INTENDS) THE Si; OF ^ 
 
 COLLECTOR. 
 
 BY 
 
 H. GUARD KNAGGS M.D., F.L.S 
 
 QL544 
 
 K6 
 
 1871 
 
 }®Leu; ]JICditicm—illustrated. 
 
 Macd, 
 
 Lyman 
 
 ONE SHILLING. 
 
 NTERLEAVED FOR NOTFS, Ol d SHILLING AND SuPFNCE. 
 
 V > \ 
 
EnJmnologtrtil Brpartmntt 
 
 No. 221477 
 
 Library of JljcGill University 
 
 MONTREAL 
 
 Received . / ^ S -^7*^ 
 
The JLepidoptef^t’s Quide, 
 
 INTENDED FOE THE USE OF 
 
 THE YOUNG COLLECTOR. 
 
 H. GUARD KNAGGS, M.D., F.L.S. 
 
 A NEW EDITION.—SECOND THOUSAND. 
 
 London: 
 
 John Van Yooest, 1, Patebnostee Row, E.C. 
 1871. 
 
LONDON: 
 
 A. NAPIEB, PRINTER, SEYMOUR STREET, EU8TON SQUARE. 
 
MY 
 
 ^ROTHEt^ jlDITOF^S 
 
 OF J' HE 
 
 NTOMOLOGISTS yVLoNTHLY ^VLagazine 
 
 J'HIS ITTLE yOLUME IS INSCRIBED 
 
 AS A TRIBUTE OF 
 
 J^RIENDSHIP 
 
 AND 
 
 ¥ 
 
 STEEM. 
 
 999 1 4 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Finding it impossible to publish the “ Notes on Collecting,” in the 
 pages of the “ Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” unless to the exclusion 
 of matter contributed by our supporters, it has been determined to issue 
 them in the present form. 
 
 The object of “ The Guide,” is to lead the young Entomologist, 
 whether his tendencies incline towards mere collecting or to instructive 
 observation, to reason for himself as occasion may require or suggest. 
 
 No originality is laid claim to, the facts and suggestions contained 
 herein being already generally known, and looked upon as a kind of 
 
 public property. References have, therefore, been avoided, as nselessly 
 encumbering the book. 
 
 By using different types at the commencement of the more impor¬ 
 tant sections and paragraphs, and, at the same time, printing a heading 
 
 to each page, it is hoped that the necessity for an index will be dispensed 
 with. 
 
 To Messrs. Charles G. Barrett, Frederick Bond, William Buckler, 
 Henry Doubleday, the Rev. John Hellins, Dr. Boswell Syme, and others! 
 who have rendered valuable assistance, the writer’s warmest thanks are 
 due. Indeed, to Messrs. Hellins and Buckler conjointly, is attributable 
 nearly the whole of the chapter devoted to observation in the caterpillar 
 state Mr. Barrett contributed largely to the hints on flowers and light: 
 and the correctness of the botanical lists of allied genera is guaranteed 
 by Dr. Syme. 
 
PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION. 
 
 The gratifying reception, both at home as well as in the United 
 States of America and in the Colonies, which welcomed the first 
 edition of “ The Guide,” has induced the writer to spare no pains to 
 add to the usefulness of the present edition. 
 
 From the proceeds derived from the sale of the original venture, 
 numerous woodcuts have been added, and the work is now issued at 
 a price within the reach of all. 
 
 22i477 
 
&ist of Illustrations. 
 
 Egg of Pieris brassicce . 
 
 M » Vanessa urticce . 
 
 „ „ Selenia . 
 
 Postal egg box. 
 
 Chip box strengthened . 
 
 Oak leaf eaten by larvae . 
 
 Shoot of Epilobium distorted by larvae.. 
 Twig-liko larva of U. sambucaria 
 
 “ Digger ” . 
 
 „ folded up. 
 
 Handy box for larva collecting 
 
 >> » t* » „ closed 
 
 Sweeping net . 
 
 Section of larvarium . 
 
 Ditto improved and for larvae to burrow 
 
 Sphinx larva (S. ligustri) . 
 
 “ Promiuent ” larva ( N . camelina) 
 
 Hairy Noctua larva [D. Orion) 
 
 Sub-dorsal and spiracular lines ( P. 
 brassicce) . 
 
 Pattern on back of larva 
 
 Pupa of S. ligustri . 
 
 „ „ V. urticce . 
 
 i, ,, P. Machaon . 
 
 Pupa fixed to wall (P. brassicce) .. 
 
 Apparatus for forcing. 
 
 Pupa with spiked annulations 
 »» »> mappings of perfect insect 
 
 (S. carpini) . 
 
 The end of chrysalis state (Tail piece) 
 Joints of an umbrella net (fixed end) 
 
 ” » » a (sliding end) 
 
 The make of a bag net . 
 
 The forceps net . 
 
 Manner of fixing cork into a metal box. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3 
 
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 4 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 75 
 
 Chloroform bottle. 75 
 
 The posture of the pugs [E. centaureata) 82 
 
 An attracting cage (for $ ) . 88 
 
 Apparatus for working sallow .. .89 
 
 A sugar “ plum ” (Z. vitellina) .. . . 94 
 
 Sugaring net (triangular). 95 
 
 „ “ drum " . 96 
 
 A new moth trap (sugar). 99 
 
 Apparatus for capturing at lamps .. 100 
 
 A treasure at light (5. sacraria) . . .. 101 
 
 A net for working lamps . 102 
 
 The American moth trap. 103 
 
 Perspective view of ditto . 104 
 
 A well pinned moth ^front view) . .. 108 
 
 » 99 99 99 (side view) .. 108 
 
 Magnified drawing [Sc. ulmella) .. .. 110 
 
 How to pack a box for the post.. .. no 
 
 Cooke’s postal box .no 
 
 Neuration of a butterfly’s wings .. Ill 
 
 Plumule of P. napi . u\ 
 
 ,, ,, A. cratcegi . ui 
 
 „ „ S. Megcera .ni 
 
 Battledore scale of Lycrena .. ,, m 
 
 Head, antennae, &c., of Butterfly .. .. 112 
 
 Section of a saddle. n 3 
 
 A brace seen from above. 113 
 
 a a „ side view. ng 
 
 A setting bristle. 114 
 
 Method of setting on saddle. 114 
 
 ” »» »> by “ four straps ” .. 116 
 
 A well set insect (^4. prodromaria) .. 117 
 
 »» » »» » (J/. stellatarum ).. .. 117 
 
 Specimen showing under side (A 
 
 Latona) .. 
 
 The end and the beginning. 123 
 

 
 THE EGG STATE. 
 
 “ Ev’ry insect of each different kind, 
 
 In its own egg, cheer’d by the solar rays. 
 Organs involv’d, and latent life displays.” 
 
 Collecting. 
 
 ^SS hunting' is a pursuit which, from difficulties due to the small 
 size of the objects, and the consummate skill with which they are frequently 
 concealed, has hitherto scarcely met with that amount of attention which 
 the subject deserves. While confessing, on the one hand, that the e^a 
 of insects are certainly comparatively difficult to find, not only for the above 
 reasons but also from the facts that they obviously leave no tracks, as 
 larv® do, and that being, as a rule, firmly attached, they are not to bo 
 shaken or beaten from their positions; yet, on the other hand, it cannot 
 be doubted that continued observation as to the situations in which eg<*s 
 are deposited, the time during which the different species remain in the 
 egg state, together with their appearances, disposition, and mode of con- 
 cealment, would furnish results valuable alike to the collector, to the ob¬ 
 server of Nature’s works, and to Science itself; and it must be admitted 
 that the egg-hunter would sometimes stumble upon batches of numbers 
 such as he could never hope to meet with in the other stages of insect ex¬ 
 istence, and that too of living embryo individuals hardly ever affected by 
 parasites, unlikely to sickon from change of food and air, and not liable to 
 droop and die from having received an unfortunate knock with the beating 
 stick, or an unlucky dig with the trowel; besides, the fact that eggs do 
 exist in almost infinitely greater numbers than larv®, pup®, or ima*ms, 
 ought to stimulate us to overcome the difficulty. 
 
 The situations in which eggs are deposited, are naturally either 
 upon or in the neighbourhood of the food of the future larv®, and almost 
 always in such localities as are adapted to the well-being of the species; 
 though occasionally, by accident, as in the instance of females attracted to 
 light, which have been known to deposit on the bars of the lamp, eggs 
 have been found in such situations as cannot possibly afford a chance to 
 the future larva. 
 
 A 
 
EGO.—COLLECTING. 
 
 A known or likely locality—that is, one which, having the required 
 food, has a similar soil, altitude, temperature, amount of moisture or dry¬ 
 ness, shelter or openness, to one which the insect looked for is known to 
 inhabit—must first be selected as a spot for commencing operations. The 
 collector will rarely stand a chance of finding, upon a gravelly soil, a 
 species which is attached to the chalk or limestone, or a mountain species in 
 the valley, or a heat-loving species in a bleak locality, a fen insect on high 
 and dry ground, or an inhabitant of a dense wood upon the open moors, &c. 
 The more common positions of eggs are upon the surface and in the chinks 
 of bark (often, unfortunately, high up on the trunk and branches), on 
 the twigs, buds, leaves, flowers, and seeds, of various trees and plants ; 
 sometimes on neighbouring objects, as on palings, walls, rocks, stones, clods ; 
 at others, among refuse vegetable and animal matters ; now and then, 
 loosely scattered upon the ground, or fixed to aquatic plants beneath the 
 surface of the water ; while, in some special cases, the nests of ants, wasps, 
 and bees, are the situations chosen by the parent female. 
 
 The time during which the different species remain in the egg state 
 would very materially assist the collector, but little on this question has 
 been chronicled; however, I think that, with few exceptions, the following 
 may be adopted as rules:— 
 
 Eggs deposited in early spring may be expected to hatch at about 
 the time when the buds of the respective food-plants are ready to burst 
 forth into leaf. We should therefore make search for these before the buds 
 expand. 
 
 Eggs laid in spring and early summer usually hatch in a fortnight 
 or three weeks, the species feeding up and passing the winter in the 
 .chrysalis state. 
 
 Eggs deposited late in the summer and early autumn months , in 
 two or three weeks, produce larvae which feed up more or less slowly, and 
 frequently hibernate. 
 
 Eggs deposited in the latter months of the year do not usually hatch 
 until the following spring. 
 
 It may here be well to mention a few exceptional cases, namely, double- 
 brooded^species, of which there are two groups, “spring and summer 
 brooded,” and “ summer and autumn brooded ; ” the eggs of both broods 
 of the former group hatch quickly (in 10 days or less), the larva? feeding 
 up and changing to pupae, in which state the winter is passed ; the eggs 
 of the first batch of the second group do so likewise, but those of the hist 
 batch either do not hatch till spring, or, hatching, the larva? hibernate. 
 Some eggs laid in summer, as, for instance, those of Cidaria dotata , C. 
 
EGG.—APPEARANCE. 
 
 3 
 
 prunata &c., do not hatch until the following spring. Other eggs some¬ 
 times exhibit the peculiarity of hatching at intervals ; thus, those of En- 
 nomos fuscantaria seem to hatch, at intervals of two or three days, from 
 the end of May to the end of June. Another exception is that of insects 
 which hibernate in the perfect state; these do no generally lay, or even 
 pair, until the following spring. 
 
 Of course, it stands to reason that eggs of butterflies and moths are 
 laid dunng some period of the lifetime of the parent female, and that, 
 therefore, when a species has been on the wing for a time, or more surely, , 
 if it be getting over, it is time to begin to look for the eggs ; but, whilst 
 some species deposit even directly after copulation, others do not lay until 
 a variable, sometimes very considerable, time afterwards. 
 
 The appearance of the eggs of the Lepidoptera, and them odes in 
 which they are disposed and concealed, present highly interesting points 
 not only to the egg-hunter, hut to every thoughtful observer. That the 
 eye should become familiarised with the general aspect of these 
 objects as they appear in Nature, is of the utmost importance to 
 him who would successfully follow the pursuit of egg-hunting. 
 
 Probably, most of us are acquainted with the appearance of the 
 eggs of many species, as, for instance, with the conical ridged 
 of Pieris Prassicce , the ribbed, pumpkin-shaped eggs of 
 Vanessa urticce , deposited in little irregular masses on the 
 under-sides of nettle leaves, the pointed egg of Gonepteryx 
 rhamni placed singly upon the terminal shoots of buckthorn, the large, 
 oval, green egg of Smerinthuspopuli deposited singly upon poplar leaves, 
 the masses deposited by Zygatna and Zenzera , the latter in the chinks of 
 hark, the fast-blackening globules of the female Hepialus 
 hum alias she sows them broadcast, the pearly beads of the 
 Lithosidce and Chelonidee neatly placed in batches (the beautiful 
 egg of A. villica being iridescent like mother-of-pearl), the 
 ringed egg of the Drinker Moth deposited on blades of grass, 
 the batches of C. neustria and E. lanestris arranged spirally 
 around twigs and coated over with protecting varnish, those of 
 the latter being still further protected by the fluffy down from the anal tuft 
 of the female moth; the felted patches of the Porthesice, the colour-chang- 
 eggs of Endromis placed in small batches upon the twigs of birch, and 
 of Saturnia on heather, bramble, and other plants; the somewhat cuplike- 
 looking eggs of Orgyia coating the old cocoon of the nearly apterous 
 female, the brown hemispherical egg of Bicranura vinula, and the black 
 drops of its smaller congeners bifida and furcula firmly fixed by their 
 bases in groups of twos and threes upon the upper-sides of the leaves of 
 
4 
 
 EGO.—HUNTING. 
 
 willow and poplar, the pale drop-like eggs of the Kotodontidee sparsely 
 scattered upon the leaves of their special food-plants, the ragged egg of I). 
 
 f cceruleocepli ala, the neatly-placed brick-shaped eggs of the genus 
 Ennomos, the gourd-like eggs of Selenia , the small eggs of 
 Bistort , and those of Boarmia disposed of by the female in 
 suitable chinks and crevices, the oval pearly eggs of Jlfelanthia 
 and Cidana often so amazingly large when compared with the 
 size of the parent moth, the scale-like egg of the Tortrix , and 
 many others, which, when we come to know them well, will lead us to 
 deduce analogies of the utmost assistance in previously forming an opinion 
 as to where we shall be likely to find, and what-like will be the appearance 
 of, the egg ot any particular species of which we may be desirous of troin* 7 * 
 in quest. 
 
 An examination of the anal segment of a female specimen would also 
 afford us a means of making a fair guess at the situation and mode of con¬ 
 cealment of its eggs. Thus—were she provided with a longish protruded 
 ovipositor, as Zenzera , Cossus , Boarmia, the inference would be that the 
 eggs would be found deposited deeply in the chinks of bark; should the 
 abdomen be pointed with a concealed, or only slightly projecting, ovipositor, 
 as in some of the Cosmidce and Dianthoecice, the Hibernidce, Eupithecice, 
 and other geometers, the probability would be that the species would de¬ 
 posit its eggs in flowers, or in the axils of leaves, buds, &c.; should the 
 abdomen be blunt, the eggs may be looked for upon leaves, twigs, &c.; 
 while, if the anal segment be tufted, the eggs will be found in patches! 
 felted over with downy fur, generally upon the surface of bark and twigs. 
 
 The presence of the perfect insect , especially if a female have been 
 noticed, should of course at once put us on the alert. By following the 
 movements of the flying parent insect, as she flits about depositing an 
 egg here and an egg there, we may literally hunt for eggs. Those of 
 Isycana Arion, Sesia chrysidiformis, and of other good things were origi¬ 
 nally detected in this way. 
 
 In searching upon trees, bushes, &c., it is advisable carefully to 
 scrutinize each leaf, foot stalk, and twig, from different aspects. This may 
 be done by turning the branch, under examination, in such a manner as to 
 get successive views of the upper and under-sides of leaves, and the cir¬ 
 cumference of the twigs. It is also a good plan to look at the branches 
 against a rather strong light; and the use of a powerful reading glass will 
 increase our chances in about a proportionate ratio to its magnifying powers 
 Whenever any unusual speck, spot, or patch arrests the attention” the col¬ 
 lector must, of course, satisfy himself as to the cause of this. lie will 
 
EGG.—LAYING. 
 
 5 
 
 generally find that the under-sides of the leaves are the most favoured 
 positions, but some species, as the Dicranurid*, select the upper surface, 
 ggs are most frequently placed near the midrib and towards the apex of 
 ea , t ' , ^' e eggs of some moths are deposited, in autumn, upon the 
 axals of leaves, and remain there through the winter, as for example those 
 oi O. lota and Tethea retusa, and from this cause thousands of these 
 species are destroyed by the basket makers, who cut down the “ witheys ” 
 
 , • e »gs other species are placed on buds, especially on 
 
 erminal shoots, as in the case of G. rhamni. The species which subsist 
 on flowers and seeds probably deposit at the base of the petals or soft 
 ovary, or on the flower stalks of Umbellifer®, <ic„ as the case may be. 
 Ihe eggs of internal grass feeders will usually be deposited in, or about, 
 the axil of the sheath around the stem, while those of wood and bark 
 feeding species will generally be placed in chinks of bark, though Sesia 
 bembeciformis certainly deposits naturally upon the leaves. The eggs of 
 ow plant feeders may be most likely detected on the under-sides of the 
 eaves ot their food-plant, on adjacent stems of grasses, or on other plants 
 or objects in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The following plan is a “ moral,” and exemplifies with amazino* force 
 the tnte injunction “Don't lciU the goose that lays the golden egg 
 
 Allowing or inducing Lepidopterous females to lay 
 m captivity, is a process well worthy of attention, and, since it has 
 been adopted by energetic breeders, has well repaid the almost daily care 
 which necessarily attends, and, follows it. Some species deposit freely 
 enough, even when shut up in a pill-box, or impaled with a pin, requiring 
 no inducement to the act ; but many, unless properly managed, are apt to 
 disappoint the collector’s hopes in this respect. Among those which will 
 be found to lay freely, I may mention the Smerinthi, some Sesice, the 
 litpialida, Ltfhosida , Chclonidce, Liparidce , Bombycidce (indeed, most 
 of the true Bombyces), Coremia, Hibernia , Cidaria , , and many other 
 Geometroe, Dicranura, Clostera , and several Nontodontidce, Acronyeta , 
 Xylophasia, some of the Tamiocampx and Xanthice , the genus Fyralis, 
 Hydrocampa, Pterophorus , &c .; others, on the contrary, require such in¬ 
 ducements as space, admission of the sun’s rays, nutriment, presence of 
 food-plant, suitable cracks and surfaces in which and on which to deposit, 
 and other conditions which may from time to time suggest themselves to 
 the observant Entomologist. 
 
 Note.—I t has been suggested that, for the purpose of placing the 
 impregnated female under the conditions most favourable for laying she 
 
6 
 
 EGG.—LAYING. 
 
 should be confined, within a sleeve of leno, on the food-plant. This will, 
 of course, ensure the eggs being deposited in the best position for the 
 future larvae to commence feeding. 
 
 Butterflies, as a rule, require space, admission of the sun’s rays, 
 presence of the food-plant (especially of the flowers), free ventilation, &c., 
 as incentives to laying; but some species, as A. Galatea , A. Euphrosyne 
 and Paphia , S. JEgeria and Hyperanthus , C. Pamphilus , &c., will gen¬ 
 erally lay freely enough if the three latter conditions be complied with, 
 but it is important that air should be admitted, for, otherwise the inmates 
 will be killed by sunstroke. It is always advisable that some part of the 
 cage should be shaded, in order that the insect may retire to it when so 
 disposed. 
 
 Of Sphinges, the Sesia will frequently lay even after impalement, 
 but M. stellatarum, which deposits its eggs while on the wing as it hovers! 
 Wi ling its abdomen forwards and upwards, so as to place the egg upon the 
 wilder surface of the leaf of its food-plant, the bedstraw, would also require 
 space for flight; and so too would some of the autumn species, such as I). 
 gain, GCelerio, and S. convolvuli, generally supposed to deposit naturally 
 after hibernation, though the latter has been known to lay fertile e^s in 
 September. 
 
 . Bomb yces generally lay pretty freely ; when shut up in a pill-box, 
 it is advisable to leave the lid a little on one side, so that the enclosed insect 
 may not be stifled, or the top of the lid may be knocked out and gauze 
 substituted for it, and kept in place by its rim. The tongued Pombyces 
 as the Lithosida* and the Hook-tips, should be allowed to sip from a spon-e 
 moistened with honey and water; as to the species whose females naturally 
 deposit eggs in bright sunshine, as the day-flying Hook-tips, sunbeams and 
 air should ol course have free admission. 
 
 Geometrse usually require nourishment, as e. g. that afforded by the 
 damp sweetened sponge, and some seem particular as to the surface upon 
 which they deposit, one apparently liking the deep chinks in rough bark or 
 slits in a chip box, as Nyssia, Bistort, Boarmia ; another, as Epione pre¬ 
 ferring a corner, such as that formed where the chip of the circumference 
 of a willow box overlaps; a third, as Oidaria, depositing at the tips of 
 any little projections from the surface; while a fourth does not appear 
 satisfied unless she lays her eggs among some loose texture, as the folds of 
 muslin, and the like. 
 
 Noetuse more than all require the stimulus of the sweetened spono-e 
 as they are a class of insects which are apt to delay oviposition until some- 
 
EGO.—MANAGEMENT. 7 
 
 times a very long period after impregnation, it not unfrequently happening 
 that they die without depositing ova. In their case, as with the Geometers” 
 we must first place the females in a suitable chamber, such as a child’s toy 
 box loosely lined with paper (for the subsequent easy removal of the eggs), 
 and having a piece of gauze or leno substituted for the wooden top of the 
 lid. The sweetened sponge may be pinned to the side of their cage, from 
 which they will generally be found to sip freely; in order, however, to make 
 sure of a female having her sense of taste excited, place the sponge in front 
 of her palpi and then very gently blow towards her, when she will im¬ 
 mediately unfold her tongue and partake of the nectar. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the males of some species, as Bombyx , 
 Saturnia, Endromis , fly by day in quest of their respective females, but 
 that the females do not generally fly or deposit their eggs until the evening 
 has set in; and I may just observe here that the introduction of a gas or 
 lamp light into an apartment in which a female is depositing will, in most 
 cases, stop the process, though in others this very means may be adopted 
 as an incentive to lay. It has sometimes been noticed that females with 
 which every inducement had failed, have laid freely enough, after having 
 been treated with oxalic acid; and even the plan of actually squeezing out 
 eggs from the body of a refractory female, appears to have met with, at 
 any rate, partial success in more cases than one. 
 
 It might seem absurdly superfluous to say that females only should be 
 selected for laying purposes, but the remark is necessary, for a young friend 
 of mine once had the luck to capture a pair of “ prominents ” in copula ,, 
 and whether or not visions of innumerable bred specimens, looming in 
 the future, turned his head I cannot say, but certain it is that he rashly 
 converted his lady moth into a specimen, and waited, with a patience 
 worthy of a better cause, for the cock to lay. It is, however, by no means 
 the easiest matter in the world, to make out the sexes of certain species; 
 in most cases, the antennae and the abdomen afford the required clue, but 
 not in all: ergo cave . 
 
 iHanacjcmcnt. 
 
 Eggs should never be touched. When, however, for convenience, it is 
 necessary to remove them, as when found in Nature, or deposited in 
 awkward or insecure positions in our breeding or other cages and boxes, 
 the operation must be conducted with great care ; and it must be remem¬ 
 bered that the eggs of several species, as those of EL. croceago , A. prodro - 
 maria, and others, are very soft when first laid, and that, if the substance 
 to which they are attached be even twisted or disturbed at this stage, they 
 
8 
 
 EGO.—FERTILITY. 
 
 W11 pemh, but after a little time the shells harden, and they may then 
 w.th caution be removed by carefully cutting out the substance to which 
 they are faxed. As a precautionary measure it has already been suggested 
 to line the laying boxes loosely with paper or gauze, for the purpose of 
 cutting out the bits upon which eggs may be deposited. These, on re¬ 
 moval, should be placed in glass-topped boxes, which serve to secure the 
 future larva from escape, and yet allow the owner to watch progress 
 without opening or even moving the box. Beyond keeping them thus at 
 oidmaiy atmospheric temperatures, as in an outhouse sheltered from the 
 ram and sun, and daily watching them, until such time as they hatch no 
 a ention is necessary, unless in some rare instances it be advisable to dJmp 
 cm from time to time: with eggs which pass through the winter, tho 
 chief precaution is, not to forget them in the spring. 
 
 A natural state of dampness may be kept up°in the following wav— 
 
 Wtb W er ng r 6 , VCl , Vety m0SS ’ Which on old walls, is placed, 
 
 together with the food-plant, in a flower pot; the eggs are then sprinkled 
 
 over the moss, into which they sink, and therefore cannot shift about. 
 
 ft e ® h ° uld lt desirable to get three broods of a double-brooded species 
 
 ‘ W’T m T a r S0 ° U aS tLe f °° d -P lailt ^ coming into leaf, eithw 
 
 few» the anagoa by bringing the pupa: into a warm room, and so get 
 
 V s befoie the natural time, or he may hasten the hatching of eggs bv a 
 similar increase of temperature. 00 y 
 
 fertile and infertile eggs maybe known by the changes which 
 take place m their colour, density, shape, Ac. The following mayassist tho 
 egg possessor in a diagnosisIf an egg, from having been yellow or orange 
 change colour to any of the tints of pink, rose, or red; from having be°en 
 a reddish colour to any hue of lavender, lilac, purple; or from white 
 drab, or cream-colour to any shade of brown or lead-colour; or from <-reen 
 r ed 01 lurid purplish; or if an egg become black or uniformly darker- 
 or it it become symmetrically marked, sj ided,or ring- d,or flatten 
 
 °,"f a " ge '°, rm 7 tb0ut ^"veiling, the chances are that it is fertile, and 
 that the natural changes are going on in the enclosed larva. But if, on 
 he other hand, the egg should show transparency at one point and opacity 
 at another for any length of time, or should exceed it! propel time of 
 
 eitl C e"th’t°ft Sh0UU - CUrl ° r C ° Uapse ’ H ma y ^niost certainly be considered 
 cither that the egg ,s unfertilised, or that the contents turn- perished • for 
 
 0 peifectly impregnated, it is assuredly a bad omen. The above tests 
 are, of course, inapplicable to eggs which, like those of the Puss-motb 
 have ngui, opaque, and coloured shells, but even here an adept will detect 
 a dilference between a fertile and infertile ovum. 1 “ ' 
 
EGG.—TRANSMISSION. 
 
 9 
 
 It will, however, be best for the collector to keep bis eggs until be is 
 quite sure about them, one way or other; remembering that the ova of the 
 same species may at one time batch in the autumn, and at another may 
 lie over until spring. Sometimes black specks make their appearance on 
 the surface of eggs, especially upon the opaque white eggs of the Promi¬ 
 nent s, these are due to the enclosed larva having bitten through the shell 
 so that the mandibles have become apparent. When this happens, the 
 larva may be expected speedily to come forth ; but it has often been 
 noticed that, from some cause, probably from insufficient power to escape, 
 lai vae are exceedingly apt to die at this stage ; damping with warm water, 
 and placing in a warmer temperature, as a hot-bed, may be worth trial. 
 I am, however, perfectly satisfied that the usual plan of placing the eggs 
 on the food-plant at this period is often a fatal proceeding. On the whole, 
 it is, perhaps, best to leave them to take their chance under the same 
 circumstances in which they have been all along. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 is 
 
 For transmitting eggs by post, two simple plans are gener¬ 
 ally adopted: the first, and best [see figure], is to punch, or cut out, a 
 hole through a piece of wood (aa), mill- 
 board, or other suitable substance, to fix a 
 piece of card (c) to one of the surfaces, 
 thus forming a cavity or cell (b) into which 
 the eggs may be placed; and to cover over 
 with another piece of card, which may be 
 
 kept in position by a few turns of thread; this package may then be 
 safely sent through the post. The other plan, is to procure quills (the 
 penny or threepenny bundles of toothpicks sold at bazaars answer admir- 
 ably), and, having pared them off* straightly at each extremity, to fit both 
 ends accurately with wooden stoppers, one of which being removed, the 
 eggs may be inserted, the stopper replaced, and the little package may 
 then be sent off* in a letter ; if* several of these quills are required to be 
 forwarded at once, they should be enclosed in a brass pen box, a dozen of 
 which may be purchased at a cheap rate (for about Is. 6d. or Is. 9d.) of 
 most stationers. Note.—T he advantage of using the wooden stoppers 
 instead of wool, which is more generally employed for the purpose is two¬ 
 fold ; the wood resists better the stamp of the post office, and is not liable 
 to entangle the tiny prolegs of the larvae, should the eggs hatch in transitu. 
 
 <0ls0n1)attmt. 
 
 The observation of the eggs of insects is a subject of far greater 
 importance than Entomologists have yet seemed willing to admit. In 
 
10 
 
 EGO. — OBSERVATION. 
 
 this vast field, there is ample room to philosophize; these objects, repre¬ 
 senting, as they do, one stage in the existence of creatures which, in their 
 perfect state, we term and know as species, are necessarily as specifically 
 distinct one from another qs are the various moths themselves. It is, 
 moreover, that stage of life in which, throughout all animated nature, the 
 closest analogy exists ; and bearing forcibly not only on that question of 
 questions, the origin of species, but also upon the all-wise arrangements 
 planned for their well-being and perpetuation, it cannot fail to interest 
 deeply every student of the laws of Nature. 
 
 The systematist may here find, sometimes, at any rate, a help towards 
 the classification of families and genera, by which, in course of time, he 
 might hope for groups as natural as, for example, those of Smerinthus, 
 Hepialus , Lithosia , Arctia , Ennomos , Eupithecia , Tortrix , and many 
 others, the correctness of which is borne out by a reference to their re¬ 
 spective eggs. 
 
 The nomenclator, too, might often arrive at a diagnosis by aid of a 
 comparison of the eggs of closely allied species. The Entomologist would 
 have the pleasure and satisfaction of being able to recognize his species in 
 the egg state ; and even in a mercantile point of view, the architect and 
 the artistic designer might profit, both in mind and pocket, by a study of 
 their forms and exquisitely sculptured surfaces. 
 
 In carrying out observations upon the egg state, the student 
 should note— 
 
 How the egg is laid: whether unattached or attached; or, if so, by 
 what means, and also by what part of its surface; the position of the 
 female (and of her abdomen) at the time of laying—whether hovering, at 
 rest, or in what other act; whether the eggs are laid singly or in batches, 
 and, if so, in what number, and whether unarranged or how arranged; 
 also the total number deposited, and whether nude or covered, and, in the 
 latter case, how covered or protected, together with any exceptions, indi- 
 vidual, special, natural, or abnormal. 
 
 . ^ Jien lai ^; at wtat date or dates; at what time or times of day or 
 
 night; at what intervals; how long after copulation, and how long after 
 emergence of the female. 
 
 If here laid: if not on the food-plant, where; if on the food, the 
 exact position. 
 
 . „ Thc duration of the egg state, in species and in individual cases; 
 influences of temperature, soil, locality, altitude, time of year, &c which 
 promote, retard, or modify the natural changes. 
 
EGG.—PRESERVATION. 
 
 11 
 
 The appearance of the egg itself, as to form, colour or colours, mark¬ 
 ings, elevations, depressions, and sculpture on the surface ; together with 
 changes, normal as well as irregular, from the time of exclusion to that 
 of hatching. 
 
 The mode of exit of the lama should he exactly observed, and any 
 other remarks or experiments which may present themselves to the stu¬ 
 dent, should, if possible, be followed up; such as, for instance, those of 
 proving how long the egg state may continue ( i.e ., the ovum retain its 
 vitality), with a view to throwing light upon the, at present, hidden causes 
 of the disappearance and periodical re-appearance of certain species ; and 
 of discovering if there be any sexual arrangement of the eggs, as laid, to 
 account for the emergence of a preponderance of one sex of the future 
 moth at one time, of the other at another, from the same batch of eggs. 
 
 In describing, the best order will be to give the names of the 
 parent species, and then, by the assistance of microscopical examination, 
 in their order, the measurement, form, sculpture, colour, markings, and 
 changes ; the arrangement of the eggs, time, situation, &c., after which, 
 a diagnosis from the allied species may be added, as well as any further 
 remarks which may suggest themselves. 
 
 $)rmrbation. 
 
 In the preservation of eggs, we must recollect that they are composed 
 of an external membrane or shell possessing more or less transparency, 
 which encloses at first a fluid, and afterwards (if fertilised) a larva with 
 appendages, and that the colours and markings are, in very many cases, 
 principally due to the fact that the contents are dimly visible through the 
 shell, hence these objects, when simply deprived of vitality, and placed in 
 collections without other preparation, change colour or shrivel, owing to 
 alterations which take place in the interior. 
 
 Since the time of Swammerdam, numerous attempts have been made 
 to preserve permanently the natural aspect of these interesting objects, 
 but I am not aware that they have been attended by success. The follow¬ 
 ing was Swammerdam’s plan:—Having first squeezed out the contents 
 through a small punctured aperture in the shell, he inflated and re-filled 
 it by means of a very fine glass blowpipe, with oil of spike, in which resin 
 had been previously dissolved. Of course if the blowpipe were heated, or 
 the operation conducted in a hot atmosphere, coloured wax, tallow, or 
 cocoa-butter, would answer the same purpose ; but, inasmuch as opaque 
 objects are not so readily examinable under the microscope, and as, more- 
 
12 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—COLLECTING. 
 
 over, the form, structure, and sculpture of the shell hold the chief places 
 in the examination of these objects, it has been considered best to mount 
 the shell alone for the purpose; a mode of preparation which can he car¬ 
 ried out with great facility in. the following way:—Take a piece of leather, 
 or other suitable substance, and having punched out a hole in it, fix it to 
 the surface of a piece of glass; into the cell thus formed place the shell 
 and having covered it over with a disc of thin Venetian glass, ticket, and 
 the mount is ready for the microscope, hut well executed coloured drawings 
 would, doubtlessly, give the best idea. 
 
 end of “egg state.” 
 
 I HE CATERPILLAR STATE. 
 
 “ Thus arc my blossoms blasted in the bud. 
 
 And caterpillars eat my leaves away.” 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 CToIlrcttng. 
 
 With the exception of a few special manoeuvres, larva collecting 
 may be considered under three chief headin^-searching-beating-aud 
 sweeping, which I now proceed to discuss in order. 
 
 Searching —The apparatus required for this purpose will he a 
 goodly stock of boxes, cither tin with perforated lids and bottoms, or chip 
 ones, but they must he strengthened, for it is very annoying to find that 
 some good larva has been smashed or liberated, from the box bavins 
 collapsed under pressure or come to pieces through dampness. The 
 following appears to be the simplest, neatest, and most effectual way of 
 rendeimg chip and pill boxes secure:—Cut strips of calico in a direction 
 diagonal to the texture of the material (“on the cross,” as 
 it is termed), of about half-an-inch in width, and of the 
 length of the circumference of the boxes to be operated 
 on. Brush over one of these strips with shoemakers’ paste 
 (best for the purpose), and apply it round the lid at the 
 line where the two pieces of wood which form it are 
 , . . ™. ltcd - S en % P u Uing the strip at the same time, so that 
 
 by stietching it in its middle line, it will adapt itself to the angular 
 
 / aC ® ’ then smo . oth down the calico on to the top and down the rides 
 an<1 fwn?? tl0 , n LaS been neat 'y conducted, it will be found that a 
 smooth fillet firmly encasing the angular joint of the lid, has been 
 formed: and then prepare the bottom in the same manner. The accom- 
 
CATERPILLAR.—INDICATIONS. 
 
 13 
 
 panying cut will give the reader a good idea of the appearance of the box 
 when finished. Another way is to brush round the inside angles of the 
 boxes with liquid glue; this is, of course, more quickly done, but the 
 persistently offensive odour of the stuff is greatly against its use. The 
 disadvantage of the chip is its comparative want of security and its food¬ 
 drying nature, that of the tin its tendency, unless very freely perforated, 
 to cause the contained 1 irvae to, what is commonly termed, sweat, of these 
 two evils the collector must judge for himself which is the least; on the 
 whole, perhaps, chip will suit Noctuce best, tins the Geometry. He will 
 also require two or three large tin boxes, holding half-a-pint or so; a 
 hooked stick, and a pocket knife (or pair of scissors) will also be found 
 most useful; and a botanist’s collecting-box would enable him to brino* 
 home a plentiful supply of fresh food, though the ordinary chimney pot 
 hat of daily wear answers very well for the purpose, and saves the extra 
 burden. 
 
 Indications of the presence of larva? are numerous, and the collector 
 will do well to keep an eye to them. 
 
 If a leaf be eaten, it may usually be concluded that larvae have been 
 the cause. But slugs, snails, wasps, leaf-cutting bees, &c., frequently eat 
 or cut leaves in such a manner as to lead the inexperienced to believe that 
 the work has been executed by larvae; but when the molluscs have been 
 the cause, the leaves are generally riddled , and 
 traces of their slimy trails and long string-like 
 droppings are readily discernible, while the leaf¬ 
 cutting of the Hymenopterous imagos is usually 
 clean, and of some neat shape, as oval or circular. 
 
 Other mutilations of leaves, as those caused by 
 animals, birds, friction between contiguous bran¬ 
 ches, rupture from force, such as that of the 
 beating-stick or pelting hail, <fcc., present a 
 bruised appearance unlike that produced by 
 the feeding larva. If, however, the edges more 
 especially have been devoured, and the ribs 
 more or less completely demolished, it may, as a 
 rule, be set down as the work of a Lepidopterous 
 larva; whereas, if the centre of the leaf be 
 attacked, the ribs being avoided, it looks rather suspiciously indicative of 
 saw-fly Larvae, though by no means necessarily so, for the young larvae of 
 many Lepidoptera feed much after the same manner; and case-bearers 
 seem almost invariably to attack the centre parts of the leaf. 
 
