ANALYSIS 
 
 O F 
 
 Pneumatics and Moral Philofophy, 
 
 44444444444444 *4 44 44 44 4444 444 5*44 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 i. 
 
 S CIENCE may he confidered 
 either as it is an attainment of 
 the mind ; as it refers to a par- 
 ticular fubjedt ; or as it tends 
 to a particular objedt or end. 
 
 Conlidered as an attainment of the 
 mind, Science is dittinguilhed from 
 Hiftory and Art. 
 
 Hi (lory is the knowledge of particu- 
 lars in detail. 
 
 Science is the knowledge of general 
 principles. 
 
 A 2 
 
 Art 
 
C 4 3 
 
 Art is a power founded on know- 
 ledge or habit, by which men perform 
 certain functions of mind, or operate 
 on fome external iubject . 
 
 2. 
 
 Science confidered with a view to 
 its iubject, is either Abitract or Appli- 
 cate. 
 
 Abftrad Science refers to the pro- 
 ceedings of reafon on the mere fuppo- 
 fitions of entity , quantity, or number ; 
 as in Metaphyfics , Geometry , and A- 
 rithmetic. 
 
 Applicate Science refers to fome 
 particular fubjed ; as, Mind , or Mat- 
 ter ; Under ft anding , or Sentiment ; 
 Bodies , hard , /oft, or elajiic. 
 
 The applicate Sciences may be di- 
 vided into two capital branches. That 
 which refers to the Material Syftem, 
 and that which refers to the Intellec- 
 tual. 
 
 3 - 
 
Science confidered with a view tar 
 its objedt is of two kinds; Phyfical, 
 and Moral. 
 
 Phyfical Science is the knowledge of 
 what is. 
 
 Moral Science is the knowledge of 
 what ought to be *. 
 
 A principle in Phyfical Science is 
 fome known fadt, ferving to account 
 for a variety of appearances, confider- 
 ed as its effects or confequences. 
 
 A principle in Moral Science is 
 fome perception of good or evil, fer- 
 ving to direct the choice in a variety 
 of inftances. 
 
 The general expreflion of a principle 
 conftitutesalaw in phyfics or morality. 
 
 A Law, in the Phyfical fenfe, is any 
 general expreflion of what is. 
 
 In the Moral fenfe it is an expreflion 
 of what ought to be. 
 
 * The terms ought to be are relative to hu- 
 man apprehenfion. 
 
 A 3 The- 
 
I « 1 
 
 The fame fuhject may be treated 
 Morally or Phyfically. 
 
 Human Nature treated Phyfically is 
 in part the fubjed of Pneumatics. 
 
 Treated Morally is the fubjedt of 
 Moral Philofophy. 
 
 Of 
 
[ 7 ] 
 
 itei 
 
 OfPNEUMATICS, 
 
 :d 
 
 P |Neumatics, confiding of two 
 ' parts, treat phyfically of Mind 
 or Spirit. 
 
 The firlt part treats of the Human 
 Mind. 
 
 The fecond of the Being and Attri- 
 butes of GOD. 
 
 Human Nature is Animal and Intel- 
 lectual. 
 
 The Animal nature of man is the 
 fubject of Anatomy and Phyliology. 
 The Intellectual nature is the proper 
 fubjeCt of Pneumatics : but being join- 
 ed, many of their functions are mixed, 
 and pertain equally to Pneumatics and 
 to Phyliology. 
 
 Of 
 
 PART 
 
C 8 3 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Of HUMAN NATURE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Hi/iory of the Species. 
 
 M Ankind have fome qualities in 
 common with the other ani- 
 mals ; fome that diftinguilh them $. 
 and others by which they arc them- 
 felves diverfified. 
 
 Like the other animals, they are ge- 
 nerated and nourifhed, they have their 
 period of life, and are fubject to diffo- 
 lution. 
 
 i. 
 
 2 , 
 
 3 * 
 
[ 9 3 
 
 3 * 
 
 Half the numbers that are born die, 
 according to fome obfervations, before 
 the feventh year is expired ; according 
 to others, before the third. 
 
 Long life confifts of between feven 1 - 
 ty and one hundred years. 
 
 It appears from the annual regifter 
 of deaths, where the numbers of peo- 
 ple are known, that one of thirty-two 
 dies in each year. 
 
 The infancy of man, or his fhate of 
 dependence on the parent, continues 
 longer, and his inftindls are more fal- 
 lible than they are in the young of any 
 other fpecies. 
 
 When adult, he fupplies many appa- 
 rent defedts from invention. 
 
 His ingenuity enables him to fubfift 
 in a variety of lituations and climates. 
 
 He is an animal of prey ; aflociating 
 and political ; and has a fuperiority o- 
 ver every other fpecies. 
 
 He is. qualified to difcourfe, and 
 
 com- 
 
C «• ] 
 
 communicates his meaning by a variety 
 of fixed and arbitrary figns. 
 
 He diftinguifhes characters' by epi- 
 thets of praife or blame. He loves or 
 hates, he admires or contemns. 
 
 The fpecies feparates into bands and 
 companies ; but the individual, fel- 
 dom from choice, is found to id b flit a- 
 lone. 
 
 A- 
 
 Varieties in human nature are either 
 Rich as diftinguifh different races of 
 men, different ages of the fame race, 
 or individuals of the fame race and 
 age. 
 
 Races are diftinguifhed by their fea- 
 tures, ftature, complexion, difpoii- 
 tions, and faculties. 
 
 They are reducible to fix : 
 
 The European , the Samoiede , the 
 Tartar , the Indian , the Negro , and 
 the American *. 
 
