— -HP- ' /j FAUNA BOREALI-AMERICAN A. THE BIRDS. VOL. II. FAUNA BOREAL I-AME R I C A N A; OR THE ZOOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN PARTS OF BRITISH AMERICA: CONTAINING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY COLLECTED ON THE LATE NORTHERN LAND EXPEDITIONS UNDER COMMAND OF CAPTAIN SIR JOHN FRANKLIN, R.N. PART SECOND, THE BIRDS. BY WILLIAM SWAINSON, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., HONORARY OR CORRESPONDING MEMBER OP SEVERAL FOREIGN SOCIETIES. AND JOHN RICHARDSON, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., MEMBER OF THB GEOGRAPHICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON, OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, OF THE LITERARY AND HISTORICAL 80CIETY OF QUEBEC, AND VORBIGN MEMBER OF THB GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, SURGEON AND NATURALIST TO THE EXPEDITIONS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS PLATES AND WOODCUTS. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR COLONIAL AFFAIRS. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. MDCCCXXXI. LONDON : Printed by William Clowks, Stamford Street. ADVERTISEMENT. Mr. Swainson’s contributions to the following pages have the letters Sw. subjoined, except in one or two instances, where they have been accidentally omitted. It is to be understood, however, that all the remarks on natural arrangement are his, and that the specific names and synonymes are given on his authority, having been either supplied or revised by him. In the descriptions, “ Werner’s Nomenclature, by Syme,” has been adopted as the standard for the names of the colours, the specimens having been invariably compared with the coloured patterns previous to noting down the hue of the plumage. The measurements are in inches and lines, or twelfth parts of an inch. The total length of the bird is measured from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, the neck being on the stretch. In the Falco- nidas and Strigidje, the length of the longest quill when plucked from the wing is given ; but this having been found inconvenient in practice, the length of the folded wing from the tip of the longest feather to the bend of the carpal joint is recorded in the descriptions of the succeeding families. The dimensions of the bill are generally taken both from the feathers of the forehead, following the curve of its ridge,—and from the rictus or angle of the mouth, in a straight line to the tip. The tail is measured from its extremity to the insertion of the quills in the coccyx; and in the length of the tarsus are included its articular cartilages; that is, the points of the compasses were placed in the centres of the tarsal and metatarsal joints. The lengths of the toes are given separately from the nails. THESE LISTS ARE SUBJOINED, THAT THE ORNITHOLOGIST MAY KNOW WHERE TO FIND THE SPECIMENS DESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOWING PAGES. Presented to the Zoological Society by order of the Right Hon. the Secretary of State for the Colonies . Aquila chrysaeta. Haliaeetus leucocephalus. Circus cyaneus. Strix cinerea. Bubo Virginianus. B. arcticus. Strix funerea. Strix Tengmalmi. Lanius borealis. L. excubitorides. Tyrannus intre- pidus. Tyrannula Saya. Tyr. pusilla. Tyr. Richardsonii. Cinclus Americana. Merula minor. M. Wilsonii. M. solitaria. Orpheus meruloides. O. rufus. O. felivox. Sialia arctica. Sylvicola lestiva. S. maculosa. S. petechia. S. striata. Vermivora rubricapilla. V. peregrina. Setophaga Bonapartii. Parus atricapillus. Seiurus aurocapillus. S. aquaticus. Anthus aquaticus. Vireo olivaceus. Bombycilla Americana. Alauda comuta. Plectrophanes Lapponica. P. picta. Embe- riza pallida. Fringilla leucophrys. F. Pennsylvanica. F. iliaca. F. hyemalis. Pipilo arctica. Loxia leucoptera. Fringilla purpurea. Linaria tephrocotis. L. minor. Agelaius xanthocephalus. Scolecophagus ferrugineus. Garrulus brachyrhynchus. Picus tridactylus. P. arcticus. Troglodytes aedon. Tr. hyemalis. Tr. palustris. Hirundo Americana. H. lunifrons. Tetrao obscurus. T. Canadensis. T. Franklinii. T. saliceti. T. rupestris. T. leucurus. T. phasianellus. Strepsilas interpres. Grus Canadensis. Ardea lentiginosa. Numenius Hudsonius. N. borealis. Tringa Douglasii. T. alpina. T. Schinzii. Totanus semipalmatus. T. vociferus. T. flavipes. T. Bar- tramius. T. chloropygius. Limosa Hudsonica. Scolopax Novoboracensis. Sc. Drummondii. Rallus Carolinus. Fulica Americana. Phalaropus Wilsonii. Podiceps cornutus. Sterna nigra. Larus glaucus. L. zonorhynchus. L. brachyrhynchus. L. Franklinii. L. Bonapartii. Lestris Richardsonii. Anas discors. Mareca Americana. Oidemia perspicillata. O. fusca. Fuligula Vallis- neria. F. ferina. F. rufitorques. F. rubida. Clangula Barrovii. Cl. histrionica. Harelda glacialis. Mergus cucullatus. Colymbus glacialis. C. septentrionalis. [In all 130 specimens.] Presented to the Museum of the University of Edinburgh. Accipiter palumbarius, male fy fem. Buteo borealis. B. lagopus. Circus cyaneus, male , fem. fy young . Strix otus. S. brachyota. S. cinerea. S. Virginiana. S. funerea. S. Tengmalmi. Tyrannus intrepidus. Tyrannula Saya. Cinclus Americanus. Merula migratoria. M. Wilsonii. Sylvicola macu¬ losa. Setophaga ruticilla. Parus atricapillus. Anthus aquaticus. Bombycilla garrula. 13. Americana. Fringilla leucophrys. F. Pennsylvanica. F. graminea. Pipilo arctica. Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Age¬ laius phceniceus, male # fem. A. xanthocephalus. Stumella Ludoviciana. Icterus Baltimore. Quis- calus versicolor, male 8f fem. Scolecophagus ferrugineus, male fem. Corvus corone. C. pica. Picus pileatus. P. villosus, male fy fem. P. pubescens. P. varius. P. arcticus. P. tridactylus, male fy fem,. Colaptes auratus, male fy fem. Caprimulgus Virginianus. Hirundo purpurea. Alcedo alcyon. letrao umbellus, male fy fem. T. obscurus. T. Canadensis, male, fem., fy young. T. saliceti, spring and mint. T. leucurus, summer and mint. T. phasianellus. Charadrius vociferus. C. pluvialis. Strepsilas interpres. Ardea lentiginosa. Tringa Douglasii. T. Schinzii. Totanus semipalmatus. T. vociferus. T. flavipes. T. Bartramius. T. chloropygius. Limosa fedoa. L. Hudsonica. Rallus Carolinus. Phalaropus Wilsonii. P. hyperboreus. Podiceps cornutus. Sterna nigra. Larus zonorhynchus. L. Franklinii. L. Bonapartii. Anas clypeata, male fem. A. strepera.° A. crecca. A. discors, fem. 8f young. Mareca Americana. Oidemia perspicillata, male Sf young. O. fusca. Fuligula Vallisneria, male $ fem. F. marila. F. rufitorques, male fy fem. F. rubida. Clangula vulgaris, male fy young. C. albeola, male fy fem. Harelda glacialis, male fy fem. Mergus merganser. M. cucullatus.—86 species, in addition to 40 specimens collected on the first Expedition, and also preserved in the Edinburgh Museum. Twelve specimens were likewise sent to the Plymouth Museum, pursuant to his Majesty’s commands; and between 70 and 80 species have been presented to Mr. Swainson, by permission of the Right Hon. the Secretary of State for Colonial affairs*. * Mr. Swainson has in the British and the deposited specimens from his own collection, of the true Vireo olivaceus and Tyrannula rapax Edinburgh Museums. To the former he has also sent Vireo Bartramii. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction, by Dr. Richardson ..... List of Species that frequent the North-west Coast (note) Table of Temperatures (note) . , Table of Species, with their Distribution, and references to the pages of the Fauna in which they are described .... Lists of Birds resident in the Fur-countries (Tables II., III., IV.) Lists of migratory Birds that visit the Fur-countries (Tables V., VI., VII., VIII.) List of Pennsylvanian Birds supposed to visit the Fur-countries, but not seen by the Expedition (note) . . x List of resident Pennsylvanian Birds that do not reach the Fur-countries (note) List of the Birds of the North Georgian Islands (Table IX.) List of Greenland Birds (note) Comparative Table . List of Species common to the northern parts of the New and Old Continents Introductory Observations on the Natural System, by Mr. Swainson Preface, by Mr. Swainson . . ... List of Authors Page ix xvi xviii xxii xxxiv xxxv xxxvii xxxvii xxxviii xxxviii xxxix xxxix xli lvii lxv RAPTORES i VuLTURIDjE ... 1 Falconid^: ... 8 Strigidae ... 71 INSESSORES . . .100 DENTIROSTRES . . 103 Laniadae . . . J05 Merulid,e . . . 149 Sylviadje . . . 200 Ampelid^ . . # 232 CONIROSTRES . . 241 Fringillid,® . . . 244 Sturnid,e . . . 274 Corvidae . . . 288 CURTIPEDES ... 298 Appendices, Nos. I. & II. Index SCANSORES . Pngs 298 PlCIDjE . . 299 CERTHIADiE . 318 TENUIROSTRES 321 Trochilid^ 322 FISSIROSTRES . 326 HirUNDINIDjE 328 CaPRIMULGIDvE . . 336 HaLCYONIDjE 339 RASORES . 341 TeTRAONIDjE 341 CoLUMBIDjE . , . 363 GRALLATORES 367 NATATORES . 410 Anatid^e 435 • • . 481 • • • 503 N - B -—For a systematic List of the Species, with reference to the pages, see Table I., Introduction, p. xxii. LIST OF PLATES No.* Page 24 Falco sparverius, male . 31 25 Falco ^esalon y female . . 37 26 Accipiter (Astur) palumbarius, male 39 27 Buteo vulgaris, male . • 47 28 Buteo lagopus . • 52 29 Circus cyaneus, i*w\Amer. male . 55 30 Bubo arcticus . * . . 86 31 Strix cinerea . . .77 32 Strix Tengmalmi . . 94 33 Lanius borealis, female . Ill 34 Lanius excubitorides f 115 35 Tyrannus borealis, female . 141 36 Merula minor . . . 179 37 Merula solitaria . . .184 38 Orpheus meruloides . ' . 187 39 Erythaca (Sialia) arctica . 209 40 Sylvicola maculosa, male . 213 41 Sylvicola petechia . . 215 j Sylvic. (Verm.) rubricapilla, up. Jig.} 42 (Sylvic. (Verm.) peregrina, under fig.) 43 Seiurus aquaticus . . 229 44 Anthus aquaticus . . 231 45 Tyrannula Saya . . . 142 (Tyrannula pusilla, upper figure 1 ^(Tyrannula Richardsonii, under fig . j 47 Setophaga Bonapartii, male . 225 >220 No. Page 48 Plectrophanes Lapponica 49 Plectrophanes picta 50 Linaria tephrocotis 51 Pyrgita(Pipilo) arctica, mote 52 Pyrgita(Pipilo) arctica, fern. \ between 53 Pyrrhula (Corythus) enucleator 54 Garrulus Stelleri 55 Garrulus brachyrhynchus 56 Picus tridactylus, male 57 Picus arcticus, male 58 Centrocercus urophasianus, male 59 Tetrao obscurus, malei to face each 60 Tetrao obscurus, fem. (other between 61 Tetrao Franklinii, male 62 Tetrao Canadensis, female . 63 Lagopus leucurus, summer 64 Lagopus rupestris, female 65 Numenius borealis 66 Tringa Douglasii 67 Totanus semipalmatus, mule 68 Coccothraustes vespertina, male 69 Phalaropus Wilsonii, female 70 Clangula Barrovii, male 71 Larus Franklinii, male 72 Larus Bonapartii, male 73 Lestris Richardsonii 248 250 265 1260 1261 262 294 296 311 313 358 1344 )345 348 346 356 354 378 380 388 269 405 456 424 426 433 * Continued from the First Volume. LIST OF WOOD-CUTS, Representing parts of the following birds. Falco aesalon. 57 Accipiter (Astur) palumbarius... 68 Buteo vulgaris. 59 „ lagopus.I 69 „ (Circus) cyaneus. 70 » » » young ... 70 Strix otus .. 74 „ cinerea. go „ nyctea. 91 „ funerea.. 94 Vireo olivaceus. 235 Alauda cornuta.246 Plectrophanes Lapponica.250 Fringilla graminea. 254 Fringilla leucoplirys.256 „ Pennsylvania.257 „ iliaca. 258 „ hyemalis.259 Linaria tephrocotis.266 Pyranga rubra. 273 Quiscalus versicolor.286 Scolecophagus ferrugineus .287 Garrulus brachyrhynchus.297 Picus pileatus. 305 „ villosus. 307 ,, pubescens. 309 » tridactylus.312 Troglodytes aedon . 317 Pa$r<* Troglodytes palustris. 320 Caprimulgus Virginianus. 339 Tetrao umbellus. 344 „ obscurus, male .346 » „ female .346 „ Canadensis.348 „ Franklinii.350 „ saliceti. 353 „ rupestris.356 „ leucurus. 357 Tyrannus borealis.498 Tyrannula pusilla. 499 „ Richardsonii. 499 INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND VOLUME; BY Dr. RICHARDSON. Science is indebted to the exertions of the Hudson’s Bay Company for almost all that is known of the Ornithology of the American Fur- countries ; under which term we comprehend generally the whole country north of the forty-eighth parallel of latitude . The French Canadians were the first, indeed, who penetrated into the regions beyond the Great Lakes in pursuit of peltry ; but the few journals of their proceedings that have come down to us, though rich in per¬ sonal adventure, contribute nothing to Natural History, beyond incidental anecdotes of the animals that are objects of chase. In like manner, the earlier English navigators, who, in exploring Hudson’s Bay and the Arctic Seas, aided in laying the foundation of the naval glory of their country, limited their notes on Zoology to brief remarks on the animals used for food, but seldom or never gave descriptions sufficiently characteristic to identify the species. The first collections of Hudson’s Bay birds of which I can find any record, are those formed by Mr. Alexander Light, who was sent out, ninety years ago, by the Hudson’s Bay Company, on account of his knowledge of Natural Hii ry; and by Mr. Isham, who, during a long residence, as Governor of various forts or trading-posts, employed his leisure hours in preparing the skins of beasts, birds, and fishes. These two gentlemen returning to England, about the year 1745 , fortunately for the advancement of Ornithology, entrusted their b X INTRODUCTION. specimens to Mr. George Edwards, who did them ample justice, in his splendid “ Natural History of Birds * * * § the most original and valuable work of the kind in the English language. In the first volume, he has figured and described with accuracy ten of Mr. Light’s birds, and in his third volume, which appeared in 1749, thirty-two of Mr. Isham’s are equally well illustrated f. In that year also, Ellis published his account of the voyage of the Dobbs and California, wherein he mentions some of the animals that came under his notice in the winter of 1747, which he passed in Hayes River J; and a narrative of the proceedings of the same voyage, by Mr. Drage, Clerk of the California, is still more full on points relating to Natural History. During the next twenty years, no additional information was obtained of the Zoology of those parts; but Mr. William Wales having been sent to Hudson’s Bay, in 1768, to observe the transit of Venus, Mr. Graham, Governor of the Com¬ pany’s post at Severn River, embraced the opportunity afforded by his return to England, of transmitting a collection of quadrupeds, birds, and fishes to the Royal Society. These being described by John Reinhold Forster, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1772 §, excited the attention of the scientific world; and, by desire of the Royal Society, directions were given by the Governor and Committee of the Hudson’s Bay Company that objects of Natural History should be annually sent to England. Mr. Humphrey Martin, accord¬ ingly, sent home several hundred specimens of animals and plants, collected at Albany Fort, of which he was Governor; and Mr. Hut¬ chins, who succeeded him in that office, was still more industrious, * Edwards presented a copy of this work, coloured by his own hand, to the Royal Society; and another copy, which he sent to Linnaeus, returning to England again when Sir James Smith acquired the invaluable museum and library of that prince of naturalists, is now in the possession of the Lin- nean Society. The Linnean specific names are added to it in manuscript. t In four instances Edwards devotes separate plates to the males and females, which reduces the number of species of birds from Hudsons Bay, introduced into his work, to thirty-eight . I York Factory is situated on the alluvial point of land which separates this river from the more important stream of Nelsons River, and is the place w he re the principal part of the waders and water-fowl collected on Sir John Franklin’s first Expedition were procured. § The species of birds enumerated by Forster are fifty-seven, of which twenty-two had been pre¬ viously made known by Edwards ; while sixteen, figured by the latter, do not enter Forster’s list. INTRODUCTION. XI not only in preparing many specimens, but in drawing up minute descriptions of all the quadrupeds and birds he could obtain, adding their native names, with notices of their nidification, food, and habits. His observations *, which, in fact, embrace almost all that has been recorded of the habits of the Hudson’s Bay birds up to the present time, being communicated to Latham and Pennant, are incorporated in the “ General Synopsis of Birds,” and in “ Arctic Zoology.” Indeed, Pennant, in some instances, appears to have adopted Mr. Hutchins’s descriptions, though unaccompanied by specimens, pre¬ fixing the names of nearly-resembling European birds, which an actual comparison would have shown to have been quite distinct; and in this way several species have been enumerated in systematic works as natives of Hudson’s Bay, which do not actually exist there. On the other hand, Mr. Hutchins has distinctly noticed a few species which have been but very lately admitted into the ornithological systems. Captain Cook’s third voyage, in 1777-8, contains some information respecting the animals of the north-west coasts of America and Behring’s Straits, but, unfortunately, no figures of the birds were published ; and the compendious notices which are contained in the works of Pennant and Latham, defective as they are in details of structure, are, in many instances, insufficient to enable us to identify the species, or to ascertain their proper situation in the system. The specimens themselves, collected on this and Cook’s other voyages, of unrivalled extent and interest, which ought to have been carefully preserved for reference in a national museum, have either gone to enrich foreign collections, or are entirely lost to science. Pennant’s “ Arctic Zoology,” which appeared in 1785, contains the fullest account of the birds of Arctic America which has hitherto been published. It embraces the species introduced by Latham in his “ Synopsis,” which was then in course of publication ; but, in common with other ornithological works of that period, it includes many specific names, attached merely to a different state of plumage, * In one volume folio, in the Library of the Hudson's Bay Company. b 2 Xll INTRODUCTION. resulting from age or sex. Exclusive of these nominal species, Pen¬ nant describes seventeen from the north-west coast and Behring’s Straits, collected on Captain Cook’s Expedition, and eighty-three from Hudson’s Bay, of which seventy-three had been previously made known by Edwards and Forster. Umfreville’s “ Account of Hudson’s Bay,” and Hearne’s “ Journey to the Coppermine River,” published in 1795, give some interesting details of the habits of the more common birds. There is no evidence in the Philosophical Transactions, of the orders of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1772, above alluded to, having been beneficial to science through the channel of the Royal Society ; but their instructions served to acquaint the residents with the value set, in England, upon the natural productions of the northern regions; and collections, chiefly of birds, have continued to be transmitted annually to London up to the present time, as presents either to the Governor and Committee or to the personal friends of the parties. The former, besides forming a museum of the Hudson’s Bay productions, which is liberally open to the public, have presented numerous specimens to the British Museum and Zoological Society. Private museums have also been greatly enriched from these sources, among which that of Joseph Sabine, Esq., is particularly deserving of notice. This gentle¬ man has long studied the Ornithology of Hudson’s Bay, and it is to be regretted that he has hitherto laid before the public only a part of the extensive information he has acquired on the subject. His Appendix to the Narrative of Sir John Franklin’s first Journey shows how well he could have performed the task had he found leisure. He has lately transferred his rich museum to the Andersonian Institution of Glasgow. Mr. Leadbeater’s invaluable collection also contains an extensive suite of birds from Hudson’s Bay, some of which have been recently figured in the American Ornithology of the Prince of Musig- nano, and are among the most interesting novelties in that splendid work. The voyages of Vancouver, Portlock, Meares, and Langsdorff, to the north-west coast, added little to Ornithology; nor is there much cer- r INTRODUCTION. XU1 tain information to be derived from the notices of Lewis and Clark of the birds they saw on the banks of the Columbia. They were unable to bring many specimens across the mountains, and their descriptions are in general too vague for scientific purposes, which is, perhaps, attributable to the untimely death of Governor Lewis previous to the publication of the work. All this, however, would have been compensated by the indefati¬ gable researches of Mr. David Douglas, which would have made the birds of the north-west coast equally familiar to Europeans with those of Hudson s Bay, had not his extensive collections gone to decay, through the length of the voyage and other causes beyond his control. He is now a second time exploring that interesting country, and we look with much anxiety for the rich harvest he is sure to reap. Eschscholtz and Chamisso, the naturalists who accompanied Kot¬ zebue on his voyages to the Russian-American settlements and Beh¬ ring’s Straits, doubtless acquired a knowledge of the birds of the places they visited ; but only some detached notices of their dis¬ coveries in Natural History have as yet reached this country. The more recent voyage of Captain Beechey has also been productive of much advantage to natural science; and I rejoice that Mr. Vigors has undertaken the task of bringing the ornithological discoveries before the public *. Almost the only information we have of the birds of the extreme northern coasts of America is contained in the Natural History Appendices to the voyages of Ross and Parry. Having had access to many of the specimens procured on these voyages, and preserved in the British and Edinburgh Museums, I have described them in the present work f. * I should gladly have availed myself of the kindness of the Author, who entrusted me with the proof-sheets, to have rendered this work more complete, by giving a list of the species that frequent the north-west coast; but very few of the specimens brought home on that Expedition had notes attached to them to indicate their locality, so that the native places of many are uncertain. t I embrace the opportunity here afforded of again returning my sincere thanks to Charles Kdni» »> . 