 If the parts eaten present a fresh appearance, the larvae, in all proba- 
 
14 
 
 CATERriLLAB.—INDICATIONS. 
 
 bihty, will not be far distant, and diligent search should he made for them; 
 this way, it is by no means difficult to track the larv® of many of our 
 
 GeZar m K S t 0 lfl° Ur 0W r“' and PsenM ^ h ^es, as well as of several 
 hZ7 Z’ Utte r 8 ’ case ‘ be - arers > &c - The search must be effected by 
 turning the branch or stem in such directions as will enable the collector 
 
 ribsr, ,n ; U :TT - U Part f 0f the leaves ( es P ecia Uy of the edges and mid- 
 bs) leaf stalks, twigs, and of the bark of the branch itself; indeed, the 
 
 p ocedure is the same as that which has been recommended under egg- 
 
 of the ng oV XC t Pt f ng hat he u’ We haVeEm ° re C6rtain clueas to the P resen ”e 
 of the object of our search. In very important cases, it may even be 
 
 PkC \°^ CXa “ ine Car0fuU y in 8uccess ion leaf after leaf, 
 
 whf b b g - ’ but 1 have some hesitation in recommending this plan, 
 which has an air of wantonness about it. P 
 
 nnsbl t enWert } 00 or ™°re ^aves are spun together, or when a shoot is 
 unable to expand, or a leaf is folded, the hunter should at once proceed to 
 
 r”''® the Cause> whlch Wl11 most frequently be found to be. or to have 
 , due to the presence of, Lepidopterous larv®, and would indicate that 
 
 they were, or had been, feeding 
 between or within. In this 
 manner the larva? of Clostera , 
 Cymatophora, Tethea ,, Bicycla , 
 Cosmia , Epunda viminalis , 
 Cheimatobia, Ypsipetes elutata 
 and ruberaria, Melanippe has - 
 tata, Eupithecia debiliata , Sco- 
 tosia (when young), some species 
 of the genera Byrausta, Botys , 
 Bionea, and Scopula, also some 
 of the Phycidce, Halias chi or ana , 
 and a vast majority of the Tor - 
 trices, feed. As many of these 
 larva?, however, have a knack 
 of wriggling from between the 
 leaves on the slightest handling 
 
 £i a* 
 
 two Ws, one or two may be opened to ascertain whether oTnot the 
 larva be present, when, if the result be satisfactory, the spun lea ve, . ,, 
 
 be cut off aud placed in the tin bo. without further exai.Ltkm 
 
CATERPILLAR.—INDICATIONS. 
 
 15 
 
 A withered or sickly appearance of the food-plant often denotes the 
 presence of an internal stem or root-feeding larva, and, by attention to 
 this point, the practised eye will detect, at a glance, an infected plant 
 amongst a number of healthy ones. Thus, when the centre leaves of 
 reeds die off, the presence of the larva of M. arundinis , N. geminipuncta , 
 Helmanni , Ch. forficellus , or S. ulvce , even possibly of M. flammea , 
 may be suspected; the larva of G sagittata is said to bite through the 
 stems of Thalictrum , and then feed on the leaves thus caused to wither, 
 and so, too, similarly, does that of Pterophorus Teucrii. When the 
 flowers of thistles have an abortive appearance, some internal stem-feeding 
 larva is generally the cause; the sickly appearance of Echium plants on 
 the coast indicates the whereabouts of the larval Odontia dentalis ; and, as 
 further examples, I may mention Sesia chrysidiformis (dock), philanthi - 
 for mis (thrift), Leucania littoralis (at roots of Ammophila arenaria), 
 L. phragmitidis (reeds), Nonagria cannce and N. typhce (stems of Typha 
 latifolia), Gortyna {Arctium lappa , Scrophularia , &c.), Sydrcecia 
 (roots of Tussilago , Cyperacece , &c.), D. templi (. Eeracleum ), O. anti - 
 quana (roots of St achys), Argyrolepia (roots of various plants), E. cirsiana 
 (stems of thistles in woods), and scutulana (ditto in open places). 
 
 This aspect of the plant is not unfrequently accompanied—in the 
 case of stem-feeders, at any rate—by a spot on the stem, at which the 
 larva had originally entered; after one or two stems or roots have been 
 inspected, and the hunter is assured that the larva of a Lepidopteron is 
 the cause of the drooping of the plant, then, if the stem be the affected 
 part, it should be cut off considerably above and below the position (as 
 ascertained by experience) of the contained larva, and afterwards kept 
 planted in damp sand; when it is the root which is affected, the stem may 
 be cut off low down, the roots pulled up, and placed in sand. 
 
 Flowers or buds drawn together , or otherwise distorted or notched, 
 should be carefully examined. The larva may be concealed, as Dianthcecia 
 and Eup. venosata within the capsules of Silcne, Lychnis , and Dianthus 
 or Eup. tenuiata in sallow-bloom, while Ep.'viminalis and Y. elutata , 
 will sometimes spin together two or three female catkins, and so conceal 
 themselves ; it may hide itself by day, as Triphcena fimbria , which feeds 
 on flowers (by choice) of primrose and other plants ; or larva. may spin a 
 web within a flower head, as Spilodes palealis in the umbels of Daucus 
 carota; or it may feed openly, as Cucullia , on mullein, water-betony, 
 golden rod, wormwood, yarrow, or chamomile. Other instances of species 
 whose larvae show preference for flowers, are Lyccena argiolus, on holly 
 and ivy; Eremobia, on grasses ; the two Hecatera , on sow-thistles and 
 other Composite; young Xanthia larvae in sallow catkins; Erastria 
 
16 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—INDICATIONS. 
 
 venustula, on tormentil; most of the Heliothidce, on Ononis, Erodium, 
 Hyoscyamus, &c.; a large proportion of the Eupithecia, chiefly on 
 UmbelltfertE and Composite; Larentia casiata, on whortleberry; the 
 genus Emmelesia, on various flowers and seeds; Anaitis, on Hypericum ; 
 several Tor trices, and (though I refer the reader to Mr. Stainton’s “Com- 
 panion ” for information respecting Tineina), Depressarice and Gelechte. 
 
 . £ flo ' ver - hea<l8 > see(ls > even though presenting no outward 
 
 sign thereof, are so apt to contain larval, that the simple fact of their 
 presence may be looked on as an indication of the probable inhabitants, 
 as A. gentianana, in the pith of dry teasel heads; Eup. roseana, in the 
 seeds of the same ; B. pisana and nebritana, in pea-pods, and many 
 others. All that is necessary is to collect the catkins, fruits, seeds, and 
 pods and to place them in a suitable breeding cage, such as a common 
 sea eboard hat-box, into the lid of which a piece of muslin has been in- 
 serted lor the purpose of ventilation. 
 
 Seeds ’ $ c -’ which f aU he f° re Mey have ripened, unless the 
 
 Xtmi,! e T ei 7 PeSt T’ ge “ erally C ° Dtain S ° me ^quently of 
 
 in „1 y Tortricina, as Carpocapsa pomonana in apples ; C.funebrana 
 
 in plums and sloes; C. grossana in beech masts; C. splendana and 
 
 afno^ble TT , Uld aU te C0UeCted aS quickly after falling 
 
 as possible for the larvae soon quit their tenements to spin up elsewhere. 
 
 lum, f tm 9 s < ~ugh unnatural appearance of bark, holes in the boles 
 and branches of trees, Ac, usually denote the presence of larvae, sometimes 
 
 l T m , ‘ S ° f D ' ptera ’ retimes of Coleoptera; at one 
 time of a wood feeder, at another of a bark feeder. As examples let us 
 take the unmistakeable signs of the wood-boring Cossus in its ravages on 
 udlows and various other trees, and Zenzera in ash, privet, applet lilac, 
 &c Trochlmm apiforme and bembeciforme in aspen, sallow &c • 
 tipuliforme in nodulated twigs of currant-bushes; cynipiforme in the 
 bark of unhealthy looking oaks; sphegiforme, scoliiforme, and culiciforme 
 m bnch and alder (culiciforme seems to prefer the stump of a tree “which 
 has been felled so that it is advisable to search these stumps the next 
 year after the runk has been cut down); formiciforme in osier twigs- 
 myop^me in bark of apple and pear trees; besides a few Tortriees such 
 as & Wasberana, m the bark of apple and pear, and P. oppressanll that 
 of poplar; also Epkestia pmguedinella, which, by roughening the bark 
 
 The smell, as that of the Cossus larva, so strongly inherent in the 
 animal (for aught I know existing in other larvro) would indiVnf - f . 
 proximity, and the hunter, if it please him, may “follow up the scent ” * * 
 
CATEEPILLAB.—INDICATIONS. 
 
 17 
 
 The sound of the jaw-work of the larger larvae, as of the Sphingidce , 
 for instance, or of falling trass, might assist us also in ascertaining their 
 situations. 
 
 Webs, whether on trees, bushes, or herbs, frequently indicate the 
 position of a colony of larvae. The collector having satisfied himself that 
 the contained larvae are Lepidopterous, and worth the trouble of rearing, 
 should take nest and all, as the web seems in some measure to be necessary 
 for the welfare of the species, affording, as it does, a place of retirement for 
 the larvae when not engaged in the work of defoliation. 
 
 Single silken threads hanging from branches, or wherever else ob¬ 
 served, often have a larva at the end of them; when they extend to the 
 ground, the threads should be jerked up, so as to lift the larvae, or they 
 may be tracked to their destination. 
 
 Cast-off skins are sometimes noticed on the leaves of plants, &c .; 
 when the skins are soft and fresh, the larvae usually are not far off. 
 
 But frass (a word derived from the German, and used here to express 
 the pellets of excrement), next perhaps to the abnormal appearances of 
 the plants themselves, is one of the surest signs to go by. Upon the 
 sand hills, chalky places, paths, roads, or other places where ground vege¬ 
 tation is scanty, we may frequently find these evidences, and from them, 
 bringing a knowledge of the laws of gravitation to our help, make a shrewd 
 guess at the position of the larva. We can, therefrom, also form an 
 opinion as to the size of the larva, and, even in some cases, as to the very 
 species (e. g. D. galii and M. stellatarum ), while, from its fresh or stale 
 appearance, we may calculate the chances of the larvae being in the vicinity; 
 in this way, aided by trails, the larva of Deilephila has often been success¬ 
 fully tracked. 
 
 The trails and burrowings of larvae, as of Deilephila , Agrotis , and 
 others, indicate the direction which they have taken, and these too may 
 sometimes be followed up with advantage. 
 
 The presence of ichneumons and birds, such as Tomtits, Tree-creepers, 
 &c., would also indicate that their prey, and our game, was in the 
 neighbourhood. 
 
 The situations and modes of concealment of larvae vary very con¬ 
 siderably, even in individuals of the same species, according as they happen 
 to be feeding, moulting, or reposing; some remaining attached to their 
 food, others forsaking it at times to seek shelter elsewhere, the latter being 
 the rule with the majority of night-feeding Noctuce. 
 
 Of Butterfly larva, some, as those of the well-known “ garden 
 whites,” feed and repose openly and exposedly upon their food-plants; others, 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—SITUATIONS. 
 
 :t “T W l T ° mSClf0rW in sha P e and «*« i" hue, generally 
 r S6 r T rep ° Se ’ t0 the miJ - ribs on the under-sides of 
 ,Cy ? U d te S ° Ught for on tLcir fecial plants ; a third set 
 concea 1 themselves, when at.rest, under the lower leaves of their food-plant 
 
 F™ j S nnS J ° Ct 1 ; Whi ' e the Serious larva; of some of our 
 Fanessida remain more or less hidden in their webs. 
 
 Sphinx larva. Some of these feed openly, and usually hold firmlv 
 to their positions, not forsaking their food while resting; I may instance 
 those of the Smennthi. Others, as the larva, of A. apropos ami S con- 
 Mi hide away under sods, &c„ when not occupied in fifedi.m; but the 
 
 ^ ° f —* - ** 
 
 pecially during the hours of morning sunshine, hiding away under leaves 
 
 ‘ mms ^’ w '»*»— «f p- 
 
 , T/lelar ^ of Noctaa are more inclined to roam, when they are not 
 
 qq /nt„_ 77- , .. ° ujjchij anu. m the bright sunsluno 
 
 sSSssss' 
 
CATERPILLAR.—RESEMBLANCE. 
 
 .10 
 
 of the hunter. He will, however, he most materially assisted in his search 
 by blowing upon the branch at first gently, and with net held beneath, in 
 order to secure such lame as drop under this kind of treatment; and after¬ 
 wards more forcibly, for by so doing, the tightly-holding larva; are 
 compelled instinctively to curl up their segments, erect themselves, or 
 otherwise alter their postures, and so, perchance, betray their presence. 
 
 The great resemblance home by many larvae to portions of their food- 
 plants and other objects also greatly assists them in eluding us; for in¬ 
 stance, those twig-like larvae that feed on birch, invariably assimilate to the 
 stems of the tree; the same may be said 
 of oak and other tree-feeders ; those that 
 make broom their food are found to he 
 green, exactly like the twigs of the plant, 
 and the smaller Geometers that feed on 
 low plants, generally resemble the stems. 
 
 A. betularia is not easy to detect from 
 surrounding twigs of oak, with which its 
 form exactly corresponds. The larva of 
 Angerona pi'unaria may easily be mis¬ 
 taken for a twig of mountain ash, and 
 vice versd. In short, examples of the 
 forms of every kind of twig, gnarled, 
 knotted, prickled, rough, and smooth, are 
 marvellously represented amongst them. 
 
 The caterpillar of S. populi greatly re¬ 
 sembles a leaf of willow, upon which it 
 is frequently found feeding. The re¬ 
 spective larvae of G. quercifolia, P. po - 
 puli, and P. fasciaria , when in repose, 
 lie at full length, flatly pressed upon a 
 branch or twig, to which, moreover, their 
 colour often so closely approximates, that 
 they are with difficulty discovered, the 
 apparent tumidity of the twig being 
 readily passed over; the larva of Oidaria silaceata greatly resembles the 
 seed-pod of the Epihbium, on which it feeds; that of G. papilionaria 
 looks, m repose, much like a birch catkin. <?. papilionaria also occurs on 
 alder, and when young, before hibernation, is dull purplish all over, and in 
 this state is hke,m size and colour, the unexpanded bud of alder; after the 
 a der shoots and G. papilionaria turns green, it cuts through the juicy 
 stems of the shoots and gnaws them away for food, and then it looks like 
 
20 
 
 CATEBPILLAB.— TIMES. 
 
 a young partly-unfolding leaf projecting from the stem. Many lanm as. 
 similate, in then- tints and mottlings, to various lichens; some are of the 
 colour of the soil, others are green, like the leaves they feed on • and the 
 
 ££ 32 ? £ ££££* " ” l * “> 
 
 .*.«»» ^,..1 
 
 but, wm^tf/Kfarr’ b t taken c 11 theyear round 5 
 
 at particular seasons.it ma y Te as weiJ to m n « T ° f “ ^ 11 ba S" 
 dunng which to pursue his occupation ° U ^ profitable tlmes 
 
 to faVo^bt 1 * a a S m 7, h0 C T e r Dt ’ h *“ be ^Visahiv 
 
 Placed them on a *?*' ba ^ 
 
 hibernating larvse which maybe present ‘ Ttlv ‘"J" to + , detacb an 7 
 this method is rather chance-work fbe l? Tbe ' Frencb sa 7 th at, though 
 , °'™ lk ’ tbe larv f ot “ a ny of the rarer Noctum 
 
 may sometimes be thus obtained in plenty, at 
 
 thltTi “ WOrth triaL Nor do 1 ^oubt but 
 that mdoor examination of sackfuls of dead 
 
 ^ 10m likely localities; rubbish, 
 soil, tults of plants (roots and all), especially 
 
 from our heaths and sandhills; andoES 
 
 gatheied from favoured banks and slopes Ac 
 would be most productive, not only in the matter 
 of hibernating larval, but of other prizes, and 
 would amply repay the trouble of collection or 
 the expense ot transport. 
 
 About this time also loose bark may be de¬ 
 tached by means of a lever, such as that used by 
 Coleoptensts. The annexed figures represent an 
 instrument, manufactured expressly for the pur- 
 pose by Mr. Cooke, of New Oxford Street; it has 
 the advantage, over similar implements, of oc¬ 
 cupying a comparatively small space. Earth¬ 
 ward-looking surfaces, the bottom of stacks and 
 licks, whether of faggots, heather, gorse, beans 
 reeds, straw, or hay, &c., should be poked about 
 and investigated ; barns, out-houses, garden 
 
CATERPILLAR.—TIMES. 
 
 21 
 
 frames and pits, inspected; thatched and other roofings heaten; stones, 
 logs, sods, &c., turned over; chinks and crevices in trees, posts, pales, and 
 walls, peered into; tufty plants (as grasses, storks-bill, primrose, garden 
 pinks, and the like), and tangled herbage turned up, shaken, and both these 
 and the surface of the soil beneath them carefully examined, and, indeed, 
 every conceivable hibernaculum should be hunted up, not forgetting the 
 nests of Hymenoptera (especially deserted ones) for the Galleridce . 
 
 After continued heavy rains in February, there generally ensues a mild 
 night or two, without a breath of wind, and the ground being saturated 
 with moisture, the atmosphere becomes foggy; these are the nights to 
 be watched for, and turned to account by the collector of larva?, for 
 though many (or most) of the species he may meet with will be of small 
 size, some can then be found which he is not likely to capture in a 
 more matured state. When, therefore, such opportunities occur, the 
 known spots in woods, such as openings, clearings, barn-patches, &c., 
 should be visited soon after dark, and all the dead stalks and blades of 
 dry grass (for in woods no new herbage is as yet visible), examined, 
 and on these will be found numbers of larvae, stretched out as if to enjoy 
 the soft air on waking from their winter sleep. One such night in 
 February, is often more remunerative than a dozen a month later, for many 
 species, the natural habits of which keep them close to the roots of grasses, 
 seem, on such occasions, to evince a desire to rise and survey the aspect of 
 their locality. 
 
 When the vegetable kingdom assumes its verdant garb, larval life 
 begins to put forth an active appearance, hibernated species issuing from 
 their winter quarters, and newly-hatched ones from their egg-shells; of the 
 former, some may be found on weedy banks, feeding or basking in the 
 spring-tide sun-rays, others, on warm evenings, freely exerting their jaws 
 on newly-expanded buds of trees, bushes, &c., or discussing the leaves of 
 “ various low plants.” Thus, in the spring of the year, the larvae of many 
 butterflies, of several Bombyces, Our apteryx, Pericallia , Boarmia, 
 Geometra , and of some of the other Emeralds, Acidalia , some of Larentia, 
 and Melanippe , Bryophila , Leucania , Xylophasia, Heliophobus , Mi ana, 
 Triphcena, Noctua , Aplecta , Mania , <fcc., may be found, after hibernation, 
 feeding by night, as well as the small fry aforesaid. The latter (the small 
 fry) are generally to be found at home upon their food, from which, upon 
 the slightest jar or pp oach of danger, they lower themselves by silken 
 threads, and can be readily collected at this period of their existence with 
 the almost certainty of their being free from the stings of ichneumons. 
 Most collectors, however, do not care to capture them at this stage, pre- 
 
22 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—TIMES. 
 
 the end °I May °r ***““»* of June, when they have 
 “:rV re moredistinguishable, one species from another, and 
 require less time and care to feed up. 
 
 • thlS ’* ate T ,i i lar life begins to wane, and collecting the perfect 
 insect becomes the chief pursuit of the Entomologist, until again towards 
 
 hrlvTh’ Ve " e n ° n ^ m ° rC ab0unds ' vitij larvse, many of which’, partici 
 
 2. “ICS - *”"•« S4. ’C« 
 
 «* M? s X a 2“ rt'-**- 
 
 things winch seems to give a zest to the food); but some as e. a “ si,.,,.!.- •* 
 evidently select the bright hours of sunshine for their meal-tinfe- the h iir’v 
 
 SpSSSSSHH I 
 
 Ca W h ° Se °i L \ mo \ a l ha ' M - aprilina, T. munda, and the genus 
 
 “■jzsatt f ” d «*• - 
 
 worh^^Tt^hmfern^ - S c ° nducted muel1 after the manner of day. 
 
 rnBmmmm 
 
 ^£B:ssS33£5S= 
 
CATERPILLAR.—TRAPS, ETC. 
 
 23 
 
 but all plants should be inspected, and when search has to be made 
 for any special larva, a previous acquaintance with its natural food is 
 necessary. 
 
 Capturing is usually an easy job, the collector simply cutting off 
 the leaf or twig with the larva attached, or gently picking oif the latter 
 and placing it, together with a sprig of the food, in one of his boxes, 
 taking care not to overcrowd his captures, and keeping a sharp look out 
 for cannibals, such as Scopelosoma satellitia and the blood-thirsty C. 
 trapetzina , with the appearance of which he should early familiarise him¬ 
 self. For those lame which drop upon the least touch, a box or net 
 should be held beneath. Some, as, for example, those of Cucullia , actually 
 jump, jerk, or wriggle with such alacrity, as to render their capture a 
 matter of difficulty; in such cases, the collector must either be ready with 
 his net, or else prepared to catch them dexterously in his hand as they fall, 
 and so ensure their transfer to appropriate boxes. 
 
 Traps for larvae may be worth trial The gardeners’ plan of 
 sticking cones of paper or little inverted flower pots about the plants, has 
 been recommended and seems to answer in the country, but near London 
 I am persuaded that the catch (or “ no catch ”) would mainly consist of 
 Euplexoptera and Mollusca. For such larvae as desert their food, in 
 order to repose or hibernate, folded pieces of old flannel or carpet may he 
 spread upon the surface of the soil in likely places, with a probability of 
 success. 
 
 As a bait, I am not aware that any substance, barring the questionable 
 one of sugar, has been found attractive; but as the smell of “ iodine ” is 
 said to cause slugs to congregate (not that slugs have anything in common 
 with larvae), it is not impossible that a bait of some kind may hereafter be 
 discovered. It has been noticed, however, that many herbivorous larvae 
 are remarkably fond of lettuce , and it has therefore been found worth 
 while to scatter lettuce leaves over the hunting ground some hours before 
 commencing our search for larvae. 
 
 Beating is the next mode of collecting requiring consideration. 
 
 The apparatus ordinarily used, consists of a clap-net (the larger 
 the better) or an umbrella, or still better, an ingenious invention, which is 
 earned out in the following simple and inexpensive manner:—Two pieces 
 of cane (or lath) are “ hemmed ” into opposite sides of a piece of window 
 blind, and, through a hole made in the middle of one of them, a loop of 
 string is passed. Now we must consider the use of it:—Take an umbrella 
 net (such as that used for “ sweeping”), open it, slip the loop over the 
 
24 
 
 CATERPILLAB.—BEATING. 
 
 ferrule end, unfurl the blind over the net, and hold down the other 
 
 . . . . _ ° — -- uut tne collector mav 
 
 instantaneously detach the appendix, leaving him, net in hand, free to 
 chase any insect which may suddenly start up. 
 
 •n i Ti en a - beatin ® stlck > sucl1 as a heavy hook-handled walking stick 
 will be required, and as many boxes and tins as the beater can convenientlv 
 manage to stow away in his pockets or satchel. It may be here noted that 
 
 a handy box is thus formedTake a 
 chip box, put a second lid on the bottom, 
 and punch, or cut, a hole through the 
 second lid and bottom towards the 
 circumference as in fig. 2 : — when the 
 
 1 2 
 
 the second lid is shifted round, as in fig. 1 , the holes are not opposite 
 
 IDVn io *n r\ A * * 
 
 The form of larva tin best suited for the pocket is “oval/* size optional, 
 the bottom should be perforated, and the lid provided with a short tube 
 into which a cork is fitted; this tube should project a little way into the 
 intenor of the tin. Larvae are easily put down the tube, and the danger 
 of crushing them, by removing and replacing the lid, is obviated. Tius^of 
 this land, made with two or three separate compartments, are sold bv 
 Mr. Cooke, of New Oxford Street. 
 
 I or working the higher branches of trees, a large surface of canvas 
 or other material, and a long pole for beating, become necessities. 
 
 Saplings may be jarred by kicking against them with the heel, but 
 both they and the lower branches of trees are best worked by means of 
 the mallet (“ le maillet ”), that is an ordinary mallet, the striking-end of 
 which is loaded, with from a quarter of a pound to two pounds of lead, 
 and encased in stout leather or gutta percha, which has the double effect 
 of preventing, in a great measure, injury to the trees, and diminishing 
 sound ; it is an instrument much in vogue with our French neighbours, to 
 the efficacy of which I can myself attest—a light one, with a longish 
 handle, is most suitable for the kind of work mentioned here. In using 
 this implement, it must be remembered that our endeavour should not bo 
 to thrash the larvae off the food, but rather to jar or shake the food from 
 their foot-hold, and therefore, after administering a gentle tap or two to 
 detach such larvae as fall readily, we should strike sharply and suddenly 
 in the direction opposite to that in which we desire the larvce to fall , 
 otherwise most of them will be jerked away and lost, though even with 
 the greatest care it is difficult to entirely prevent this. 
 
CATERPILLAR.—SHAKING, FUMIGATION. 
 
 25 
 
 The beating-stick is most serviceable for ejecting larvae from bushes, 
 and this is generally wielded with the light hand, while the left is em¬ 
 ployed in holding the clap net, umbrella, or “what-not,” in the most 
 advantageous position for receiving the results of the beating. Although 
 most people consider the direction in which they apply their beating-sticks 
 unimportant, they will stand but little chance of success in collecting the 
 larvae of Aleucis pictaria , and other clinging geometers, unless they 
 attend to the foregoing italicised sentence. 
 
 I rom time to time, the “ beatings ” should be carefully examined, and 
 such larva? as the collector desires to retain, boxed with as little handling 
 as possible. The contents of the net should then be turned about, and 
 blown upon, or smoked, with a view to rendering active such larva? as 
 may have instinctively coiled up or become otherwise inert from the 
 suddenness of the shock which has dislodged them. When the collector 
 can find no more, he should cautiously turn out the contents, and cast a 
 lingering glance over the net or umbrella, for any larvae which may have 
 attached themselves to the fabric of the receptacle. 
 
 Whilst heating hy night , the operator will act wisely to eschew the 
 use of a lantern, which will certainly do more harm than good, as it 
 has a tendency to “ scare ” many larvae, but he will, of course, require it 
 when examining the results of his beating. 
 
 Shaking is sometimes preferable to beating bushes, as, for example, 
 in cases where the bushes are tall, or where it is desirable to procure the 
 larvae of certain species without injuring them, or to tire out such as those 
 of Apatura , Dicranura, Notodonta , or Petasia , for which the beating-stick 
 has no terrors, and the grip of which seldom relaxes for anything short of 
 a mortal wound or blow. 
 
 In shaking bushes, spread the sheet beneath, grasp in each hand a 
 large stem, pull towards you, give as strong a downward jerk as strength 
 will permit, and keep on repeating the process. For suddenly and forcibly 
 shaking the upper branches of trees, an iron crook whipped with waxed 
 string to the top of a long pole will be found very useful. Larvae which 
 are thus detached fall straight down on to the sheet below. I need hardly 
 say it is tough work. 
 
 Shaking is also the more effective plan of working herbs, beating bein«- 
 hardly applicable, and is effected by gathering in the hand a head or bunch 
 of the plant, bending it down, shaking it over an umbrella or net, and 
 striking it against the stick or ribs. 
 
 Fumigation and vaporisation , applied to bushes, whether by 
 
26 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—SWEEPING. 
 
 means of the smoke-bellows, in the form of tinder and tobacco smoke, or 
 by Maw’s Atmospheric odorator, or Dr. Kichardson’s apparatus! in the 
 form of a cloud of Benzine, solution of Carbolic acid, Naptha, or other 
 pungent fluid, will astonish the inmates, and doubtless cause their pre¬ 
 cipitate retreat. Fumigation has been employed as a means of disquieting 
 the larval occupants of low herbage, with, at any rate, some amount of 
 
 Sweeping ,S undoubtedly the best plan for obtaining the inhabi¬ 
 tants of low-ground herbage; in fact, the number of lame, of spec ies 
 otherwise far from common, which may thus he taken is often perfectly 
 surprising: it may also be used for working hushes, but for this purpose it 
 scarcely comes up to beating. 1 
 
 The apparatus required consists of the usual complement of tins 
 and boxes, and a sweeping-net, a Coleopterist’s will do, the frame of which 
 
 is formed of a ring of stout steel 
 wire (joined or hinged for conve¬ 
 nience of doubling up and poc- 
 keting), which screws into a rather 
 long handle; the bag of the net 
 should be made of “ Cheese Cloth,” 
 the hem through which the ring 
 passes (easily) being composed of 
 leather. This answers very well 
 for sweeping, but for the Lepidop- 
 terist, who is (or ought to be) 
 always having insects flying up 
 under his very nose, it is rather 
 too heavy. Mr. Cooke, of New 
 Oxford Street, has, however, acted 
 on a hint I gave him, and now 
 produces, at a reasonable rate, an 
 umbrella sweeping-net of such 
 strength, as to defy breakage, and yet sufficiently light to permit of easy 
 aerial manipulation. The operator, as he advances step by step, makes 
 long steady sweeps with the net alternately from right to left, and back 
 again from left to right, much in the same manner as a mower, except that 
 the sweeper mows, as it were, both ways, a very little practice enabling him 
 to acquire the requisite turn of the wrist whereby the contents are retained 
 within the net. 
 
CATEBPILLAB.—SWEEPING. 
 
 27 
 
 By day, many larvae may thus be obtained on the slopes of bills and 
 nnderclifis, particularly on such as are covered with a variety of wild herbs; 
 and along banks, and ditches where herbs and weeds grow rankly, &c. 
 
 Just before sunset, however, is, as with heating, the grand time to 
 begm sweeping, when our heaths, moors, sandhills, banks, rides in woods, 
 and other “canny” places, teem with larvae, affording abundance of sport,’ 
 especially on warm evenings in the spring months. 
 
 When the vegetation swept is of an uniform character, as heather 
 upon a moor, bilberry on a “chase,” reeds, rushes, &c., in a marsh, or 
 clover in a^field, much time will he saved by putting the whole of the 
 sweepings, without examination, into a closely fastening ba<>-, for future 
 leisurely investigation at homeBy this means, in addition to the time 
 saved, the necessity for a lantern is done away with, and Psyche and 
 Coleophora cases, when present, will be sometimes obtained in plenty— 
 besides which, sawfly larva:, beetles, Eymenoptera aud hugs, as well as 
 spiders, may be saved, without trouble, for friends or fellow-labourers whose 
 specialise leans towards them, and who may, at some future time in 
 gratitude for your services, mention you honourably in some great mono- 
 graph or other. 
 
 To give an idea of the returns to he anticipated from an evening’s 
 wor , I may remark that it is by no means unusual, during a favourable 
 evening towards the end of May, to meet, upon a heath or moor (as in the 
 ho.lows at Shirley), with larvae of the following in greater or less abun¬ 
 dance : Agrotis agathna and porphyrea, Noctua neglecta and Pahlii 
 A. myrtdli, P. hippocastinaria, A. strigillaria, F. atomaria and bel- 
 giana Fup. mxnutata and nanata, &c„ besides the heterogeneous pot 
 pourri before mentioned. 
 
 On reaching home, we should lose no time in looking over our sweep- 
 ings and this is the modus operandi.— Unfasten the bag, shake out a 
 hand! ul or so mto a large white meat-dish, and having tied up the ba°- 
 and distributed the sweepings over the surface of the dish, proceed to ex¬ 
 amine; put the Lepidopterous larvae into glass-topped jam pots, in which 
 Iresh sprigs of the food-plant have already been placed ; the beetles into a 
 laurel bottle; the bugs into another; pin the Hymenoptera; and immerse 
 the spiders in a bottle of proof-spirit:—repeat the process until the sweep¬ 
 ings are exhausted, placing them, after each examination, into what is 
 known as a “ sixpenny pan,” and tie this over with muslin ; for days after 
 Coleophora will (and Psychida would too, if present) come up and attach 
 themselves to the muslin, where they may be instantly detected. 
 
 With three lines of advice to the larva-hunter, I close this chapter on 
 collecting: 
 
28 
 
 CATEEPILLAE.—MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. Lose no time in making out tlie species to which your captures 
 belong. 
 
 2 . . Do not think that, because you find a larva in abundance, it 
 necessarily pertains to a common species; or the converse. 
 
 3. Do not expect to breed one tythe of the larva? you obtain by 
 beating and sweeping, and you will not be disappointed. 
 
 ifflanajjfmcnt. 
 
 ii Breedmg ’ as :t is termCll > is perhaps the most deeply interesting of 
 all the charming occupations of the student of Entomology-for whether 
 we regard it from an instructive point of view, or pursue it from the simple 
 love of contemplating Creation's wonders, or whether we have an eye merely 
 to quantity and quality of ‘ specimens,’ it is, in either case, an equally pro- 
 htable employment. 1 
 
 1 he first thought which probably strikes the collector, is that Nature 
 herself must be the best nurse, and that to follow her will therefore be 
 the summum bonum of breeding; but, though for truthful natural histories 
 and accurate records of the (economy of insects, Nature undoubtedly 
 presents the proper field for observation, experience demonstrates how 
 few individuals (comparatively to the number of eggs), under ordinary 
 natural surrounding conditions, attain the perfect or even chrysalis state ; 
 for it must be borne in mind that to an all-wise end, Nature destroys just 
 so many as die directly or indirectly, from atmospheric causes, such as 
 cold, heat, wet drought, wind, &c , as well as from the attacks of natural 
 enemies and the rest; so that the natural state then, even if it were 
 
 rearer^ 0 ’ ^ dlsadvanta S eous for the purposes of the larva- 
 
 statenf P lans « that which comes nearest to the natural 
 
 state of things is, perhaps, the adoption of a greenhouse, or other apart- 
 
 , ,' lch °. Ur , cares feed °P enl y on growing plants; and thus, if 
 k d d00rs be ke Pt well closed, many enemies, such as birds, mice, 
 wasps, and large Ichneumons, are kept at bay, though centipedes, wood- 
 lice, spiders Acari, earwigs, ZW,ants, small Ichneumons, parasitic Dip. 
 te, a, and other plagues, still gain admittance; besides—the chances of wan- 
 
 are'! ! V sta ™ tion ’ “otilation, or suffocation, 
 
 are, to say the least, very considerable, the temperature must in many 
 
 aUhut use°i Je t° n f l6 ’- a e Dd ’ t0 Wattt °t‘accuracy, this plan must be 
 
 all hut useless for descriptive purposes. For such larvm, however, as are 
 
 veTenT f J t0 theh ' f °° d ’ 14 affords the most agreeable and con¬ 
 venient means for observation, short of the natural state itself 
 
CATEBPILLAB.—CAGES. 
 
 29 
 
 Another attempt to follow Nature is to confine the larvae, together 
 •with a bunch or branch of their growing food, within a sleeve of gauze or 
 leno; but, however perfect in theory the plan may appear, in practice the 
 ill effects of a shower of rain or storm of wind are very painfully percep¬ 
 tible, in addition to which nothing—absolutely nothing is gained, facility 
 of observation is all but lost, the trouble of feeding is not overcome, and 
 security is not attained, for the cage so formed is pretty sure to be rent by 
 inevitable rotting and decay, tom by the wind or by the collector in the 
 changing process, gnawed by mice and earwigs, or even by the enclosed 
 larvae themselves, to say nothing of the whole concern being carried off 
 bodily by some inquisitive or acquistive biped, at least, such is my ex- 
 perience. 
 
 Cages , or prisons, which, while they more or less restrict the liberty 
 of the occupants within, also serve to protect them from the attacks of 
 enemies without, &c., are the more confessedly artificial appliances that 
 come under our consideration ; of these, I here enumerate a few of the 
 more prominent, glancing at the principles involved in their construction. 
 
 The old-fashioned safe-like breeding cage , is usually composed of a 
 wooden frame work, and has the top, sides, and doors covered with either 
 muslin (canvas), wire-gauze, glass, perforated zinc, or a combination of 
 two or more of these, at the option of the proprietor. The best examples 
 of this kind of cage are turned out by Mr. Cooke, and are certainly models 
 of neatness. 
 
 Hat , toy , and other boxes , the lids being covered with gauze, form 
 useful and handy cages, when better are not obtainable; into these, the 
 food-plant, plugged into a phial of water, or stuck into a juicy potato, may 
 be inserted, and the larvae placed thereon ; in the case of flat shallow boxes, 
 however, it is evident that the food, in its water vessel, would not stand 
 upright; this difficulty is at once overcome by attaching a loop to one end 
 at the back of the box, and, with this, hanging it up by a nail on the wall. 
 
 An air-tight process of feeding is a favourite plan of rearing with 
 many, by which the food is kept fresh for a considerable length of time. 
 It is usually effected by grinding the lip of a jam-pot, so that it may be 
 accurately fitted with a piece of smooth glass, and into this receptacle the 
 food and larvae are placed; but the close, unhealthy atmosphere, which, 
 in spite of every caution and attention, must, in greater or less degree, be 
 engendered, seems to me to render it unfit for general purposes, although 
 I can strongly recommend it (as well as air-tight feeding in a closely 
 
30 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—CAGES. 
 
 y me neat of the hand, or by the admission of sun-rays 
 
 *■ f ■—* 
 
 mm 
 
 »^ri: r t: ie k “ - ii » «- *»*«*«,.<. P 
 ««-*, sri^r" "S rrf "■•“'■■ f™» 
 
 . , f eeders maybe provided for as follows— Take a m»l * 
 
 “a.”“ 1 t,rr rt “i fui : " ,h -^Mts 
 
 .fw,,ii»o„ uniLi’” 
 
 AUi-SlSiT? wi,h * ““-“*■ 
 
 Of tbo pot, which i, then «t^t£E£i?‘ t 5T ”!' f* ,id “ 
 will find a subsistence oitb.r „ £ J££ “ **“ 
 
 -4 ‘s'bir™ riTd i “" r *?* . ljr 
 
 Sm KJV5 * «;*dt•»** *£ <S»'»■'« 
 
 faetenins. Tboilnd, wben emalih™ “ toUaJ^ "'^T' 0,l “ r 
 
CATERPILLAR.—CAGES. 
 
 31 
 
 food fresh, but readily allows of the operation of “ changing ” when neces- 
 sary-a most important consideration. If it be desirable to economize, a 
 flower-pot filled with mould (into which the cut food, or, better still, the 
 growing plant should be inserted) may be substituted for the pan of sand; 
 and, as for the cylinders, old lamp shades, broken tumblers, and other 
 make-shifts may be used, though the neatest, cheapest, and most transparent 
 cylinders are certainly the cut-off bottoms of glass shades, which can bo 
 procured from the warehouses, at prices varying from a penny upwards 
 according to size. 
 
 An unglazed earthenware plate (5) [vide the annexed diagram! 
 perforated at the centre for the ° 
 
 food-plant to pass through into a 
 jam pot (a) containing water, 
 beneath, is a great improvement 
 on the damp sand; the gauze- 
 topped cylinder (e) above resting 
 on the rim of the plate: but even 
 porcelain is too good a conductor 
 of heat to suit the prolegs of such 
 larvae as may pass a night upon 
 its surface ; a piece of muslin ( c) 
 should therefore be strained from the centre perforation, where it is to be 
 fixed, by means of a sail-eyelet^ (nautically termed a “thimble”), to 
 ovei the circumference, whereon it should be fastened firmly down, thus 
 forming a capital non-conducting floor, which permits the passage of air 
 underneath the cylinder, and thereby allows a considerable amount of 
 ventilation without draught. 
 
 A still further improvement has been achieved by making the floor 
 of the cage slope downwards from the centre to the circumference, so that 
 rass &c are thrown away from the centre, and larva?, which may have 
 left their food, have to crawl up-hill to regain it. It is carried out in the 
 manner represented by the right side of the diagram overleaf:— 
 
 (1). Take a piece of book-muslin (*), and from its centre-part cut out a 
 circular aperture of the diameter of the small end (bottom) of a jam pot 
 (c); force the latter nearly through the aperture, and then tie the muslin 
 firmly (underneath) to the groove (e) which is under the lip of the jam pot. 
 
 (2.) Fix the bottom of the jam pot, by means of elastic glue, to the 
 centre of an inverted lid (wooden) of a round box (k,l), and strain over and 
 fasten the muslin before mentioned, to the hoop of the lid. 
 
