements in behalf of France, a glance must be given 
 to the bloody background of the Revolution, which rises 
 up with all its ghastliness and horrors. The rights and 
 liberties of the French people had been trampled under 
 
438 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 foot by despotic and profligate kings and nobles ; and 
 then brute force arose against oppression ; and brute 
 force for a time conquered. 
 
 Mobs surge like a mightj' ocean through the streets of 
 Paris. Men, women, and children are turned into wild 
 beasts of fury, thirsting only for blood. And blood they 
 get — till Paris runs red like a river, and all the demons 
 of hades seem to have been let loose upon the world. 
 Such was the hydra-headed monster of bloody, lawless 
 license and ignorant defiance which confronted the dawn- 
 ing manhood of Napoleon Bonaparte. Such was the 
 ferocious fury which the genius of this small, slender, 
 pale-faced, smooth-cheeked youth of twenty-five en- 
 countered with such dauntless courage and quelled by 
 his irresistible foresight and execution. 
 
 The monarch}^ of France had been dethroned. Louis 
 XVI. and Marie Antoinette had paid with their lives the 
 forfeit of oppression which was not all their own. The 
 Royalists and the Jacobins had joined the howling mob of 
 insurgents, and all together were rushing onward to attack 
 the Convention, which was the only representative of 
 government then in France. The troops of the Conven- 
 tion had been sent to meet the mob, but retired in fear 
 and panic. The mob advanced with demoniacal shouts 
 of menace. The Convention trembled. In the midst of 
 the terror and confusion one member exclaims, — 
 
 "I know the man who can defend us if any can. It is a 
 young Corsican officer. Napoleon Bonaparte." The Con- 
 vention immediately sent for him. All expected to see a 
 stalwart soldier, of gigantic frame and imperious bearing. 
 Tiieir surprise was unbounded, when a young slender man 
 of boyish presence appeared ])efore them. The aston- 
 ished president incredulously inquired, — 
 
NAPOLEON I. 439 
 
 ' ' Are you willing to undertake the defence of the Con- 
 vention?" 
 
 " Yes," was the laconic and calm reply. With half- 
 disdainful contempt the president continued, — 
 
 " Are you aware of the magnitude of the under- 
 taking?" 
 
 Sweeping the assembly with his magnetic glance, and 
 fixing his eagle eye upon the president, Napoleon re- 
 plied, " Perfectly ; and I am in the habit of accomplish- 
 ing what I undertake." 
 
 And accomplish he did. But how? By the same meas- 
 ures he had declared should have been taken when, a 
 short time before, he had watched the furious mob rush 
 unrestrained through the palace of the imprisoned mon- 
 arch. Then he had exclaimed, " They should have swept 
 down the first five hundred with grapshot, and the rest 
 would have soon taken to flight." And his o^n success- 
 ful quelling of the insurgents proved the correctness of 
 his plans and the marvellous executive force of his 
 genius. So Napoleon established the new government of 
 France called the Directory. We have space only for a 
 glance at his boyhood. He was born upon the island of 
 Corsica, on the 15th of August, 1769. His father died 
 while Napoleon was quite young, and liis mother, Madame 
 Letitia Bonaparte, was left with small means to provide 
 for eight children, — Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, 
 Jerome, P^liza, Pauline, and Caroline. 
 
 When Napoleon was about ten years of age. Count 
 MarbcBuf obtanied his admission to the military school at 
 Briennc, near Paris. Regarded as a charity student by 
 his companions, he was here subjected to neglects and 
 taunts which stung his sensitive nature to the quick. 
 When Napoleon was fifteen, he was promoted to the mili- 
 
440 NAPOLEON L 
 
 taiy school at Paris. On one occasion a mathematical 
 problem of great difllculty was given to his class. Napo- 
 leon secluded himself in his room for seventy-two hours 
 and solved the problem. Napoleon did not blunder into 
 o;reatuess. His achievements were not accidents. That 
 he possessed native genius cannot be denied ; but he also 
 possessed that perseverance and application which alone 
 can win the success which genius aspires to, but which 
 only energy and perseverance can make possible. When 
 Napoleon was sixteen years- of age, he was examined for 
 an appointment in the army. At the close of this exam- 
 ination, one of the professors wrote opposite the signa- 
 ture of Napoleon, ''This young man will distinguish 
 himself in the world, if favored by fortune." 
 
 Napoleon secured the position of second lieutenant in a 
 regiment of artillery. He was ordered to Lyons with his 
 regiment. While there, the Academy at Lyons offered a 
 prize for the best dissertation upon the question, " What 
 are the institutions most likely to contribute to human 
 happiness?" Napoleon won the prize. The English, unit- 
 ing with the Royalists of France, had seized Toulon, a 
 naval depot and arsenal of France. The Convention, the 
 revolutionary government, promoted Napoleon to the 
 rank of brigadier-general, and gave him the command of 
 the artillery train at Toulon. It was here that his mili- 
 tary abilities were noticed b}- the member of the Conven- 
 tion who afterwards proposed him as being the only man 
 who could defend them against the mol), as we have 
 already narrated. After quelling this formidable insur- 
 rection, Napoleon was enthusiastically received by the 
 Convention. Five Directors were now chosen by the 
 Convention, who should constitute the new Directory, 
 and the Convention dissolved itself, surrendering the 
 
NAPOLEON I. 441 
 
 government into the hands of the Du'ectory. Njipulcon 
 was appointed by them commander-in-chief of the Army 
 of the Interior, and intrusted with the military defence 
 and government of the metropolis. Having attained this 
 high dignity, Napoleon placed his mother and the rest of 
 his family in comfort. 
 
 Famine was great in Paris. The Revolution had left 
 all industries paralyzed. The poor were perishino-. 
 
 Napoleon immediately organized the National Guards, 
 established order, and distributed wood and bread to the 
 perishing citizens. It was at this time that he met his 
 future wife, Josephine. She was a widow with two chil- 
 dren. Her husband, the Viscount Beauharnais, had per- 
 ished on the scaffold during the Revolution. On the 6th 
 of March, 1796, Napoleon and Josephine were married. 
 Napoleon was twenty-six years of age, Josephine being 
 two years older. This marriage was one of ideal love. 
 When Napoleon was crowned Emperor, he was privately 
 married again by Cardinal Fesch, in accordance with the 
 forms of the Church, which the Emperor had re-estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Napoleon turned with disgust from the profligacy and 
 dissipation which ever disgrace an army. To the defa- 
 mations of his enemies who endeavord to malign his 
 character, by accusing him of immorality, let his own 
 words answer: '^ When I took command of the army of 
 Italy, my extreme youth rendered it necessary that 1 
 should evince great reserve of manners and the utmost 
 severity of morals. My supremacy could be retained 
 only b}^ proving myself a better man than any otlier man 
 in the army. Had I yielded to human weaknesses, I 
 should have lost my power." 
 
 Napoleon was temperate in the extreme, and manifested 
 
442 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 the strongest disapproval for gaming. Napoleon's first 
 campaign in Italy was one of self-defence on the part of 
 the French. France had renounced a monarchy and 
 established a republic. The kings of Europe trembled. 
 Enoland was hoverino- around the coasts of France assail- 
 ing every available point. Austria had marched an army 
 of nearly two hundred thousand men to the banks of the 
 Rhine. She had called into requisition her Italian pos- 
 sessions, and in alliance with the British navy the armies 
 of the king of Sardina, together with the legions of Naples 
 and Sicily, prepared to attack the French Republic. 
 
 The Directory said to the joung commander-in-chief : 
 " We can furnish you only men. The troops are desti- 
 tute of everything, but we have no money to provide 
 supplies." 
 
 "Give me only men enough," replied the undaunted 
 Napoleon ; " I will be answerable for the result." 
 
 Leaving his bride in Paris, Napoleon hastened to Nice, 
 the headquarters of the army of Italy. 
 
 Now the first of those wonderful proclamations rings 
 out in the ears of the astonished troops. " Soldiers, you 
 are hungry and naked ; the government owes you much, 
 and can pay you nothing. I come to lead you into the 
 most fertile plains the sun beholds. There you will find 
 abundant harvests, honor, and glory. Soldiers of Italy, 
 will you fail in courage? " 
 
 This apparent stripling then assembles his generals, all 
 war-worn chiefs. Amazed and speechless, they listen to 
 his plans. 
 
 '• The time has passed in which enemies are mutually 
 to appoint the place of combat, advance, hat in hand, 
 and say, ' Gentlemen^ imll you have the goodyiess to fire?' 
 The art of war is in its infancy. Experienced generals 
 
NAPOLEON IN THE PRISON OF NICE, 1 794. 
 