 * Some diverfmes of the race appear to be 
 connected with fituation and climate. 
 
 y- 
 
C II ] 
 
 [its 
 
 5 ‘ 
 
 cpi- 
 
 £ . Different ages of the fame race are 
 
 diftinguifhed by the unequal poffeflion 
 of commercial, literary, and political 
 
 fi arts> 
 
 g. Ages are faid to be favage, barba- 
 rous, or polilhed. 
 
 During the firft, men live on terms 
 of equality, without property or go- 
 vernment. 
 
 eitfe During the fecond, they are di din- 
 es oi guilhed by inequalities of birth and 
 ;race, fortune, affociate in tribes, and follow 
 > ani * their leaders. 
 
 During the third, they find additio- 
 r ki nal grounds of diftinclion, in a diverfity 
 
 fpoi- of education, profession, and manner 
 
 of life. They are governed by magi- 
 strates, hereditary or elective, under 
 ■, tin the diredion of laws and eltablilhed 
 
 ) and forms. 
 
 to k ^ , 6 » 
 
 /T\ 
 
C 12 3 
 
 6 . 
 
 Individuals of the fame race are dif- 
 tinguifhed by a difference of afpect, 
 capacity, difpofition, and force. 
 
 Thefe varieties qualify members of 
 the fame fociety for different ftations, 
 and render fubordination confident with 
 natural equality. 
 
 7 . 
 
 Every ftate in which man can em- 
 ploy his talents, and follow his difpofi- 
 tionSj is a ftate of nature. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
Of the Hiftory of the Individual. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Of the Understanding-. 
 
 HE Individual is confcious of his 
 
 perfonal identity, in the per- 
 formance of many functions, either 
 merely animal, intellectual, or mixed. 
 
 Confcioufnefs is a principal attribute 
 of mind ; and is that by which it may 
 be faid to ex ill for itfelf. 
 
 Merely animal functions are thofe in 
 which bodily organs and mere animal 
 powers are exerted; as, digeftion, cir- 
 culation, 
 
 Intellectual functions are fuch as 
 cannot be referred to any bodily or- 
 gan ; as thought, judgement, and de- 
 fire. 
 
 B 
 
 Mixed 
 
Cm3 
 
 Mixed functions are the proceedings 
 of mind referred to bodily organs ; as, 
 fenfation, and appetite. 
 
 The mixed or intellectual functions 
 of this aCtive being, however otherwife : £ 
 diftinguilhed, terminate in either of 
 two ends ; the difcovery of truth, or c 
 the attainment of good. 
 
 Truth is the relation of our belief or r 
 opinion to the reality of things. c 
 
 Good is a quality of fentiment, and ' t 
 can exift only in a fentient nature. t 
 
 Truth is the objeCt of underltand- 
 ing. Good is the objeCt of will. 
 
 3 - 
 
 Underftanding includes obfervation, 
 memory, imagination, arrangement, 
 and forefight. 
 
 Obfervation is that proceeding of 
 the mind by which we collect laCls. 
 
 FaCts 
 
 s 
 
E 15 J 
 
 ditj 
 IK: t, 
 
 uoffio 
 W 
 itler i 
 ruth,s 
 
 :nt,E 
 
 ire, 
 
 jfftani 
 
 Fads relate to the exiting qualities 
 and operations of different natures. 
 
 Obfervation terminates in hiftory, 
 or the knowledge of particulars in de- 
 tail . 
 
 Hiftory is either defcriptive or nar- 
 rative. 
 
 Defcriptive hi (lory is the detail of 
 co-exiftent circumftances and qualities. 
 
 Narrative hiftory is the detail of fuc- 
 cellive events. 
 
 We are determined by a lav/ of our 
 nature to believe fads to which we 
 ourfelves are witnefles, or to which 
 we have the credible teftimony of o- 
 thers.. 
 
 4 - 
 
 rvation. 
 
 relMBt; 
 
 Jing ^ 
 ids. 
 
 fafli 
 
 Memory is that proceeding of mind 
 in which lubjeds pad are recalled. 
 
 Its operations are either cafual or in- 
 tentional. 
 
 Memory is cafual when obj.eds fug- 
 ged each other in fome order they hold,, 
 independent of choice or intention. 
 
 B 2 Me- 
 
L 16 3 
 
 Memory is intentional when rhe 
 mind from defign recolleds any objed, 
 
 S' 
 
 Imagination is the dating objeds as 
 prefent under a fenfe of their abfence,. 
 or as real under a fenfe of their being- 
 fid itious. 
 
 Defign, invention, defcription, and 
 paffion, or defire, depend on imagina- 
 tion. 
 
 6 . 
 
 Arrangement is the difpoflng of fads- 
 agreeably to the connedion or relation 
 they have in nature. 
 
 The principal articles of relation are 
 thofe of fimilitude, contiguity, caufe 
 and e.ffed. 
 
 from the relation of fimilitude, ob- 
 jects in defcriptive hiftory are clafied 
 into genera and fpecies. 
 
 from that of contiguity of time or 
 place they are ranged in narration. 
 
 From 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 ?ta tj 
 V obje 
 
 Ajeflsi 
 
 ablk 
 
 :irb; 
 
 on, a 
 
 C 17 J 
 
 From that of caufe and effect they 
 are connected in theory. 
 
 Theory is the arrangement of fepa- 
 rate appearances under foir.e common 
 principle. 
 
 Syfiem is the combination of theo- 
 ries for mutual illultration and fup>- 
 port. 
 
 Science confilts in juft theory and' ' 
 fyftem. 
 
 7- 
 
 )ffa3>- 
 
 ilatk 
 
 mi are 
 cmfe 
 
 ail’d 
 
 Forefight is the faculty of conjedtu-. 
 ring what is to follow from the paft or 
 the prefent. 
 