213 do. do. Pass. Spring. Not very rare . 214 do. Not uncomm. Winter. Rather rare 215 do. Very comm. do. Frequent 216 . . 217 Summer. Extremely com. Winter. Very comm. 218 do. Very rare • 219 Pass. Spr. & Aut. Abund. Winter. Very comm. 220 Summer. Comm. do. Not comm. 221 do. do. do. Rare 222 do. do. . 223 Pass . Spr. & Aut. In flocks • 224 do. do. do. • • » 225 do. do. V. abun. Winter. Accid. visiter 226 do. do. do. do. do. 227 Summer. Comm. do. Com. . 228 Pass. Spr. & Aut. Accident. do. do. 229 do. do. In flocks f . . . 230 Summer. In flocks Accid. visiter 231 do. Not comm. # 232 do. Comm. Winter. Not rare . 233 do. Rare , 234 do. * Not uncomm. Winter. Young not rare 235 . Accid. visiter 236 . do. 237 . do. , 238 . Winter. Rather rare Winter-quarters of the Species. Page of the Fauna. M. and S. St., towards Tropics 443 Mexican St., Columb. R., Calif. 444 Middle and S. St., West Indies 445 S. States, Mexico ? do. 446 At sea, Coast of Labrador 447 do. do. N. St. 448 Canada, United States 449 Middle States 450 • 450 Middle States, Columbia River 451 do. do. 452 do. do. 453 South. States 454 do. 455 Middle and South. States 456 • • • 456 United States, Mexico, Calif. 458 Middle and N. States, Canada 459 United States 460 do. 461 South. States 462 do. 463 Middle States 464 Calif., a few on Columbia R. 465 Mid. and S. St., „ 466 United States 467 Middle States 468 South. States 469 • 470 • 472 • 473 Middle States . 474 • • . 475 United States . 476 Principally at sea in high lats. 477 o ~o © 477 do. do. 478 United States 479 xxxiv INTRODUCTION. Table II. The following is a List of Birds which are found at all seasons of the year in some district or other of the Fur Countries. Falconid*. Falco islandicus, Accipiter (Astur) palumbarius. Strigid*. Strix otus, S. cinerea, S. nebulosa, S. (Bubo) Virginiana, S. (B.) arctica, S. nyctea, S. funerea, S. Tengmalmi, S. Acadica. Laniad*. Lanius borealis, L. excubitorides, L. elegans. Sylviad*. Parus atricapillus. Fringillid*. Emberiza (Plectrophanes) nivalis, E. (P.) Lapponica, Pyrrhula (Corythus) enucleator, Loxia leucoptera, Linaria minor. Corvid*. Corvus corax, C. pica, Garrulus Canadensis, G. brachyrhynchus. Picid*. Picus (Dryotomus) pileatus, P. (Dendrocopus) villosus, P. (D.) pubescens, P. (Apternius) tridactylus, P. (A.) arcticus. Tetraonid*. Tetrao umbellus, T. obscurus, T. Canadensis, T. Franklinii, T. (Lagopus) saliceti T. (L.) rupestris, T. (L.) leucurus, T. (Centrocercus) urophasianus, T. (C.) phasianellus.-In all 38. As some of these, however, entirely quit their breeding stations in the winter and go southwards, they ought to be considered as migratory, although their range is comparatively limited. Thus the Lagopi quit the barren grounds, where they breed and seek shelter during winter in the more southerly wooded dis¬ tricts. The Plectrophanes breed on the Arctic coasts, and winter in the southern parts of the Fur Countries, migrating through eighteen or twenty degrees of latitude. Many of the Strigidw, the Laniadcc, and Picidce, retire from the sea- coast into the denser parts of the woods in winter, some individuals, however, remaining all the year in their breeding quarters. Numbers also of the Parus atricapillus and Linaria minor remain in the severest seasons in all parts of the Fur Countries ; but in some winters, at uncertain intervals, they appear in large flocks within the territory of the United States. Somateria mollissima and S. spectahilis, and Uria Brunnichii , U. troile, and U. grylle, ought also to be reckoned among the birds that winter in high latitudes, as many remain all the winter wherever they can find open water, although they also visit the coasts of the United States in that season in smaller numbers. r INTRODUCTION. XXXV Table III. List of Species of which considerable numbers are resident all the year in the Fur Countries ut of which detachments (mostly young birds?) visit the United States in winter. FalconidzE. Accipiter (Astur) palumbarius? StrigidzE. Strix funerea, St. nyctea. Laniad®. Lanius borealis. Emberiza (Plectrophanes) ni»ali s , E. (P.) Lapponica, Pyrrhula (Corrthus) enucUator, Loxia leucoptera, Lmaria minor (visits the United States in some winters only). oiuida:. Garrulus Canadensis. Corvus pica (Missouri in winter). AN Tt , S t ° ma , teria “ ollissima — This and three following spedes keep the sea in the ug er latitudes, a few individuals only resorting to the coasts of the United States. Alcada;. Lna troile, U. Brunnichii, U. grylle.-In all 15. f Table IV. List of Species which are resident all the year both in the Fur Countries and in Pennsylvania. Strigid*. Strix otus, St. nebulosa P St. (Bubo) Virginiana. Sylviad®. Parus atricapillus. Corvid®. Corvus Corax. Picidze. Picus (Dryotomus) pileatus, P. (Dendrocopus) villosus, P. (D.) pubescens._8. Table V. List of Species which are resident all the year in Pennsylvania, and visit the Fur Countries in summer only. FalcximdzE. Aquila (Haliaeetus) leucocephala, Falco sparverius, Accipiter Pennsylvanicus ? Buteo borealis. Merulid*. Merula migratoria. Only a few summer in Pennsylvania. FringillidzE. Frmgilla (Zonotrichia) graminea, F. (Z.) Pennsylvanica. Sturnid®. Sturnella Ludoviciana. Corvid®. Corvus corone, Garrulus cristatus. Picid*. Picus (Dendrocopus) varius, Colaptes auratus. Melanerpes erythrocephalus Grallatores. Charadrius vociferus (seen nearly the whole year near Philadelphia), Va- nellus melanogaster.-In all 15. e 2 --s- H U i xxxvi INTRODUCTION. Table VI. List of Species which merely winter in Pennsylvania, and migrate in summer to rear their young in the Fur Countries. Falconidas. Falco peregrinus, Buteo lagopus, Buteo (Circus) cyaneus (young only). Strigid*. Strix brachyota. Merulidas. Merula migratoria. A few breed in Pennsylvania. Sylviadas. Anthus aquaticus. Fringillid*. Alauda cornuta, Emberiza Canadensis, Fringilla leucophrys, F. diaca, b. hyemalis, F. purpurea, Coccothraustes Ludoviciana. Certhiad e. Troglodytes hyemalis. Grallatores. Calidris arenaria, Charadrius vociferus, Ch. pluvialis, Yanellus melanogaster, (a few breed within the state,) Limosa fedoa, L. Hudsonica, Scolopax Wilsonii. Natatores. Podiceps cornutus, P. Carolinensis, Sterna arctica, St. nigra, Lams argenta- toides, L. leucopterus, L. canus, Anas clypeata, A. (Chauliodus) strepera, A. (Dafila) caudacuta, A. (Boschas) domestica, A. (B.) crecca, Mareca Americana, Oidemia per- spicillata, O. fusca, O. Americana, Fuligula vallisneria, F. ferina, F. mania, F. rubida, Clangula vulgaris, Cl albeola, Harelda glacialis, Mergus merganser, M. serrator, Anser Canadensis, A. bernicla, Colymbus glacialis, C. septentrionahs, Uria alle. In all 52. Table VII. List of Species which summer (or breed ) in the Fur Countries and in Pennsylvania, but winter farther to the southward. VulturidjE. • Cathartes aura. Falconidje. Aquila (Pandion) haliaeeta. Laniad/e. Tvrannus intrepidus. Merulid*:. Merula Wilsonii, M. solitaria, Orpheus rufus, O. felivox. Sylviad#: Erythaca (Sialia) Wilsonii, Sylvicola sestiva, S. petechia, Setophaga ruticilla, Seiurus aurocapillus. Ampelidje. Vireo olivaceus, Bombycilla Americana. Fringillid^e. Carduelis Americana (only a very short time absent from Pennsylvania), Pyranga rubra. Sturnidje. Molothrus pecoris, Agelaius phoeniceus, Icterus Baltimore, Quiscalus versicolor, Scolecophagus ferrugineus. CerthiAD iE. Troglodytes aedon, T. palustris. Trochilid,e. Trochilus colubris. HiRUNDiNiDiE. Hirundo bicolor, H. Americana, H. riparia, H. purpurea, Cypselus pelasgius. INTRODUCTION. xxxvii Caprimulgid*. Caprimulgus vociferus, C. (chordeiles) Virginiana. Halcyonid*. Alcedo alcyon. Columbida!. Columha (Ectopistes) migratoria. Grallatores. Ardea Herodias, A. lentiginosa, Totanus vociferus, T. flavines T R ar tramius, Rallus Carolinus. P ’ Natatores. Sterna hirundo, Anas discors, Dendronessa sponsa._In all 42. Table VIII. List of Species which winter to the southward, are birds of passage in the parallel of Philadelphia m spring and autumn, and breed in summer in the Fur Countries. t alconid^e. Falco Columbarius. Sylviad*. Sylvicola maculosa, S. coronata, S. striata, S. (Vermivora) rubricapilla, S. (V.) peregrina? ^etophaga Bonapartii, Seiurus aquaticus. Ampelid^e. Bombycilla garrula. SturnidjE. Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Grallatores. Charadrius semipalmatus, Strepsilas interpres, Grus Americana, G. Canaden¬ sis, Recumrostra Americana, Numeniuslongirostris, N. Hudsonicus, N. borealis P Tringa Douglasu, Tr. himantopus, Tr. semipalmata, Tr. alpina, Tr. maritima? Tr. Schinzii, Tr. minuta, 1 r. pusilla, Tr. cinerea, Totanus semipalmatus, T. chloropygius, Scolopax Novo- boracensis, Rallus Novoboracensis, Fulica Americana, PhalaropusWi’lsonii.Ph. hyperboreus. Natatores. Fuligula rufitorques. - In all 35. f n N °‘,h~J° ‘"“Tm* the dist , rib “ tion of the Northern American lords still farther, the two following tables compiled from the Prince of JIusignano’s Specchio comparative, &c., are subjoined. K compiled No. I -List of the Species which migrate northwards, from or through Pennsylvania, in spring, and may therefore be considered as ret.rmg to the Fur Countries to breed, although they did not come under our notice. 1 Falconidje. Falco Sancti Johannis, F. hyemalis. SYL R. AD m SylV « . Novobor * c * nsis » S - palmarum, S. maritima, S. pardalina, S. mitrata, S. pensilis, S. virens S Blackburmaj, fe. ictei ocephala, S. castanea, S. Canadensis, S. autimmalis, S. sphagnosa, S. azurea, S. Wilso’nii* fe. vermivora, S. solitaria, S. chrysoptera, Parus bicolor, Regulus cristatus, R. calendula. Fringillid^e. Fringilla pinus, Loxia curvirostra. Grallatores. Tringa pectoralis. Natatores. Rhincops nigra. Sterna minuta, Anas obscura, A. Labradora, Mergus albellus, Phalacrocorax carbo Ph. graculus, Ph. cristatus, Mormon fratercula, Alca torda.-In all 36. No. II— Species resident all the year in Pennsylvania, which were not seen by us in the Fur Countries Strigid.*. Strix asio. Sylviad^e. Sylvia trichas (absents itself a few days in the middle of winter). Certhiad^e. Sitta Carolinensis. Fringillid2E. Fringilla melodia, F. socialis, F. pusilla, F. caudacuta, F. maritima, F. Cardinalis. TetraonidzE. Perdix Virginiana. Pavonid.r. Meleagris gallopavo (formerly, now extinct in that state). Grallatores. Haematopus ostralegus.-In all 12. XXXV1U INTRODUCTION. Table IX. List of Birds detected on the North Georgian Islands and adjoining Seas, lat. 73° to 75° N., on Sir Edward Parry’s first Voyage. Strigidje. Strix nyctea. FkingillidjE. Emberiza nivalis. Corvidae. Corvus corax. Hirundinid.*. Species ignota. CaprimulgidjE. Caprimulgus Americanus. Tetraonid.®. Tetrao rupestris. Grallatores. Calidris arenaria, Charadrius pluvialis, Ch. semipalmata, Strepsilas collaris, Tringa variabilis, Tr. cinerea, Tr. maritima, Numenius borealis ? Phalaropus fulicarius. Natatores. Sterna arctica, Larus glaucus, L. argentatus, L. leucopterus, L. eburneus, L. tridactylus, L. Sabinii, Lestris pomarinus, L. parasitica, Procellaria glacialis, Uria Brunnichii, U. grylle, U. alle, Colymbus septentrionalis.— (Anatid®.) Anas cygnus, A bernicla, A. spectabilis, A. mollissima, A. glacialis.-34 in all. All these birds are migratory, arriving on Melville Island in May, and departing with their young broods in October. A sailor, who was walking in the month of February near the ships, saw what he described as a large white bird, flying near the ground. “ If it were a bird,” says Captain Sabine, “ it was most probably a Strix nyctea; but neither this nor any other individual was observed before or afterwards, until the general arrival in May; and as scarcely a day passed afterwards in which birds of this species were not seen, it seems reason¬ able to conclude that this solitary and somewhat uncertain instance does not justify an exception to the above general remark.” This table may be compared with the list of Greenland birds given below*. 551 List of Greenland Birds .—(Captain Sabine.) Falconid/E. Falco albicilla, F. islandicus, F. peregrinus, F. tinnunculus. Strigid^e. Strix nyctea, St. asio. SylviaDjE. Sylvia cenanthe, Parus bicolor. FringillidzE. Emberiza nivalis, Fringilla Lapponica, F. Linaria. CorvidjE. Corvus corax. TetraonidjE. Tetrao lagopus. Grallatores. Charadrius hiaticula, Ch. pluvialis, Ardea cinerea, Tringa cinerea, Tr. maritima, Tr. alpina, Tr. interpres, Scolopax gallinago, Sc. Lapponica, Phalaropus hyperboreus, Ph. platyrhynchus. Natatores. Sterna hirundo, Larus marinus, L. glaucus, L. argentatus, L. eburneus, L. tridactylus, L. Sabinii, Lestris parasiticus, Procellaria glacialis, Pr. puffinus, Alca impennis, A. torda, A. arctica, A. alle, Uria Brun¬ nichii, U. grylle, Colymbus glacialis, C.septentrionalis, Pelecanus carbo, P. graculus, P.Bassanus.— (Anatid«.) Mergus merganser, M. serrator, Anas anser, A. bernicla, A. spectabilis, A. mollissima, A. boschas, A. clangula, A. hyemalis, A. histrionica.-In all 55 species. r INTRODUCTION. XXXIX Table X. Comparative View of the number of Species in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, on the Banks of the Saskatchewan, in the 64 th parallel, in the Arctic Islands, and in the Fur Countries in general . Resident, and of course breeding Migratory, that summer or breed „ that winter only „ that pass in spring or autumn „ doubt if they breed or pass merely Accidental visiters Phllad. Saskatch. In the Arctic Fur Countries Lat.40°. Lat. 54°. 64th parallel. Islands. Lat. 74° in general. 44 24 16 0 40 60 117 87 34 198 71 1 0 0 0 55 37 10 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 51 2 0 0 0 281 189 113 34 238 This summary shews, that the number of species which are known to rear their young on the banks of the Saskatchewan amount to 141, while there are only 104 species enumerated as breeding in the vicinity of Philadelphia, where ornithology has been so much more thoroughly investigated. It also appears that as great a variety of birds breed in the 64th parallel as in the 40th. The number of species that arrive from the north merely to winter in Pennsylvania exceeds those that come from the south to breed there; while the birds that simply pass on their way to the north nearly equal the latter. The resident birds diminish gradually as the latitude increases. Table XI. List of Species common to the Old World and to the Fur Countries. Falconida. Aquila chrysaeta, A. (Haliaeetus) leucocephala, A. (Pandion) haliseeta, Falco peregrinus, F. islandicus, F. aesalon, Accipiter (Astur) palumbarius, Buteo vulgaris, B. lagopus, B. (Circus) cyaneus. Strigida. Stnx otus, St. brachyota, St. nebulosa, St. nyctea, St. funerea, St. Tengmalmi. Sylviada. Parus atricapillus, An thus aquaticus. Ampelida. Bombycilla garrula. Fringillida. Alauda calandra? A. cornuta, Emberiza (Plectrophanes) nivalis, E. (PI.) Lapponica, Pyrrhula (Corythus) enucleator, Linaria minor. Corvid.*. Corvus corax, C. corone, C. pica. xl INTRODUCTION Picidje. Picus (Apternius) tridactylus. HirundinidjE. Hirundo riparia. Tetraonid^e. Tetrao (Lagopus) saliceti, T. (L.) rupestris. 32 laxid-birds. Grallatores. Calidris arenaria, Charadrius pluvialis, Vanellus melanogaster, Strepsilas interpres, Tringa maritima, Tr. alpina, Tr. Schinzii, Tr. minuta, Tr. cinerea, Totanus semipalmatus, T. calidris, T. Bartramius, T. ochropus, T. macularius, Scolopax Novo- boracensis, Phalaropus hyperboreus, Ph. fulicarius. Natatores. Podiceps cristatus, P. rubricollis, P. cornutus, Sterna hirundo? St. arctica, St. nigra, Larus glaucus, L. argentatoides, L. leucopterus, L. eburneus, L. canus, L. tridactylus, L. minutus, L. Rossii, L. Sabinii, Lestris pomarina, L. parasitica. (Anatid/E.) Anas clypeata, A. (Chauliodus) strepera, A. (Dafila) acuta, A. (Boschas) domestica, A. (B.) crecca, Somateria mollissima, S. spectabilis, Oidemia perspicillata, O. fusca, Fuligula ferina, F. marila, Clangula vulgaris, Harelda glacialis, Mergus mer¬ ganser, M. serrator, Cygnus Bewickii, Anser bernicla, A. albifrons, A. hyperborea.— Colymbus glacialis, C. arcticus, C. septentrionalis, Uria Brunnickii, U. troile, U. grylle, U. alle, Mormon arctica, Alca torda, Procellariae quaedam?-Upwards of 62 water- birds. The preceding tables have been constructed with the view of exhibiting the more remarkable facts connected with the distribution of the feathered tribes, which a residence in the Fur Countries enabled me to ascertain. Being acquainted, however, with the phenomena of that region only, and therefore qualified to take but a very partial view of the geographical distribution of animals, I have avoided offering any general remarks or conclusions, and beg to refer the reader to Mr. Swainson's essay in the Encyclopaedia of Geography, now in the press. He has, I understand, treated the subject, particularly as relating to American birds, in much detail; and from his very exten¬ sive knowledge of Ornithology, and the philosophic nature of his views, he brings powers to the task which few possess.