Land Utilization and Rur Econom in Korea! HD 2095 .K8 Y 59 Nang makaka *th, the bot This is the ship the SAN gain it went Coq S DUD *** "BE" A th 45 home in o • Ky Tômés Évesstutami *****, * ****** یک کتاب خوں سے ملی تھی *** otaz men Wayf Sports gong keby 14. 12 mg/kg MARIN AKANES ##{%=i· {@our fa**** Salacuna a • Latino symét ܣܕܐܘܛ ܠ མམས་མདོ་ *}*%%% KAMÁL Sjáðu === jay PLATOK M Cabang oras ng wife Jo! ty **£** ** * $**<* * */ 1817 CAL ARTES LIBRARY VERITAS UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 2 EPLONIDI, VERIS TUEBOR SCIENTIA OF THE #JI:QUÆRIS PENINSULAM-AMŒNAM. CIRCUMSPICE DISPATCHES SIS (kemady BEATAEKO SIDO 7 FERMINE KITI AKIPPUSES PETILPLANE KERMIJNI · | F HD 2095 . KZ Y52 LAND UTILIZATION AND RURAL ECONOMY IN KOREA THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY NEW YORK LAND UTILIZATION AND RURAL ECONOMY IN KOREA BY HOON K. LEE, M.S., Ph.D. Vice-President and Professor of Agricultural Economics, Union Christian College of Korea, the Author of Pioneer Belt in Manchuria, The History of Land Systems in Korea, The Tenancy Questions in Korea, etc. Issued under the Auspices of the Secretariat of the Institute of Pacific Relations THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS [Sole Agents in the United States] oul 795 16"3 bearing a suit and a lot more than All Rights Reserved First Published 1936 Printed in China by Kelly & Walsh, Ltd., Shanghai Pal AD 50.0 H-576-27 N M Chic WP. S 譬 ​4-37 34042 2095 K Z 852 PREFACE THE HE study here reported was made in 1931 and 1932 at the request of the Institute of Pacific Relations and under the direction of the American Geographical Society. This sponsorship does not, however, imply that either of these bodies assumes responsibility for statements of fact or expressions of opinion contained in this volume. In its general features the study parallels those made of land utilization in China by Professor John Lossing Buck, of the University of Nanking, and in Japan by Professor Shiroshi Nasu, of the Imperial University of Tokyo. The author believes this account of land utilization and rural economy in Korea to be the first given in a Western language of that subject and one of very few statements concerning economic conditions in Korea available to the foreign reader. Although books have been written in foreign languages on recent develop- ments in Korea, they are usually tinged with imperialistic or nationalistic bias and make it difficult for the student of inter- national relations, of colonial administration, or of economic conditions to arrive at a clear picture of the actual situation. The author has tried, therefore, to eliminate all coloring and to let the facts ascertained speak for themselves, giving only that minimum of interpretation which is necessary to convey the meaning and significance of the facts. The methods of inquiry followed in this study were more or less prescribed by the International Research Committee of the Institute of Pacific Relations. They included an examination of all available official documents and related literature and a field survey. The latter was conducted with the aid of forty-one field workers and of a schedule carefully worked out to provide data comparable with those obtained in similar studies by the United States Department of Agriculture in the Great Western Plain and by the Department of Agricultural Economics of the iii PREFACE University of Nanking in China. Limitation of funds made it necessary to use a process of sampling; and this was done at two different periods, so as to eliminate the possible influence of a bad harvest year on the findings, and checked by more general inquiries on the part of the author himself. In addition, a special study was made of rural credit conditions and farm indebtedness. Publication of the findings has been delayed, through no fault of the author, by the desire of the Institute of Pacific Relations to synchronize it more nearly with that of the similar studies carried on in China and Japan. The author desires to express his appreciation for many useful suggestions received in the planning of this study by Dr. J. B. Condliffe, then International Research Secretary of the Institute of Pacific Relations, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, then Director of the American Geographical Society, and Mr. W. L. G. Joerg, of the same institution. Special acknowledgment is due also to Dr. George S. McCune, President of the Union Christian College of Korea, for his personal interest in the work, to Dr. O. E. Baker and others. of the United States Department of Agriculture for materials suggesting lines of inquiry, to the field investigators who worked hard to obtain the needed information in a limited time, to Mr. Kyungmuk Lyew for valuable secretarial assistance, and to Mrs. G. S. McCune for correcting the manuscript. The final editing for the press was done by the research staff of the Institute of Pacific Relations. The author regrets that he cannot mention by name the much larger number of persons who have directly or indirectly helped him in this work. Pyengyang, Korea, December, 1935. HOON K. LEE iv 17 .... CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE 7 LIST OF TABLES LIST OF MAPS AND CHARTS I. GENERAL CONDITIONS BEARING ON LAND UTILIZATION AND RURAL ECONOMY .. Climate Geological Features Soils Natural Resources Industrial and Commercial Conditions Traffic and Communication .. The Free Occupations Population.. Educational Facilities : • : - • PAGE iii ix xii I CHAPTER II. CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRI- CULTURE The Principal Crops, Vegetables, and Fruits Domestic Animals and Sericulture Regional Characteristics of Korean Agriculture 83 Farming Methods 95 The Farmstead and Farm Lay-out 97 4 15 23 28 31 35 39 39 49 55 55 ܝ ܤ V TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER III. LAND UTILIZATION The Area of Arable Land and its Changes The Frequency of Arable Land Utilization Adverse Forces Against Land Utilization The Break-up and Reclamation of Land The Land Amelioration Project and Irrigation Associations Land Values and Land Taxation CHAPTER IV. LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY …. Land Ownership Tenancy Some Customs of Tenancy Returns from Investment in Land Living Conditions of Tenants Tenancy Disputes • The Utilization of Forest Land The Utilization of Mineral Land The Utilization of Urban Land The Utilization of Other Kinds of Land The Utilization of State Land CHAPTER VII, FARM LABOR • CHAPTER V. THE UTILIZATION OF FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND • Farm Buildings and Improvements Farm Machines and Tools Manures and Fertilizers Some Other Forms of Capital CHAPTER VIII. RURAL CREDIT ✓ The Amount of Labor Needed for Farms The Efficiency of Farm Labor The Cost of Farm Labor CHAPTER VI. CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND.. The Rate of Interest on Farm Loans The Credit Organizations · :: • • • • • • • • • ► PAGE 102 102 IIO 114 118 122 131 142 142 148 162 167 170 173 181 181 188 195 198 *202 206 206 2'09 211 215 220 221 225 229 233 237 240 / vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER IX. MARKETING PRODUCTS The Organization of Marketing The Marketing of Farm Products The Marketing Agencies The Prices of Farm Products AND PRICES OF FARM CHAPTER X. FARM INCOME AND EXPENSES Farm Profits and Losses CHAPTER XI. THE STANDARD OF LIVING An Index of Decreasing Food Consumption The Actual Standard of Living CHAPTER XII. AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION V APPENDICES • INDEX • The Oriental Development Company Some Other Colonization Agencies and Their Work • • • Survey Schedule Measures and Weights and their equivalents used in this study • PAGE 252 252 254 261 262 267 267 274 274 278 281 281 286 291 291 298 299 vii TABLES I. 2. 3. Monthly Evaporation 4. Annual Humidity and Sunshine. 5. Dates of Last and First Killing Frost Chemical Reactions of Korean Soils 6. The Administrational Division of Korea Air Temperature 7. Chemical Ingredients in Korean Soils. 8. Chemical Ingredients of Soils in Various Countries. 