 It requires penetration and fagacity ; 
 penetration to comprehend the cir- 
 cumftances of any particular cafe, and 
 fagacity to perceive what is likely to 
 follow from thofe circumftances. 
 
 Penetration and fagacity are the foun- 
 dations of art and Ikill, 
 
 e or 
 •om 
 
 B 3 
 
 Sect, 
 
I 18 3 
 
 . 1 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 Of the W i ll. 
 
 The will includes Sentiment, In- 
 clination, and Volition. 
 
 i. 
 
 Sentiment is the perception and the 
 enjoyment of Good, or the perception , 
 and the fullering of 111. 
 
 The object of Sentiment is that to 
 which it is referred as to its Caufe. 
 
 Thus Provocation is the object o£ 
 Anger, and Danger of Fear. 
 
 Objedts are laid to be good or evil 
 on account of their connection with 
 Sentiment. 
 
 This connection is in a great mea- 
 fure arbitrary. 
 
 One perfon is calm under a provo- 
 cation by which another is enraged ; or 
 fearlefs in danger by which another is 
 terrified. 
 
 There 
 
 I 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 C 19 3 
 
 nenU 
 
 n andt 
 creeps: ■ 
 
 is tte 
 
 laufe, 
 
 )bjed 
 
 dorr 
 
 ion « 
 
 ■eat i® 
 
 a prof 
 iged;'- 
 notlier- 
 
 There are four kinds of enjoyment 
 or differing ; viz. 
 
 1. Senfations of Pleafure or Pain. 
 
 2. Approbation or Diflike. 
 
 3. Affedion or Hatred. 
 
 4. Exercife or Languor. 
 
 The firft pertains to our Animal and 
 Senfitive being.. 
 
 The others to our Intellectual and 
 Adive nature. 
 
 Senfations are pleafant or painful a- 
 part from our knowledge of their 
 caufe ; as in the cafe of flavours, o- 
 dours, &c. 
 
 Judgements of approbation or dif- 
 like are pleafant or painful from a 
 knowledge and difcernment of their 
 objed ; as. in diftinguilhing what is 
 beautiful or deformed, great or mean. 
 
 Affection is pleafant by the delight 
 it borrows from the welfare or good of 
 its objed ; as in Friendlhip and Love. 
 
 Hatred is the reverfe. 
 
 Exercifes are pleafant or painful, in 
 being more or lefs fitted to our capaci- 
 ty and dilpofitions. 
 
 Tte 
 
 2 , 
 
[ 29 3 
 
 2 . 
 
 Inclination is a difpofition of our na- 
 ture to aft. 
 
 Every inclination may be confider- 
 ed, either in refpeft to itfelf, to its 
 end, or to its objeft. 
 
 in refpeft to itfelf, Inclination is of 
 three kinds. 
 
 i . A propenfity ; 2 . A delire ; or r 
 3. A mixture of both. 
 
 A Propenfity is an original or acqui- 
 red difpofition of our nature, opera- 
 ting independent of reflection or defign . 
 
 Define is the intentional aft of the 
 mind, direfted by the apprehenfion of 
 a fuppofed good. 
 
 Nature and habit give propenfities ; 
 information or fancy may excite defire. 
 
 Propensities, after experience of 
 their gratification, partake in the na- 
 ture of Defire ; and Defires, by habit, 
 partake in the nature of Propenlities. 
 
 The fubjeft of Inclination is the end 
 or fuppofed good to which it refers ; 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 iris- 
 
 lider- 
 to its 
 
 i is of 
 
 ; or. 
 
 cqtii- 
 pen* 
 :lign, 
 f the 
 mol 
 
 ties; 
 elite. 
 : of 
 : at- 
 abit, 
 es. 
 end 
 'er$j 
 
 aij 
 
 C « J 
 
 as, when we defire Animal Enjoy - 
 merits. Intellectual Talents , or Mo- 
 ral Vitalities. 
 
 The objedt of Inclination is the per- 
 fon to whofe enjoyment the fuppofed? 
 good is referred ; as in the cafe of ad- 
 vantages defired for ourfelves or o- 
 thers. 
 
 In this refpecl inclinations are felfilh 
 or benevolent. 
 
 The mind is differently affected by 
 paffion as the fubjedt of inclination is. 
 differently fituated. 
 
 Paflions are of four principal kinds ; 
 
 Joy and Grief ; 
 
 Hope and Fear. 
 
 A good obtained is matter of Joy j 
 miffed, is a fubjedt of Grief. A favour- 
 able profpedt is the foundation of 
 Hope ; the reverfe is the foundation of 
 Fear. 
 
 Paffion is greatly diverfified in the 
 cafe of different fubjedts and objedts. 
 
 The joy or hope of the interefled 
 and felfifli tend to Infolence or Vanity ; 
 his grief and fear to Dejedtion and' 
 
 Cowardice * 
 
[ 22 J 
 
 Cowardice ; and in cafe of competition 
 with his fellow-creatures, to Envy, 
 Malice, and Jealoufy. 
 
 The joy and hope of the benevolent 
 are candid and juft ; his grief or fear 
 •are mixed with fatisfa&ion-, or lofe 
 their eifedl: in the ardour of his princi- 
 pal difpofition. 
 
 A right ufe of the under ft anding, 
 and good intentions , being always 
 equally in our reach r Moral Qualities 
 may be ftudied without any variety of 
 paffion. But they who commit them- 
 felves to the diredtion of cafual opi- 
 nions are fubjedt to a variety of paffion 
 on this fubjedt. Their joys and hopes 
 are Self-approbation and Confidence ; 
 their griefs and fears are Shame, Indig- 
 nation, and Remorfe. 
 