—R. Melville Hospital, Chatham, July , 1831. INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. BY WILLIAM SWAINSON, Esq. In estimating the progress of zoological science during the last ten years, it seems essential to view the subject under two heads : firstly, as regards a knowledge of individual structure ; and secondly, as regards the application of this knowledge to the illustration of general laws. To expatiate on the extent of the discoveries, or on the value of the physiological facts which have been brought to light during this period, would be altogether superfluous. They are, indeed, so vast, and at the same time so diversified, that it is no longer in the power of an individual, absorbed in the study of a part, rightly to appreciate the full bearings of the whole. If, then, we are to measure the pro¬ gress of this science by the accession of new objects, or by our increased knowledge of structure, its advance has been almost immeasurable. Yet, while we may justly exult in these splendid accessions to our favourite science, we must still consider them but as materials for reaching “ a higher state of knowledgethat, in short, which was long ago pronounced by Linnaeus to be the “ ultimus finis '’ of the true Zoologist,—the discovery of the Natural System. However greatly the learned Swede may have erred in his efforts to attain this end; however different are the opinions upon record regarding his zoological system, and of all others that have supplanted it; and however incon¬ sistent these latter appear with each other; still, among those whom f xlii INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS the general voice has most honoured and respected, tlieie is but one opinion on this Linnean axiom. Nearly every writer, in fact, who now aims at distinction by investigating natural affinities, prosecutes this “grand, this ulterior object*;” and it has justly been pronounced that a correct knowledge of the natural system is the “ primum and ultimum of true science f.” Now it is a fact no less remarkable than true, that while the import¬ ance of studying the general laws of creation becomes every day more apparent, and its necessity is more and more insisted upon, still that our knowledge of those laws during the last ten years has remained completely stationary. To show upon what foundation this assertion rests, it will be necessary to make a slight digression. It was in the year 1819 that the attention of Zoologists was awakened by the appearance of the celebrated Hotcb Entomologies ot the younger Macleay; and this was followed, two years afterwards, by the erudite Systerna Mycologicum of Tlias F ries, one of the greatest Botanists of Germany. The authority of the Systema Naturs, so far as regards natural arrangement, had already been severely shaken by the Regne Animal of the great Cuvier,—not to mention in Orni¬ thology the writings of Le Yaillant. But the system of the great Swede was now to be annihilated. Differing in their details, and each unconscious ol the other's sen¬ timents, it is no less extraordinary than interesting to trace the perfect agreement of these eminent men on two great and primary principles : first, that the natural series of affinities throughout all the grand divi¬ sions of Nature is circular ; and secondly, that every minor division or group forms its own peculiar circle. In estimating the value of these theories, it may be said that the first is assumed ; since, until the whole of the animal or the vegetable kingdom has been analysed, the true course of affinity might be con¬ jectured, but could not be demonstrated. It is, however, an assump¬ tion fully warranted by the second conclusion : this latter resting entirely upon analysis, and therefore capable, in such groups as have * Annulosa Jav., Pref. xii. t Kirby, Tntr. to Entom., p. 4, 547. ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. xliii been so analysed, of mathematical demonstration. It would be pre¬ sumptuous in one, whose knowledge of Botany is very limited, to say how far Mr. Fries has succeeded in demonstrating his second propo¬ sition ; but I may venture to express an opinion that, in the genera Phansus and Scarab feus, Mr. Macleay has established it most com¬ pletely. 1 he promulgation of a theory so novel, and so calculated to destroy all received opinions on natural arrangement, gave rise, as might be expected, to much difference of sentiment, particularly among the Naturalists of Britain. Nearly all those whose writings had placed them in the foremost ranks, and who had long viewed the systems of the day as mere helps to the memory, admitted, either wholly or in part, the correctness of Mr. Macleay’s views. Others, however, have rejected all such ideas on circular affinities or definite divisions ; but hitherto these objections have only been supported by partial or abstract reasoning. Twelve years have now elapsed since the publication of the Horce Entomologies. During this period, some of the most zealous disciples of its author have applied the theory of their master to various depart¬ ments of Zoology, with different degrees of success. A great insight has thus been gained into several natural groups ; and, in many cases, their systems have made a much more correct approximation to what we see in ^Nature, than did those of their predecessors. But, without detracting from the just merit of these attempts, we must not be blind to the fact, that they exhibit nothing more than the mere application of a theory; without bringing to light, or without even attempting the disco\ery, of a single new principle in natural arrangement. The track which had been marked out in the Horce Entomologies has in no one instance been intentionally deviated from ; and during this long period not the slightest discovery in the general laws of creation has been effected. I have thus shown in what respect the philosophy of Zoology has remained stationary; but it might even be said to have retrograded. One of the great characteristics, apparent in every page of the Hors f 2 xliv INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS Entomologies, is its tendency to raise Zoology to the rank of a demon¬ strative science. By proving that natural affinities were circular, it established at the same time the existence of definite groups ; from which, of course, if any part was taken away, and placed in another group, a violation of natural affinities would inevitably follow, and both groups be rendered artificial. Now this principle, as it appears to me, has been either completely overlooked or essentially violated by the disciples of this school. They express their opinion that a genus, which seems allied to two different families, “ may be placed in either, according to its external characters*;” and if these two families are in juxtaposition, “ it is immaterial to which of them it may eventually be referred.” Now, if an arrangement be artificial, that is, framed merely to assist the memory, this mode of proceeding would be very well; but if such a principle be admitted in the theory of Mr. Mac- leay, it completely destroys all his idea of definite groups, and leaves every one to describe their circles at their own good will and pleasure. Again ; another most important definition, contained in the same volume, relates to the nature and value of those groups which are there denominated genera, and which are shown to contain certain types of form, termed sub-genera. It is, moreover, proved that every zoological genus thus characterized returns into itself, and forms a circle. It matters not whether this definition of a zoological genus agrees with that which has been given to the w r ord by logicians; yet one of the most zealous disciples of Mr. Macleay has rejected his application of this word, which is definite, and has advocated another, confessedly founded upon metaphysical reasoningj- and mere opinion^. It is owing to these and to similar misconceptions, which the disciples of Mr. Macleay have fallen into, that the theory itself has been of late so severely attacked, and has even lost some of its supporters. Certain, however, it is, that these inconsistencies are nowhere to be found in the writings of this distinguished master. He has re¬ peatedly warned his disciples on the facility of making circles and quinary divisions, when unsupported by those tests which he has him- * Vigors, Zcol. Journ., i., p. 397. t Zool. Journ., iii., p, 97. + Ibid., i., p. 341. r ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. xlv self applied to the only two groups he has thoroughly analysed ; namely, Scarabceus and Phanceus ; while, so far from presuming that he has discovered the natural system, he states upon every occasion, most prominently and distinctly, that we have as yet obtained but a glimpse of that system ; while, at the same time, he has pointed out the only path by which, as he truly conceives, it can be further deve¬ loped *. It will be readily perceived, from the tenor of these observations, that my own researches have led to the adoption of the two great principles of natural arrangement already adverted to. I speak of the circular theory alone, since MM. Macleay and Fries differ in the number of their divisions ; Mr. Macleay’s being Jive, while Mr. Fries insists upon four\. Neither of these agree with the details now laid before the public. Fortunately, however, each party is desirous that his theory should be tried by one and the same test. We agree that no group, or division of a group, can be natural, if its affinities are not circular, or decidedly tending thereto: this must be the test of all. And here I may observe, that the opponents of Mr. Macleay have adopted a line of argument, which, in every other branch of science, is totally inadmissible. Instead of combatting his theory by general or abstract reasoning, or, what is even more inconclusive, by mere opinion, they should have either disproved the facts upon which it is founded, or have explained them in some other way, more calcu¬ lated to show the harmonious combinations of Nature. If this had been done, the foundation would have been sapped, and the theoretical superstructure destroyed. But the singularity of the controversy has been this, that the facts have been suffered to remain unquestioned, while the inferences have been vehemently denied ; denied, also, without an attempt to substitute others in their place. It seems to * The only probability, I conceive, of our ever understanding the great scheme of the creation, must depend on studying the method in which the organs and properties of natural bevigs vary. All true knowledge of Natural History hinges on this,—“ Ordinis hcec virtus erit et venus.” —Hone Ent., p. 458. t Mr. Macleay, with every appearance of reason, views this difference as rather nominal than real.—See Linn. Trans., xiv., p. 46. xlvi INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS have been forgotten by these gentlemen, that science is founded upon facts, and upon a cautious process of inductive and analogical reasoning drawn from those facts : it has nothing to do with speculative opinion or with metaphysical reasoning. The full knowledge of the Natural System, or of the plan which Omnipotence pursued in Creation, none but a madman or an enthusiast can ever hope to attain. But I have yet to learn why we are to withhold that title from a system which endeavours to reconcile all the appearances of Nature, and to explain some part of her laws. A natural system in Botany is advocated and adopted as such, w ithout any one venturing to question the correct¬ ness of the epithet; but, in Zoology, it seems to be thought presump¬ tuous to talk of the Natural System; because, as it is urged, that system, in all its bearings, can never be understood. As well may we call the Solar System an artificial arrangement of the heavenly bodies. As well may we maintain there are no natural law's in Chemistry, since all the properties of inorganic matter have not, nor ever will be, discovered. The structure and economy of an animal are as incontestable matters of fact as the presence of any substance in the mineral w’orld, and both are equally legitimate instruments of reasoning. Until, therefore, we come to the determination of rejecting that which is known, from a consideration of that which is unknown, I must continue to esteem the Hors Entomologies as the first and the most comprehensive developement of the Natural System that has been given to the w'orld. r l he theory which it explains may be in parts detective, and in others erroneous, but it has been pronounced by a most distin¬ guished Naturalist, who even suspects its entire accuracy, to be “ the most consistent of any yet advanced, since it reconciles facts, which, upon no other plan, can be reconciled Now, unless these facts are fully and clearly explained by some other theory, and new harmonies of creation brought to light, all the general reasoning or metaphysical disputation that can be urged against it has, in my estimation, nothing to do with the question at issue. I have stated thus much, not from any desire to uphold such parts * Kirby, Introd. to Entom , iv., p. 359. ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. xlvii of the Horae Entomologies as are the result of synthetical investiga- lon, still less to maintain the theory of quinary divisions, which I now venture, in part, to dispute, hut to express my deep sense of the pro¬ found sagacity of that mind which first demonstrated the existeni of circular affinities, and first drew a just and philosophic distinction be¬ tween analogy and affinity. I have done this, because it seems to me lat the reputation of this naturalist, like that ofLinnams, has suf¬ fered more from the zeal of his disciples than from the arguments of his opponents, and because I must ever feel grateful to one whose philosophic deductions first drew my attention to these inquiries. As for the rest, « we may all possibly be wrong in part, or even in much of our respective details; but however this may be, it is difficult not o believe that we are grasping at some great truth, which a short lapse of time w.U perhaps develope in all its beauty, and at length puce in the possession of every observer of nature Convinced that a zoological system which aimed at illustrating the general laws of creation was that only which deserved to be called Natural, it was in the year 1824 that I endeavoured to apply the circular and quinarian theory to a family group in Ornithology f, deter¬ mined on ascertaining how far it would illustrate certain affinities and analogies, which to me, at least, appeared unquestionable. I soon found however, that although this theory would explain much that I desired' it would not explain all; and the publication of a quinarian arrange' ment of this same family, nearly at the same time, but essentially different from my own £ showed me the necessity of looking much deeper into the subject. Convinced that truth, if it was to be dis¬ covered, would only result from minute and patient analysis, I entirely abandoned the synthetic method, as the rock upon which others were splitting; while the mutual dependence of one natural group upon another, led almost insensibly from the analysis of the Laniad,c, to that of the vast order of InsessoresJ, or perching birds. Eight years have * Macleay, Linn. Trans., xiv., p. 63. t An Inquiry into the Natural Affinities of the Laniads, Zool. Journ., i., p. 2S9, Oct 1824 + Linn. Trans., xiv., p. 436. * § I have adopted this name, because, upon the whole, it is the most expressive of any yet given to xlviii INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS now been devoted, almost unceasingly, to this investigation ; and although I have found it impossible in every instance to enter into details, I now venture to lay the results before the world, considering that a more appropriate channel for such communication could not be chosen than this : being the first zoological work ever published under the immediate authority of the British Government. The object of the introductory observations to each family of the order Insessores, is to demonstrate the following peculiarities in natural arrangement. These I shall briefly state as propositions. 1. Even/ natural series of beings, in its progress from a given point, either actually returns, or evinces a tendency to return, again to that point, thereby forming a Circle . 2. The contents of such a Circle or Group are symbolically represented by the contents of all other Circles in the same class of animals this resemblance being strong or remote, in proportion to the proximity or the distance of the groups compared. 3. The primary divisio7is of every natural Group, of whatsoever extent or value, are three, each of which forms its own Circle. 1. Little need be said on the first proposition, since it is in com¬ plete accordance with the theory supported by MM. Macleay, Fries, Agardh, Oken, &c. I have merely modified it for the purpose of showing that, strictly speaking, every group is not a circle, since in many which, by the theory of representation, can be proved to be natural, the circle is incomplete, either by the extinction or by the non-discovery of certain types. The aberrant group of the class Aves, of the order Raptores, and of the family of Picidce, are all striking examples of this truth. 2. This, which may be termed the theory of representation, was this order. But it should not have been concealed that the merit of having first united the Passeres and the Piece belongs to M. Vieillot, and not to the writer in the Linnaean Transactions. So far back as the year 1816, M. Vieillot named this order Sylvicoloe. See his Analyse Orn. y p. 25. ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. xlix first promulgated in the Hors Entomologies, where it has b M . sively applied, and the author has shown its exttenee H ;- C hl , gheSt and in one of the lowest groups of vertebrated a^imalT yet nowhere can I perceive that it has been declared-what I think it to be—the only certain test of a natural group Circles nnv ho nlreTha^ e the f0rm f ^ * “ u Wpearance of Mowing nature that the most eminent and the most cautious have been led into at belief that they were strictly natural. If such a group is thought to theTT e f te T per f ect .’ 14 1S very we ” to say ' put each of its divisions o the test ot returning into itself* and the fallacy will be discovered ■ ut among groups of a certain value, genera and sub-families more particularly, there is not one in three that can be so tested. This inability partly arises from our superficial acquaintance with forms and partly, as we believe, from there being many real gaps in The ioTplTn th n e U “ y ' With0Ut ’ theref ° re> SOme ° ther test fOT a natural g oup, than the mere circumstance of its returning into itself, or even fion'Z "t T T WUh “ C ° nti « U0US S ro “P> 1 consider demonstra- "T , r a T lned ' The "> ( ™y of representation thus steps in, and at once dispels the illusion, or demonstrates the correct¬ ness of the senes. In the sub-families of Myotherins and Parians, I in7 U ::“ t0 eXemP,ify " system 3. The results that have attended my analysis of every natural g oup hitherto investigated, lead me to differ in the onset from all who have adopted the quinanan system. And so far as regards the order of Insessores among birds, I have endeavoured to shew that the primary circles of each group are invariably t„ ree . These I have denominated i. The typical; ii. The cub-typical; and iii The aierrant. Mr Macleay, on the contrary, considers that every group is firs resolvable into five minor groups, two of which he Las normal and the other three aberrant. I know not why this talented writer should have chosen to have used this latter mode of division which ,s binary, and but ill calculated, as it appears to me, to expres.s his own definition of a natural group. Neither he, nor M. Fries, * Mr. Macleay’s Letter to Dr. Fleming, p. 33. S ] INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS admit a group to be natural which does not form a circle more or less complete. How far the central group of M. Fries will agree with this definition, I am not botanist enough to determine; but the norma group of Mr. Macleay unquestionably does not, since he himself tells us that it forms not one circle but two *. The first division, therefore, of every group into two, although useful perhaps in some respects, is clearly artificial. The aberrant group, as being that which more immediately connects one circle to another, comprehends, from necessity, a greater variety of forms than are generally to be met with in the two others. The union of all these aberrant forms into a circle of their own, is a principle of natural arrangement which has hitherto been undisco¬ vered, and which has therefore claimed, in the following pages, most particular attention. This union, however, must be kept perfectly distinct from that property which was long ago suspected to exist in opposite points of a circle, and of which instances have been given f. These examples, illustrating Mr. Macleay’s meaning, appear to me, as they do to him, mere relations of analogy; since, if the suspicion of their affinity had been just, we should have had a union of one typical and two aberrant groups ; a mode of combination which, to me at least, Nature has in no instance exhibited. As to the relative rank of the three primary divisions, some diffei- ence of opinion may arise; for the truth is, that the principles by which the value of zoological groups are regulated have not been sufficiently investigated. Two groups may be of equal rank, and still be vastly disproportionate in their contents. No one, for instance, would think of pronouncing the class of birds a superior group to that of quadrupeds, merely because the contents ot the fiist, in comparison to the second, are as six to one. Number cannot decide the question; and therefore, as natural groups like these may be equivalent in rank without being so in extent, we are left no othei * “ M. Fries lays it down as a rule, that he admits no groups whatever to be natural unless they form circles more or less complete. Let us then apply this rule to what he terms his centra group, and which he makes always to consist of two. Does this form a circle? If not, the group cannot e natural according to his own definition.”