9. Manufacturing Enterprises Classified by Ownership 10. Nationality and Capital Investment of Companies II. International Position of Korea's Foreign Trade 12. Value of Leading Exports and Imports 13. Steamers and Sailboats 14. Growth of Population 15. Countries in Rank of Population Density 16. Birth and Death Rates •• 17. Distribution of Agricultural Population by Provinces 18. Illiteracy among Korean Farmers 19. Average Acreage and Yield of Rice Crops 20. Percentage Increase of Improved Varieties and Decrease of Old Varieties of Rice 4 • 21. Average Acreage, Yield, and Yield Per Acre of Barley 22. Average Acreage, Yield, and Yield Per Acre of Wheat 23. Acreage, Yield, and Yield Per Acre of Unhusked Rice 24. Acreage, Yield, and Yield Per Acre of Upland Rice (unhusked) 25. Average Acreage, Production, and Yield Per Acre of Leguminous Crops 26. Average Acreage, Production, Yield Per Acre, and Value of Italian or Foxtail Millet 27. Acreage and Yield of Italian Millet 28. Average Acreage, Yield, and Value of Miscellaneous Grains 29. Average Acreage, Production, Yield Per Acre, and Value of Cotton 30. Average Acreage, Yield, and Value of Other Textile Plants 31. Average Acreage, Yield, and Value of Principal Vegetables 32. Average Acreage, Production, and Value of Principal Fruits 33. Average Acreage and Production of Green Manure Crops .. PAGE 3 4 12 12 13 26 27 28 32 34 36 37 38 40 45 47 50 52 aauuu un 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 FFUDO OKN 68. 70 ix TABLES 34. Number of Cattle Per Hundred Persons, Acre of Land, and Ten Farm Households 35. The Condition of Hog Raising by Provinces 36. Average Acreage of Mulberry Trees 37. Growth of Silk Raising Industry 38. Percentage Distribution of Acreage under Principal Crops, North and South 39. Distance of Land Lots from Farm Houses 40. Number and Average Size of Land Lots by Provinces 41. Land of Different Grades 42. Total Area of Field and Paddy Field in 1404 Land Area According to Various Classifications, by Provinces 44. Area of Arable Land 45. Acreage of Arable Land Per Farm Household and Per Farmer 46. Frequency of Land Utilization, by Provinces 49. Acreage of Devastated Land Classified by Uses 50. Newly Broken-up Land Classified by Uses and Provinces 103 104 106 108 IIO III 47. Annual Damage Inflicted on Land and Crops by Forces of Nature 115 48. Crop Acreage Classified by Kinds of Disaster .. 116 51. Acreage of Filled-in Land Classified by Uses and Provinces 52. Potential Land Area for Agricultural Purposes 53. Number, Area, and Cost of Irrigation Projects • 55. Value Per Acre of Various Kinds of Land by Provinces 56. Value Per Acre of Various Kinds of Land Sold 57. Tendency of Land Value by Grades and Classes 58. Average Rental Value of Land by Classes and Grades 59. Taxes Paid on Registration of Land Transactions 60. Area and Value of Tax-Exempted Land • 54. Expected Increase in Productivity and Fees payable by Associa- tions • D • PAGE 73 77 81 82 • 84 99 ΙΟΙ : 121 117 119 I22 126 128 132 133 135 136 61. Number of Japanese and Korean Land Owners 62. Arable Land Area Owned by Koreans and Japanese 63. The Arable Land Area by Provinces and Uses .. 150 64. Acquisition of Farm Land by 1,249 Farm Households in one year 151 65. Distribution of Arable Land by Provinces 152 66. Arable Land Area Classified by Class of Users 153 67. Percentage Distribution of the Owned and Leased Areas in the Thirteen Provinces 68. Agricultural Population Classified by Racial Groups, Provinces, and Occupational Variations. 69. Number of Farm Households Classified 70. Percentage Distribution of All Farmer Classes among 1,249 Farm Households and Average Area of Land Operated by these Class 71. Number of Farm Households Classified by Method of Rent Payment 139 141 145 146 155 156 158 160 162 X TABLES LEARN TO THE 72. Amount of Rent Expressed in Percentage of the Product of Leased. Land According to Provinces and Methods of Rent Payment .. 23. Duration of Leases According to Uses of Land and Farm Classes 74. Land Value and Rent of Paddy Field 75. Land Value and Rent of Field 76. Comparison of Land Value and Rent in Five-Year Periods 77. Number of Tenant Disputes. 78. Tenant Disputes Classified by Causes 79. Forest Area Classified by Uses 80. Timber Asset of Wooded Forest Land 81. Government Forest Land Area Leased, Sold, and Surrendered to Individual Persons 82. Total Products of Forest Land 83. Average Mineral Production.. 84. City Population 85. Growth of Urban Land Area 86. Growth of State Railways 87. Area of Land Devoted to Fish-culture and Value of Production 88. Acreage of and Amount of Rent from State Lands 89. Area of State-Owned Unexploited Land Granted to Private In- dividuals, Classified by Uses and Provinces .. 90. Buildings and Improvements on Farms of 1,249 Farm Households 91. Buildings and Improvements Paid for in One Year.. 92. Buildings and Improvements Repaired in One Year.. 93. Buildings and Improvements Made by Farmers Themselves in One Year 94. Value of Farm Tools Purchased by Farm Households in One Year 95. Manures and Fertilizers 96. Value of Manures and Fertilizers Produced, Purchased, Sold, and Consumed 97. Relation between Changes of Acreage of Arable Land, Application of Manures and Fertilizers, and Yield Per Acre 98. Seeds Acquired in Surveyed Farms 99. Amount of Various Seeds Used and Carried over the Year Cost of Feed Stuffs 100. Cost of Straw and Stalks Used · IOI. 102. Various Farm Costs 103. Number of Men and Animals Employed 104. Total Number of Man and Cattle Work Days 105. The Efficiency of Men Engaged in Farm Work 106. The Efficiency of Labor Animals 107. Wages of Farm Labor.. 108. Total Labor Costs of 1,249 Farm Households 109. Extent of Debt by Classes of Farmers and Kinds of Security Amount Borrowed by 338 Households IIO. III. Average Rates of Interest Charged by Various Credit Agencies PAGE 164 166 168 169 170 174 175 184 185 186 188 194 196 197 199 202 203 204 207 208 208 209 210 212 213 214 216 216 217 218 219 222 225 226 228 230 232 235 236 237 xi TABLES I12. Amount of Interest Paid by 983 Debtors .. 113. Increase or Decrease of Farmers' Debts by Classes 114. Number of Farm Households Borrowing Money from Various. Loan Agencies Classified by Kinds of Credit 115. Business of Rural and City Credit Societies 116. Amounts Borrowed by Farmer Members of Credit Societies at Various Rates of Interest 125. Income and Outgo of Farmers 126. Balance of Farm Business of 1,249 Farms MAPS AND CHARTS 117. Loans to Farmers by Credit Societies Classified by Uses 118. Rates of Interest on Loans Advanced by Credit Societies 119. Number and Value of Cattle exported to Japan Results of Grain Inspection 120. 121. Volume of Farm Products Handled in Various Markets 122. Average Retail Price Movements of Important Grains. 123. Average Monthly Changes of Prices of Farm Products 263 265 124. Average Balance of Income over Expenditure Per Farm Household 269 127. Per Capita Annual Consumption of Rice 128. Annual Amount of Foxtail Millet Produced, Imported, and Per Capita Consumption.. 119. Cost of Living of All Farmer Classes 130. Number of Japanese Settlers and Acreage of Land 131. Business Condition of Oriental Development Company 132. Total Area of Land Owned and Controlled by Japanese Settlers who own more than 70 Acres 1. The Isothermal Zones 2. The Isothermal Zones in January and August 5. Geological Origins 6. Density of Population 7. Distribution of the Principal Crops 8. The Limit Lines of Important Crops 9. A Typical Farmstead IO. II. 12. • 3. The Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation 4. The Isochronic Lines and the Number of Days between the First and Last Snow Falls and Frost Distribution of Principal Mines 4 • · • · • ► The Railway Network .. The Number of Man or Cattle Work Days of Farm Laborers and Labor Animals by Months.. PAGE 239 239 240 244 '245 246 247 256 258 260 272 272 275 277 280 284 286 288 PAGE 6 7 ΤΟ 14 24 44 85 94 100 193 201 224 xii CHAPTER I GENERAL CONDITIONS BEARING ON LAND UTILIZA- TION AND RURAL ECONOMY KOREA is a peninsula projecting from the north-eastern coast of Asia and not unlike in shape to the Italian peninsula. The east side is washed by the Japan Sea, and the west side by the Yellow Sea. It joins Manchuria and the Maritime Province of Siberia on the north, being divided from them by the Apnok-kang (Yalu-chiang) and Tuman-kang (Tumen) Rivers, and by the Baiktusan (Ever-white) Mountain (2,744 m.). These rivers run in opposite directions, one toward the west and the other toward the east. On the south Korea faces Kyushu, Japan, across the Korean Strait. It lies between the parallels of 33° 6', at the southern- most end of the Quelpart Island, and 43 at the northern-most end of North Hamkyung (Kankyo) Province, North, and 124 11' and 130° 56′ East. The area of this peninsula is about 85,318 sq. miles (2,165,672 sq. km.). The longest distance from south to north is 463 miles; and the broadest distance from west to east is 170 miles. The total area approximates that of the British Isles, being about 26,100 sq. km. less, and is about two-thirds that of Japan. I Chosen (the land of morning calm) is decidely mountainous, over three-fourths of the area being covered by mountain ranges which start from the lofty peak of the Ever-white Mountain on the Manchurian border. These ranges, forming the backbone of the peninsula, run southward along