 3 - 
 
 Volition is the determination of the- 
 mind to follow an Inclination. 
 
 Volition founded on fentiment and 
 inclination conftitutes an Adtion. 
 
 Every 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 npctiii)! 
 a fjp 
 
 nevo's: 
 forte 
 or le 
 is priad- 
 
 fiJra 
 nalitie 
 rietyoi- 
 rtb» 
 lal of 
 ‘ pallioE 
 :d hope; 
 Mena: 
 
 , Indijf 
 
 i of tii 
 
 ent an. 
 a. 
 
 Every 
 
 [ 23 ] 
 
 Every Adion has a motive. Every 
 Voluntary Adion is free. Every Free 
 Adion is an indication of charader. 
 
 It is a privilege of tue mind to con- 
 template itfelf ; to chufe among its 
 inclinations and fentiments ; to fup- 
 prefs what is evil, and cultivate what 
 is good. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 General Inferences. 
 
 1. 
 
 /'^Apacity and parts refer to the 
 Underftanding ; ardour and force 
 to the Heart ; both united conflitute a 
 natural fuperiority of charader. 
 
 Vehement inclinations are the fource 
 of adivity and fteadinefs ; but extreme 
 pafiion of hope or fear, joy or grief, 
 interrupt or mifguide our condud. 
 
 2. 
 
I *4 1 
 
 2 . 
 
 The properties of mind have no ana- 
 logy to thofe of matter. 
 
 They prefent exigences of a different 
 and oppofite nature. 
 
 Divifibility is implied in every con- 
 ception of matter : 
 
 Indivisibility in every fenfe mind has 
 of itfelf. 
 
 What are called faculties of mind 
 accordingly are not diftindt parts of 
 a complicated nature, but Separate 
 names given to different acts of the 
 fame being. 
 
 3- 
 
 Annihilation is unknown in the or- 
 der of nature ; and mind, not being 
 fubjedt to a di Ablution of parts, is phy- 
 sically immortal. 
 
 "n 
 
 PART 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 [ V ] 
 
 PART II. 
 
 tiOE- 
 
 liiw 
 
 if raiii 
 arts oi 
 
 oftk 
 
 the oi' 
 being 
 is pty 
 
 MU 
 
 Of the Being and Attributes 
 of G O D. 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 :r *® Of the Ex Jit nee of COD. 
 
 ^ "\11 7^ ^ Relieve die exigence of miild, 
 
 V V as we do that of matter, in 
 confequence of certain appearances 
 with which that belief is connected in 
 the frame of our nature. 
 
 To form an argument in proof of 
 the exiftence of mind, is to collect 
 fuch ap,.earances. 
 
 The appearances, when known or 
 obferved, are always connected with 
 belief. 
 
 The actions and conduct of tnen make 
 known their intentions and characters. 
 
 The order and proceeding’s of nature 
 make known the exiftence and attri- 
 butes of God. 
 
 C CHAP. 
 
[ »« ] 
 
 CIIAP. II. 
 
 Of the Attributes and Government 
 of GOD. 
 
 r T“ v HE attributes of God may be ex- 1 
 prefled in the terms, Power, J 
 
 \Y ifdom, Goodnefs, and Juftice. j 
 
 By his power all efletfts are produ- 
 ced ; by his wifdoni, his goodnefs, 0 
 and his juftice, they are infallibly di- 
 rect d to the beft ends. „ 
 
 The belief of the exiftence of God ( 
 
 is founded on the appearances of pro- f 
 
 vidence, and implies the belief of his 
 government . (, 
 
 As the Material World is governed » 
 by the intervention of phyfical inftru- o 
 nients, to which we give the names of k 
 Gravitation , Cohefion , Ela/ticity, &c. 
 
 The Intellectual World is governed by 
 moral inducements, fenfations of plea- 
 lure or pain, judgements of approbation 
 *>r diflike, afcftions of love or of hatred. 
 
 C II A P. 
 
C 2 7 ] 
 CHAP. III. 
 General Inferences. 
 
 m ( 
 
 lytes 
 
 For 
 
 :ce. 
 
 eprofi 
 
 ;ooM 
 
 iiiblyi 
 
 of Ci 
 off# 
 foft 
 
 wens 
 inftn 
 ames c 
 
 ■nedf 
 
 afpfc 
 
 jbatio: 
 
 hatred 
 
 W 
 
 i. 
 
 lyr A N being inclined to admire, to 
 love, ami obey proper objects, it 
 follows that religion is natural. 
 
 The expreilions of religion are iixed 
 or arbitrary. 
 
 Its fixed expreilions are thofe actions 
 which concur with the providence of 
 God in promoting the good of his crea- 
 tures. 
 
 Its arbitrary expreilions are the dif- 
 ferent ceremonies, and inftitutionul 
 obfervances, by which like fentiments 
 of veneration may be exprefifed in dif- 
 ferent ages or countries. 
 
 2- 
 
 Men are charged only with the care- 
 of chufing what is good, and of doings 
 what is right. 
 
 Events are referved to God. 
 
 C 2 3« 
 
C 28 3 
 
 The beneficence and the juftice of 
 God appearing in the order of his pre- 
 fent government, lead us to believe a 
 future date of rewards and puni fit- 
 ments,. 
 
 MORAL 
 
I- 2 9 
 
 M ORAL 
 
 t F PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Oral Philosophy treats ofT 
 Good and Evil. 
 
 Any general expreflion of 
 what is good is a law in Morality, and 
 carries an obligation to determine the 
 choice of any fentient and intellectual 
 being to which it refers. 
 