—Macleay on certain general Laws, &c. Linn. Trans., xiv. 58. t Horae Ent., ii., p. 349. ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. li alternative than to consider the primary circles of every group as equal in rank and value. But I wish not to attach too much importance to a term, or, in drawing up these tables of affinities, to depart more than is necessary from the usual mode of exhibiting circular groups. I have, therefore, in every instance, detailed the subordinate divisions of the aberrant groups, although, without this explanation, such a plan might convey an erroneous impression of their relative value. I must now advert to another, and, in my estimation, an unques¬ tionable property of natural arrangement: this is, the direct union of typical groups, without the intervention of those which are aber¬ rant. A vague suspicion of something like this first occurred to me when studying the affinities of the Laniada , in the year 1824 *. This property, however, belongs but to very few groups, since it has only been detected in such as are pre-eminently abundant in species, and are not of a higher rank than families. Beyond such groups, the higher we ascend, the more dissimilar are the typical groups in ap¬ proximating circles; until, in looking to a diagram of the vertebrated animals, (such, for instance, as that in the Horee Ent., p. 318,) not only docs all appeal an ce of affinity between the external or typical divisions vanish, but it becomes even difficult, in some instances, to trace their analogy. These inferior typical groups, indeed, may be said to have three distinct relations of affinity: one to that which precedes it; another to that by which it is followed ; and a third which unites it to a group out of its own proper circle. The two first, on this account, may be termed internal; the latter, external. This, however, is a question so abstruse, and requires such nicety of investigation, that, for the present, I should rather, perhaps, put it as a query, than consider it as a demonstrated fact. At the same time, I must confess my utter inability to reconcile, by any other theory, the evident and universally acknowledged affinity between the Thamnophilirue and the Myothe- rince / between the Merulince and the Philomelinu! and more espe¬ cially between the typical Setophaga and the typical Sylvicola. lii INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS Unless these affinities, which I have fully detailed, can be disproved or explained by some other mode of reasoning, it seems to me im¬ possible to arrive at any other conclusion *. Such are the principles of natural arrangement discoverable by analysis, which more or less pervade the entire order of Perching Birds. Aware that they are, in a great measure, opposed to every theory yet started upon the subject, I have been anxious to establish them by facts which are incontrovertible, and by arguments founded not merely upon structure, but upon every circumstance, even the most trivial, that is yet known of the economy of the birds themselves. It is with these facts, and with these inferences, that such naturalists as wish to establish other conclusions must deal. It cannot be too often repeated, that science has nothing to do with mere opinions, or with abstract reasoning. Authentic facts and just inferences, the former capable of being verified, and the latter founded exclusively upon analysis, and in unison with some general harmony of creation, are the only arguments which will possess any permanent influence. The truth or the fallacy of these opinions must therefore entirely repose upon the proofs here adduced ; for although similar results have attended the investigation of other departments of nature, these results have not yet been laid before the public in detail f, and conse- * Recent investigations in another department of Zoology, more abundant in forms and species than that of the class Aves, lead me strongly to suspect the existence of another property in natural groups, which at present I shall merely state as an hypothesis. It is the union of the most aberrant group in one circle, with the most aberrant in the next; so that in a diagram of the Order Insessores, formed either on Mr. Maeleay’s plan of five circles, or of mine upon three, one circle would unite all the Tenuirostral types, another the Fissirostral and Scansorial, and a third the typical and sub-typical. The whole would thus be represented by three great circles, one within the other, and this without the least derangement of the series here exhibited. It must, however, be premised, that this principle cannot be clearly traced in Ornithology, because the Tenuirostral or Graliatorial groups are remark¬ ably deficient in their numerical contents. In Entomology, the very reverse of this appears to be the case ; and it is there, if my suspicions are well founded, that it may probably be detected. t The essential characters of several of the groups in Conchology, slightly mentioned in the two volumes ot Zoological Illustrations,’ new series, now in course of publication, depend upon the same laws. I may also be allowed to cite, in corroboration of the theory now advanced, “ The principles which appear to regulate the geographic distribution of man and of animals,” as detailed in the ‘ En¬ cyclopedia of Geography,’ p. 245-266, the proofs sheets of which are now before me. So far as concerns the variation of Man, I feel all the confidence that can result from being supported by such philosophers as Cuvier and Blumenbach. On this point the theory is theirs f ?iot mine. (July 1831.) ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. liii quently possess as yet no claim to corroborative evidence Seeimr nevertheless, that the longest life is insufficient to analyse mora Z’ an insignificant portion of Nature's works, and that centuries, probably may elapse before the true arrangement of all known animals, by such a mode of investigation, can be detected, the mind may be allowed o a e a wi er range; and, presuming that a system regulating such an important and comprehensive class of the animal kingdom would necessarily pervade all nature, let us briefly consider the subject under this light, divested of metaphysical definitions. 1. The true nature of Matter has never yet, and probably never will be, clearly understood. Philosophers, however, distinguish two divi sions, to which they give the names of ponderable and imponderable; i e electricity, which, from its peculiar phenomena, cannot be com¬ prised under either, is still conceived by some to form a third. 2. As ponderosity is that quality of matter by which it is most dis¬ tinguished from Time and Space* from Light and Heat, so we may esteem it the typical peculiarity of Matter. * .3. Ponderable matter, in common language, is termed a body, and of such bodies we know only of three sorts_i. Animals ; ii. Vegetables • and in. Minerals the two first being organic, the latter inorganic. le general sense of mankind, from the earliest ages to the present time, has concurred in considering all the substances composing our g obe as belonging to one or other of these three divisions or king¬ doms This conclusion, indeed, is so natural, and appears to me To just, that it seems almost needless to uphold its propriety. It has been insisted, however*, that the primary division of matter is into organic and morganicf. Now, to use this distinction! in common * f“ '""" E “~ l,! >- t Ho« Em., p. 175. hmhM " s *“ he ° r «*« in matter. Normal Group, j 1. Animals. Organic. }2. Vegetables. Aberrant Group, J J* * * * Inorganic. j 5 ; * , », Mr. Macleay, however, opoo a former occasion, “i , tutlfiarmnawhat ark,Iran,, divisions of matte, into organic and inorganic.' No person denies“the 4iv INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS language is perfectly unobjectionable. But I must confess my ina¬ bility to discover upon what valid grounds it can be adopted in natural classification. The most extraordinary result of this division of mat¬ ter is the exclusion of the mineral kingdom; a kingdom, moreover, which has recently been so ably studied, that its circular affinities would appear to have been demonstrated*. It has been urged, indeed (Hone Ent., p. 175), as a reason for excluding mineralogy from the true department of natural history, that its laws depend upon che¬ mistry ; but I do not see the force of this objection, and I have already stated an objection to this binary division of a group, as being incon¬ sistent with the theory that all natural groups are circular. 4. In what way the mineral kingdom may be connected on one side to the vegetable, and on the other to the animal, has never been pre¬ cisely stated. Yet there are many circumstances, among which the microscopic observations of Kobert Brown are not the least interesting, which shew, that this affinity is highly probable, while the union of the two great divisions of organised matter, strictly so termed, the animal and the vegetable, is incontestible. 5. In the Vegetable, or subtypical kingdom, botanists have long ago distinguished three great divisions, namely Monocotyledones, Dicoty- ledones, and Acotyledones ; but the circular affinities of these groups have received no attention. 6. In the Animal kingdom, which is unquestionably the typical perfection of matter, the penetration of that distinguished zoologist, whose name I have so often quoted, has detected an undeniable ten¬ dency to a circle. “ It must, however, be remembered, that M. Virey, one of the most eminent zoologists of France, assuming the nervous system for his basis, long since divided the animal kingdom, without assigning names to them, into three sub-kingdoms j*,’ while many existence of this division in nature, still less is the use of it to be despised. Horae Ent. And again, « Matter, whether organised or in a brute state, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, is very i e ij at all different in itself.' —Hone Ent., p. 1S8. * « M. Ampere, as great a mathematician as chemist, has published a Classification Naturelle pour les corps simples, and proved that “ les corps sont tellement coordonnes 1 un a 1 autre, qu i s ne torment non plus une serie mais un cercle” Macleay’s Letter, p.21. t Kirby, Int. to Ent., iv. 362. I regret not being better acquainted with M. Virey s theory. Mr. Kirby, whose words I quote, refers to ‘ N. Diet. d’Hist. Nat.,’ ii. p. 25. ON THE NATURAL SYSTEM. lv reasons might be adduced in favour of the supposition, that the three aberrant divisions of Mr. Macleay (Acrita, Mollusca, and Radiata) unite and form a circle of their own. 7. Limiting our attention to the sub-kingdom Vertebrata, who does not perceive that the fishes make as near an approach to the aquatic serpents as to the aquatic quadrupeds ? or that the Reptilia (Macl.) do not evince a much greater tendency to unite with the fishes than with the birds ? Between these last and the reptiles, the hiatus is not only wide, but vast. Yet the similarity which some of the water-serpents bear to the eel-like fishes is so strong, that a cursory observer would not detect the two classes. A single genus, in fact, would be sufficient to render the union perfect. 8. Finally, looking to the aberrant group of the class Aves, it might be expected that I should shew in what manner they are united. I shall not, however, at present attempt to do this. Not only is it highly probable that several important forms among the Natatores are extinct or undiscovered*, but I consider the circular arrangement of the Rasores, as proposed in the Linnaean Transactions, to be com¬ pletely artificial. From these considerations it appears highly probable, that the same principles which regulate the natural arrangement of the Insessorial birds, are prevalent in all the higher groups of nature. 9. The most comprehensive view which the human mind can ever obtain of that sublime Plan which has emanated from Omnipotence, must, in every branch of science, be partial and imperfect f. From such a Being nothing can emanate but what is replete with order and harmony, with design and instruction. Of this the holy records of His word assure us, and the works of His hand proclaim the solemn truth. “ The instruction of man,” says a learned and pious naturalist, “ was best secured by placing before him a book of emblems or symbols, in * Since the above was written, I find that two extraordinary genera, which seem to disturb all the systems, as partaking both of the nature of the Natatores and the Rasores , have been discovered in South America. They have been just described by my learned and estimable friends, MM. Isidore Geoff. Saint-Hilaire and Lesson, under the generic names o t' Alta g is and Thinocorus . These forms I have not yet seen. t See also Annul. Jav ., Pref., xii. lvi INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. which one thing might represent another. If he was informed by his Creator that the works of creation constituted such a book, by the right interpretation of which he might arrive at spiritual verities as well as natural knowledge, curiosity and the desire of information concerning these high and important subjects would stimulate him to the study of the mystic volume placed before him, in the progress of which he would doubtless be assisted by that divine guidance which even now is with those who honestly seek the truth. Both divines and philosophers have embraced this opinion, which is built upon the word of God itself*.” 10. All that we can know with certainty on the nature of this Almighty Being must be gathered from the inspired volume. We are there expressly told that the Godhead is three-fold, yet one and undivided. If to awaken, to strengthen, or to increase our faith in this high mystery, the Almighty condescended to employ other means and other helps for our conviction, we can conceive no other so intelligible to human reason, as that this great truth should be pro¬ claimed by the wonders of creation. These instruments of “ spiritual verities, as they have prophetically been termed*)', surround us on every side they are within our grasp—they speak to our perceptions. Let us not then believe, that the power of discerning such spiritual truths by these their material symbols has been withheld from us, even in this our fallen state. Let us rather, with humble thank¬ fulness, adore that God, who, to increase our faith in his word, enables us to discern, however dimly, in earthly things, the shadows of such as are heavenly. g w Tittenhanger Green , St. Alban's , July, 1831 . * Kirby, Int. to Ent., iv. 402. t The most natural and consistent interpretation of I Cor.xiii. 12. VKatop^v yap apn eaovrpov ‘j l , S '* ^ vve see now as it were in a mirror the glory of God reflected enigmatically by the things that he has made.” —Kirby, Int. to Ent., p. 402, note. PREFACE, BY Mr. SWAINSON. That the principles of natural arrangement explained and developed m this volume may not be blended with extraneous topics, I shall now adv ert to such others as seem to require notice. In the first place, I feel that some apology is due both to His Majesty’s Government and to the Public at large, for the tardiness with which this Volume has followed the first. Whatever blame may e attached to this delay, must fall exclusively upon myself, as Dr. Richardson’s portion has long been prepared. But my desire repeat¬ edly to revise the groups, and submit their contents to many and diversified tests, not even alluded to in the subsequent details, has occupied no inconsiderable portion of two years; while impaired health and the necessity of prosecuting literary engagements previously made’ have all contributed to retard the publication. As I have found it necessary, in the body of the work, to intro¬ duce many new groups, and allude to others defined in the Appendix it seems necessary to explain the views that have regulated this pro¬ ceeding. 1 It has been urged, in defence of modern genera, that, even in a system confessedly artificial, they are of great use, botli in assisting the discrimination of forms, and abridging the labour of the student in his search after species. Granted. But this principle, like every other, may be carried too far. The authors and advocates of artificial systems, having no definite or acknowledged rule to regulate their groups, are at full liberty to make as many genera or sub-genera as they please; and so long as these divisions are capable of clear and h PREFACE. lviii concise definition, they answer the ends proposed; namely, clearness of arrangement, brevity of description, and facility in finding species. But the human mind is ever prone to extremes, and the passion for dividing and subdividing, and giving names, may become as great an evil as that which led the followers of Linnaeus to deprecate all divi¬ sion, and to view with abhorrence the slightest attempt to break up the old groups. Now the point at which these artificial genera and sub-genera should stop is, where they can be no longer defined with reference to the end proposed; that is, when their peculiarities are so slight that they cannot be pointed out in a clear and comprehensive manner. When, to make them intelligible, it becomes necessary to draw up long and perplexing characters, the very object ol theii makers is defeated. No clearness is gained, no facilities of research afforded; the student is bewildered, and the experienced naturalist consumes more time in reading over and comparing these generic chapters , than would enable him to glance his eye over twenty good specific characters. The tedious and intolerable length of such defini¬ tions, it must be confessed, is inevitable ; for their authors, not being acquainted with the principle of variation in their group, are obliged to specify all its characters; whereas, if the group was a natural one, and its true distinctions had been studied, its essential characters, as we shall repeatedly exemplify, might be expressed in two or three lines. Fortunately, the only group in Ornithology which has appa¬ rently suffered from this evil is that of the Falconidee. In Entomo¬ logy, however, its pernicious consequences are nowhere so conspicuous as in the recent works upon British Insects: where the generic characters, for the most part, are so complicated and prolix as to occupy half a page. To show that this passion for genus making among us has reached a point bordering upon the ridiculous, I need only state a fact, asserted by one who seems not to be conscious of following in the same track, “ that the Musca putris of Linne has actually been converted into three species, belonging to two genera*.” * Stevens, Catalogue of British Insects, Pref., p. xiii. PREFACE. lix If anything is calculated to invest Natural History with a repulsive aspect, and to hide all the enticing charms of the science, it is assur¬ edly this mode of encumbering it with learned names and prolix defi¬ nitions. The only merits of artificial systems are in pointing out differences, and in abridging labour ; when they do this, they are not only useful, hut, in our present state of knowledge, absolutely essential. To combine them, however, with the natural system, is as hopeless as it is impossible. Mr. Macleay, who in this department is a host, has justly said, “ It is the evil of half-artificial systems, that while they are at utter variance with natural affinities, they do not even answer the humble purposes of a catalogue*/ 5 Hut no such latitude of making groups is allowed to the follower of the natural system. His decisions are regulated by certain rules, to which, as he finds them capable of definition, he is compelled to adhere. If he understands his genus, he knows that that genus, theoretically