Avct^ amwF.r<.UBR®yof/A)0ifiK rsrm tsiTOisf ROBFKr'WfturifcR /v\T) inji' i nsa.. A'.-^ ‘ McGILL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ® v.i ACC. NO.\Sa\ Q>& REc’d- \ S2.55 3 fc-— MACGILLIVRAY’S OWN COPY, with his autograph on each titlepage ah^T numerous MS. notes, corrections, and cancellations in his hand writing, UNIQUE AND EXCEEDINGLY INTERESTING COPY, containing a great amount of fresh information in the author’s neat handwriting throughout the three volumes, but more so in Vols. 1 and 3. The text has not only been corrected in the matter of single words, writer’s and printer’s errors, etc., but whole passages have been cancelled and fresh matter sub¬ stituted in the margins. In addition many leaves and slips have been loosely pasted in, filled with extra matter, the whole being in MacGillivray’s handwriting and obviously intended for an enlarged and revised edition. This intention he was unfortunately unable to carry out, his death intervening in 1852, after he had been spared to see the fifth and ^s^olume of the History issued. No other edition was ever publishedTA It ie thi;, beiLt aullimity on the A^tato w y ■ ef ‘ I consider Mr. MacGillivray’s the best work on English ornithological science with which I am acquainted.’—/. /. jl J _ ■i- ^ 1 - iLi • HISTORY OF 15 R I T I S H BIRDS, INDIGENOUS AND MIOEATOEY. INDIGENOUS AND MIGRATORY: INCLUDING 3 THEIR ORGANIZATION, HABITS, AND RELATIONS; REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE ; AN ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OP BIRDS, AND OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO PRACTICAL ORNITHOIAIGY. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY WILLIAM MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., F.R.S.E.' MEMBER OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA, OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL AND CUVlBRIAN SOCIETIES, &:C. ; AND CONSERVATOR OF THE MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF EDINBURGH. VOL. I. RASORES, SCRAPERS, OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS; GEMITORES, CODERS, OR PIGEONS; DEGLUBITORES, HUSKERS, OR CONIROSTRAL BIRDS; VAGATORES, WANDERERS, OR CROWS AND ALLIED GENERA. LONDON: PRINTED FOR SCOTT, WEBSTER, AND GEARY, 36, CHARTERHOUSE SQUARE. 1837. PREFACE. The object which I had in view, when, many years ago, I commenced the observations recorded in this work, was at some convenient season to lay before the public Descriptions of the Birds of Great Britain, more extended, and, if possible, more correct, than any previously offered. To accomplish so ambitious a purpose, I judged it necessary to direct my attention to the living objects themselves, rather than to their skins in collections, or their portraits in books, to follow them in their haunts, observe their manners, procure unmutilated specimens, carefolly examine all their parts, and thus be enabled to bring forward facts that had been entirely overlooked, and place others in a light in which they had not previously been viewed. Short specific characters, slight descriptions or notices, and measurements of parts, I could easily have obtained by visit¬ ing museums and consulting books ; but the elaboration of a detailed account of the species, such as is to be found in the following pages, could obviously be accomplished only by much labour of a different kind. They who have always contented themselves with the meagre and unsatisfactory notices given by systematic writers, or with the vague though often florid accounts of closet natu¬ ralists, may judge a great part of this labour uncalled for and unnecessary. The mere describers of skins on the one hand, and the mere observers of the manners of birds on the other, will no doubt find in protracted descriptions much that they A * 11 PREFACE. must deem superfluous. Yet the plan which I have followed is calculated in some measure to please all parties, for he who dislikes minute observations relative to form and structure, may confine his attention to the descriptions of habits and manners. To those really desirous of information respecting our native species, I would say. Let us betake ourselves to the fields and woods; let us traverse the hills and valleys together; let us there study our favourites, pursue them from brake to bush, procure as many as we need, and returning to our homes, inspect their exterior, look closely to their bills, feathers and feet, and not resting content with this, open them up, examine their internal organs, and record as much of our observations as w^e may judge useful to ourselves and others. A full description of any spe¬ cies would occupy considerable space ; and w^ere the anatomy of an eagle, a raven, a heron, or a gull, detailed with as much fidelity as that of our own species has been, it would form a w’ork equal in size to one containing an entire system of orni¬ thology, graduated and circled out according to the most approved principles, and with due regard to affinities and ana¬ logies, types and aberrations. But books of this kind could not, in the present state of zoology, obtain general apjirobation, and, moreover, could be introduced to the public only by men possessing the gifts of providence in a more than usual degree. I have therefore judged it meet to steer a middle course be¬ tween the tediously expanded, and the frivolously contracted, feeling, assured that my observations, if accurate, will in due time attract attention, and promote the progress of science. In this volume are contained descriptions of the Gallinaceous Birds, the Pigeons, the Huskers or Conirostral Granivorous Birds, and the Crows and Starlings, of which the ordinal, family, and generic characters are given at length. The specific forms are minutely described, reference being made in each case to the general appearance, the bill, the feet, the wings, the tail, the plumage, the organs of sense, the intestinal canal, the sexual distinctions, the variations, the modes of walking and flying, the ordinary habits, the nestling, the food, and the various uses and relations of the bird treated of. The changes that take place in the plumage, the distribution of the species, their mi- PREFACE. iii grations, natural affinities, and other circumstances, are also described; and, when occasions are offered, critical and ex¬ planatory remarks respecting families, genera, and species, are introduced. Many of the details are illustrated by figures en¬ graved on wood and steel, from drawings made by myself,— the former executed by Messrs. Sclater and Son, the latter by Mr. Gellatly. Some anatomical details are introduced as absolutely neces¬ sary to be known before any real knowledge of the relations of the species can be obtained. The entire series of the digestive apparatus, comprehending the bill, the tongue, the throat, the gullet, the crop, the proventriculus, the stomach or gizzard, the intestine, and its coecal appendages, has been described in all cases, excepting those in which it was found impossible to procure recent specimens. The physiology of these organs forms a most convenient centre of relations, affording, as it were, a key to the more intelligible functions, and determining the food, the haunts, the flight, the mode of walking, and other actions of the bird. It also throws much light upon the affini¬ ties of groups, and tends to prevent the frequently absurd asso¬ ciations imagined by persons who form systems by arranging birds’ skins on their parlour floors. All the primary groups of birds may be readily determined by a little attention to the nature of the digestive organs, as may be seen on comparing the details given in the following pages with their illustrations. As the actions and various relations of the species cannot be properly understood without reference to the nature of the dis¬ tricts which they inhabit, I have considered it useful occasion¬ ally to introduce descriptive sketches of scenery. Although in all cases I have been anxious to copy nature with scrupulous fidelity, I have not considered a mysterious gravity or an as¬ sumed dignity in any degree tending to bei^efit my readers. A pompous ornithologist is of all characters one of the most absurd; and the solemnity of scientific pride sits ill upon him who is alternately scaling precipices and wading bogs, chasing the ptarmigan on the weather-beaten summits of the Highland hills, and pursuing the flights of plovers along the sandy shores of our bays and estuaries. The man who IV PREFACE. would effectually learn from nature, must approach with affec¬ tion, and receive her instructions with a humility that would ill accord with any subsequent vain display of the knowledge acquired. Although my qualifications for the task which I have thus undertaken will be best judged of by the manner in which it has been executed, yet I may be permitted to intimate that I have not spared time or labour to enable me to perform it with credit to myself and advantage to the public. About twenty years have elapsed since I commenced the study of ornithology, and, though a very large portion of that time has been devoted to other pursuits, I have always eagerly availed myself of the opportunities which occurred of accumulating facts relating to it. For the purpose of making myself acquainted with the natural productions of the country, I have undertaken nmny long journeys, performed numerous short excursions, traversed the cultivated districts, wandered among the wild moors of the interior, and visited the distant islands to which the sea-birds resort. I have endeavoured further to qualify myself for the task by attending to the observations