 The laws of Morality, relatively to 
 man, refer either to his Mind or to 
 hi External Condition and Conduct. 
 And Moral Philofophy confifts of two- 
 parts. 
 
 The firft relates to the mind and 
 happinefs of Man. 
 
 The fecond to his external condition 
 and conduct, or to the relations ami 
 duties of men in civil file. 
 
 C 3 
 
 P ART 
 
C 3 ° I 
 
 PART r. 
 
 Of the Mind and Happiness of 
 Man. 
 
 CHAP. r. 
 
 Of Pleasure. 
 
 n Ood, relatively to the human 
 
 VJJ mind, is exprelled in a variety 
 ot terms ; fuch as, Pleajure , Virtue , 
 and Happinefs . 
 
 Pleasure is good, phyfically confider- 
 ed, without any reference to its kind, 
 meafure, or comparative importance. 
 
 I he following are phyfical laws of 
 our nature, relative to pleafure and 
 pain. 
 
 I. 
 
C 3< 1 
 
 1. 
 
 The ufe of things falutary and re- 
 qnifite to animal prefervation, is plea- 
 fant 3 what is pernicious, is painful. 
 
 2 . 
 
 The fenfe of any perfection is plea- 
 fant ; of any defect, is painful. 
 
 : Ik 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 3- 
 
 Affection is pleafant 5 Hatred is pain- 
 ful. 
 
 4- 
 
 onft Hope and Joy are pleafant 3 Grief 
 
 ts to and Fear are painful. But thefe paf- 
 
 rtanct fions, grafted on affection or hatred, 
 
 laws 1 partake greatly in the nature of the dif- 
 
 ire t polition from which tliey arife. 
 
 5 * 
 
C 3* J 
 
 S> 
 
 Exercife of the mind or body- is plea- 
 
 fant. 
 
 6 . 
 
 Habit, in fome inftances, can change 
 the fource of our pleafures or pains. 
 
 Irtue is good , confidered as the 
 
 excellence of man’s nature, and 
 what renders him the object of efteem 
 and of praife. 
 
 Man is by nature the member of a 
 community. His love of that com- 
 munity renders him a good member of 
 it, and intitles him to praife. 
 
 Virtue is that qualification of foul 
 
 CHAP. n. 
 
 Of Virtu e . 
 
 i. 
 
 which 
 
[ 33 1 
 
 which fits the individual to procure the 
 good of mankind. 
 
 The requifites to virtue are, Difpo- 
 fition, Skill, Application, and Force. 
 
 Hence Virtue has been divided into 
 four branches, correfponding to the 
 number of thefe requifites ; viz . 
 
 Juftice, Prudence, 
 
 Temperance, and Fortitude. 
 
 Jultice is a difpofition of the mind 
 favourable to the rights and welfare of 
 mankind. 
 
 Prudence is the lkill and fagacity 
 with which men chufe their ends, and 
 the proper means to obtain them. 
 
 Temperance is the power to abilain 
 from the purfuit of enjoyments that 
 recal from the more important engage- 
 ments of human life. 
 
 Fortitude is the power to withftand 
 oppofition, difficulty, and danger. 
 
 2 . 
 
 Virtue is approved of from a prin- 
 ciple of ltgai u to mankind j or- from 
 
C 34 3 
 
 an original difpolltion of our nature,, 
 leading us to place our excellence in 
 qualifications proper to a lbcial and 
 active being. 
 
 This principle has, by men of fpecu- 
 lation, been differently named, and 
 differently clafled, with the proceed- 
 ings of the under (landing, or with thofe 
 of the heart. In common language it 
 is termed Reafon , or Confcience. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of Happiness. 
 
 TLTAppiness, whether denominated 
 by the names of Pleafure , or of 
 Virtue , is to every fentient being his 
 ftate of leaft fuffering and greateft en- 
 joyment. 
 
 Of neceflary pains the leaft is to be 
 chofen ; and of incompatible pleafures, 
 the greateft. 
 
 Continual fear is a greater pain than 
 
 any 
 
 1 
 
C 35 3 
 
 > m any ■misfortune. Courage therefore is 
 a principal requifite to happinefs. 
 
 tcial'- The P leafurfcS of fen ie are mean and 
 tranfient, compared to thofe of affec- 
 tion and of conduft. 
 
 e /’ I(: 1S happinefs to be free from fear 
 
 mr 3nd difguft ’ from env y and jealoufy; 
 dthtw: t0 entcrtain the beft affections, Huma- 
 
 wr mty ’ Friendihi P> and Love > that is, 
 
 ° t< o * to be engaged in the purfuit of the belt 
 object, the good of mankind. 
 
 The excellence of man, his greateft 
 pleafure, and his happinefs, are the 
 fame. 
 
 d he choice of names, of however 
 little apparent effect in philofophy, 
 leads fometimes. to the moft important 
 ninate confequences. 
 
 or (S ^he feds that exprefled happinefs 
 :ing his un der the name of Plecifure , were led 
 teft en- to prefer eafe, animal enjoyment, and * 
 lloth. 
 
 5 to be They who exprefled it by the name 
 eafures, of Virtue , preferred adivity, courage, 
 and the higher enjoyments of the 
 un than heart. 
 
 The 
 
[ 3 * ] 
 
 The enjoyments of the voluptuous 
 terminate in fenfuality, becaufe atten- 
 tion to mere pleafure, it not defeated 
 by temper, precludes admiration, af- 
 fection, and exertion of mind. 
 
 Senfuality terminates in languor and 
 
 floth. . . 
 