speaking, contains certain types of form, or sub-genera' indicated by two or three nice but discriminating characters; and to these sub-genera he either gives patronymic names, as in the case of Scarabceus (Hone Ent., p. 497), or he designates them by numbers, as in Phanceus (lb., p. 124). If he adopts the former plan, he must, from necessity, considerably augment the nomenclature of the science- but if, on the other hand, he chooses the latter, he must, to be con¬ sistent ., reject all sub-generic names throughout Zoology. Now it so happens that many of these sub-genera have been named long ago, and are so strikingly marked that zoologists have mistaken them for genera : hence, if the plan of naming them was suddenly relinquished, more confusion than perspicuity would ensue. We must, therefore, at least for the present, follow the first plan, since to retain a patronymic name to one of the types in a generic group, and withhold it from another, would introduce an inconsistency and confusion in nomen¬ clature perfectly intolerable. In designating the higher groups, I have not considered it expedient to invent names for the purpose of showing the equivalent value of * Annulosa Javanica, p. 36. h 2 u ]X PREFACE. the typical, the sub-typical, and the aberrant. The merit of first uniting the Rasores, the Grallatores, and the Natatores into the aberrant division of the class AVES, belongs to one no less ennobled by birth than by philosophic knowledge. To Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano, not only the eyes of America but of Europe may be turned, as to one who seems destined by Nature to confer imperishable benefits on this noble science. The family names, according to general custom, terminate in idee. No authority can be quoted for these names, since they have been used by many, in opposite senses, without having been defined*. The names of the sub-families terminate in inee, or occasionally in anee. In the progress of the work through the press, much new informa¬ tion has been acquired f, but I am happy to say without occasioning any other alteration in my views than such as regard the sub-genera of the genus Linaria, which seems to enter that of Coccothraustes by means of the Green Linnet ( Loxia chloris, L.). Coccothraustes melanura, vespertina, &c., thus constitute the Fissirostral type of this sub-family, and preserve more closely its analogy to Bombycilla. The assistance I have received in this arduous undertaking has been so important that, notwithstanding the possession of one of the largest ornithological museums in Britain, I question much whether it could have been prosecuted without the united support of men of science, of learning, and of liberality. My first and greatest thanks are due to M. le Baron Cuvier, and to M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, to whom the nature of my object in visiting the French Museum was made known, and from whom I received facilities for studying, rarely granted either to foreigners or * On this point I shall, upon all occasions, act upon the following determination of the author of the “ Annulosa Javanica,” “ protesting ” with him “ against the slovenly mode lately adopted by some naturalists,” both in England and on the Continent, of publishing names without definitions— 44 In these pages all names of mere catalogues , fyc., shall be as much overlooked as if they never had existed Macleay, Ann. Jav., p. 10. t The opinion expressed at p. 173, that, our Cinclus Americanus was different from the Cinclus Pallasi , has been fully confirmed by a specimen of the latter bird sent from Nepaul, and now in the possession of Mr. Gould. It perfectly agrees with the description given by M. Temminck. PREFACE. Ixi to natives. Nothing redounds more to the honour of scientific in¬ stitutions than to see them superintended by such men, not only great and illustrious by their own discoveries, but despising all those national or petty feelings of jealousy which influence narrow minds. To the politeness of M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire I have elsewhere alluded*. Nor must I omit, in this place, to assure my friend M. Lesson of the grateful recollections I shall ever entertain of his kindness, not only during my residence in Paris, but since my return. To him am I indebted, among other interesting birds, for the F issirostral type of the Motacillirue , which has fully confirmed all I ventured to express at pp. 203 and 230. Nor has our own National Museum proved an unproductive field for research. Rich in the Ornithology of the Northern regions, it has furnished much valuable information, and the means of determining several new species. Whatever reasons there might have been for censuring the general management of this institution, they have, we believe, long ceased to exist. The magnificence of the new rooms devoted to Zoology; the sedulous care bestowed upon every donation; its immediate accessibility; but, above all, the free and courteous man¬ ner m which its treasures are gratuitously opened to the public and to the man of science, demands the highest praise. Let but the Government second the zeal of its officers, and the public lend their aid by the contribution of specimens, and in a few years, the Eritish Museum will reflect honour upon a powerful and wealthy nation. To J. G. Children, Esq., as the Officer more particularly in charge of the Zoological subjects, my thanks are especially due, not merely for the courteous discharge of his official duty, but for all those piompt and nameless facilities which a scientific student stands so much in need of. In the Ornithological productions of our Eastern Empire, the Museum of the Honourable East India Company is without parallel. To this also I have had free and unrestrained access; and this gratifi¬ cation has been rendered doubly agreeable by the kindness and * Zoological Illustrations, new Series, vol. i. pi. 8. PREFACE. liberality of Dr. Horsfield, under whose able superintendence the whole is placed. I have great pleasure in offering my best thanks to the Council of the Linn jean Society, who, with their usual liberality and love for science, gave me free permission to make use of their noble collection of Australian Birds. Many errors in their descriptions * have been thus detected, and the geographic range of several groups, confounded with those of America, have been better ascertained. I feel bound also to return my acknowledgments to the Council of the Zoological Society for their well-intentioned permission to make use of their Museum in Bruton-street; although, from the peculiar wording of the order, and the subsequent prohibition by its officers of taking notes, this permission, for all effectual purposes, was rendered nugatory. The work, however, will not, I trust, suffer much from this. Dr. Richardson has had free access to the northern species; and the Museum, rich only in the ornithology of Java and Sumatra, will bear no comparison, even in those productions, with the collections made by MM. Duvaucel and Diard, now in Paris ; all of which, by the liberality of MM. Cuvier and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, I have minutely examined. Sir W. Jardine, Bart., and P. J. Selby, Esq., the able authors of the “ Illustrations of Ornithology,” have both materially contributed to assist these researches, by transmitting to me, from time to time, all new or dubious forms which have come to their respective museums. When it is remembered that these gentlemen are themselves engaged in publishing ornithological novelties, such disinterestedness demands an especial and grateful acknowledgment. To that enterprising traveller and accomplished naturalist, William J. Burchell, Esq., the public expression of my thanks cannot be here omitted. His vast collections, formed in the interior of Southern Africa, have been at all times open to me; and it was here that I became acquainted with the new Genus Chesetops, so peculiarly inte¬ resting as forming the Rasorial type of the Merulina, connecting that sub-family to the Crateropodince. * Linn. Trans., xv. PREFACE. lxiii Many other individuals have contributed their assistance in various ways towards this attempt at illustrating the natural system. A further enumeration might be tedious, but I cannot pass over the liberality experienced from Sir J ames McGregor in allowing numerous specimens from the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham to be sent for examination. The great instruction I have derived from a large col¬ lection of Mexican Birds in the possession of John Taylor, Esq., the well-known Secretary of the Geological Society—and an inspection of the noble collection of drawings made under the superintendence of General Hardwicke, during his Zoological researches in British India. It is almost unnecessary to add how much I am indebted to the invaluable works of Le Vaillant, Wilson, Azara, and Sonnini, since their names will so frequently occur in the following pages. These men studied nature, unshackled by system, and they have thus rendered their works imperishable. Of this school, it is deeply to be lamented that nearly the only living member is my friend Mr. Audubon. I legiet much that his instructive Ornithological Biography issued from the press nearly at the time this was terminated. It is replete with facts of the highest interest. From purely systematic writers, I have derived comparatively but little assistance. Such have been the ample materials which I have now endeavoured to combine; with what success it is not for me to judge. If such parts of the great scheme of Nature as are already known have been better illustrated, or one step has been made towards the further developement of her first principles, my chief object has been attained. c Ixv LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED THOSE REFERRED IN THIS VOLUME, IN ADDITION TO TO IN THE FIRST VOLUME. Audubon . >» i Bechstein Boie' . . Bonaparte Brehm . Brisson Brunnich Buffon Cooper Douglas Dumeril . Hooker .... Horsfield and Vigors Illiger .... Koch. Latham . . Leach . . Leissler . Lesson . . Lewin . . Macgillivray * J0ta Audubon. 182s , „ Ornithologies 1 Btogntphy, by John J. Audubon, F.R.S., L.&E. Edinb 183, 4 ”'- uSZZStP M 1825 American Ornithology, by C. L. Bonaparte, &c. Vol. I. II. and III. An. 1825-1828 i a 820-2 X 2 POUr 1,H ' St ° ire d6S ° iSeaUX ’ P ar Ch "*«en Louis Brehm. Neustad. Ornithologie, par Mathurin Jacques Brisson. 6 vol. Paris, 1770 Ornithologia Borealis, Auctore M. T. Brunnich. Planches enlummSes des Oiseaux, par Daubenton le Jeune De bTwiham f Coo e nTr SPe R eS ? f T Grosbeak inhabiting the North Western Territory i’^^S 00 K* 18 2r?SS 1 . ,,aiy ’ “** Annals of the Lyceura ° f NewYo^; 0b Zo e olScal Journal S" CaIifornianus of Shaw > b J David Douglas, F.L.S. Tr fs30. E1<3mentaile d'Histoire Naturelle, par Constant Dumeril. 4to. Paris. Botanical Miscellany, by Will. Jackson Hooker, LL.D., &c. Lond. 1828, et sea A A e ViVol%°s f n AUS,r i a T? Birds „ in ,be Collection of the Linnean Society by N SXJSr M “ mU ‘ U "' " Avi “"- C ‘ r ° U “PH. Berolini,, 8 „. A £d" , 8 An.lS-Si" 0 »y Uth.n,, M.D. Index Ornithologicus studio Joannis Latham. 1790. Simnl iso, General History of Birds, to vol. 4to. An. 1821-1824 Catalogue of the British Museum. MSS. quoted by authors, quoted from Bonaparte. Manuel d'Ornithologie, par R. P. Lesson. Paris, 1828 Birds of New Holland. Thin folio. Lond 1822 "■.-‘Srsssss Mr a - m - I lxvi LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED. Merrem . . • Meyer Montagu . . Ord Ray . . . Sabine (Jos.) . Sabine (Capt. Ed Savigny . . Say . . »* • Selby . Shaw . Sonnini Stephens Swainson y» ft tt »» Temminck ft Vaillant . VlEILLOT . tt tt • Vigors Wagler . Wilson Wilson (J.) Avium rariorum et minus cognitorum leones et Descriptiones auctore Blaise Merrem. 4to. Leipzig, 1786. Taschenbuch. Quoted from Temminck. Ornithological Dictionary, by George Montagu, F.L.S. 3 vols. 1802—1813. Editor of the 9th vol. of Wilson's Ornithology, and also of a new edition of that work. Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium, auctore J. Ray. London, 1713. Account of a new Species of Gull, by Joseph Sabine, F.R.S., &c. Read Dec. 1818. Linnean Transactions, vol. XII. An. 1818. Memoir on the Birds of Greenland, by Captain Edward Sabine, F.R.S. Read April, 1819. Linnean Transactions, XII. An. 1818. Memoires sur les Oiseaux de l’Egypte, par Jules Caesar Savigny. Quoted from Temminck. Zoological Notices in Longs Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Vide vol. I. Faun. Bor. Am. p. xli. Ornithological Notices in a Narrative of an Expedition to the source of St. Peter’s River, by Major Stephen H. Long. London, 1825. Illustrations of Ornithology. Part I. Land Birds. Edinb. 1 vol. 8vo. 1825. Naturalist's Miscellany, by George Shaw, M.D. London, 1789, et seq. Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, par Buffon. Ed. Sonnini. 28 vol. 8vo. Paris, An. xii. Shaw's General Zoology, continued by J. F. Stephens. 1826, &c. Synopsis of Mexican Birds. Philosophical Magazine, No. XV., for June, 1827. Zoological Illustrations. First Series. 3 vol. 8vo. 1820—1823. ---Second Series, 16 numbers, now in course of publication. Observations on the Order Passeres, by William Swainson, Esq. In vol. VIII. of Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, translated by Griffith. Monograph of the Tyrant Shrikes of America, in the Journal of the Royal Insti¬ tution, No. XL. Manuel d'Ornithologie, precede de l'Analyse, &c., par C. J. Temminck. Amst. 2 vols. 2 me ed. An. 1820. Planches coloriees des Oiseaux, par C. J. Temminck et M. Meifran de Laugier. A Paris. Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux d'Afrique. 6 vols. 4to. 1799, et suiv. Histoire des Oiseaux de l’Amerique Septentrionales par L. P. Vieillot. Paris, 1807. Galerie des Oiseaux. 4to. Analyse d’Ornithologie Elementaire. Paris, 1816. Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle. Ency. M6thodique, art. Ornithologie. 3 vol. 4to. Birds of Cuba. Zool. Journ., Dec. 1827. Species Avium. American Ornithology, by Alexander Wilson. 9 vols. An. 1808—1814. Phila¬ delphia. Illustrations of Zoology, by James Wilson, F.R.S.E. Edinburgh. NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. PART II. ayes. Tlate. 29 . 37 .. 46 .. 61 .. 62 .. 66 .. IN THE NAMES OF THE PLATES IN SOME IMPRESSIONS. Tage. ~~ 55, for “ Cyaxcus,” read “ Cyaveus.” 84, (Merula Solitaria), for “ PI. 35,’' read “ PI 37 » m ,or « T “:r ,ou ’: r “ pum ^cBAu M0xu » 34fi, dele "Bar.* T F rankin’Dou,^ “ TETRA ° ***"™U? 385, for « Douglassii,” read “ Oouglash.” To the Binder.—This slip to be pasted in opposite the List of Plates. introduced to the notice of naturalists by Mr. Menzies, who brought a specimen from California, and deposited it in the British Museum. It has not been dis¬ covered to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and I can, consequently, make no addition to its history from personal observation ; but Mr. David Douglas has given an interesting account of the habits of the species in the Zoological Journal from which the following notices are extracted. He represents it as a common bird in the woody districts of California, which he met with in the summer as far north as the forty-ninth degree of latitude ; but nowhere so abundantly as m the valley of the Columbia, between the Grand Rapids and the sea. “ They build, he says, “ in the most secret and impenetrable parts of the pine forests, invariably selecting the loftiest trees that overhang the precipices on the deepest LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED. lxvi Merrem . . • Meyer Montagu . • . Ord .... Ray .... Sabine (Jos.) . . Sabine (Capt. Ed.) Sayigny . . . Say . . . • Avium rariorum et minus cognitorum leones et Descriptiones auctore Blaise Merrem. 4to. Leipzig, 1786. Taschenbuch. Quoted from Temminck. Ornithological Dictionary, by George Montagu, F.L.S. 3 vols. 1802—1813. Editor of the 9th vol. of Wilson's Ornithology, and also of a new edition of that work. Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium, auctore J. Ray. London, 1713. Account of a new Species of Gull, by Joseph Sabine, F.R.S., &c. Read Dec. 1818. Linnean Transactions, vol. XII. An. 1818. Memoir on the Birds of Greenland, by Captain Edward Sabine, F.R.S. Read April, 1819. Linnean Transactions, XII. An. 1818. Memoires sur les Oiseaux de l’Egypte, par Jules Caesar Savigny. Quoted from Temminck. Zoological Notices in Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Vide vol. I. Faun. Bor. Am. p. xli. »* • »» • » • Vigors Wagler . Wilson Wilson (J.) Oalprie des Oiseaux. 4to. Analyse d’Ornithologie Elementaire. Nouveau Dictionnaire d’Histoire NatureUe. Ency. M6thodique, art. Ornithologie. 3 vol. 4to. Birds of Cuba. Zool. Journ., Dec. 1827. Species Avium. American Ornithology, by Alexander Wilson. 9 vols. An. 1808—1814. Phila¬ delphia. Illustrations of Zoology, by James Wilson, F.R.S.E. Edinburgh. m NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. PART II. ayes. RAPTORES. VULTURI D^E .—VUL TURES. [1.] 1. Sarcoramphus Californianus. (Vigors.) Californian Vulture. Genus. Sarcoramphus. Dumeril. Vultur Californianus. Shaw. Nat. Mis., ix., pi. 301. Californian Vulture. Lath. Syn. Suppl, ii., p. 3. Vultur Californianus. Idem. Ind. Suppf.., p 2. Buzzard. Lewis & Clark. Joum., $c., ill., p. 48, No. 4. Cathartes Vulturinus. Temm. Pi. col. 31. Cathartes Californianus. Bo nap. Syn,, p. 22. Sarcoramphus Californianus. Vig. Zool. Joum., ii., p. 375. Vultur Californianus. Douglas. Zool. Joum., iv., January, 1829, p. 328. This great Vulture is an inhabitant of the shores of the Pacific, and was first introduced to the notice of naturalists by Mr. Menzies, who brought a specimen from California, and deposited it in the British Museum. It has not been dis¬ covered to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and I can, consequently, make no addition to its history from personal observation ; but Mr. David Douglas has given an interesting account of the habits of the species in the Zoological Journal, from which the following notices are extracted. He represents it as a common bird in the woody districts of California, which he met with in the summer as far north as the forty-ninth degree of latitude ; but nowhere so abundantly as in the valley of the Columbia, between the Grand Rapids and the sea. “ They build,” he says, “ in the most secret and impenetrable parts of the pine forests, invariably selecting the loftiest trees that overhang the precipices on the deepest NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. 2 and least accessible parts of the mountain valleys. The nest is large, composed of strong thorny twigs and grass, in every way similar to the nests of the eagle tribe, but more slovenly constructed. The same pair resort for several years to the same nest, bestowing little trouble or attention in repairing it. They lay two nearly spherical jet-black eggs, about the size of those of a goose. They hatch generally about the first of June, and the period of incubation is twenty-nine or thirty-one days. The young are covered with thick whitish down, and are incapable of leaving the nest until the fifth or sixth week. Their food is carrion, or dead fish: in no instance will they attack any living animal, unless it be wounded and unable to walk. Their senses of smelling * and seeing are remarkably keen. In searching for prey, they soar to a great altitude, and on discovering a wounded deer, or other animal, they follow its track until it sinks, when they descend preci¬ pitately on their object. Although only one bird may be at first in possession of the carcass, few minutes elapse before the prey is surrounded by great numbers, and it is then devoured to a skeleton within an hour, even should it be one of the larger animals, a stag, for instance, or a horse. Their voracity is almost insa¬ tiable, and they are extremely ungenerous, suffering no other animal to approach them while feeding. After eating they become so sluggish and indolent, as to remain in the same place until urged by hunger to go in quest of another repast. At such times, they perch on decayed trees, with their heads so much retracted, as to be with difficulty observed through the long, loose, lanceolate feathers of the collar. The wings, at the same time, hang down over the feet. This position they invariably preserve in dewy mornings, or after rains. Except after eating, or while guarding their nest, they are so excessively wary, that the hunter can scarcely ever approach sufficiently near even for buck-shot to take effect on them, the fulness of the plumage affording them a double chance of escaping uninjured. Their flight is slow, steady, and particularly graceful, gliding along with scarcely any apparent motion of the wings, the tips of which are curved upwards in fly ing. They are seen in greatest numbers, and soar highest, before hurricanes or thunder-storms. Their quills are used by the hunters as tubes for tobacco-pipes.” DESCRIPTION Of male and female specimens shot by Mr. Douglas, in lat. 45^° N., and now in the Museum of the Zoological Society. The sexes are alike in plumage, but the female is a size larger. Colour of the plumage in general brownish-black. On the back and lesser wing-coverts the feathers have narrow margins of pale umber-brown. A white band crosses the wing on • Mr. Audubon, in a highly interesting paper published in the Edin. Ph. Journal , states, that the Vultures are entirely guided by sight, and not by smell, in the discovery of their food. VULTURIDjE. 