NAPOLEON I. 443 
 
 conduct the troops opposed to us. So much the better, 
 so much the better. It is not their experience which will 
 avail against me. Mark ray words : they will soon burn 
 their books on tactics and know not what to do. Yes, 
 gentlemen, the first onset of the Italian army will o-ive 
 birth to a new epoch in military affairs. As for us, we 
 must hurl ourselves on the foe like a thunder])olt, and 
 smite it. Disconcerted by our tactics, and not daring to 
 put them into execution, they will fly before us as the 
 shades of night before the uprising sun." 
 
 And fly before him they did at the battle of Montenotte, 
 regarding which Napoleon afterwards proudly said, ''My 
 title of nobility dates from the battle of Montenotte." 
 
 The Austrians fled in one direction, the Sardinians in 
 another, before this invincible conqueror, and Europe, 
 amazed, inquired. Who is this young general who has 
 blazed forth in such sudden and appalling splendor? 
 
 Meanwhile Napoleon issues this stirring proclamation : — 
 
 " Soldiers, you have gained in fifteen days six victories, 
 taken one-and-twenty standards, fift^'-five pieces of can- 
 non, many strong places, and have conquered the richest 
 part of Piedmont. You have gained battles without 
 cannon ; passed rivers without bridges ; made forced 
 marches without shoes ; bivouacked without bread. The 
 phalanxes of the republic, the soldiers of libert}', were 
 alone capable of such services." 
 
 The humiliated king of Sardinia sued for peace. It 
 was the eveninsj of the 10th of Mav, 1796. The Austrians 
 had intrenched themselves on the banks of the River Po. 
 As the French were making the terrible passage of the 
 bridge of Lodi, in the face of the enemies' fire. Napoleon 
 seized a standard, shouting to his men, "Follow your 
 general ! " and plunging through the blinding smoke, he 
 
444 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 led his bleeding column forward, and the bridge was 
 
 carried. 
 
 " This beardless youth," said an Austrian general, 
 indio-nantly, "ought to have been beaten over and over 
 ao-ain ; for whoever saw such tactics ! The blockhead 
 knows nothing of the rules of war. To-day he is in our 
 rear, to-morrow on our flank, and tiie next day again in 
 our front. Such gross violations of the principles of war 
 are insufferable." 
 
 And more insufferable still would his enemies find the 
 tactics of the invincible Napoleon. Some of the veterans 
 of the army jocosely promoted Napoleon to the rank of 
 corporal, in honor of his bravery at the bridge of Lodi. 
 When their general next appeared before his army, he was 
 greeted with the shouts, " Long live our little cor^yoral!" 
 and even in the dignity of consul and emperor. Napoleon 
 never lost this affectionate nickname amongst his troops, 
 of whom he was the idol. 
 
 We have no space for details ; the battles of Castiglione, 
 Areola, and the bloody conflict of Rivoli had been fought. 
 The imperial court had sent out five armies against the 
 French Republicans, and had encountered defeat and de- 
 struction at the hands of the beardless general, who they 
 had disdainfully declared knew nothing about war tactics. 
 Mantua had fallen, and the Austrians were driven from 
 Italy. The Pope implored the clemency of the conqueror. 
 But the Italian people everywhere hailed him as their de- 
 liverer. Still Austria refused to make peace with repub- 
 lican France, and the march to Vienna was commenced. 
 Again one of those soul-stirring, inspiring proclamations 
 was issued to his troops. 
 
 " Soldiers, the campaign just ended has given you im- 
 perishable renown. You have been victorious in fourteen 
 
 J 
 
NAPOLEON I. 445 
 
 pitched battles and seventy actions. You have taken 
 more than a hundred thousand prisoners, five hundred 
 field-pieces, two thousand heavy guns, and four pon- 
 troon trains. You have maintained the army durino- the 
 whole campaign. In addition to this, vou have sen" six 
 millions of dollars to the public treasury, and have en- 
 riched the National Museum with three hundred master- 
 pieces of the art of ancient and modern Italv, which it 
 has required thirty centuries to produce. You have con- 
 quered the finest countries of Europe. The French flag 
 waves for the first time upon the Adriatic, opposite \o 
 Macedon, the native country of Alexander. Still higher 
 destinies await you. I know that you will not prove^m- 
 worthy of them. Of all the foes that conspired to stifle 
 the Republic in its birth, the Austrian emperor alone re- 
 mains before you. To obtain peace we must seek it in 
 the heart of his hereditary state. You will there find a 
 brave people, whose religion and customs you will respect, 
 and whose property you will hold sacred. Remember 
 that it is liberty you carry to the brave Hungarian 
 nation." 
 
 As he had to the Italian people, so also to the Austrian 
 people Napoleon issued one of his glowing proclamations, 
 assuring them that he was fighting not for conquest but for 
 peace ; that the people of Austria would find in him a pro- 
 tector, who would respect their religion and defend all 
 their rights. 
 
 All was consternation in Vienna. The people clamored 
 for peace, and the Austrian emperor sent ambassadors to 
 Napoleon. A treaty was signed, and Austria was con- 
 quered. Not a year had elapsed since this nameless 
 young man of twenty-six, with thirty thousand ragged, 
 starving troops, had dauntlessly undertaken this seemingly 
 
446 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 impossible enterprise. N*ow Italy was at his feet. Aus- 
 tria was forced to come to terms. All his foes were 
 stunnecl into terror-striction inaction. 
 
 Before the treaty of Campo Formio was signed, every 
 possible endeavor was made to bribe Napoleon to make 
 terms which should conduce to the advantage of his foes. 
 The wealth of Europe was laid at his feet. Millions upon 
 millions of gold were offered to him, but his noble spirit 
 conld not thus be tarnished. 
 
 Napoleon arrived in Paris on the 7th of December, 
 1797, having been absent about eighteen months. The 
 Directory, jealous of Napoleon's power and popularity, 
 were forced by the enthusiasm of the people to prepare a 
 triumphal festival for the delivery of the treaty of Campo 
 
 Formio. 
 
 The magnificent palace of the Luxembourg was adorned 
 for this gorgeous show. The walls were hung with glit- 
 tering trophies ; the vast galleries were crowded with 
 those illustrious in rank ; martial music rang out upon the 
 air, and the thunders of the cannon mingled with the en- 
 thusiastic shouts of the rejoicing multitudes. Napoleon 
 was introduced by Talleyrand in an eloquent speech. 
 Calmly the great hero stood before the assembled multi- 
 tude. His imposing presence required not the trappings 
 of the bedecked and bejewelled grandees of the court. 
 Majestic was his calm dignity as he addressed the peo- 
 ple : — 
 
 ''Citizens! the French people in order to be free had 
 kings to combat. To obtain a constitution founded on 
 reason, it had the prejudices of eighteen centuries to over- 
 come. Priestcraft, feudalism, despotism, have succes- 
 sively, for two thousand years, governed Europe. From 
 the peace you have just concluded dates the era of repre- 
 
NAPOLEON I. 447 
 
 sentative governments. You have succeeded in organiz- 
 ing a great nation, whose vast territory is circumscribed 
 only because Nature herself has fixed its limits. You 
 
 have done more. The two finest countries in Europe 
 
 formerly so renowned for the arts, the sciences, and the 
 illustrious men whose cradle they were — see with the 
 greatest hopes genius and freedom issuing from the tomb 
 of their ancestors. I have the honor to deliver to you 
 the treaty signed at Campo Formio, and ratified by the 
 emperor. Peace secures the liberty, the prosperity, and 
 the glory of the Republic. As soon as the happiness of 
 France is secured by the best organic laws, the whole of 
 Europe will be free." 
 
 A wild burst of enthusiasm filled the air as Napoleon 
 ceased speaking. The people shouted, " Live Napoleon, 
 the conqueror of Italy, the pacificator of Europe, the 
 saviour of France ! " 
 
 Napoleon now laid aside the dress of a soldier. He 
 attended constantly the meetings of the Institute, and 
 immediately assumed a pre-eminence amongst those dis- 
 tinguished scholars as marked as he had alreadj^ attained 
 as a general. 
 
 Republican France was now at peace with all the 
 world, England alone excepted. The Directory raised an 
 army for the invasion of England, and gave Napoleon the 
 command. Repul)licaus all over Europe, England in- 
 cluded, adored Napoleon as the great champion of popu- 
 lar rights. England trembled. It was necessary that 
 the people should be taught to hate this man whom 
 they now worshipped. The English press came to the 
 rescue of the English government. The most malign and 
 atrocious lies were published regarding Napoleon. He 
 was represented as a demon in human form ; a monster of 
 
448 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 profligacy and tyrannical ambition ; a robber, plunder- 
 ing the nations for his own selfish aggrandizement. Re- 
 garding these bitter and false libels Napoleon said : 
 ••'There is not one which will reach posterity. When I 
 have been asked to cause answers to be written to them, 
 I have uniformly replied, ' My victories and my works 
 of public improvement are the only response which it 
 becomes me to make.' When there shall not be a trace 
 of these libels to be found, the great monuments of 
 utility which I have reared, and the code of laws that I 
 have formed, will descend to the most remote ages, and 
 future historians will avenge the wrongs done me by my 
 contemporaries." Napoleon deeming an attack upon 
 England too hazardous, the project was abandoned. 
 