the eastern coast. Branches and spurs spread in a south-western direction. The summits are lofty and steep along the eastern coast, gentle and rolling toward the west. This deviation of mountain ranges from the central line has made possible the creation of extensive valleys and plains in the west and south by the so-called Five Big Rivers, the Naktong, K I. I LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA the Keum, the Han, the Taidong, and the Apnok (Yalu). For this reason, most of the cultivated land is found on the southern and western side of the peninsula. In contrast, the greater part of the forest resources are found in the north. On the whole, the country is hilly and mountainous, with beautiful scenery. It has a long coast line which measures more than 5,399 miles, not including the islands. However, on account of the steep mountain slopes the indentation of the coastal line on the east side is rather small, resulting in a lack of good harbors, Chung- chin (Seishin) and Wonsan (Gensan) being the only ones. On the other hand, the southern and western coasts have deep inlets and bays with adjoining islands. This has made possible the growth of a number of excellent seaports. Fusan and Masan are located on the south end of the peninsula, Mokpo, Kunsan, Chemulpo, and Chinampo on the western coast. All of these harbors are trading centers. The archipelago spreading out from the south-western corner of the peninsula is noted among sailors, it provides good refuge for the sea fauna, and hence an excellent fishing ground. Owing to the narrowness of the peninsula and the mountainous surface of the land, the river system is neither large nor well developed. Most of the rivers are short and shallow. The longest, Apnok (Yalu) river, makes the border line between Korea and Manchuria on the west side of the Ever-white Mountain. Its total length is 493 miles, with a catchment area of 12,189 square miles. The navigable length of the river is very short, and most of the main stream is rapid through the mountain gorges. The Tumen river forms the border line between Korea and Manchuria and Siberia on the east side of the Ever-white Mountain. Its length is about 322 miles, with a catchment area of 5,127 square miles. The navigable length of this river also is short. The Taidong (Daido) river is one of the "five big rivers". Its catch- ment is over 6,437 square miles, covering the greater part of Whanghai (Kokai) and South Pyengan (Heinan) provinces. Its length is about 279 miles. This river is noted for the ancient capital of Pyengyang (Heijo) on its right bank. The Han (Kan) river is another large stream that pours into the Yellow Sea. It's catchment area is over 10,146 square miles, with a length of 319 miles. Keum (Kin) river flows through the larger part of South * 2 GENERAL CONDITIONS Choongchung (Chunan) province and empties into the Yellow Sea. Its length is about 248 miles, with a catchment area of 3,852 square miles. Naktong (Rakuto) river is also one of the five big rivers, flowing into the Korean Strait. Its length is about 324 miles, with a catchment area of 9,212 square miles. Along all of the main courses and tributaries of these rivers, and of the smaller streams, lies the flat land which sometimes develops into extensive fertile plains, the base of Korean agriculture. The main courses as well as their branches also serve as the natural channels of irrigation. The administrational division of the country consists of thirteen provinces, and most of the boundary lines between these are made by rivers and mountains. The names of these provinces and the number of counties, townships, and villages in each is given in the the following table. TABLE 1. THE ADMINISTRATIONAL DIVISION OF KOREA Name of Province Kyungki (Keiki) North Choongchung (Chuhoku) South Choongchung (Chunan) North Chulla (Zenhoku) South Chulla (Zennan) North Kyungsang (Keihoku). South Kyungsang (Keinan) Wanghai (Kokai).. South Pyengan (Keinan) North Pyengan (Keihoku) Kangwon (Kogen) South Hamkyung (Kannan) North Hamkyung (Kanhoku). + Area in sq. miles 4,949 2,864 3,216 3,293 5,360 7,331 4,752 6,461 5,764 10,981 10,141 12,351 7,855 85,318 Number of Counties 22 IO 14 15 23 24 21 17 16 20 21 17 I2 Number of Township 232 249 107 175 188 266 272 252 221 147 193 177 141 81 Number of Villages 2,729 1,504 2,256 1,778 3,098 3,228 2,612 2,068 1,938 1,480 1,971 2,940 710 Total 2,469 28,312 Source: The Government-General of Chosen, Statistical Abstract of 1929, p. 1. Note: The 232 counties include 12 municipalities and 2 islands. The Korean shores are washed by a cold stream on the east and by a warm stream on the west. This varies, of course, with the seasons of the year. This currental movement of the sea has 3. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA vital effects not only on the fishery but also on the climate of the peninsula. CLIMATE The geographical position of the Korean peninsula and its en- vironmental settings determine that its climate is continental rather than oceanic, although three sides of it are sea-bound. It is, however, not entirely free from ocean influence: in the north, the continental climate is more pronounced, while in the south, especially along the coast, the ocean influence is much to be felt. TEMPERATURE Cold and warm waves visit the peninsula in turn and cause extremes of cold and heat. Spring and fall are rather short. The change of temperature between day and night also is sharp. The cold spell in winter is somewhat regular; there is a saying: “three days cold and four days warm." The yearly mean temperature at the south end is about 13° C; near Seoul and Chemulpo, it drops to about 10° C; and in the districts of Chungchin (Seishin) and Lyongampo (Lyukampo) to about 8° C. In the interior of northern Korea it drops as low as 3, 5° C. TABLE 2. THE AIR TEMPERATURE (C°) Place Quelpart Is. Mokpo Fusan Junju Taiku Chemulpo Seoul Kangnueng Pyengyang Wonsan Lyongampo Sungchin Choonghangchin Oongki Mean Air Temperature Maximum Minimum (annual) (annual) 18,1 11,0 17,1 17,6 17,6 18,1 15,0 16,1 16,8 14,7 15,1 12,9 12,9 10,9 10,4 9,7 9,8 7,3 7,4 7,1 5,9 7,5 4,2 6,0 4,0 3,9 - 2,9 2,4 Extreme Air Temperature Minimum (annual) Maximum (annual) 35,7 37,0 35,0 37,3 39,2 36,5 37,5 37,3 36,4 39,6 35,I 37,5 38,0 36,4 3,2 14,2 - 14,0 - 15,3 20,2 - 20,9 23,I - 20,2 - 28,5 -21,9 28,8 24,6 41,6 24,3 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Statistical Abstract, 1929, p. 4. 4 GENERAL CONDITIONS Take Seoul (N. 37° 43′) for a comparison with some important places in the world in the matter of annual mean temperature: its record is somewhat similar to those of Odessa (at 46° 29′ N. and 10, 2 C°), Paris (at 48° 49′ N. and 10, 1 C°), New York (at 40° 46′ and 11, 3 C°), and Peiping (at 39° 57′ and 11, 7 C°). From the standpoint of latitudinal location, Seoul should cor- respond with Athens (at N. 37° 58′), Lisbon (at N. 38° 43′), and St. Louis (at N. 38° 38'). In spite of these parallels, the iso- thermal position of Korea in the northern semisphere is farther up in the north. This is because of the cold current which washes the Korean shores in the east and south. It goes without saying that if the annual mean air temperature is important for the industry of a country, the seasonal mean air temperature also is important for its agriculture. For this reason, the monthly mean air temperature of January and August is shown below. The isothermal zones in these two months are graphically presented in figure 2. As figures 1 and 2 show, the temperatures north and south differ greatly, practically dividing the land into two sections. Furthermore, the isothermal lines are always curved in toward the south in the interior of the peninsula. This is caused by the different effects of the continent, on one hand, and of the ocean, on the other. The atmospheric temperature is high enough to produce many kinds of vegetation and animals found in the temperate zone. This gives immense agricultural possibilities. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The atmospheric pressure also is a peculiar meteorological phenomenon in the peninsula. The so-called Asiatic monsoon prevails during the year, causing the direction of wind to be pretty well defined according to the seasons. In the summer, June to August, the direction of wind is from the south or south-west, while in the winter, October to April, it is from the north or north- east. In the intermediate months of the two seasons, namely May and September, the direction varies. This is caused by the fact that in winter the continent is much cooled down, creating a high atmospheric pressure, while in summer it is much more heated up, developing a high air pressure over the ocean. When the high pressure develops over the ocean, the direction of wind is * 5 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA * 38 360. 