and inferences of other students of nature, as recorded in their works, and by inspect¬ ing the objects contained in museums of Natural History. My education having had reference to the medical profession, I have been enabled to profit by the taste for anatomical pursuits which I had imbibed in the course of it. The importance of the di¬ gestive organs in jDarticular has seemed to me so great that I have, as already mentioned, been induced to pay particular attention to them. Not content with accumulating notes and drawings as I had opportunity, I have finally formed an exten¬ sive collection of preserved skins, not of British birds only, but of species from all countries; that, while preparing my obser¬ vations for the press, I might be^ enabled to compare my descriptions, so far as they have reference to the external parts, with the originals themselves, and thus correct errors and sup¬ ply deficiencies. Anatomical preparations I have also procured for the same purpose. In short, according to my ability, I have done all that seemed necessary for the occasion ; and may, without presumption, hope that I shall not be considered as PREFACE. V having rashly ventured upon an undertaking for which I am not qualified. In an Introductory Discourse I have endeavoured briefly to explain my views as to classification and nomenclature. Some remarks are then made on the Structure of Birds; and, for the benefit chiefly of the student, but also for that of those ornitho¬ logists who openly profess to disregard internal structure, the osseous, muscular, digestive, and dermal systems are partially described. An outline is next given of two modern systems of classification, followed by an announcement of the manner which I intend to follow in this work. For the purpose of introducing the reader to the objects of our common study, I have further conceived it meet that he should accompany me in idea into the fields, the objects seen in which suggest ob¬ servations relative to the details of what may be called Prac¬ tical Ornithology. This expedient, which is resumed at intervals, affords an opportunity of conveying information on subjects that cannot with propriety be treated of in connection with the regular descriptions. It is unnecessary to present a catalogue of books that have been consulted, as they are all repeatedly referred to in the course of the descriptions ; but it may be proper here to men¬ tion the names of those individuals who have afforded me aid in my researches. To Professor J ameson I am indebted for permission to ex¬ amine the birds in the museum of the University of Edinburgh. Mr. Macduff Carfrae, preserver of animals to that institution, has most obligingly procured for me numerous recent birds, bodies, and skins; as have Messrs. Fenton and Edmondston, bird-stuffers, Edinburgh. Of the individuals who have sent me recent birds, those to whom I am more especially indebted are :—Sir Thomas G. Carmichael, Bart, of Skirling; Dr. Th. J. Aitkin, Edinburgh; the Rev. Mr. George Gordon, Morayshire; the Rev. Mr. Adam, Peebles ; William Stables, Esq., Nairn¬ shire ; Mr. FALCONAR of Carlowrie, Linlithgowshire ; Captain Graham, Stirlingshire; Dr. Macdonald of Ballysher, Argyle- shire ; William Craigie, Esq., Aberdeenshire ; Andrew Mur¬ ray, Esq., advocate, Aberdeen ; and Mr. Alexander Campbell, vi PREFACE. Edinburgh. Skins and eggs have been sent to me by G. H. Greenhow, Esq., Northumberland; Mr. Henderson, Gifford, East Lothian ; Mr. Alexander Brand, Peterhead; and Mr. Roderick Bethune, Harris. Lastly, valuable observations re¬ lative to the habits of various species of birds have been com¬ municated by Th. Durham Weir, Esq. of Boghead, Linlith¬ gowshire ; Mr. William Hogg, shepherd, Stobo Hope, Peebles¬ shire; W. Smellie Watson, Esq., Edinburgh; and, through Dr. Aitkin, by J ames Barclay, Esq., Shetland. To the individuals who have thus generously lent me their aid, I beg leave to offer my most sincere thanks. And now, having announced the purport, and given some intimation of the quality of the work, I may be permitted to express a hope that it will be found useful by those who may be disposed to take me as their guide in the pleasant pursuits from which I have derived much of the happiness that a beneficent Providence has been pleased to confer upon me. It would be folly of a kind not common in those who have taken some note of the fluctuations of public opinion, and have observed the diversity of taste with refe¬ rence to objects of art or science, to expect that all who may read this volume should be pleased with it, or that its author should be so fortunate as to obtain the confidence and approba¬ tion of all who are qualified to judge of its merits and defects; but he yet trusts that it may prove useful, both as affording correct descriptions of a considerable number of our indigenous birds, and as tending to introduce a more rational method of study than that hitherto followed, by evincing the practica¬ bility of applying characters derived from their internal struc¬ ture to the purpose of classification. Edinburgh, Ut May 1837. W. MACGILLIVRAY. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Remarks on Classification and Nomenclature, - 3 System of Linnaeus, - _ -10 System of M. Vieillot, - - - - 12 Arrangement adopted in this work, - - 16 Remarks on the Structure of Birds, - - 20 The Skeleton, - - - - 20 The Muscular System, - - - - 33 Structure of the Wing, - - . 34 Muscles of the Tail, - - - - 46 The Feet, - - - - 46 The Nervous System, - - - ..48 The Skin, - - - - 52 The Digestive Organs, - - - - 52 The Tegumentary System, - - - 67 The Plumage, - - - -67 Parts observable in the exterior, - - 86 Plates illustrative of the above, - - - 96 HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS. Essential Characters of the Orders, - - 99 \ ORDER I. RASORES. SCRAPERS. OR GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. Characters of the Easores, - - - 103 FAMILY I. GALLINA:. FOWLS, PHEASANTS, &c. 108 Genus I. Pdasianus. Pheasant, - - 109 I. Phasianus Colchicus. The Common Pheasant, II 4 CONTENTS. vlii FAMILY II. PERDICIN^. PARTRIDGES, GROUSE, &c. 127 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Perdicinae, 131 Genus I. Tetrao. Grouse, - - 134 1. Tetrao Urogallus. The Wood Grouse, - 138 2. Tetrao Tetrix. The Black Grouse, - 145 Genus II. Lagopus. Ptarmigan, - - 165 1. Lagopus scoticus. The Brown Ptarmigan, or Red Grouse, - . 169 2. Lagopus cinereus. The Grey Ptarmigan, - 187 Genus III. Perdix. Partridge, - - 211 1. Perdix rubra. The Red Partridge, - 215 2. Perdix cinerea. The Grey Partridge, - 218 Genus IY. Ortyx. Colin, - - 226 1. Ortyx virginiana. The Yirginian Colin, 228 Genus Y. Coturnix. Quail, - . 231 1. Coturnix dactylisonans. The Common Quail, 233 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. FIRST LESSON, . 237 Flight of Birds. Disbuctions of species into permanent, migratory, and accidental Visitants. Character of an ornithologist. Critical remarks on fanciful affinities. Common birds. ORDER II. GEMITORES. COOERS. OR PIGEONS. FAMILY I. COLUMBIN^E. PIGEONS OR DOVES, . 249 Synopsis of the British Doves, . . oca CONTENTS. IX Genus I. Columba. Dove, - - - 255 1 . Columba Palumbiis. The Ringed Dove, or Cushat, 259 2 . Columba Livia. The White-backed, or Rock Dove, 268 3. Columba CEnas. The Blue-backed Dove, - 287 4. Columba Turtur. The Turtle Dove, - 291 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. SECOND LESSON, - 295 Winter excursion during a snow-storm from Edinburgh to Peebles. Birds observed in the Valley of Eddlestone. Bat-hunting in Nidpath Castle. The Valley of the Tweed. Birds found around Edinburgh in winter. Snow-storm in the Outer Hebrides viewed from the summit of Clisheim. Birds found there in winter. ORDER III. DEGLUBITORES. BUSKERS. OR CONIROSTRAL BIRDS. Characters of the Deglubitores, - - 311 FAMILY I. PASSERINE. SPARROWS, FINCHES, &c. - 319 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Passerinse, 323 Genus I. Fringilla. Finch, - . 327 1 . Fringilla Ccelebs. The Chaffinch, - 329 2 . Fringilla. Montifringilla. The Mountain Finch, or Brambling, - - - 335 Genus II. Passer. Sparrow, - - 338 1 . Passer domesticus. The House Sparrow, - 340 2 . Passer montanus. The Tree Sparrow, - 351 Genus III. Coccothraustes. Grosbeak, - 353 1. Coccothraustes atrogularis. The Black-throated Grosbeak, or Hawfinch, - - 356 X CONTENTS. Genus IV. Linaria. Linnet, - - 363 1 . Linaria Chloris. The Green Linnet, or Greenfinch, 365 2 . Linaria cannabina. The Brown Linnet, 371 3. Linaria flavirostris. The Mountain Linnet or Twite, 379 4. Linaria minor. The Smaller Redpoll Linnet, 383 5. Linaria borealis. The Mealy Redpoll Linnet, 388 Genus V. Carduelis. Thistlefinch, - - 391 1 , Carduelis elegans. The Red-fronted Thistlefinch, or Goldfinch, - - . 393 2 . Carduelis spinus. The Black-headed Thistlefinch, or Siskin, - « _ 400 Genus VI. Pyrrhula. Bullfinch, - . 405 1. Pyrrhulapileata. The Common Bullfinch, 407 2 . Pyrrhula Enucleator. The Pine Bullfinch, - 411 Genus YII. Loxia. Crossbill, - . 