 Then followed Napoleon's expedition into Egypt. Vol- 
 umes could be written upon each one of Napoleon's mar- 
 vellous campaigns, but we can merely give a slight out- 
 line. The famous battle of the Pyramids made Napo- 
 leon the undisputed conqueror of Egypt. "Soldiers!" 
 he exclaimed, as he rode along the ranks, "from those 
 summits forty centuries contemplate your actions." 
 
 The name of Napoleon became suddenly as renowned 
 in Asia and Africa as it had previously become in 
 Europe. But twenty-one days had elapsed since he 
 landed at Alexandria, and now he was sovereign of 
 Egypt. The Egyptians welcomed him as a friend and 
 liberator. He disclaimed all sovereignty over Egypt, and 
 organized a government to be administered by the peo- 
 ple themselves. In the mean time Lord Nelson learned 
 that the French had landed in Egypt. He immediately 
 proceeded thither. The famous battle of the Nile fol- 
 lowed, in which the English were victorious. The French 
 fleet had been destroyed, and Napoleon was cut off from 
 
NAPOLEON I. 449 
 
 Europe. All monarchical Europe rejoiced; all republi- 
 can Europe mourned. Napoleon now undertook the 
 Syrian expedition. With ten thousand men he com- 
 menced his march over the desert. We cannot describe 
 their weary march through the burning sands, their suffer- 
 ings from want, and the dreadful plague which soon brolve 
 out in the army. We can only note the siege of Acre. 
 The subjugation of this fortress would have made Napo- 
 leon master of Syria. Sir Sidney Smith conducted the 
 defence with the combined English and Turkish troops. 
 It was here that the marvellous affection of Napoleon's 
 soldiers for their general was tested. Sir Sidney Smith 
 circulated a proclamation, offering to convey every French 
 soldier safely to France who would desert Napoleon. It 
 is not known that a single man was false to Napo- 
 leon, whom all adored as a being seemingly more than 
 mortal. 
 
 The siege had continued for sixt}^ days. Napoleon had 
 lost three thousand men by the sword and the plague. 
 At this time fresh Turkish troops arrived to join his ene- 
 mies ; and deeming the enterprise hopeless, Napoleon 
 abandoned the siege. Napoleon was as great in defeat 
 as in success. Speaking of his power to endure trials, he 
 said: "Nature seems to have calculated that I should 
 endure great reverses. She has given me a mind of 
 marble. Thunder cannot ruffle it. The shaft merely 
 glides along." 
 
 At midnight, on the 25th of July, 1799, Napoleon, with 
 six thousand men, arrived within sight of the camp of the 
 Turks, upon the shores of the Bay of Aboukir. Napo- 
 leon knew that the Turks were awaiting the arrival of the 
 Mameluke cavalry from Egypt and of re-enforcements 
 from Acre and other parts of Syria. Defeat to Napoleon 
 
450 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 now would have been utter ruin. But the terrific conflict 
 which followed was not a defeat, but a victory so com- 
 plete that the whole Turkish army was destroyed. Sir 
 Sidney Smith fled in terror to liis ships. Not a foe re- 
 mained. In the enthusiasm of the moment, Kleber, who 
 liad just arrived witli a division of two thousand men, for 
 whom Napoleon had not waited, threw his arms around 
 the neck of his adored chieftain, exclaiming, " Let me 
 embrace 3^ou, ni}' general ; you are great as the uni- 
 verse ! " 
 
 Napoleon now learned that France was in a terrible 
 state of confusion. The imbecile government was de- 
 spised. Plots, conspiracies, and assassinations filled the 
 land. Napoleon determined to return to France. As he 
 had no fleet, he could not take his arm}'. The matter was 
 therefore concealed from them. With a small retinue. 
 Napoleon embarked, and sailed to France. Then fol- 
 lowed the overthrow of the Director3\ France had tried 
 republicanism, and the experiment had failed. The peo- 
 ple were too ignorant to govern themselves. The next 
 morning after the overthrow of the Directory, the three 
 consuls. Napoleon, Si^yes, and Ducos, met in the palace 
 of the Luxembourg. 
 
 There was but one arm-chair in the room. Napoleon 
 had seated himself in it. Si^yes exclaimed, " Gentle- 
 men, who shall take the chair?" 
 
 "Bonaparte, sureh'," said Ducos; "he already has 
 it. He is the only man who can save us." 
 
 "Very well, gentlemen," said Napoleon, promptly; 
 " let us proceed to business." 
 
 And important business he soon despatched. The 
 revolutionary tribunals had closed the churches and pro- 
 hibited the observance of the Sabbath. Napoleon re- 
 
NAPOLEON L 451 
 
 called the banished priests, opened the churches, and 
 restored religious worship. The treasury was bankrupt. 
 Napoleon replenished it. The army was starving and 
 ragged. Napoleon addressed them with his thrillino- 
 words of sympathy, and clothed and fed them. The 
 navy was dilapidated. In every port in France, at the 
 magic word of this magnetic man, the sound of the ship- 
 hannner was heard, and a fleet was prepared to send 
 to Egypt to convey to France his soldiers left there. The 
 Constitution was framed and adopted, and Napoleon was 
 elected First Consul of France. Civil war was now at an 
 end. Napoleon wrote two letters, one to the king of 
 England, and the other to the emperor of Germany, en- 
 deavoring to arrange a general peace. Austria was in- 
 clined to listen to this appeal, but England demanded 
 war. She would have no peace while France continued 
 a republic. So Napoleon was forced to prepare for war. 
 
 " Moreau was sent with a magnificent army into 
 Swabia, to drive back the Austrians towards their capi- 
 tal ; Massena was appointed over the army of Italy, while 
 Napoleon himself swept down from the heights of San 
 Bernard, upon the plains of Lombardy. 
 
 "At the fierce-fought battle of Marengo he reconquered 
 Itah^ while Moreau chased the vanquished Austrians 
 over the Danube. Victory everywhere perched on the 
 French standards, and Austria was ready to agree to an 
 armistice, in order to recover from the disasters she had 
 suffered. The slain at Montibello, around Genoa, on the 
 plains of Marengo, in the Black Forest, and along the 
 Danube are to be charged over to the British government, 
 which refused peace in order to fight for the philanthropic 
 purpose of giving security to governments. 
 
 " Austria, though crippled, let the armistice wear away, 
 
452 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 refusing to make a treaty because she was bound for 
 seven months longer to England. Bonaparte, in the 
 mean time, was preparing to recommence hostilities. 
 Finding himself unable to conclude a peace, he opened 
 the campaign of Iloheulinden, and sent Macdonald across 
 the Splugen. Moreau's victorious march through Austria, 
 and the success of the operations in Italy, soon brought 
 Austria to terms, and the celebrated peace of Luneville, 
 of 1801, was signed. The energy and ability, and above 
 all, the success of the First Consul had now forced the 
 continental powers to regard him with respect, and in 
 some cases with sympathy, while England, by her imperi- 
 ous demands, had embroiled herself with all the northern 
 powers of Europe." 
 