34°- 124° 80 10 کرد 207 12 1260 хо ง 10 V 1280 120 14 ✔ 130° 120 2. 900 381. "36" 34°** FIGURE 1. THE ISOTHERMAL ZONES IN KOREA. Based on Annual Mean Air Temperature (C°). Taken from the Report Made by the Meteorological Observatory of the Government-General of Chosen, 1928. 6 GENERAL CONDITIONS Siawijag D -15° -18° 353 Erz A 교사 ​20 $6 287″ Покро ·5. о onban Tarien as Bolour 26° " 04 45. 14 · 24″ ¡22″* Σ Taiste Misan میں گئے 23 15 pix Spur 2T* 11 ... January August FIGURE 2. THE ISOTHERMAL ZONES IN KOREA IN JANUARY AND AUGUST. Based on Monthly Mean Air Temperature (C°). Taken from the Report Made by the Meteorological Observatory of the Government-General of Chosen, 1928. 7 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA toward the peninsula, bringing abundant moisture with heavy rainfalls, while the air is dry and causes a dry season when it is in the opposite direction. For this reason the days are rainy in summer, and sunny in winter. The western and southern parts of the peninsula are visited by strong and cold winds in winter. The eastern coast is protected from this wind by the mountain ranges which run from north to south. Not only this, but the low air pressure developed in the Manchuria-Mongolia region usually moves toward the east and passes over the northern part of Korea toward the Japan Sea. Follow- ing this low air pressure, high air pressure develops with certain regularity. This makes the cold and warm waves to pass over the peninsula. The meteorological observatory at Seoul reports that the maximum high air pressure occured on November 14, 1916, at 778.4 m.m., and the minimum air pressure on September 4, 1915, 733 m.m. Usually the velocity of wind is not great, but the same observatory registered on March 29, 1908, a maximum velocity of 15.5 meters per second. It is much greater in other places, for example, at Chemulpo (33.8m/s), Fusan (33.7m/s), Chungchin (25.3m/s), and Oongki (Yuki) (43.0m/s); generally speaking, it is greater along the coast and smaller in the interior parts of the country. Korea is free from the typhoons which devastate Japan so fre- quently. These originate in the center of the Pacific Ocean near the South Sea Islands and move northward until they reach the vicinity of the Philippine Islands. Here they change their course which either may lead into South China or may run upon the archipelago of Japan and go out of existence when they come close to Behring Strait. The occurence of typhoons is observed in August, September, or October. A typhoon often has a fatal effect on farm crops, particularily rice, and the Korean farmers are fortunate in that they seldom experience the devastating fierceness of these storms. RAINFALL The records of rainfall go back as far as 1442 in which year a kind of rain gauge was used in Seoul to measure its amount." 1 This invention of the gauge precedes that by Benneto Casteri, the well- known Italian meteorologist, by about two hundred years. } 8 GENERAL CONDITIONS Chronologically unbroken records of rainfall, however, can be traced back only 150 years from 1930. Meteorological observa- tions by modern methods were begun about the year 1884 at Fusan. Taking averages of eight years, they show that the heaviest annual rainfall occurs along the south coast and in the Wonsan district. In these zones it exceeds 1300 or even 1400 mm. As to the islands, Quelpart exceeds all others, having more than 1700 mm. a year. The zones with less rainfall are North and South Hamkyung Provinces, where it amounts to less than 1,000 mm., expecially the northern part where only 600 mm. a year is the record. In some places in the Tumen River Valley, it drops as low as 500 mm. or less. The western portion, parts of Whang- hai and South Pyengan Provinces, also has a relatively small amount, measuring less than 700 mm. a year. The distribution of precipitation in Korea is complex and irregular, because of the mountain ranges and the movement of atmospheric pressure. Everywhere the amount of rainfall is enough for growing farm crops, especially with the seasonal distribution of this precipitation. As previously stated, the low atmospheric pressure in summer moves south or south-west. The center of low pressure usually originates in the valley of the Yangtze or in its vicinity, then comes across the Yellow Sea. The movement of this air pressure brings with it a large amount of moisture over the Korean peninsula, causing heavy rainfall. On the other hand, the low air pressure developed in the center of the Manchuria-Mongolia plain in winter brings no moisture. Therefore, in this season the country is dry, and there is an excess of evaporation over precipitation. Ordin- arily, this dry season extends from October to March, while the wet season is from June to September. The intermediary months, namely April and May, show an average amount of rainfall between that of the dry and wet months. The total precipitation of the six dry months is less than that of one of the wet months. A rainfall of over 200 mm. in a day is every year observed somewhere in the peninsula. The most violent rainfall ever recorded was 415 mm., on a single day in 1924. Such torrent is apt to be accompanied by a storm, causing much damage to crops. As a matter of fact, it is safe to predict that there will be one or two great inundations somewhere in the country every year. According to the reports of the Meteorological Observatory at 9 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 150- Spring (Mar.-May) 100 1500 MU 2001 250 500 6007 700. 500 lover 300 û 1500 200 600 Summer (June-Aug.) 800 150 200 Hog 1700 250 200 250 300 DEKORRETO MO 1600 300 500400 $700 O 100 300 Autumn (Sept.-Nov.)_150. 250 300- 250 htt 200 250 200 0 250 300 WoPils 7000 100 200 150 250 250 ខ Winter (Dec.-Feb.) 50 1.00 over 300 300 250 200 150 O 150 1 50 200 FIGURE 3. THE SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION IN KOREA (IN M.M.) Based on the Report Made by the Meteorological Observatory of Chosen, 1925. IO GENERAL CONDITIONS Chemulpo, the days annually on which over 200 mm. rainfall has been recorded, number from two to eleven, with an average of seven. Most of these violent rainfalls are observed in July and August, being over 70 per cent of the total of such rainfalls. In June and September, the frequency is much less. The number of such torrents in a year varies from two to nine, and the average is five. One fortunate thing in the midst of this unfortunate action of nature is that the violent and heavy rainfall is limited in area, although this area may be a large one. The largest rainfall in an hour was over 67.6 mm. at Wonsan on August 6, 1912. The violence of these rains causes additional damage to the farmers, over and above the flood losses, in that they destroy dams and ditches, sometimes even the farm cottages. However, out of 365 days only about 100 are cloudy or rainy; the weather is generally sunny, and the sky clear. EVAPORATION Evaporation in Korea is in contrast with the rainfall in regard to quantity and time. In winter, it is relatively large as compared with the precipitation, whereas in summer it is small. It must be observed, however, that the absolute quantity is the same. Evaporation is not only in inverse proportion to the humidity in the air but maintains a direct proportion to the atmospheric temperature. In summer, therefore, the absolute quantity of evaporation is greater than that in winter. Table 3 shows the amount of evaporation for five places in Korea. It will be seen that the amount of evaporation is less in the northern section than in the southern, and also in winter than in summer. The total amount of evaporation is greater in Korea than in Japan. This is caused by the dryness in winter and also by the brightness of the sunshine in summer. In the northern parts, the annual rainfall does not compensate by far for the annual evaporation; in this region agriculture is possible only because the rainfall exceeds the evaporation in the summer months. Humidity has much to do with agriculture. On the whole, the air in Korea is relatively dry. The number of hours of sunshine also has a vital effect on life. Table 4 shows the annual records of humidity and sunshine in the five localities named. II LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Humidity, per cent. TABLE 3. MONTHLY EVAPORATION (In m.m.) Hours of Choongkang- chin sunshine 27 35 67 126 Total (mean) 1,179 156 182 179 153 100 85 40 29 Choongkang- chin 74 Wonsan 2,227 53 56 86 120 145 142 126 125 тоб 93 65 59 1,176 Pyengyang Pyengyang 71 2,860 35 50 90 146 178 183 163 154 123 99 55 37 1,313 Wonsan Source: Takayama, Gems of Korean Agriculture, Rev. Ed., 1931, pp. 20-22. TABLE 4. ANNUAL HUMIDITY AND SUNSHINE 66 Seoul 2,417 33 43 74 115 142 148 129 148 II2 81 64 33 1,122 Seoul 71 Fusan 2,521 87 87 II2 119 140 120 131 163 127 120 96 91 1,393 Fusan 66 2,485 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Kikohyo (Weather Tables), 1926, pp. 28-55. The first and the last appearances of killing frost in the year also have a bearing on the character of agriculture. In Korea, as one would imagine, the appearance and disappearance of killing frost is very different as to dates in the north and in the south. According to table 5, the number of frostless days in the year is about 145 in the north, about 175 in the middle, and about 220 in the south. The length of these periods is enough for the matur- ing of ordinary crops. Korea is often enveloped in dense fogs. This is probably caused by the conflict between cold and warm streams in the near-by 12 GENERAL CONDITIONS TABLE 5. DATES OF LAST AND FIRST KILLING FROST First Frost Place Choongkang- chin Wonsan Pyengyang Fusan Mean Sept. 23 Oct. 23 Oct. 14 Oct. 16 Nov. 9 Extreme Sept. 14 Sept. 30 Sept. 29 Oct. 5 Oct. II Last Frost Mean May 15 April 14 April 23 April 21 Mar. 26 Extreme June I May 4 May 5 April 30 April 25 Source: Ibid. seas, for example, in the Korea Strait in spring time. It is particu- larily frequent along the sea coast. The number of days of dense fog was 7 at Choongkangchin, 9 at Wonsan, 24 at Pyengyang, 17 at Seoul, 8 at Fusan, 39 at Oongki, and 41 at Chemulpo. The amount of snowfall has been mentioned in a previous paragraph, dealing with precipitations. The dates of first and last snow vary from year to year. The earliest snow is seen in the northern highland region, usually about the end of October. In other sections snow falls in November. Along the south-eastern coast it falls about the end of December. Along the northern border line, the last snow falls as late as the middle of April. As to the depth of snowfall, it never is more than two feet, ordinarily about five inches, especially in the southern part of the country. SUMMARY To sum up, the weather conditions in Korea are characterized by the following points: In winter bitter cold prevails throughout the country. There is, however, an interchange of cold and warm spells. In autumn, the temperature drops sharply, and the diffe- rence of temperature between day and night is also very great. The amount of precipitation is relatively small. Moreover, most of it is in the rainy season (June to September, especially July and August). Accordingly the damage caused by inundation is rather great in this season, whereas in other seasons drought is also often experienced. The hours of sunshine are many, and the sunlight is both strong and abundant. The air is very dry, and evaporation 13 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Beg. of June Isochronic Lines of First Snow Fall Beg, of Sep Beg. of Oct. Mid. of Sep. Sepf End of Sep. Mid. of June Beg, of Oct. Mid. of Oct. End of Oct. Beg. of Nov. Isochronic Lines of Last Frost SEnd of May Mid. of May Beg. of May Number of Days between First and Last Snow Fall 125 225- 175 Number of Days between First and Last Frost 150 100 175 ∞0 ·75 7150 е FIGURE 4. THE ISOCHRONIC LINES AND NUMBER OF DAYS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND LAST SNOW FALLS AND FROST IN KOREA. 14 GENERAL CONDITIONS is great. Violent wind is not frequent. Dense fog often appears. These weather conditions have a direct bearing on land utilitization. One characteristic may be harmful to one thing, yet beneficial to another: for example, the small amount of precipitation and the dryness of the air in the spring may be detrimental to growing young plants in the field, and yet such weather is ideal for raising silk worms. It is, therefore, a task of adaptation to utilize weather conditions to the best advantage of agriculture and industry. The Korean weather cannot be said to be good or bad in itself. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES The geological origin of Korea is commonly classified, according to the order of geological age, as follows: (1) Crystalline schist system; (2) Granite gneiss system; (3) Sangwon (Shogen) system; (4) Chosen system; (5) Pyengan (Heian) system; (6) Taitong (Taido) system; (7) Tertiary system; (8) Quatern- ary system. According to G. Tateiwa, the crystalline schist system in Korea includes all the oldest rocks. In former times, they were classified by geologists as metamorphosed sedimentary rocks or else as quasi-gneiss. They are widely distributed throughout the peninsula. The principal appearance of these rocks, however, is in such regions as (1) the Machunlyung range which forms the boundary line of North and South Hamkyung Provinces; (2) the Lyunchun (Rensen) district in Kyungki Province; and (3) the zone that traverses the Okchun district, North Choongchung Province, and cuts the peninsula in the direction of northeast- southwest. These rocks have some characteristics of their own. For example, the system found in the Machunlyung range is composed of crystallized limestone, micaschist, amphibolite, pyroxenite, and biotite schist. They are often accompanied by scaly graphite and mica. The peculiar characteristic of this system is the content of limestone in a large proportion. The Lyunchun system is different from the Machunlyung system by the small percentage of limestone; instead it has micaschist, phyllite, and am- phibolite in a comparatively large proportion. Furthermore, in the lower formation it has much white silicate. Rocks similar to this Lyunchun system are found in many localites in narrow zones. They are mostly located between the Granite-gneiss systems. Rocks which are characterized by this and found in the Okchun 15 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA district are grouped under the name of Okchun stratum. As compared with the two systems already referred to, the degree of metamorphosis has not gone very far, and they are mainly com- posed of phyllite mica-schist, quartzite, and amphibolite. They have a large proportion of phyllite. Graphite also is found in this system, but it differs from that of the Machunlyung system by an earthy quality. The rocks belonging to these three systems are of the oldest origin in the geological formation of Korea. They are supposed to belong to the Archean era. It is not, however, to be taken for granted that they are the first strata; there must be a stratum that is older than these systems, but up to the present it has not yet been found anywhere in the peninsula. Nothing is known as to the order and thickness of the strata, as a result of the complexity of formations. It is also much doubted among geologists whether the crystalline schist systems are geologi- cally as pure and simple as described in the preceding paragraphs or not. Once, Professor Goto, of the Tokyo Imperial University, classified the rocks found in Junju, Muan, and Whasoon and those similar to the Okchun system in their characteristics, under the Mesozoic age. It is reported that the rocks found in Whasoon district belong to the Pre-Cambrian strata in the later dates. In recent years, Mr. Ichimura has discovered such fossils as Cordaites. sp. and Pecopteris sp., showing that the Whasoon strata are much younger than the Pre-Cambrian age. The granite-gneiss system is mainly composed of granite-gneiss and has the widest distribution in Korea, occupying almost one- third of the total area. It usually contains gold and silver beds, and often graphite beds. The rock is made up of various kinds of composition but mostly of gray feldspar, quartz, and biotite. However, mixtures of leucite, cordieritic tourmaline, graphite, etc., are frequently found. The texture of the rock is commonly schistose or leaf-like, but often banded. In the latter case it shows rather flexible wave-like bands on account of its complex and curved structure. There is also a pseudo-porphyritic texture which is caused by feldspar-porphyry. When such texture is crushed by pressure, the so-called "Augen"-gneiss is formed. Furthermore, the rocks often contain pieces of rock which are of older origin. It is supposed that the system has been formed by melting and assimilation of the older base rocks and then has been solidified 1 16 GENERAL CONDITIONS in the course of their flow. Therefore, the rocks of this system are essentially a "hybrid" formed by the mixing of the older rocks and the new magma composed of quartz, feldspar, etc. Accordingly, the rocks may be properly called injection gneiss of meta-gneiss. They are far from being ortho-gneiss, as has commonly been believed. The Sangwon system derives its name from the district Sangwon and is the