33 
 
 CATEEPILLAB.—SOILS. 
 
 (3.) Insert a moveable water vessel (<t) in the jam pot above alluded 
 
 to, and fit the 
 latter with a 
 bung (a a a) 
 which is to be 
 perforated at 
 (b b) for the 
 purpose of al¬ 
 lowing the 
 ends of the 
 food to pass 
 
 (4.) Place the gauze-topped cylinder (m) on the muslin stage (i) and 
 the cage is complete. b v 
 
 By means of a little decorative ingenuity, a really handsome orna- 
 s^r'll outlay 6 ° f thlS breeding ca S e - and that, too, at an incredibly 
 
 ., H avlrl g disposed of the cages suitable for ordinary feeding purposes 
 it will be well to say a few words concerning those contrivances which are 
 appropriate for larva when about to prepare themselves for assumiu- the 
 pupa state. ° 
 
 For those which go to earth, the old safe-like cage may be fitted with 
 a trough of zinc or tin, for holding the soil; or a flower-pot may be used 
 its porous composition being far preferable to the metals above named the 
 presence of which is decidedly objectionable. But if neatness be desired 
 a modification of the cylinder cage (as represented by the left, side of the 
 preceding diagram), either with or without the muslin stage, will be found 
 both useful and ornamental -When the muslin stage is used, instead of 
 being tied to the grove of the jam pot, the borders of the central aperture 
 arc stitched on a ring of wire (g), having a diameter of two or three inches 
 more than the jam pot and supported by radiating wires, of which (h) is 
 
 nan fT £ W ® gl 'T ° f the jam pot <*>• A Propagating seed- 
 pa l (/>), or other suitable vessel, must, of course, be substituted for the in¬ 
 verted lid. Larvae find their way to the soil readily enough through the 
 mteistice (g to/) which is left between the ring and the jam pot. ° 
 
 Soils, &c., for larva to enter.-Considerable diversity of 
 opinion, respecting the substances, mixtures, &c, best adapted for this pur 
 pose, exists among Entomologists-probably, at one time, one is preferable 
 at another, another; that which is most suitable for one species may be 
 objectionable in the case of others. In selecting our soil we should be 
 
CATEBPILLAE.—HOUSE. 
 
 33 
 
 guided oy the habits of the species, for the benefit of which we are cogita- 
 ting, the nature of the soil which it inhabits, and the position (wet, dry, 
 hot, or cold) which it selects for its transformation. For the rest, I must 
 leave it to the choice of the reader, merely contenting myself with an enume¬ 
 ration of the most approved kinds : loam, leaf-mould, pine forest mould, 
 silver sand, sand, or “ ballast ”—the latter is, however, apt to “ cake,”—the 
 rubbish from the roots of oaks and forest trees, rotten wood, bran, cocoa- 
 nut fibre, birch catkins (rubbed between the hands into light flakes), or 
 combinations of from two to half-a-dozen of them. All soils should be first 
 well baked to destroy animal life (such as Acari, slugs, eggs or larvae of 
 Tinea, spiders, wire-worms, &c.), they should then be tied up in canvas 
 bags, damped, and kept in a moist, but ventilated, situation until required 
 for use. Where a certain degree of moisture has to be kept up, the soil 
 should be covered with a layer of cocoa-nut fibre—a capital means of pre¬ 
 venting it from becoming too dry,—or with moss first prepared by a few 
 dips into boiling water. 
 
 The breeding-house, or apartment, to be used for the purpose, 
 should, of course, be constructed, or chosen, with a view to the health of 
 the occupants, and the following conditions should be taken into considera¬ 
 tion. Aspect. —One side facing the east, at any rate, should be provided 
 with a window, in order that the rays of the early morning sun may gain 
 admittance: this, with many larvae, is a condition of paramount impor¬ 
 tance. T entilation. —This should be complete, but so managed that 
 thorough draught be avoided, at the same time that the apertures by which 
 it is effected are sufficiently small to prevent the ingress of “ natural 
 enemies ” to our nurselings; for bringing this about, the free employment 
 of finely perforated zinc in the construction of the breeding-house, is of the 
 ulmost utility. Temperature. —This ought never to be too high ; a roof¬ 
 ing of Portland cement (flat tiles being embedded in it for the purpose oi 
 “tying” it together), being nearly white when dry, affords the greatest 
 protection against the vertical rays of the sun, but, in addition, when the 
 weather is excessively hot, watering the floor and ground adjacent to the 
 breeding-house is of advantage. Space. —As much room as possible 
 should be allowed; the more the better. Light. —It is rather a disputed 
 point whether a large or small amount of light is advantageous in a general 
 way: my own impression is that some larvae thrive best with plenty of 
 light, others in comparative darkness ; and I think it might be taken as a 
 criterion, that if the perfect insects are day-flyers (such as butterflies, for 
 example), their respective larvae will be found to thrive best with a more 
 or less abundant supply of light; while if they shun light (as the majority 
 
 c 
 
34 
 
 CATEBPILLAB.—FOOD. 
 
 of the Noctuce), their larva; will get on better in a darkened situation: 
 the apartment should therefore be constructed with a view to this, and the 
 cages arranged accordingly. 
 
 + F ° od —Doubtless the-rearer of Lepidoptera must often be perplexed 
 ^ovidl f the * vent of tbe P r °P er f ood being unobtainable) h? shall 
 Lck wV T S " ste “ ance J °/ his km* With a view to setting him on the 
 tack which has been found from experience the most likely to yield success 
 
 l ° f° Wln ” f W S "“ tStl ™“ ancl lists are offered in the hope that they 
 may, at any rate, serve to arrange his ideas upon the point 7 
 
 As a matter of course, when the true food-plant is at hand, it should 
 be used m preference to all others; should it not naturally occur in the 
 
 3 ; ?: V? r ,S 'T t0 itS re< l u ' reme ut, be potted or trans¬ 
 ferred to his garden-beds, in readiness for future use; or it may be re-u- 
 
 ‘ - y , T nSlmttcd T sultable lntervals > secured in tins, when the locality in 
 which it occurs is too far off to admit of his taking a series of journeys 
 ter fresh supplies of it. On the other hand, if the known food be not ob- 
 tamable, a substitute must be found. 
 
 Substitute food-plants may be divided into, at least, four 
 classes, viz. :-Allied species (cultivated forms, &c.) of plants; allied genera 
 
 S mClUded)! Wvn geferalty 
 
 Allied species to the true food-plant, will usuaUy offer the best 
 ances of success. By way of a few examples of this class of substitutes 
 I t me mention the following :-for aspen, poplar may be tried; for bet 
 
 berrv' f 6rS: ' T' anberry or cowberry; for bramble, rasp- 
 
 lowwilol C ‘T PI T’ la T r ; f ° r eanter W bell, hare-bell; for sal- 
 low, wlllow; for sloe plum or greengage; for primrose, polyanthus- for 
 
 ragwort, groundsel ; for rock-rose, gum-cistus; for sweet-briar, rose - for 
 vetchlmg, everlasting pea; for violet, heartsease; for weld, mignonette 
 oi willow herb, rose-bay ; for wormwood or mugwort, southernwood • be- 
 
 £ZZL£r eSPeCkUy ^ *** might 
 
 .. A J hed genera P resent a second choice of food-plant: subjoined is 
 a list of some examples (classed under the headings of the orders or sub 
 orders to which they belong), for the guidance of those whose acquaintance 
 with botanical lore is, as in my own case, scanty. acquaintance 
 
 Some examples of Allied Geneba of Plants. 
 Kaxunculacre : AcUa, Baneberry .-Aconitum, Monkshood —Adonis 
 Pheasant s-eye. Anemone, Anemone. - A.uUegia, Columbia^ 
 
CATERPILLAR.—FOOD. 
 
 35 
 
 Caltha, Marsh marigold.— Clematis, Traveller’s joy.— Delphinium, 
 Larkspur.— Helleborus, Hellebore.— Myosurus, Mouse-tail.— Nigella, 
 Devi 1-in-the-bush. — Poeonia, Poeony. — Ranunculus, Crow-foot. — 
 Thalictrum, Meadow rue.— Trollius, Globe Flower. 
 
 Papaveracer : Chelidonium, Celandine.— Glaucium, Homed poppy.— 
 ATecanopsis, Welsh poppy .—Pa paver. Poppy. 
 
 Arabider (Cruciferje) : Arabis, Rock cress.— Barbarea ,Winter cress.— 
 Cardamine, Bitter cress.— Chdranthus, Wall flower.— Matthiola , 
 Stock.— Nasturtium, Water cress .—Turrit is. Tower mustard. 
 
 Brassicacer and Sisymbrer (Cruciferr) : Brassica, Cabbage, Tur¬ 
 nip.— Erysimum, Treacle mustard. — Hesperis, Dame’s violet.— 
 Sinapis, Mustard.— Sisymbrium , Hedge mustard. 
 
 Alyssiner (Cruciferr) : Alyssum, Alyssum. — Armoracea, Horse¬ 
 radish.— Cochlearia, Scurvy grass.— Draba, Whitlow grass. 
 
 LepidiE 2 E and Tiilasper (Cruciferje) : Capsella, Shepherd’s purse.— 
 Iberis, Cand}’ tuft.— Lepidium, Cress.— Thlaspi, Pennycress. 
 
 SiLENEiE (Caryophyllacer) : Agrostemma, Corn-cockle.— Dianthus, 
 Pink.— Lychnis, Campion.— Saponaria, Soap-wort.— Silene, Catchfly. 
 
 Alsiner (Caryophyllacer) : Alsine, Chickweed. — Arenaria, Sand¬ 
 wort.— Cerastium, Mouse-ear.— Cherleria, Cyphel.— Polycarpon, 
 All-seed. — Sagina, Pearl-wort. — Spergula, Spurrey. — Stellaria, 
 Stitch-wort. 
 
 Malvaceae : Althcea, Marsh Mallow.— Lavatera, Tree Mallow.— Alalva, 
 Mallow.— Alcea, Hollyoak.— Hibiscus, Hibiscus. 
 
 Geraniacer : Er odium, Stork’s-bill.— Geranium, Crane’s-bill.— Pelar¬ 
 gonium, Greenhouse geranium. 
 
 Vicier (Papilionacer) : Lathyrus, Everlasting pea.— Orobus, Bitter 
 vetch.— Pisum, Pea.— Vida, Yetch. 
 
 Loteje (Papilionacer) : Anthyllis, Kidney vetch.— Astragalus, Milk- 
 vetch.— Cytisus, Broom.— Genista, Greenweed.— Lotus, Bird’s-foot 
 trefoil.— Medicago, Medick.— Melilotus, Melilot.— Ononis, Rest-har¬ 
 row.— Trifolium, Trefoil.— Trigonella, Fennygreek.— Ulex, furze. 
 
 Hedysareje (Papilionacer) : Astrolobium, Joint vetch.— Hippocrepis, 
 Horse-shoe vetch.— Onobrychis, Sainfoin.— Ornithopus, Bird’s-foot. 
 
 Amygdaler (Rosacer) ; Amygdalus, Almond, Peach.— Cerasus, Cherry, 
 Laurel.— Prunus, Plum, Sloe. 
 
 Pomacer (Rosacer) : Cotoneastei', Cotoneaster.— Cratcegus, Hawthorn. 
 — Mespilus, Medlar.— Pynis, Crab, Service, Pear. 
 
36 
 
 CATEBPILLAB.—FOOD. 
 
 ETAREiE (Rosace*) : Agrvmonxa, Agrimony—Cowiorim, Marsh cinque- 
 foil .-Dryas. Mountain Avens — Fragaria, Strawberry .-Geum, 
 Avens. Potentilla, Cinquefoil .-Rubus, Bramble, Raspberry. 
 
 Sangpisobbe* (Rosace*): AlchemiUa, Lady's mantle— Poterium, 
 oalad- burnet.— Sanguisorba , Burnet. 
 
 Onagbaci* : Circeea, Enchanter's nightshade— Fpilobium, Willow-herb. 
 
 uchsia, Fuchsia. Isnardia, Isnardia. — (Enothera, Evening 
 primrose. 6 
 
 Umbeleifeb*: Mgopodium, Gout-weed— JEthusa, Fool’s parsley— 
 Angelica, Angelica— Anthriscus, Beaked parsley— Bunvum, Earth- 
 nut Carum, Caraway— Chcerophyllum, Chervil— Cicuta, Cowbane 
 Comum, Hemlock. Daucus, Carrot.— Famiculum, Fennel —lie- 
 racleum, Cow-parsley-Zi^W, Lovagc .-Peucedaneum Hog’s 
 
 Eldei. Viburnum, Guelder-ros e.—Symphoricarpus, Snowberry. 
 
 Steelat* : Asperula Woodru K.-Galiwn, Bedstra v.-Rubia, Madder. 
 — Sherardia, Field madder. 
 
 Dipsacace* : Dipsacus, Teasel. Knautia, Knautia.— Seabiosa, Scabious. 
 
 COBYMBIFEE* (CoMPosiT*): Achillea, Yarrow.— Anthemis, Chamomile 
 Artenusia, Wormwood .-Aster, Star-wort .-Beilis, Daisy— Cine- 
 raria, Flea-wort .-Chrysanthemum, Ox-eye.-Fupatorium, Hemp- 
 agnmon y^-Gnaphahum, Cud-weed .-HeliarUhus, Sunflower, Jeru- 
 saern artichoke— Inula, Elecampane.— Petasitis, Butter-burr — 
 Puhcaria Ika-bane— Senecio, Groundsel, Ragwort . — Solidaqo 
 Golden rod .—Tanacetum. Tansy— Tussilago, Colt’s-foot. 3 ’ 
 
 Cynabocephale* (Composite): Carduus, Thistle.-Centaurea, Knap- 
 :;£r C r' a ; f fc f 0ke - _Z<Wa ’ Burdock -Onopordon, Cotton 
 Burlwe^d SaW - Wort - &7 ^"“- ™k thistle.-Xa*^, 
 
 Cichobace* (Composite) : Apargia, Hawkbit— AmoeerU, Swine’s sue 
 
 o7tou~ue W 1 ' SuCC °^~ Cre P is > Hawk’s-beard .-Helminthia, 
 Ox-tongue—Hawkweed— Ilypochccris, Cat’s ear— Lac- 
 tuca EeCnee.-faraxicum, Dandelion— Picric, Picris —Sonchus 
 Sow-thistle. Scorzonera, Scorzonera —Tragopogon, Goat’s-beard ’ 
 
 Campanueace X: Campanula, Bell-flower— Jasione, Sheep’s bit-PA* 
 teuma, Rawpion.—Prismatocarpus, Com bell-flower. 3 
 
CATERPILLAR.—FOOD. 
 
 37 
 
 Ericacee: : Arbutus , Strawberry tree.— Arctostaphilus, Bearberry.— 
 Azalea, Azalea.— Calluna, Ling.— Erica, Health.— Menziesia, Men- 
 ziesia.— Rhododendron, Rhododendron. 
 
 Oleacee;: Fraxinus , Ash.— Ligustrum, Privet .—Spring a, Lilac. 
 
 Gentianee: : Cicendia, Cicendia.— Chlora, Yellow-wort.— Erythrcea, 
 Centaury.— Gentiana, Gentian.—-Mercer ra£/jes,Buckbean.— Yillarsia, 
 Villarsia. 
 
 Boraginaceje : Anchusa , Alkanet.— Asperugo, Mad-wort .—Bor ago. Bo* 
 rage.— Cynoglossum , Hound’s-tongue.— Echium , Vipers bugloss.— 
 Lithospermum, Gromwell.— Lycopsis , Bugloss.— Myosotis, Scorpion- 
 grass.— Pulmonaria, Lung-wort.— Symphytum , Comfrey. 
 
 Atropee: (Solanacee:) : Atropa, Belladonna.— Datura, Thorn-apple.— 
 Hyoscyamus, Henbane. 
 
 Solanee: (Solanacee:) : Solanum, Bitter-sweet, Nightshade, Potato.— 
 lycium , “ Tea ” tree. 
 
 Rhinanthide: (Scrophulariacee:) : Bartsia , Bartsia.— Euphrasia , 
 Eye-bright.— Melampyrum , Cow wheat.— Pedicularis, Louse-wort. 
 — Rhinanthus , Yellow rattle.— Veronica , Speedwell. 
 
 Antibrhinide: (Scrophulariacee:) : Antirrhinum , Snapdragon.—jDipi- 
 Foxglove.— Linaria , Toadflax.— Mimulus , Monkey flower.— 
 Scrophularia , Water betony.— Verbascum , Mullein. 
 
 Labiate;: Ajuga , bugle .—Ballot a, Horehound.— Calamintha , Cala- 
 mint.— Clinopodium , Wild basil.— Galeopsis , Hemp-nettle.—G7e- 
 choma , Ground ivy.— Lamium , Dead nettle.— Mellitis , Bastard 
 balm.— Mentha , Mint.— Nepeta , Cat-mint.— Origanum , Marjoram. 
 — Prunella , Selfheal.— Salvia , Sage. — Scutellaria , Skullcap.— 
 St achys, Wound-wort.— Teucrium , Germander.— Thymus , Thyme. 
 
 Primulacee:: Anagallis ,Pimpernel.— Centunculus, Chaff-weed.— Cycla¬ 
 men, Cyclamen.— Glaux, Sea milkwort.— Hottonia, Featherfoil.— 
 Lysimachia, Loosestrife.— Primula, Primrose.— Samolus, Brook 
 weed.— Trientalis, Chickweed winter-green. 
 
 Chenopodiacee: : yf triplex , Orache.— Beta, Beet.— Chenopodium, Goose- 
 foot.— Salicornia, Glass-wort.— Salsola, Salt-wort.— Spinacia, 
 Spinach. 
 
 Polygonacee: : Oxyria, Mountain sorrel. — Polygonum, Knot-grass, 
 Persicaria.— Rumex, Sorrel, Dock.— Rheum, Rhubarb. 
 
 Ecphorbiacee; : Buocus, Box. — Euphorbia, Spurge. — Mercurialis , 
 Mercury. 
 
38 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—FOOD. 
 
 Urticaceje : Cannabis , Hemp.— Hamulus, Hop.— Parietaria, Wall 
 pellitory.— Urtiea, Nettle. 
 
 Betuline;e : Alnus , Alder.— Betula, Birch. 
 
 Ccpciifebje : Carpinus, Hornbeam.— CaUanca, Cliestnut.— Corylns, 
 Hazel. Fagus , Beech.— Quercus , Oak. 
 
 Saltcine*: Populus, Poplar and Aspen.— Salix, Osier, Sallow, Willow. 
 ConifeE/E : Juniperus, Juniper.— Pinus, Yw.—Taxus, Yew. 
 
 A known substitute,” by wbicb is meant a plant known, in 
 the case of some other larva, to afford nourishment in the absence of its 
 more accustomed food, is a third resource; thus, by way of giving an 
 example or two, bilberry is the food of Gastropacha ilicifolia, but it will 
 also eat sallow; ergo, it would seem reasonable to suppose that another 
 species, the food of which is bilberry, would also eat sallow, and this in 
 practice we find (very often, at all events) to be the case. And ao-ain it 
 is a curious fact, that all species which feed naturally on the Crucifer# 
 will also eat Tropeeoleum, as well as Beseda,— plants nowise allied to them 
 or to one another. A reference to the following Table, which I have en¬ 
 deavoured to condense as much as possible, will, I trust, sometimes assist 
 the reader in selecting a substitute food-plant. 
 
 A Few Examples of Known Substitutes (Non-Allied Plants). 
 
 SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 Apple 
 
 Bedstraw 
 
 Bilberry 
 
 Birch 
 
 Bramble 
 
 Broom 
 
 Currant 
 
 Honeysuckle 
 
 and Ash . Z. cesculi 
 
 ,, Lime . X. petr\dcata 
 
 » Poplar. S. ocellatus 
 
 „ Con volvulus..4. emarginata 
 i> Epilobium ...C. elpenor 
 
 ,, Fuchsia . B. galii 
 
 „ Vine. B. livornica 
 
 >> Bramble. H. rectilinea 
 
 y , Dogwood. E. advenaria 
 
 t , Rose. B. advenaria 
 
 yy Beech . T. consonaria 
 
 yy Hazel . G.papilionaria 
 
 yy Spindle . B. repandata 
 
 yy Whortleberry B. abietaria 
 
 » Haz d . Psy. calvella 
 
 y, Heath . & carpini 
 
 yy Brake-fern pisi 
 y, Honeysuckle 21. thalassina 
 
 yy Lilac . T. gothica 
 
 yy \etch . B. obfuscata 
 
 „ Veronica. H. pisi 
 
 Ho P. Eupassimilata 
 
 Nettle. P. iota 
 
 Brivcfc . P. syringaria 
 
 SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Honeysuckle and Rose. A. derivata 
 
 Heath and Bog-myrtle ...A. menyanthidis 
 
 Ilare-bell . A. Asliworthii 
 
 Buckthorn. L. Argiolus 
 
 . 0 . sambvcaria 
 
 IIoU y. L. Argiolus 
 
 Elm . S. tilice 
 
 . S. illustraria 
 
 E | m . S. lunaria 
 
 E,me . P. monacha 
 
 Whitethorn ...II. thymiaria 
 
 Willow . 0. go nostigma 
 
 Bilberry. E. advenaria 
 
 Bil *ch . B. falcula 
 
 Heath.2?. cHbrum 
 
 Marjoram . L. marginata 
 
 . 0 gonostigma 
 
 .& illunaria 
 
 Primrose . T. Jimbrta 
 
 ^ arrow .jy. zonaria 
 
 Clematis. A. strigilata 
 
 Marjoram . A. gilvaria 
 
 . A. incanata 
 
 Vetc k . A. incanata 
 
 Ivy 
 
 Lime 
 
 Oak 
 
 Sallow 
 
 Stachys 
 
 Yarrow 
 
CATERPILLAR.—FEEDING. 
 
 39 
 
 “ Generally favourite foods ” come last, but by no means least; 
 they afford us a very likely group to choose from, especially in the case of 
 such larva) the true food of which remains undetected; indeed, for the 
 rearing of previously undiscovered larvae, particularly of the Geometridce 
 and Noctuidce , this class of “ substitute foods ” is invaluable. It is per¬ 
 fectly wonderful to note how universally Polygonum aviculare is esteemed 
 by the larvae of Geometrida. This fact was communicated to me some 
 years since by my valued friend, Mr. Henry Doubleday, since which time 
 I hare invariably offered it to all such larvae, concerning the food of which 
 I had any doubt, and, in almost all cases, it was at once adopted; it 
 undoubtedly holds the first place, followed by Lotus , Glechoma , &c. t 
 among low plants, with sallow and blackthorn among shrubs: for Noctua 
 Plantain, Dandelion, Dock, Lettuce, Clover, Borage, and Goosefoot, will 
 all be found veiy serviceable, and so also will Sallow, Birch, and Plum, in 
 the case of such larvae as may be suspected of feeding on taller vegetation, 
 though it must be owned that the great bulk of “ larva unknoum ” feed 
 upon low herbs. 
 
 Feeding, The kind of food having been determined upon, a few 
 hints as to collecting it, &c., may be added. As a general rule, food, like 
 fruit, should be collected early in the morning, and, if conveyed any dis¬ 
 tance, packed very lightly. When, however, intended for juvenile larvae 
 which are being reared on the air-tight principle, it must not be gathered 
 until the morning sun has dispelled the dew from its surface; though 
 for more advanced individuals, when fed in ventilated situations, this same 
 dew, or the moisture caused by a shower or even by the water tap, gives 
 an invigorating fillip to the appetite, which cannot be otherwise °than 
 healthful. It may be here noted that when the food is too wet, the best 
 and quickest plan to dry it is—having placed it in a towel, the four corners 
 of which are held in one’s hand,—to swing it round and round, and thus get 
 rid of the extra dampness by centrifugal force, whereby the plant is not 
 bruised, as would be the case if shaking were resorted to, to dislodge the 
 moisture; or it may be nicely dried in the draught caused by opening a 
 window-sash two or three inches, the food being placed half-a-foot inside 
 the window. 
 
 The more mature foliage is generally chosen by the larva), but by no 
 means invariably, since many appear to prefer the young tender shoots, and, 
 of course, in some cases, even unexpanded buds. 
 
 Nearly all larvae like their food healthy and fresh: but the risk of 
 their being injured in changing it, often makes it advisable to be content 
 with clipping the ends of the twigs, &c., which go into the water; and. 
 
40 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—FEEDING. 
 
 indeed, this practice will keep the food fresh for a long time. There are 
 however, some special and curious exceptions to the rule that fresh, healthy 
 food .s preferred; for, while the larva of Aleueis pictaria selects the 
 stunted unhealthy-looking sloe-bushes, Pterophorus teucrii actually causes 
 its food to wither before partaking of it; and in the case of Petasia 
 nubeculosa careful feeding with fresh food seems to fail, though a stale 
 ai jish diet affords a far greater likelihood of success. 
 
 It is sometimes considered desirable, and occasionally even absolutely 
 necessary, to supply captured lame with food procured, if not off the same 
 
 viousty fed Ub ’ ^ kaSt fr0m the SamC l0Cal ‘ ty aS tbat in which the y pre- 
 
 Before the requisite food is in leaf, or even in bud, it sometimes 
 happens, even in Nature, that eggs hatch, and hibernating lame come 
 
 w;M W ; iC \r e , UD0PCn 1 budS ’ if0btainable ’ b e and offered 
 th considerable chances of success; they must, however, be frequently 
 renewed, and not allowed to dry up. By this means, with care, and luck 
 on our side, we may manage to keep our larva; going, while we look out 
 for a stray example of a food-plant, in some sheltered nook or other per¬ 
 chance more forward than the rest of its species, or till buds have in due 
 
 ouTon^v ah T‘° f 16 , 163 '' 031 but if not even buds are attainable, then 
 
 the food 1 r 7l LeS T SUI>plyinf? ’ at suitabIe intervals, twigs of 
 the food-plant, peeled or rasped twigs and bark, finding a “ substitute ” is 
 
 e- g., ivy, launstinus, or seeds of plantain, or leaving our proUgis to’take 
 their chance with shced carrot, turnip or potato. 
 
 An alterative diet, in the case of certain larva;, not altogether polv- 
 toftSVT ™ portant — even necessary: thus it has been recommended 
 B f era °™ n °“ oak and birch ; Noetua negleeta, and, perhaps 
 too, Agrotis agathina, should he provided with sallow as well aTS’ 
 
 larval ^ t0 ^ best on oak and dock. t£ 
 
 ! ° f „ a specles feedln S naturally on one plant may, in the next -enero- 
 
 lon, lefuse its natural food and adopt another, thus—one season Tephroiia 
 consonana would not touch beech, but fed up readily enough onbifeh and 
 
 n^th2h. r0Sana ^ UP °" ° ak ’ W ° Uld 6at notbin » but bircb ^ the 
 
 ,, f/ le la ™ °f coast secies are at times exceedingly hard to rear when 
 the attempt is made to feed them up in inland situations-insuch Lses 
 t is frequently imperative to procure food from the sea-side; but some 
 
 ofTaTaB a Substltuto Pood - wben sprinkled with sea brine, or a solution 
 of sea salt of corresponding strength, will answer instead of the native 
 
 wdd cherry ' ° f *"*"*•• which will thrive on pickled 
 
CATERFILLAB.—MANIPULATION. 
 
 41 
 
 All food should be rigidly examined for cannibals and other vermin 
 before admitting it to our breeding-cages. 
 
 For the management of internal stem or root-feeders, seed-feeders, 
 &c., see pages ante 15 and 16. This applies also to larvae feeding on 
 vegetable refuse, dried fruits, honey-comb, nests, feathers, hair, dung, &c. 
 For the best treatment of Lichen feeders, see p. 30. 
 
 7 Yood-feeders may be kept in flower-pots or wide-mouthed bottles, 
 with wire-gauze covers, or hi tins (for nothing in strength short of tin or 
 earthenware and wire-gauze will defy the jaws of Cossus), may be allowed 
 either to remain in the logs, branches, or twigs in which they were 
 originally feeding when removed, or else supplied with the fresh cut (hut 
 not wet) sawdust and chips of their food. The tins should be freely 
 perforated, and a sharp eye should be kept for mildew, which, when pre¬ 
 sent, should he removed, and fresh food supplied. These remarks simi¬ 
 larly apply to bark feeders. 
 
 Manipulation. —The diversified habits of larvae, from their escape 
 from the egg onwards, frequently perplex the breeder as to the best means 
 of managing them. To begin with the juveniles: some of them will not 
 take kindly to their food; and this often happens if a substitute have 
 been forced upon them in lieu of their legitimate diet; they become rest¬ 
 less, crawl wildly about, flock to the lightest part of the cage, squeeze 
 themselves through ridiculously small apertures, entangle and suspend 
 themselves hopelessly in festoons, and, in fact, do anything rather than 
 settle down rationally to their breakfasts. Such individuals should be 
 reared, until more accustomed to their new mode of life, in air-tight jam¬ 
 pots, the tops of which are covered over with green glass, for the purpose 
 of darkening the interior of the vessel; a condition of things usually 
 promotive of quietude among the brood—quietude giving time for reflec¬ 
 tion, and rise to second thoughts (proverbially best) that the cravings of 
 nature should he satisfied even though the fare set before them be not 
 precisely to their liking, and the apartment suggestive of the converse of 
 their ideas of liberty; moreover, at this, and, indeed, every stage, they 
 should not he overcrowded. Note.— Night-feeding larvae, if covered over 
 with green or violet glass in the day-time, will usually begin to feed; and 
 there was an idea, at one time, that by this means larvae might be got to 
 feed up in half their natural time, or else to produce unusuallv larsre 
 imagos. 
 
 Then, again, others drop by silken threads on the approach of real 
 or imaginary danger; a wise provision, as I believe, for their preservation 
 against birds and also cannibals, which, of course, could not well follow 
 
42 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—MANIPULATION. 
 
 them down the thread. These, too, are most easily and best fed in air¬ 
 tight cages; hut, m their case, the green glass cover may be dispensed 
 
 l.. JVf H 6 pecu j !arit f (evidently in some way connected with the well- 
 ccr<r °n the creatures ) certain larv* to make their first meal off the 
 nth f 0r part of them - fr om which they have recently emerged; 
 lers, or some inscrutable reason, shedding and devouring their first 
 
 bet- l-- aD 11 !° th 1 CaSe ° f - Dlcranura vinula, every skin they cast), before 
 be left^oneTo 86 V0S “T 0rtbodox mode of l! ™g. ' These should 
 
 rul htl , ; ir f °° d 5 indeed ’ W sbouId ^ put down as a 
 
 wbif 7 r* (eSpeC ‘ :,Ily Uttle ones > sh °uld never be meddled 
 with while crawling larvae are generally in want of some attention. 
 
 tl at 1 ,“7 a be forg0ttCn that man -V small larvae (and hi- too for 
 that matter) render themselves invisible by mining, entering buds ’and 
 spinning together leaves; or elude our vigilance, by closely fixin.’ and 
 assimUatmg themselves to the twigs, stalks, mid-ribs, and ed-es of the 
 eaves of their food. With such experts to deal with.glf ci/cum! 
 
 of o C m°care 1,606883,7 “ 7 P ''° CeSS ’ not ° nIy “ order that none 
 
 of our caies may escape observation, but also that no clumsy handling may 
 
 bring grief or even demolition to the tender objects of'our soHcltudf 
 2m i rr kn r t0 baVe thiS SOrt ° f p ”P««it* it is best to supply 
 
 ;ir. st “ 5 ” r ■“ *? si 
 
 “ ’“'T d t"'" l> * bl • ° f - “ 
 
 jrsi r,t”ias 
 
 -Having thus touched upon some of the liahif* nf i;+n l , . . 
 
 act as obstacles with which the laZ, ! , , ° f . ttle larv ® which 
 
 m 
 
 toSrrith b f T^ 17 SLifted “ the °^ sb fo™d! h e My7slt b ht 
 
 S££ES£ h* “ - “ “ « -r KS 
 
CATERPILLAR.—CHANGING. 
 
 43 
 
 In conducting the changing process, I would impress upon 
 the reader the advisability of first preparing a duplicate cage (whether jam¬ 
 pot, flower-pot, or cylinder), by “ sweetening ” it with free currents of dry 
 fresh air, and then stocking it with a proper quantity of appropriate food. 
 In the second place, the contents of the cage to be operated on, live stock 
 and all, should be turned out on a large white meat-dish, an utensil pos¬ 
 sessing prodigious advantages over the more-often-used sheet of paper, both 
 in point of cleanly whiteness of material and also in smoothness of surface, 
 such as would puzzle even a “ lubricipede ” to escape from; while a similar 
 attempt on the part of a geometer , would be simply preposterous ; indeed, 
 the position of most larvae on the glazed superficies is much that of an in¬ 
 cipient skater down on the ice, and gladly, as a rule, do they avail themselves 
 of the proffered twig : easily, too, may such as spin threads be lifted, by 
 their silken appendices, with the aid of a camel’s-hair brush, and trans¬ 
 ferred to the newly-prepared quarters ; while those that sham death can be 
 literally shovelled into their fresh domicile. 
 
 The old food, having been jarred over the dish, and, larvae which fall 
 transferred, should next be sought over for such as show no disposition to 
 leave go their hold, and these latter may be detached by clipping off care¬ 
 fully (for if done with a “ snap ” the larvae are jerked away) with a pair of 
 scissors the portion of the food on which they rest, and then the larvae, with 
 the pieces thus cut off, should be allowed to fall gently on the fresh supply of 
 food; for I hold that, though several kinds of larvae do not appear to sus¬ 
 tain injury from tender handling, it is, as a rule, neither necessary nor de¬ 
 sirable to touch them with the fingers. Painfully undesirable, indeed, is it 
 to handle the larvae of JPorthesia chrysorrhcea, and other hairy larvae in 
 less degree, for should their easily detached spines become applied to any 
 tender part of our skin, an intolerable irritation is produced, which is very 
 difficult to alleviate. Indeed, on the Continent, the hyperaesthetic symp¬ 
 toms produced by the larva of Cnethocampa processionea and pityocampa 
 have been known to result even in death. The old food should not be hastily 
 cast away, but should be put aside, under cover, for future examination, 
 especially if, at the time of changing, we have any reason to suppose any 
 of the larvae are missing ; and this reminds me that it is well to know the 
 number of individuals in a brood, for one can then be certain whether they 
 have or have not all been shifted. And it may also be laid down as a 
 general rule that there is much greater chance of a successful result in the 
 way of imagos when we are content with a moderate number of larvae than 
 when we collect, or retain to ourselves after egg-hunting, a large crowd of 
 larvae of any species. 
 
 Larvae which in Nature hibernate, must either be stimulated by 
 
u 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—HIBERNATING. 
 
 warmth and fresh food to feed up unnaturally fast, or else, throughout the 
 winter, must be exposed to out-door temperature. (See p. 30, ante). 
 
 Some hibernating larva? are full fed before taking up their winter 
 quarters, in which case they will of course feed no more. Others exhibit 
 no desire for food until the spring. But not a few come forth during the 
 warm days and evenings of winter and early spring, to practise with their 
 jaws. These latter, when reared in captivity, require some attention on 
 the part of the breeder. Of a certainty, however, as trees and shrubs, with 
 the exception of evergreens, are bereft of Mage in winter, larva; feeding 
 ordinarily upon them, must, if they have to eat at this season, content 
 themselves with other pabulum in the shape of non-deciduous plants, of 
 which arbutus, laurustinus, ivy, heath, and fir are the greatest favourites, 
 01 "it 1 ow-growing plants, such as forced seedlings of knotgrass (strongly 
 recommended), chickweed and groundsel, plaintain seeds, as well as grasses 
 and mosses; though in the case of some low-feeding larvae, especially geo- 
 meters (Acidalia), they are quite satisfied with nibbling during the winter 
 le withered leaves and stems of the plants on which they have been 
 reared; but this does not prevent their keeping a very sharp look-out for 
 tne earliest buds that appear in spring. 
 
 . 1 may j usfc , note here that > a s water, when it passes into ice, is apt 
 to inconveniently expand our vessels, potatoes, turnips, and carrots arc 
 serviceable not only as supplying moisture in its place, but also as a pro- 
 vender, it being sometimes found that larvae, on becoming aware of the 
 presence of the tuber or roots, have availed themselves of them as food 
 Hibernating hairy larva must, during the ivinter.be kept dry, or in 
 a well-ventilated place, otherwise the damp seems to hang about their fur 
 and causes them to be attacked by a white fungus, which creeps through 
 their frame, and speedily destroys them. Smooth larva?, on the contrary 
 seem to require the natural dampness of the soil; most of the hibernating 
 larva? 0 f the JK ootua require hiding-places, quickly pining away if not 
 fieely supplied, for the purpose, with soil, dead leaves, &c. For those of 
 Orthos,a Xanthia, Xoctua, &c., pieces of bark, broken chip boxes, bits of 
 
 ST ’> & i" C ? P T d 5 While . for A 9 rotis and a others, a con- 
 
 sideiable depth of sand or fine earth is necessary. 
 
 NOTB.-It is of vast importance that during the winter all cages 
 containing larvae should be placed in front of a window facing the east or 
 north-east, so that the inmates may be kept as cool as possible. As soon 
 however, as food can be procured, the larva should be supplied with it’ 
 and we should simultaneously endeavour to rouse them to activity with 
 all the natural heat of sun-rays at our command. 
 
 A word or two is necessary concerning the treatment of cannibal and 
 
CATEBPILLAE.—CANNIBALISM. 
 
 45 
 
 viciously-disposed larvae. Some, such as Cosmia trapetzina, have such 
 depraved notions of gastronomy that they cannot always he trusted, even 
 with their own brothers and sisters,—these must, of course, be fed 
 separately. Some, which devour other larvae with avidity, feed up harmo¬ 
 niously enough inter se, such are the blood-thirsty Scopelosoma satellitia , 
 Icemocampa miniosa , and Crocallis elinguaria ; they must not, however, 
 be stinted in their food, for the cravings of a hungry stomach would 
 probably render them conveniently oblivious of the ties of relationship. 
 I suppose, too, that they should be supplied with living animal food occa¬ 
 sionally ; but it seems a horrible thing to recommend, and it is doubtful 
 whether it is absolutely necessary. Again, certain larvae, though not 
 actually carnivorously disposed, but at the same time not naturally”meant 
 to live gregariously, act in a quarrelsome, snappish, and vicious manner 
 to other larvae crossing their path or interfering in any way with their 
 comfort, often by their bite causing the victim to dwindle and eventually 
 die: for these individuals, plenty of space should be provided, even if it be 
 not necessary to place them in solitary confinement: others, not naturally 
 cannibalistic (at least, I suppose not), would appear to assume the habit in 
 captivity, as the account of that of Thecla quercus coolly demolishing the 
 pupa of his more advanced brother seems to indicate. A weather eye must 
 be kept open for such customers, and their propensities circumvented. 
 