 At length a general peace was concluded at Amiens, 
 and the world was at rest. Napoleon was now the idol 
 of France. Although his title was onl}^ that of First Con- 
 sul, and France was nominally a republic, yet he was in 
 reality the most powerful monarch in P^urope. He ruled 
 in the hearts of forty millions of people. In 1803 the 
 peace of Amiens was broken, and all impartial historians 
 admit, and even English writers cannot deny the respon- 
 sibility of this rupture rests with England. In that treaty 
 it was expressly stipulated that England should evacuate 
 Egypt and Malta, while France was to evacuate Naples, 
 Tarento, and the Roman States. Napoleon had fulfilled 
 his part of the agreement within two months after the 
 peace. But the English were still in Alexandria and 
 Malta. Napoleon was right, and England was entirely 
 wrong. If a violation of a solemn treaty is a just cause 
 for war, Napoleon was free from blame. England now 
 drew Russia into this new alliance, then Austria and Swe- 
 den. Prussia refused to join the alliance, and sided with 
 
NAPOLEOX I. 453 
 
 France. The blooc^y conflict began. For the slain left 
 on the plains of Italy, for the tens of tiiousands strewn 
 on the battle-field of Austerlitz, who is chargeable? 
 Neither Napoleon nor France. Napier, in his " Peninsular 
 War," sa3's : 
 
 ''Up to the peace of Tilsit, the wars of France were 
 essentially defensive; for the blood}' contest that wasted 
 the continent for so many years was not a struggle for 
 pre-eminence between ambitious powers, nor for the politi- 
 cal ascendency of one or other nation, hut a deadly conjiid 
 to determine whether aristocracy or democracy should pre- 
 dominate^ — whether equality or privilege should henceforth 
 he the principle of European governments.^^ 
 
 " But how much does this ' up to the peace of Tilsit' 
 embrace ? First, all the first wars of the French Repub- 
 lic, — the campaigns of 1792, '93, '94, '95, and the carnage 
 and woe that made up their history ; second, eleven out 
 of the eighteen 3'ears of Bonaparte's career, — the cam- 
 paigns of 1796, in Italy and German}', the battles of 
 Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, Lodi, Areola, Castiglione, 
 and Rivoli, the campaigns of 1797, and the bloody battle- 
 fields that marked their progress. It embraces the wars 
 in Italy and Switzerland while Bonaparte was in Egypt ; 
 the campaign of Marengo, and its carnage ; the havoc 
 around and in Genoa ; the slain thousands that strewed 
 the Black Forest and the banks of the Danube, where 
 Moreau struggled so heroically ; the campaign of Hohen- 
 linden, and its losses. And yet this is but a fraction to 
 what remains. This period takes in also the campaign of 
 Austerlitz and its bloody battle, and the havoc the hand 
 of war was making in Italy ; the campaign of Jena, and 
 the fierce conflicts that accompanied it ; the campaign of 
 Eylau and the battles of Pultusk, Golymin, Heilsberg, 
 
454 NAPOLEON 1. 
 
 crowned by the dreadful slaughter of Eylau ; the cam- 
 paigns of Friendland and Tilsit, and the multitudes they 
 left on the plains of Europe. All these terrible campaigns, 
 with their immense slaughter, does an English historian 
 declare to be the result of a defensive war on the part of 
 F'rance, not merely a defence of territory, hut of human 
 rights against tyranny. Let republicans ponder this be- 
 fore they adopt the sentiments of prejudiced historians, 
 and condemn as a monster the man who was toiling over 
 battle-fields to save his country from banded oppressors." 
 
 The 2d of December, 1804, dawned clear and cold. 
 It was Sunda}', and upon this day Napoleon was to be 
 crowned emperor at the church of N6tre Dame. All 
 Paris assembled to witness this imposing ceremony. The 
 church was draped in costly velvet of richest hues. At 
 one end a gorgeous throne was erected. The Emperor left 
 the Tuilieries in a splendid carriage, whose sides were of 
 glass, thus allowing his magnificent robes to be seen. 
 He wore a golden laurel wreath upon his head. 
 
 The acclamations of the immense crowds thronging the 
 streets filled the air. As Napoleon entered the church, 
 five hundred musicians intoned a solemn chant. The 
 Pope anointed the Emperor and blessed the sword and 
 the sceptre. Then Napoleon lifted the crown and placed 
 it upon his own head. Napoleon then took up the crown 
 intended for the Empress, and approaching Josephine as 
 she knelt before him, he placed it tenderly upon her brow. 
 Their eyes met for one moment in a long and loving gaze 
 of mutual affection, and tears filled the eyes of the beauti- 
 ful Josephine as she glanced with undisguised adoration 
 upon the husband she so reverenced and worshipped. 
 And the lofty arches of Notre Dame resounded with 
 shouts of " >7fe VEmpereur !'' 
 
NAPOLEON I. 455 
 
 The Cisalpine Republic had witnessed the change of 
 France from a republic to an empire with great satisfac- 
 tion. A deputation from Italy was now sent to Napoleon, 
 begging him to assume the crown of Charlemagne. On 
 the 20th of INIay, the coronation took place in the Cathedral 
 of Milan. The ceremony was conducted with a magnifi- 
 cence not exceeded at Notre Dame. The iron crown of 
 Charlemagne had reposed for a thousand years in the 
 church of Monza. The Empress first appeared gorgeously 
 dressed and glittering with jewels. Then Napoleon en- 
 tered, arrayed in imperial robes, with the diadem upon his 
 brow and the sceptre and crown of Charlemagne in his 
 hands. He placed the crown upon his own head, saying, 
 solemnly, "God has given it to me; woe to him who 
 touches it ! " 
 
 Meanwhile, hostilities had commenced in the midst of 
 Germany. Austria and Russia had united with England. 
 The Austrians. had passed the Inu ; Munich was invaded ; 
 war was inevitable. 
 
 Then followed the campaign of Ulm. Napoleon writes 
 to Josephine, Dec. 5, 1805 : — 
 
 "I have concluded a truce. The Russians have im- 
 plored it. The victory of Austerlitz is the most illustri- 
 ous of all which I have gained. We have taken forty-five 
 flags, 150 pieces of cannon, and twenty generals. More 
 than 20,000 are slain. It is an awful spectacle. I have 
 beaten the Russian and Austrian armies commanded by 
 the two emperors." 
 
 In 1806 England, Russia, and Prussia formed a new 
 alliance against the French. Then followed the bloody 
 battles of Jena and Auerstadt. On the 28th of October 
 Napoleon made a triumphal entry into Berlin, and estab- 
 lished himself in the king's palace. While there he visited 
 
456 NAPOLEON I 
 
 the tomb of Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. The sword 
 of the Prussian was suspended over his grave. Napoleon 
 took it down, saying, " I will send it to the governor of 
 the Invalides." General Rapp ventured to reply, '' Were 
 I in your place, I should not be willing to part with this 
 sword. I should keep it for myself." 
 
 Napoleon jestingly answered, " Have I not then a sword 
 of my oivn, Mr. Giver of Advice?" The Prussian mon- 
 archy was destroyed upon the fields of Jena and of Auer- 
 stadt. But England and Russia were yet clamorous for 
 war. Again Napoleon tried to make overture for peace, 
 again he was repulsed. Then followed the terrible battle- 
 field of Eylau. Amid winter's snow and ice and storms 
 this famous battle was won. As Napoleon passed over 
 the gor}' field after the awful carnage, he exclaimed with 
 deep emotion, " To a father who loses his children vic- 
 tory has no charms." 
 
 A dragoon, dreadfully shattered and bleeding from the 
 effects of a cannon ball, raised his head from the bloody 
 snow, and faintly said, " Turn your eyes this way, please 
 your Majesty. I believe that I have got my death wound. 
 I shall soon be in the other world. But no matter for 
 that ; vive VEmpereur ! " 
 
 Napoleon immediately dismounted from his horse and 
 took the hand of the wounded man, telling his aids to 
 carry him to the ambulance. Large tears rolled down the 
 cheeks of the dying dragoon, as he fixed his eyes upon 
 that loved face, fervently exclaiming, " I only wish I had 
 a thousand lives to lay down for your majesty." Amidst 
 a heap of dead, a feeble voice was heard crying, ^'-Vive 
 rEmjiereur !" Half-concealed beneath a tattered flag lay 
 a young oflScer. As Napoleon approached, he raised him- 
 self upon his elbow, though pierced with numerous 
 
NAPOLEON I. 457 
 
 wounds, and faintly cried: "God bless your majesty! 
 farewell, farewell ! Oh, my poor mother ! To dear 
 France my last sigh ! " and falling back, was dead. Upon 
 this dreadful battle-field, though it was after midnight, lie 
 wrote this fond note to Josephine : — 
 
 My Love, — There was a great battle yesterday. Victory re- 
 mains with me, hut I have lost many men. The loss of the enemy, 
 still more considerable, does not console me. I write these two 
 lines myself, though greatly fatigued, to tell you that I am well, 
 and that I love you. Wholly thine, Napoleon. 
 
 The peace of Tilsit was finally concluded, and Napo- 
 leon returned to Paris. 
 
 The French government at this time was composed of 
 three houses, — the Senate, the Tribunate, and the Legisla- 
 ture. Napoleon blended the Tribunate and the Legisla- 
 ture in one. He formed the Council of State, or Cabinet, 
 with the greatest care, choosing the most able men in 
 every department. The meetings of the Council were 
 held in the palace of the Tuileries or at St. Cloud. The 
 most perfect freedom of discussion prevailed in the 
 Council. 
 
 In September, 1808, occurred the memorable meeting 
 of the emperors at Erfurth. Kings, princes, and court- 
 iers came from all parts of Europe to witness the extra- 
 ordinary spectacle. Napoleon was the gracious host who 
 received them as his guests. No more gorgeous retinue 
 had ever followed a monarch of the blood royal than sur- 
 rounded the Emperor Napoleon as he left Paris for the 
 appointed place of meeting. Amid all the royal magnifi- 
 cence which attended these imperial sovereigns, none 
 appeared so majestic, so supremely commanding in their 
 personal presence as Napoleon the Plebeian Monarch, 
 
458 NAPOLEON L 
 
 who had raised himself by his own surprising and irre- 
 sistible genius to the proudest place amidst the courts of 
 Europe. 
 