representative of all that system found in places other than Sangwon. It is the lower half of the so-called Chosen system which has been named for its peculiar geological origin. In the upper half of the Chosen system, fossils have been found, but not in the lower half. The Sangwon system is believed to belong to the Cambrian period. It is widely distributed in the provinces of South Pyengan and Whanghai, and is commonly divided into two series, namely, (1) the Chikhyun (Chokken) series and (2) the Satangwoo (Shidogu) series. The names of the series are derived from the names of places where they are found. The Chikhyun Series is the lower part of the Sangwon system. It is made up of conspicuous white quartzite as its lower base and thick mica-schist strata as its upper constituent. Further- more, it contains partly such rocks as crystallized limestone and quartzite. The thickness of the stratum is about 3,000 feet in Sangwon district. The Satangwoo series is the upper part of the Sangwon system. It consists mainly of crystallized limestone and also contains biotite-schist or clay-slate. The thickness of this stratum is far greater than that of the Chikyun series. The limestone of this series frequently contains zinc and lead ores. The Chosen system is commonly considered as the upper portion of the Palaeozoic era, as in northern China and Manchuria. It is widely distributed in South and North Pyengan, Whanghai, South Hamkyung, and Kangwon Provinces. It is divided into the Yangdok (Ryodok) and the Great Limestone series. The lower part of the Yangdok series is made up of white quartzite strata, and its upper part is grey clay-slate. Furthermore, thin strata of limestone and quartzite are found in parts of the system. The clay-slate sometimes has been metamorphosed into biotite- schist, as found in the Sungchun (Seisen) district. The thickness of the strata is about 550 meters in Kangwon Province. Fossils are found, mostly trilobita. Accordingly, this system is considered K 2. 17 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA to be of the Cambrian period. The great Limestone series is found in the upper side of the Yangdok series. It is mainly made up of limestone, and is a marine deposit. This series, together with Satangwoo series, forms the so-called two great transgres- sions. The nature of limestone in this series varies according to the layers of the rocks. Generally speaking, in the lower layers, dark grey clay-slate like limestone is found in abundance, together with the so-called vermicular and oolitic limestones. In the middle. layers, grey, white, and magnesite-like and massive limestone forms a thick stratum. In the upper layers, grey, dark, and comparatively pure massive limestone is developed into a thick formation. Besides, it contains in some parts marl, clay-slate, and quartzite. In this layer, Ptychoparia, Agnostus, Anomocallera, black Welderia, etc., which indicate the middle Cambrian period, are found. In Kangwon Province and Chosan (Sosan), North Pyengan Province, the trilobites which indicate the earlier Cam- brian period are also found. In the so-called Mantal series of Kangtong (Koto), South Pyengan Province, Orthocelas, Actinocelas, and Macluria, together with some Brachiopods, are found. This series is similar to the Trenton limestone in the United States. The thickness of this layer is more than 1,000 meters. The Pyengan (Heian) system is widely distributed in South Pyengan, Whanghai, and South and North Hamkyung Provinces. It is always conformable with the Chosen system, forming its upper layer. But when one studies the fossils contained in it, he will find that there is an absence of Silurian system, Devonian system, and Carboniferous system between the two. This system is commonly divided into four series, the Hongchun (Koten), Sadong (Jido), Kobangsan (Kobosan), and Halil (Katsujitsu) series (Green series). The Hongchun series is found in and near Hongchun, Kowon county, in the south of Hamkyung Province. This is the lowest part of the Pyengan system, consisting of limestone, shale, and sandstone, which are alternated into a very complicated structure. Usually limestone forms the upper layer and shale the base. The thickness of the stratum is about 600 meters at Kowon (Kogen) district, but thinner in other places. Fossils found in this series are such as Schwagerina Principes, 18 GENERAL CONDITIONS Crinoids, Coral, etc. They indicate that this series is an upper layer of the carboniferous system. The Sadong series is found at Sadong, near Pyengyang, and comes right upon the Hongchun series. It is made up of shale, clay-slate, and anthracite. The coal layer is usually about 100 meters. Such fossils as Annularia, Sphenophyllum, Marattiopsis, Taeniopteris, Pecopteris, Callipteridium, Neuropteris, Tingia, and Lepidodendron, are found. However, fossils of seminiferous plants like Cordaites, Pterophyllum, Naegerathia are also found. From this, it is commonly considered that the series is the upper part of the Permian system. The Kobangsan series is mainly made up of sandstone and shale in alternating layers. Often it contains an anthracite layer between them. The thickness of the series is about 500 meters. Fossils are much the same as in the Sadong series, having common genus, but not common species. Furthermore, in this series fossils of such kinds as Neocalamites, Chiropteris, Thinnfeldia, Gigantopteris, and Lobatoannularia are found. From these fossils, geologists believe that the series belongs to a transitional period between the Permian and Triassic systems. The Halil series is the upper part of the Pyengan system. Sandstone and shale make up a thick layer. The color of the rocks is usually green. From this comes also the name Green series. No fossils have yet been found in this series, but it is believed that it belongs to the Triassic system, the beginning of the Mesozoic era. The thickness of this series is about 1,000 meters. The Taidong system is the representative of the Mesozoic forma- tion in Korea. At the beginning and end of the deposit of this system, two great changes of the earth's crust have taken place. The former change is especially noticeable, because it has changed the order and make-up of the already formed layer and brought it into an almost unaccountable complexity. As a result of this change, numerous folds, faults, uplifts, etc., have occurred in South Pyengan, Whanghai, and Kangwon Provinces. Geologists divide the Taidong system into two sub-systems by taking this great change as the dividing line: namely, (a) the Lower Taidong system, and (b) the Upper Taidong system. The Lower Taidong system comes right after the Pyengan system in the geological chronology. The representative of this 19 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA system is found in the Taidong series, which is made up of dark and grey shale sandstone, and conglomerate, in alternating layers; but often these have the anthracite layer between them. The distribution of this series is not so wide, but it is found in Pyengyang, Tongchin, in Kyungki Province, Nyungwol, Kang- won Province, Lampo, South Choongchung Province, and Hamhueng and Poongsan, South Hamkyung Province. The thickness of the series is over 1,000 meters. Fossils are such as Laccopteris, Clathropteris, Cladophlebis, Chiropteris, Taeniopteris, Equisetites, Neocalamites, Nilssonia, Tenis, Anomozamites, Podozamites, Baiera, Ginkgoites, Phoenicopsis, Elatocladus. It is commonly believed among geologists that this system belongs to the Liassic period of the Jurassic system. The Upper Taidong system is another part of the Taidong system. Like the systems formed thereafter, it has numerous faults, but is lacking in folds and uplifts. In other words, after the lower Taidong system had been formed, no change of the earth's crust has taken place by pressure which causes folds and uplifts. This is an important difference between Korea and Japan where such structure has been found even in the younger formation of the Mesozoic era and Tertiary system. At least, at the beginning of this system, the outline of the Far East has been made, and the archipelago of Japan has been formed somewhat similar to its present shape. The fringe of the Asiatic continent has been definitely shaped. Afterwards the ocean water overflowed into the inner continent, resulting in a thin water cover over the Korean peninsula. The deposit formed thereon is the upper Taidong system. This is commonly divided into three series, namely, the Naktong (Rakuto), Silla (Shiragi), and Bulkuksa (Bukkokuji) series. The Naktong series is found in South and North Kyungsang Provinces. It is sometimes called the Lower Kyungsang forma- tion. Rocks are mainly pelitic