424 1 . Loxia europaea. The Common European Crossbill, 41 7 2 . Loxia Pytiopsittacus. The Parrot Crossbill, - 429 FAMILY II. EMBERIZAN^. BUNTINGS & ALLIED SPECIES, Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Emberizanje, Genus I. Emberiza, Bunting^ 1 . Emberiza Miliaria. The Com Bunting, 2 . Emberiza Citrinella. The YeUow Bunting 3. Emberiza Cirlus. The Cirl Bunting, 4. Emberiza Schoeniculus. The Reed Bunting 5. Emberiza Hortulana. The Ortolan Bunting, - Genus II. Plectrophanes. Lark-Bunting,. - ^ ^Buntfnr^' lapponica. The Lapland Lark- 433 436 438 440 445 450 453 457 458 460 469 CONTENTS. xi PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. THIRD LESSON, - 473 General view of the midland parts of the middle division of Scotland. Birds observed there. Beauly Frith, and birds seen on it. Description of Cromarty Frith. Sea-birds found on it. Friths of Tay and Forth. Wandering naturalists. ORDER IV. VAGATORES. WANDERERS. OR CROWS AND ALLIED GENERA. Characters of the Yagatores, - - 483 FAMILY I. CORVINiE. CROWS AND ALLIED SPECIES, 487 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of CorvinsCj 491 Genus I. Corvus. Crow, - - 494 1. Corvus Corax. The Raven, - - 498 2. Corvus Corone. The Carrion Crow, - 516 3. Corvus Cornix. The Hooded Crow, - 529 4. Corvus Frugilegus. The Rook, - 535 5. Corvus Monedula. The Jackdaw, - - 552 Genus II. Pica. Magpie, - - 559 I. Pica Melanoleuca. The Common Magpie, - 562 Genus III. Garrulus. Jay, - - 573 1. Garrulus Glandarius. The Blue-winged Jay, 576 Genus IV. Nucifraga. Nutcracker, - 581 1. Nucifraga Caryocatactes. The Nutcracker, 583 Genus V. Fregilus. Chough, - - 585 1. Fregilus Graculus. The Long-billed Chough, 587 FAMILY II. THREMMAPHILINJE. COW-BIRDS AND ALLIED SPECIES, - - - 590 Synopsis of the British Genera and Species of Thremma- philinae, - - - c 592 xii CONTENTS. Genus I. Sturnus. Starling, - - 593 1. Sturnus guttatus. The Spotted Starling, - 595 Genus II. Thremmaphilus. Cow-bird, - 609 3. Thremmaphilus roseus. The Rose-coloured Cow- Bird, - . . - 612 PRACTICAL ORNITHOLOGY. FOURTH LESSON, 616 Return of spring. Arrival of summer visitants. Bird-nesting. Directions for preserving eggs, nests, and skins of Birds. Conclusion. Plates Illustrative of the Digestive Organs, 621 Index to the Species, ... ^25 General Index, . . _ ^27 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES. PLATES. I. Skeleton of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus. II. Wing of the Domestic Pigeon, Columba Livia. III. Bones and Muscles of the Wing of the Domestic Pigeon. IV. Digestive Organs of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus. V. Digestive Organs of the Snowy Owl, Syrnia Nyctea. VI. Digestive Organs of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus scoticus. VII. Digestive Organs of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia. VIII. Digestive Organs of the House Sparrow, Passer domesticus; Corn Bunting, Emberiza Miliaria; Green Linnet, Linaria Chloris; European Crossbill, Loxia europaea; and Field Lark, Alauda arvensis. IX. Digestive Organs of the Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone ; Jay, Garrulus Glandarius ; and Starling, Sturnus guttatus. Of these plates the first five, having reference to the Introduction, are placed immediately after it, at p. 96 ; the rest being illustrative of the Orders, are placed at p. 624. The figure in PI. I. is one fourth of the natural size ; those in the other plates are generally one half. WOOD CUTS. Fig. 1. Skull of the Raven, Corvus Corax, viewed laterally, page 21 2. Skull of the Raven, viewed from beneath, - - 23 3. Two ribs of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Chrysaetus, - 26 4. Sternal apparatus of the Golden Eagle, - - 27 5. Tail of a Thrush, Turdus musicus, with muscles, - 45 6 . Muscles on the low%r surface of the tail of a Thrush, 46 7. Brain of a Sparrow, Passer domesticus, from above, - 48 8 . Brain of a Sparrow, from behind, - - - 48 9. Brain of a Sparrow, from beneath, - - 48 10. Eyeball of an Owl, viewed laterally, - - - 50 II . Eyeball of an Owl, in front, - - _ 50 12. Head of a Thrush, - - - - 50 13. External ear of a Thrush, ... 50 14. Aperture of the glottis of a Thrush, - - 50 15. Tongue of a Thrush, - - - 50 xiv Fig. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26., 26, 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES. Heart, Liver, and Gall-bladder of Snowy Owl, Syrnia Nyctea, Quill of the Cuckoo, Cuculus carnorus. Barbs and barbules of a feather, - - * Barbule and barbicels, - " “ Feather and plumule of a Ptarmigan, Ovate feather, - - “ " Lanceolate feather, - - ” “ Linear feather, - - “ " Abrupt feather, - - ■ “ Rounded feather, - - - - .^Abrupt feather with an acumen, - - - sTapering or acuminate feather, Emarginate feather, _ - - - Wing of Grouse, . - - - Wing of Swallow, - - - - Tail of Cushat, Columba Palumbus, Tail of a Finch, . - - - Tail of the Black Martin, Cypselus Apus, Tail of a Parrot, » - - - Outline of the Kestrel, Falco Tinnunculus, - Plan of Digestive Organs of Rasores, Plan of Digestive Organs of Gemitores, Plan of Digestive Organs of Deglubitores, Plan of Digestive Organs of Vagatores, Head of the Common Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus. Foot of the Common Pheasant, Head of the Black Grouse, Tetrao Tetrix, Foot of the Black Grouse, . - . Sternal apparatus of the Black Grouse, Head of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus scoticus. Head of the Grey Ptarmigan, Lagopus cinereus. Foot of the Brown Ptarmigan, Lagopus cinereus. Head of the Red Partridge, Perdix rubra. Head of the Grey Partridge, Perdix ciiierea. Sternal apparatus of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia, Foot of the Cushat, Columba Palumbus, from above. Foot of the Cushat, from beneath. Head of the Cushat, - . . . Head of the Rock Dove, Columba Livia, Head of the Turtle Dove, Columba Turtur, Sternal apparatus of a Finch, - - . Foot of a Finch, - . . _ Wing of the Chaffinch, Fringilla Coelebs, Head of the Chaffinch, - _ . , Head of the House Sparrow, Passer domesticus, Head of the Hawfinch, Coccothraustes atrogularis. Wing of the Hawfinch, - - . p, 65 69 72 72 75 81 81 81 82 82 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 83 83 89 99 99 99 99 114 116 145 146 129 166 166 167 215 218 252 256 256 259 268 291 321 328 328 329 340 356 357 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE FIGURES. xv Fig. 62. Head of the Green Linnet, Linaria Chloris, - -page 365 63. Head of the Brown Linnet, Linaria cannabina, - 371 64. Head of the Smaller Redpoll, Linaria minor, - - 383 65. Head of the male Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans, - 393 66 . Head of the female Goldfinch, - - . 393 67. Head of the Siskin, Carduelis spinus, . - 400 68 . Head of the Common Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pileata, - 407 69. Head of the Common European Crossbill, Loxia europsea, 417 70. Head of the European Crossbill, laterally, - 419 71. Outline of head of Parrot Crossbill, - - 431 72. Outline of head of European Crossbill, - - 431 73. Outline of head of European Crossbill, - - 431 74. Outline of head of European Crossbill, - - 431 75. Outline of head of European Crossbill, - - 431 76. Outline of head of American Crossbill, - - 431 77. Foot of the Snow Lark-Bunting, Plectrophanes nivalis, 439 78. Head of the Corn Bunting, Emberiza Miliaria, - 440 79. Head of the Yellow Bunting, Emberiza Citrinella, - 445 80. Head of the Cirl Bunting, Emberiza Cirlus, - 450 81. Head of the Snowflake, Plectrophanes nivalis, - - 460 82. Foot of the Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone, - 495 83. Head of the Raven, Corvus Corax, - - - 498 84. Head of the Carrion Crow, Corvus Corone, - 516 85. Head of the Hooded Crow, Corvus Cornix, - - 529 86 . Head of the Rook, Corvus Frugilegus, - - 535 87. Head of the Jackdaw, Corvus Monedula, - - 552 88 . Head of the Magpie, Pica melanoleuca, - - 562 89. Head of the Blue-winged Jay, Garrulus Glandarius, - 576 90. Foot of a Nutcracker, - - - 581 91. Head of Nutcracker, Nucifraga Caryocatactes, - 583 92. Foot of Chough, - . - - 585 93. Head of Long-billed Chough, - - - 587 94. Wing of the Spotted Starling, Sturnus guttatus, - 594 95. Head of the Spotted Starling, ... 595 These figures are generally one-half of the natural size ; but those illustra¬ tive of the Deglubitores, from 55 to 81, excepting 71-76, are of the full size. Fig. 77 is misplaced. ERRATA. At p. 18, line 11, in ** Nuthatchers” delete r. At p. 26, 6th line from the bottom, for ** These processes do,” read This process does. At p. 85, in 4th line of note, for . substitute , At p. 93, 3d line from the top, read The skeleton in PI. I, is reduced to one fourth; the other objects are generally represented of half the natural size. At p. 129, line 2, for ** always,” read generally. At p. 130, line 16, for ** Phasianinae,” read Gallinae. At p. 296, line 20, delete *• other.” At p. 306, for ** Crucirostra ” read Loxia, and for ** Loxia ” read Coccothraustes. At p. 310, for more proportionally,” read proportionally more. At p. 332, line 4, for ** Grosbeaks” read Linnets. At p. 402, line 7» delete in a field.” At p. 439. Fig. 77* the foot of the Snowflake, is misplaced. INTKODUCTION, Were the method which I have judged the most useful in de¬ scribing birds in no essential respect different from that usually employed, I should not consider it necessary to offer any pre¬ liminary remarks, but should proceed directly to treat of the various species, supposing the readers of a work like the present to possess a sufficient knowledge of the terms in common use. The case, however, being very different, insomuch that with ^ respect both to the arrangement of the species, and to the mode of description which I have chosen, some explanations are required to enable the reader to view the objects introduced in the same light as that in which they are considered by the writer, I need not apologize for offering here a few observa¬ tions calculated to facilitate the progress of the former, and to induce him to tolerate what might otherwise seem the not altogether relevant discourse of the latter. The arbitrary, one might almost say mechanical, gradation of arrangement in