 All the other sovereigns trembled before his amazing 
 power ; the imperialism of mind and genius compelled 
 the homage of royal titles and royal blood. 
 
 We do not uphold that Napoleon's career was free 
 from error, and no greater blot tarnishes the brightness 
 of his fame tlian his divorce of Josephine. From that 
 moment Napoleon fell. From that moment Josephine 
 mounted an eminence of self-sacrificing, unselfish devo- 
 tion, of heart-martyrdom, never reached by woman be- 
 .fore. Women have died for their husbands ; but this 
 was worse than death. Women have slaved and toiled, 
 and been down-trodden by brutal husbands ; but this was 
 worse than that. Never before had woman stepped from 
 so high an eminence of bliss into so deep an abyss of 
 heart-desolating woe, and with self- renouncing, almost 
 inconceivable, womanly devotion, allowed her royal place 
 as wife to be taken by another, that thus a supposed 
 political power might be gained by the idolized object of 
 her affection ; who, even though his cruel demand thus 
 shattered her hopes, her heart, and her life, she was still 
 unselfish enough to glory in her self-renunciator}^ sac- 
 rifice, for the still adored object of her love. No politi- 
 cal excuse can cover this crime committed by Napoleon 
 at the instigation of Fouclie and other ambitious adher- 
 entis.^ and worst of all, at the instigation of his own rela- 
 tions, whom historians acknowledge were the bitter ene- 
 mies of his wife. No laxity of the times, in the sacred 
 laws of marriage, which are the most solemn vows that 
 human beings can take upon themselves, next to their 
 vows to God, can excuse this blot upon Napoleon's fame. 
 
NAPOLEOX I. 459 
 
 By the very eminence of his genius above all other men, by 
 the very exaltation of his lofty position, should he have 
 made himself the model as an upholder^ not a desecrator, 
 of the most sacred human relation ever ordained b}- God. 
 
 "What God hath joined together, let not man put 
 asunder ! " was a weightier obligation than any supposed 
 political advantage, more binding than any patriotism, 
 more encumbent upon him than any duty of state or 
 country. No political reasons can palliate in the least 
 degree this crime ; they only weakly explain^ but do not 
 in any manner excuse it. That Napoleon, with his mar- 
 vellous self-sufficiency of will, and genius, and wise fore- 
 thought, and keen-eyed intuition, could have been led 
 into such a deplorable act, is past all comprehension. 
 That it was the cruel and bitter mistake of his life, he 
 himself has acknowledged. Napoleon said afterwards, 
 " In separating myself from Josephine, and in marrying 
 Maria Louisa, I placed my foot upon an abyss which was 
 covered with flowers." 
 
 It was an abyss deep and awful ; and from this dark 
 and direful abyss issued forth the horrible reptiles of dis- 
 appointment, sorrow, and remorse, which thrust their 
 cruel fangs into the quivering heart of the lonely exile at 
 St. Helena. Perchance, in the silent anguish of his 
 agonized but heroic soul, a dumb wail broke forth, " Ah, 
 Josephine ! my only love ! bright star of my destiny ! 
 when I no longer gazed upward to thy heavenly light, but 
 tempted by the demons of false counsel, followed an 
 ignis fatuus o'er the treacherous quicksands of political 
 ambition, then did I find myself ingulfed in sorrows, and 
 my heart was shrouded in the black darkness of a rayless 
 night of hopeless despair. Had I been true to thee, per- 
 chance a just and righteous Providence might have been 
 
460 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 more merciful to me. Thou wert my star of hope and 
 love ! Thou wert ordained by heaven, m}^ star of des- 
 tiny ! Bitterly do I remember thy prophetic words upon 
 that memorable night, when the tie which bound us 
 together was shattered by my blind ambition, ' Bona- 
 parte, behold that bright star ; it is mine ! and remember, 
 to mine, not to thine, has sovereignty been promised. 
 Separate, then, our fates, and your star fades ! ' 
 
 "Ah, Josephine, you were right! It is to you alone 
 that I owe the only few moments of happiness I have 
 known in the world ! " 
 
 Yes, Josephine was right ; that hour marked the com- 
 mencement of the downfall of Napoleon. His star, which 
 once blazed forth in matchless splendor in the heavens, 
 was soon to sink forever. The two greatest errors of 
 Napoleon were the conquest of Spain and the invasion of 
 Russia. The first was unjust, the second was unfortunate. 
 We can but give one picture of the Russian campaign. 
 Napoleon and his armv had marched in triumph more 
 than two thousand miles from his capital. Victor}' had 
 accompanied him. He had taken the metropolis of the 
 most powerful nation on the continent, though that 
 nation had been aided by England, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Sweden. Moscow was in the possession of the French. 
 Napoleon was established in the Kremlin. 
 
 It was the 16th of September, 1812. At midnight the 
 crv of " lire ! " resounded throusfh the streets. Moscow 
 was in flames ! Mines were sprung, shells burst, cannons 
 were discharged, wagons of powder exploded ; earth- 
 quake succeeded earthquake ; volcano followed volcano 
 of flame and smoke and burning projectiles, until the 
 whole vast city was wrapped in one wild ocean of flame. 
 Napoleon said of this awful sight: " It was a spectacle 
 
NAPOLEOX L 461 
 
 of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame ; 
 mountains of red rolling flames, like immense waves of 
 the sea, alternately bursting forth and elevating them- 
 selves to skies of fire, and then sinking into the ocean of 
 flame below. Oh ! it was the most grand, the most sub- 
 lime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld." 
 
 Nothing was left of Moscow save the remembrance of 
 its former grandeur. Then followed the terrible retreat 
 of the French army, through the cold and snow and 
 winter storms. During this unfortunate expedition the 
 entire army of Napoleon had been destroyed. "During 
 the Russian campaign France is believed to have lost 
 about three hundred and fifty thousand soldiers : a hun- 
 dred thousand were killed in the advance and retreat, a 
 hundred and fifty thousand died from hunger, fatigue, and 
 the severity of the climate, and about a hundred thou- 
 sand remained prisoners in the hands of the Russians, 
 not more than half of whom ever returned to France." 
 
 Still, notwithstanding the enormous wars in which 
 Napoleon had been engaged, he had expended in works 
 of public improvement, for the embellishment of France, 
 in the course of nine years, more than two hundred mil- 
 lions of dollars. " These miracles," says a French writer, 
 " were all effected by steadiness of purpose, talent armed 
 with power, and finances wisely and economically applied. 
 If a man of the age of the Medici, or of Louis XIV., 
 were to revisit the earth, and at the sight of so many 
 marvels, ask how many ages of peace and glorious reigns 
 had been required to produce them, he would be an- 
 swered, ' Twelve years of war ^ and a single man!' " 
 
 But the war was not over. With an army formed of 
 fresh recruits, again Napoleon was forced to meet his 
 foes. Then followed the battle of Lutzen, which is re- 
 
462 NAPOLEON T. 
 
 garded as oue of the Jiiost ])rilliaiit proofs of Napoleon's 
 genius. But now many a Judas a[)peared in the midst of 
 his supposed friends. General Jomini deserted the staff 
 of Marshal Nev, and went over to the Emperor Alexan- 
 der. Bernadotte, of Sweden, took up arms against the 
 French ; and General Moreau went over to the camp of 
 the Allies. 
 
 " After the disaster of Leipsic, and the losses sustained 
 by different divisions of the army in that campaign, and 
 the mortality which thinned so dreadfully the French 
 armies on the Rhine, France felt herself exhausted and 
 weak. 
 
 In this depressed state, the civilized world was prepar- 
 ing its last united onset upon her. From the Baltic to 
 the Bosphorus, from the Archangel to the Mediterranean, 
 P^urope had banded itself against Napoleon. Denmark 
 and Sweden had struck hands with Austria and Russia 
 and Prussia and England ; while, to crown all, the princes 
 of the Confederation of the Rhine put their signatures to 
 the league, and 0)16 million and twenty-eight thousand men 
 stood up in battle array on the plains of Europe to over- 
 throw this mighty si)irit that had shaken so terribly their 
 thrones. And all this resistless host were pointing their 
 bayonets towards Paris. What man or nation could meet 
 such an overwhelming foe? Never did Napoleon's genius 
 shine. forth with greater splendor than in the almost super- 
 human exertions he put forth in this last great struggle 
 for his empire. The Allies entered the capital, and Napo- 
 leon was compelled to abdicate, preferring exile, rather 
 than involve France in more terrible bloodshed. He then 
 penned this memorable abdication : — 
 
 "The allied sovereigns having declared that the Em- 
 peror Napoleon is the sole obstacle to the re-establish- 
 
NAPOLEON AT FONTAIN KBLEAU. 
 