stones, shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. In the lower layers, a coarse anthracite stratum is also found. The sun cracks and ripple marks in this series make one suppose that it has been formed in shallow water. The thickness of the formation is about 4,500 meters. Fossils are of animal and plant origin. In the former group, such fossils as Unio, Cyrena, Melania, and in the latter group, Adiantites, A 20 GENERAL CONDITIONS Cladophlebis, Coniopteris, Onychiopsis, Equisetites, Dictiozamites, Otozamites, Baiera, Ginkgodium, Cyparissidium, Pityophyllum, etc., are found. They are well-known as the Naktong colony of vegetable fossils and considered to be the transitional products of the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems. The Silla series is conformable with the Naktong series, but its distribution is far wider. It is found in such places as the South and North Kyungsang Provinces, Yungdong (Eido) District, North Choongchung Province, Chinan (Chinan) District, North Chulla Province, the Chairyung River Valley, Whanghai Province, and the western part of the coal field of Pyengyang. Sun cracks and ripple marks are much more apparent here than in the Naktong series. The thickness of this series is more than 3,000 meters in the Taiku district, but less in other places. Fossils of vegetable and animal origin are seldom found, and the preservation is not good. The principal species are Tapeinidium, Zanniophyl- lum, Brachyphyllum, and Frenelopsis. This series is considered to belong to the Cretaceous system. The Bulkuksa series is another part of the Taidong system. It is made up of granite quartz-porphyry, siliceous-feldspar-porphyry, diorite, gabbro, etc. Furthermore, black shale is often found. The distribution of this series is quite wide. Fossils are seldom found. This series is considered to be the upper part of the Cretaceous system in geological chronology. The Tertiary system has a narrower distribution, as compared with the systems discussed in the foregoing paragraphs. It is found chiefly along the eastern coast of Korea. A small area is also developed in Bongsan (Hosan), Whanghai Province, and Anju (Anshu), South Pyengan Province. During the Tertiary period, change of the earth's crust, creating faults, frequently took place. Eruption was also frequent. In this period, the shape of the Korean peninsula was formed step by step. The present form was completed at the end of this period and in the beginning of the Quaternary period. The Tertiary system is sub-classified into three series, the Changki (Choki), Yunil (Ennichi), and Chilbosan (Hitchihozan) series. The Changki series includes the older formations of the Tertiary system in Korea. It is found in Changki, North Kyungsang Province; Tongchun (Tzusen), Kangwon Province; Sinueng (Sinko), North Hamkyung Pro- 21 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA vince; Kilju (Kitshu), Myungchun (Meisen), Nanam (Ranan) and the Tumen River Valley in North Hamkyung Province. It is mainly made up of conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and tuff, with frequent appearance of brown coal. In the districts of Kilju and Myungchun, it has a strain of basalt, and in Changki district also trachyte and andesite. The thickness of the layer is over 2,000 meters. Generally it has numerous faults. The fossils of vegetable and animal orgin are numerous: Acila, Arca, Chione, Cyclina, Diplodonta, Macoma, Ostera, Pitaria, Yoldia, Genota, are well-known as of animal origin; while Sequoia, Juglans, Alnus, Carpinus, Castanea, Ulmus, Acer, Tilia, Cornus, and Diospyros are of vegetable origin, and much the same as the so-called Arctic Miocene flora. The Unil series is represented by the unconformable strata upon the Changki series in the districts of Yunil and Pohang, North Kyungsang Province. It consists of conglomerates, sandstone, and shale. At the lowest part, there is a brown-coal seam. The thickness of this series is over 800 meters. Fossils are found, but the preservation is bad. The weather in the formation of this series seems to have been warmer than in that of the preceding series. The Chilbosan series is mainly made up of basic rocks, such as basalt, trachyte, quartz-trachyte, and tuff. In some parts, con- glomerate layers are not lacking. The complexity of layers is much reduced; the distinctive characteristic of this series is the abundance of basic rocks. Specimens of this series are found in Chilbosan, Myungchun county, North Hamkyung Province, as well as in Kilju, in the Ever-white Mountain, and in Quelpart Island. Among the fossils discovered in this series are Diplodonta, Lucina, Nucula, Pecten, Glycimeris, Pholas, Meretrix, Myodora, Saxidomus, Dentalium, Turritella, Thracia, and Anomia. The Quaternary system in Korea is divided into two series, name- ly, the Pleistocene and Recent Series. The former consists of basalt, eruptive rocks, conglomerates, and sand. In some parts trachyte and peats are found. The distinctive characteristic of this series is the abundance of basalt. Its distribution is to be seen in the Ever- white Mountain Districts, Myungchun District, Chulwon District, (Kangwon Province); Sinke (Whanghai Province); Yunil Bay region (North Hamkyung Province). In these districts this 22 GENERAL CONDITIONS series forms the base of the erupted lava. No fossils have been found in this series so far. It is the youngest layer, formed after the present shape of the earth was made. The deposition or accumulation of this series is still going on. Its make-up is mainly sand, gravel, clay, and mud. It forms the plains along the river courses and by the sea. Besides, the series is seen at the foot of mountains as the so-called talus. The sand dunes which are made by winds on the south-western sea coast should also be included. The Recent series is conformable with the Pleistocene, and the thickness of the layer is not more than 30 meters. Rocks of volcanic origin, already mentioned, are not lacking in Korea, but there is no active volcano, and no volcanic earthquake has been experienced. Figure 5 shows the location and distribution of the various geological systems in Korea. SOILS Physical conditions and geological formations have been described at some length to show the nature and origin of soils in Korea. Soils are the product of weathering which is nothing else than the action of the weather on the mother rocks. With the climatic conditions and the geological characteristics, the Korean soils can be determined. The gneiss strata which cover about two-fifths (39 per cent) of the surface area of the country are made of feldspar, mica, and quartz. When they decompose by weathering, the feldspar breaks down first and then the mica, but the quartz remains as fine grains which form sand in the soil. The color of such soil is usually yellowish or brown, and its physical character is sandy loam. It is very good for cultivation when the proportion of clay and sand is well distributed. The. granite strata are also widely distributed in Korea, occupying over 27 per cent of the surface area of the mother rocks. They consist of three principal ingredients, quartz, mica, and feldspar. Like the gneiss, feldspar decomposes first and mica second, leaving the quartz as sand particles, when weathered. The naked summits of the steep mountain ranges are of granite. The soils produced by the decomposition of granite are largely sandy loams. In general, the soils are similar to those produced by gneiss mother rocks. The basalt is largely in Hamkyung and Kangwon Provinces. ⭑ 23 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ▼ 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 = fi 12 13 14 15 16 17 Legend Metamorphosed Sedimentaries } Grey Granite Gneiss Chosen System, Cambrian Ordovician Pyengan System, Upper Carboniferous Lower Taidong System. Liassic Lower Kyungsang Formation" in Upper Kyungsang Formation Porphyry and tuff Cretaceous Mesozoic and palacozoic, Undifferentiated Gabbro and Serpentine" Diorite Granite Tertiary Andesite }; Rhyolite and tuff Quaternary Basalt Pre-Cambrian Tertiary Upper Taidong System Pre-Tertiary ச a FIGURE 5. GEOLOGICAL ORIGINS IN KOREA. Based on the General Geological Map of Chosen, the Government-General of Chosen, 1928. It consists of feldspar, angnite, olivine, and iron-bearing stones. When it is decomposed, the soil becomes clayey with brown or dark-green color. Sometimes it contains a large amount of ferric 24 GENERAL CONDITIONS oxides. The clay-slate and shale also have a wide distribution. They are easily decomposed by the action of wind and water. The soils produced by such mother rocks are of clay. They con- tain a large percentage of nutritive elements for plants, but their physical character is not the best for