gene¬ ral use, though presenting as many modifications as there are writers, appears not to be commonly understood to be of so empirical a character as that in which it presents itself to my view; I shall therefore, in the first place, offer some observations respecting it, accompanied by remarks on nomenclature. An attempt to communicate as much information regarding the structure of birds, as may render the subsequent descriptions perfectly intelligible even to the unscientific reader, will occupy the second place. Many persons are deterred from studying 2 INTRODUCTION. the anatomy of birds by a vague apprehension of the extreme difficulty of making any proficiency in it. But the ^udy o the organization of these animals is certainly a much easier task than that of their habits, manners, distribution, and mi¬ grations, seeing that any educated individual, having a moderate acuteness of observation, with some patience, may quiet y, and with little labour, and less expense, inspect in his closet the entire anatomy of a variety of species readily procurable in the markets of any of our cities; whereas the observer of habits must perform laborious, expensive, and sometimes dangerous journeys, and after all his exertions, may count himself singu¬ larly fortunate if he has succeeded in discovering some interest¬ ing facts previously unnoticed, and still more so if, after com¬ municating them to the public, he escape the abuse of the envious and prejudiced, who, with a little of the slight know¬ ledge that the mere collector of specimens can ever possess, presume to pronounce judgment upon his performance. The study of the structure of birds is a delightful, as well as an easy occupation ; for at every step it discloses the most beautiful illustrations of divine wisdom ; but to what rational purpose it can be applied by an intellect which vainly strives to render itself independent upon its Creator, I am unable to apprehend. Even a very slight general knowledge of their organization will give an interest to the details of their habits and economy which can scarcely be felt, or at least adequately experienced, by him who merely knows that they are organized beings. Having given the necessary explanations on this subject, I shall finally offer some remarks on the habits of birds, and proceed to describe the species selected for the present occa¬ sion. REMARKS ON CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. The class of Birds is perhaps the most distinctly defined in the entire series of organized beings ; but the general similarity of the different species upon which the obvious connexion of the whole depends, renders it extremely difficult to separate them into groups distinguishable from each other by well- marked characters. Hence the great diversity of opinion re¬ specting the limits of the genera, families, and orders of this class ; which, in fact, is such that no two original writers on the subject have adopted the same divisions, and that while in the system of one there are only four great sections, there are not fewer than thirty-eight in that of another. The modifi¬ cations of form and structure, and the minute gradations by which the species are multifariously connected, while they seem to render it impossible to elicit a symmetrical and gene¬ rally intelligible arrangement, render it easy to invent classifi¬ cations, founded on partial views, so apparently simple and philosophical, that he only who is tolerably well acquainted with a considerable number of facts and phenomena, can be truly sensible of their numerous absurdities. The apparent facilities afforded in studying birds by the diversified development and colouring of their plumage, the multiplied forms of their bills, feet, and wings, and their gene¬ ral distribution over the globe, have rendered them favourite objects of examination, and led some persons boldly to assume the character of legislating ornithologists, before making them¬ selves acquainted with even the rudiments of the science ; the foundation of which, as of every department of zoology, exists only in the anatomical structure of the objects to which it B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. refers. When we find the authors of the most imposing systems making the most absurd statements in almost every page, we ought to become diffident of our own powers, and reflect that the mysteries of creation are scarcely to be understood even by him who to gi-eat acuteness adds great perseverance and great humility.* Much of the discrepancy of opinion respecting the limits of the genera and families of birds arises from forgetfulness of the fact that species alone exist in nature. Most persons acknow¬ ledge this truth when it is forced upon them; but few act under its impression. A species, composed of individuals of two sexes, capable of producing similar individuals, varying however within certain, but hitherto undefined limits, and ca¬ pable of continuing the race, which remains the same for ages, and of which the varieties, when placed in ordinary circum¬ stances, tend to return to the original t}Tpe, is all that we can consider as having a positive existence. It is merely because species are so numerous, and our faculties so limited, that we throw them into ideal groups, for the purpose of facilitating our recollection of their forms and qualities. Species are more or less allied to each other ; thus, a Raven is very similar to a Carrion Crow, less so to a Magpie, and in a much smaller degree to an Auk or a Penguin. The alliances exhibited between species give rise to the idea of connecting them in various degrees ; but the limits of the groups thus formed being undefined, it is not in the nature of things that those arbitrarily fixed by one man should be acknowledged by all others. It is very evident that genera, families, orders, and all the mediate sections of a class, must ever remain fluctuating, and that dis- * TheYtnicture of birds,V says the aiithor\of a recent work,! adapts them for inhabiting an element from which quadri^eds, and even man, is ex¬ cluded.” On\naturally asks', "what element can\this be ? man lives in air, walks on earth\and swims in wVter; so do quadrupeds and birds.\ Others inform us that tire Raptores, or bkds of prey, havathe body very nluscular; the upper mandible the longest; ^d that they nidincate in lofty sitmations : whereas the body oAa Pheasant is graatly more muscular than that of a Sparrow- hawk ; the upper mAdible of a Parrkt or an Albatro^, in fact, of almost all birds, is the longest ;\and the MerlinXnestles on the mound, as do the\ Moor Buzzard and the HenhVrier. * CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 5 cussions respecting them will continue to be keenly engaged in until men clearly perceive that instead of fighting in earnest, they are merely beating the air. What is a genus ? “ The first collocation of species in a system.” An order 2 “ The last or most general group in a class.” What constitutes a genus 2 “ Certain palpable resemblances.” But what are they 2 “ ■ G e mc , let U3 go "OH, and ywn shall sec.'^^— There is ao nood of quaii el - l i ftg-ft fe out gon^a. ■ - Lop u s-b o - eow teeus-i^^yi^hat you calls a genus, all e vTmo -lo coi^der^as a family ; it be a tribe with another, and an order in the system of a fourth. No classifica- generally adopted; and none has twenty years. And why ? Because no system-maker ever acquired a clear perception of all the phenomena of nature. Without the wisdom of a Solomon, and the longevity of a Methuselah, with many^t^r advantages to boot, no ornitholo¬ gist will ever arrange th^^en'^ousand species which probably exist in the world, in an order conformable to the plan of their creation. ^Then let us just understand that all systems must* be arbitrary ; that a genus, if jt J)p any thing at all, is some- PC. r!Tfn^fn^^ ; that a naturalist who has studied birds, and described their structure, form, and manners, adds to our knowledge, although he may not choose to impose upon species the newest and most fashionable names; and that the first principle in the classification of natural ob¬ jects is, that species alone exist in nature. It must be very obvious that to acquire a general knowledge of birds, a person must examine many species, and not only those that much resemble each other, but those that differ in the greatest degree. Wh e the r at o n e tmie, or t» fr- di # c.i ' e nt h e must at- e omo 4 tm e look to the details of the internal structure, inspect the outer parts, attend to the actions and habits, and thus discover the faculties and relations of the ob¬ jects. But many may be desirous of forming an acquaintance with birds, without the hope, or even the desire, of inventing a system, or of describing all the species of a country; and some may content themselves with studying a few, and with being able to refer a particular bird to its place in a system or cata¬ logue, to discover its name, and thus by reading its history as 6 INTRODUCTION. narrated by one or more authors, add to their store of know¬ ledge, or find relaxation from more important occupations. In composing the present work I have kept in view the interest of the scientific as well as the general student; and while I have entered into the details of structure and form, I have paid equal attention to the manners and habits of the dilFerent species. As to their arrangement, I have thought it prudent, in the present unsettled state of opinion on the subject, and under the conviction that all existing systems are defective, to adopt the opinions of no systematist, but to group the species accord¬ ing to their obvious relations. Although the number of spe¬ cies that occur in Britain is not sufficiently great to afford a connected view of the entire series of genera and families, yet it is sufficiently so to admit of observations respecting their connection and mutual affinity. 