 Then, again, nothing is more common with careless breeders, than 
 for the peaceable hawk-moths, “ kittens,” and other laroe, when kept on 
 short commons, to nipple off the caudal appendages of their relatives, an 
 operation which I am by no means sure does not originate in their 
 erroneously considering these excrescences to be of a vegetable character. 
 
 hat a blessing to the slovenly would such larvae as those of Glottula 
 pancratii be ! “ They eat the leaves of the Taneratium, then the flowers, 
 the seeds (if not too forward), and the root, which they attack in the last 
 place ; and, when they have demolished the bulb, which they void just as 
 if it had been ground up by their powerful mandibles, they eat their frass; 
 and, curious to tell, those which are nourished after this strange fashion, 
 undergo their transformations quite as well, and produce imagos quite as 
 fine, as the others !! ” 
 
 The furore to possess “ varieties ” (so called, for, under variation, are 
 now-a-days included aberrations, malformations, and even examples of 
 hermaphroditism), which rages among British Macro-Lepidopterists, to¬ 
 gether with a growing interest by students in all branches of Natural 
 History touching that vexed subject—the variation of species—has opened 
 up a vast field for enquiry as to the influences which produce these interest¬ 
 ing freaks of nature. f 
 
46 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—VARIETY BREEDING. 
 
 Variety-breeding,” as it has been not inaptly termed, though 
 yet in its infancy, would appear to offer the most practical means "of 
 arriving at something like a definite solution of the mystery, and as this 
 art comes within the province of the larva rearer, I purpose glancing at 
 those influences which are supposed to act on the preliminary stages of 
 insect life, to produce variation in the perfect state: to be brief, then— 
 
 InfluGnces aetin g ab initio. These may be accidental or here¬ 
 ditary—with the former we have little to do, but they may account for 
 the formation of certain monstrosities in which organs are multiplied, 
 suppressed, or modified through error in the primary impulse. Heredi- 
 ary influences, on the other hand, will account for a large proportion of 
 varieties, and may, without doubt, be turned to account as well by the 
 variety breeder of insects as by the Herefordshire fanner or the pi-eon 
 tancier, by the careful selection of parent stock with a view to peculiarities, 
 whether structural or ornamental, being reproduced in the progeny Of 
 this we have e. g. instances in the rearing of negro varieties from parents 
 more or less tainted with melanism; and of imperfections perpetuated 
 as in the frequent recurrence of individuals wanting a hind-wing, which 
 may be noticed, even at large, in Macaria notata. That these*’are the 
 results of hereditary influences would seem to be demonstrated by the 
 fact that, while certain species have a tendency to vary in the above and 
 other manners, few species are liable to the same extent of variation and 
 many apparently to little or even to none whatever. 
 
 Of course, it must be understood, that these hereditary peculiarities 
 have originally been acquired through some accident, or by the force of 
 surrounding conditions, and have, iu the course of generations, become 
 perpetuated in what is termed a variable species, or in a race of individuals 
 presenting appreciable differences from the typical form. 
 
 Topographical influences we have now to deal with. These 
 act, m greater or less degree, on the fauna of a district through the nature 
 ot the locality; and, among them, the soil especially would appear to exert 
 a potency, since we find certain species varying according as they may have 
 been reproduced, generation after generation, on a chalky, peaty, gravelly, 
 or other soil. This cause probably acts indirectly through the vegetation 
 of the respective districts, which doubtless undergoes some modification. 
 Some authority speaks, too, of a chemical variety, and gives the case of 
 Ellopia fasciaria and prasinaria as an example. 
 
 Food comes next, and whatever influence this may exert, must 
 naturally be upon the larva; but of the fact that it does operate in various 
 ways to modify the future imago, we have ample proof. The colour of the 
 perfect Tortrix viridana is a familiar example of the power of food to 
 
CATERPILLAR.—INFLUENCES ON. 
 
 47 
 
 produce variation in the imago, and there are many other instances of 
 so-called phytophagic species, races, or varieties, chiefly among the Micro- 
 Eeptdoptera, which might be adduced. It must not, however, be under¬ 
 stood that, as a rule, changes of this kind are wrought in one or even in 
 ten generations. Alteration in the colour of the larva brought about by 
 the agency of food, may be observed in Eupithecia absynthiata and other 
 species, in which there is a tendency to assume the tint of whatever flower 
 they may he feeding upon. The larva of T. lichenaria , also, varies in tint 
 with the lichens upon which it feeds, those beaten from the elm bein<- 
 much darker than those from the grey lichen-covered oaks; and, again” 
 the colour of the silk of which the cocoon of the Halias prasinana is 
 ormecl. depends on whether the larva had previously fed on oak, hazel, &c. 
 Ve see, too, that species single brooded on one plant have a tendency to 
 become double brooded on another, as in the case of Orgyia gonostlnma 
 reared respectively on oak and willow. And, finally, with respect to that 
 unsatisfactory pet of the variety-breeder—“ the tiger,”—many dark speci¬ 
 mens have been attributed to the agency of coltsfoot, lettuce, and other 
 pabula; but the late Peter Bouchard used to say of one of his best 
 varieties, that he could account for it in no other way than that the beast 
 must have lunched off some bread and cheese which had accidentally fallen 
 into its den. J 
 
 The influence of light (upon the larval and pupal stages 
 especially), through which, it is averred, the future imago is rendered 
 darker or paler, according as its action may have been intense and pro¬ 
 longed, or nearly wanting and of short duration, is certainly worth the 
 while of the variety-breeder to test the value of. Experiments, too, have 
 been made by the aid of decomposed light, the blue, red, or yellow ray 
 only, being admitted to the breeding cage, through coloured glass, and 
 certain results, though not of a veiy satisfactory nature, appear to have 
 been arrived at. 
 
 AtniGEphenc influences which operate chiefly upon the pupa, 
 hold a prominent place, and under them may be classed what may be 
 denominated the “thermic” retardation or acceleration of the com- 
 Pf°yf tlns stage; and this, like other causes of variation, appeal's to 
 afleet the individuals of certain species more than those of others; for while, 
 on the one hand, it is affirmed that the imago of Pieris rapes is un¬ 
 affected by the length of duration of the pupa state (the pup® which should 
 produce the peculiarities of the so-called spring brood doing so, whether the 
 .perfect insects emerge before or after the pupal hibernation), it is equally 
 patent, on the other hand, that the corresponding brood of Selenia illus- 
 traria is considerably modified by the length of time which is passed in 
 
48 
 
 CATEEPILLAE.—AILMENTS. 
 
 the pupal state, those pupa? which hibernate producing what is termed 
 the spring brood, those which do not, the so-called “second summer 
 brood, the. latter in nowise differing from the ordinary summer brood. 
 Again, by similar agency, wejnay, as a rule, account for the greater dark¬ 
 ness in tint and markings of many northern, especially Scotch, Lepidoptera , 
 as compared with corresponding southern types; since many species double- 
 biooded in the south, are single-brooded in the north, and others which 
 here pass but one winter in the pupa stage are apt, in the north, to remain 
 in that state over a second winter, or even for a longer period. Dampness 
 and dryness, too, may be added as atmospheric influences acting chiefly on 
 the pupa. Experiments with the aid of an ice well may be made. 
 
 Glancing back, therefore, we see that the would-be variety-breeder has 
 the option of certain lines of action towards the end he has in view. 
 First and foremost, he may, by judicious selection of the parent stock, 
 enhance his future chances of success, if not in the first, at any rate, in 
 succeeding generations: he may, if he be patient and of a peripatetic turn, 
 avail himself of locality or soil; or he may bring to his aid the influences 
 ot food, light, heat, cold, moisture, &c. 
 
 Variety breeding is a legitimate ait, but those ingenious delusions 
 which may be classed as post mortem varieties, and which are not un- 
 frequently indulged in by the unscrupulous, cannot be too strongly con¬ 
 demned—I allude to such morbid practices as imitating varieties, or even 
 rarities, by the aid of the paint brush and wasted talent, the manufacture 
 ot hermaphrodities, the clumsy artifice of dyeing by saffron and other 
 agents, the conversion of greens into orange, bleaching by exposure to 
 stiong light or the fumes of sulphur or chlorine,—impostures which are 
 only mentioned to put the young entomologist on his guard, and which 
 may generally be pretty easily detected by means of the relaxing iar or a 
 strong lens. ° 
 
 . The ailments of larvae have been so little studied that, were 
 it not that the subject of “ Management ” seems to demand that attention 
 should at least be called to them, I would prefer to omit them altogether 
 from these notes. For if we except those mysterous maladies, muscardine 
 and cholerine, concerning which untold volumes have been written, with 
 the minimum of practical result, caterpillar nosology can scarcely be said 
 to be even in its infancy. 
 
 Diiect injuries, such as mutilations, wounds, bruises, &c.,-re¬ 
 sulting from accidents, bites of other larvae, attacks of enemies, unlucky 
 knocks by the beating stick, or otherwise received, are not necessarily fatal, 
 and to the lovers of malformations, may even be productive of cherishable 
 
CATEBPILLAE.—STINGS, ETC. 
 
 49 
 
 abnormities m the future imago. We can do little more than leave them 
 to take their chance, placing them out of the way of further harm, and 
 stopping any flow of exuding lymph by the application of powdered chalk 
 to the wound, but of course the scab formed afterwards will interfere with 
 the next moult, so that whenever that event comes about, the larva (if 
 oi i saving) may be assisted by means of warmth and moisture and the 
 mechanical measures mentioned, futher on, under “moulting sickness.” 
 
 Stings of Ichneumons, &c„ come next, and when the eg*s of 
 the parasites are not too deeply deposited, and of course before they have 
 hatched, it is often no difficult job to destroy them either by crushing them 
 with finely pointed scissors or pliers, or to remove them by the aid of a 
 darning needle, it being sometimes necessary to steady the larva by holdin- 
 it gently between the finger and thumb of the freehand; but I see no 
 reason why the subject (especially if it be of an irritable temperament) 
 should not be placed under the influence of pure (not methylated) chloro- 
 orm, since larva? are readily affected by, and readily recover from the effects 
 of, this agent, N.B.—When stung, the hairs generally fall off. 
 
 .. ffl F . r0St B , ite - I* is W « U known that larva?, which have been so 
 s i y frozen that they might have been easily broken, have afterwards 
 recovered. The chief thing to be remembered in the treatment of such 
 cases, is that the thawing should be effected very gradually—rapid thawin- 
 eing dangerous; the best thing I can suggest is to cover them up in snow” 
 we shoiud remember that prevention is better than cure, and that the larva; 
 of species which naturally inhabit warm situations, cannot bear, and ou°-ht 
 to be protected from, any great degree of frost. ° 
 
 ,, Suffocation. This of course happens whenever the passage of air 
 through the spu-acles becomes obstructed, the most common cause bein- 
 submersion, for larva? have an unaccountable propensity to commit 
 suicide in the water vessels of breeding cages, whenever they can get a 
 chance ; still, after being immersed for even ten or twelve hours their case 
 is not utterly hopeless, for though they may appear bloated and stiffened 
 with water, yet if they be gently dried on a piece of blotting paper, kept 
 in motion the while, and exposed to the sun, the chances are that, if they 
 be not too far gone, they will recover; and, for aught I know to the con¬ 
 trary, the school-boy’s old remedy of resuscitating drowned flies by coverino- 
 them up with salt and exposing them to the rays of the sun, mi^ht prove 
 
 efficacious, only I have my doubts as to the effects of damp salt on larval 
 surfaces. 
 
 Starvation. This may depend on defective supply of food, or on 
 the use of an improper diet; or the presence of excess or deficiency of light, 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—SURFEIT. CRAMP. ETC. 
 
 as the case may be, may cause the larva to sulk and pine away. The treat¬ 
 ment is, generally speaking, obvious enough, but sometimes we find larvae 
 feeding well enough for a time on some particular kind of food, and then 
 their appetite unaccountably falls off: under such circumstances, change of 
 diet should be tried, ventilation, &c., should be attended to, light (and even 
 in some cases, rays of the sun) should be admitted; rinsing the food in 
 water, or exposing it to a shower does good: and, as many larvae have a 
 predilection for sweets, the food may be washed with syrup and allowed to 
 dry, or sugar or treacle may be added to the contents of the water vessel, 
 with a view to imparting a flavor to the food; in the latter case, however, 
 we must be careful that the mixture does not become mouldy or acetous. 
 
 Surfeit. Many larva?, especially such as are large and smooth, when 
 permitted to gorge themselves with too juicy food, have a tendency, par¬ 
 ticularly when about three-quarters grown, to become dropsical and die. 
 The remedy would appear to be to feed them on dry mature leaves gathered 
 from bleak exposed situations, and moisture should be excluded from the 
 cage. 
 
 Cramp. A night passed on a cold surface, is often sufficient to 
 paralyse the pro-legs of larvae, especially of such as are young and tender; 
 under these circumstances, they are unable to retain their hold when placed 
 upon their food : perhaps the best plan is to put them on some such sur¬ 
 face as a piece of blotting paper, in a temperate situation, fresh leaves of 
 the food-plant being strewn about within reach of the sufferer. 
 
 Low Fever. Undoubtedly larvae suffer from a contagious disease 
 very analogous to this. Some species are more liable to it than others, and 
 it appears to be very fatal among the members of any affected batch, though 
 apparently not communicable from one to another, and distinct, species. 
 It is doubtless engendered by bad feeding, ill ventilation, proximity of de¬ 
 caying vegetable or animal matter, &c.; the indications therefore are that 
 these should be removed as early as possible, and the healthy larva? should 
 be kept separate from those which show the slightest signs of the disease. 
 The use of a small quantity of Condy’s disinfecting fluid in the water 
 vessel, too, could do no possible harm, and might prove beneficial. Some¬ 
 body has suggested that immersion in cold water has a good effect in this 
 disorder. 
 
 Irritability. Some larva? become ill-tempered during, and for a 
 short time after, their moults, when the skin appears to be very sensitive; 
 or this irritable state may be due to the recent sting of ichneumons, the 
 presence of acari , &c. Larva? thus affected should be kept as little crowded 
 as possible, and, indeed, if necessary, confined in separate cages. 
 
51 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—MOULTING SICKNESS, ETC. 
 
 Moulting Sickness. Larva- of some species, even in confinement 
 appear to experience but little difficulty in casting off their effete skins 
 others, on the contrary, and of these chiefly those of the Butterflies, 
 Sphinges, Bombyces and Pseudo-bombyces, apparently naturally undergo 
 a comparati vely tedious and painful process of ecdysis; the appetite of the 
 caterpdlar thus affected forsakes it, it frequently seeks some retired spot, 
 and having spun a lesser or greater number of silken threads, attaches the 
 hooks of the pro-legs thereto, and then, after the lapse of a longer or shorter 
 mtenak bursts the now useless covering which invests it, and makes its 
 eat. During all this time the larva should, as a rule, he left to its own 
 resources, but sometimes it may be observed that it is incapable of freeing 
 itself, m which case, assistance must be rendered, before prostration takes 
 place, by slitting the old skm with a couple of needles carefully manipu¬ 
 lated cutting, by very fine pointed scissors, the skin round any scab which 
 may have been formed over a wound, and pegging down the skin in cases 
 were the pro-legs may have become detached from the transverse silken 
 threads, assisting meanwhile the operation by moisture and warmth It 
 is very important to discriminate between the above sickness and cases of 
 starvation, smee the treatment required in the latter case is necessarily the 
 converse of the above, and a conclusion respecting this may safely be 
 arrived at by attention to the followingIn the starved larva the capital 
 segment is comparatively of hydrocephalic proportions—it is, in the moult¬ 
 ing larva, very small; the skin is plump and tense in the latter, while that 
 of the former hangs loosely ; the silken transverse threads too are absent 
 m the victim of starvation, which also exhibits a restless desperation in 
 searching for food to appease its hunger, sometimes snapping at pieces of 
 frass and other substances, and as hastily casting them aside ; the moultino- 
 larva, on the other hand, remains stationary. 
 
 Diarrhoea. This is generally caused by improper feeding with too 
 juicy or too relaxing food; in such cases, dry stunted foliage gathered 
 from bleak exposed situations, mature leaves, astringents, such as dark- 
 coloured oak leaves, madder, &c., should be tried with such larva; as will 
 partake of them, or the food may be sprinkled with powdered madder, 
 chalk, &c. The converse of this complaint requires to be treated with the 
 young, juicy, immature leaves of the food-plant, and, in certain cases, mostly 
 among the JS octius, the administration of lettuce and other natural pur°*a- 
 fives will have a salutary effect. ° 
 
 Fungus. This is particularly apt to attack haiiy larva;, especially 
 such as hibernate, the subject having doubtless first become unhealthy 
 from confinement in a damp, ill-ventilated atmosphere—is attacked by a 
 species of Oidium, after which it is generally “all up.” I do not know 
 
52 
 
 CATEEPILLAB.—OBSEEVATION. 
 
 Low far the use of hyposulphurous acid or the hyposulphites might be ap¬ 
 plicable, but their effect might he tried. The natural preventive is, doubt- 
 less, exposure to the sun-rays, and most collectors must have noticed that 
 the hibernating larvae of Argtia, Spilosoma, and others, take every oppor¬ 
 tunity of suuning themstdves, as if for the purpose of drying their coats • 
 when there is no sun visible, currents of dry air will, probably, be the best 
 remedy. 
 
 <£>&0ed)attoiu 
 
 Compared with the other stages, the larval state claims our attention, 
 not only as being the most interesting disguise of the future insect, but 
 because m this condition, all its growth takes place by assimilating to it- 
 sell a certain amount of vegetable sustenance. The quantity of food con¬ 
 sumed by the larval of many species is very moderate, and their full growth 
 is soon attained, while other species eat an astonishing quantity, and their 
 slow growth seems quite inadequate to their insatiable appetites and pro¬ 
 longed larval existence ; they seem as though appointed to defoliate trees 
 and plants. In this respect, the smallest species, especially when gre¬ 
 garious, sometimes exceed in mischief the larger kinds. 
 
 Few persons of ordinary intelligence sce°a caterpillar without feeling 
 an interest in its beauty of colour, its singularity of structure, or the delf- 
 cate texture of its skin. Some have skins of velvety softness, others of 
 shining brilliancy, while some species are rough and shagreened; some 
 are partially hairy, others densely clothed with hairs. But there is unfortu¬ 
 nately, with ignorant rustics, too frequently a temptation to crush the un¬ 
 offending worm, especially if of unusual dimensions ; and, doubtless, under 
 the vague idea of a “ locust,” many a rare and beautiful form has been 
 ruthlessly destroyed. 
 
 If we turn to the Diurni we find in P. Machaon a beautiful example 
 of a smooth-skinned larva, furnished with forked tentacles protruded at 
 will behind the head. In the larva of Apatura Iris, we behold the two 
 lobes ot the head extended upwards, and produced into two occipital horns 
 its body tapering behind to a pointed and slightly divided tail; and verv 
 suggestive of a slug in form. 
 
 In the genus T anessa, and some others, the larval are encased in de- 
 fensive armour, which, no doubt, appears formidable generally to the eyes 
 of birds, their backs and sides bristling with several rows of branched 
 spines, a perfect chevaux de frise. Theda Betulce, with its front seg¬ 
 ments sloped and flattened above towards its diminutive head, appeal's like 
 a limpid green slug adhering to a leaf. And the popular idea of a wood¬ 
 louse has often been attributed to the shape of Lyccena Alexis and its 
 
CATERPILLAR.—OBSERVATION. 
 
 53 
 
 conveners ; indeed, so contrary are they to a beginner’s notions of what a 
 
 butterfly larva should be, that he may, likely enough, refer them to some 
 other order. 
 
 In the larger larvae of the Sjphingidcs , we see them with a curved 
 horn, directed backwards, like a veritable 
 tail. The caterpillar of S. ligustri , repre¬ 
 sented in the annexed figure, has a smooth 
 curved horn ; the hom of the Death’s head 
 moth is rough and has a double curve; 
 those of the Smerinthi are rough and 
 straighter than those of the Sphinges; and 
 another variation in the Smerinthi is the 
 form of the head, which is triangular in 
 shape. Chcerocanvpa eljpenor has its front 
 segments rapidly tapered towards its small 
 head, and it can elongate them at will, re¬ 
 minding one of the prehensile trunk of an 
 elephant, or it is able to contract them in 
 such a manner as to give it a hunch-backed 
 look. These larger hawk moth catterpillars 
 are familiar enough; but it is not without 
 some misgivings that the soft whitish maggots of the Sesiidce are for the 
 hist time accepted as the early stage of the clear-wings. 
 
 Then in the tribes of kaiiy larvae that succeed, what variety of arran-e- 
 ment is to be noticed in the tufts! and it is strange also, to find this 
 hairiness suddenly appearing in a few species among the Noctuce, and even 
 among the Geometry (Aplasta ononaria), not to mention the Plumes 
 in the larvae of Dasyehb-a fascelina and pudibunda, we see bundles of 
 hairs so disposed as to look like veritable shaving brushes on their backs 
 and a longer tail-like tuft behind, while Orgyia gonostigma has, in addition 
 on each side in front, a long whisk of hairs, with clubbed tips, stand¬ 
 out like horns. A large number of genera amongst the Noctumi, are 
 hairy, and we may mention Arctia Caja as an example of a larva havin- 
 rmsed wart-like tubercles, from which hairs diverge in all directions, so 
 completely as to hide its body beneath them. Others are densely clothed 
 with parallel hairs, growing in various directions, a familiar instance of 
 which is known in Bombyx quercus. 
 
 The genus Psyche shows us larvae inhabiting cases made of bits of 
 heather, stems of grasses, particles of leaves, &c„ &c„ and the movements 
 ot such strange objects are very curious; only one or two segments of the 
 occupant, can be seen, even when it is in an active condition. 
 
54 
 
 CATERPILLAR. — FORMS. 
 
 In the Drepanidoe the hinder pair of legs are wanting, and an elon¬ 
 gated tail substituted. The genus Dicranura gives shaking examples of 
 double or forked tails, Tlnula is a familiar instance, quaint, and grotesque, 
 with its air of ridiculous anger when alarmed or its dignity offended, at 
 such times, it erects its head and tail, protruding the fleshy filaments 
 telescopically from them, then raising itself to its full height and jerking 
 to and fro the thick anterior part of its body. An ominously threatening 
 creature is the larva of Stauropus fagi, especially when alarmed: its front 
 segments are furnished with remarkably long angular jointed legs, which 
 it plays with a tremulous motion, and its hinder segments are enormously 
 inflated and erect, and terminate in two filamentous tails, making one 
 hesitate before touching such a scorpion-like object when met with fbr the 
 first time. Notodonta zic-zac is a very striking form, when at rest its 
 head and tail are erect, and its body bent and arched; 
 and this curious posture is rendered more striking by 
 a hump behind, and two long curved ones on the back. 
 Lophopteryx camelina is remarkable for having, in 
 addition to a slight hump behind, two short fleshy pro¬ 
 jections, hearing two or three hairs, and its favourite 
 position in repose is to bend back its head and front segments, and elevate 
 the hinder ones into a curve that seems exhaustive of muscular power. 
 
 In the group of Noctuina , the great bulk of species have smooth 
 skins, and are, in a general way, tolerably uniformily 
 cylindrical, yet they present great variety of proportion 
 between length and thickness. The few hairy larva? 
 among them are remarkable as being exceptions to the 
 general rule; these occur with Dipthcva Orion, as repre¬ 
 sented in the annexed cut, also with S. vcnosct and among 
 the members of the genus Acronycta, of which A. aceris 
 and leporina are perhaps the most strikingly hirsute exam¬ 
 ples, though the most curious in the group is undoubtedly 
 A. alni, the larva of which is provided with two long 
 clubbed hairs on each segment. 
 
 Amongst the Qeometrai , with ten legs, we see some 
 veiy remaikable forms, distinct from any of those previously 
 mentioned; in most instances the anterior and posterior segments bein<* 
 much shorter than those of the middle, which are not furnished with legs. 
 Some are very elongated, as O. sambucaria , others short and twig-like 
 with prominences, as P. cmtagata, which, by-the-bye, has the exceptional 
 number of fourteen legs. In P. syringaria , we have a larva of great 
 singularity with two pairs of projections on his back, the hinder & ones 
 
CATERPILLAR.—OBSERVING. 55 
 
 elongated and curved, so that it generally keeps itself in a close loop-like 
 lorm. The larvae of Selenia closely resemble thorny twigs, the hinder 
 pair of the anterior legs having much the appearance of thorns, the humps 
 and swellings behind favouring the resemblance. Geometra papilionaria 
 presents a larva with forked head, and a fork on the nest segment, and 
 having humps, and a shagreened skin; and Phorodesma, bajularia 
 clothes itself with particles of leaves in such a manner as to entirely 
 disguise its larval appearance. J 
 
 We have seen how larvae have the power in many ways of warding off 
 their enemies ; they may put their trust simply in faith, like a missionary 
 among savages, or strike terror with horrid forms and gesticulations, as 
 the Chinese do—they can wriggle like an eel, leap like a salmon, swing 
 like a Leotard, or run like a Deerfoot upon occasion, they play at whoop, 
 only they do not halloo sometimes they make excavations in wood, earth, 
 or other material, like veritable sappers and miners. They take advantage 
 ol their forms and colours to mimic various objects, or they dress them¬ 
 selves up like jacks-in-the-green—a few, like the celebrated Slingsby, who 
 vanquished the snapping turtle in the dreary dismal swamp, are clothed 
 with formidable armour; others, especially the Noctuce, eject a disgusting 
 fluid from their mouths— quid ? The safety of the larva; of many Butter¬ 
 flies depends on something objectionable in their flavour; P. Machaon 
 emits a pungent acid odour, and poultry have a great dislike, worse luck, 
 to the caterpillars of the common “ whites.” Frogs retire in disgust from 
 Abraxas grossulariata. Some gregarious lame are protected” by their 
 webs—and, as for hairy larvae, they are evidently of too indigestible a 
 nature to suit the maw of any bird, unless it be that of the cuckoo, which 
 has the reputation of a partiality for them. 
 
 . To save repetition, cocoons, &c., will be considered, further on, when 
 we come to discuss the chrysalis state, for, although they are certainly the 
 work of the larva, they are, nevertheless, constructed for the special benefit 
 of the pupa. 
 
 What to observe.— For a complete history of species, it is, of 
 course, necessary to begin one’s observation with the exit from the egg: 
 Do all the batch come out simultaneously, or at intervals ?—at what part 
 of the egg is the exit made—the top or side—by a big or small hole— i. e., 
 does the egg-shell remain tolerably whole, or much shattered? Then,’ 
 again, is the egg-shell eaten for the first meal ? Then the colour and fom 
 of the young larva should be noted; for some species, such as C.immanata 
 and russata, may be seen more easily to be distinct then, than at any 
 other time of their larval life; also whether it has bristles which may 
 
56 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—DESCRIBING. 
 
 afterwards fall off, or horns or ears (as in Bicranura vinula) which may 
 afterwards sink into the body. Of course, young larva;, like many other 
 young things, have big heads, but a meal or two will cause the body to 
 assume its proper proportions, unless the head is to remain strikingly bigger 
 than the next segment. In a general way, therefore, this feature need°not 
 to be noted as any peculiarity. 
 
 ^ ext we observe the change of colour produced, it may be, by the 
 food, for young skins easily show what is going on inside, and generally, at 
 first, present a greenish blush till time thickens them. Then as to how 
 they feed, &c.; how they behave when touched; whether they fall off, curl 
 up, fling themselves about, jump backwards, try to bite, drop by a thread, 
 sham death, &c., &c. And a very important element in giving a life-like idea 
 o the larva, is its attitude, whether at rest or in motion; whether it rests 
 at length, or bent or curled, and if the latter, whether curled sideways or 
 in the same plane, and if so, into how many coils? the time taken in 
 attaining their full growth, which will also be influenced by proper feeding, 
 foi some will collapse if they can’t get enough—others will starve on, and 
 grow agam when they are supplied. 
 
 Then as regards hibernation-if so, when begun, when ended? how 
 many spring moults ? there is generally one, but sometimes more 
 
 A large number of larva;, which in their earlier stages are comparatively 
 sober m colour, only array themselves in brilliant coats at their last moult, 
 among these may be mentioned Zyccena JEgon, C.flamcomis, A. aus¬ 
 tralis, f. rubrtcosa, E. nigra, C. exoleta, &c. On the other hand, a con- 
 siderable number amongst the Noctuce are more gaily dressed in youth, 
 and take to more quiet colours as they approach maturity: some which have 
 but httle variety of markings through their whole larval career, yet en- 
 taiely change their co our, as from pale green to dark brown, or vice versd. 
 The structuie, as well as the colours and markings of the larva after ’ 
 every change of skin, should therefore be carefully noticed, as well’as its 
 habits and customs, which are often peculiarly interesting, together with 
 its food-plants and the effect of any experiments made with them. When 
 these have been done, and figures of them have been taken, we may con- 
 - on knowing something about the natural history of 
 
 How to describe. -Suppose we have a larva before us awaiting, 
 01, as unfortunately is generally the case, trying, either by sullen immove- 
 < l i y, or by frantic racing, to avoid, description, it will, as a rule, be found 
 es o gi \ejmt, its length, bulk, and form, and, secondly, its colour and 
 ornamentation; otherwise, there is danger in many cases of the colours 
 getting put (grammatically) upon the wrong parts. 
 
CATERPILLAR.—DESCRIBING. 
 
 57 
 
 State then first the length, both at rest and in motion-if many 
 examples can be examined, the average length; if the larva is contractile; 
 . e “ the bulk “ Proportion to the length, whether stout or slender; for 
 instance, one calls the larva of Triphcena orbona plump, but tolerably 
 proportionate to its length in hulk, while pronaba is more decidedly 
 stout and Gonoptera Matrix slender; then give the shape of the head- 
 whether globular, flattened, or square—whether notched or bifid, whether 
 retractile or exserted. After that comes the outline or form, and this 
 may be taken Irom two views—first from above, and then sideways; and 
 must be set down as uniform, swollen in any part or tapering, cylindrical 
 or flattened; some cases admit of a single word describing much in a 
 small space, such as spindle-shaped, or, if liked better, fusiform; in others 
 it must be done more at length, mentioning whether the segmental folds 
 are deeply marked or otherwise; next in due order, plates, humps, and then 
 the shape of the humps, whether globular, pyramidal, wedge-shaped, 
 single, or in pairs, &c., the ridges on certain segments, and also their posi¬ 
 tion, whether dorsal, lateral, or ventral; then appendages, mostly anal, but 
 not always so; in the case of regularly hairy or tufted larva; the point of 
 hairiness, with the position, length, nature and distribution of the hairs 
 whether bearing short bristles or longer hairs; then will come the texture 
 of the skin—translucent, soft, smooth, glossy, shagreened, folded, wrinkled 
 or puckered, and whether the creature is tough to the touch or pulpy; 
 with the usual warts or dots, whether obsolete or distinct. 
 
 A few words are here necessary. Firstly, Lepidopterous larva; all fall 
 under the general description of being divided by indentation into thirteen 
 segments, whereof beginners must remember that the head is number one; 
 although, in some descriptions copied from old writers, it seems as if the 
 head were excluded from the reckoning, and the number of segments set 
 down as twelve only. In a general way, too, it is not very wrong to say 
 that larv® are long and cylindrical—so many species are really of this form 
 that it may fairly he taken as the type. But, of course, when we come to 
 pass any great number of species in review, we find their variety, both in 
 form and ornamentation, to be wonderful. 
 
 Secondly, the tubercular dots amongst the larv® of the Noctuina and 
 others, from each of which grows a single hair or bristle, are evidently 
 organs of feeling, and their arrangement as to situation and number can 
 he best studied from the larva of either Ay rot is segetum, Gortyna flavago, 
 or Dasypolta tcmpli, in all of which they are conspicuous as horny warts, 
 and, when once they are understood, we shall find their representatives in 
 a vast number of species in each division of Lepidoptera, that is to say, the 
 hairs, however minute, will he found, if carefully looked for, in similar 
 
58 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—DESCRIBING. 
 
 positions ; so that whatever may induce a note on them, it will not he at 
 all necessary to allude to the position they occupy, which should be borne 
 in mind by all .Entomologists. 
 
 Thirdly, where there is <Tny departure from the usual number of legs, 
 that is a most important thing to be mentioned, and should come very early 
 in the description ; for, unless anything is said to the contrary, we assume 
 m the caseot the larvae of butterflies and thick-bodied moths, and “Pearls,” 
 that they have sixteen legs a-piece, and in the case of the geometers only 
 ten legs; deviations from this rule ought, therefore, to be carefully noted, 
 and also cases of imperfectly developed legs, or legs changed into something 
 else, as in D. vinula, &c. 
 
 Fourthly, it must be remembered that the anal segment is apparently 
 sub-divided on its upper surface by a transverse indentation on skinfold, 
 which is in fact the hinge, so to speak, of the anal flap, and has often been 
 misrepresented, even in our own day, in pictorial works, as an extra seg¬ 
 ment, whether for want of knowledge of the external anatomy of a lepidop- 
 terous larva or from careless haste, it is hardly possible to decide; but the 
 numerous mistakes of this nature that exist in otherwise well-executed en¬ 
 gravings, from whatever cause, are much to be regretted. 
 
 And lastly, the third, fourth, and thirteenth segments have no spiracles, 
 and those on the second and twelfth are placed a little higher than the 
 others, are generally a trifle larger, and of a more narrow oval shape, so 
 that as this arrangement exists in all, it is only necessaiy to describe their 
 colour, unless those on the middle segments should happen to be circular 
 a circumstance worthy of note. 
 
 The bulk, form, proportions, structure, texture, and organs, of the larva 
 having been duly discussed, then comes the—oftentimes puzzling—task of 
 setting forth its colours, and their arrangement. 
 
 And first we may notice, that, in most cases, the larva has some colour 
 or other predominating on the back—sometimes reaching down to the 
 spiracles, sometimes not so far—this then should he taken first as the 
 ground colour; then comes the colour of the head, with the lines’, if any, 
 on it; and, starting from these, come the lines in so very many cases run¬ 
 ning through part or the whole of the dorsal region. The principal of these 
 is the dorsal line, sometimes merely seen as a pulsating vessel through the 
 skin, sometimes as a line or stripe of colour in the skin itself. It is" often 
 edged with darker thin lines, and in young larvm these lines are distinct 
 though close together, and are then called a double dorsal line ; then where 
 the back slopes decidedly to the side, comes the sub-dorsal line, and below 
 that the broader stripe, at the top of which the spiracles are usually situ- 
 at eel, termed the spiracular. J 
 
CATERPILLAR.—DESCRIBING. 
 
 59 
 
 The accompanying cut will give a good idea of the position of the 
 sub-dorsal and spiracular lines. 
 
 These, as well as the dorsal line, 
 may be bordered by others, or the 
 space between them may be filled 
 up by similar lines, or they may be 
 interrupted, and appearing as continuous lines only on the front, the middle 
 or the hinder segments, and be seen only as dots or streaks on the others; 
 still they are to be made out more or less distinctly in the majority of 
 species, and greatly assist one as land-marks, so to speak, in mapping out 
 the surface of the skin to be described. 
 
 Lines—stripes (thick lines) and bands (extra broad stripes) are easily 
 put out of the way, however many they may be, in comparison with pat - 
 terns , which puzzle one immensely for want of words to describe their out¬ 
 lines and positions ; still, if the position of what should be the dorsal and 
 sub-dorsal lines is well kept in view, the place also of the fold between the 
 segments noticed, and the existence more or less apparent of the (tra¬ 
 pezoidal) dots or warts not forgotten, it will often be found that very 
 intricate patterns will resolve themselves into comparatively simple 
 elements; and if their outlines can be compared to any tolerably familiar 
 object (such as a pear, a kite, a lozenge, 
 a diamond, a boat, a V, or a W), a 
 better notion can then be more easily 
 given than by using a much greater 
 number of words in order to achieve 
 the same end in a round-about way: 
 the direction in which these patterns 
 point should not be forgotten ; as also 
 in the case of slanting streaks or 
 dashes. The back having been more 
 or less successfully got rid of, then 
 come the spiracles, their shape and 
 colour, followed by the colour and 
 markings, if any, on the belly; some¬ 
 times this is plain enough, at others 
 it is prettily decorated with lines; and 
 in the case of Melanthia ocellata , 
 there is a V-bke pattern as distinctly 
 as the back; the colour of the legs 
 also must not be forgotten, and may 
 be given in connection with that part of the body to which they most 
 
60 
 
 CATERPILLAR.—PRESERVATION. 
 
 assimilate. The humps, &c., are to be distinguished from the part of the 
 body on which they are placed at the time it is being described. 
 
 In many closely allied species, the .utmost care and attention should 
 be given to the back, and more especiaUy to the sub-dorsal region, for it is 
 theie that the distinctive and special characters are found, and without 
 this close investigation, we should not be able to discriminate between 
 many species of the genus Noctua; and, again, the genus Leucania is 
 another which demands the closest scrutiny on this region, as these larva, 
 have all an uniform design on them of a certain number of lines and stripes 
 excepting of course, turca and phragmitidis, which appear to have no’ 
 claim to the genus m the larval condition. 
 
 ^rcserbattoiu 
 
 The art of preserving the skins of lame has, of late years made 
 rapid strides towards perfection, both at home and abroad. By the recent 
 process, hairs and appendages remain intact, the colour and markings are 
 “ ““ 
 
 #w f“ yb0dy can Understand tbat great care and patience are required 
 that the occupation is not without personal inconvenience, and that more 
 less frequent disappomtments must occur. It is therefore not to be 
 arrJookf ha , , th ° Se wbo bave devoted themselves to the practice of this 
 
 he hlam k edT Va i d 0 “’ and ’ PUrSUing ib for l )rolit > th «y cannot 
 
 be blamed for keeping then- secrets to themselves. J 
 
 Th6 ^ U ° WiQg method 1 tried many years ago with tolerable 
 uccess . The larva was first killed by immersion in spirits of wine, then 
 the contents were extracted through the anal orifice, by means of a crochet 
 ook, or darning needle, with the point turned round whilst red-hot; after 
 that the slan was inflated, and kept so with a fine blowpipe inserted and 
 secuied m the above-mentioned aperture, care being taken not to distend 
 
 a fire “S • ? ^ ^ ^ aS <1™% as possible before 
 
 file. W ere I. again to make an attempt, a metal chamber heated by <m S 
 
 Wn th the fil ' e - FiDe SaDd has a]so bee “ cmployedlo 
 
 keep the slan distended until dry; by this means the form may be“better 
 
 secuie.1, but the process is not so speedy, or otherwise desirable. Parts 
 that have faded during the operation, may be tinted by the application of 
 co our, on a camel s-hair brush of the smaUest size, to the interior of the 
 skin The object should then be mounted on an artificial leaf, the more 
 closely resembling one of its natural food-plant, of course, the better. 
 
 end of caterpillar state. 
 
CHEYSALI8.—COLLECTING. 
 
 61 
 
 THE CHRYSALIS STATE. 
 
 u Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Collecting. 
 