 Where pleafures of the mind and 
 
 the heart are mofl fenfibly felt, the ex- 
 ternal marks of enjoyment are, Activi- 
 ty, Beneficence, and Courage, 
 
C 37 ] 
 
 lptts 
 
 bate 
 
 Jte PART II. 
 
 100,1 
 
 Of the laws of Morality relative- 
 ! Bor:: ly to External Conditions 
 
 and Conduct. 
 
 limit 
 
 tks 
 
 Act' General Division.’ 
 
 I ^Xternal condition and conduit 
 \j have a reference to individuals, or 
 to colleitive bodies. 
 
 The condition and conduit of indi- 
 viduals are the fubjeits of Ethics. 
 
 The condition and conduit of col- 
 leitive bodies are the fubjeits of Poli- 
 tics. 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 Of Ethics. 
 
 ) .\Jli T7 T h i c s confiit of two parts ; Cafuift 
 ^ ry, and Jurifprudence. 
 
 D 
 
 Sect 
 
[ 3 ® ] 
 
 Sect. I. 
 
 Of Casuistry. 
 
 1. 
 
 Casuistry treats of the Rations, 
 manners, and duties of men. 
 
 2. 
 
 Under the head of Ration are inclu- 
 ded fortune and rank. 
 
 Fortune implies property ; and re- 
 fers to the unequal meafure of things, 
 tending to animal enjoyment and fafety, 
 
 The ufes of fortune are fubfiRence 
 and beneficence. Unequal fortune 
 may be equally well or ill employed ; 
 and is connected with happinefs or mi- 
 fery, fo far as it gives octafion to 
 conduct, and is the fubjeft of opinion 
 and fancy. 
 
 Rank is the Ration of the individual 
 relatively to other men. 
 
 A rank is conRituted by fortune, 
 birth, and chara&er. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fortune 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
 [ 39 3 
 
 Fortune derives rank from the opi- 
 nion and dependence of others. 
 
 Birth derives rank from the luftre of 
 anceftors. 
 
 Character is the ground of eftima- 
 tion, and may raife or fink men to the 
 rank in which they are qualified to aCt. 
 
 Good conduct and happinefs are not 
 peculiar to any ftation. 
 
 are it 
 
 3 1 
 
 of tilt 
 and la 
 iibfilli 
 fort. 
 
 Tiplo? 
 
 :fs ort 
 caliou 
 
 ndivitf 
 
 for® 
 
 fort* 
 
 Manners are the external expreffion 
 of a character that fubfifts in the mind 
 and the heart. 
 
 Like other external figns of difpofi- 
 tion and meaning, manners have either 
 an arbitrary or a natural connection 
 with the difpofition fignified. 
 
 Manners of the firit kind depend 
 merely on cultom ; and fluctuate, like 
 language, or any other arbitrary infti- 
 tution. 
 
 Manners of the fecond kind are fuch 
 appearances and conduct as men of cer- 
 tain difpofitions naturally aflume. 
 
 D 2. Man- 
 
[ 4 ° 3 
 
 Manners founded in nature are fome- 
 times varied by cuftom, infomuch 
 that different nations or ages require a 
 different afpecft, carriage, and conduft, 
 in expreffion of the fame difpofition. 
 
 A conduc'd tending to the good of 
 mankind is invariably right, independ- 
 ent of opinion or cuftom. 
 
 Even in cafe of arbitrary manners, 
 we are bound, when the good of man- 
 kind will permit, to obferve thofe of 
 our country, as we fpeak its language, 
 or wear its drefs. 
 
 4 * 
 
 Duties may be cenfidered as termina- 
 ting either in the perfon adting, and 
 are decent or proper ; or as having in- 
 fluence on others, and are beneficent 
 or innocent. / 
 
 Decency of condudt is its agreeable- 
 nefs to the opinion of others. 
 
 Propriety of conduct is its fuitable- 
 nefs to our nature, ftation, and for- 
 tune. 
 
 In- 
 
Innocence is the confiftency of our 
 conduct with the welfare of others. 
 
 Beneficence is its tendency to pro- 
 mote that welfare. 
 
 The eftablifliment of general rules- 
 relating to duties is a principal object 
 of caluiltry. But the belt directory? 
 in human life is the difpoiition from 
 which thofe duties proceed. 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 Of Jurisprudence. 
 
 i. 
 
 Jurisprudence treats of the con- 
 duct of men in its reference to the 
 rights of others. 
 
 it confilts of two parts. The firft 
 relates to the manner in which the 
 rights of men are conit ituted. 
 
 The lecond, to the manner in which 
 thofe rights may be vindicated . 
 
 The apprehenfion of a right is found- 
 ed in the defire of every fenfitive being 
 to preferve and to defend himfelf. 
 
 D 3 J£ha 
 
C 42 ] 
 
 The rights of men are conftituted 
 either in the perfon or in things, and 
 are faid to be perfonal or real* 
 
 Perfonal rights include fafety, free- 
 dom, and the ufe of talents. 
 
 . Real rights include commonty, pof- 
 feflion, property, and fervice. 
 
 Rights are conftituted by the origi- 
 nal appointment of nature, or the fub- 
 fequent proceedings of men ; and are 
 original or adventitious. 
 
 Safety, freedom, the ufe of talents, 
 pofleffion, and commonty, are original 
 rights. 
 
 Property and fervice are adventitious* 
 
 3 - 
 
 Property is an exclufive right to the 
 ufe of things. 
 
 Of things, fome are not fubjedts of 
 property j others pertain to commu- 
 nities ; and others to individuals. 
 
 4 - 
 
 Service is a right to the aid and at- 
 tendance of others. 
 
i 45 J 
 
 i 
 
 onllitt 
 
 lings, E 
 
 Adventitious rights arife from con- 
 et )'i t tract, occupancy, labour, or forfeiture. 
 