'IP bo B a patiu us 'Birds 'ggne- r.ally occupy th e first rank in systems, and I anmot awaro o f an y^ood rea s on for d epriving them -of 4 t , * but as HE’ have4a ‘te l y submit t e d*‘to the q^ubhe^ardescriptioir ’ol^lTCm^- a»d - € fcg it na ft y-b e laor e -^a dvantage o u gh- to bcg h i - with a^~tdba,jQLbirdaJ ^ m o re re > m ark a > bk LOiisliTOlion -e f -t ho digoot h ^ er gano, whitlri cnTipPiiy^ fn ^ I s hall ^ firat trea^ - of -t ho Gallina cc ou tHb rnte ai x d ' Bigeo i ife . In all arrangements of birds hitherto published, whether professing to be derived from the consideration of the aggre¬ gate of the organization, or from particular organs, the modifi¬ cations in the form of the bill have afforded the principal characters. After much consideration, however, and after examining the digestive organs in a great number of birds belonging to nearly all the families, I have resolved to adopt the intestinal canal as a central point of reference. Instead, then, of describing merely the bill, I attend to the mandibles, the mouth, the tongue, the throat, the oesophagus, the crop, the proventriculus, the stomach, the intestine, and the coecal appendages ; the modifications of which seem to me to throw more light upon the affinities of the larger groups than those of any other organ. In some systems the modifications in the form of the feet CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. ^ afford the most general distinctions; and attention is also paid to those of the wings; but in all, the internal organs have been too much neglected. An arrangement may be founded on the ^. variations of any part:—^the brain, J:he heart, the feet, the bill, ^ * 1 ^ or the sternum; but classifications resulting from such partial considerations must be extremely imperfect. As the various organs do not undergo similar or analogc^us changes in the dif¬ ferent species, linear series are not capable of connecting them by general affinity. The idea that in a given group, each of its divisions is represented analogically by a corresponding division in another group, is certainly, to some extent, counte¬ nanced by appearances; but when it is attempted to be carried through the entire series, it gives rise to the most fanciful and forced substitutions; such, for example, as that of conceiving a tp^ be analagous to a horse, because, as it is alleged, both^lTick, or to a bull, because its spurs are somewhat similar to horns. In one point of its structure, a species may be allied to another, while in a second point it may resemble a third species. Thus, a Pterocles, or Sand Grouse, resembles the Pigeons in its general form, and in that of its wings, while its feet are similar to those of a Grouse, and its tail not unlike that of some Parrots, as well as of many other birds. In some respects a bird may be very similar to another, while in one or more particulars it may manifest some relation to a species extremely different in everything else. In a linear series, therefore, it is impossible to place species in the order of their afiinities ; nor can those of species or genera be exhibited by disposing them in circles, parallel series, quincuncial rows, or any other figures, on a flat surface, that is, in diagrams on paper. To present affinities, species would require to be fixed in empty space, and represented by forms bearing no resem¬ blance to birds, but having parts more and less elongated, to meet parts of other near and distant species ; so that such an arrangement, were it made by a being who understood all the relations of the species, would, by exhibiting such a multitude of reticulations, be just as unintelligible to us as is the order of things studied in the economy of nature such as we see it. When objects, then, are placed in linear series, Mdiether di- < Cll^ 8 INTRODUCTION. rectly extended, circularly bent, or otherwise disposed, they cannot manifest any other relations than those that refer to tho structure of a single organ ; and thus, all arrangements must be merely artificial, as we have no means of disposing our descriptions of species otherwise than in elongated series. The only remedy is to indicate in w’ords all the relations that have been observed, while some principal organ is chosen as a gene¬ ral medium of connection. It-is only, however, in a systematic arrangement embracing all the known species that a nice attention to their location, and to the subordination of characters is of importance. In the Fauna of a district or country, the gaps would be so nu¬ merous as to break olF the affinities at every step. My ideas of a general arrangement of birds being as yet very imperfect, I will not obtrude them at present upon the public ; but dis¬ pose the species with which we are more immediately concerned, in such an Order as may preserve some of their principal points of connection. As the limits of the genera are continually fluctuating, the names imposed upon them are liable to frequent change, in so much that in twenty years an ornithologist may have seen a given species referred to three or four genera. These changes cannot be avoided, and therefore it is useless to cry out against them. But as the species have a real existence, and being once correctly described can always be recognised, the names imposed upon them by their discoverers ought never to be altered. If the specific name be fixed, it is not of much im¬ portance that it be coupled with this or that generic name. Those injposed by Linnseus, the first great reformer of natural history, ought to be held inviolable, as well as all that have been applied by the principal systematic wi-iters. There are cases, however, in which, owing to a faultiness in its construc¬ tion, its inapplicability to the species, its leading to misconcep¬ tion, or its manifest absurdity in some respect or other, a specific name ought to be rejected. When a group is broken up,' a specific name ought never to be converted into a generic one; although this has been a prevailing practice in Botany as >^11 as in Zoology; for the alteration thus made is productive CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 9 of much confusion in the minds of those who have been accus¬ tomed to associate a particular form with a particular name; and it is always easy to find a new generic name. Vory-mairy quit i nL ,i nnpp h* cii^l n v -^fo r cx - amplo, those refen ' ingT ’ o cgfouf, a s Rj ihecttfa r ; Ru t icilfa u Phocmeums. ^ " Aliioiig ' lhu must abs ur d ' naaftes. am -. th o no of gcds, guddcBisica, kmga, queens, mcu mil of va n QUO ranlra, " t i ’ aib p o^ profoosiuiis, and such I t k e, ^»pp1lflrl-aviflimif nLnnw frr hph HC L‘ 1 rj^wi c. yftmwj Orphcil i =i i Tyrnnmiu, Pabti TT , fee . In short, the general Yfj* j)rinciples of nomenclature as laid down by Linnaeus, Will- denow,^and other botan ists, although not always acted upon by them, ought to be adopted. Generic names in particular ought to be of Greek or Latin origin, always with a Latin termination ^ parcnnc in knowledg e- ought ’ to H b g " hileidicled lllt^ use uf dictionaiie s, b e oau s o m ■ framing namco frirm Qietk oi ' Latin wopdo^ they a4»a ev e r prone t o- proflucc the moot-ab s urd eompo t nid s . —5Hrey s h o uld alwayc refer t o tho acho o l T naatc r. fajenuj Jc- English names, very little needs be said, further than 0 ^^pecieg named Corax, Corone, Cornix, Frugilegus, Monedula. rVir English generic name being Crow, we might name the 'kt species Raven Crow, Carrion Crow, Hooded Crow, Rook Crow, Daw Crow, in all oaoe s- einglc aubsUntiv ' e spec t fi c rLoir^fi}:; -yynnlrl La fliQ Locf « f^y ftTffwuplcj t i hn Rn i YPU^ thr Cnrb j^ Hoody^ tho -Re ok, tho Da - vr - guiiro ^ qiui sun piupoSTfS a (e. gen e ral mooting o f - British Oiii T ihu hi gists at London ’ , Yo r k, o r E dinbuFghv for the " puppoao of dotorminiiig the English iiuiiie n- take L- place^ woul4 - diapcrgo ^ v i thout apoomphshiiig tho ' ubjgc t iu nninnr inHnefl Ita Tni>nribftrin wcm phfifid nn t h r T?r^ir and interdicted " fi T u and food uiitil " ^h f ;y had aoitlod all the ir dilFoPon e ooi and owom poppotual frioiKlobipi - E^ en then, suf I Tb 10 INTRODUCTION. jgi 3 ,li 6 iQU 0 ~Oij 1 t; ar'moiitli on'd.ul9C~ ftnd tp^glip-c wifR an npp.asinnnl raw limpet or-ivimjblBi, might-hold out u ntil. , nthnr thnn } I V ^>m|>l\11 .