 If the chrysalides of Lepidoptera appear, to the uninitiated, to be dull, 
 stupid-looking things, there are, at any rate, many beautiful and curious 
 exceptions to the rule; among the butterflies, for instance, we meet with 
 some gracefully angulated forms, resplendent with burnished gold, fully 
 accounting for the derivation of the word “ chrysalis: ” while that of 
 Nemeobius Lucina almost anticipates the hairy pupa? presently to be men¬ 
 tioned, and is, besides, ornamented with a row of black dots on each seg¬ 
 ment. The pitcher-handle-like proboscis sheath of the pupa of S. convol¬ 
 vuli is a curiosity in its way, and so, too, is the proboscis sheath of S. ligustri 
 [see fig.j which is unattached to the body of the pupa; the 
 tufts ol hair in the case of certain Bombyces , the funny ventral 
 appendages at the ends of the wing-sheaths of the puparium 
 in Dianthcecia and Cucullia , observable also in Plusia , but 
 not so strongly marked, and exaggerated in a grotesque man¬ 
 ner in some of the Hydrocampidce ; the delicate blue bloom on 
 Cosnua , Mama , Catocala, Cidaria psitticata, and miata , as 
 well as on Haliasprasinana; the old larva-skin attached, tail- 
 fashion, to the comical squat pupa of Pericallia syringaria , 
 the green and orange-red colours of the T/icrcp, and the 
 wonderful variety of tints and markings in the chrysalides 
 of JEupithecicB, pointed out by the Rev. H. Harpur Crewe, 
 and the quaint haiiy-looking articles, which will by and by 
 turn out veritable plume moths, are all more or less interest¬ 
 ing and instructive ; and, indeed, to anybody who will take * 
 
 the trouble and look at them carefully, there is vast variety, even in the 
 common brown pupie of so many species—their heads, shoulders, win^s 
 abdomens, all slope at such different angles, or take up such different pro¬ 
 portions of the whole figure of the pupae. And, again, there is much to he 
 seen in the spikes at their tails-blunt, sharp, bifid, hooked-in fact one 
 can give no notion of them variety without specimens or figures. 
 
 Then, again, though some pupae are quite unattached, e. g., the lively 
 Alacrogaster, which, probably for the wise end of escaping the effects of 
 
62 
 
 CHRYSALIS.—FORMS, ETC. 
 
 floods on the one hand and browsing cattle on the other, 
 is endowed with the power of travelling up and down 
 the stems which encase it; the pupa, too, of U. lupulinus 
 can move itself from end to e^id of the elongated gallery 
 in which it is enclosed ; others, thanks to the supply of 
 silk and ingenuity possessed by the larvae, are curiously 
 attached to surfaces. Thus those of the Nymphalidce , 
 
 T (uiessid<e, and of the Pterophori , are suspended by 
 their anal segments, as represented in the cut; but 
 though Tom Hood, in one of his whimsical year books, draws an un- 
 mistakeable JSoctua pupa hanging by its tail, head downwards from a 
 tree, no notice has yet appeared of such a monster in any veracious periodi¬ 
 cal ; others, in addition, have the further support of a 
 silken girth, as the Papilionidce. This is well shown in 
 the chrysalis of P. Machaon , as represented in the annexed 
 cut; it is also observable in some of the Lyccenidce , the 
 quaint truncated butterfly-like little pupa? of Ephyra, 
 among Geometrina , and of Rivula among the Belt aides ; 
 again to the larva is due the wonderful insect architecture 
 displayed in the construction of cocoons, or the rudiments 
 of them ; sometimes only a few silken threads, attaching 
 together leaves or rubbish, serve as a protection for the 
 contained pupa, as with Pericallia, Abraxas , Angerona , 
 Ennomos, & c.; the chrysalis of Uropteryx is suspended by 
 a few threads in a sort ot cradle ; more or less slight cocoons 
 formed among mosses contain the pup® of Lithosia , Pu¬ 
 rr dromis, Tephrosia, Geometra, &c., and, similarly amongst 
 leaves, let/iea, Cymatophora, Amphipyra , the Botydce, Pyrausta , Ky- 
 pcena, Hermima , &c. Some of these slight cocoons are perhaps more 
 beautiful than any others, from the net-work manner in which the silken 
 threads are woven ; Acidalia subsericeata and Sterrha sacraria are ex¬ 
 amples of this, but P. porrectella , though these notes do not include 
 Tineina , is as beautiful as any. It is among the Bombycina that we find, 
 above ground, the most perfectly formed cocoons, and here there is much 
 variation; first in density, those of the Liparidce being gauzy web-like 
 affairs, Clostera, Porthesia , the tigers, ermines, &c., more or less mixed 
 up with hairs—a peculiar sulphury substance enters into the composition 
 of that of Clisiocampa neustria , and debris of wood into those of the in¬ 
 ternal feeding Cossus and Zenzera. Then, in the next place, as we get to 
 tougher material, we find considerable variety of form ; thus the cocoons of 
 Odonestis and Gastropacha are elongated and somewhat fusiform, the 
 little cocoons of Nola approach the shape of a boat, that of Saturnia is 
 
CHRYSALIS.—TIME, HUNTING. 
 
 63 
 
 pear-shaped, with a singular valvular opening, the Eggars have smooth egg- 
 shaped cocoons, thence their name, and, lastly, the cases of the Dieranurida 
 are of great hardness, that of vinula presenting the appearance of a half- 
 egg, whether made out of bark, or fragments of a stone wall, or a painted 
 door, should the larva choose to leave its tree, and betake itself to a neigh¬ 
 bouring building for making up ; that of bicuspis, when we get it out, 
 bears a striking resemblance to a Brazil-nut. In other divisions than the 
 Bombyces we find examples of well-formed cocoons ; thus the Anthroeerce 
 are furnished with neat glazed cocoons, elongated at each end; those of 
 the Sesias, are miniatures of Cossus ; Acronycta, Symira, llabrostola, 
 and others among the Noctuo; , have a more or less tough and silken 
 covering, Scoria dealbata is enclosed in a shuttle-shaped cocoon, Halias m 
 a boat-shaped one; the Hespei'idee are enclosed in a fusiform abode formed 
 by drawing together the two edges of the middle and lower part of a blade 
 of grass, while Phorodesma , Pysche , and some of the Hydrocampidce con¬ 
 tent themselves with the old habitation of the larva. 
 
 This brings us to mother earth, where for subterranean pupa? we shall 
 have to dig (infra) on speculation. Some, as Xylocampa, Banlcia , Metro - 
 campa, Papist ena, are found on the surface, others, as Busina, a little 
 beneath it; the bulk are situated at a depth varying from an inch and a- 
 half to three inches in depth, while a few lie buried at a very considerable 
 depth, as in the case of A. Atropos, which makes a great smooth chamber, 
 big enough to hold a large hen’s egg, P. cassinea, some of the Aq rotes, 
 Calocampa, T. populeti, Ac., but the depth of all pupae will depend much 
 on the nature of the soil. In the construction of these earthern cocoons, 
 there is of course great similarity, though there is much variation in the 
 relative quantity ot silk used to bind the earth; in some instances the 
 former being barely discernible, and, as a consequence, the cocoon being 
 proportionately brittle. Thus, for example, the sarcophagus of C. 
 xerampelina is of an exceedingly delicate nature, while that of Cucullia 
 is of a much firmer texture. The cocoon of P. trepida is very tough but 
 not always coated with earth, so also are many of the Prominent^, <?. g., 
 chaonia, dodonaa, and dromedrarius ; and that of P. margaritalis mwch 
 resembles these, though of course in miniature. 
 
 And now, having considered the chrysalides themselves, their modes 
 of attachment, and their cocoons, the next step will be to look for them. 
 Pupa-hunting may be pursued at seasons when other modes of collecting 
 are slack; it is also a capital auxiliary to “ breeding; ” for the females <rf 
 many Bombyces and Pseudo-bombyces, not readily obtainable by other 
 methods, may thus be procured, and used for attracting purposes. 
 
 The best time for pupa-hunting is from the middle of August to 
 the end of October, or an interval corresponding to the lull in collecting 
 
64 
 
 CHRYSALIS.—LOCALITIES, SITUATIONS. 
 
 the perfect insect, which succeeds the summer season and precedes the ap¬ 
 pearance of the ivy bloom. At this period of the year may be met with 
 m favoured localities, great numbers of pupai, chiefly of common species, 
 witfi here and there perhaps something worthier the expenditure of time 
 and energy: among the pup® of the better order may be mentioned X 
 conspicillaris, where it occurs, A. alni, at alder, C. occularis, between 
 leaves or under moss, towards the end of August; C. ridens, under bark, 
 among rubbish, &c., in September; 1). bieuspis, on birch trunks in the 
 South, on alder in the North, rarely above two feet from the ground; 
 Notodonta trepida, dodonaa, and chaonia, at the foot of oaks, and palpina, 
 dtctaia &c., at poplars and willows or under sods, in September and Octo¬ 
 ber; -b.fuscantaria and Eup.fraxinata, under moss on ash trees and O. 
 xerampehna, also at ash, but under the ground; and, in its fenny haunts, 
 B.Machaoti abounds m September; other months are by no means so 
 productive; in April, H. ruberaria may be met with under loose bark; 
 in June, (A. quadra on pales near lichen-covered trees, M. abjecta under 
 stones clods, &c„ B. abietaria in fir woods; and in July, A. Iris, sus- 
 pended from sallow or neighbouring objects, the Pterophori attached to 
 the stems and leaves of their food-plants, Ac. 
 
 with 7 he !° Cali ^ S w Ch are most P r °duetive of pup®, are open spots 
 with tiees few and far between; our coasts, sand-hills, heaths, parks, fields 
 
 clearings m fir or other woods, lanes, and borders of streams, are the most 
 likely places to select from; and the nature of the soil should be taken 
 into account, clay being the most unfavourable, while gravel, chalk, lime¬ 
 stone with a thin layer of superimposed earth, greensand, sand, light loamy 
 soil, maiden mould leaf mould, and the material formed from the dead 
 spicular foliage of fir trees, afford us the best chances of success. 
 
 ,, ^ h f. Sltuati , ons in which P U P* occur are from the topmost twig of 
 the stateliest tree down to some half-dozen inches beneath the surface of the 
 earth, and even under water. We will begin at the top and work down- 
 wards: firstly, then, 
 
 The leaves of trees are often spun together, and sometimes attached 
 by a few threaos to tings in their vicinity by larv® when preparing for 
 then-succeeding transformation. Thus Clostera, Drepana, Cilix, Stauro- 
 pus, Cymatophora, Abraxas, and Perieallia are examples of the kind; 
 now it follows, that if any stray gauzy silk should connect the leaves so 
 spun together with adjoining twigs, these same leaves will, as a matter of 
 probability, be the last to fall in autumn; again, as all the leaves do not 
 lop simultaneously, the odds will be against two connected leaves fallino- 
 at the same time, consequently, if we visit localities known to produce the 
 above species or others with similar tendencies at “ the fall of the leaf" we 
 may, by au examination of the little agglomerations remaining among the 
 
CHBYSALIS.—SITUATIONS. 05 
 
 twi>, possess ourselves of the desired prizes. In my garden, a few years 
 
 which i r ‘T ^ Sm ° the,ed ' Vith sma11 chsters of dead leaves, each of 
 winch contained a pupa of Orgyia antiyua. But even these will yield to 
 
 the elements in time, and then the only likely place to discover them wffi 
 be among the heaps of fallen foliage. 
 
 certain^ snwde« Tlf 6raneAes ^frequently favoured by the pup® of 
 
 certam species, the more generally chosen situation being between the 
 forks, and underneath the larger branches, as with Eorthesia^emer'hZ 
 
 nnnlr-P* , 0f tlWS are tenated ia several ways. Outside, in the 
 
 assimilated t u® 1 * 8 a “ d cocoons of Bombyces artfully 
 
 assimilated to the nature of the bark; from the light gauzy web of 
 
 mmtivdv n ° a f° w St0Dy hard Cases of the Dicranuridx, all so com- 
 Tn ™ y aSy ° f d ?!f ctl0n a f ter the escape of the moth, but difficult— 
 m some cases very difficult-to find before that occurrence. 
 
 teroufteTaJr f W iT eVOr ]t “T* ^ VCry apt t0 harbour its Le P 5d °P* 
 ffirous tenants; for the proper working of this the lever figured at p. 20 
 
 S b ;/T/ Very Sei ' nCeablc; D - vinula ’ m oha, A. megacephala, 
 tocala Mama, Hyps,petes, and others, like to spin up in such situations. 
 
 with IM v 1 ' 66 tniUks the P U P* ofman y S P“^ may be met 
 
 f ^ ; F(ec ' locam P a ’ Spilosoma, Acronycta, Cymatophora 
 
 VT 1 ’ Habrostola ’ Catocala, Epione, Ennomos, 
 
 Lastly, the baric and the wood itself are the abodes, the former of 
 cei tain Sente Tortnces, Ephestia pinquedineU.a, &c., the latter of Cossus, 
 Zenzera, and a few of the other Sesice. These pup* of internal feeders 
 are not a veiy satisfactory class to work at as a rule. Those in the bark 
 re very tender, and liable to injury, either in extraction or by subsequent 
 diying up of their surroundings; but we shall find that they are very apt 
 to occur in stumps of trees which have been felled, and by notici n ; the 
 
 sur ®fT - WtlCh C ° nCeal ,f cu l lci f ormis in birch stumps, we may make 
 sure of their presence, and by the aid of a saw, possess ourselves of a low 
 or two, and perhaps of a goodly store of chrysalides. Again, when to our 
 knowledge, S. apiformts, bembeciformis, sphegiformis, myopiformis, 
 fo> miciformu, tipuliformis, or Zenzera eeseuli (the males of the last- 
 named will inhabit remarkably small twigs)* are within a root, branch, 
 stump, or twig the latter may he cut or sawn ofT above and below the seat 
 o e contained pupa (I remember once having seen a quantity of pup® of 
 A. apiformts thus collected, and the sight reminded me forcibly of the 
 sticks used at fairs and races in the national and aristocratic game of 
 three sticks a penny ’’—that is, except as to price—and when the dealer, 
 m whose possession they were, informed me that the pupae were “in 
 
 E a 
 
66 
 
 CHRYSALIS.—RAKING, ETC. 
 
 the hole, upon his soul,” I felt compelled to “ try my luck ”). In the case 
 of whole trees affected with rare clearwings, they may be cut down and 
 transported, but the drawbacks are too obvious to mention. 
 
 Having discussed the outsides and insides of trees and bushes, the 
 next subject will be— 
 
 Herbage . In the first place, the pup® of internal feeders may be 
 disposed of. The common thrift ( Statice armeria ), where it occurs, should 
 be looked to for the precious canker-worm (S. philanthiformis) at its 
 heart; pup® domiciled in stems must be tracked and treated as proposed 
 under Caterpillar State, but as otium cum dig. (particularly when the 
 maximum success can be secured with the minimum amount of drudgery) 
 is the order of the day, it is a wrinkle to be acquainted with the fact, that, 
 by lollowing the reed-cutters, many pup® of fen insects may be obtained 
 at little cost and trouble; and, if we can manage to get access to the stacks, 
 we can revel in pup®-hunting of the very cleanest description, and may 
 even run the chance of stumbling on the rare Meliana jlammea ; at an} r 
 rate, by looking out for the capped extremities of the reeds (for larv®, en¬ 
 closed at the time of cutting, soon take measures to exclude the unwelcome 
 atmosphere), many pup®, such as of Chilo, Senta , &c., may be collected. 
 “ Low P lants ” ha ve also their external pupal tenants; various species of 
 Butterflies, Anthrocerce , Pterophom , Bombyces , &c., are to be found upon 
 them, some presenting striking appearances already mentioned. _P. 
 Machaon , some of the Vanessa , Limenitis , Melitcea , some of the Hip- 
 
 parch a, Odonestis, Gastropacha , Satutmia, &c., are in this way to be 
 met with. J 
 
 Descending lower in the scale, the verdure of the ground should be 
 turned over, like leaves in a ledger, rubbish and fallen leaves examined, 
 stones, logs, and clods subjected to careful scrutiny, &c., &c. 
 
 Posts, palings, especially such as are rotten, defective, or lichen covered, 
 should be carefully investigated, and old walls surveyed for the artfully 
 concealed pup® of Bryophila , thatch inspected, old beehives seen to, ledges, 
 copings, and other over-hanging structures peered under, and all places, 
 conceivable as likely, ransacked for pup®. 
 
 Stubbing up roots is, by no means, an unprofitable method of 
 hunting ; those mentioned under “Caterpillar State” will prove the most 
 remunerative; and here, again, by following the broom-makers, as they 
 pull the ling and broom, our continental neighbours are enabled to save 
 themselves much unnecessary labour. In some seasons, plenty of Death’s 
 heads are to be picked up of the potato-diggers for a mere song. 
 
 Raking, by means of a blunt three-toothed rake, is a good method of 
 working sand-hills, and is frequently productive of an abundance of 
 Dianthoecia carpophaga , Agrotis cursoria, ripce , prcecox , and the like. 
 
 Fir woods loquire a style of working, not, I believe, so generally 
 known as it should be. In the more open spaces, and near the borders of 
 
CHRYSALIS.—DIGGING. (57 
 
 pine forests, we may commence operations by getting to the depth of tbe 
 ^seasons deposit of leaf-mould, and then, by dividing the layer from 
 that of the previous year, and turning it over, we shall expose such cocoons, 
 or naked pup* as may be there. This layer, which is usually one and a- 
 half to two inches in thickness, is easily separated, and many square yards 
 may be laid bare, and examined, with ease, in a comparatively short space 
 ot time. It must be remarked, however, that pup* will rarely be found 
 uithin two feet of a tree: the best way, therefore, is to begin to work at 
 that distance from the trunk. By this mode of collecting, T. piniperda is, 
 m favourite localities, to be procured in large numbers, together with a« 
 sprinkling of such species as F.piniaria, M. liturata, and, a month or so 
 later, E.fasciaria. 
 
 Pupa Digging is a method which has been strenuously advocated 
 in this country; the implement most generally recommended here is a 
 common garden trowel, hut the French prefer a broad chisel, and our Lan¬ 
 cashire friends use a three-pronged fork : the latter has the disadvantage 
 ot exerting unequal pressure when employed in levering up a sod; the 
 curled-up sides of the garden trowel are rather objectionable—the tool 
 should be made nearly flat, and, of course, the material should be steel, not 
 iron, that is, for those who prefer the trowel to the chisel. 
 
 The Rev. Joseph Greene, who has had great experience as a pupa- 
 digger, and whose well-known essay on the subject has been a theme of 
 admiration amongst an appreciating circle of friends, points out that 
 “parks and meadows with scattered timber trees ” are the best localities, 
 and that “ those trees from which the surrounding grass has been worn 
 “ away by the feet of cattle [in such a manner as to leave a ring round the 
 trunk, for if the cattle come too close they do harm] and those situated 
 “ on the borders or banks of streams, dykes, &c., when the soil is dry and 
 “ friable, will be found most remunerative.” The modus operandi he de¬ 
 scribes as follows:—“If there be a nice dry sod ensconced in some snug 
 “ corner formed by the roots, he can scarcely fail of success. Insert the 
 “ trowel, in this instance , about eight inches from the trunk, to the depth 
 “ of four. Turn up the sod and lay it on the ground. Look then at that 
 “ P a rt of the trunk from which the sod has been removed, and if you can- 
 “ n ot see, feel gently with the hand for any cocoons which may adhere. 
 
 “ Then take the sod in the left hand and tap it softly with the trowel, and 
 “ the pup® which form no cocoon, or a very weak one, such as aprilina,pro - 
 dromaria, &c., will drop out. If the sod be composed of very loose, dry 
 “ earth, simply shake it. Lastly, tear the roots asunder for Bombyces ; 
 
 “ if, however, the roots be strongly matted together, there is little or no use 
 “ in doing this.” (Zool. 5395). The same gentleman believes the key to 
 successful pupa-digging to be “ Patience ” 
 
 On the same authority “poplar, willow, elm, birch, beech, ash, and 
 hawthorn ” are stated to be the most remunerative trees. 
 
68 
 
 CHRYSALIS. — REMOVING. 
 
 Before leaving tins subject, I cannot resist giving an anecdote, the 
 facts related in which occurred to a friend of mine—a well-known ento¬ 
 mologist, whose name need not be mentioned—on the occasion of his first 
 attempt at pupa-digging. He had for some time been absorbed in his oc¬ 
 cupation at the foot of a majestic tree, when he became aware of the pre¬ 
 sence of an individual of the Bill Sykes persuasion. This party, who had 
 evidently been watching the movements of my friend with anxious interest, 
 \ broke out, “ Yer a bit out, you are—it was t’other end o’ the field that the 
 
 i Spider stowed the swag, but yer won’t find it, cos the wedge is in the pot 
 
 by this. Somebody s bin an’ blowed, for bless me if you was at the crack : 
 who’s blowed?”. The relief of my friend when he got out of his dilemma 
 may be better imagined than described; and he has not again, to my 
 knowledge, gone pupa-digging. 
 
 Dragging with a water-net will have to be employed, if we desire 
 to acquire the pupae of the Tlydrocampidce and Acentropus; we shall 
 have to drag in such water-plants as water lily, duckweed, Callitriche , 
 Stratiotes, and Potamogeton, and examine them on the shore for the small 
 silken cocoons of Paraponyx and Acentropus , and the quaint pupae of 
 Cataclysta and Hydrocampa enclosed in the old case of the larva. 
 
 iHanajjnntnt* 
 
 To remove pupae of Butterflies, &c, found on walls, under copings, 
 and elsewhere, is not an easy job. Our endeavour must be to 
 chip off the part of the substance to which they are attached 
 without injuring them ; nor is the cutting out of such cocoons as 
 those of Dicranuridce without its difficulty. These, by the way, 
 should be extracted entire, and on no account opened, otherwise 
 the future imago will lose its natural leverage, and most likely 
 be crippled ; for it must be recollected that when the time for 
 emergence arrives, the insect is provided with a wonderful fluid 
 for softening the structure which encloses it. 
 
 When chrysalides are fixed to leaves or twigs, we should 
 try to cut off A-like portions, which will enable us to hook them 
 upon a line of string, marked (s) in the accompanying figure, 
 Dead leaves, rubbish, &c., enclosing pupae should be dis¬ 
 turbed as little as possible; stems, &c., bearing P. Ma- 
 chaon , Anthrocerce , Odonestis , and the like, have only to ™ 
 be cut off* below the seat of the pupae. The above kinds 
 may be kept in gauze-covered band boxes (across which a 
 few strings have been stretched, for the convenience of 
 suspending some of them), in an outhouse, care being 
 taken to exclude mice and other vermin. 
 
CHRYSALIS.—DAMPING. 
 
 69 
 
 Subterranean pupse will require a different mode of treatment. 
 ^ ^ en secured, they should, with as much of the cocoon as we can 
 manage to save entire, be conveyed between layers of moss, or anything 
 'which will steady them and keep off pressure ; then, on reaching home, 
 they should be carefully deposited on, and covered over with, one of the 
 soils mentioned at page 32, in some vessel of unglazed pottery-ware, a thin 
 layer of cocoa-nut refuse being placed over all, to preserve a sufficient amount 
 of moisture, and at the same time to assist in preventing mouldiness. 
 Some collectors, however, prefer moss for the purpose, in which case it 
 should be first dipped in boiling water, to destroy any tenants: baking and 
 re-damping is sometimes resorted to for the purpose, but the moss is 
 thereby rendered too friable. Some consider it necessary or desirable to 
 place their pupae on end, head uppermost, in the soil, in order that the 
 perfect insect may emerge in the best position for making its exit, but this 
 is not the posture most usual with pup® found in Nature, though it is true 
 that while the bulk lie horizontally, back uppermost, the Yanessce and 
 some internal stem-feeding species, by way of example, are placed head 
 downwards, others tail end down. 
 
 Damping pupse, I have long been satisfied, is, as a rule, a great 
 mistake. It is well known that caterpillars, such as enter the earth to 
 effect their metamorphosis, seek such corners and aspects as will protect 
 them from the baking rays of the sun or the drenching showers which 
 usually come from the S.W.; they prefer the sides of trees and other ob¬ 
 jects which face the North, and we should therefore keep our chrysalides 
 rather cool and dry than otherwise. But the great difficulty of damping 
 is this: in Nature the cocoon keeps the wet from actually touching the 
 pupa, but when we have broken the case, we cannot replace it; we cover 
 up the chrysalis with something that touches it all round, and then the 
 wet hangs on it and does mischief, otherwise dampness seems necessary for 
 some species to emerge in good order. Those which spin up above ground 
 have generally a covering which acts as a parasol in sunshine, a para-pluie 
 in rain; while the naked chiysalides of Butterflies are usually in the shade 
 of some leaf or ledge ; and Machaon, I suppose, gets so much moisture as 
 well as heat in his fenny haunts that the one renders innocuous the effects of 
 the other; but I shall shortly have to refer more particularly to this under 
 “ forcing.” Stems containing pupae may be stuck in damp sand, for, should 
 the}' dry up, there will be great danger of the contents being injured, from 
 the contraction which takes place; or the pupie may be taken out of the 
 stems and kept betwen layers of damp, not wet, sand with good chances of 
 success. Aquatic pupa* must, of course, be kept in water in globes similar 
 to those used for gold-fish, but covered with gauze. 
 
70 
 
 CHRYSALIS.—FORCING. 
 
 Forcing is a process which, in the case of certain species, is in¬ 
 valuable to the collector. There are many species, the subterranean pupa? 
 of which it will be found almost impossible to preserve alive, until the 
 normal time of appearance.of the perfect insect: of these, especially 
 the thin-skinned Sphinges, such as Cheerocampa and Beilephila, may be 
 mentioned. 
 
 Tlio principle on which forcing is founded, consists in the circum¬ 
 stance that though these pupae are readily killed by cold with moisture as 
 well as by dry heat, they are enabled to bear a considerable amount of heat 
 and moisture together. This would seem to indicate that they originally 
 inhabited a warm, moist climate, and may throw light on the appearance, 
 at long intervals, of certain species in hot seasons. However that may be, 
 it is indubitable that in the case of D. galii nearly every pupa can, by this 
 treatment, be made to yield forth its perfect Sphinx, while without it, failure 
 is almost inevitable. 
 
 The plan is as follows:—Procure the saucer of a flower-pot, of the 
 size required, according to the number of subjects to be operated on, strew 
 the bottom with a layer of gravel, and, over this, place some moss, again 
 put gravel, followed by moss; on the latter let the pupa? be 
 arranged, and then well covered over with a thicker layer of 
 moss. Next take a piece of cane, bend it into the form of a 
 ciicle in size a little smaller than the saucer, and secure it 
 in this figure by the aid of twine; in the next place, take 
 two other pieces of cane, each of about two-thirds the length 
 of that which forms the circle, and having fixed them by 
 twine so that they cross one another at right angles, bend them into semi¬ 
 circular shapes and fasten the four ends to the circumference of the circular 
 piece; then on the framework thus formed, bind moss by means of thread, 
 and place the concern lightly with its circular base on the moss in the 
 saucer. The object of this contrivance (see fig.) is, that, on emergence, the 
 insect may be able at once to crawl to a place suitable for drying its wings; 
 the whole may then be freely damped, and covered over with a suitable 
 sized bell glass, to the knob of which a sheet of stiff paper has been at¬ 
 tached, to act as a screen against the direct rays of heat; and the whole 
 apparatus, with its contents, may now be placed in the fender in front of a 
 good fire. Free and frequent damping with tepid water is necessary ; for 
 should dryness be permitted, the result will be a failure. There is no need 
 to keep the fire alight by night. In two or three weeks the moths will 
 begin to make their appearance. About Christmas is the best season for 
 forcing. I am aware that there are other methods of forcing, but, as the 
 one recommended above is that by which my friend, Dr. Boswell Syme, 
 
CHRYSALIS.—OBSERVATION. 
 
 71 
 
 has succeeded in bringing out all —I believe without exception—the Gain 
 which he has at various times had the good fortune to meet with, in the 
 larval state, on the Deal Sand-hills, it would be simply waste of space to 
 mention them. To force pup* which have spun up, all that is necessary is 
 to place the cage, m which they are contained, on a mantel-shelf, in a room 
 v here there is a fire. It is best, however, to defer forcing these until they 
 have felt a frosty night or two. 
 
 Pup® in our breeding-cages should, of course, be left as much in situ 
 as possible. The chief thing is to keep out that pest, pscudospretella; 
 and sometimes it may be necessary just to examine, and, perhaps, gently 
 to stir the earth m the cages, to see if they are at work. 
 
 P. O —Pup* are best transmitted in boxes, packed in soft moss- 
 small ones may be sent between layers of wool-but the journey, even in a 
 farst-class padded carriage, is not calculated to add to their vitality. 
 
 <0bscrbattom 
 
 The student will find but little to observe in the way of habits beyond 
 the movements already noticed at p. 61-2, for jerking, writhing, 
 and wriggling are about all that the pup* of Lepidoptera are 
 capable of. He will, however, find that many pup*, shortly 
 before the emergence of the perfect insect, are able by means of 
 more or less toothed annulations (as shown in the annexed cut) 
 to wriggle themselves towards daylight. This has been noticed 
 in Ch. Elpenor, in Cossus, Zenzera, Hepialus, the Sesia, and 
 others. Again, the pup* of the Plume-moths, when touched 
 or annoyed, can turn their heads down quite over their tails in the most 
 ridiculous fashion. Many of the forms are well worth study, and are 
 suggestive of grouping species; for, as with the eggs, a similarity of 
 structure is noticeable between the pup* of allied species, though here and 
 there we meet with a puzzling exception : for example, who could suspect, 
 without previous instruction or experience, that the chrysalides of the 
 little Plume-moths would be fixed in their positions, like those of some of 
 our Butterflies, or that Ephyva and Eivula would similarly mimic the 
 mode of pupation of other Butterflies? 
 
 In describing a chrysalis, the student will observe that 
 the various parts of the future perfect insect—as the head, the 
 thorax, the abdomen, the eyes, antenn®, legs, and wings—are 
 clearly mapped out upon its surfaces (as shown in the accompany¬ 
 ing cut, which represents the pupa of S. carpini). If this be 
 borne in mind, the description is more likely to be accurate and 
 intelligible, as the respective parts can be readily referred to. Then 
 
72 
 
 CHRYSALIS.—PRESERVATION. 
 
 it should be noted—1. Is the pupa unattached or attached, and if so, how 
 attached ? 2. Is it naked or furnished with a cocoon, or the rudiments of 
 one; if the latter, describe it ? 3. How is the skin of the larva shed from 
 the chrysalis ? 4. What is Ike length of the newly-transformed pupa? 
 5. What is its proportionate bulk? 6. Describe its form? 7. Its struc¬ 
 ture ? 8. Its tints and markings ? 9. In what manner does it vary ? 
 
 10. Does it resemble or differ from its congeners; if so, in what way ? 
 
 11. Do any changes afterwards take place in form, structure, markings, 
 colouring, &c. ? 12. At what time is the pupa state assumed ? 13. How 
 long does it continue ? 14. What movements is it capable of making ? 
 15. How does the male pupa differ from that of the female ?—and so on. 
 
 Preserbattmn 
 
 In the case of chrysalides this is a very simple matter. They may be 
 killed by plunging into boiling water, or the puparium, after the escape of 
 the perfect insect, may be neatly gummed together to the shape it possessed 
 prior to that occurrence. Some, after death, lose their polish, which may 
 be imitated by varnishing, if thought desirable. It is always advisable 
 m such as are naturally attached, like the butterfly chrysalides, to secure 
 the leaf, or whatever it may be, to which they are fixed, for this will give 
 the specimen a natural appearance. The cocoons, &c., where practicable 
 should be preserved, to give an idea as to their appearance in Nature’ 
 But these cocoons, pupae, &c., should be kept in a collection separate from 
 the perfect insects, because, on the one hand, the danger of their getting 
 loose, rolling about, and doing damage is considerable; and, on the other 
 they interfere with the symmetry of the arrangement. 
 
 END OF “CHRYSALIS STATE.” 
 
PERFECT STATE.—APPARATUS. 
 
 73 
 
 THE PERFECT STATE. 
 
 CfaUetting* 
 
 ** Eager he looks : and soon to glad his eyes, 
 
 “ From the sweet bower by nature formed, arise 
 “ Bright troops of virgin moths and fresh bom butterflies ; 
 
 “ Who broke that morning from their half-year’s sleep, 
 
 “ To fly o’er flowers where they were wont to creep.”—C rabbe. 
 
 From cliildhood to green old age, few pastimes are more healthily 
 exciting than “the chase” of the perfect insect. The hare notion of 
 “ a gilded butterfly,” radiant with beauty and grace, awakens a train of 
 thought associated with joyous days of country life. But we must cast 
 aside for a while such sentiments and descend to matter of fact. 
 
 The apparatus required for hunting the perfect insect consists 
 of, in the first place— 
 
 Nets: of these, we will first consider th q frames. That now most 
 commonly in use is a light ring net, the steel ring being jointed for the 
 convenience of folding up into a small space; the handle of this imple¬ 
 ment is sometimes made on the sliding principle of a telescope. 
 
 The umbrella net (so called from its appearance when folded up) 
 may be of exceeding^ light construction, 
 the ring being formed of two self-acting 
 lengths of stiff* “jack spring,” which are 
 hinged on to two pieces of brass respec¬ 
 tively, as shown in the adjoining cut. 
 
 One of the pieces of brass is rivetted to 
 the stick of the net near the ferrule end, 
 as shown in the upper figure; the other 
 is free to slide along the stick, and has a 
 notch which fits a pin, fixed firmly to the 
 stick, for the double purpose of preserving 
 the circular shape of the net, and of pre¬ 
 venting it from twisting round. It is a 
 favourite with many: its advantages are 
 that it is lighter, stronger, generally more 
 capacious, and more quickly brought into 
 use. The real objection to it is (that is, 
 if you are troubled with morbid sensi¬ 
 bility of feelings, and can’t stand chaff,) 
 
 the mortification of hearing some urchin remark, “ Look at that fool! why 
 don’t he put his umbrella up in the pelting rain ! 
 
 E b 
 
74 
 
 PERFECT 8TATR.—APPARATUS. 
 
 The cane net , made with a tubular T or Y-piecc, into tho arms of 
 which the ends of a yard and a-half, or more, according to fancy, of cane, 
 or whalebone, are inserted, the other aperture being fitted with a handle, 
 for which a walking stick is generally used. 
 
 The ‘ 30-foot handle net” supposed to be necessary for working 
 Apatura Iris. As a substitute, a 20-foot mountain-ash pole may be cut 
 from a dense copse, and an ordinary net tied on to it. 
 
 The clap-net , which seems to have quite gone out of fashion; and 
 others, special ones, which will be mentioned in their places. 
 
 The material of which the bag of the net is composed, varies accord¬ 
 ing to taste. Leno and book muslin are generally used ; the former being 
 green, the latter white. Silk gauze (green) is often used, but its tendency 
 to fray, is much against it. The best materials are Crepe lisse and grena - 
 dine, both silken fabrics of a durable and transparent description, which, 
 though rather expensive, possess very superior qualities. Again, for 
 night work, black is much to be preferred to green or w r hite, as insects 
 when caught, can be more readily distinguished; and white is certainly 
 preferable to green for day work, not only for a similar reason, but because 
 most people are aware that the common green dyes rot the textures to 
 which they have been applied; and, as a consequence, green leno nets 
 come to grief with the slightest rough usage. The only drawback to 
 white is, that it. attracts the attention of the million, and betrays your 
 whereabouts: and this reminds me that if you are of a solitary, retiring 
 disposition, and prefer to keep your own pet locality to yourself, it is 
 advisable, that you should attire yourself in rifle green, or some such 
 sombre tint, and above all, shun the use of a shiny cap, brass fittings, 
 and such glittering articles as may be seen for miles even by the naked 
 eye, for should you neglect these precautions, your actions are very likely 
 to be curiously followed by the aid of a field glass, without which, an 
 amateur detective desirous of ferreting out the secret haunts of a sly 
 collector, would as soon think of starting on his expedition, as a sportsman 
 of leaving his gun at home on the first of September. 
 
 The malce of the bag of a net is worth consideration. To start with, 
 efoie making up the net, the material should be well damped to take out 
 the dressing. In ordinary cases, as in the umbrella kind, the distance from 
 the mouth to the bottom should be rather less than 
 the length of the collector’s arm, and it is a good plan 
 to let in a circular bottom piece, in the manner of the 
 crown of my grandmother’s cap. The seams should 
 be outside. With small ring nets the bag need not 
 so ^ ee P ’ ^ should be made of a tapering shape* 
 which will enable the collector, by grasping it in the 
 
PERFECT STATE.—APPARATUS, ETC. 
 
 75 
 
 middle to at once preclude egress to any captured insect. The rinjr 
 which the bag is attached, should be covered with thin leather. 
 
 The forceps here represented, are, by some, considered useful for 
 capturing insects 
 settled on leaves. 
 
 An acquaintance of 
 mine who had re¬ 
 peatedly been stung 
 (in his unsuccessful 
 attempts to secure 
 certain Sesiidce !) 
 declared that for the 
 future he intended 
 to use this instru¬ 
 
 ment, so that, before handling his captures, he might make sure of the 
 order to which they belonged. 
 
 A needle and thread, and also string, should always be earned. 
 Some day, one or other of them will prove invaluable; the former may be 
 secured, with a reserve stock of pins of various sizes, in a pocket pin¬ 
 cushion. A pocket compass also, is a sine qua non when we have to work 
 extensive tracts of forest land. 
 
 Boxes. First a collecting box containing a stock of suitable pins. 
 It should be made of zinc (which is not apt to corrode like blocked tin), 
 m order that the cork may be damped; a precaution very necessary in hot 
 seasons. The best method of fixing the cork is shown in the adjoining 
 cuts:—the lower shows how a doubled strip of zinc 
 bent at a right angle is soldered to the centre of the 
 bottom of the box (5), the double strip having been 
 passed through the cork is then turned down so as 
 to clasp it, as shown at c c—c c in both figures 
 —the corners of the cork are fastened down in 
 the manner indicated by the top cut. Next a few 
 glass-topped “purple-shouldered” boxes for the 
 reception of such insects as, being in doubt about them at the time of 
 capture, we may wish to identify on the spot; and lastly, a goodly store of 
 pill and chip boxes of various sizes, prepared as recommended at page 12, 
 these should be punctured in the centre of the bottom in three or four 
 places, either with a darning needle or with the point of the blade of a 
 penknife, to facilitate the application of chloroform when necessary. 
 
 Killing apparatus, or, at any rate, something to stupify our 
 captures on the field, will also be required. The choice of one or more of 
 the following may be made. 
 
 7- 
 
 
 cCDc 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 c c 
 
 
 a|i||H?lfv ^:|j i; 
 
 '"III a 
 
 b 
 
76 
 
 PEBFECT STATE.—KILLING APFAETUS, ETC. 
 
 Tobacco smolce very quickly destroys insect life, smokers may breathe 
 it into the boxes containing insects to be operated on. 
 