NAPOLEON I. 463 
 
 ment of a general peace in Europe, the Emperor Napoleon, 
 faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for him- 
 self and his heirs, the throne of France and Italy ; and 
 that there is no personal sacrifice, not even that of life 
 itself, which he is not willing to make for the mterests of 
 France." 
 
 Then followed his mournful farewell to his soldiers. 
 
 "As Napoleon arrived at the landmo- of the o-rand 
 staircase, he stood for a moment and looked around upon 
 the Guard drawn up in the court, and upon the innumerable 
 multitude which thronged its surroundings. Every eye 
 was fixed on him. It was a funereal scene, over which 
 was suspended the solemnity of religious awe. Acclama- 
 tions in that hour would have been a mockery. The 
 silence of the grave reigned undisturbed. Tears rolled 
 down the furrowed cheeks of the warriors, and their heads 
 were bowed in overwhelming grief. Napoleon cast a ten- 
 der and a grateful look over the battalions and the squad- 
 rons who had ever proved so faithful to himself and to 
 his cause. Before descending to the courtyard, he hesi- 
 tated for a moment, as if his fortitude were forsaking 
 him. But immediately rallying his strength, he approached 
 the soldiers. The drums commenced beatino- the accus- 
 tomed salute. With a gesture Napoleon arrested the 
 martial tones." A breathless stillness prevailed. AVith 
 a voice clear and firm, — every articulation of which was 
 heard in the remotest ranks, — he said : — 
 
 "Generals, officers, and soldiers of my Old Guard, I 
 bid you farewell. For five and twenty years I have ever 
 found you in the path of honor and of glory. In these 
 last days, as in the days of our prosperity, you have never 
 ceased to be models of fidelity and of courage. Europe 
 has armed ao^ainst us. Still, with men such as vou, our 
 
464 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 cause never could have been lost. We could have main- 
 tained a civil war for years. But it would have rendered 
 our country unhappy. I have therefore sacrificed our in- 
 terests to those of France. I leave you ; but, my frieuds, 
 he faithful to the new sovereign ivhom France has accepted. 
 The happiness of France was my only thouglit ; it shall 
 ever be the object of my most fervent prayers. Grieve 
 not for my lot ; I shall be happy so long as I know tliat 
 3^ou are so. If I have consented to outlive myself, it is 
 with tlie hope of still promoting 3'our glor^'. I trust to 
 wri^e the deeds w^e have achieved together. Adieu, my 
 childi"en ! I would that I could press you all to my heart. 
 Let me at least embrace your general and 3our eagle." 
 
 "Every e\'e was now bathed in tears. At a signal 
 from Napoleon, General Petit, who then commanded the 
 Old Guard, advanced and stood between the ranks of the 
 soldiers and their emperor. Napoleon, with tears dim- 
 ming his eyes, encircled the general in his arms, while 
 the veteran commander, entirely unmanned, sobbed aloud. 
 All hearts were melted, and a stifled moan was heard 
 through all the ranks. 
 
 "Again the Emperor recovered liimself , and said, ' Bring 
 me the eagle.' A grenadier advanced, bearing one of the 
 eagles of the regiment. Napoleon imprinted a kiss upon 
 its silver beak, then pressed the eagle to his heart, and 
 said, in tremulous accents, ' Dear eagle, may this last em- 
 brace vibrate forever in the hearts of all my faithful 
 soldiers ! Farewell, again, my old companions, farewell ! ' " 
 
 ]>ut Elba could not long hold that daring, restless 
 spirit. The next year he again unrolled his standard in 
 the capital of France, and the army opened its arms to 
 receive him. He at length staked all on the field of 
 Waterloo. There the star of his destiny again rose over the 
 
KAPOLEON I. 465 
 
 horizon, and struggled with its ancient strength to mount 
 the heavens of fame. The battle-cloud rolled over it, 
 and when it again was swept away, that star had gone 
 down, sunk in blood and carnage, to rise no more forever. 
 " Volumes have been written on this campaign and last 
 battle ; but every impartial mind must come to the same 
 conclusion, — that Napoleon's plans never promised more 
 complete success than at this last effort. Wellington was 
 entrapped, and with the same co-operation on both sides, 
 he was lost beyond redemption. Had l>lucher stayed away 
 as Grouchy did, or had Grouchy come up as did Bliicher, 
 victory would once more have soared with the French 
 eagles. It is in vain to talk of Grouchy 's having obeyed 
 orders. It was plainly his duty, and his only duty, to 
 detain Bliicher or to follow him." 
 
 Even yet Napoleon could have placed himself at the 
 head of fifty thousand men in a few hours. He was en- 
 treated by his friends to grasp these powerful resources 
 and again attack the foe. But treachery had already in- 
 vaded the Chamber of Deputies. The wily Fouche — the 
 same who had largely instigated the divorce of Josephine 
 — had obtained the control, and joining with the Bourbons, 
 persuaded the Chamber to demand the second abdication 
 of the Emperor. 
 
 " Two regiments of volunteers from the Faubourg St. 
 Antoine, accompanied by a countless multitude, marched 
 to the gates of the Ely see. A deputation waited upon 
 the Emperor, stating that the traitorous Chamber of Depu- 
 ties was about to sell France again to the Bourbons, and 
 entreating him to take the reins of government into his 
 own hands, as on the 18th Brumaire." The Emperor re- 
 plied, "You recall to \n\ remembrance the 18th Brumaire, 
 but you forget that the circumstances are not the same. 
 
4G6 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 On the 18th Brumaire the nation was unanimous in desir- 
 ing a change. A feeble effort onl}' was necessary to 
 effect what they so much desired. Now it would require 
 floods of French blood, and never shall a single drop be 
 shed by me in defence of a cause purely personal. Put- 
 ting the brute force of the mass of the people into action 
 would doubtless save Paris and insure me the crown with- 
 out incurring the horrors of civil war, but it would like- 
 wise be risking thousands of P'rench lives. No ! I like the 
 regrets of France better than her crowiiJ^ 
 
 And so Napoleon, sacrificing himself to save the lives 
 of the French people, dictated his second act of abdica- 
 tion, and resigned himself with amazing calmness to this 
 overwhelming disaster. But when he threw himself upon 
 the generosity of England, she treacherously entrapped 
 him on the Bellerophon^ and afterwards conveyed him as 
 a captive to the desolate island of St. Helena, where she 
 set spies over him to torture and insult him, and gloated 
 with demoniacal cruelty over the reports they gave of his 
 sufferings. 
 
 But England, with all her cunning and her base treach- 
 ery, could not imprison the matchless mind and soul of 
 the great Napoleon. Though his body was chained to a 
 drear}^ rock-prison, his genius was still the royal em})eror 
 of the world. His wondrous sayings at St. Helena have 
 become the text-books for the students of all climes. 
 
 An English writer, who holds the position of a professor 
 in the University at Cambridge, in a work lately pub- 
 lished, thus gives to Napoleon his place in history : 
 "There are times — and these are the most usual — 
 when the most wonderful abilities would not have availed 
 to raise any man from such a station as that in which 
 Napoleon was born to the head of affairs. But the last 
 
NAPOLEON I. 467 
 
 years of the eighteenth century formed an exceptional i)criod, 
 in which such an ascent was not only possible in France, 
 but was quite possible without very extraordinary abilities. 
 That particular part of Napoleon's career to which the 
 Alexanders and Hannibals can show nothing parallel, is 
 in fact, just the part which, in that exceptional time, 
 was within the reach of an ordinary man. Thus the 
 miracle of Bonaparte's rise to power lies not so much in 
 his personality as in the time." 
 
 What a pity that this English professor could not have 
 happened to have lived when ordinary men mio-ht have 
 become so great ! 
 
 One great secret of Napoleon's success was the union 
 of two striking qualities which are not often found to- 
 gether. His imagination was as ardent, and his mind as 
 impetuous, as the most rash warrior; at the same time 
 his judgment was as cool and correct as the ablest tacti- 
 cian. '' His mind moved with the rapidity of lightning, 
 and yet with the precision and steadiness of naked reason." 
 This power of thinking quick and thinking right is one of 
 the rarest and yet most important qualities to insure suc- 
 cess. As a military leader he has no superior in ancient 
 or modern times. Instead of following what was then 
 considered the scientific mode of warfare, he fell back 
 upon his own genius, and originated tactics which filled 
 his foes with horrified surprise. His power of combina- 
 tion was unequalled ; his mind seemed vast enough for 
 the management of the globe. And yet so perfect was 
 the system and arrangement of his plans and thoughts 
 that the slightest detail was never overlooked. His 
 bravery amounted to rashness where his own life was 
 concerned. He feared neither shot nor shell, and care- 
 lessly exposed himself whenever he thought his presence 
 
468 NAPOLEOX T. 
 
 was needed, replying to his soldiers, who often besought 
 him not to risk his life so recklessly, " Courage ! the ]>ul- 
 let that is to kill me is not yet cast." 
 