 Contracts are conllituted by promife 
 P and acceptance. 
 
 e ' Con t rafts are binding, becaufe to 
 
 ihsc. r ; vaife an d to fruftrate an expectation is 
 fftkfj an injury. 
 
 ; amir They do not bind in favour of a par- 
 ty that has failed on his part, or in cafe 
 { till cf a condition that has not taken place, 
 e orip They are rendered void by the ex- 
 ceptions of force, fraud, or injuflice. 
 entities Occupancy confifts in the prior and 
 continued ufe of a fubjeft. 
 
 Forfeiture refers to a right acquired 
 ;ht to: j n reparation of a damage fullained. 
 
 jbjefis 6. 
 
 con* 
 
 als, Property may be acquired by occu- 
 
 pancy and labour. It may be transfer- 
 red by contract or forfeiture. 
 
 ^ : The will of a deceafed proprietor 
 
 does not convey a right of property. 
 
 A 
 
A right to fervice is acquired by con- 
 tract or forfeiture. 
 
 No right to fervice can amount to 
 property in the perfon of the fervant r 
 ilavery therefore has no foundation, in 
 juftice. 
 
 7 - 
 
 The rights of men may be maintain- 
 ed by perfuafion, (Iratagem, or force. 
 
 Parties may ad either as principals or 
 auxiliaries in maintaining a right. 
 
 Stratagem and force are lawful : 
 
 ] Ji, Where parties have not ftipula- 
 ted, as in civil fociety, to fubmit their 
 differences. 
 
 2 dly, Where an aid ftipulated cannot 
 be obtained. 
 
 3 dly^ Where milder methods adually 
 have failed, or are not likely to fucceed. 
 
 8 . 
 
 The condition in which parties are 
 
 reduced 
 
reduced to the ufe of ftratagem anct 
 force, is the ihite of war. 
 
 The laws of war are, 
 
 1 . A wrong apprehended may be 
 prevented by ftratagem or force. 
 
 2. An aflault may be repelled. 
 
 3. A damage luftained gives a right 
 to reparation. 
 
 4. Reparation is in juftice propor- 
 tioned to the damage furtained. 
 
 CHAP. n. 
 
 Of Politics. 
 
 General Division. 
 
 Politics treat of nations and col- 
 ledtive bodies. 
 
 A nation is any company or fociety 
 of men acting by concert, or under a 
 common direction . 
 
 The united force and direction of 
 numbers is termed the State. 
 
 States 
 
[ 46 J 
 
 States may be confidered with a view 
 to their refources, or to their form. 
 
 The firfl: is the fubjecl of public oc- 
 conomy. 
 
 The fecond, of government. 
 Sect. I. 
 
 4 
 
 Of Public OEconomy. 
 
 Public OEconomy refers to na- 
 tional wealth and revenue. 
 
 Nations are rich by pollefling in a- 
 bundance the means of fubfiftence, or 
 what may be exchanged for fuch means. 
 
 Riches depend on the pofleffion of 
 lands, materials, induftry, Ikill, and 
 numbers of people. 
 
 Nations acquire land or territory by 
 
 conquelt, cafual coalitions, or colo- 
 nies. 
 
 i. 
 
 2 . 
 
 3 - 
 
I 47 ] 
 
 3 - 
 
 They difcover materials by continued 
 obfervation and trials. 
 
 4 - 
 
 They become induftrious by a habit 
 grafted on the fenfe of utility and fafety. 
 
 5 - 
 
 t 
 
 They become lkilful by continued 
 : application, and by fubdividing arts and 
 
 s profelfions. 
 
 Commerce being the exchange of 
 commodities, is neceflary to the fubdi- 
 is vifion of arts. 
 
 Commerce confdts of barter, or of 
 purchafe and fale. 
 
 Purchafe and fale requires a mode 
 ot valuation, and the ufe of money. 
 
 Money is a commodity of univerfal 
 demand, taken in exchange for any o- 
 ther commodity. 
 
 1 
 
 Money 
 
C 48 3 
 
 Money in coin is this commodity di- 
 vided into parts of a fixed quantity, 
 and received in tale on the faith of a 
 ftamp applied by the public. 
 
 The 1110ft convenient commodities 
 for the purpofes of coin are the precious 
 metals. 
 
 Bills are obligations to pay a fpecified 
 value in money. 
 
 Commerce may redound to the pro- 
 fit of all parties concerned, by enabling- 
 each to improve his peculiar material, 
 or to purfue his peculiar art. 
 
 That party gains 1110ft by commerce 
 who receives the more ufeful commo- 
 dity, and who, to carry on his trade, 
 is employed in the more healthy and 
 leait corrupting occupations. 
 
 6 . 
 
 Nations become populous in propor- 
 tion to the means of iubliitence they 
 offer and fecure to their people. 
 
 7 • 
 
 1 
 
[ 49 3 
 
 7 * 
 
 Wealth in the poflefllon of indivi- 
 duals is a national or public refource. 
 
 That part of the wealth of indivi- 
 duals which is exaded for national pur- 
 pofes is the public revenue. 
 
 Revenue may be proportioned to 
 the numbers, wealth, and frugality, 
 of a people. 
 
 It is levied by taxes. 
 
 Taxes are of four kinds. 
 
 Capitation , yJJJ' ‘JJ'nent, Cujioms , 
 and Excife. 
 
 Capitation is a tax impofed on every 
 individual, and falls equally on the 
 poor and the rich. 
 
 AfleflVnents are proportioned to the 
 fuppofed Rock in land, money, or 
 goods. 
 