 A cyanide bottle. This is rigged up as follows:—take a wide¬ 
 mouthed bottle, having a. capacity of from three to six ounces ; strew a 
 layer of cyanide of potassium (a deadly poison, by the way) on the bottom, 
 and, over this, sufficient plaster of Paris, mixed with water to the consis¬ 
 tence of thick cream, to cover the cyanide; when this is set, a few 
 thicknesses of blotting paper should form another la 3 r er; and an air-tight 
 cover (which is more handy than a stopper) should close the mouth. Such 
 a bottle may be charged by any druggist at a trifling expense, and will last 
 for months, provided that it be kept cool and the air be excluded. When the 
 poison begins to lose power, its effect may be greatly increased by warming 
 the bottle with the hand or otherwise ; but it is then time to have the bottle 
 replenished. Another way, is to make use of alternate layers of cyanide * 
 and blotting paper. Note. —The destructive power is much increased by 
 the addition of tartaric acid, which, by decomposing the deadly salt, causes 
 the evolution of hydrocyanic acid. 
 
 A chloroform bottle. That most recommended is constructed of 
 brass, the only exit for the chloroform being through a finely perforated 
 
 A nipple which screws in ; and this again is capped over with a top, 
 which fits by screwing accurately on to the aperture of the nipple, 
 n The latter permits a very small drop to flow at a time ; or, if any 
 surface be touched with it, the fluid runs out very slowly; thus we 
 can allow a drop to run over punctures made in the chip box, and 
 clapping our finger over it, the vapour speedily enters, and does 
 its work. 
 
 A laurel tin is used by some for the purpose, but unless 
 the bruised leaves be very fresh, their action is scarcely speedy 
 
 enough for field work. 
 
 The subject of stupifyin 
 “ Management.” 
 
 and killing is more fully entered into under 
 
 A satchel is a better receptable for our apparatus than the pockets 
 of a coat, because the danger of crushing is avoided, our burden can be 
 whipped off at any moment that great freedom of action is required, our 
 treasures may be carried like a carpet bag in the hand, so that shaking is 
 much diminished, and, above all, greater coolness is ensured, for the heat 
 of our body on a hot day is not likely to conduce to the peace and quiet¬ 
 ness of our captures; for the latter reason, the material should be pale in 
 colour; and if it be furnished with a couple of rings to be used for either 
 a handle or shoulder strap (with swivels at each end, like, but larger than, 
 those on our watch guards, which can be instantly attached or detached), so 
 much the better. 
 
PERFECT STATE.—COLLECTING. 
 
 77 
 
 Butterfly hunting is generally looked on as simple work enough. 
 It is true that some, such as the Wood white, may he easily run down 
 by a child, but others have remarkable powers of flight. A few, as the 
 Brimstone, resort to the dodge of “doubling” when hotly pursued. 
 The purple Emperor and his attendant knight, Thecla quercus , try to 
 keep out of our reach; others, as Theda intbi, render themselves in¬ 
 visible in some mysterious way. The butterfly hunter should be a cool 
 hand, and should strike with precision when the proper moment comes. 
 He should avoid placing himself between the sun and the object he 
 desires to capture, for, in that case, a shadow will be fatal to his hopes, 
 and he should endeavour to get to windward of his game. Sometimes 
 by stationing himself at a particular spot, and striking steadily, as the 
 butterfly comes within reach, he may do far more execution than could 
 he accomplished by any fleetness of legs, dexterity of arms, and general 
 powers of endurance; for many species have a tendency to return to 
 the same places of call, and to retravel the routes previously traversed. 
 The position taken should, if possible, as in a wood, for instance, be 
 some narrow gorge, through which the insect, if it comes that way, 
 must pass, or there may be some particular batch of bloom, or even a 
 favourite twig which we may take advantage of. The fritillaries and 
 the white admiral have a tendency to thread their way over and over 
 again, through the same rides of woods. The Vanessee will revisit the 
 identical flower (thistle or whatever it may be) most pertinaciously. The 
 Duke of Burgundy will return to the same twig, and so, too, will the 
 Purple Emperor ; but, for him, we shall either have to mount a favoured 
 tree, and, with a long-handled net, bide our time, or use the cumbrous 30- 
 foot handled net; but the best plan is to find out a locality, in which his 
 majesty occurs, where the oaks are low and pollard. The feminine A. Iris 
 may, however, be sometimes taken in the act of depositing her eggs on 
 sallow, and the male, as already stated, now and then descends from his 
 throne to visit puddles, wet mud, dung, dead animals, &c.; he is then, as 
 at all times, very bold, and, if the collector be not flurried, may be cautiously 
 secured. A brilliant idea is to shoot, with dust shot, or with a charge of 
 water (as they do Humming birds in S. America), the Emperor as he sits 
 in state! H. I. M. is very pugnacious also, and another dodge is to 
 shy up shining pieces of tin, or stones with bits of white paper attached, 
 when his dignity being wounded, he will sometimes chase the offending 
 object to the ground. 
 
 Mothing is a term used to express catching, with a net, moths 
 upon the wing. At first, one might be apt to think that this consisted 
 
78 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—SECRET OF COLIECTING. 
 
 merely in chasing every insect seen and endeavouring to net it; but a 
 large amount of trouble may be saved, and a far greater number of cap¬ 
 tures secured, by a little foreknowledge. 
 
 The grand secret of successful collecting, whether by day, 
 dusk, dark, or dawn, lies in one little word—WHY ? If the beginner, 
 instead of clinging persistently to the delusion that the more ground he 
 gets over the better will be his sport, would just ask himself, “ Why here ? ” 
 whenever he captures a decent insect, and would insist on a satisfactory 
 re p!y > or else a give-it-up from his inner man, before leaving the spot, we 
 should soon have a race of real insect hunters. I fancy I hear some one 
 say, “ Why any fool knows that! ” Exactly so; and “ any fool ” will 
 doubtless keep up his character for stupidity, by blundering on, and ne¬ 
 glecting to act on it. 
 
 Where there is one there are more, is true in a general sense; 
 hence the greater reason why the above interrogatory should be answered 
 on the spot. “ Why?” here, asks a string of questions. Whence from? 
 
 Whither bound ? W as it a female on the mission of ovipositing ?—a 
 male in quest of a virgin female ?—fluttering about its food plant ?—on 
 its way to some neighbouring attraction ?—on the wing for pleasure, en¬ 
 joying the hot sunshine, the cool shade, or some other congenial atmo¬ 
 spheric condition ?—its proper time of flight ?—seeking a place of rest ?_ 
 
 or was it disturbed, and in its fright flew, it knew not where?—was it 
 blown by the wind against its will?—under the influence of light?—or 
 after somebody’s sugar ? 
 
 Prospecting is an important measure; on visiting a locality, we 
 should carefully survey it, in order to form an estimate of its probable 
 capabilities; the flora of the neighbourhood, the character of the timber, 
 the soil, aspect, shelter, temperature, moisture, &c., should he ascertained.’ 
 H oods, when situated inland, are profitable hunting grounds, especially if 
 not too dense. The open parts, as the rides and clearings where the trees 
 have been felled and the underwood is of only two or three years’ growth, 
 are the best spots; outside, the border on the lee side is the most produc¬ 
 tive ; the same applies to pine forests. Parks, when timbered with majestic 
 trees, and particularly when there are plantations enclosed in ring fences, 
 are very desirable places of resort. Heaths and moors are often productive; 
 during, windy weather, the sheltered hollows, usually yield most insects; at 
 other times, the exposed positions pay best. 
 
 Lanes, where the hedges are neither too high nor too dense should 
 be selected, and due regard must be had to the direction of the wind at the 
 time of working. Fens, as a rule, are more profitable the more extensive 
 
PERFECT STATE.—PROSPECTING. 
 
 79 
 
 they are ; open parts bordered by plenty of reeds, bull-rushes, &c., should 
 be chosen. This class of locality may be worked by sugar and by light, as 
 well as by mothing at dusk and dawn, and searching after dark. Ponds, 
 borders of streams, &c., when there is plenty of vegetation at the edges, 
 and aquatic plants on and under the water, are most suitable. Sea-side 
 localities should be worked as near the cost as possible; under-cliffs and 
 sand-hills will prove most remunerative. In the former, a good variety of 
 low herbs on broken ground without trees or woods (for these are not very 
 productive near the coast), are good signs. Sand-hills should be pretty 
 barren, for then, the insects will be found thickly congregated in the little 
 oases of the desert. Chalk-pits, gravel-pits, and similar places are admira¬ 
 bly adapted for collecting; the parts which have not been meddled with 
 for some time, are the best. Downs and mountain sides with short herbage 
 of a varied nature, especially those in which wild thyme predominates, and 
 which have an aspect sheltered from the wind, will be found good. Waste 
 places overgrown with rank herbage, thistles, ragwort, and such like, some¬ 
 times teem with moths ; generally speaking (but not always), however, the 
 class of insects met with are of a common order. Banks covered with rank 
 weeds usually produce plenty of common things. When the herbage is of 
 a more refined and scant nature, the sport will be proportionate; in such 
 places, we sometimes meet with hymenopterous nests infested by parasitic 
 moths, which may be caught on the wing hard by, in the evening. 
 
 The time of year to start after collecting any given species is 
 usually determined by a reference to the dates given in Stainton’s “Manual,’* 
 or else by notes in our diaries; but it by no means follows that, because we 
 capture an insect on the 1st of April, the 4th of July, or the 5th of Novem¬ 
 ber, in one year, we shall find it on that particular day in the next. An 
 allowance must be made for forwardness or backwardness of the season, as 
 the case may be. 
 
 The state of the weather must also be taken into account. Insects 
 usually come in greatest force when a few fine days have been preceded by 
 rain;—warm wet weather is frequently very productive, but collecting in 
 the rain is not an enjoyable occupation. We may generally foretell coming 
 rain by observing the sky—“ Red sky at night is the shepherd’s delight, 
 red sky in the morning is the shepherd’s warning,”—also the latitude in 
 which the insect is sought must be considered, for the further north we go, 
 the later (cceteris paribus) it will occur. Sometimes a prevailing east 
 wind will delay the appearance of a species for weeks. A curious exempli¬ 
 fication of this occurred to me several years ago—I had brought indoors a 
 large number of pupa? of Clostera anachoreta , for the purpose of forcing, 
 in order that I might get over the job of setting them out in the slackest 
 
80 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—TIMES. 
 
 time of the year ; the chocolatc-tips began to emerge freely about Christ¬ 
 mas, when, all at once, an east wind set in, and, as suddenly, the moths 
 ceased to show up; as soon as the wind shifted, however, out they came 
 again as thickly as before. .[The cause of the phenomenon was evident, for 
 the pupae were kept just as warm as ever, on the mantel-piece. 
 
 Another way of hitting on the time for the appearance of a 
 species is more practical; it consists in noting and associating in the mind 
 with it some other occurrence. By way of illustration as to my meaning, 
 let us say the whitethorn is beginning to show its little reddish buds—it 
 is time to look for H. rupicapraria; the blackthorn is beginning to 
 blossom—now for L. polycommata ; and so on with other buds and 
 blossoms. Again, Biston hirtaria has been out a week in our London 
 squares— Aleucis pictaria ought to be appearing at Dartford or Chigwell 
 ltow;— C. lineella has been swarming for a fortnight on our lime trees— 
 P. oppressana should be out. 
 
 The times of day or night at which insects fly also demand special 
 notice. Butterflies love the sunshine; many of the Hawk-moths fly at 
 twilight, but Macroglossa and some of the Sesice take wing in the early 
 morning sunshine, generally retiring for two or three hours towards mid¬ 
 day, and re-appearing soon after noon; the Nonag rice, Tapinostola , 
 Miana , Luperina, and others, settle down on their food plants when, 
 after dusk, their short flight of twenty minutes or half-an-hour is over; 
 other Noctuce come forth from their hiding places sooner or later after the 
 shades of evening have set in; most Geometry start forth as dusk is 
 coming on; the Tortrices are usually on the wing a couple of hours before 
 dusk. 
 
 Another point to be remembered is that, if an insect be on 
 the wing an hour before dusk it will, under favourable circumstances, be 
 so again at an hour after day-break, or, if it fly an hour after dusk—an 
 hour before dawn; for the amount of light is then about the same, and 
 light has more to do with the matter then is generally supposed. Under 
 extraordinary occurrences, such as eclipses (when even chanticleer crows 
 out of time), night-flying moths will come forth in the middle of the day— 
 but the more familiar examples with us are, that on dull sunless days, 
 butterflies make themselves up for sleep, just as Noctuce do on bright 
 moonlight lights; for I cannot subscribe to the theory that the latter are 
 attracted by the light of our satellite, and flock to it in such numbers as 
 to account for the spots thereon. 
 
 Watching the trees in an open glade of beeches or oaks, we may 
 notice the gambols of the Hook-tips as they flit about in the sunshine 
 
81 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—WORKING, ETC. 
 
 quite out of our reach ; but every now and then one will descend, and may 
 then be captured. This is applicable to many species, dozens of which 
 may thus be taken. L. rubricollis , at times, swarms round oaks, Brephos 
 round sallows, i . piniaria round firs. Towards dusk, by stationing our¬ 
 selves under oaks or other trees, troops of dancing little moths will be 
 seen, and by the aid of a longish handled net, we may thus supply our¬ 
 selves and friends with Pup. dodoneata , some of the Phycidce, several 
 Tortrices. It was in this manner that the hitherto rare S. deflexana was 
 obtained; this latter sport though, only lasts for a quarter of an hour or 
 so, but during this short space of time much may be done. 
 
 In working hedges, rides of woods, and similar situations, at and 
 after dusk, a great deal more is to be effected by taking up a position which 
 experience has shown us to be good, and then quietly biding our time, 
 than by rushing about in a state of frenzy and striking hap-hazard; and 
 we must also recollect that the colour of the insect for which we may be 
 specially looking, makes a difference in the matter; thus, if it be white 
 or pale we should endeavour so to place ourselves, that its form and size 
 may stand boldly out against a dark mass of foliage; if, on the other hand, 
 it be green, brown, grey, or sombre in its tints, then we must take the sky 
 for the back-ground. A little practice will enable us to tell whether the 
 insect netted is the right one or not, for probably it has some peculiar mode 
 of spreading out, or closing up, its wings in the neb—shamming death, 
 vivaciously struggling for liberty, or settling quietly on the sides. 
 
 Bloom, or patches of flowers, whether in a wild or cultivated state, 
 are best worked by standing perfectly still at the particular flower-bed or 
 patch of bloom which we have found, or which we should judge, to be most 
 attractive, and then, whether it be M. fuciformis at Bugle, C. porcellus 
 at Rhododendron, S. convolvuli at Petunia, B. lineata at a bed of scarlet 
 Pelargonium, Bianthcecia at Catchfly, Plusice at Turn-cap lily, or any¬ 
 thing else at any of the numerous alluring flowers which will be enumerated 
 further on, they will not be afraid to come within easy reach. 
 
 By lying down on the ground in suitable localities, many moths 
 become evident which, in our erect position, had been invisible—little 
 Psyche radiella is a striking instance of this. By squatting down, and 
 so lowering the level of our sight, we may often, both by day and night, 
 bring into the field of vision insects which otherwise would have remained 
 unnoticed. 
 
 A wide range of vision, most useful in working banks, may be 
 acquired with a little practice ; the way is to look intently at a spot some 
 six yards in advance, when, after a time, you will become aware of any 
 
 F 
 
82 
 
 PEEFECT STATE.—ALTITUDES, SEAECIIING. 
 
 object stirring within a space of, say, forty square yards; this is the best 
 method known to me of working for S. chrysidifw'mis in the perfect 
 state, which, unless frightened, booms along like a Burnet, but, being of 
 small size, easily escapes notice until the eye becomes familiar with it; 
 and this reminds me that by experience it is no difficult matter to detect 
 species on the wing, thereby saving considerable time and trouble by not 
 catching and letting out again those “ not wanted.” 
 
 The altitudes at which insects fly vary from that assumed by the 
 Purple Emperor down to Acentropus niveus, which skims along the sur¬ 
 face of the water. C. bajularia flies at dusk at a height of about ten or 
 twelve feet from the ground, other species even higher, but the majority 
 flit within reach of an ordinary net. We must not, therefore, content 
 ourselves with merely looking straight before our noses. 
 
 Searching for settled insects is apparently a simple method of col¬ 
 lecting, but great practice is required before proficiency is attained. 
 
 Boles of trees ; these should be carefully scrutinised for moths: 
 anything having an approach to a triangular outline, whether of the 
 right-angled or isosceles form, should immediately arrest our attention. 
 
 The collector will soon become familiar with the pos¬ 
 ture of the pugs. Some, as the Notodontidce , Lima- 
 codes , Cilixy sit with their wings much arched, and 
 may be best detected by examining the tree trunks in 
 profile. Certain Geametrce rest with their wings erect 
 over their back; and indeed all moths, when in the act of drying their wings, 
 assume this attitude, and are readily passed over when looked at point 
 blank. Some species among the Geometrce, prefer the more elevated 
 positions on the trunk; others, as the more Bombiciform Geometrce , the 
 Prominents and Noctua , are usually found from about 2 to 5 feet from the 
 ground, rarely above 3 feet. Noctuce, indeed, generally ensconce them¬ 
 selves near the foot. On tree trunks, early in the morning, and again after 
 noon, some of the Sesice may be found drying their wings; but they soon 
 jerk themselves off on to the ground, and subsequently take wing. Note. 
 -—If we see the empty pupa-cases sticking out from the bark, or "elsewhere* 
 it is, ot course, a strong presumption in favour of the species being out. 
 On windy nights, again, numbers of insects may be found on the sheltered 
 side of trunks. 
 
 Palings should he sought over from top to bottom. The top ledge 
 in spring and autumn, is the place to look for apterous females, which 
 usually run up to the highest point they can reach, soon after leaving the 
 chrysalis. Cu.cu.llia chamomillce, and umbratica secrete themselves under 
 
PEBFECT STATE.—SEARCHING. 83 
 
 the iedge, and <W erects himself like a split-off piece at the top corner. 
 
 see the mg , ltSe i f sb ould then be looked at in such a direction, that we can 
 see the angles formed where the pales overlap; and the foot quite at the 
 
 tthi s °h’• eSP r a11 ^ tWe be graSS ° r otber herbage growing against it 
 S"t*! ratd do ™ for the purpose), should be examined! Eieh- 
 ond Paik ,Larentia multistrigaria almost invariably occurs at this nart 
 ..d yn ,««.. h d«„v„rf i„ ** «& TL,"E“iC 
 
 s ■“?1- Tk» l.«l„ of other .tr.otum then 
 
 paun H s should be peered under; a favourite hiding place of Catocala is 
 
 n ZT'\ ° W S1 'ii C . opln , gs ’ &c - Outhouses and bams, should he visited 
 
 L a mfe oM “ fl M shelter to hibernating species 
 
 better Than ^ hehen-eovered palings are best-park fences are 
 
 case of TineintL * P3 f but DCW oak P a bngs are very prolific in the 
 time fLTr l- ? ’7T mU , . 6Ven tarr6d fences be despised- The grand 
 that th '•, ° f : VOrk - 1S after a boisterous wind. We null suppose 
 fence l't r h 18 S 1 gaJe T° m the S ' W - to - da y > to-morrow, if we can find a 
 
 we ThIl Tn!l , ; aSP r “ a e g00d l0Cality ’ sucb 83 Hartford, for instance, 
 we shali find plenty of sport, for sometimes the fences are smothered with 
 
 moths. Again on warm days, while a stormy wind is still blowin- 
 
 thTnlnd T f Shdtered P la ees, especially such as those to 
 
 ™ " . which lies a wood. It is therefore of great importance, 
 
 the fenceT he S f h ° uld make a “ e "tal memorandum of the aspects of 
 
 fences he visits, and also acquaint himself with the way the wind 
 
 rnareh 2 7*2^ in which case he may 
 
 maich straight otf to the most productive spots. ^ 
 
 h h ^ erbaS ®, “f 7 be examined “ext; on cloudy days, or towards dusk, 
 butterflies may be found fast asleep, when they may be readily secured. It 
 takes a little time for the unpractised eye to get accustomed to the appear¬ 
 ance of a butterfly with its wings erect over its back, though, after that, 
 they aie not difficult of detection; the “Blues” may thus he boxed in 
 abundance m their haunts. The little Psyche radiella, when not flying 
 may sometimes be found settled on grass or other herbage, at proper tin!! 
 and place. But, at night, after the first flight, certain species, such as 
 Nonagna, Tapinostola, and Miana arcuosa, for instance, may be found 
 singly and in pairs, settled in abundance on the foliage of their food-plants! 
 
 A. australis, Lupenna, and others are, similarly, to be collected. Then 
 most collectors are aware how abundantly the males and females of II. 
 rupicapraria occur on the hawthorn twigs and buds. Beside these' 
 many other species especially Geometers, may be met with, settled on’ 
 
 lantern ^ by Simply Iooldl,g for them b y the aid of a powerful 
 
84 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—BEATING. 
 
 Beating is the plan usually adopted for disturbing the tenants of 
 foliage, and starting them on the wing. Net in the right hand and beat¬ 
 ing stick in the left, the operator thrashes away, snapping up in his net- 
 such moths as fly out. Where there are two collectors, it is a good plan 
 for one to beat and for the other to follow at a respectful distance with his 
 net; for insects sometimes require a little time to make up their minds 
 to take flight, and a solitary heater misses a number which dart out from 
 spots that he has passed. If this arrangement be not made, then that 
 collector who lets his comrade go first, gets the best of it, which is, of 
 course, just the reverse in paling working. It should be well remembered 
 that it is the leeward side of a hedge or bush which should be beaten; for 
 the insects will be certain to fly out on that side. 
 
 Tree beating by means of a long pole, is useful for dislodging the 
 Hook-tips and other species, some of which fly in the sunshine, some in 
 early morning, and it is especially serviceable when it is desired to pro¬ 
 cure females. 
 
 Trunk beating by the mallet, as for larva? (see page 24 ante), is 
 an excellent way of obtaining perfect insects ; but the weight of the im¬ 
 plement is much against it, and almost as much vibration may be produced 
 upon even large trees by means of a stout cane or newly-cut hazel stick 
 some five or six feet in length, by striking the trunk in such a manner 
 that nearly the whole length will jar upon it at the same moment. This 
 is the plan by which Tephrosia consonaria , extersaria , and viduaria , the 
 Boarmida, Aventia Jlexula , JErastria Juscula , JEupithecia lariciata , 
 pusillata, albreviata, dodoneata , indigata , Hypoena crassalis , and others, 
 may be best obtained in the day-time. In the same way, Lithosia quadra 
 may be dislodged; but, in this case, striking the larger branches of oaks, 
 &c., is more productive. Note.— The collector must keep his eyes well 
 open, and in all directions around him, for some fall plump down, and 
 others make a bolt of it. 
 
 Pumping, by means of a powerful garden engine, is a still better 
 means of dislodging the tenants of a tree; but, unfortunately, though very 
 effective at home, we cannot well apply it on our travels. 
 
 Pelting with stones may also be employed 'with advantage, 
 and of all trees, there is, perhaps, none which harbours so many moths °as 
 the yew. 
 
 Brushing tree trunks and palings with a leafy little bough, or with 
 a dusting-broom, is a good plan of starting such species as are difficult 
 to see. 
 
85 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—SWITCHING, ETC. 
 
 Blowing upon the trunks, &c., has been adopted with great success 
 by Mr. Barrett. If the weather be windy and not too hot, numbers of small 
 species will be found settled on the sheltered sides of trees, and by blowing 
 sharply on the trunk, and at the same time holding the net in a suitable 
 position, they may be driven into it and easily secured. The great majority 
 will, of course, be Tineina , but many Tortrices will also be found, as well 
 as Pupitlieeice and other Geometra (such as T. extersaria and lichenaria ), 
 which cannot easily be seen on the bark. Even the prominents and other 
 
 large species, if not blown off, are made to raise their wings, and so become 
 visible. 
 
 Fanning is a proceeding equally efficacious with “blowing,” and 
 better adapted to people whose lungs are not of the leathery denomination. 
 It is surprising how powerful a blast may be driven by a strongly-made 
 fan. 
 
 Thatch beating is, in the autumn, wonderfully productive of 
 Depressarne , which, in many localities, take refuge in it in vast numbers; 
 but other moths, such as ]\octu(e, Geometrce , Pyrales , Scoparice , &c., fre¬ 
 quently make thatched roofs their places of retreat. 
 
 Switching low herbage is a first-rate method of working the perfect 
 insect, especially on rough broken ground. A long switch is passed, with 
 a tapping movement, from left to right, and vice versa , as we walk along, 
 and, by this means, we disturb such insects as may be hidden in advance 
 of us. As they start up, we can chase and net them, or, better still, first 
 mark them down and cautiously put the net over them, for while some, 
 as A. luctuosa , A. suTphuralis , A. ornata , A. gilvaria and citraria, 
 Fubolia , Aplasta, Pseudopterpna , Spilodes, Afadopa, &c., soon settle 
 again, others, as Futhemonia russula , including, now and then, a few of 
 those already mentioned, if not approached with great caution, will fly up, 
 up, up, until all hopes of securing them are lost. JBrephos parthenias , by 
 the way, will soar up in this manner, and so, too, will Fidonia piniaria , 
 and sometimes even Psyche —this, of course, applies in like manner to 
 insects tramped up as we walk through herbage of any kind. 
 
 Fumigating and vaporising are, by many, considered profitable 
 modes of collecting from bushes and herbage. The operation will be 
 conducted as recommended for larvae at page 25, and here we may some¬ 
 times take advantage of a bonfire of weeds, when the nature of the wind 
 keeps the smoke down. 
 
 Sweeping is here mentioned, because, though a poor return for tho 
 labour in the way o igood specimens, may be expected, yet an idea of the 
 
86 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—BOXING. 
 
 fauna of the neighbourhood may by it, in some slight measure, be formed. 
 The great thing to be borne in mind, is (that is, if specimens he required) 
 not to keep sweeping on regardless of contents, but to examine the net 
 after each two or three sweeps, otherwise no recognisable capture will be 
 found. It is all very well as a sort of “ sample taking ” of a locality, when 
 ere is nothing to urge us on to use our wits ; but, as a method of col¬ 
 lecting the perfect insect, it must rank veiy low indeed. 
 
 vprv F i 19 J inS T IT*? 1 *'. fr0m ° ff thc pond weeds ’ ^ means of a 
 
 In the ionT ”n t ^ lo »S'^ handle, is another mode of collecting, 
 n the London district,collectors must not mind being asked, “Please Sir 
 give me all the tiddlers you ketch.’’ ’ & ’ 
 
 simr,l B i > M in§r -.r iU ri!i a WC "' d ° r tw0 ' U has alread J been shown how 
 buTwW -h } a I ® P . 1C6 ’ to mani P ulat0 the box with one hand, 
 but what here demands attention is boxing from the net. When we have 
 
 netted an insect, we should observe whether its tendency is to fly upwards 
 
 ’ f, nd h ° ld 0U1 ' net aeeordingly; or throw the jelly-ba- part 
 
 1 n • ne i°T * « rm ” t0 make certain - and then get the hand in cautiously 
 holding the handle of the net between the knees, or let it “the 
 
 ground; and next we should place a box of suitable size over the fly with 
 the right hand, and quickly grasp the box outside, together with the not 
 that covers it ,n the left hand; then, with the right at liberty, we m ay 
 rapidly place on the lid with a tilting movement, enclosing, it ^cessarT 
 
 shuTtiL P the°iid ST f’ ^ may be " ent ‘y withdrawn before quite 
 !™V! ° d the b ° X and COntents ma y now he transferred to our 
 
 captives vill’“l.eTt ^ ** I"* ° Ur “ em P ties >” otherwise many 
 
 captives wall be let out agam, and remembering that each individual 
 
 should be accommodated with a separate travelling compartment And 
 
 here it may be noted, that, if there be any doubt as to an insect havin'! 
 
 been secured, the collector should look for it anywhere but in the box for 
 
 many a good insect has been lost by “peeping.” But if it be desirable to 
 
 (ill the insect on the spot, the cyanide bottle may be used instead of the 
 
 H with d f ’ ™ «• « ~>J touch theneh over 
 
 it, with chloroform, and then put the lid on over the network, or cover 
 
 over for a few seconds with the palm of the hand • when +l • , • 
 
 stupified it should be turned out, pinned, pricked with oxalie acid,'' !nd 
 transferred to the pinning box. The collector will take note that while 
 manj species travel safely in the boxes, thereby savins us much time 
 
 BnttT-fT ‘ deSh '° y their P luma ge if so conveyed. All the 
 
 l ies, with the exception of Leucophasia sinapu, are perfectly quiet 
 
 .l',,, Wed bouhcb^coucut, up t» Bud, spic, Jrn C 
 
 stupified, kdled, «n<l pinned on tk. spot; they should not W dishguLl 
 
PERFECT STATE.—FEMALE. 87 
 
 by pinching, which is a barbarous process. The Rydrocampidce and 
 Acentropus should never he boxed for the reason that they soon part with 
 their moisture, die, and become brittle—they should be set on the spot. 
 
 Most day-flying species are at once quiet when placed in the dark 
 interior. The Hawk-moths, as a rule, should be killed on the spot, but 
 the sun-loving Sesiee travel well enough ; Bombyces and Pseudo-bombyces 
 should never be earned about alive. Of night-flying Noctuce and Geo- 
 metree, the great majority may be safely transferred in their boxes to our 
 satchel, with certain exceptions, as, for example, Cymatophora, Thyatira, 
 Catocala, TJropteryx , and some of the Acidalice. 
 
 ote. It is best, after collecting at Sugar, Sallow, or Ivy, to leave 
 such moths as do not knock about alive, till the next morning, as they then 
 empty themselves and preserve much better; for, a moth killed with its 
 body full of sugar or honey, is apt to become an object after a time. Sugar 
 will sometimes exude from a prick in the body of G. vaccinii after it has 
 been set two or three years, but it soon soaks through and spoils X . rhizo - 
 litha and some others (the unique Noctua flammatra in Mr. Bond’s 
 cabinet is full of sugar). Another way is to chloroform and pin them 
 when one gets home, and kill them the next day. When pinned in our 
 boxes, the wings should not be allowed to stick up, but ought to be kept 
 down by cross pins, for if the specimen get at all set it will be pretty cer¬ 
 tain to spring, after being removed from the setting-board. 
 
 Attractions for moths and butterflies.— Before proceeding 
 further, it will be as well to enumerate the predilections of the perfect 
 
 insects These centres of attraction may be classified as natural and 
 artificial. 
 
 The virgin female, of course, holds the first place, and as, in the 
 case of insects, she does not seek, but rather is sought by, the male, she 
 ought, duiing her life, to attract at least one of the opposite sex. The case 
 of Orgyia antiqua is too well known even to the non-entomological. A 
 web, with a contained chrysalis, is secured for the purpose of seefng what 
 it will come to, and is perhaps placed in a window-sill; one day a supposed 
 spider makes its exit, much to the disgust of the captor, who had previously 
 hoped he should be gratified by the appearance of a real moth; but what 
 puzzles him most, is that a whole lot of little brown things, with a white 
 spot on either fore-wing, and with feathery antenna*, should be “all about 
 the place,” some of them apparently so “tame” that (likely enough the 
 investigator begins to get alarmed at the phenomenon) they decline to 
 budge, before the approach of even stately man. The noble “ Kentish 
 glory, The Emperor, and “oak eggar” are likewise most pertinacious 
 in their pursuit of a bred female; and a friend of mine used to remark to 
 those who for the first time saw “ the glories ” coming up against the wind, 
 
 “ We feed ’em well here, you see,”—a bit of chaff, that. 
 
88 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—FEMALE. 
 
 Most other female Bombyces are very attractive in their way; the 
 Swifts, the Liparides, Lasiocampa, Limocodes , as well as the Smerinthi , 
 the Sesiee, the Prominents, Hook-tips, several Geometres, the Psychides, 
 &c., are well known, but probably all moths of the sex are so in some de- 
 pee, for we notice an indisposition for flight in the unimpregnated female, 
 to such an extent, that one captured on the wing, is pretty sure to be on 
 the errand of ovipositing; with the exception, of course, of such autumnal 
 hibernating species as do not pair till spring. 
 
 An attracting cage for the female is readily made, by tying three thin 
 strips of cane, each in the form of a circle of three or four 
 inches diameter, and then fixing them at right angles to 
 one another, so that they will then give the idea of a rudi¬ 
 mentary hollow globe, over which muslin or green leno* 
 may be stretched, completing a chamber through which 
 the air can pass. . The addition of a fixed twig to the in¬ 
 terior for the moth to hold on by, is an improvement. 
 
 The principle is, that the moth being inserted and fastened into this 
 cage, “ the scent ” will be more readily wafted, than by other means, to 
 distant spots, as it travels in a line corresponding to the direction of the 
 wind. This line, when crossed by a male, is, under favourable circum¬ 
 stances, quickly followed up ; for although his course towards his lady-love 
 may be zic-zag at first, the deviation from it becomes less and less as he 
 approaches the attracting object of his search ; just as a good do<* may for 
 a time be baffled; in his eagerness overshooting the mark, but quickly 
 returning to the scented track. J 
 
 fl- Jr:r hl \ cir ™ msta ™ e * are ^t the weather be propitious for the 
 flight of the male, that the wind be gently, hut steadily, blowing in one 
 direction, such as the West, South-west, or South ; and, above all, that the 
 female he calling which may be known by her general aspect, by her 
 listless, not-mchned-to-move look, by a faint tremor of the wings, by her ab¬ 
 domen being elongated and perhaps curved forwards, and by protrusion of 
 the last segment through the furry coat, or rather by the down beino- drawn 
 away so as to denude it. ° 
 
 The time of year (as well as the locality) must be chosen so that we 
 may be sure that the perfect males are really to he met with; the time of 
 day wdl depend much on the species it is intended to attract. Some, such 
 as Sena, Endromis, Saturnia, Oryyia, Drepana, &c., will fly i n the hot 
 sunshine of the morning and afternoon; the Lasiocampa, will generally 
 make their appearance in the afternoon; the Swifts just before dusk; the 
 bulk of; the Geometra about dark, the Noctua, later on in the evenin-- 
 Opudibunda comes freely towards midnight, and, I beliere, the Prominent 
 later still; therefore if it he a rarity we desire to entice, it may be worth 
 
PERFECT STATE. — SALLOW. 89 
 
 while to sit up throughout a favourable night to find out the time ; after 
 that, we may save ourselves time by visiting the scene of operations at the 
 proper moment. 
 
 r The food-plant of the future larva, is the next natural attraction. 
 The perfect insects are rarely found at any great distance from it, and by 
 visiting the localities in which the food-plant occurs, we stand the best 
 chance of securing impregnated female moths. 
 
 Flowers of various kinds act wonderfully as alluring baits. Of 
 these, sallow-bloom in spring, and ivy-bloom in the autumn, are the 
 greatest favourites with collectors. 
 
 Sallow-bloom. —First a locality of promise must be found, where 
 sallow-bushes are not too numerous (for, in that case, the insects will be 
 inconveniently widely distributed), nor too tall, for they are then awkward 
 to work, and are best treated by shaking over a sheet:—they should be 
 well covered with the fresh, full bloom of either male or female catkins, 
 for it is a great mistake to suppose the latter unproductive, the collector 
 may then cautiously set to work, taking care to disturb the insects as little 
 as possible, on favourable evenings— that is, when the wind is not in the 
 East, though, generally speaking, wind is not unfavourable unless it be too 
 boisterous. He should be provided with lantern (a “ bull’s-eye ” is best for 
 the purpose, because it concentrates the light), net, a hooked stick, boxes, 
 and killing apparatus; or, better still, with a stick to the top of which the 
 lantern can be fixed at an angle of about 25°, and a small shallow net some 
 inches below that, at about 20°, the ring of the net being just in advance 
 
 of the lantern. The accompanying cut 
 will give the reader an idea of what is 
 intended. The object is, that though at 
 first the sallow visitors are sprightly 
 enough, they soon become more or less 
 intoxicated with the nectar, and fre- 
 quentl}’ fall when the light first glares 
 upon them, so that by the apparatus 
 mentioned the odds are greatly in favour 
 \of the net intercepting them. If, how- 
 ' ever, an insect is seen feasting—perhaps 
 its glistening eyes first attract our attention — it maybe gently tapped with 
 the stick into the net below, for they usually fall plump downwards, help¬ 
 lessly tipsy. (This is sad, very sad! Could not somebody, with the 
 laudable view of enforcing moth morality, bring in a permissive prohibitoiy 
 bill to abolish sallow- and ivy-bloom, and shut up demoralizing flowers 
 generally ?). The ordinary lantern and net, however, answer the purpose 
 
 
90 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — SALLOW. 
 
 very well, the former being in the left, the latter in the right hand; the 
 bottom of the bag being pulled toward the handle-end of the stick, and 
 held there, so as to keep it out of the way, and also render the net more 
 shallow—for a deep net is not required—in fact, a small shallow net specially 
 made for the purpose is the best. The captures should then be further 
 stupified, if necessary, with chloroform, pinned, treated with oxalic acid, 
 and stuck in our collecting box; or they may be transferred for a sojourn 
 in the cyanide bottle at option. When sallows are high and in large bushes, 
 branches cut off before dusk and stuck into the ground in suitable wood- 
 paths, are very attractive and easily examined ; but, if this be not done, 
 the easiest and quickest, and consequently the most productive way of 
 working high sallows (and ivy too) is with a hooked stick and inverted 
 large umbrella, tapping or gently shaking each branch of sallow, and very 
 gently shaking ivy, over the umbrella, when the moths are sure to fall in. 
 Th q gentle shaking is on the principle of taking care of the goose that lays 
 the golden eggs, for the bloom easily falls off. 
 
 A tray for intercepting the fallen moths, suspended round the neck, 
 like those worn by the old-fashioned peripatetic fruit sellers, has been used 
 with success. 
 
 A sheet the larger the better—prepared by cutting a circular piece 
 out of the centre and slitting it up from one of the sides to the middle 
 aperture, may, in suitable localities, be adopted; but it is not everywhere 
 that this can be conveniently applied, either the nature of the ground or 
 surrounding hushes interfering with its use. Where applicable, it may he 
 drawn round the hush at starting, in which case, having carefully made 
 our search by the aid of the lantern, we may proceed to shake with good 
 chances of success. Such insects as fall may be selected from the sheet. 
 A good large clap net placed on the ground under the part searched, is 
 better than nothing. En passant , the catkins which drop should be 
 deposited in an appropriate receptacle, and an eye should be kept open 
 for larvae. 
 
 -% day, in the sun-shine, Brephos parthenias and Adela cuprella 
 frequent sallow-bloom. 
 
 In the evening, the whole troop of Tmniocampce, and other spring 
 Noctuce, such'as T. piniperda and X. lithorhiza, resort to the sign of 
 “ The Catkin,” and there convivially hob-nob with their hibernated^rela- 
 tives, Glaa, Scopelosoma, Dasycampa, Hoporina, Cloantha, Calocampa 
 Xylma, and even Laphygma esigua, the party being usually augmented 
 by interlopers, as AmpUpliyra, Agrotis, Gonoptera, and Peronea, with a 
 sprinkling of Geometers, A. badiata, II. progemmaria, S. illunaria, and 
 Eup. abbreviata being the vernal, Cidaria psitticata and miata, the 
 
PERFECT STATE.—IVY. 
 