3 the tips of the greater coverts. The tail is black to the extremity. The feathers clothing the lower part of the neck, and those on the breast, have each a narrow, pale, shining streak along its shaft, which contributes to give them a more pointed appearance. There is a white longitudinal band on the flank, and a broader one, opposite to it, on the lining of the wing, that includes the whole of the greater inner coverts. Thighs black. Bill°g\ossy yellow! “ Irides P a,e red > an(1 the P u P ils light green.” A triangular space, between the nostrils and crown of the head, is rather thinly clothed with short black hairy feathers; and there are also a few feathers on the lores, but the rest of the head and neck is covered with smooth naked skin, which, on the former, “ has a deep orange colour, and on the latter a brownish- yellow, with bluish changeable tints.” Legs bluish-black. Form, &c.— The head is small, scarcely exceeding the neck in diameter. The bill is three inches and a half long; the ridge of the upper mandible is straight, and is produced to its hooked tip, nearly in the same line with the flattish crown of the head ; its cutting margin is un¬ dulated, there being an obtuse lobe immediately anterior to the cere ; and another smaller one, but equally well marked, on the horny part of the mandible. The line of union of the point of the bill with the cere, is deeply indented, the former sending an angular process backwards towards each nostril. The angle of the mouth does not extend quite so far back as the orbit. The nostrils, of an oblong-oval form, are longitudiual, with a slight degree of obliquity, and are situated rather nearer the ridge of the mandible than to its cutting margin. The auditory opening is semi-oval and naked. The feathers on the base of the neck have lengthened lan¬ ceolate tips, and those immediately adjoining the naked skin stand out, so as to form a kind of ruff, from which there is a gradual transition to the smooth-lying plumage of the breast. All these feathers have detached flexible barbs, their tips alone being more compact. The naked skin extends down to the crop on the forepart of the neck, but it is not so conspicuous below as in the Black \ ulture (Cathartes atratus ), being nearly concealed by the ruff just mentioned. The folded wings reach a little beyond the tail; the third quill feather is the longest. The tail is even, and consists of fourteen feathers, which are rounded at the ends. The tarsi are naked, and are protected anteriorly by large oblong transverse scales, or scutelli. The toes are long and slender, and are scutellated above, nearly their whole length. The middle one is the longest, and it is connected to the lateral ones at the base by webs. The hind toe is short. The nails are short, and slightly curved. Length Circumference of the body . Length of the beak Circumference of the head . Length of the neck » Dimensions, Copied from Mr. Douglas. Inches. 56 Circumference of the neck . 40 Length of the body 3* Extent between the tips of the wings, (9 ft. 9 Length of the tarsus 11 ,, of the tail . Inches. 9 24 110 u Id Dimensions Of the larger specimen when mounted. Length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail 48 Length of the bill, following its curve from tip to y> the tail • • . .16 nostrils . . m „ of the bill from the angle of the mouth . 3 4 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. [2.] 1. Cathartes Aura. (Illiger.) Turkey-Vulture. Genus. Cathartes. Illiger. Turkey-Vulture, or Turkey-Buzzard. ( Vultur aura.) Wilson, ix., p. 96, pi. 75, f. 1. Cathartes Aura. Illiger. Prod., p 23G. Bonap. Syn ., p. 22. Wannah-koeoo ( Bald-head ). Cree Indians. Wilson informs us, that in the northern and middle sections of the United States, the Turkey-Yultures are partially migratory, the greater part retiring south on the approach of cold weather ; but that considerable numbers remain all winter as far north as New Jersey. They breed, he says, in the month of May, among the secluded swamps of that State; the female laying two or four eggs of a soiled-white colour, splashed all over with chocolate mingled with blackish touches, particularly towards the great end. The place selected for the nest is generally the decayed stump of a tree; the male watches while the female sits ; and, if not disturbed, they will occupy the same breeding-place for several years. The young are clothed with a whitish down, and have the habit, when handled, of vomiting the offensive contents of their stomachs upon their incautious dis¬ turber. The Turkey-Vulture is said to be an occasional visitant of Nova Scotia, and Lewis and Clark observed it on the banks of the Columbia *. In the interior of the continent, however, its summer migrations reach a considerably higher latitude than they do either on the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, owing, probably, to the greater warmth of the summer in the inland districts more speedily pro¬ ducing the necessary putrefaction in the animal substances on which it feeds. Following the direction of the Prairie Lands lying on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, it reaches the banks of the Saskatchewan, in the fifty- third parallel of latitude, late in the month of June, after the arrival of most of * The following is an extract of a letter from Mr. David Douglas: — u The Vultur Aura , or Common Turkey-Buzzard, is an exceedingly rare bird on the North-west coast of America. The few that I saw were on the low plains of the Multnomah, in the autumn and winter of 1826. Apparently it dis¬ pears at all other seasons ; and, consequently, can be regarded as merely a bird of passage in that country. Lewis and Clark more than once mention this bird in their narrative ; but, great as their authority ought to be respecting this common bird of the United States, I am induced to think that they mistook the Vultur Atratus for it. as the latter is one of the most common birds west of the mountains. On the low marshy islands of the Columbia, a solitary Vultur Aura is sometimes seen shunning and shunned by all others of his kindred. The Black Vulture, though a smaller bird, is bolder, masters the Turkey-Buzzard, and drives him away from the carrion. These two birds are assuredly distinct species, not varieties, as some have supposed. In Upper Canada, near Sandwich and Lake St. Clair, in 1823, I saw vast numbers of the V. Aura , and had every opportunity of watching their habits, to say nothing of the evident differences in their size and colour, and their dissimilar modes of nesting.'’—D. D. VULTURIDiE, the other summer birds. In the southern districts, where the Turkey Vultures are permanent residents, they are gregarious, roost in flocks, and are often seen in companies, soaring to an immense height; but on the banks of the Saskat¬ chewan seldom more than one pair are seen at a time; and they were described to mei as being in the habit of sailing along with great rapidity, in undulated lines under the high banks of the river. I quitted that part of the country too early in the season to have an opportunity of seeing them; but the species has been identified by a specimen from thence preserved in the Museum of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The food of the Turley Vulture is carrion, which it discovers from a rreat dis¬ tance; and when ,t has an opportunity, it will g„r K e itself to such a degree, as to be ,,,capable of rising. It seldom or never attacks living animals, and is highly beneficial to the districts it frequents, by removing putrid substances. DESCRIPTION Of the Specimen in the Hudson’s Bay Museum. Colour, brownish-black, deepest on the neck, breast, belly, and between the scapularies ere are some purplish reflex.ons on the dorsal aspect, with a considerable degree of metallic xtlm I* T P T SeC °" dar : eS ’ and S rea,er a " d >«•« wing-coverts, have paler margins. The quill feathers are brown,sh-black, with light umber-brown shafts; underneath they are lead-coloured. The tad » blacker. The naked parts of the head and neck are reddish^ the legs are flesh-coloured, and the claws have a dark horn-colour. Form, &c.--The bill measures, from the angle of the mouth, two inches and a quarter and ,s moderately thick and straight from its base to beyond its middle. The upper man d.ble « covered by cere for more than half its length, and its ridge is slightly arched • its horny pent, an inch long, swells out a little, and has a more decided curvature ; the cutting margin is undulated, the hook which terminates it is rather small. The under mandible has a deep spout-shaped cavity for the lodgment of its grooved tongue, and its tip is rounded. he nostrils, large, oval, naked, and pervious, are longitudinal, and placed nearer to the rido-e of the mandible than to its cutting edge*. The wrinkled skin of the head and upper part of the neck is thinly clothed with short black hairs, mixed, on the upper aspect, with down of the same colour. The plumage of the lower part of the neck is full and compact like that of the back, the feathers being rounded and closely tiled, not pointed and formin- a rufT, as in the Californian Vulture; and the line of junction of the naked skin directly encircles the neck; while, in the Black Vulture, it descends obliquely in front The crop is naked and wrinkled, but is concealed by the plumage of the neck swelling over it The tips of the folded wings reach to the end of the tail; the third and"fourth quill feathers are the longest; the second and fifth are half an inch shorter; and the first is shorter than BlldfvuSlh 3 " V ; l 'n U 7 ^ “ m ° re , Slen 'I er bil1 ’ with a " — “‘ting ™rgi„, and oblong transverse nostrils The Vulture has a bill of an intermediate form, between that of the Turkey Vulture and Egyptian species. 6 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. the sixth, but considerably longer than the seventh. The inner webs of the first four quill feathers are narrowed or sinuated from near their middles; and the outer webs, from the second to the fifth inclusive, are also narrowed. The tail is rounded, the exterior feathers beinff an inch and a half shorter than the middle ones. The tarsi are naked, strong, and not very long, and are covered with small rounded convex scales. The toes are long, particularly the middle one, which is covered above to the base by transverse shield-shaped scales; the first phalanx of the outer toe is reticulated; the lateral toes are nearly equal to each other m length, and more than an inch shorter than the middle one, to the first phalanx of which they are connected by webs, the outer web being most conspicuous. The posterior toe is more slender and shorter than any of the anterior ones. The nails are moderately strong, short, and slightly curved. Dimensions. Inches. Length from the point of the bill to the end of Lines. the tail . 31 0 „ of the bill from the angle of the mouth 2 3 „ of the bill, measured along its ridge . 2 6 „ of the horny tip of the bill 1 0 ,, of the long diameter of the nostrils „ from the anterior margin of the orbit, 0 6 Inches. Lines. to the tip of the bill, in a straight line . • • .23 if the longest auill feather . .17 0 Length of the longest quill feather . 17 0 „ of the tarsus . 2 6 ,, of the middle toe and its claw . . 3 3 „ of the claw alone • 0 9 „ of the hind-toe and claw . 1 2 [ 3 .] 2. Cathartes atratus. (Nobis.) Black Vulture. Genus. Cathartes. Illiger. Black Vulture, or Carrion Crow (Vultur Atratus). Wilson, ix., p. 104, pi. 7*b fig. 2. Cathartes Iota*. Bonaparte, Syn. p. 22, sp. 5. L’Urubu. (Sub-genus, Les Percnopteres.) Cuvier. liegn. An., i.,p. 317- Carrion Crow. United States. I did not meet with this bird, nor have I seen specimens of it brought from the districts to which this work is confined; but it is introduced here on the authority of Mr. David Douglas, who says,—“ Throughout the whole of the country that I visited to the west of the Rocky Mountains, the Black Vulture was, I might say, daily seen. In the upper countries around Spokan, Oakanagan, and on Lewis and Clark’s River, the plains of the Multnomah, and at Puget Sound, near camps or Indian villages, on the banks of rivers abounding with fish, or in * We have not considered it expedient to apply to this bird the specific name of Iota , given by Mollina to a Black Vulture of Chili. In the first place, there is no evidence to prove that it is the same as the Turkey-Buzzard of North America ; and secondly, it must be remembered that the work of this author was “ fait de memoire en Italie , et fort suspect en plusieurs endroits.” (Cuvier, Reg . An., iv., p. 143.) Sw. VULTURIDjE. 7 places where deer are numerous, this bird is common Mr. Ord informs us, that “ the Black Vultures are indolent, and may be observed in companies, loitering for hours together in one place. They do not associate with the Turkey Vultures, and are much darker in their plumage ; their mode of flight also varies from that of the latter. The Black Vulture flaps its wings five or six times rapidly, then sails with them extended nearly horizontally ; the Turkey Buzzard seldom flaps its wings, and when sailing they form an angle, with the body upwards. The latter, though found in the vicinity of towns, rarely ventures within them, and then always appearing cautious of the near approach of any one. It is not so impatient of cold as the former, and is likewise less lazy. The Black Vulture on the ground hops along very awkwardly ; the Turkey Buzzard, though seemingly inactive, hops along with an even gait. The latter, unless pressed by hunger, will not eat of a carcass until it becomes putrid ; the former is not so fastidious, but devours animal food without distinction.”—“The Black Vulture builds its nest in the large trees of low wet swamps, to which places they retire every evening to rest.” DESCRIPTION, From Wilson’s American Ornithology. The Black Vulture is twenty-six inches in length, and four feet four inches in extent. The bill is two inches and a half long, of a dark horn-colour for near an inch ; the re¬ mainder, the head, and a part of the neck, are covered with a black, wrinkled, caruncled skin, beset with short black hairs, and downy behind. Nostril an oblong slit. Irides reddish- hazel. Jhe throat is dashed with yellow ochre. The general colour of the plumage is of a dull black, except the primaries, which are whitish on the inside, and have four of their broadened edges below of a drab, or dark cream colour, extending two inches, which is seen only when the wing is unfolded ; the shafts of the feathers white on both sides. The wings, when folded, are about the length of the tail, the fifth feather being the longest; the secon¬ daries are two inches shorter than the tail, which is slightly forked, the exterior feathers three- quarters of an inch longer than the rest. The legs are limy, three inches and a half in length, and, with the feet, are thick and strong; the middle toe is four inches long, side toe two inches, and considerably webbed ; inner toe rather the shortest; claws strong, but not sharp, like those of the Falco genus ; middle claw three-quarters of an inch long. The stomach is not lined with hair, as reported. When opened, this bird smells strongly of musk.” • See Note, p. 4. 8 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. FALCONIDiE.— FALCONS. In contemplating the diurnal birds of prey, arranged by Linnaeus under the genus Falco, we can be at no loss to discover the two typical forms in the Toothed- billed Falcons and the Sparrow-hawks. Their peculiarities did not escape the notice even of the earliest systematic writers, and the moderns have only confirmed the justness of the distinction. But, with regard to the remaining groups, much diversity of opinion still exists ; not, indeed, as regards the leading divisions, for here likewise the ancients had long ago anticipated our distinctions between the Eagles, Kites, and Buzzards. It is not, therefore, to these groups, taken per se, that any doubts can attach on their respective peculiarities, but rather as to their relative rank with those that are considered typical. These doubts can only be solved by analysis. Were our national or public museums sufficiently rich in species of this family, to allow of this being done, we might hope to gain just conceptions of nature ; but such materials are not at present within the reach of our ornithologists. Indeed, so lamentably deficient are our sources of information on this head, “ that, of near three hundred described species, not a sixth part is to be consulted in the national repository of this kingdom In such a state of things, it is obvious that all attempts to characterize the minor types of form, or to detect the true series of natural affinities, must be viewed with great caution, and lie open to much objection, particularly when opposed to other opinions, founded upon an intimate acquaintance with forms, not in our museums. But if our ideas on the characters and value of the different groups, and on their natural combinations, are, from necessity, so imperfect, still more hazardous is it to attempt the location of species from the mere descriptions and figures to be found in books. We may, indeed, make some approximation to truth, by thus bringing together species which, in many cases, are obviously allied; but the situation of by far the greater portion must be problematical: and, unless we dis¬ tinctly state how far we have been guided by actual examination, and how far by mere supposition, the reader who wishes to know upon what points he may place reliance, and upon what he may safely doubt, is left completely in the dark. It is from an attentive consideration of these difficulties, that we have been * Zool. Journ ,, i., p. 311. FALCONIDjE. 