>woj Tr;:T K ulnmlil I pji- i e thr hirdc to h i m tn rr^ pl^gH R r l . ■ ^Tn-ofth er 'Oew»n<^, it is impossible to remedy the acknowledged defects in nomenclature, so as to render it universally acceptable. Some persons who do their best to render the subject still more intricate, are extremely sensitive on the point of uniformity ; but, in my opinion, however much they who are ambitious of being legislators in this matter may desire conformity to their views, there will always be more to spurn the yoke than to yield to authority, which is gradually falling to its proper standard. In fact, no two ornithologists have ever used the same names for five hundred birds; nor could two be found who should employ the same nomenclature in describing even the birds of Britain. There is really no cause of regret in all this : Avere there no differences in politics, religion, and science, the world would probably be much worse than it is. i - mi t i hfirnforr unrlrr ^raing my boBtQAving d Sngliwh, Ociclk , ’ Tin ‘ d “ fettin names ’o n the bird irwhicir^ HQt t o .r ^jeot Avhatover thoy - fi nd^ nd -i cative e f ■ - bad taato oi^ - t r a d Of the numerous systems, or modes of arranging birds, that have been proposed by authors, two of the most celebrated may be here given in outline, that the student may be enabled to judge whether it be probable that any method so constructed can be in harmony with nature. The System of Linnaeus, which for a considerable number of years was extensively adopted, is founded chiefly upon the form of the bill and feet. The six orders of which it is composed are named and characterized as follows:— I. Accipitres. Bill more or less curved ; upper mandible dilated on either side behind the point, or armed with a tooth; nostrils open. Feet formed for clutching, short, robust; toes tuberculate beneath the joints ; claws arcuate, very acute. Head and neck muscular; skin tough; flesh unfit for being CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. II eaten. Food the flesh of animals. Nest in high places ; eggs about four; the female larger; monogamous. Analogous to the Ferae, or predaceous quadrupeds. Ex, Vultures, Falcons, Owls, Shrikes. II. Pic^. Bill cultrate, with its back convex. Feet formed for walking, short, stoutish. Body toughish, unfit for being eaten. Food of all sorts of substances. Nest in trees; the male feeds the female while incubating ; monogamous. Ana¬ logous to the Primates,—to Man, Monkeys, and Bats. Ex, Parrots, Hornbills, Crows, Humming-Birds. III. Anseres. Bill smooth, covered with cuticle, enlarged at the point. Feet formed for swimming, the toes being con¬ nected by a membrane ; the tibiae compressed and short. Body fat, the skin tough, the feathers more perfect. Food in the water, of plants, fish, &c. Nest more frequently on the land ; the mother more rarely feeds her young ; more commonly poly¬ gamous. Analogous to the Belluae,—^the Horse, Hippopotamus, Hog, and Rhinoceros. Ex, Ducks, Auks, Pelicans, Gulls, and Divers. IV. Grall^. Bill somewhat cylindrical. Feet formed for wading, the thighs being half bare. Body compressed, the skin very thin ; tail short; flesh savoury. Food in marshes, of animalcula. Nest more frequently on land ; nuptials various. Analogous to the Bruta,—the Elephant, Walrus, Sloth, and Ant-eater. Ex, Ibises, Snipes, Rails, Plovers, Bustards, and Ostriches. V. Galltn.e. Bill convex ; upper mandible arched over the lower; nostrils arched with a cartilaginous membrane. Feet formed for running, the toes being rough beneath. Body sebaceous, muscular, fit for being eaten. Food on the ground, of seeds, which are macerated in the crop. Dusters. Nest on the ground, artlessly constructed ; eggs numerous. The food is pointed out to the young. Polygamous. Analogous to the Pecora,—Camels, Deer, Sheep, Bulls. Ex, Peafowls, Turkeys, Pheasants, Grouse. I 12 INTRODUCTION. VL Passeres. Bill conico-acuminate. Feet formed for leap¬ ing, tender, slit. Body delicate, fit for being eaten in the gra- nivorous species, but not in the insectivorous. Food in trees, of seeds or insects. Nest artfully constructed. Food put into the mouth of the young. Monogamous. They have the faculty of singing. Analogous to the Glires,—Hares and Mice. Finches, Buntings, Swallows, Thrushes, Larks, and Pigeons. Any criticism applied to such a system would be useless, for, notwithstanding the merits and celebrity of its author, there is scarcely an unexceptionable character in the whole series. ‘‘ If,"’ says M. Vieillot, “ we direct our attention to the characters which they (Linnaeus and Latham) have indi¬ cated as referring to the bill in the Picae, Grallae, and Anseres, do we not discover that they are not applicable to very many of the genera of these orders ? Have all the Picae a cultrate bill with a convex back 1 Is this the case with the Todies, Creepers, Humming-Birds, Hornbills, &c. ? Have all the Grallae a subcylindrical bill:—the Flamingoes, Avocettes, Spoonbills, &c. ? May not the same question be asked respecting the Anseres or Palmipedes, to which these systematists have given as a general character a bill covered with cuticle and enlarged at the end, which in fact is the case only with the Geese, Swans, and Ducks? For it cannot be said with truth that such is the bill of the Auks, Guillemots, Petrels, Darters, Fri¬ gate-Birds, Cormorants, Boobies, Divers, Gulls, and others.” M. Vieillot, therefore, finding the bill inefficient, employs the feet for his primary characters. His system is composed of five orders, with fifty-eight families. I. Accipitres. Feet robust, short or moderate ; legs entirely covered with feathers; tarsi naked or clothed in whole or in part; toes tuberculate beneath, three before, one behind ; pol- lex on the same level as the rest; claw’s very strong, mobile, retractile, arched, pointed, or a little blunted. Bill stout, covered with a cere at the base, hooked towards the end. Tribe 1. Diurnal. Eyes lateral. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 13 Fam. 1. Vulturini, Vultures. 2 . Gypaeti, Lammer-geyer. 3. Accipitrini, Eagles and Hawks. Tribe 2. Nocturnal. Eyes in front. 4. Owls, 11 . Sylvicol.®. Feet short or moderate ; legs entirely feathered ; toes a little flattened beneath, two before and two behind, or three before and one behind, very rarely two be¬ fore and one behind; the pollex on the same plane as the rest; claws slender, mobile, slightly retractile, curved, pointed, sel¬ dom blunt. Bill of various forms. Tribe 1. Zygodactyli. Two toes before, two behind. 1 . Psittacini, Parrots. 2 . Macroglossi, Woodpeckers. 3. Aureoli, Jacamars. 4. Pteroglossi. Toucans. 5. Barbati, Trogons. 6 . Imherhi, Cuckoos. 7. Frugivori. Plantain-eaters. Tribe 2. Anisodactyli. Three toes before; the outer directed forwards; the pollex sometimes versatile. 8 . Granivori. Grosbeaks, Finches, Buntings. 9 . ^githali. Tits, Manakins. 10. Pericalles. Tanagers. 11 . ‘Textores. Orioles. 12 . Leimonites, Starlings. 13. Garunculati, Grakles. 14. Paradisei. Birds of Paradise. 15. Coraces. Crows. 16. Baccivori. Chatterers. 17. Chelidones. Swallows. 18. Myiotheres. Flycatchers. 19. Colluriones. Shrikes. 20. Ganori. Thrushes, Wagtails, Wrens. 21. Anerpontes. Nuthatchers, Creepers. 22. Anthomysi. Humming-birds. 23. Epopsides. Hoopoes. 14 INTRODUCTION. 24. Pelmatodes. Bee-eaters, Kingsfishers. 25. Antriades, Rock-birds. 26. Prioniti. Hornbills. 27. Lyriferi, Menuras. 28. OpMopJiagw, Snake-eaters. 29. Columbini, Pigeons. 30. Alectrides, Penelopes. III. Gallinacei. Feet short, or moderate, somewhat robust; legs entirely covered with feathers; tarsi naked, or feathered; toes callous beneath, three before and one behind, or none be¬ hind ; pollex when present higher than the rest, resting on the ground by its tip, or not reaching it; claws short, not retract¬ ile, generally somewhat blunt, rarely compressed, arched, and acute. Beak vaulted; upper mandible covering the edges of the lower. 1. Nudipedes, Turkeys, Peafowls, Pheasants, Partridges. 2. Plumipedes, Grouse, Ptarmigans. IV. Grallatores. Feet moderate, or long, robust, or slen¬ der. Legs half-bare ; toes slit or webbed, sometimes margined ; two before only, three before only, or three before and one be¬ hind ; pollex raised from the ground, or resting upon it only by the tip, or reposing upon it in its whole length ; claws of varied form, not retractile. Bill of various shapes. Tribe 1. Two or three toes before, none behind. 1. Megistanes, Ostriches, Cassowaries. 2. Pedionomi, Bustards. 3. u^gialites. Long-shanks, Oyster-catchers, Plovers. Tribe 2. Three toes before, one behind. 4. Elonorni, Lapwings, Turnstones, Snipes, Curlews. 5. Falcirostres, Ibises. 6. Latirostres, Spoonbills. 7. Herodiones, Herons. 8. JEroplioni. Cranes. 9. Colloramphi, Sheath-bills. 10. Uncirostres, Screamers, Serpent-eaters. 11. HilehatcG, Trumpeters. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 15 12. Macroiiyclies, Jacanas. 13. Macrodactyli. Rails, Gallinules. 14. Pinnatipedes, Coots, Phalaropes. 15. Palmipedes, Avocettes, Flamingoes. V. Natatores. Feet short, placed in the centre of gravity, or at the hind part of the body; legs denuded on their lower part; toes webbed, sometimes lobed, three before and 6ne be¬ hind, three before and none behind, or four before and none behind ; claws short, rarely moderate, compressed, or flattened. Bill of various forms. Tribe 1. Tellopodes. Four toes; pollex directed for¬ wards and connected by a membrane with the next, or turned back and free. 1. Syndactyli, Cormorants, Pelicans, Tropic-birds. 2. Urinatores. Grebes, Divers. 3. Dermorhynci. Geese, Swans, Ducks. 4. Pelagii, Gulls, Terns. Tribe 2. A tellopodes. Three webbed toes before, none behind. 5. Sipliorini. Petrel^, Albatrosses. 6. Brachypteri, Guillemots, Auks. Tribe 3. Ptilopteri. Four toes, three palmate, pollex directed forwards and free. 7. Sphenisci, Penguins. T hose are samplea o f aystcTi T iy, of which huwyV(:^r " Tt l'(5T6 are miiltituduu of aU ^htipoTb aiid'uiMou, fumiudTfll"vaiiuuB piiueiples, mmo mppaiuiittj^nii iio.piiiiioiplLA'Tri' alt, 'bu(j nil duublteu ex- oollont and admi r able iirthe eyes of (heirlnvei llUi j. ¥^ t I pre¬ sume any person must be sensible of the absurdity of characters like those givpn to. the fourth order,, Grallatores, of the above ar- rangement/y 1 cannot venture upon the nmgnincent systems of the present day, in which, if we believe their authors, the order and harmony of nature are demonstrated with absolute certainty; although to me they seem like fragments of old chaos, or dreams of monomania. For my part, I confess my inability to discover the principles according to which 16 INTRODUCTION. the All-wise and All-powerful has created and disposed the various objects that form the garniture of our globe; ye^ as some-method must be followed in describing the birds of which I have undertaken to give the history, it is necessary that 1 should here say a few words on the subject. fe- tlt e fiisl plact, oj proliminawlij i , I must uudcn vum UTon- ea kt c Llie by hum bi y of . ^ rcaDona it m\J ' ^ lu i. in ^AuK iiiJSCTriiiie tcrmiii a- lii iHi ii i M i nj- nj Tit n Tnn i tif I I |■■.kl!gIr^p ; J ^ rliqpna^^ ^0 tilVo hI 11 11 I .