 As a thinker and statesman, Napoleon was as remarka- 
 ble as he was as a politician and general. His genius 
 was universal. Had he not been a Napoleon, he might 
 have been a Shakespeare or a Bacon. He condensed a 
 volume into a sentence ; his words were as keen as the 
 blade of a Damascus sword, and as freighted with ominous 
 meaning as the tides of the ocean. He knew men ; he 
 knew books ; he knew nature. In twenty-five lessons 
 Napoleon became so famiUar with the Iilnglish language 
 that he could read any English book without difficulty. 
 
 Another remarkable trait in Napoleon was his self- 
 sufficiency. That self-confidence, which in smaller men 
 would have been mad folly, was in him the most far-see- 
 ing wisdom. He needed no opinions of other men to 
 govern his actions. He was sufficient unto himself. He 
 took counsel onlv of his own o-enius and reason and mar- 
 velloiis intuitions. 
 
 His self-reliance was his power in the midst of danger 
 and difficulties. He believed God had given Inm a great 
 part to pla}' in the world's drama, and he meant to play 
 it well. His plans were almost the inspirations of 
 prophetic foreknowledge. 
 
 Napoleon was also the greatest of statesmen. His con- 
 versations at St. Helena display his wonderful knowledge 
 of men and governments and laws and administrative 
 legislation. Nowhere else can be found such profound 
 thoughts upon politics, war, sciences, arts, or religion. 
 He has been accused of infidelity. But few declarations 
 of the Divinity of Christ, ever uttered by mortal lips, have 
 equalled in far-reaching apprehension, and also acknowl- 
 
 I 
 
NAPOLEON I. 4(39 
 
 edgment of tlic divine incomprehensibility of the mystery 
 of the Godhead, as the sayings of Napoleon. Conversino- 
 with General Bertrand at 8t. Helena, Napoleon said : 
 
 " I know men, and I tell you that Jesns Christ is not a 
 man. Superficial minds see a resemblance between Christ 
 and the founders of empires and the gods of other relig- 
 ions. That resemblance does not exist. There is be- 
 tween Christianity and all other religions whatsoever the 
 distance of infinity. Paganism was never accepted as 
 truth b}' the wise men of Greece, neither by Socrates, 
 Pythagoras, Plato, Anaxagoras, nor Pericles. But on the 
 other side, the loftiest intellects since the advent of 
 Christianity have had faith, a living faith, a practical faith, 
 in the mysteries and doctrines of the Gospel. Paganism 
 is the work of man. What do these gods so boastful 
 know more than other mortals? these legislators, Greek 
 or Roman? this Numa? this Lycurgus? these priests of 
 India or of Memphis ? this Confucius ? this Mohammed ? 
 Absolutely nothing. They have made a perfect chaos of 
 morals. There is not one among them all who has said 
 anything new in reference to our future destiny, to the 
 soul, to the essence of God, to the creation. As for me, 
 I recognize the gods and these great men as beings like 
 m3^self . They have performed a lofty part in their times, 
 as I have done. Nothing announces them divine. On 
 the contrary, there are numerous resemblances between 
 them and myself, — foibles and errors which ally them to 
 me and to humanit3\ 
 
 " It is not so with Christ. Everything in him aston- 
 ishes me. His spirit overawes me, and his will confounds 
 me. Between him and whoever else in the world there 
 is no possible term of comparison ; his birth, and the his- 
 tory of his life ; the profundity of his doctrine, which 
 
470 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 grapples the mightiest difficulties, and which is of those 
 difficulties the most admirable solution ; his Gospel, his 
 apparition, his empire, his march across the ages and the 
 realms, — everything is to me a prodigy, an insoluble 
 mystery, which plunges me into a reverie from which 1 
 cannot escape, a mystery which is there before my eyes, 
 a mystery which I can neither deny nor explain. Here I 
 see nothing human. 
 
 "Jesus borrowed nothing from our sciences. His relig- 
 ion is, a revelation from an intelligence which certainly 
 is not that of man. One can absolutely find nowhere, 
 but in him alone, the imitation or the example of his life. 
 He is not a philosopher, since he advances by miracles, 
 and from the first his disciples worshipped him. He per- 
 suades them far more by an appeal to the heart, than by 
 any display of method and of logic. Neither did he im- 
 pose upon them any preliminary studies or any knowledge 
 of letters. All his religion consists in believing. In 
 fact, the sciences and philosophy avail nothing for salva- 
 tion. He has nothing to do but with the soul, and to 
 that alone he brings his Gospel. The soul is sufficient for 
 him, as he is sufficient for the soul. I search in vain in 
 history to find a parallel to Jesus Christ, or anything 
 which can approach the Gospel. Neither histor^^, nor 
 humanity, nor the ages, nor nature, can offer me an3^thing 
 with which I am able to compare it or explain it. The 
 more I consider the Gospel, the more I am assured that 
 there is nothing there which is not beyond the march of 
 events, and above the human mind. 
 
 "You speak of Caesar, of Alexander, of their con- 
 quests, and of the enthusiasm they enkindled in the 
 hearts of their soldiers ; but can you conceive of a dead 
 man making conquests with an army faithful and entirely 
 
NAPOLEOX L 171 
 
 devoted to his memory ? My armies have forgotten me, 
 even while living, as the Carthaginian army forgot Hanni- 
 bal. Such is our power ! A single battle lost crushes us, 
 and adversity scatters our friends. 
 
 '' Can you conceive of Cajsar, the eternal emperor of 
 the Roman Senate, from the depths of his mausoleum 
 governing the empire, watching over the destinies of 
 Rome? Such is the history of the invasion and conquest 
 of the world by Christianity. Such is the power of the 
 God of the Christians, and such is tlie perpetual miracle 
 of the progress of the faith and of the government of his 
 Church. Nations pass away, thrones crumble, l)ut the 
 Church remains. In every other existence but that of 
 Christ, how many imperfections ! From the first day to 
 the last he is the same, always the same, majestic and 
 simple, infinitely firm and infinitely gentle. Christ proved 
 that he was the Son of the Eternal by liis disregard of 
 time. All his doctrines signify one and the same thing, — 
 Eteiiiity. 
 
 " The Gospel is not a book ; it is a living being, with an 
 action, a power which invades everything that opposes its 
 extension. Behold it upon this table, this Book surpass- 
 ing all others " (here he solemnly' placed his hand upon 
 it) ; ''I never omit to read it, and every day with the 
 same pleasure. Nowhere is to be found such a series of 
 beautiful ideas, admirable moral maxims, which defile like 
 the battalions of a celestial army, and which produce in 
 our soul the same emotion which one experiences in con- 
 templating the infinite expanse of the skies, resplendent 
 in a summer's night with all the brilliance of the stars. 
 Not only is our mind absorbed ; it is controlled, and the 
 soul can never go astray with this Book for its guide. 
 Once master of our spirit, the faithful Gospel loves 
 
472 NAPOLEON L 
 
 US. God eveu is our P'riend, our Father, and truly our 
 
 God. 
 
 ^' What a proof of the divinity of Christ! With an 
 empire so absohite, he has but one single end, — the spirit- 
 ual amelioration of individuals, the purity of conscience, 
 the union to that which is true, the holiness of the soul. 
 So that Christ's greatest miracle undoubtedly is the reign 
 of charity. 
 
 "Behold the destiny near at hand of him who has 
 been called the great Napoleon ! What an abyss between 
 my deep misery and the eternal reign of Christ, which is 
 proclaimed, loved, adored, and which is extending over 
 all the earth. Is this to die? Is it not rather to live? 
 The death of Christ ! It is the death of God." Turning 
 to General Bertrand, " If you do not perceive that Jesus 
 Christ is God, very well ; then I did wrong to make you 
 a general." At length came the last, though to Napoleon 
 most welcome, summons. A few days before his death, 
 he awoke one morning, saying, " I have just seen my 
 good Josephine, but she would not embrace me. She 
 disappeared at the moment when I was about to take her 
 in my arms. She was seated there. It seemed to me 
 that I had seen her yesterday evening. She is not 
 changed. She is still the same, full of devotion to me. 
 She told me that we were about to see each other again, 
 never more to part." 
 