9 induced to dissent from several modern writers in our opinions upon this family. That the various forms of which it is composed, exhibit, as a whole, a circular succession of affinities, has been sufficiently proved ; but the true series of the secondary groups, among themselves, has not yet been made out. The reason is obviousthe British school of naturalists, as before stated, want the means, while those of the continent (possessing, in their superb museums, the greatest advantages) have not the inclination to undertake the enquiry. Yet °our in¬ ability to state in what way the Falcons or Hawks form their own respective circles, cannot militate against the belief, that such is their true distribution. It icmains, therefore, to be considered, whether there is presumptive evidence to believe that the three remaining divisions, namely, the Buzzards, Kites, and Eagles, form one circular group, independent of their affinity to the two former. The true Buzzards, of which the Vulgaris and the Lagopus may pro¬ bably be types, are slender, long-winged birds ; the bill is small, short, and considerably curved: in this structure they agree with the true Falcons, yet they are well known to be distinguished from them, by wanting the toothed-bill, and by the shortness and graduated abbreviation of the exterior quill-feathers! Now, if Nature had proceeded in a simple course, from the Buzzards to the Falcons, we should have had birds uniting the distinctions of both, variously mo¬ dified. Both these groups being composed, in their typical examples, of slender long-winged birds, with short bills, any species exhibiting the reverse of such cha¬ racters, and intervening between the two forms, would certainly appear anomalous, on the supposition of a simple series of affinities being aimed at. Yet, that such birds are to be found, even among the few that we are subsequently to notice, is unquestionable. Let us, then, take the Buteo borealis, which, as being more allied to the Falcons than to the Kites, may be considered an intervening form between the Buteo vulgaris and Falco. We here see a large-sized, heavy bird, with shortened wings, not reaching to more than half the length of the tail; while the elongated bill, unlike either that of Buteo or Falco, obviously assimi¬ lates to that lengthened form which belongs to the Eagles. Now, upon the sup¬ position that a bird so constructed is intended to fill up the interval between Buteo and Falco, and at the same time to unite the former with the Eagles, the singularity of its structure is no longer surprising: but if we consider it with a simple reference to the passage between Buteo and Falco, we are almost tempted to suspect that, in this instance, a real saltus has been made. While upon this subject, we may cite an acute observation made by Prince C. Buonaparte, that “ the Borealis is almost as much an Astur of the first section, as a Buteo a c 10 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. proof, at least, that its affinities to Astur and to the aberrant Eagles adjoining that group, have not escaped observation. Our idea, that the Buzzards are truly united to the Eagles, is still further streugthened by the Buteo pterocles, Temm., of which a fine series of specimens, from Mexico, has been submitted to our inspection by John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., &c. In this species, the wings, as in Butto, are remarkably long, but the bill is so considerably lengthened, that were we to judge alone from this member, we should have no scruple in placing the bird among the Aquilw. On the other hand, it must be remembered, that as every group, from the highest to the lowest denomination, when perfect, contains a represen¬ tation of the other four, united to a form peculiar to itself; so we might naturally expect that one division of the Buzzards would represent the true Eagles. To ascertain, therefore, whether the resemblances above stated are those of ana¬ logy, or of real affinity, recourse must be had to strict analysis. Now this, in our present state of knowledge, cannot be done, at least from the resources to be found in this country. We have thought it advisable to cite the above facts, drawn from the structure of the birds themselves, as likely to awaken the atten¬ tion of ornithologists to a further investigation of the subject; they will, at least, show that our opinion on the unity of the three aberrant groups, is not entirely without foundation. In regard to the relative value of the whole group, we consider it equivalent to that of Vultur or of Strix in its own order, and to the families composing the Rasores, Grallatores, and Natatores. We shall, therefore, in conformity with this impression, contemplate the five principal divisions as genera, arranging the sub¬ ordinate forms, which have been by some naturalists elevated to that rank, as sub-genera ;—an uniformity of nomenclature between groups of the same appa¬ rent rank will thus be preserved. But it is not this consideration alone which has influenced our decision. Diversified as are the forms among the Fakonidce, they are certainly not more so than what may be observed among the Trochilidce. Both these families are so strongly marked, that the veriest tyro in the science can never mistake them; but the Falcons, from their imposing size, by which their peculiarities are rendered more apparent, have attracted more attention, and have been divided and subdivided, until one-half of the modern genera contain but a single species: while the Trochilidse, exhibiting among themselves a much greater diversity of structure, have only lately been arranged under their primary groups*. If, then, we are to adopt, as genera, all the minor divisions that have been proposed * Zool. Journ iii., p. 357. FALCON! DTE. u among the Falconidw , we should proceed upon the same principle of nomen¬ clature with the Tiochilulw; and in place of limiting the generic distinctions of these latter birds to five, increase the number to twenty-five, as soon as the subordinate types have been detected. We believe that the warmest advo¬ cates for generic distinctions would protest against such a measure ; and we feel assured that, by the great body of ornithologists, such an innovation would, on no account, be tolerated. It is unfortunate for those who, like ourselves, may be accused of proposing new genera, that in no one department in ornithology has this principle been pushed to such a point of refinement as among the Falconidw; and as very many forms, equally deserving generic appellations, must be named and characterized, to render the nomenclature of this family consistent with the adoption of these genera, suspect that the reproach cast upon the modern school, of making every species a genus, would, in this instance at least, be not altogether unmerited. In considering the five forms of the Falconidw as genera, rather than as sub¬ families, we by no means insinuate that the minor distinctions which have been dwelt upon by several able ornithologists who have investigated this family, are either trivial, or that they deserve not to be brought immediately before us. On the contrary, we should recommend to others the plan which we ourselves adopt,— the minute examination of every change of structure, and the assembling together, in minor groups, such species as agree in certain peculiarities. Nay, further, we should proceed, in certain cases, even to impose a name upon such groups. But, in a family already so crowded by generic names, we consider it essential to preserve a distinction between groups of unequal value ; and not to elevate sub¬ genera, or forms of transition, to a rank they do not hold. Milvago, Polyborus, Daptrius, and Ibycter , are unquestionably of the latter description, each con¬ fined but to one species. We have another of the same natural group in our own cabinet, equally deserving a patronymic name. By regarding these as genera, each is made equivalent, for instance, to the whole genus of typical Falcons; whereas, by representing them as lesser variations, which in truth they are, the student immediately perceives that their station is subordinate. A further advantage is gained by this principle of nomenclature: we shall be unsh ckled in characterizing those minor forms or groups which yet remain to be designated ; while, by not bringing them forward to a prominent station in our arrangement, we shall assimilate our nomenclature more to the wishes and opinions of the majority of naturalists, without in the least sacrificing that minuteness and precision, which the student of nature can scarcely carry too far. Sw. c 2 12 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. [4.] 1. Aquila Chrysaetos? The Golden Eagle. Genus. Aquila Antiquorum. Cuvier. Golden Eagle. Penn. Arct. Zool. , i., p. 225, No. 86. White Eagle. Idem, i, p. 229, No. 90. Falco fulvus. Lath, Ind., i., p. 10, sp. 4. Falco candidus. Idem, i., p. 14, sp. 17. ? variety. The Calumet Eagle. Lewis & Clark. Journ ., <£ coverts are lead-grey, crossed by arrow-pointed, or heart-shaped marks of blackish-brown. e ml is barred alternately with blackish-brown and slate-colour, the subterminal band of the former be. ng much broader than any of the others; the bars are very distinct on its un er surface, where they are hair-brown and white. Under surface. The black whisker is large and well defined. The throat and upper parts of the breast are white, without spots; the rest of the under parts are white, with large longitudinal blackish-brown spots on the flanks and small transverse ones on the belly. The under tail coverts are crossed by distant narrow bars, and the thigh feathers are more closely barred. Bill greenish-blue. Cere and naked skin round the eye gamboge-yellow. Iris yellow. Legs yellow. Claws black. Form, &c .—Bill short and strong ; upper mandible much curved, and armed with an acute tooth; lower mandible truncated at the tip, with a deep notch for the reception of the upper tooth. Nostrils round, with a central point. Space between the eye and bill covered with hair-like feathers. Eyebrow projecting; pupil large. When the wings are folded, their tips cross each other over the end of the tail. The second quill feather is the longest ; the first is a quarter of an inch, and the third an inch shorter than the second ; the fourth is nearly an inch shorter than the third ; and the fifth and sixth are widely apart from each other, and from t e fourth. The inner web of the first is strongly sinuated ; the webs of the second and third are narrower towards their points, but present no abrupt sinuation : “ Exterior edge of the tip of the secondaries scolloped.” (Wilson.) Tail very slightly rounded. The tarsus, an inch and three-quarters long, is feathered half an inch below the joint anteriorly ; the remainder, E 26 northern zoology. and the bases of the toes, are reticulated. Part of the first phalanges, and all the other joints of the toes, are scutellated above. The middle toe is the longest; the lateral toes are next to it in length; and the hind toe is the shortest, but has the largest claw. The imddle and outer toes are connected by a short membrane. The claws are strong, sharp, and much curve . Dimensions Of the male. Inches. Lines. Length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail . . . • • 14 0 „ of the bill, measured on the ridge 1 0 >9 „ from the angle of the mouth ..... 1 l£ Inches. Lines. Length of the bill from the anterior margin of the orbit to its tip „ of the tarsus . . . 1 of the middle toe . • • 2 2 of the middle claw ... 0 9 An old female, from the same locality, has the dorsal aspect more dull, and a buir-coloured breast, with some central dark streaks on the feathers. It is larger than the male. Dimensions Of the female. Length (total).18 0 Length of the middle toe * * \ „ of the tarsus .... 2 4 „ of the middle claw ... 9 7 An immature bird, also from the same locality, has the feathers on the dorsal aspect nar¬ rowly bordered with a dull rust-colour, which, on the head, prevails over the blackish-brown. The tail is of a deep hair-brown, and is tipped with white, the outer webs being marked with seven round spots, and the inner ones with as many bars of a pale reddish-brown colour. there are no spots on the exterior web of the outer feather. The inner coverts of the wings, and under surface of the tail, are transversely barred with buff-colour. The whole ventral aspect is white, with a large oblong liver-brown mark in the centre of each feather. There are fewer spots on the throat, and more on the flanks, than elsewhere; but they are nearly of equal size on these parts and on the belly and thighs. Dimensions Of the young bird. Length (total).17 6 Length of the middle toe ... 2 8 „ of the tarsus .... 1 9 „ of the middle claw ... 0 9 FALCONID.E. 27 [8.] 2. Falco Islandicus. (Latham.) The Jerfalcon. Genus. Falco. Linn. Auctorum. Ash-coloured Buzzard. ( Buteo cinereus.) Edwards, pi. 53. Young, from Hudson’s Bay. Falco fuscus. Fabricius. Faun. Grcenl. , p. 56. Young. Falco sacer. Forster. Phil. Trans., lxii., p. 383 and 423. Young, from Hudson’s Bay. Collared Falcon. Penn. Arct. Zool., ii., p. 222, sp. G. Mature. Gyrfalcon. Idem, ii., p. 221, sp. F. Immature. Brit. Zool. , t. xix. Iceland Falcon. Idem. Arct. Zool., ii., p. 216, sp. D. Immature. Sacre Falcon. Idem, ii., p. 202, sp. 96. Immature. Dusky Falcon. Idem, ii., p. 220. E. Immature. Falco Islandicus. Lath. Ind., p. 32, sp. 39. Mature. Falco rusticolus. Idem, p. 28, sp. 60. Mature. Falco Gyrfalco. Idem, p. 32, sp. 68. Immature. Falco sacer. Idem, p. 34, sp. 75. Immature. Falco lagopus /3. Idem, p. 19, sp. 32 fi. Yearling. Falco obscurus. Idem, p. 44, sp. 105. Immature. Falco Islandicus. Temminck, i., p. 17. Sabine, Lin. Tr., xii., p. 528. Hierofalco candicans. Cuvier, Reg. An., i., p. 323. Falco Islandicus. Selby. Brit. Orn., i., p. 35, pi. 14. Peepooneeshew, ( Winter bird.) Cree Indians. This very handsome halcon differs from the Peregrine, in having* a longer tail, shorter and stronger tarsi and toes, and somewhat less pointed wings; but it is in all respects a true Falcon , and one of the most courageous, though Baron Cuvier has considered it as the typical species of his sub-genus Hierofalco. The want of a tooth on the upper mandible, which he gives as the principal character of the sub-genus, seems to be merely an occasional variety ; for many specimens, both European and North American, are preserved in the Hudson’s Bay, British, and other Museums in London, which have as large and acute a tooth as the Pere¬ grine, although it is generally a little nearer the point of the bill than in the latter bird. Indeed, the bill of the Jerfalcon differs from that of the Peregrine, not in the want of a tooth, but in the presence of a perceptible obtuse lobe near the middle of the mandible ; whilst in the Peregrine there is only a very slight indication of such a lobe. There is a solitary specimen of a Jerfalcon in the British Museum, whose bill is destitute of a tooth, agreeing perfectly with Buffon’s figure and Cuvier’s description ; but, in all other respects, that specimen has the same form and stature as those whose bills are toothed. The Jerfalcon is a constant resident in the Hudson’s Bay territories, where it is known by the name of the “ Speckled Partridge Hawk,” or by that of the “ Winterer.” It is not enumerated by Wilson or Buonaparte amongst the birds of the United States, and I am unable to state the exact southern limit of its 28 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. * range, though I have ascertained that it is occasionally seen as far south as lati¬ tude 52°. It is found northward to the coast of the Arctic Sea, and probably in the most northern Georgian Islands; it is a well-known inhabitant of Iceland, and was observed by Captain Sabine on the west coast of Greenland, as high as latitude 74°. It is likewise an inhabitant of the north of Europe. We saw it often during our journeys over the “ Barren Grounds,” where its habitual prey is the Ptarmigan, but where it also destroys Plover, Ducks, and Geese. In the middle of June, 1821, a pair of these birds attacked me as I was climbing in the vicinity of their nest, which was built on a lofty precipice on the borders of Point Lake, in latitude 65£°. They flew in circles, uttering loud and harsh screams, and alternately stooping with such velocity, that their motion through the air produced a loud rushing noise; they struck their claws within an inch or two of my head. I endeavoured, by keeping the barrel of my gun close to my cheek, and suddenly elevating its muzzle when they were in the act of striking, to ascertain whether they had the power of instantaneously changing the direction of their rapid course, and found that they invariably rose above the obstacle with the quickness of thought, showing equal acuteness of vision and power of motion. Although their flight was much more rapid, they bore consi¬ derable resemblance to the Snowy Owl. At the period at which I saw them, the ground was still partially clothed with snow, and the lakes covered with ice; but the- Jerfalcon, like the Strix nyctea of the same districts, is well calculated, from the whiteness of its plumage, for traversing a snowy waste, without alarming the birds on which it preys. As the Ptarmigan partially migrate southwards in the winter, some of the Jerfalcons follow them ; but, from the young birds being much more common, about latitude 57°, than the mature ones, the latter probably keep nearer to their breeding-places in the more northern, rocky, barren ground districts all the year. When the Jerfalcon pounces down upon a flock of Ptarmigan, the latter endeavour to save themselves by diving instantly into the loose snow, and making their way beneath it to a considerable distance. DESCRIPTION Of a mature bird (supposed to be a male ) from Hudson’s Bay, in Mr. Leadbeater’s collection. Colour. —White, with some clove-brown spots on the dorsal aspect. The head is entirely white, and the neck is nearly so, there being only a few central brown marks on the feathers of the nape. On the back the clove-brown forms a pyriform blotch on each feather, and on the rump it is confined to a narrow streak along the shaft. The spots are smaller on the lesser wing-coverts ; and on the greater coverts, secondaries, and scapularies, the brown FALCONID^E. 29 is disposed in bars, which do not reach the margins of the feathers. The primaries are white, their shafts, and one or two inches of their ends only, being blackish-brown ; they are narrowly edged at the tips with white. The tail feathers and their coverts are entirely white. The whole under surface of the bird is pure white, except the ends of the quill feathers, which are hair-brown. The bill is pale greenish-gray, becoming darker at the tip. Cere and lores wax-yellow. Legs yellow. Form, &c. Bill short, strong, and much curved. The upper mandible has a rather narrow ridge; its cutting margin is undulated, having an acute tooth near its point, and an obtuse lobe posterior to it. The under mandible is truncated at the tip, and deeply notched on its cutting margin, for the reception of the upper tooth. The nostrils are round, with a central pillar. The cere and lores are mostly covered with small white hairs and feathers, arranged in a radiated manner. The wings are shorter than the tail; the second quill feather is the longest; the third is a quarter of an inch, and the first half an inch shorter than the second ; the fourth is half an inch shorter than the first, and more than an inch shorter than the second; the remainder diminish in succession an inch each. The first and second have their inner webs sinuated, and the outer webs of the second and third are also sinuated. The tail is nearly square. The tips of the thigh feathers reach to the roots of the toes. The tarsus, rather more than two inches and a quarter long, is feathered for an inch and three quarters; its lower part being reticulated with crowded scales. The toes have their first phalanges reticulated, and the others protected above by large transverse scales. There is a short web between the outer and middle toes. The hind toe is shorter than the others, and is armed with the longest nail; the inner toe and nail are next in size: the outer toe is rather longer and more slender than the inner one, and has the smallest nail of all; the middle toe is half an inch longer than these; its nail being a little bigger than the outer one. All the nails are strong, sharp, much curved, and grooved beneath. Dimensions. Inches. Lines. Length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail . . . .24 0 „ of the tail . . . 10 0 „ of the longest quill feather . .15 0 „ of the bill, measured along its ridge . 1 3 Inches. Lines. Length of the bill from the angle of the mouth 1 6 » of the tarsus . , .2 4 „ of the middle toe . . . 2 o „ of the middle claw . .0 9 The young Jerfalcons show little white on their plumage, being mostly of a dull brown colour above. As they grow older, the white margins encroach on the brown, which becomes merely a central blotch, indented on each side by the white; while in aged birds the plumage is mostly pure white, varied only by a few nar¬ row transverse brown bars on the upper parts. Specimens are occasionally procured totally white; but whether they ought to be considered as birds in the most perfect state of plumage, or merely as varieties, I have not been able to ascertain. 