 91 
 
 hibernated representatives. The most aristocratic visitors are L. cxigua, 
 G. erythrocephala, B. rubiginea , X. conformis, and no doubt Zinckenii; 
 but these four last more properly belong to ivy. 
 
 Ivy-bloom may be similarly worked, but the sheet used need not 
 be slit. Shaking, too, will assist us more than at the sallows. It may 
 also be necessaiy to provide ourselves with a light ladder when the ivy is 
 high up. A very large number of species visit this bloom, which is even 
 more stupifying than sallow in its effects on the moth tribe. 
 
 At ivy may be met 'with all those Ortliosidce which appear in autumn. 
 These will, of course, now be in their prime. We shall also meet with a 
 good sprinkling of others, such as Noctua, Glcea, Tripheena ianthina, 
 Iladena proteat Folia Jlavicinctat Fhlogophora, Hoporina, Miselia 
 aprilina and oxyacanthce , Xylina, Calocampa, the autumnal Geometrce , 
 N. rostralis, S. ferrugalis, II. albistrigalist S. hybridalis, &c. 
 
 By dayt the scarce Vanessa Antiop a has visited the ivy-bloom, 
 which is a delight also to other Vanessa, and to Cynthia. Noctuce may 
 be collected on rag-wort, heather, germander, maijoram, grass, and rush- 
 bloom, after dusk, as they settle on these flowers, as at ivy and sallow; 
 but bramble, catchfly, bugloss, and most others, must be watched at dusk, 
 and the moths netted as they hover at the flowers, since they seldom 
 settle freely; and of course the Sphingidce and the species of Folia, 
 Bianthcecia, Cuculliat and Flusia must be taken on the wing. The 
 following flowers are very attractive :— 
 
 Heather (Calluna)—Cynthia cardui (by day), Lithosia complanat 
 Agrotis agathina and tritici , Noctua glareosa, Bakin, and neglecta, H. 
 dipsacea, F. festucce, S. anomala, Ephyroe, N. viridata, S. dubitata, 
 S. silaceata and testata , F. hippocastanaria, A. ericetaria , II. costcestri- 
 galis, C. pinetcllus, S.pariana: (Erica) — A. tritici and porphyrea. 
 
 Ragwort (on the coast) —Leucania corig era and sir amine a, IT. 
 micacea and nictitans, H. popularis, C. graminis , C. ILaworthi , L. 
 cespitis, M.furva, M. liter os a, A. valligerat lunigei'a, tritici , obelise a, 
 preecox, pyrophila , lucerne a, cursoria , nigricans, T. ianthina, interjecta, 
 N. glareosa, X. cerago, flavago and citrago, S. anomala, and many 
 Bepressarice. Note. —Ragwort, inland, does not appear to be very 
 attractive. 
 
 Yiper’s Bugloss — M. stellatarum, S. chrysidiformis (by day), 
 N. saponarice, M. anceps, L. comma, F. serena, A. tincta, advenu , 
 C. umbratica, II. marginata, 11. urticce, F. orichalcea, V-auretim, 
 and swarms of common Agrotes, Leucanice, Caradrince, &c. 
 
92 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—FLOWERS. 
 
 Catchfly (Silene inflata) — S. fuciformis, Peucania comma , 7lf T 
 anceps, -4. corticca , 7). carpophaga, cucubali, conspersa, A. tincta, and 
 advena, N. bella, H. urticce, P. iota, bractea, and V-aureum, P. serena; 
 - (Silene maritima), D. capsophila, Barrettii, cassia, and cucubali. 
 
 Bramble— H. Janira and Hyperantlius, C. Pamphilus and Titho- 
 nus, A. Papina and Adippe, L. Sybilla, T. W-album (by day) ; Leucania 
 putrescens ?, N. rhomboidea, and numbers of common Noctuas by night. 
 
 Grasses (especially Glyceria fluitans)—S. anomala, A. tritici, 
 cursoria, valligera, L. impura and conig era, N. umbrosa and glareosa, 
 T. fimbria, A. gemina, C. Haworthi, M. arcuosa, and many others. 
 
 Mistletoe (male plant)—All the early Noctua and Geometrce; it 
 is even more attractive than sallow. 
 
 But besides these, a great number of flowers have their visitors; thus 
 to mention some alphabetically:— 
 
 Aaron’s eod— T. interjecta, N. bella, A. lunosa, X. citrago, 
 E. apiciaria, C. testata, &c.; Apple, various species; Archangel, 
 M. stellatarum and P . sylvanus; Arbutus, C. cardui, V. Atalanta, 
 P. gamma . 
 
 Berberry (holly leaved)—All the early things; Bean, Agrotes, &c. ; 
 Berry-bearing alder, M. anceps, A. basilinea, A. herbida, X. tha- 
 lassina, E. dolobraria, Eup. pulchcllata; Bilberry; Blackthorn, 
 L. polycommata, A. pictaria, II. croceago, T. leucographa, C. chamo- 
 millec, N. ditrapezium (larva); Buckthorn, S. scoliiforme; Bugle 
 A-Selene and Euphrosyne, L. Arion, M. bombyliformis and. fuciformis 
 (all by day) ; Bugloss (Lycopsis), II. dipsacea (by day). 
 
 Candy tuft, various; Clematis, L. griseola, C. olivaria, A. 
 rubidata, B. asinalis, B. hyalinalis ; Clover, Colias, A. Lathonia, 
 C. cardui, I.statices, A. sulphuralis, A. luctuosa, H. armigera, and 
 swarms of common Noctuas; Dryas octopetala, A. Minos; Eryn- 
 gium ; Fetid Iris ; Furze, H. costcetrigalis; Geranium ; Gilia 
 aggeegata; Golden-eod , Butterflies, Geometrce, S. pariana. 
 
 Hemp (male)—various Noctuas; Hemp-agrimony, G. C-album; 
 Hebacleum, T.mediana; Heath-pea, L.sinapis; Holly, L.argiolus, 
 C. psitticata; Honeysucke, V. Antiopa, C. celerio, S. convolvuli, £>. 
 galii, C. porcellus, P. bractea, V-aureum, and C. umbratica; Hops 
 ( perhaps to honey-dew), E.fulvago, X.flavago and aurago, H. croceago, 
 -ZV. suffusa , M. typica , II. urticce . 
 
 Jasmine.— C. celerio , M. stellatarum, P. bractea; Knapweed, V. 
 C-album , A. Paphia and Adippe, S.ichneumonifortnis (amongst) E. ochro- 
 leuca (all by day). 
 
PERFECT STATE.—FLOWEBS. 
 
 93 
 
 Larkspur, M. stellatarum; Lilac, D. lineata; Laubel ; Lime, 
 Th. quercus, A. corticea, aquilina and ravida, AX furva, and a great 
 variety of others; Loosestrife (purple), D. cucubali, P.festucce, &c.; 
 Louse-wort, P. Machaon, S. bombyciformis; Lucerne, Colias, P. Dap* 
 lidire, A. Lathonia, and various other butterflies, A. sulphuralis , &c.; 
 Lychnis, A. declorata; Marjoram, Th. W-album, P. porphyralis, A . 
 ornata ; Marigold (French and African); Marvel of Peru, C.celerio, 
 S. convolvuli; Michaelmas daisy, V. atalanta, &c.; Mustard, Th. 
 W-album; Nasturtium, C. celerio; (Enotheba (moths at this are 
 caught by the proboscis, also at Physianthus albens, a green-house 
 plant), S. convolvuli , also at Pysianthus, C. celei'io. 
 
 Passion Flower, C. nodi; Petunia, S. convolvuli , &c.; Phlox, 
 S. convolvuli , &c.; Pink, C. porcellu Portugal laurel; Privet, 
 S.myopiformis and tipulifomiis , N. ditrapezium , T. subsequa; Ragged 
 robin, S. bombyliformis and fuciformis , I. statices and A. trifolii (by 
 day), D. conspei'sa (by night); Raspberry, T. batis, L. conigera; Rattle, 
 M. Cinxia, various Noctua; Reed, N. lutosa , Xantliice ; Rhododen¬ 
 dron, S. ligustri , C. porcellus , M. bombyliformis , _D. conspersa and 
 cucubali ; Rushes, T. derasa , O. suspecta, N. ditrapezium and umbrosa , 
 A. fibrosa, L. conigera and pudorina, and other Leucanice , with plenty 
 of common Noctuce. 
 
 Sainfoin, M. albicolon, IT. chenopodii , N. saponarice , D. carpo- 
 phaga ; Scabious, M.fuwa , and other Noctuce , &c.; Soapwort, Dian - 
 thoecice , and other Noctuce; Spurge, AT. Lucina , & culiciformis; Sweet 
 gale, & sphegiformis; Sweet William, jT. derasa , Plusidce, C. um- 
 bratica ; Syringa, A. pyrophila, &c., &c.; Teasel, i\T. subrosea. 
 
 Thistles—^4. cratcegi , Vanessce, Th. W-album , ^4. Aglaia , &c. (by 
 day), C. Haworthi , (7. graminis, M. furva (at dusk); Thyme, X. Arion, 
 A. lonicerce, H. melanopa , all Pyraustoe , cingulalis and augxdnalis 
 (by day); Turncap lily, most attractive to the Plusidce; Valerian 
 ( red), C. porcellus, S.tipuliformis, P. dysodea, 1L. triplasia; Verbena, 
 X. galii, S. convolvuli, C. porcellus, &c. 
 
 Willow herb, M. furva, Anceps and persicarice ; Wood betony, 
 Af*. fuciformis; Wood sage, X. complana, A. lucemea , M.fu'rva, C, 
 alsines, H. marginata, &c.; Wormwood ; Yellow bedstbaw, Lithosia 
 caniola (evening); Yellow thistle, P. Actceon. 
 
 It is a good plan to sow or plant patches of attractive flowers in our 
 gardens, or still better in secluded spots in the haunts we are in the habit 
 of working. 
 
 Other attractions are peaches, plums, apples, and blackberries, 
 especially when they have burst from over-ripeness. These may be pinned 
 
94 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — SUGAR. 
 
 in suitable positions as baits for butterflies. Yew-berries are the great 
 vanity of B. ruliginea. The juicy buds of birch, whitethorn, blackthorn, 
 and other bushes are attractive. 
 
 The sap which exudes from wounds in oak, birch, and other trees, 
 as for mstance, those caused by Cossus, are attractive to the Vanessas , in¬ 
 cluding Antiopa, to A. Iris and also to Noctuce. Puddles, mud, &c., to 
 Iris and other butterflies, Brcphos parthenias, &c. 
 
 Aphides on the leaves of nettles, bean stalks, lime, and many other 
 trees and herbs; the secretions of these insects in hot seasons forming 
 the well-known “ honey-dew.” Sometimes very attractive. 
 
 Dead animals, such as stoats, weasels, and cats more particularly. 
 1 recollect once starting in company with my friend Piffard to Ongar Park 
 ” ood, with a decomposed specimen of the feline race, intended for the de¬ 
 lectation of his purple Majesty; but though we let the cat out of the bag, 
 and H. I. M. evidently smelt our game, we could not induce him to come 
 within reach—perhaps the game wasn’t high enough. 
 
 Dung of animals. This, as well as the previous, attracting A 
 Ins (which certainly has a depraved taste), and also L. Alexis. 
 
 Of artificial attractions, paste, especially when decomposed, has 
 been found very attractive; at least a bill sticker at Folkestone complains 
 that enormous number of moths destroy themselves in his paste tub -I 
 throw out the hint for what it is worth. 
 
 Putrid soapsuds have been employed by our French neighbours in 
 lieu of sugar for they do not find the latter profitable, owing to nearly all 
 e sugar in France being extracted from beet, which being without smell, 
 has but little, if any, power to attract. The German plan is, string together 
 several quarters of apples, and having dipped them in a mixture of sugar 
 and water, to suspend them in suitable positions. 
 
 Sugar, however, is the great medium employed in this country 
 /here are few natural attractions that can vie with it, and it possesses the 
 great superiority over flowers that the visitors to it come to us from all 
 parts, congregating in a small space, where they are at once plainly visible 
 Numerous, indeed, have been the discoveries made through the agency of 
 
 this compound, Leucania vitellina [fig.] 
 albipuncta, L-album, extranea, putres- 
 cens and Lorcyi, Nonagria neurica and 
 brevilinea, Tapinostola concolor and 
 Helmanni, C. alsines and L. exigua, 
 Noctuajlammatra and sobrina, Hadena 
 peregrina , Xylina furcifera, and Phlo- 
 gophora empyrea, Glaia erytlirucephala 
 
PEBFECT STATE. — SUGAB. 
 
 95 
 
 and C. alchymista , are a few examples. Various prescriptions have been 
 extolled for their efficacy, but, as good a basis as any may be made by boiling 
 up equal weights of foots sugar and treacle in a sufficient quantity of stale 
 beer to bring the mixture to the requisite consistency; that is, it should not 
 be too thick or it will not ** work well with the brush, nor too thin or it 
 will run away to the ground too quickly, and the upper parts of the patch 
 will dry up; lastly, a small quantity of rum should be added shortly before 
 use if too much be added, the moths will be too quickly intoxicated, will 
 fall to the ground, and be lost among the herbage. Some collectors 
 think proper to flavour their sugar with ratafia, anise-seed, essence of 
 jargonelle pears, or the not easily procured essence of ginger-grass. 
 Honey is preferred by some to sugar, but besides being more costly, it is 
 less efficacious. 
 
 The apparatus required for sugaring is varied; the collector 
 must take his choice of what he considers necessary, from the following :— 
 
 A sugar tin with a brush attached to the lid is sold for the purpose ; 
 but a soda-water bottle, a small gallipot for the reception of a little of the 
 mixture, at a time, as required, and a brush of about three-quarters of an 
 inch diameter at the bristle end, such as a fourpenny or sixpenny paint¬ 
 brush, earned well wrapped up in brown paper, will answer all ends per¬ 
 fectly. Before use it should be well soaked in cold water to prevent the 
 bristles coming out. 
 
 A net for sugaring is best constructed by 
 socketing two “ paragon ” wires into a Y-piece, 
 and connecting their diverging extremeties with 
 a piece of cat-gut, which will readily adapt itself 
 to shape of a tree or other object against which it 
 may be pushed. Bag, as usual, but not very 
 deep. This net may be obtained of Mr. Cooke, 
 who was, I believe, the inventor of it. 
 
 A lantern . This should be fitted at the 
 
 back with a tongue which may be slipped into a 
 belt or into the waist of the trousers or the vest; 
 or it may be suspended from one’s mouth, by a 
 piece of wire bent at two right angles, the pari 
 between the two angles being encased in a tubular bit of wood of the thick¬ 
 ness of a drawing pencil, so that it can be grasped by the teeth ; or thirdly; 
 it may be slung round the neck, by means of a strap, on the ends of which 
 are fastened two hooks which pass into two triangular rings soldered to 
 the back of the lantern, either of these additions sets a hand at liberty. 
 
96 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—SUGAR. 
 
 The front should be of pinto glass, for a “ bull’s-eye ” concentrates the li«-ht 
 too powerfully, and scares the flies ; a darkening cover is also important. 
 N.B. Always look to the trimming of the lamp, &c., before starting, and 
 don’t forget lucifers. 
 
 -d fork, formed by three darning needles, driven at the angles of an 
 imaginary triangle eye foremost into a handle, is sometimes employed for 
 impaling the very skittish Catocalce on the sugared trees. With practice, 
 a single darning needle may he used very efficaciously ; but the readiest 
 way of procuring them in good condition, is to stun them by striking them 
 down with a battle-dore ; when netted they quickly damage their plumage. 
 The use of the single needle reminds me of the Scotchman, who, having 
 dreamt that he had captured a Clifton Nonpareil upon a paling, by sticking 
 it with a certain big pin, for years carried the lorng pin about with hiiiT 
 in the expectation of meeting with the Catocala. At last, one day, sure 
 enough, he saw the Nonpareil sitting on a fence, but horror! he had for¬ 
 gotten his pin. Now you, my reader, would doubtless, under the circum¬ 
 stances, have been dreadfully excited, and have rashly made some absurd 
 attempt to secure the prize, which would, in all probability, have c 0 t out 
 of your clutches, with the loss of a few scales. But this was not what our 
 Scotch friend did ; lie went quietly home, got his pin, returned with it to 
 the spot, and coolly pinned the great Blue Underwing. 
 
 A pinning box, the usual complement of chip boxes, and killing bottle 
 will be required. ° * 
 
 t,sugaring d ™ m > or “transferer,” is considered by many indi 
 
 pensable. To make this, a tube of about two inches (or three, at least f 
 Catocala ) in diameter, should be sawed transversely half through at abo 
 
 lialf-an-inch from one end ; 
 the slit thus formed, a circul; 
 valve should be made, to woi 
 so as to close up the tube if r 
 quired; the other end shou 
 bejir mly covered with stror 
 open net-work. Then a sort. 
 piston, corked at the en 
 should be made to fitthecylii 
 der. For use, the valve is opene* 
 and the mouth of the tul 
 clapped over the insect, whid 
 of course, flies towards the ne 
 , work, when the valve ought t 
 
 be instantly closed; next insert the corked piston up to the valve, open tt 
 
PERFECT STATE.—SUGAR. 
 
 97 
 
 latter, and push the insect against the net-work, pin it through one of the 
 meshes, and then withdraw the piston with the insect stuck upon it, re-pin 
 properly, and transfer to the collecting-box. The cut represents the ap¬ 
 paratus sold, for the purpose, by Mr. Cooke. 
 
 Choice of locality. Sugaring may be employed in almost any 
 locality, from the most barren and bleak to the most fertile and sheltered 
 districts; the rides and clearings in woods are favourite places of resort. 
 The heaths, sandhills, mountain sides, fens, under-cliffs, parks, borders of 
 fields, are all productive. We should avoid situations where the foliage is 
 dense. Trees which have been repeatedly sugared, are always more pro¬ 
 fitable than those newly tried; and we should therefore be cautious about 
 rushing off to a fresh spot, for the reason that we have been unsuccessful. 
 We should not give up dirty water until we are sure we can get a clean 
 liquid. 
 
 Choice of evening. Circumstances to be regarded as unfavourable 
 are east winds, or a too boisterous wind, bright moon, unseasonably cold 
 weather, ground fogs, the counteracting effect of certain blossoms and of 
 honey-dew, untried districts, abundance of ear-vugs, wood-lice, slugs, &c., 
 the condition of the atmosphere after a thunder-storm. Favourable, are 
 warm, dark nights, clouded sky but the air clear near the earth, previous 
 hot weather, moderate wind blowing steadily in one direction, such as W., 
 S.W., or S., thunder in the air, and even during the continuance of a 
 thunder-storm, for in spite of pelting rain, insects will sometimes swarm 
 at sugar. On such a night, I remember counting over 150 of various kinds 
 on two small patches—rather embarrassing! Note. —Though moonlight 
 nights are usually unprofitable, I once saw Noctuce swarming at sugar 
 about 1 a.m., when the atmosphere was as clear as space, and the luminary 
 of the harvest denomination. N.B.—The presence of Bats and Night-jars 
 are good signs. 
 
 Time for Sugaring. Sugar should be got on before dusk, but 
 not too soon before, or its virtues and sweetness will be expended on the 
 desert air; when the first cockchafer or “lousy watchman ” booms past 
 us, we should be reminded that it is at once time to begin to lay on our 
 sweets: many leave their sugared trees for home at too early an hour: it 
 should be remembered that some species fly at one hour, others at another, 
 and that a succession of visitors arrive almost from dusk to dawn. 
 
 Modus operand!. We should sugar at intervals of about ten yards, 
 choosing such trees as have the roughest bark, as oak, elm, and poplar; 
 smooth ones, such as beech, horse chestnut, sycamore, and lime, do not, as 
 a rule, pay. The sugar should be put on these in a long narrow streak 
 
 G 
 
98 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — SUGAE. 
 
 reaching from shoulder height down to within a foot of the ground; it 
 should be applied to the sheltered side, and it has been suggested that a 
 dab or two should also be applied to the side exposed to the wind, the 
 better to ensure the dissemination of the scent. When there are no trees 
 in the locality, palings (but they ought to be open ones, or the scent of the 
 sugar will not be wafted away) may be sugared; if these be not present, 
 we may sugar the foliage of bushes, reeds, or the flowers of ragwort, 
 UmbeUiferae, knapweed, bramble, thistle stalks, <fcc., marking the spot in 
 some way that we may not overlook it—pieces of white paper answer the 
 purpose. But in some barren spots, not even this class of herbage is 
 present. On the sand hills, for instance, the method is to tie tufts of 
 Ammophila into knots and sugar these; where the grass is very short, 
 we must carry laths or boughs to the scene of operations, for the appli¬ 
 cation ot our sweets; and if not that, we must e’en content ourselves with 
 sugared rags (conveyed to the spot in tins), laying them out to the best 
 advantage we can, or apply our nectar to the bare stones. 
 
 Capturing insects off the sugar may be effected by the pinning box, 
 the battledore, or the fork already mentioned; but generally therds no 
 difficulty in boxing them in the ordinary way ; that is, take the bottom 
 of the chip box between the thumb and little linger, the lid between the 
 index and third finger, the second finger resting on the top of the lid, then 
 apply at one point a portion of the circumference of the lid to a corres¬ 
 ponding part of the box itselfwith very little practice, the box can be 
 quickly opened and shut with one hand; another way is to put the cyanide 
 bottle under them, and tap them in; if they be very skittish, they must 
 be netted or knocked down as they fly off. In examining the sugar, we 
 should shut off the light while approaching a tree; we should then place 
 the triangular net underneath the patch, holding it in position by our 
 knee, and, having gently turned on the lantern, proceed to box such moths 
 as may be considered worth taking. 
 
 Captures at sugar are too numerous to mention; almost all the 
 night-flying Noctuce may be taken in this way; but a few, such as, for 
 example, Luperina, Dasypolia, Sic., are more readily attracted by light, 
 while others, as the Dianthcecice, Cucullice, Sic., are not easily tempted 
 away from the flowers they frequent. 
 
 Besides the Noctum, however, Sphingidte, such as C. porcellus and 
 elpcnor ,have been known to visit the sugar, so also Cossus. The Lithosidm 
 aie not unlrequently to be met with, many Geometers and Pyrales are 
 attracted, as well as Tortrices, Jdhycidcs, Cramhidce and many Tincina, 
 also beetles, centipedes, slugs, field mice, and bats, not to mention human 
 urchins who, at “the marshes,” used to lick up the rum compound to 
 inebriation, until we thought of tartar emetic. 
 
PEBFECT STATE.—MOTH TBAP. 
 
 99 
 
 Note.— Whilst sugaring, one must be on the look-out for other 
 visitors, for Bos, attracted by our lantern, sometimes puts in an unexpected 
 appearance; and had it not been for suddenly “dousing the glim,” accom¬ 
 panied by a simultaneous “ leap in the dark,” on the occasion of a pair of 
 horses coming full gallop at my light, it is more than probable that the 
 “ Guide ” would never have appeared. 
 
 By day , sugaring is used to attract Vanessce and other butterflies. 
 
 The etiquette of sugaring. In the neighbourhood of large towns 
 the beat which the collector has baited is considered his, for the evening 
 only. But in large forests or other localities where there is unlimited 
 space for the selection of suitable spots, the beat chosen is retained by the 
 same collector duiing the whole of his sojourn. I need hardly add that it 
 is an ungentlemanly, nay dishonest, act to capture insects, without per¬ 
 mission, off another’s sugar. To prevent mistakes, it is best to affix ones 
 name (with date) on a card to the first and last trees, or whatever else, 
 of our run. 
 
 A New Moth Trap has been recently suggested in the “Entomo¬ 
 logist’s Monthly.” It is carried 
 out in the manner shown in the 
 annexed cut. A round tin box 
 (a a) is fitted with a moveable 
 cone of perforated zinc (b), which 
 is truncated at the apex, so as to 
 leave an opening at (c). The bot¬ 
 tom of the box is partitioned off by 
 means of another piece of perfor- ^ 
 ated zinc (d) kept in place by the 
 supports (ee), underneath which 
 is a space (f) for the reception of 
 a piece of flannel soaked in sugar 
 and rum. To get at the contents, 
 all that is necessary, is to remove E 
 the cone of zinc. A few dead 
 leaves might be placed at the bottom, amongst which the insects might 
 hide their diminished heads, after having been so miserably taken in. Of 
 course, a modification of this contrivance could be applied for trapping 
 by means of the virgin female. 
 
 Light is a very different kind of attraction. To this, insects can 
 hardly be said to come from choice, having once got their sight dazed with 
 
 
 c 
 
100 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—LIGHT. 
 
 the glare, they are impelled to it against their will; this is pretty evident 
 from their sometimes frantic through futile attempts to get away from its 
 influence, and by the quietness with which they settle down in some dark 
 corner. 
 
 Street lamps first come under notice, and they may be worked 
 with great profit. The annexed cut represents a very ingenious invention 
 by Mr. Cooke, of New Oxford Street, which is invaluable for securing 
 
 moths off gas-lamps. It con¬ 
 sists of a bottle charged with 
 cyanide of potassium, which 
 has a band of India rubber 
 round the rim to prevent it 
 coming in contact with the 
 ] imp glasses. It is held by 
 a band of metal which is pro¬ 
 longed into a ferrule for the 
 reception of a handle of suit¬ 
 able length. For use, the bung should be removed and the mouth of the 
 bottle placed over the insects, which will quickly be stupified and fall into 
 the bottle. N.B. The metal band and ferrule may be detached, leaving a 
 killing-bottle for ordinary purposes. 
 
 Chip boxes are also very useful; for insects which have flown to light 
 are remarkably quiet—seem grateful to change their position for the dark 
 interior of the box. 
 
 Some species are visible enough on the lamps, the Eupithecice, for 
 instance, with their wings spread to their fullest extent and pressed flat on 
 the glass; various species of Acidalia, Hibernia , Oporabia , Emmelesia , 
 and Scotosia , as well as Camptogramma fluviata and the Drepance, the 
 Xanthia also, and the species of Cosmia and Tetliea , which, by the way, 
 frequently, in their excitement, get inside the lamp to their manifest detri¬ 
 ment. Catoeala nupta rests on the glass, and, taking its size into con¬ 
 sideration, does not require, for detection, any great amount of careful 
 searching. Several species of Deltoides , Pyralites , Crambidce , and Phy- 
 erdee, too, settle on the glass, the latter having an unfortunate propensity 
 for getting inside. Light seems to have a specially powerful attraction for 
 the last four groups, the commoner species being often found on the lamps 
 in numbers, while such plums as Madopa saliealis and Spilodes sticti - 
 calls are occasionally found. 
 
 To find all these, the lamps require but little examination, and even 
 others that hang to the uprights, such as Hemerophila abruptaria , Ti - 
 
PERFECT STATE.—STREET LAMPS. 
 
 101 
 
 mandrel amataria , are easily enough seen; so also are those species which, 
 whenever they settle, rest with their wings erect, as Selenia , Ennomos, 
 and Cidai'ia miata. 
 
 The real difficulty is to find them when they have chosen the 
 dark outside of the framework, especially underneath, and still more when 
 they have retreated to the supports under the 
 base of the lamp, as Sterrha sacraria has 
 been known to do. Then great care and cir¬ 
 cumspection are required in scrutinising the 
 different parts, or otherwise many moths will be 
 passed over. Good eyesight, sharpened by prac¬ 
 tice, and patience, will meet with the most 
 rewards. If we are in doubt as to the nature of any particular patch 
 which may arrest our attention, and which we may be unable to dislodge, 
 the post must be swarmed in order that we may get a closer sight of it; 
 indeed, the most successful hunters climb every past on favourable nights, 
 holding on by the knees, calves, feet, and one hand, while they box with 
 the other; of course, this requires practice, and is not well adapted for 
 portly or elderly gentlemen—putting ladies out of the question. 
 
 Many of the species already mentioned will sometimes take up such 
 positions, and most of the Noctuce do so, when they can make up their 
 minds to leave off tearing round and round the lamp in a frantic and 
 utterly demented manner. Here also Hepialus sylvinus , Poecilocampa 
 populi , and Gastropacha quercifolia , will sometimes settle, while Chesias 
 spartiata folds its wings closely together, as though striving to hide under 
 the naiTOw frame, and Eelurga comitata not being able to do so, hangs on 
 to the bottom. 
 
 But those requiring the utmost acuteness of vision, are the Pseudo - 
 Bombyces generally to be found upon the darkest parts of the frame,, 
 Peridea trepida exactly like a patch of mud, Ptilodontis palpina , re¬ 
 sembling a bit of dry bramble stick, and Petasia cassinea a bit of chip, 
 while the close resemblance of Notodonta camclina and some others to 
 dead and dry leaves, is very remarkale. For these, little short of actual 
 touching will suffice, but they are tolerable incentives to a climb. 
 
 Some species, the Smeriuthi for instance, and Pygoera bucepliala have 
 an absurd habit of creeping up underneath, and resting with their heads 
 just in the holes left to supply air to the lamps, and look as though they 
 were actuated by curiosity to see what is going on inside; occasionally 
 also Zenzera oesculi , Arctia villica , and probably most of the night flying 
 Bombyces may be found. 
 
 By a wonderful instinct, spiders are constant visitors to, or rather 
 residents at, gas lamps, and they thrive and get fat on so rich aground. A 
 notice of ejectment served upon them, and promptly acted on, will save 
 
102 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 many a moth from being frightened away, and more from being destroyed; 
 but a shapeless bundle in a web will sometimes, by careful unrolling, prove 
 to be a good moth in an almost uninjured state. 
 
 Atropos , convolvuli , ^ind gain , have been known to enter bouses 
 attracted by the light, and celerio seems to have a fancy for settling down 
 near windows ready to be taken the next day. 
 
 Lupenna cespitis has been taken not uncommonly by the attraction 
 of the lamps carried for sugaring, Geometra papilionaria also, and, at 
 times, numbers of Geometra. 
 
 A net for working street lamps may be made in the manner shown 
 in the annexed cut. The frame should be made of wire, 
 terminating in a ferrule for the reception of the handle; 
 the straight side ( h) is fqr taking insects off the flat 
 
 glass; the bend at (c) is made to correspond with the 
 
 rails ot the lamp, and the apex (a) for getting at the 
 under parts of the lamp. 
 
 The lamplighter is a man with whom we should 
 be on friendly termsby making it worth his while to 
 serve us, instructing him as to boxing and selecting the 
 species, and placing a supply of boxes at his disposal, we 
 may often acquire, without trouble, an abundance of 
 insects. It must be expected that he will at first bring us enough Poplar 
 hawks, and Tiger moths to make a breakfast off, but, if he be an intelligent 
 man, this will soon wear off, and after a time he will know “ a good ’un ” 
 
 from “ a duffer ” as well as we do. Still more advisable is it, to secure the 
 
 services of a lighthouse man, for the chances of getting rare, and even 
 new species are much enhanced, not only by the situation in which these 
 edifices are generally erected, but also by the intensity of the light. A 
 “fiver” per annum would doubtless be a welcome addition to the°income 
 of such a man, and would not be badly laid out by any one having the 
 paper to spare. 
 
 Note.— The revolving lighthouses so much in vogue seem to he use¬ 
 less as an attraction for moths. If a steady light is attainable, it is impos¬ 
 sible to guess at the probable results; for, although the story of the 
 lighthouse on the south coast, from which the light-keeper was obliged to 
 sweep the moths with a broom, because they obscured the light, is obviously 
 apocryphal, it may reasonably be supposed that, in a rich locality, very 
 large numbers of moths would he obtained, the great prize Ennomos 
 almaria being among the possibilities. In such a sitution, Lithosia 
 camola has been taken, also Agrotis lunigera, olelisca, agathina, prceeox 
 and lucernea, Mamesira furva, Epunda lichenea, Dasypolia templi 
 Eutnlhcecia capsophila, and Barrettii, besides heaps of other good things! 
 
PERFECT STATE.—AMERICAN MOTH TRAP. 103 
 
 Apparatus for attracting insects to liglit, may be simple or com¬ 
 plicated, on a small or large scale. The simplest plan is to place a mode¬ 
 rator lamp on a table facing an open window, which looks out on to a 
 likely locality, as a fen, heath, wood, or sandhills, for example, on a favour¬ 
 able evening, and then wait with net at hand for visitors. Mr. Stainton 
 considers that a strong light should, in addition, be placed outside the 
 window, in order to bring the insects within the focus of the inner lamp. 
 This plan, which requires the presence of an operator, was not smart 
 enough for our Transatlantic cousins, and an invention was therefore com¬ 
 pleted by Mr. Glover, of Washington, U.S., which would “ Catch 
 Moths all night long without any trouble to the Owner.” 
 
 The American moth trap, the mechanism of which is explained 
 in the diagrams which follow, has met with a fair amount of success in 
 this country; and will, doubtless, when better appreciated, become more 
 
 generally adopted as a ready means of collecting the perfect insect. The 
 following explanatory notes will, perhaps, enable the collector to master 
 this wonderful trap a BCD is a box having a partition (i f) for the 
 lamp (k) to rest on, behind the latter being a strong reflector (l). It is 
 open at a e, also at hg (for the lamp chimney to pass through), and at 
 F c for the drawer M ; m is fitted with a glass slide (o), running along in 
 a groove, and with a Venetian blind-like apparatus (p p) the laths of which 
 are kept in position by side strips, indicated by dotted lines (q q), dropping 
 loosely on to the rests (r r). It is also fitted with a small draw (n) stop¬ 
 ped by the block (y) for layers of flannel (soaked with chloroform when 
 required). 
 
104 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—ATTRACTING BY LIGHT. 
 
 a(z)i is a quadrilateral sheet of glass of the width of the box ; e s is 
 is another piece of glass of the shape of a triangle with the apex cut off, 
 
 and a e s z (bis) are two 
 
 other glasses shaped like 
 es.— the four pieces ai, 
 aesz (&i>),and es being 
 arranged and fixed (as 
 shown in the accessory 
 perspective figure) in 
 such a manner that, 
 viewed from the point v, 
 they form a hollow, four¬ 
 sided pyramid, the apex 
 of which is wanting, as 
 shown in both diagrams 
 at z s. y, t, and x are 
 anows indicating the direction an insect flying towards the lamp (k) must 
 unavoidably take. 
 
 To set the trap, all that is necessary is—1. To light the lamp. 2. 
 Push in the drawers (m and n). 3. Pull out the glass slide (o). As seen 
 y t. e Auctions of the arrows (t, v, x), any insect flying towards the lamp 
 (k) is bound to go into the trap, even though its flight be not directed to 
 the central aperture (z s); once in, it must go down to the darker regions, 
 where, having got out of the focus of the light, it will calmly settle down ; 
 but, even if it do not, the odds against its escape are something tre¬ 
 mendous. On the same principle a room may, of course, be readily fitted up. 
 
 When, considered advisable to examine the contents, blow down any 
 insects which may be fluttering on the glass, and push in the slide (o); 
 then remove the drawer (m) and quickly replace a duplicate drawer in its 
 place. 
 
 The small hours are the best for working light, for but few insects 
 visit it till after 10.30 or 11 p.m.; we should therefore commence opera¬ 
 tions towards midnight. 
 
 White surfaces, as sheets or other linen hung out to dry, have 
 often been known to attract S. convolvuli , for instance. The action is 
 I expect, at dark similar to that of light, but by day insects doubtless sun 
 themselves on chalk and other white or whitish substances, for the greater 
 amount of heat they thus secure. Some collectors “ moth ” in the evening 
 by carrying a white handkerchief at the end of a stick, for attracting pur°- 
 purposes, in one hand, and a net in the other. 
 
PEBFECT STATE.—MANAGING. 
 
 105 
 
 jHanaganent* 
 
 Female Moths, when found at rest, especially if they appear to 
 have recently emerged from the chrysalis, and, still more particularly, if 
 the species be rare, or when they have come out in our cages, should, 
 when desirable, be enclosed in gauze-covered cages, and kept, for the 
 purpose of attracting males, till the time of day or night comes round 
 for the species to fly. 
 
 When taken on the wing, a female is pretty sure to be im¬ 
 pregnated, and in the event of our wishing to possess ourselves of the 
 egg, she should he kept alive, and treated as recommended at page 6 
 ante ; indeed, whenever we capture a female, the first question we should 
 ask ourselves is, “Is it worth our while to breed from this?” 
 and the rarer the species, the more emphatically affirmative should the 
 answer he, for of all modes of getting together insects there is not, without 
 a single exception, one which, for the completeness of its instruction, 
 combined with charming occupation and some thousands per cent profit 
 return on the outlay in the shape of bred specimens, can in any way 
 compare with breeding from the egg; and, moreover, we ought to look 
 upon collecting the Perfect insect, not so much as a method of procuring 
 cabinet specimens, but rather as the readiest means of obtaining the really 
 valuable materiel which, with judgment and care, is the key to a true 
 knowledge of the natural history of the Lepidoptera. 
 
 Inducing Lepidoptera to pair should be conducted on the 
 principles inculcated for laying (see page 5 ante), where similar conditions 
 are required. When it is desired to obtain hybrid eggs, as, say, between 
 Smerinthus ocellatus and populi , a S ocellatus should be placed in a 
 cage with one or more populi $; and a $ populi with one or more 
 ocellatus ? in a separate cage, and these two cages should be kept close 
 together. No more need here be said on this score, verb. sat. 
 
 Although the subjects of stupifying and killing have been touched 
 upon so far as they relate to field-work, a little more is necessary con¬ 
 cerning them. 
 
 Stupifying insects may be effected by chloroform, though benzole 
 will answer the purpose very well, and is much cheaper, but it should be 
 borne in mind that neither of these agents should be employed to kill , or 
 the result will be a rigidity which will render setting very difficult, if 
 not altogether impossible. Generally speaking, we should not permit the 
 fluid to touch the insect operated on, but, with large moths, it will some¬ 
 times be advisable to depart from this rule, in order that the effects may 
 be more speedy, and, in their cases, we may apply a drop of the fluid to 
 
106 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — KILLING, ETC. 
 
 the rostrum, or along the spiracles, of the insect, which will thereby soon 
 be rendered powerless. Again, it must be remembered that moths do not 
 dislike the odour of chloroform, if the vapour be applied in a diluted form, 
 and that they usually remain quiet until insensibility steals upon them, 
 and causes them to relax their foot-hold and drop. N.B.—Chloroform is 
 better kept in an inverted well-corked bottle than in the most accurately 
 fitting stoppered one. 
 
 Various methods of killing have been advocated. The cyanide 
 bottle already mentioned, is certainly the handiest on the field; but at 
 home we shall find the “laurel jar” and ammonia bottle the most efficacious 
 for the purpose of despatching such captures as are brought home boxed. 
 
 The cyanide may, however, be thus .used with advantage: Tear 
 off a bit of blotting paper about a twelfth of a square inch in superficies, 
 and, holding it with pincers, dip it into a bottle containing a strong solu¬ 
 tion of cyanide of potassium, allowing it to absorb little or much poison, 
 according to the size of the patient; then, opening the lid of the box a 
 trifle, drop and shut in the prepared piece of paper. Geometrce and small 
 things should only be stupified thus, then pinned and pricked with a 
 saturated solution of oxalic acid by means of a steel pen from which one 
 mb lias been broken off. ±^octu<s should be left till next morning, when 
 they will be found in spelndid condition for setting. 
 