^Jl'l th n i lr (jfimr rmplnj ;r.rL;cin«n^i»AfnL^ — The OFd ;e r s, hoTVOTOr,-mciy bo nnli.n i f? i .lll.l i I Tiiilimtlve ncLfnrft ^rifl njnillflf TIT ^ ^ rj.llhnfain>y a (ljgtLiv e g> d t Jii ' Vljil ft OT ll uii c uf ' tliC/ gb uUra CDiilctiiicd m lliSHfl ; an d ilkk} j -' uiiui ' u i b/ i inb&Uixt ' htfl - uf ryuUldI '' conHllWlio ^ ^ ^ ^Yij gandorr- Without professing tQ^propose a general ao^rangement of birds, I ma^S^ate that thoseo^Europe may be^^arily divided into four^^ups, sections, oh^^classes, determtued by their mode of life/V 1. Some species, as Falcons and Swallows, seek their prey by open flight, and either se^e it in the air, or p^nce upon it on\he ground, but are inc^able of searching ibr it by WJ ’pe cl; m th ai di to bi fr Aerial Birds^ Ates Ajerice^ or Volatorioe. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE species, as Grou^i^ Pigeons, Finches,sCrows, and arW^s, obtain their food bjN^arching for it on th«[^»round or on pla^s, employing their win^N§ carry th>m to thepfeces m which iKis likely to be found. The birds ofS^s section, then, are peculiurfy Terrestrial, Aves Terre^, or Ambulatories. 3. Many, as Gailinules, Plpvers, Snipes,Xd Herons, are adapted by their 1(% slender Ifeg^Miared abovNhe heel, for searching the shores or ihayshy groumfesalthough son^niting this group with the prece'd^g, run on dry land, and ofhers. X — — uii ur^ lanu, ana Olivers, not d^t at running, take thV^stand in the water or by its margin,>id seize their prey wheXit comes within reach. Ihe birds of thjs group may be tenneAAmpMbious or Wading .Av^s Litorales^ OY^'^i^llatoriw. ^ 4. Lastly, there ar^pecies, as Dti^s, DiW and Gulls, which are formed for s^ming, anJNif whiclNiany dive, while others'pl^ge into the^»^er, and soirie reach atSuljstan- c^ beneath its>Hi:fece. TheyX,all capable of walking in so^degree. Thesd'Hre the Aquati^rds, Ave$ Aquatiew, or NatOhgdw. ^ All thfes^rimary grou^^xMch I consiae«,merely as sec¬ tional, and ^^oming in the pl^..of those, farnhw to every piaj^^n, of Land'^^i^ and Water Birds, are compiOised of ord^s equivalent to >aQh other, and characterized b/^cu- liarities of form and structure. Thus, Order. LASS II. ^^ES. BI^S. s^iON I. AVE^oLATORi^. /Serial i^ds. 1. Bjjf^tores, Plunc^ef^s or Birds/tff Prey i/^iltures, and Ha^yts, Owls. / M. ExcurswM, Snatchers : Siirikes an53/riycatcher& 8. VoliUdores, Skimmer^Swallo\^ Bee-eater^^nd Goa^ suckers. / ^•/Immersores^ DipjJ^*s: Kingsfi^ers. SECTIO^I. AVES AM^LATORl^. ]^ND BIRDS. 5. or/Gallinaceouy^ircls : /f^heasants, Grouse, Partridg4. 18 Order. INTRODUCTION. 6 . Qemitores,Coo&t&-. Pigeons.* y , / . v' ^.ZeglubitJes, Husl/rs, or t^k-billed g/anivorous ^(irds, / as Finches, huntings, l4rks. / '^8. Vag 6 tores, W?toderers, a/Crows an^Starlings 9 . C/ntatores, Songsters, ^ Thrushes/WarbleryNVrens. 10./^a«wrgs/6linibers, ^s Woodp^ers. / Reptat^s, Creep^, as Creepers and NujKatcbers. jfecTION III. XvES GBA^ATOEI^. ^ADING BIEM 12. ^alpatoreSypvoY^vs, a^/Fails, Galjinules, Cooty ^MmYwes/RunnerSj^ Plover^ Exploramyres, Priors, as Snipes and CurlejAS. 15. Expe/iatores, W^itchers, as/flerons. /sEX!TION ly AYES N^TOEI^. S^^MING BIEI 16 /^n 5 mioj;^ Siftersy^ Geese and^ucks. , „ v, {. Urinatj^es, as Grebes^ivers, Eny, and e- 18. Mersatores, or Plungers, a^annets, G^s, Ter^ 19. ^olidtovey or Robbers^^ the Jager§> 'Each o^hese orders,^tains seyp^l families/under yticb the gej^^a are arrang^. The species of each family may be disposed in a circular man¬ ner, or parallel to each other, or in various ways ; and many of the families may be viewed as representing each other in their several stations. Thus, the Rasores or Scrapers are analogous to the Cribratores or Sifters, as well as to the Palpatores or Gropers ; and the Raptores of the first section are represented by the Vagatores of the second, the Serpent-eaters of the third, and the Spoliatores of the fourth. All the genera, in fact, may easily be arranged in a circle, and that so as to preserve seve¬ ral of their affinities. It is not, therefore, of much importance whether we commence our descriptions with one class or ano¬ ther ; and, for various reasons, I prefer beginning with the Ra¬ sores, the first order of the Terrestrial Birds. In describing the birds of a very small portion of the globe. L CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 19 it is impossible to exhibit the relations of the different species and genera, without entering upon considerations the develop¬ ment of which would occupy more space than could with pro¬ priety be devoted to it. I do not, therefore, profess to add a new system to the many already in partial use, or that have passed away like their authors. Those of Linmeus, Latham, Blumenbach, Illiger, Vieillot, Temminck, and Cuvier, may all be said to be extinct, for none of these worthies can muster half a dozen followers at the present day. Indeed their systems were never generally adopted even in a single country of Eu¬ rope. Methods spring up and die like mushrooms, and for the same reasonthey are composed of flimsy and unsubstantial ma¬ terials, easily elaborated; and having no solid frame to give them stability, they fall suddenly into decay, withered by the breath of criticism, which but serves to invigorate that which is pos¬ sessed of real stamina. My object, therefore, in offering the above sketch, is merely to disclose the order which I conceive to be best adapted for the present work. The fipot ooetiOB, or the Aeiial"Dii'dH, I rbiiiiliTfi'foI' a supurate hooauDo I have iwButl)) publisBcn a ijlldl ' L acuu tmt o f the Rapaoiouo opooioa, whidi is not _yeL uut ofpi ' liit, und -be- - c a u rj c h aui - T l mi i n i iA n rnUnLi.-.i^ -^J^-'-n ii l i li fnrm a ti nii l uepu L l ia g them bplbl- g- glviiig-thrir axlLiidud hi n tnrr t o the pub l i c. Thn nnnnnd , il L^.l..rp.ifri a l Bi l ilii , nfflli nl il th u Hlfiiterials fnr the ppooeiit (uluuie, m which — are dascribed J he orders Rno w co, Gomiter ro , ■B egtubituiia, and Yagatofe s; thf L Smp a gc^ Cewij, Ilusktis, and Waiiduiuiu , m the Gall in- Birds .. . -OmTiiynmuSi Rirnlg, ofouthers. Ibn nomnnidntur e and seetinning are matte r o oh which Im n- nnt pypent tha t leaders sho a ld all agrCT r nvith mu. — I-fewe ■aadeavoured to render them afc--rrTn*nTb;iit nilli liatmu as I — could; but, all, t h e y m u st m-r-bn in ... moauunj arb4t*«4iy-4ealt“wjth. REMARKS ON THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. Bibds constitute the second class of Vertebrate Animals, and are characterized by having an internal skeleton; a twofold, that is, a general, and a pulmonic, circulation; as well as a double respiration, the air passing beyond their lungs into cells distributed through various parts of the body, and even into some of the bones; by being warm-blooded, oviparous, fur¬ nished with four extremities or limbs, of which the tw'o anterior are converted into wings; and by having their skin covered with feathers. The last circumstance is peculiarly distinctive of the class. They never approach in magnitude to many species of Mammalia, Reptiles, and Fishes; and, being organized for flying, are proportionally lighter than animals of equal dimensions belonging to those classes. Their specific gravity, in fact, is less than that of water, so that they all float on the surface of that element, and many of them are adapted for swimming upon it, or for plunging or diving into it. By far the greater number, however, are confined to the air, most of them obtaining their food by walking on the ground or on trees, while a few procure their prey on wing, and are incapable of walking without difficulty. Although it is unnecessary to enter here into a minute ex¬ planation of all the organs of birds, I consider it expedient to describe as much of their structure as may enable the reader not previously acquainted with their anatomy to follow me through the various details which I shall have to present. I will therefore give an outline of the osseous, digestive, and dermal systems, accompanied by illustrative figures. The Skeleton of birds is composed nearly of the same parts as that of the Mammalia, but with modifications suited to the peculiarities of their kind of life. As in man, it is divided into the head, the neck, the trunk, the anterior, and the pos- tcrior extremities. The Head, which is generally small, is at an early age com- STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 21 posed of several distinct bones, which, however, soon unite, so that all traces of their sutures become obliterated. In the skull properly so called, or cranium, there are two frontal, two parietal, two temporal bones, with an occipital, a sphenoid, and an ethmoid. The cavity formed by these bones is in some measure divided into two portions, of which the anterior con¬ tains the cerebrum, while in the posterior are lodged the cere¬ bellum, the optic lobes, and the medulla oblongata. The face is composed of the nasal, intermaxillary, malar, lachrymal, superior maxillary, and palatal bones, with the vomer, and the lower maxillary bone. The upper jaw, composed of all the bones mentioned except the last, is united at its base with the frontal, the ethmoid, and the temporal bones, but in such a manner as generally to allow a considerable degree of motion, which is not however effected by joints properly so called, but by the elasticity of the parts. Viewed from beneath, it pre¬ sents two outer or anterior, and two posterior, slender branches, which are articulated behind to a bone of irregular, somewhat square form, named the tympanic bone, or os quadratum, which is itself articulated to the temporal bone, and forms the anterior edge of the cavity of the ear, having the membrane of the tym¬ panum attached to its posterior margin. This arrangement, owing to the motion given to the t^mipanic bone, and the elasticity of the parts at the junction of the frontal and nasal bones, allows the upper mandible a degree of motion varying in the dillerent families. The lower jaw of an adult bird is formed of a single bone, having the sides generally thin and nearly vertical, and articulated to the tympanic bone. Fig. 1 represents the skull of the Ra¬ ven, Corvus Corax^ viewed laterally. The occipital bone, a, ori¬ ginally composed of four pieces, the an¬ terior or basilar ; the posterior, spinous, or superior; and the two lateral or condyloid. The temporal bone is com¬ posed of the petrous portion, />, containing the ear ; the Fig. 1. Skull of Raven. 