30 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. description Of an immature bird from Hudson’s Bay, now in the British Museum. Colour of the head white, with longitudinal brown streaks. The feathers on the dorsal aspect of the body have hair-brown centres, with white borders, and also an oval spot on each web indented into the brown. The tail feathers have brown shafts, in the two outer feathers the brown encroaches on the webs, and in the two middle ones there are also six or seven irregular brown blotches. The breast and belly have elliptical brown marks in the centres of the feathers. In other respects, and in the acute tooth on the upper mandible, the spe- cimen resembles the mature one above described. Length (total) . . * ,, of the tail Dimensions. Inches. Lines. ... . . 22 6 Length of the largest quill feather . . 8 0 „ of the tarsus Inches. Lines. . 14 0 2 4 The Falco sacer of Forster, sent from Hudson’s Bay, and described in the Philosophical Transactions, is a still younger bird than the preceding, probably a yearling. Its upper plumage was dark brown, with pale reddish-brown margins and spots on the webs, which did not reach the shafts. The quill feathers were brownish-black, with white tips and edges, round rust-coloured spots on the outer webs, and transverse bars of the same colour on the inner webs. The tail was dark brown, with a white tip, and crossed by about twelve white bands. The head and whole under surface were white, with longitudinal brown marks. Cere and feet bluish. Iris yellow. Its length was 22 inches; its extent .16 inches, and its weight 2^ lbs. The description of Edwards’s Ash-coloured Buzzard corresponds nearly with Forster s, but the colouring of his figure is indifferent.—R. The remarkable variation in the form of the bill, before alluded to, deserves attention ; since naturalists have given no elucidation of a fact so curious. It has, indeed, been surmised, that two species may possibly exist in our museums under this name; but on this point we can offer no opinion. Several instances, how¬ ever, might be named, where the variation in the bills of individuals (unquestion¬ ably of the same species) is fully as great as in the present instance. This fact may be accounted for in two ways; first, from the effect of age, the young not having the full development of that structure which is typical of the adult; thus, in the youngest specimen of the American Harrier, subsequently described, the cutting margin of the upper mandible is straight, while in the older specimens this margin is strongly sinuated. Secondly, by that wonderful regularity in the progres¬ sion of natural affinities, which is not only apparent in species, but even in the mode of variation of those species. Sometimes these resemblances indicate analogies. ■ ■ j.t vt dat I’nfifr//for .Tokii • / fiaraA/, Jlooftsclltr b thcJlchmrally ,, Ttoma*y /’f/tffjt. 1 FALCON I ML 31 sometimes affinities; but as the fact has hitherto not been clearly observed, so the principle of this variation remains to be discovered. It is generally seen in aberrant groups; although not unfrequently, as in this instance, in such as are strictly typical. To cite another instance, we may remark, that in the superb collection of Indian birds at the Royal Museum of Paris, are several skins of Timalia pileata, Horsf., from Sumatra and Java; of which some have the bill perfectly entire, some slightly, and others distinctly notched; all, apparently, being old birds, full plumaged, and not differing in the slightest degree in other respects. It will subsequently be seen that this species stands in a group where the bill is either notched or entire *.—Sw. [9 ] 3. Falco sparverius. (Linn.) Little Rusty-crowned Falcon. Genus. Falco. Linn. Auctorum. Little Falcon. Penn. Arct. Zool ., ii, p. 211, No. 110. Falco sparverius. Lath. Ind ,., i., p. 42, sp. 99. American Sparrow-hawk. (F. sparverius.) WILSON, ii., p. 117, pi. 16,1 f. 1. Female ; and iv„ p 57, pi. 32, f. 2. Male. Falco sparverius Buonap. Syn., p. 27 , No. 10. Vigors. Zool. Journ., No. xi., pp. 425, 435. Peepeekeeshees. Cree Indians. Plate xxiv. Male. Prince Charles Buonaparte has separated the small American Falcons from the larger kinds, characterising the group by wings shorter than the tail, and scu- tellated tarsi. The latter character is only partially correct; for, in F. sparverius, there are but three shield-formed transverse scales on the tarsus adjoining to the toes, the rest of it being covered anteriorly by two rows of scales in alternate order, forming a near approach to reticulation. In F. cesalon the tarsus is still more reti¬ culated, but it also is furnished with three shield-formed scales on its lower extre¬ mity. The group, however, seems to be a natural one, the birds composing it differing somewhat in their manners from the larger Falcons, and having analogies in their habits with the Shrikes. The three small American Falcons that came under our notice agree in having long tails, and in the first quill feather being a little shorter than the fourth, or, at most, only equal to it,—both being consider¬ ably shorter than the second, which, again, scarcely exceeds the third one. The rapidity with which the quill feathers decrease in length after the fourth, still ren¬ ders the wings pointed, yet not so much so as in the two larger species which we * The whole of the groups in this family require a thorough revision, not in the library, but in the museum ; and until this is done, it is impossible to make full use of the distinction pointed out by Baron Cuvier, or to understand its bearings.—Sw. 32 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. have described. The F. sparverius, though a smaller bird, may be considered as representing the F. tinnunculus of Europe in form. We met with no small Falcons, in the northern parts of America, having long wings, like the Hobby and some other European species. The Falco sparverius is a common bird in America, and its manners are well known. Indeed, few Falcons are more likely to attract attention, for it is not only a bold and familiar species, but both male and female are very beautiful birds. Wilson informs us that it is a constant resident in almost every part of the United States, particularly north of Maryland. It breeds in considerable numbers on the banks of the Saskatchewan, in the neighbourhood of Carlton House, arriving there in the month of April, laying its eggs about the middle of May, and retiring southward on the approach of winter. I am unable to say how far it extends its migrations ; but I do not believe it to be a very northern species, as it was not observed, on the route of the Expeditions, beyond the fifty'fourth degree of latitude. It also frequents the warmer parts of America, having been perceived in Cuba by Mr. W. M‘Leay; and it is likewise an inhabitant of South America *, Captain King- having found it at Port Famine in the Straits of Magellan j\ Wilson has de¬ scribed its manners with his wonted accuracy, and I cannot do greater justice to the reader than by transcribing his remarks. “ It flies rather irregularly, occasionally suspending itself in the air, hovering over a particular spot for a minute or two, and then shooting off in another direc¬ tion. It perches on the top of a dead tree, or pole, in the middle of a field or meadow, and, as it alights, shuts its long wings so suddenly, that they seem instantly to disappear. It sits here in an almost perpendicular position, sometimes for an hour at a time, frequently jerking its tail, and reconnoitring the ground below in every direction, for mice, lizards, &c. It approaches the farm-house, particularly in the morning, skulking about the farm-yard, for mice or young chickens, and frequently plunges into a thicket after small birds, as if by random ; but always with a particular, and generally a fatal, aim.” In the vicinity of Carlton House, where the plains are beautifully ornamented by numerous small clumps of aspens, that give a rich picturesque effect to the land¬ scape, which I have never seen equalled even in an English park, this small Falcon was frequently discovered perched on the most lofty tree of a clump, sitting with his eye apparently closed, but, nevertheless, sufficiently awake to what was passing around it, as it would occasionally evince by suddenly pouncing upon any small * The specimens we procured during our researches in Brazil are entirely destitute of the rufous spot on the crown ; but those from Mexico perfectly agree with the skins brought home by Dr. Richardson.—Sw. f Vide Zool. Jour., No. xi., pp. 425, 435. FALCONIDjE. 33 bird that happened to come within its reach. It is the least shy of any of the Ame¬ rican hawks, and when on its perch will suffer the fowler to advance to the foot of the tree, provided he has the precaution to make a slow and devious approach. He is not, however, unnoticed; for the bird shows, by the motion of its head, that it is carefully watching his manoeuvres; yet, unless he walks directly to¬ wards it, it is not readily alarmed. When at rest, its wings are closely applied to the sides, with their tips lying over the tail about one-third from its end, and the tail itself, being closely shut up, looks long and narrow. If its suspicions be excited, it raises and depresses its head quickly two or three times, and spreads its tail, but does not open its wings until the instant it takes flight. The individuals shot at Carlton had mice or small birds in their stomachs. Witeon enumerates, also, snakes, lizards, and grasshoppers, as part of its food. It is said to make its nest in a hollow tree, and to lay four or five eggs, which are of a light brownish-yellow colour, spotfed with a darker tint*. DESCRIPTION Of a male, in full plumage, killed in the vicinity of Carlton House, lat. 53°, May, 1827. Colour.— The crown of the head is occupied by a circular patch of deep orange-brown, which is enclosed by a coronet of clear blackish-grey. Beneath this there are seven conspi¬ cuous black marks ; one situated on the nape of the neck, and blending with the grey coronet, and three on each side of the head below the level of the eye: the two anterior of these marks form together almost two-thirds of a circle, which includes the white cheek; and the third and smaller one, situated farther back, is surrounded by a pale-brown tint. There is a narrow white line between the forehead and the base of the bill, and another over the eye. 1 he dorsal aspect of the neck, the back, and the scapularies, are of a clear-brown colour, considerably paler than the crown of the head; and on the tips of the scapularies and between the shoulders there are a few oval spots and transverse bars of black. The rump and tail coverts are of a brighter and purer orange-brown than the crown of the head, and, like the neck, are unspotted. The tail feathers are precisely of the same colour with their coverts ; but a subterminal band of black crosses both webs, and they are narrowly tipped with white: the exterior feather has a white outer web, with an undulated black line along its shaft; and there is a narrower interrupted black bar behind the subterminal one on the other fea¬ thers. The lesser wing coverts and the secondary coverts are pure bluish-grey, regularly marked with round spots about the size of peas. The bastard wing and the primary coverts are marked alternately with black and bluish-grey. The quill feathers are brownish-black, with black shafts, and on their inner webs there are from five to eight semi-oval white marks, regu¬ larly alternating with narrower processes of the black. A square black patch is formed by the bases of the outer webs of the secondaries being of that hue : their tips are bluish-grey * Wilson, ii. p. 118. F 34 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. clouded with black, and their inner webs are barred with white like the primaries. The ter- tiaries are bluish-grey, with some black. Under surface. The throat, posterior part of the belly, under tail coverts, and thigh feathers, are pure white, without spots. Ihe breast has a brown tinge. The flanks and sides of the breast are marked prettily with roundish and heart- shaped black spots. The linings of the wings and under surface of the quill feathers are white, the former spotted with black and the latter barred with lead-grey. The tail is pale-buff colour beneath, with dark marks corresponding to those on the upper surface. Bill bluish- grey, with a blackish tip; lower mandible horn-coloured at the base. Cere yellow. Iris dark-brown. Legs yellow. Claws black. Form, &c.—The bill is short, strong, convex on its sides, much curved, and very acute. Just anterior to the nostrils there is a slight undulation of the cutting margin of the upper mandible ; and half way between that and the tip there is an acute tooth, which fits into a notch in the lower mandible : the latter is strong and truncated at the tip. The cere is very short, and the nostrils are circular, with a central column. The wings are much pointed, the primaries greatly exceeding the secondaries in length. In some specimens the second, in others the third, quill feather is the longest; the first is three-quarters of an inch shorter than these, and in most specimens is perceptibly shorter than the fourth ; the remaining feathers are each in succession half an inch shorter. The second and third have their outer webs sinuated ; and the inner webs of the first and second are also sinuated. All these sinuations are shallow and oblique, though that on the inner web of the second feather is less so than the others. The tail is moderately rounded, the outer feathers being half an inch shorter than the central ones. The tarsus is pretty strong, considering the size of the bird. It is covered with short white feathers, on its anterior surface only, for nearly half an inch below the joint; the remainder of it is protected anteriorly by a double row of scales larger than those behind, and by a single row of three large transverse oval ones immediately adjoining the articulation of the middle toe. The middle toe is about two-thirds of the length of the tarsus ; the others are about a quarter of an inch shorter than the middle one. Under each joint there is a con¬ spicuous round cushion, covered with warty integument, like the rest of the under surface of the foot. The claws are much curved, and are grooved underneath with acute edges. Dimensions Of the male. Inches. Lines. Inches. Lines. Length from the tip of the bill to the end Length of the bill from the angle of the mouth 0 Si of the tail . . . • .11 6 ,, of the tarsus .... 1 5 ,, of the tail .... 5 6 ,, of the middle toe 0 11 „ of the longest quill feathers . . 6 6 ,, of its claw .... 0 4 DESCRIPTION Of a mature female, killed May, 1827, at Carlton House. Colour of the head nearly the same as in the male, the seven black marks being equally conspicuous ; the rust-coloured mark on the crown, however, and its surrounding coronet, are varied by the shafts of the feathers being blackish. The whole dorsal aspect is reddish- brown, duller than the corresponding parts of the male, and regularly crossed by brownish- FALCONID/E. 35 black bars, several on each feather. There are twelve black bars on the middle tail feathers, and nine on the outer ones; and the outer webs of the latter are nearly white. The flag feathers are coloured externally, as in the male ; but the white marks on their inner webs are deeply tinged with brown. The throat, posterior part of the belly, and under tail coverts, are white, as in the male; the breast, fore part of the belly, and the flanks, are soiled-white, marked longitudinally with oblong yellowish-brown spots. On the linings of the wings the yellowish-brown is the ground colour, and is spotted with white. The under surfaces of the quill and tail feathers are slightly tinged with buff-colour, and are crossed by brownish- grey bars. The total length of the specimen is one foot; that of the tarsus one inch and a half: the other dimensions correspond with those of the male, the female of this species scarcely exceeding the other sex in size. A young male had nearly the plumage of the female, differing only in the black bars on the wings being more distinct, those on the tail narrower, and in the upper tail coverts being brownish-red, without spots. In a young female the tips of the flag feathers were margined with white and the whole abdomen was marked with yellowish-brown spots. [10.] 4. Falco columbarius. (Linn.) Pigeon-Hawk . Genus. Falco. Linn. Auctorum. Falco columbarius. Forster. Phil. Trans., lxii., p. 382, No. 1. Pigeon-Hawk. Penn. Arct. Zool., ii., p. 222, No. 111. Falco columbarius. Lath. Ind ., i., p. 44, sp. 106. Pigeon-Hawk. (F. columbarius.) Wilson, ii., p. 107, pi- 15, f. 3. Male. Falco columbarius. Bo nap. Syn ., p. 38, No. 11. Pepecooseesh. Cree Indians. This fierce little Falcon makes it appearance on the coast of Hudson’s Bay in May, and, having reared its young, retires to a warmer climate in September. It is not uncommon about York Factory, in latitude 57°, and probably wanders much farther north. Early in the spring of 1825, I observed a small Hawk on the north shore of Great Bear Lake, in latitude 66°, which, if not of this species, belongs to a still smaller one, that is hitherto undescribed as a North American bird. It had taken possession of a tree, and was so unwilling to go away, that, when I threw stones at it, it merely made two or three circles round my head, with much clamour, and returned to its former perch. The want of a gun at the time prevented me from procuring the specimen. 36 NORTHERN ZOOLOGY. Wilson observes, that the Pigeon-Hawk is generally migratory in the northern and middle parts of the United States, arriving in Pennsylvania early in the spring, extending its migrations to Hudson’s Bay, and, after building and rearing its young, retiring to the south early in November. Mr. Hutchins, m his Notes on the Hudson’s Bay Birds, informs us, that this species “ makes its nest on the rocks and in hollow trees, of sticks and grass, lined with feathers, laying from two to four white eggs, thinly marked with red spots. The young fly m August. It preys on small birds, which it seizes with dexterity, screaming loudly at the onset; and when it is disturbed, it will fly round and round, making a continued noise. DESCRIPTION Of an individual killed at York Factory on the 4th September, 1822, supposed to he a male. Colour of the head brownish-black, with reddish-brown margins to the feathers. The whole dorsal aspect is deep broccoli-brown, slightly varied by dark chestnut-brown edgings to the feathers, which are scarcely noticed at first sight, and are most perceptible on the lesser wing coverts. The tail coverts have paler margins, approaching to wood-brown. The tail is black, crossed by four yellowish-grey bars, tinged here and there with brown, and tipped with the same. The inner webs of the bastard wing and quill feathers are marked by five or six large oval spots of yellowish-grey, more or less tinged with brown. Under surface. The cheeks, a streak above the eyes, the throat, breast, belly, and thighs, have a dull ochre- yellow, or yellowish-brown colour, spotted and streaked with brownish-black. The latter colour forms a large oval mark in the centre of each feather on the breast; but on the belly and thighs it is confined to a streak along the mid-rib. The linings of the wings are ochre- yellow,'’spotted with black ; the under surfaces of the quill and tail feathers are deep clove- brown, crossed by rows of oblong, wine-yellow spots. Bill yellowish-grey at the base, bluish- black at the tip. Cere wax-yellow: inside of the mouth bluish; margins of the eyelids yellow. Legs yellow. Form, &c.—Bill shaped like that of the preceding species. The tips of the folded wings reach within an inch of the end of the tail, the scapularies are short, and the secondaries and tertiaries reach to the tips of the tail coverts. The third quill feather is the longest, the second is almost as long, and the others in succession are considerably shorter. The tarsi are fea¬ thered anteriorly for a short way below the joint. The toes are long, with rounded cushions beneath the joints, and sharp curved nails. When the leg is stretched out, the tip of the middle claw reaches to the point of the folded wing. Dimensions. Inches. Lines. Length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail .11 0 ,, of the tail ....... 5 6 Extent between the tips of the wings .... 22 0 The specimen from which the above description was taken was not brought home, having been accidentally destroyed. The description accords nearly with Pennant’s, quoted above. it h Sr " 4^ IFAiiCO A8AL0I,^. Jsvnden, PmOtdjbrJmrtdty,J