 Cuftoms are a tax on goods in 
 commerce. 
 
 Excife is a tax on confumption. 
 
 Cuftoms may be fo levied as to di- 
 red or to limit commerce. 
 
 E 
 
 Excife 
 
Excife has a tendency to limit con- 
 fumption, and affeds either the quan- 
 tity or the quality of goods confumed. 
 
 8 . 
 
 ti 
 
 0 
 
 National force is proportioned to the 
 refources, difcipline, and character of 
 a people. 
 
 £ 
 
 Sect. II. 
 
 Of Government. 
 
 i. 
 
 Government is founded on fub- [„ 
 Ordination. 
 
 Subordination is the relation in 
 which men ading as a body are placed 
 to each other. j 
 
 It is either cafual or inftitutional. 
 
[ i*i ] 
 
 I* 
 
 'tltjl - 2. 
 
 Cafual fubordination is the mere dis- 
 tribution of rank, founded on Fortune , 
 Character, and Birth. 
 
 nedn 
 
 m 
 
 Institutional fubordination is the 
 adual didribution of power. 
 
 Power is any part of the force of the 
 ftate, committed to the diredlion of 
 certain perfons, for the performance of 
 , fome public function. 
 
 Perfons intruded with public func- 
 tions are termed Magi/irates. 
 
 Whoever is intruded to perform, or 
 lot to delegate every function of the date, 
 is the fovereign, or Supreme magidrate. 
 atiffl Public functions are of three kinds, 
 ept Legijlation , Jur if diction , and Execu- 
 
 tion. 
 owl 
 
 4 * 
 
 Legislation is the expreffing of the 
 will of the date, for the future direc- 
 ' tion of its members. 
 
 E 2 
 
 Laws 
 
[ 52 3 
 
 Laws are either adopted from cu- 
 ftom, or enadted by ftatute. 
 
 They refer either to the mode of 
 fubordination, to civil rights, or to 
 the fuppreflion of crimes ; and are faid 
 to be Political , Civil, or Criminal. 
 
 Political laws define the relative 
 rights of magiftrate and fubjedt. 
 
 Civil laws define the relative rights 
 of private parties. 
 
 Criminal laws diredt the proceedings 
 of the magiftrate in fuppreffing crimes. 
 
 5 - . 
 
 Jurifdidtion is the interpretation of 
 the will of the ftate, and its application 
 to particular cafes. 
 
 6 . 
 
 Execution is the actual application 
 of the public force, to defend the ftate, 
 or give efiedt to its laws. 
 
 Execution, relatively to the firft ob- 
 jedt, fliould be diredted by the law of 
 
 nations ; 
 
iC S3 J 
 
 nations; relatively to the fecond, by 
 
 the municipal law of the country. 
 
 ieu 
 
 ft' 7 . 
 
 anJt 
 
 }it: The refult of wife legillation, jurif- 
 
 j*®- dicUon, and execution, is Public Li- 
 jei berty. 
 
 Ii:! Liberty is the fecurity of rights. 
 
 A conflitution is faid to be free, 
 ifc when its forms are calculated to pre- 
 iigoi ferve the rights of the fubjeCt. 
 
 Subjects are faid to be free, when 
 they actually enjoy thofe rights. 
 
 ■etatic 
 
 ippfc 8 * 
 
 The form of government is conftitu- 
 ted by the manner in which the fove- 
 reignty is exercifed, by one, by ieieCt 
 ,,, numbers, or by the collective body. . 
 
 The title of a fovereign to rule is 
 t,e ' founded either in compact, or in that 
 . right which all parties have to do good 
 ' T to the utmoft extent of their power. 
 
 jaw 
 
 E 3 
 
 
 9 * 
 
r 54 1 
 
 9 - 
 
 Governmefits are either Simple or 
 Mixed. 
 
 Simple governments are thofe under 
 which f< 'Vereignty is exercifed by or in 
 the name of fome fingle power. 
 
 They are of three kinds ; Republic , 
 Monarchy , and Dejpotifm. 
 
 In republics the fovereign power is 
 exei cii’ed by numbers. 
 
 iji, By the colledive body, as in de- 
 mocracy. Here men ad: on maxims of 
 equality, and rhe Hate is fupported by 
 the difinterefted zeal of its members. 
 
 2 dly, By a particular order, or felect 
 number, as in ariftocracy : Men are 
 diftinguilhed into two claffes, and the 
 ftate is fupported by the Iteadinefs and 
 moderation of the fuperior order. 
 
 Monarchy is that in which a fingle 
 per foil exercifes the fovereign ty accor- 
 ding to fixt laws and inflitutions. 
 
 There is a continued gradation of 
 ranks j and the ftate is fupported by 
 
 the 
 
 \ 
 
[ SS ] 
 
 the regard of individuals for the ma- 
 xims and honours of their ftation. 
 Defpotifm is that in which a fingle 
 Sint perfoii governs by force, without any 
 law or limitation. Subjeds are held to 
 ofet be equal, except fo far as the fovereign 
 | bv,r is pleafed to diftinguifh them by his 
 r temporary will. The ftate is fupport- 
 ed by the fear of puniJhment. 
 
 puw io. 
 
 Mi Mixe d governments are thofe in 
 ail; Avhich the fovereignty is exercifed in 
 )rte il; P arts by a plurality of collateral powers, 
 to as King, Nobles , and People. 
 rf t |c Men are feparated into different or- 
 fat ders and clafles ; and the ltate is fup- 
 jjjti ported by the balance of oppofite inter- 
 ^ efts and principles. 
 
 fin'll 
 
 icc«!' FINIS, 
 
 JDS 
 
 rfi? 
 
 tin