 The disease progressed rapidly, and the dying hour 
 drew near. It was the month of May, 1821. A violent 
 storm raged with wild fury on that rocky prison-isle, as 
 the spirit of the great Napoleon was freeing itself from its 
 earthly fetters. His few faithful friends who shared his 
 exile, stood weeping aroUnd his couch. In the solemn 
 silence of that sacred hour his loved voice was once more 
 
NAPOLEON I. 473 
 
 faintly heard: ''France/ Army! Head of the Army ! 
 Josex)hine! " and the heart of Napoleon 1. ceased to beat. 
 ''Isle of Elba! Napoleon!'' had been the last words of the 
 loving and forgiving Josephine. "France! the Army! 
 Josephine ! " vrere the last images which lingered in the 
 heart, and the last words which trembled on the lips of 
 the dying emperor. 
 
 " When the prejudice, and falshood, and hatred of his 
 enemies shall disappear, and the world can gaze impar- 
 tially on this plebeian soldier, rising to the throne of an 
 empire, measuring his single intellect with the proudest 
 kings of Europe, and ooming off victorious from the en- 
 counter, rising above the prejudices and follies of his age, 
 ' making kings of plebeians, and plebfeians of kings,' grasp- 
 ing, as by intuition, all military and poHtical science, 
 expending with equal faciUty his vast energies on war or 
 peace, turning with the same profound thought from 
 fierce battles to commerce, and trade, and finances ; when 
 the world can calmly thus contemplate him, his amazing 
 genius will receive that homage which envy and igno- 
 rance and hatred now withhold. 
 
 " And when the intelligent philanthropist shall under- 
 stand the political and civil history of Europe, and see 
 how Napoleon broke up its systems of oppression and 
 feudalism, proclaiming human rights in the ears of the 
 world, till the continent shook with the rising murmurs 
 of oppressed man ; study well the changes he introduced, 
 without which human progress must have ceased ; see the 
 great public works he established, the institutions he 
 founded, the laws he proclaimed, and the civil liberty he 
 restored ; and then, remembering that the bloody wars 
 that offset all these were waged by him in self-defence, 
 and were equal rights struggling against exclusive des- 
 
474 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 potism, he will regret that he has adopted the slanders of 
 his foemen and the falsehoods of monarchists." 
 
 Alexander's conquests were only for selfish glory ; he 
 cared not for his people, and little for his soldiers. Ci^e- 
 sar's triumphs were for his own personal honor and 
 power. The wars of Frederick the Great were nearly 
 all unjust and aggressive, and he openly asserted his self- 
 ish ambition. But Napoleon, equalling them all in the 
 brillianc}' of his conquests, stands so far above them, as 
 the i"dol of his people and his soldiers, as a man of incor- 
 ruptible character, in the midst of temptations as great as 
 any which have beset mortal men, as an intellectual ge- 
 nius, with a mind so phenomenal as to make him almost 
 a miracle in far-seeing intuitions and marvellous accom- 
 plishment, — that he must be acknowledged, not only as 
 the most famous of all the rulers of the world, but as 
 the greatest uninspired man that ever lived. The history 
 of most men terminates with the grave. But Napoleon's 
 stor}' ended not with his lonely death upon the dreary 
 Isle of St. Helena. Each year his memory was grow- 
 ing brighter. Each 3'ear the French people realized more 
 and more the irreparable loss they had sustained. The 
 heart-melting story of his hardships at St. Helena was 
 told over and over again in his beloved France, till at 
 last the nation rose as one man to do his memory honor. 
 Just twentj-five years from the time when Napoleon was 
 landed a captive upon the Island of St. Helena, his 
 sacred remains were brought from their humble resting- 
 place upon that rock}^ isle, and placed in the magnificent 
 mausoleum prepared for them in the Church of the Inva- 
 lides. On the anniversary of the great victory of Auster- 
 litz, the two funeral frigates entered the harbor of Cher- 
 bourg. Three ships of war, the AusterlitZj the Friedland^ 
 
THE ROCK AT ST. HELENA. 
 
NAPOLEON I. Alb 
 
 and the Tilsit, immediately encircled the ship which bore 
 the sacred remains. All the forts, batteries, and war- 
 ships fired a salute. All France flocked to the cities and 
 villages through which the funeral cortege was to pass. 
 
 At four o'clock, on the afternoon of the 14th of Decem- 
 ber, 1840, the flotilla arrived at Courbevoie, a small vil- 
 lage four miles from Paris. Here the remains were to l)e 
 transferred from the steamer to the shore. As the 
 funeral barge sailed up the Seine, a colossal statue of 
 Josephine, which had been erected on the shore, offered 
 an appropriate and fitting welcome. Her fair form and 
 face seemed to greet the return of her idolized liusband, 
 Maria Louisa, the daughter of the Caesars, was then living 
 ingloriously at Parma. No one thought of her. But at 
 last Josephine and Napoleon were united together in 
 sacred memories on earth, as their spirits had already 
 been reunited in heaven. 
 
 "A Grecian temple one hundred feet higli was con- 
 structied at the termination of the wharf, under wliich the 
 body was to lie in state until transferred to tlie funeral 
 car. Here Sergeant Hubert, who for nineteen years had 
 kept watch at the solitary grave of Napoleon at St. 
 Helena, landed. All the generals gathered around him, 
 and he was welcomed by the people with deep emotion. 
 The imperial funeral car was composed of five distinct 
 parts, the basement, the pedestal, the Caryatides, the 
 shield, and the cenotaph. The basement rested on four 
 massive gilt wheels. It was profusely adorned with rich 
 ornaments which were covered with frosted gold. Upon 
 this basement stood groups of cherubs, seven feet high, 
 supporting a pedestal eighteen feet long, covered with 
 burnished gold. This pedestal was hung with purple vel- 
 vet embroidered with oold. Upon it stood fourteen 
 
476 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Car3^atides, antique figures larger than life, and entirely 
 covered with gold, supporting with their heads and hands 
 an immense shield of solid gold. This shield was of oval 
 form, and eighteen feet in lengtli, and was richly deco- 
 rated. Upon the top of this shield, nearly fifty feet 
 from the ground, was placed the cenotaph, an exact copy 
 of Napoleon's coffin. It was slightly veiled with purple 
 crape embroidered with golden bees. On the cenotaph, 
 upon a velvet cushion, were placed the sceptre, the sword 
 of justice, the imperial crown, in gold and embellished 
 with precious stones. 
 
 The Church of the Invalides had been magnificently 
 adorned for the solemn ceremony. Thirty-six thousand 
 spectators were seated upon immense platforms on the 
 esplanade of the Invalides. Six thousand spectators 
 thronged the seats of the spacious portico. In the interior 
 of the church were assembled the clergy, the members 
 of the Chambers of Deputies and of Peers, and all the 
 members of the royal family and other distinguished 
 personages from France rnd Europe. 
 
 "As the coffin, preceded by the Prince de Joinville, 
 was borne along the nave upon the shoulders of thirty-two 
 of Napoleon's Old Guard, all rose and bowed in homage 
 to the mighty dead." Louis Philippe, surrounded Iw the 
 great officers of state, then stepped forward to receive the 
 remains. 
 
 " Sire," said the prince, " I present to you the body of 
 the Emperor Napoleon." 
 
 "I receive it," replied the king, "in the name of 
 France." Then taking from the hand of Marshal Soult 
 the sword of Napoleon, and presenting it to General 
 Bertrand, he said, " General. T charge you to place this 
 glorious sword of the Emperor upon liis coffin." 
 
NAPOLEON I. 477 
 
 Beneath the lofty dome of the church, where the mas- 
 sive tomb of Napoleon has since been erected, a magnifi- 
 cent cenotaph in the form of a temple had been reared. 
 Within this richly decorated catafalque the coffin of 
 Napoleon was reverently and solemnly placed, thus ful- 
 filling the last wish of the Emperor, expressed in these 
 memorable words, "It is my wish that my ashes may 
 repose on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of the 
 French people whom I have loved so well." 
 
 " He who united in himself alope the glory of Alexan- 
 der, of Cffisar, of Charlemagne, and of Louis XIV., took 
 his place in the Invalides, which, during his life, he had 
 marked as the place of heroes." His devoted Generals 
 Bertrand and Duroc now lie beside him. A few aged 
 veterans of the Old Guard still watch over him. The 
 sunlight, softened by the rich tints of the costly windows, 
 falls lovingly upon his tomb, and his cherished memory 
 lives in the hearts of his beloved people, grovs^ing more 
 beautiful, more triumphantly venerated, and sacredly re- 
 spected with each passing year. As his faithful veterans 
 cast their crowns of flowers at the foot of his coffin, with 
 trembling voices they lovingly though mournfully cried, 
 " Vive V Eynpereur ! '' and this loved Emperor still lives in 
 the hearts of his people, royally enshrined in a nation's 
 undying love. 
 
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