 1 he ammonia bottle is one the mouth of which is sufficiently 
 large to readily admit the hand. A few knobs of solid sesqui-carbonate of 
 ammonia may be introduced with the pill-boxes and their contents, and, 
 if the s ilt be in good condition (which may be ensured by keeping it in a 
 carefully corked vessel, mouth downwards), speedy suffocation will result. 
 This plan is most applicable to small insects— Geometrce, Tortrices ; and 
 such like. The insects may, if desired, he taken out in half-an-hour, but 
 they will come to no harm, if left over night and removed in the morning; 
 indeed, they will then be in the most delightfully relaxed condition for 
 setting. A word of warning, though, is necessary—it is, that they should 
 he exposed to the air for half-an-hour before proceeding to pin them, 
 otherwise, much annoyance may be caused by subsequent corrosion and 
 brittleness of the pins. Another very important point to remember is, 
 that many of our green insects are much changed by the action of am¬ 
 monia, and that it is not advisable to submit these to the fumes of it, 
 unless our object be that of surprising the public with the production of 
 orange or other varieties. X. pectinitaria, Eujo. rectangulata , coronata , 
 &c., are varied extensively by the process. It has been noted that unless 
 the ammonia be carefully kept, it will soon lose its virtue. A substitute 
 for this is strong liquid ammonia, but considering that it contains about 
 
PERFECT STATE.—KILLING, ETC. 107 
 
 700 volumes of the gas compressed into one, the necessity of keeping it 
 cool will be evident. It is quite out of the question for out-door use, but, 
 at home, a few drops on sponge or blotting-paper may be used for charging 
 the killing bottle. Mem. Air the boxes before using again, for a faint 
 smell of ammonia, though insufficient to suffocate, will be quite enough to 
 cause restlessness. 
 
 A camphor jar is sometimes employed for killing, but it won’t do. 
 
 To make a laurel jar, procure a glass bottle (or jar)—the larger 
 the better—having a mouth of such a diameter, that the hand may piss 
 through with ease; then (the spring is the best time, for the poison is then 
 more active) gather a good supply of young laurel leaves, but, to prevent the 
 subsequent mildewing of the specimens, it is very important that they 
 should not be gathered in the dewy morning, or when the weather is at 
 all wet; then wipe and cut up the leaves into strips, and bruise in a 
 mortar, or pound them well with a rolling-pin, for unless this be done the 
 two principles which go to form the poison (just as with the flavour of the 
 bitter almond), will not act on one another; strew the bottom of the 
 bottle with a layer of the bruised strips, then place on a circular piece of 
 muslin; after that more strips, and so on alternate^, until the bottle is 
 rather more than a third full, the last layer being muslin or blotting-paper. 
 Into this vessel, the boxes containing insects, with their lids slightly 
 opened (or to obviate this trouble, an eyelet may be previously let into the 
 lid of each), may be placed, and the mouth closed with a stopper or bung, 
 whichever is preferred. Some quiet their captures with chloroform before 
 using the laurel-bottle. 
 
 Brimstone matches, when it so happens that, from accident or other 
 cause, we are destitute of' killing apparatus, are to be found in even the 
 most uncivilized districts of these isles. If half-a-dozen of these be lighted 
 and pushed under an inverted tumbler, containing the insects to be des¬ 
 patched, suffocation will ensue; but green insects must not, on any account, 
 be subjected to the process. 
 
 If the sun be shining fiercely the insect may be put in an open chip 
 box against the window, when it will quickly die. 
 
 The fame of a candle or lamp applied to the bottom of a box con¬ 
 taining an insect will, in like manner, rapidly destroy life. 
 
 A needle made hot by putting one end in the flame of a candle, the 
 other being inserted into the insect, is another barbarous method. 
 
 Binching, when neatly managed, leaves very little evidence of the 
 rough usage, but it requires a good deal of practice before perfection is 
 acquired. The wings of the insect should be got up over the back, if 
 possible, before the operation, for a moment, so that the under-side of the 
 
108 PERFECT STATE.—RELAXING, PINNING. 
 
 thorax may be more easily accessible, between the two sides of the net tightly 
 strained together, and then the upper-side of the thorax should be touched 
 sharply with a finger-nail; but “pinching” is a barbarous idea after all. 
 
 But tobacco smoke , if the collector be a smoker, is the most con¬ 
 venient of all. 
 
 For relaxing insects, the laurel bottle, with the addition of a 
 cork lining round the sides, to which the insects are to be pinned, is very 
 useful, and the contents will remain in a beautifully relaxed condition for a 
 considerable period, but it should be recollected that after a time, a tendency 
 to grease and to mould will be observable, and they should therefore not 
 be allowed to remain too long in the fumes. 
 
 A more simple plan may be extemporised for use, when on a 
 collecting expedition. We will suppose that, having returned to our 
 quarters late from sugaring or some other mode of collecting, we have 
 more captures than we care about setting over night. It will then be 
 found most convenient to kill, and pin our captures on to a piece of cork, 
 and on this to float them in a wash-hand basin and cover over with a wet 
 towel, taking care to secure the latter from touching the insects. The 
 moths will be found in perfect order for setting in the morning. By this 
 means we may relax insects which have already become stiff, though damp 
 sand covered with blotting paper is more generally employed for the 
 purpose. Either of these procedures will, upon occasion, answer the pur¬ 
 pose of a laurel-jar; but mouldiness will result, unless we are careful to 
 set our captures within a reasonable time, say, four-and-twenty hours, but 
 the sooner the better. N.B.—Heat does not appear to accelerate the relaxing 
 power of damp air. 
 
 Finning, when properly carried out, not only adds much to the 
 
 appearance of the specimen, but ren¬ 
 ders setting comparatively easy. 
 Moths, from the size of a large 
 Tortrix upwards, may be gently 
 rested (not squeezed) between the 
 finger and thumb of the left hand, 
 the head looking forwards and to 
 the right; the right hand may then 
 operate with a pin of suitable size; 
 the centre of the thorax should be 
 first pierced, and the pin brought 
 out between the coxa? of the third 
 pair of legs. If the medial line has 
 been well kept, so that the pin 
 stands upright (the head of it slant- 
 
PERFECT STATE.—PINNING. 
 
 109 
 
 mg a little forwards in the unset specimen) we should be satisfied; the piu 
 should then be pressed through, until, as we compute, there will be sufficient 
 of the pm end beneath, to steady well the insect (when set) in the cabinet, 
 without the tips of its wings quite touching the papered cork. 
 
 Small insects should be placed straightwise on blotting paper, and 
 carefully pinned without handling; the pins may then be driven through 
 to the required distance, on a piece of soft cork. Direction of the pin the 
 same as above. 
 
 Entomological pins are made specially for the purpose, for Mr. 
 Cooke, of New Oxford Street, who recommends the following sizes:— 
 
 For Sphinges (size of A. Atropos) No. 11, (S. ligustri) No. 12, (Sm. 
 Mice) No. 13. 
 
 For Bombyces (Cossus) No. 13, (P. nubeculosa) No. 6 , (Clostera) 
 No. 5. 
 
 For Noctuce (A.nebulosa) No. 6 , ( Th . batis) No. 5, ( A.oculea) No. 8. 
 
 For Geometrce (O. sambucaria) No. 17, (E. Miaria) No. 15, (A. 
 osseata) No. 10. 
 
 For Byrales (Botys) No. 15, (Pyrausta) No. 10. 
 
 For Tortriees and Tineina , Nos. 10, 18, 19, and 20. 
 
 I, myself, consider Nos. 8 and 10, by far the most generally useful 
 pins. No. 10 is always adopted by me, where practicable. A pro¬ 
 portionally stout and short pin should be used in these days of removing 
 forceps. 
 
 It should be remembered that the thoraces of many species are very 
 hard and shiny, and that the pin point must therefore be kept steady, or 
 it will glance off, and scratch away some of the plumes. Another thing to 
 be well borne in mind, is that some moths will bleed when pinned, and 
 their green or yellow juice must be quickly absorbed by touching gently 
 with a piece of blotting paper, else serious damage may ensue; the 
 orifices, both above and below, should be looked to for this bleeding. 
 
 Perhaps it may also be mentioned here that some insects, especially 
 if killed too soon, eject a coloured meconium which is very damaging if 
 it gets upon any part of their surfaces; but still it is very necessary with 
 some species to despatch them as soon as possible after emerging; for 
 instance, if Macrogaster arundinis be kept alive for any length of time, 
 we shall, in all probability, find that it has made use of its long body to 
 sleek down its wings to their utter detriment. 
 
110 PERFECT STATE.—TRANSMITTING- BY POST. 
 
 For the determination of species by distant correspondence, it is 
 
 not always necessaiy to trust a 
 supposed rarity to tbe tender 
 mercies of the post. If a life-like 
 figure can be drawn or painted, 
 it may be enclosed in an explana¬ 
 tory letter, and thus, much care and 
 anxiety may be averted. In the 
 case of small insects it is better to 
 draw them on a magnified scale, 
 and to indicate their exact length 
 and breadth in the manner shown in the annexed cut. 
 
 Transmission of Lepidoptera by post. In preparing a box 
 for the post, care should be taken to put in the moths firmly, also to cross¬ 
 pin all bodies of even moderate dimensions; the employment of cotton 
 wool, under or over the insects, much endangers the safety of the legs and 
 antenna?; but there is no objection to fixing “ traps” of finely pulled out 
 wool, in the four corners of the box, to catch anything which may become 
 detached in transit. It is always safest 
 [see fig.] to pack, with wool (c), the box 
 fa) containing the insects, within 
 another larger box (b), and this again 
 may be wadded (d) before wrapping up ; 
 in the last place, a buckram (best) or 
 parchment label for the address and 
 stamps, should be tied on with twine or 
 thin string. 
 
 Postal boxes should be made with the grain of the wood of the 
 top and bottom running transversely to the length, by 
 which their strength is enormously increased. In other 
 respects, size, shape, &c., it is a matter of option, though 
 perhaps the shape most difficult for the P. O. authorities 
 to stamp, and therefore best for the purpose, is spherical 
 as in “ Cooke’s postal box ” [see fig.]. 
 
 Chip boxes may be strengthened for postal use, by 
 glueing an upright piece of wood, somewhere about the 
 centre of the bottom, in such a manner that, when the lid is closed, it rests 
 upon the opposite end of it; or, if nested and shut one in another, their power 
 of resistance is greatly improved, especially if instead of doing up neatly, 
 we roll it up in wool and paper, like a ball. Tin boxes are also useful for 
 the service, as they cannot well get smashed. 
 
PEEFECT STATE.—OBSEEVATION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 <0bsetf)atton. 
 
 It is much to be desired that collectors should observe and enter into 
 
 their “ Lepidopterist’s Register” or their diaries, any facts connected "with 
 the Natural History of Moths and Butterflies, which may come under their 
 notice, or still better, publish them to the world in the Entomological 
 periodicals. The habits of the perfect insects are well worth study : their 
 modes of flight, vary even in the same species, according to the object for 
 which they are on the wing; the attitudes assumed when wing-drying, at 
 rest, pairing, laying, feeding ; the times of year and day at which the same 
 occur; the nature of localities, the longitude, latitude, altitude, soil, vege¬ 
 tation ; the state of the atmosphere, favourable or unfavourable; theii 
 places of resort and retreat; hibernation; duration of life; tendency to 
 variation, are all highly interesting ; besides a train of other subjects which 
 will suggest themselves for investigation. 
 
 There are marvellous things to observe j) 
 
 in the Lepidoptera — their circulatory, J 
 
 respiratory, and nervous systems; their X/ / 
 alimentary and reproductive organs ; 
 organs of flight and of special sensa- 
 tion; their skeletons and muscles. The — 
 
 neuration of the wings, too, demand special 
 attention on the part of the Lepidopterist: 
 here will be found valuable characters for 
 the division of moths and butterflies into 
 natural groups. This may, perhaps, best 
 be studied from the wings of Aporia 
 cratcrgi. 
 
 Then again, the plumules of Butterflies 
 are a valuable means of specific diagnosis ; 
 
 those of the j Fieri dee, as represented in 
 the two figures to the left (of P. napi and 
 A. cratcegi ), differ very considerably in 
 form from the plumules of S. Megcera 
 figured to the right of the page; whilst 
 among the Lyccenoe we find the so-called 
 
 " battledore ” scales, so distinctive of the 
 group and of each species, except in L. ? 
 Bcetica , which is apparently out of place 
 among the “ Blues.” 
 
112 
 
 PERFECT 8TATE.—SETTING, SADDLES. 
 
 The eyes, antennae, palpi, legs, &c., of Butter¬ 
 flies and Moths are also beautiful objects for the 
 microscope, and present especial characters for the 
 determination of species. 
 
 It is not within the scope of a little work like this, to give directions 
 for describing the perfect insect; that, is a far different thing from taking 
 descriptive notes of ova, larvae, and pupae, which are fleeting things as 
 compared with the perfect insect, and the depiction of which by pen or 
 pencil, as opportunities occur, is a source of much valuable information. 
 
 preservation. 
 
 Of setting insects, there are not only several fashions—high, 
 low, flat, and rounded—which will necessarily modify the process, but 
 different manners of securing the specimens in the position we wish them 
 permanently to assume. Of course, none of these are true to nature—do 
 not represent an insect flying, at rest, or in any other natural attitude— 
 but they afford us the best means of examining the various characters by 
 which Lepidoptera are usually separated from one another; and, as it is 
 quite as well to spread them out gracefully, if it be only for the purpose of 
 making the specimens more saleable after our demise, it is advisable that 
 we should take a glance at the methods of effecting this. 
 
 The southern plan, carried out by means of what we term 
 “ saddles ” and “ braces,” being that with which we are best acquainted, 
 is here given first. 
 
 Saddles are corked boards, on which the insects are pinned and 
 strapped down in position, until they become sufficiently dry and fit for 
 removal. We make them by—in the first place—cutting strips of thin 
 wood, of widths varying from three-quarters to five and a-half inches*, 
 but all of them of equal lengths, i. e., from ten to fourteen inches, for the 
 convenience of fitting into a setting house, of which notice will be taken 
 hereafter, though, of course the matter is quite optional. On to one of 
 these strips, a comparatively thick piece of cork (“silver” best), carefully 
 cut, at least an eighth of an inch narrower, is glued. 
 
 Note. —The cork can best be prepared, after being fixed to the 
 wooden slip, in which case it should not be less than half-an-inch in 
 thickness for the narrowest saddle: but if the collector is satisfied with 
 the width of the cork and board being the same, or if the cork be shaped 
 before glueing on to the wood, a much thinner substance of it will be 
 required. 
 
PEBFECT STATE. — BliACES. 
 
 113 
 
 Then rasp off tlie upper surface of the cork to a curve corresponding 
 with the section of the circumference of a circle, the diameter of which is*, 
 say, two and a-half times the width of the saddle ; thus, if we want a 5- 
 inch saddle, the curve should correspond with that of a circle 12^ inches 
 in diameter, a 4-inch with 10 inches diameter, a 3-inch with inches 
 diameter, a 2-inch with 5 inches diameter, a 1-inch with 2^ inches diame¬ 
 ter, a ^-inch with 1J inches diameter, and so on ; but these proportions are 
 onl y as approximate, the curve adopted will depend much on the 
 fancy of the collector; the object here is to show him that the saddles 
 should he manufactured on 
 some system, and not any¬ 
 how. Having smoothed off 
 the surface with glass paper, 
 next strike the middle line with a chalked string and ran a saw down this, 
 for the guidance of a curved rat-tail file, such as is used by sculptors, with 
 which a groove of the size suitable for the reception of the body of the 
 insect, may soon he hollowed out. If the saddle-maker cannot procure the 
 above-named file, there is little difficulty in cutting, or sawing out a groove. 
 A transverse section of a saddle is shown in the annexed cut. 
 
 Blotting paper (if any he used at all for the purpose) is best adapted 
 for covering saddles, as its soft spongy surface assists in retaining the 
 wings in position ; writing paper is too slippery. But some use trans¬ 
 versely-ruled paper, to guide them in elevating the wings to the same level 
 on both sides. 
 
 Braces may be quickly made as required for use, by running a pin 
 through the broad end ot a wedge-shaped bit of stiff paper; but, to ensure 
 permanence and stability, it is a good plan to punch out little circular bits 
 of card, which may be used thus ; run the point of a stoutish pin (“ short 
 whites” are best) into one, dip it on to some shoemakers paste, and then 
 apply it to the broad end of the brace, and 
 drive it through on a piece of cork; the 
 head of the pin should slightly slant away 
 from the small end of the brace in order to 
 give elasticity. For large insects, cardboard 
 braces, strengthened with cork at the broad 
 end, may be required, or slips of paper may 
 be strapped over the wings, and held in posi¬ 
 tion by a pin at each end ; but my own idea is that even the largest insect 
 is best fixed by a mere multiplication of moderate-sized braces. Ordinary 
 music paper is of the best stoutness, stiffness, and elasticity, for most pur¬ 
 poses ; note paper for the pugs and small species. 
 
114 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — SETTING. 
 
 A setting bristle will be found invaluable. There are different 
 ways of making it, and various materials, such as a bristle, a fibre out 
 of a broom, a very fine beading-needle, quill cut very thin, &c., which have 
 been employed; but none -of them come anywhere near a cat’s whisker, 
 
 which not only possesses naturally 
 the curve exactly suited to the pur¬ 
 pose but cannot be beaten for elas¬ 
 ticity. All we have to do is, after 
 making a pin hole through a small 
 bit of cork, to insert the thick end of 
 the whisker, previously dipped into 
 liquid glue, concave side downwards, 
 and then drive a stout pin through 
 the cork, at an angle slightly obtuse to the bristle, in order that we may 
 be able to exert greater pressure, if necessary. 
 
 A setting needle may be formed of a darning needle, the eye end 
 being driven into a handle, such as a piece of cedar pencil. This should 
 only be used to lever the wings into position, and should never he driven 
 through the texture of the wing. Some prefer to hook the point by bend¬ 
 ing it in the flame of a spirit lamp. 
 
 To set out our captures we first pin them on a suitable saddle, by 
 which is meant one that has a groove sufficiently capacious to admit the 
 body, and rather wider than the expanded wings of the insect to he 
 operated on. Then, the legs having been put in position, and the tongue, 
 if necessary, drawn out, we begin by setting first the wings of one side; 
 the setting bristle point forwards should be placed over them, the point of 
 the pin just resting on 
 the cork behind, the tip 
 of the bristle touching 
 the cork in front, the 
 head of the pin being 
 steadied by the fore¬ 
 finger, or thumb and 
 forefinger, of the left 
 hand; then, placing the 
 setting-needle under the fore-wing, we tilt or push it up to the required 
 height, and simultaneously, by simply moving the pin head of the setting 
 bristle forwards, at the same time driving the point slightly into the cork, 
 we put on pressure enough to hold the wing in position ; we now withdraw 
 the setting needle, and apply a brace or two to the costa. Next, after 
 
PEBFECT STATE. — SETTING. 
 
 115 
 
 shifting the position of the bristle a little further back, we repeat the pro¬ 
 cess on the hind-wing, and apply as many braces as we consider necessary. 
 The tips of the wings should always be braced down. And, lastly, we set 
 out the antennae to our liking, and raise the body to its proper position, 
 that is, if the groove happens to be too deep ; this may be done by cross 
 pins underneath the body, but better by a brace of suitable length, placed 
 under, and in the axis of, the abdomen, or by little grooved bits of wood, 
 called body rests, of different thicknesses made for the purpose. 
 
 Another plan, useful after sugaring, when NocUub are numerous 
 and not very precious, and when time is an object, enables us to get 
 through our work more quickly. We procure a fine beading needle—as 
 fine as a hair—the eye end stuck into a lucifer match or a bit of sealing 
 wax, so as to leave about half an inch of the point exposed. The point of 
 this needle may be partly run through the costa, the fore-wing rapidly 
 raised up to the required level, and pegged down with the needle; then, 
 after the application of a brace or two, it may be withdrawn ; after that, 
 the hind-wing will have to be similarly treated. Now, if this be done skil¬ 
 fully, and the insects are fresh killed, the little hole will not subsequently 
 be noticed, even by the aid of a magnifying glass. But, if the operation 
 be unskilfully performed, we may get a “ notch wing ” were we do not 
 want one, or we may rip up the texture of the wing, if the needle be not 
 inserted in or near one of the strong nervures. 
 
 Note. —Sometimes the fringes get misplaced; by gently blowing upon 
 them they may be restored to their position. It is a bad job when any of 
 the cilia are knocked off. 
 
 The northern plan is carried out, by cutting off pieces from a 
 saddle, made, as above, in lengths sufficient for setting each a single insect; 
 these are placed side by side on a strip of wood so that the insects have 
 their wings relatively tip to tip, instead of, as in the other plan, being head 
 to tail. The method of fixing them in position, too, is different, for pieces 
 of thread, of the required length, are attached by one end to the woodwork, 
 and, after the insects are put in position, several turns of thread are wound 
 lightly round the wings, saddle and all, and fastened off in a slit made for 
 the purpose in the wood; with practice, this process of setting may be very 
 rapidly conducted. 
 
 Hounded setting* is preferred by some for the reasons that 
 specimens so set out, have a more attractive, though less natural, appear¬ 
 ance than those prepared as above. There are two methods of carrying 
 it out. 
 
116 
 
 PERFECT STATE.—SETTING. 
 
 “ Four strap ” setting is one; four similar card braces, rather 
 broad, longer than the length of the insect intended to be operated on, 
 and carefully bent to the desired curve, are all that are required for setting 
 
 out the wings; this, at any 
 rate, is an advantage. Two 
 are first placed at a compu¬ 
 ted distance with their thin 
 ends looking backwards 
 and towards one another, 
 in such a manner, that, 
 when the moth is placed 
 over them, the middle of 
 the cost® of both fore and 
 hind-wings will rest upon them; then, as the wings are got into position, 
 the other two braces are placed over the wings, a little beyond the middle 
 of the costa, that is, nearer to the tips than the straps underneath, as in 
 the accompanying sketch. The elasticity of the costal nervure is sufficient 
 to keep the wings in position. In addition to the four main straps it is 
 sometimes considered advisable to place a strap over the outer borders of 
 the wings. 
 
 A rounded saddle is the other method. These are made by first 
 turning a globe of soft wood, as willow, the diameter of the ball being, 
 say, two and a-half times that of the saddle required, or whatever other 
 proportion may be fixed on. Then, slice, from off the circumference of 
 the ball, pieces of the required size, divide these into two; cut out, from 
 the middle of each semi-circular piece, a width proportionate to the size of 
 the body of the insect the saddle is intended to accommodate. Glue down 
 these pairs of three-corned rounded bits, in position, to a suitable board, 
 separating them by a strip of cork of the width of the body, and thus par¬ 
 tially replacing the bit of wood cut away. 
 
 Flat setting has many great advantages over the ordinary methods, 
 but it is very unpopular in this country, for the reason that continental 
 specimens are set in this way, and English collectors are very sensitive on 
 the point of having the authenticity of their captures doubted. The 
 method, for those who like to try it, is simple enough: a groove, for the 
 abdomen, is made in a piece of flat wood, the bottom of the groove being 
 lined with cork; the wings, after being put into position, are kept so by 
 the weight of little flat pieces of glass, instead of by braces or thread. 
 
 High setting, though possessing the advantage of keeping the 
 insect very much out of the way of mites, is eschewed in England for a 
 similar reason. 
 
PEEFECT STATE.—SETTING. 
 
 117 
 
 A well-set insect, according to our English notion, should have 
 
 its wings curved as in tig. 
 (a),p. 106, and, from above, 
 a line drawn from tip to 
 tip of the fore-wings should 
 be a little in advance of 
 the head, as shown in the 
 accompanying figure of A. 
 prod^omaria ; this is the 
 general rule, but, of course, 
 where the head is prominently placed, as in M. stellatarum, this rule can¬ 
 not be observed. 
 
 Removing insects 
 from the setting - board 
 should not be attempted 
 till the specimens are per¬ 
 fectly dry. This will, of 
 course, depend much on 
 the time of year aud state 
 of the weather, as well as 
 on the size and nature of 
 the insect. If the abdo¬ 
 men be stiff, the wings are 
 almost sure to be so also. Insect forceps should always be used when 
 specimens require to be shifted. 
 
 Quick drying, as in an oven, on the hob, or other hot situation, 
 may sometimes be necessary, as, for instance, when we have to return 
 home from a country trip, and have more saddles stocked with insects than 
 we can manage to convey in our setting-house; but great precautions 
 must be taken firstly to brace down the tips and borders of the wings, or 
 they will cockle up ; secondly, that the heat be not too great; and thirdly, 
 that mice, cockroaches, ants, &c., cannot attack them. 
 
 The setting-house is constructed with grooves at suitable inter¬ 
 vals for the reception of the saddles. It is usually furnished with a handle 
 at the top, to cany it about by. Many combine a store box at the back, 
 and have a portion partitioned off for nets, collecting boxes, lantern, sugar¬ 
 ing tin, home killing apparatus, larva tins, &c., and a drawer for pins, 
 braces, setting bristles, body supports, removing forceps, pocket lens, field 
 killing apparatus, &c. Ventilation, by means of perforated zinc or wire 
 gauze, must be attended to, otherwise the insects will not dry quickly. 
 Young hands should be careful to put their captures away as soon as set, 
 
118 PEEFECU? STATE.—RESETTING, REMOVING GREASE. 
 
 lest some mouse, wasp, cockroach, or other vermin should destroy them. 
 If there be ants in the house, the only chance is to swing the setting-house, 
 or to stand it on a chair, the four legs of which are inserted into gallipots 
 of water. 
 
 Resetting, —When a specimen has been badly set, never stretched 
 at all, or has “ sprung/’ we first subject it to the fumes of the laurel jar, 
 or the damp air of the wet sand pan, until it becomes sufficiently limp to 
 manipulate; and then we set it out again to our liking. Insects re-set 
 should be left longer on the setting-boards than those set for the first 
 time. When, in our estimation, they are in a proper state for removal, 
 we should take them off, and, holding them underside up, lightly touch 
 the insertions of the four wings with a mixture composed of white shellac 
 dissolved in naphtha, and then strap them down again to the saddle, for 
 a few hours, until the liquid glue, or whatever else we use, has become 
 dry, otherwise re-set insects are almost certain to “ spring.” 
 
 Repairing damaged specimens may be effected by means of a very 
 slight application of prepared gum tragacanth, which is nearly colourless, 
 and dull when dry; occasionally we may require in addition some backing 
 of tissue paper. Antennae, head, tails, and even wings of other specimens, 
 may be used to supply deficiences. This is all very well for one’s own 
 cabinet, but insects so decorated should not be sent away as “ fine speci¬ 
 mens ” in “ exchange,” or the sender may lie under a possibly unjust im¬ 
 putation. 
 
 In Re-pinning, care should be taken to place the pin in the old 
 hole, otherwise, in all probability, somebody will accuse you of having a 
 foreigner in your collection. A little gum may be used to prevent the pin 
 from shifting. 
 
 To remove grease some pains are necessary. When the insects 
 are small, they may be pinned to a piece of cork loaded with lead, and sunk 
 bodily in benzole, pure spirits of turpentine, or rectified naptha, and there 
 left from twenty-four hours to a fortnight, when they may be removed, 
 placed on a bed of powdered French chalk (best), pipe-clay, or magnesia, 
 covered over with the same, and left to dry ; after which such powder as 
 may adhere, must be gently blown off, or cautiously brushed off with a 
 camel s hair or sable brush. With larger insects it is as well to break off 
 the abdomina, number them, and treat them separately. Dr. Wallace re¬ 
 commends that they be first roasted, to start the grease, and then boiled 
 in benzole, in a water bath, to get it out. If the bodies are very bad, it 
 will be necessary to slit them up with a pair of embroidery scissors, remove 
 the contents, and replace with blotting-paper or cotton wool; but, inasmuch 
 
PERFECT STATE.—MITES. 
 
 119 
 
 as prevention is better than cure, it is best, in the case of those species 
 which we know, from dire experience, are sure to go greasy, such as Nona- 
 gria, and other internal—or, as a friend of mine appropriately calls them, 
 infernal—feeders, to prepare them while the bodies are yet fresh, otherwise 
 we shall not have to wait long before having the mortification of seeing a 
 horrid patch, slowly but surely, extending itself over the clean white paper 
 of our cabinet drawers, and very difficult indeed to remove when once 
 formed. We may try ironing with a hot iron, a piece of brown paper in¬ 
 tervening, and, when we think we have got it out, re-paper the drawers ; 
 we may endeavour to soften it by benzole, and sop it up with pipe-clav, but 
 the probability is that we shall be unsuccessful, or, at any rate, only par¬ 
 tially successful. When, therefore, from want of forethought, we have any 
 of our drawers in this mess, it is best to damp off the paper, and then to 
 cut out the whole of the greasy cork, re-cork the parts removed, smooth 
 down, and re-paper. Some, in addition to stuffing, put a little pad of blot¬ 
 ting-paper under the abdomen of the specimen. 
 
 Mould is another nuisance with which the collector has to deal. 
 The best way is to take the following precautions against its occurrence. 
 Firstly, never place your cabinet or store box shelves against an external 
 wall of a house, nor in a sky parlour. If you live in a terrace, take advan¬ 
 tage of your next door neigh hour’s chimney-stack, and place your cabinet 
 with its back against the corresponding part of your room; raise it a trifle 
 from the ground, that air may pass underneath, and do not let it touch the 
 wall for a similar reason. Above all, if you are in the habit of killing or 
 relaxing your insects with laurel, take care that your poison is perfectly 
 free from damp, and do not leave your specimens in the laurel jar a moment 
 longer than is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Another method is to kyanise each specimen, by touching the 
 underside of the abdomen with either a solution of phoenic acid (one part 
 to six of sulphuric either or rectified spirits), or with a week solution of 
 corrosive sublimate (six grains to the ounce of spirit)—this solution must 
 on no account be used too strong, or the specimens will assume precisely 
 the appearance you are desirous of preventing—that is, they will look just 
 as if mildewed; it is therefore best to test the strength of your solution by 
 drawing a streak of it over a piece of black paper, upon which it should 
 leave no mark when dry. 
 
 Note. —Carbolic acid has very similar properties to those of phoenic 
 acid, and is, of course, very much cheaper. The latter (made from indigo) 
 is, however, that which is most strongly recommended. 
 
 Mites are the worst of all the evils we have to contend with. 
 Here, stringent preventive measures are most necessary. In the first 
 
120 
 
 PERFECT STATE. — CABINET. 
 
 place, the cabinet or store boxes should be as nearly air-tight as possible; 
 every insect, before being placed in the.collection, should undergo quaran¬ 
 tine ; that is, should be placed in a store box the atmosphere of which is 
 so impregnated with the vapour of benzine, or other killing agent, that 
 these pests will be effectually extirpated. The kyanising, as above, is a 
 great protection ; so, too, is high setting. It has been noticed that Psoci 
 and Acari always attack the insects at the bottom of a box, and leave those 
 at the top untouched ; it has therefore been proposed to turn the cabinet 
 topsy-turvy; but this has its drawbacks. Camphor and benzole both 
 have a great tendency to make insects go greasy. Loose mercury is very 
 objectionable. Insecticides (such as powdered Pyretlirum roseum , or 
 Russian tansy) are apt to get about the drawers, and look untidy—oils of 
 Cajuput, Anise, Ihyme, Marjoram, Amber, Turpentine, &c., make greasy 
 marks, if not used with great caution. A good cabinet—quarantine—and 
 kyanising are the things. Tinea, Dermestes , &c., in a collection, must be 
 the result of gross carelessness. 
 
 Store boxes, of the best make, kept like books in a bookcase, 
 made to resemble books, and labelled as to the contents, are far superior 
 to cabinets. They are rarely attacked by mites, owing to the upright 
 position m which they are placed; are more readily referred to ; are more 
 portable than cabinet drawers (no small advantage if we want to compare 
 our Eupithcecia, Dicrorampha, Scop aria, or other group, with some 
 distant collection); and, moreover, similar boxes may be added ad libitum 
 as we require them for use. 
 
 The cabinet demands considerable attention. First, as regards 
 the material of which it is composed, and the young collector must use great 
 caution in making his selection. The wood best adapted for insect cabinets 
 is maiiogany; the worst, cedar; all such as contain resinous matter should 
 be studiously avoided, for, after a year or two, the specimens will be utterly 
 ruined by a deposition of little black specks upon them; even, in some 
 cases, great blebs of turpentiny matter will condense upon the glasses. 
 
 Every drawer should be made by gauge-work, so that they can be 
 shifted about to different parts of the cabinet. The immense advantage of 
 this system is that in re-arranging we have only to empty, say the last 
 drawer, prepare it, transfer the contents of the first drawer to it, then pre¬ 
 pare that which was the first drawer and transfer to it the contents of the 
 second, so that No. 40, say, becomes No. 1; No. 1—No. 2; No. 2—No. 3 • 
 and so on. The best cabinets that have lately come under my notice have 
 been turned out by Mr. Cooke, of New Oxford Street, and are, at a reason¬ 
 able price, all that can be desired. 
 
PERFECT STATE.—CABINET. 
 
 121 
 
 TI10 favourite number of drawers is forty, which just nicely 
 contain a good working collection of British Lepidoptera. 
 
 The size of the drawers. Averaging 18 inches square (324 
 square inches) in superfices—2 in. outside depth—1|- in. inside from cork 
 to glass, but collectors must judge for themselves as to the proportions. 
 
 Camphor cells may he made to run all round the drawer; this, of 
 course, adds much to the expense. Sometimes only the front of the 
 drawer is fitted in this manner. When we do not use camphor, it follows 
 that no camphor cells will be required. 
 
 The.glasses which cover the drawer should be “ patent flatted sheet,” 
 such as used by picture frame makers, and they should be secured in 
 frames which accurately fit, and flange over, the drawer If they’ are 
 properly made, great care is required in removing the glasses, for should 
 this be done too quickly, the wings may be forced otf some of the smaller 
 species, by atmospheric pressure. It may also be noted here that electricity 
 is another agent by which the wings of small specimens are frequently dis¬ 
 torted and broken. Its generation is due to the common habit of wiping 
 the glasses of our cabinets with a silk pocket handkerchief. 
 
 The cork with which the bottom of the drawer is lined, should be of 
 the finest quality, and veiy nearly, if not quite, a quarter of an inch in 
 thickness; if the cork is not close grained, it is best to fix together two 
 pieces, each an eighth of an inch thick, for the odds are that, if the pin 
 passes through a hole in the top piece it will come against a sound part 
 in the under one; the cork should be glued together, so as to form one 
 sheet the size of the interior of the drawers; it should then be well 
 smoothed with glass paper on a “rubber,” that is, a block of wood or 
 cork ; when thoroughly prepared, it should be fixed into the drawer and 
 kept in position by weights, until the glue is set; and, lastly, before pro¬ 
 ceeding to paper it, two coats of thin size must be applied and allowed to 
 dry; otherwise the paper will be m re or less disfigured by stains. 
 
 Papering. The paper used is, I believe, technically known as “ tea 
 paper.” Good qualities are sponginess, even surface, and great whiteness 
 without polish. A little alum should be added to the paste, to harden it, 
 and a minute portion of bichloride of mercury, in solution, may be mixed 
 with it for protective purposes, if thought desirable. 
 
 Re-papering necessitates first stripping off the old paper. This may 
 be done by sponging with hot water, until the moisture penetrates to the 
 paste and softens it. When drawers have been papared or repapered, they • 
 may be stood up bottom side towards a fire to dry. 
 
122 
 
 PEEFECT STATE.—ARRANGING. 
 
 Whitening is a process which may often save us the trouble of 
 repapering. Oxide of zinc is mixed with milk, until a fluid, about the 
 thickness of cream, is formed; a very minute portion of lamp black should 
 be added, to increase the whiteness: some prefer a slight shade of blue, 
 which may be got by the addition of a little ultra-marine. Having cleaned 
 out the drawer, and rubbed some oxide of zinc powder into the pin holes, 
 the whitening, on a soft broad brush, should be applied in one direction ; 
 when very nearly dry, a “ dabber ” (a bit of wool wrapped in linen) may 
 be used, to obliterate the brush marks. 
 
 Arranging. First cut slips of paper as long as the width of the 
 drawer, paste down one of them on a board of soft wood ; on this, arrange 
 in order, side by side, the largest specimen of the largest species in each 
 row. If you do not possess any particular insect Reference as to alar 
 expanse must be made to Stainton’s Manual, or better still, to some 
 friend’s collection. When satisfied, put an unattached strip, parallel to 
 the one on the board, and mark off the points intermediate between the 
 tips of the wings; transfer, and dot off lightly with a pencil, the measure¬ 
 ments on the paper of the cabinet, first at the top end of the drawer, and 
 then at the bottom, otherwise if “ the eye ” is trusted to, the divisional 
 lines will very likely partake of the slantindicular direction. 
 
 The order in which insects are usually placed in the cabinet, is 
 first the most typical male at the top of the row, 
 then the other males, and below them the females, 
 and one or two specimens should be set under-side 
 uppermost; or, better still, in the case of butter¬ 
 flies, a male and female pinned sideways with 
 their wings over their backs, as in the annexed 
 figure of A. Zatona, should be placed tete-a-tete ; 
 these should come last in the series. 
 
 Tickets are made out of thick writing paper, 
 by the aid of a punch of suitable size and having a 
 number corresponding with the history in the diary of the specimen to 
 which it is attached. In some rare cases, even the whole history itself, 
 should be attached to each specimen. 
 
 Dividing off may be effected in many ways. Ink lines mark the 
 paper, so that if, at any time, we have to alter our arrangement, the drawers 
 will have to be repapered. Pencil lines are similarly objectionable, but not 
 to so great an extent. The plans by which the paper is not damaged, in 
 case we want to re-arrange at some future time, seem, to my mind, best— 
 
PEEFECT STATE.—LABELLING. 
 
 123 
 
 First, fine ink lines may be ruled on white paper similar to that by which 
 the drawers are covered; then, with an iron straight-edge and a sharp 
 round-bladed table knife, we may cut off strips of paper each with a middle 
 line; by means of short pin points, we can fix these in the position of our 
 pencil marks in the cabinet; and, if there he any places where the strips do 
 not fit flatly to the drawer, they too must he pegged down with pin points. 
 Another plan is to rule off and similarly peg down very narrow strips of 
 dull black paper, hut this is almost too conspicuous. A third plan is to divide 
 off, by means of black silk or cotton ; hut there is great difficulty in keep¬ 
 ing it flat to the drawer, and it shows up any unevenness of surface to an 
 alarming extent. The most scientific is to have no lines at all, hut it must 
 be a first-rate collection that will hear this. 
 
 Labelling is carried out by cutting up a List of British Lepidoptera, 
 arranged on the plan of Stainton’s Manual, which is by far the best 
 text-book of British Lepidoptera yet published. It need scarcely be noted 
 that family names come at the commencement of a family; generic at the 
 commencement, above the first species, of a genus; specific beloio the 
 species indicated. They may be fixed by means of pin points, or curved 
 and stuck, concave side downwards, with a minute dab of paste.