22 introduction. squamous portion, c; to which is articulated the tympanic portion, or os quadratum, d. The parietal bone, intervenes between the occipital and the frontal. The latter, /, besides forming the anterior part of the covering of the brain, also constitutes the upper edge of the orbit or cavity in which the eye is lodged, its posterior process, bounding it behind, while its antorbital process, h, margins it before, and is connected with the lachrymal bones. The lower part of the orbit is thus left incomplete, as it is in various degrees in all birds, ex¬ cepting some of the parrots. The sphenoid bone is originally composed of several distinct parts : a basilar portion, united to that of the occipital bone; two orbital plates, «, constituting part of the orbits and of their septum; two cranial plates, y, corresponding to the wings, and forming the posterior part of the orbits; and two pterygoid or interarticular portions, ky which are articulated posteriorly to the tympanic bones. The ethmoid bone forms the anterior portion of the septum of the orbits, ly and separates them from the cavity of the nose. Ex¬ cepting the os quadratum, dy and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, ky these bones are all anchylosed or united in the Raven and other Crows, as is indeed the case with most adult birds. The Face is primarily divided into the upper jaw, my formed of a number of bones, and the lower jaw, fiy formed of a single bone. The nasal bones, o, occupy the basal part of the upper jaw, and bend obliquely downwards behind the nasal cavity. The lachrymal bones, py are articulated with the antorbital process of the frontal bone, A, the nasal, o, and the malar bones. The latter, qy are here articulated posteriorly with the lachrymal bones, anteriorly and above with the nasal, and below with the long slender process of the upper maxillary. The intermaxillary bones, r, form the greater part of the upper mandible, extending from its extremity along the ridge and sides, and are united with the superior maxillary bones. The latter, 5, are generally small. They send a long slender process, ty backwards, along the edge of the upper mandible, to be articulated to the tympanic bone, d. This process is by some considered as analogous to the zygomatic arch, and STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 23 by others held to be the malar bone. The palatal bones, forming the roof of the mouth, are scarcely visible in this view. The vomer separates the cavity of the nostrils, w, when complete. The malar bones, y, j. The os quadrato-maxillare, or slender process of the upper maxillary bones, /, I, Lastly, the intermaxillary bones, w^, m, of which the superior part is seen behind the aperture of the nares, n. The lower jaw. Fig. 1, originally composed of twelve pieces, which remain more or less disunited in many of the waders and aquatic birds for a considerable time, is here completely ossified. Its two thin, broad, erect sides, are named the rami or branches, ; the union of which anteriorly, from w to the point, is named the symphysis, and determines the outline of the lower horny mandible. Behind the middle of the ramus, there is in many cases a vacuity, y, in others two, and sometimes none. The part by which the articulation is effected with the os quadratum, 2 ?, is the condyle, and is of various forms, with several processes in its vicinity. The upper jaw preserves a degree of mobility in its union with the cranium, which is effected by the medium of the slender quadrato-inaxillary bone. Fig. 1, Fig. 2, by which the motion of the os quadratum, Fig. 1, c?, is communicated tp 24 introduction. the maxillary bone, The lower jaw admits only of a direct hinge-like motion. Both together constitute the general organ of prehension in birds, and undergo great modifications of form, according to the nature of the food. It is only necessary further to observe here that the skull contains the cerebrum, cerebellum, and optic lobes, constituting the central organ of the nervous system; that in the temporal bone. Fig. 1, is contained the organ of hearing; while in the large cavities formed between the cranium and face, at A, jp, named the orbits, are placed the organs of vision ; those of smell being situated in the cavity at the base of the upper jaw, 0, s ,* and that the organs of taste and deglutition, with the entrance of the respiratory apparatus, are placed in the mouth and throat. Plate I. represents the skeleton of the Golden Eagle, Aquila Ckrgsaetus^ reduced to one fourth of its natural size. The parts already spoken of may, for the most pai*t, be readily traced in the head, which has an additional small bone, appended to the lachr}Tnal, and named the superciliary. It is the basis of the thin-edged projection which gives a peculiar character to the eyes of the birds of prey. The cranium is marked a, the upper jaw 6, the lower c. The vertebral column, or spine, along the centre of which runs the spinal cord, is divided into three regions : the cervical, from dio e; the dorsal, from ^ to f; the sacral, or united lum¬ bar and sacral, from / backwards; and lastly, the caudal or coccygeal, g. The number of vertebrae, or pieces of which it is composed, varies much in this class of animals. The cervical vertebrae, c?, are here thirteen. The articula¬ tion of the skull with the first takes place by a single condyle, or hemispherical knob, seen in Fig. 2, and a corresponding depression in the first cervical vertebra, which is of an annular form. This sort of joint allows a much freer motion than in the mammalia. The other vertebrae are articulated by alter¬ nate concave and convex surfaces, but so as to permit extended motion, the upper vertebrae moving more easily forwards, those in the middle backwards, and the lower forwards or down¬ wards ; in consequence of which the ordinary flexure of the STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. 25 neck resembles the letter f. The spinous processes, /^, A, are generally very small, unless in the lower vertebrae. The trans¬ verse are large, directed forwards, and have a pointed process, e, analogous to a rib, and affording attachment to the muscles of the neck. The length of the neck varies exceedingly, being dependent upon the nature of the food. It therefore in land birds, and the waders, bears a proportion to that of the feqt; but in those swimming birds which reach at their food under the water, as the swan, it is greatly elongated, while the feet are short. The number of vertebrae varies from nine in the sparrow to twenty-three in the swan; but in general it is from twelve to fifteen. The dorsal vertebrae, from ^ to a little beyond are those forming the region of the back properly so called, and to which the ribs are attached. They vary in number from six to eleven, being generally seven or eight, which is also the num¬ ber of the ribs. Here it is observed that six of them, from e to /, are free, with thin projecting spinous processes, while the two posterior are united with the large bone extending back¬ wards beyond f. They arfe generally shorter than the cervical, are not articulated by intervening cartilages; and in many birds, some of them, generally those nearest the sacrum, are anchylosed. Their bodies are usually much compressed, and the anterior have inferior spinous processes, to which some of the muscles of the neck are attached. The transverse processes are articulated with the ribs, which are also joined to their bodies. The vertebrse of the back having to sustain the other parts, and withstand the shock of the muscles, in flying, the reason of their partial anchylosis is easily understood. But such an union is still more requisite in the posterior vertebrae, which have to support the generajly more or less horizontal body, in standing and walking, and transfer its weight to the legs, which are articulated far behind the centre of gravity. The lumbar and sacral vertebrae are therefore anchylosed, and more¬ over united with the pelvis, to form the great mass of bone extending from f to g. These vertebrae, commonly named 26 INTRODUCTION. sacral, of which the number can be determined only by count¬ ing the foramina by which the spinal nerves issue, vary from seven to twenty, and in the Golden Eagle are eleven. The caudal or coccygeal vertebr