vegetable growth. Sandstone also has a large distribution. It is made up of fine particles of quartz cemented by colloidal substances like lime, clay, and silex. When it is weathered, the soil becomes sandy. There are some mother rocks which have more or less influence over the general character of Korean soils, but they are not so important as to require special attention. In brief, the soils of Korea are very diversified, on account of the physical features and peculiar geological formation of which mention has already been made. The chemical reaction of soils has important bearings on crop raising. According to the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Government, they are as stated in table 6. According to this table, acid soils are extensively distributed throughout the country, being over three-fifths of the total in Kyungki, North and South Kyungsang Provinces, whereas the alkali soils are more strongly developed in North and South Hamkyung and South Pyengan Provinces. In general, if the soil reaction is either acid or alkali, it is not good for plant culture. It must be neutralized by applying certain manures and fertilizers. As to the chemical ingredients in Korean soils, table 7, there are few trustworthy analyses. However, Dr. Taikuhara, a Japanese soil expert, reports that the Korean soils are short of nitrogen and organic matter, as compared with those of Japan. For the purpose of comparison, the chemical ingredients of soils in some important countries are given in table 8. It will be seen that the Korean soils are poor in chemical com- position. There is abundant potassium, but phosphorus and nitrogen are very much lacking, as compared with other countries. The proper application of manures and fertilizers, however, will increase the productivity to a remarkable degree. The absorptive power of soils has an important relation to their productivity. There are few analyses on this point regarding Korean soils, but the data obtained by the Government Experiment Station show that the average of ten samples was 849,841 for phosphoric acid and 334,001 for nitrogen. These figures are ex- A 25 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Province Kyungki North Choongchung South Choongchung North Chulla South Chulla North Kyungsang South Kyungsang Whanghai South Pyengan North Pyengan Kangwon South Hamkyung North Hamkyung Total Source: TABLE 6. CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF KOREAN SOILS No. of Soil Samples Investigated 1,246 560 780 922 1,402 1,373 1,248 865 768 562 Acid 689 632 326 785 186 261 495 613 831 828 370 189 228 238 I 148 22 Alkali 5,194 31 41 8 8 20 1 13 IO 56 93 17 20 86 77 Neutral 472 430 333 511 407 789 529 410 Percentage of distribution Alkali Acid 63 34 33 54 44 бо 66 43 25 41 35 23 7 439 486 317 431 398 227 I1,373 5,707 Constructed from Special Report of the Experiment Station at Soowon (Suigen) on Acid Soils in Korea. ave. 41 2 ^H NOT mau tummm mummo 23 2 7 I 2 I I 6 12 Neutral 14 24 ave. 7 35 59 66 44 56 39 33 51 33 56 63 63 69 ave. 52 26 GENERAL CONDITIONS TABLE 7. CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS IN KOREAN SOILS No. of Samples. Kind of Soil Granite decomposed soils Soils of volcanic rocks Archean soils Palaeozoic soils Mesozoic soils Tertiary soils Diluvial soils Alluvial soils Average Source: ^S^762 5 3 36 73 Nitrogen 0.186 0.411 0.226 0.071 0.084 0.121 0.174 0.159 Phosphoric acid 0.088 0.107 0.067 0.118 0.106 0.038 0.058 0.107 0.086 Potassium 0.475 0.273 0.370 0.285 0.281 0.225 0.256 0.332 0.312 Lime 0.553 0.665 0.489 0.688 0.665 0.909 1.098 0.741 0.726 Note: The figures are representing % in dry soils. Gintaro Taikuhara, Lectures on Soils, Rev. Ed., 1927, Vol. I, pp. 191-222. Magnesia 0.845 0.795 0.110 0.118 0.119 0.690 1.369 1.191 0.654 27 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 8. CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS OF SOILS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES Countries Japan Great Britian France Germany U.S. A. Korea Phosphoric Acid Per Cent. O.II 0.25 0.11 MINERALS 0.09 0.17 0.09 Potassium Per Cent. 0.19 0.44 0.26 0.18 0.41 0.31 Lime Per Cent. 0.63 3.83 4.07 1.35 1.31 0.72 Magnesia Per Cent. 0.87 0.29 0.10 0.25 0.62 0.65 Source: Shiroshi Nasu, Land Utilization in Japan, 1929, p. 60. pressed in terms of miligrams in 100 gram of soils and are the corollary of the absorptive power of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. These figures are much smaller than those for Japan. NATURAL RESOURCES Regarding the utilization of mineral land in Korea, more detailed data will be given in a later section. Here we shall only mention the various kinds of minerals found. Nature has bestowed upon Korea a good many kinds of metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Nearly all valuable minerals, except petroleum, asphalt, and sul- phur, are to be found; but anthracite, gold, iron, and graphite are most plentiful. Copper, silver, lead, mica, kaolin, zinc, tungsten, are also found in large quantities. MARINE WEALTH Surrounded by seas on three sides and being an area where the cold and warm currents of the ocean meet, Korea has an abundant marine wealth. Over one hundred species of fish, including valuable varieties which number more than 80, live in the near-by seas. They are protected by the numerous islands and the indentations of the coastal line. There are also numerous edible sea weeds of economic value. The total area of the fishing grounds along the coast is over 29,000 square miles which in 1929 were occupied by 138,000 fishermen's families and 473,000 fisher- men. In the same year, the number of fishing boats was over 28 GENERAL CONDITIONS 42,000, with an annual output valued at 68,000,000 yen. Japanese fishermen from Japan have increased year after year because of government encouragement. In 1910, the year in which Korea was annexed by Japan, there were only about 3,000 Japanese fisherman families in Korea, but in 1929 they had increased to over 5,200. The value of fishery products in 1928 was 66,000,000 yen, of which more than one-half, valued at 33,119,421 yen, was produced by Japanese fishermen. As to the fishing tools, there are various kinds of nets and lines. In 1929, the variety of nets was over 150, and 17 of these were responsible for a production of over 1,000,000 yen. The fishing boats also are of various types. They are mainly of Korean and Japanese type, but a number of European-type boats are also used; the Chinese junk is employed to only a very small extent. According to government statistics, the kinds of sea animals which in 1929 produced an output over 1,000,000 yen in value were: Sardine, 15,362,000 yen; Mackerel, 7,311,000 yen; Sciaena, 4,176,000 yen; Myungtai (Alaska Pallack), 2,240,000 yen; Herring, 2,926,000 yen; Yellowtail, 1,581,000 yen; Prawn and Shrimps, 1,541,000 yen; Cod, 1,872,000 yen; Plaice, 1,729,000 yen; Seabream, 1,731,000 yen; Cybium, 1,845,000 yen; Horse-Mackerel, 1,156,000 yen; Hairtail, 1,718,000 yen; Shark, 1,058,000 yen; and Whale, 1,031,000 yen. Of these aquatic products more than 22,923,000 yen in value, was in 1929 exported to Japan and elsewhere. Among aquatic products of vegetable origin the dried laver occupies the most important position. The annual value of this seaweed is over 2,500,000 yen. It is produced along the southern coast. Salt must also be regarded as an aquatic product. The govern- ment-owned salt ground is about 5,992 acres in area, and pro- duces about 349,000,000 pounds of salt a year. But the total con- sumption of salt in Korea is over 568,690,000 pounds a year, and the shortage is met by the importation of Chinese salt. FORESTRY RESOURCES The Korean flora is very rich and contains most of the plants found in Asia in the temperate and frigid zones. This is largely owing to the difference in climate between north and south. There are more than two hundred varieties of wood plants in the peninsula. This fact alone provides a very hopeful prospect for 29 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA forestry undertakings. Of trees, spruce, birch, and larch are found in the north, black and red pine, oak, elm, and bamboo in the south. Land utilization for forestry will be considered below. It is sufficient here to bring out the possibility of forestry. Through the careless felling of trees toward the end of the nineteenth century, most of the forests have been destroyed, leaving the mountains denuded. However, a large area of virgin forest is still to be found along the courses of the Apnok (Yalu) and Tuman (Tumen) rivers and awaits systematic exploitation. There are also two forest districts in the south, one in South Kyungsang Province in the Chili mountain range, and the other in Quelpart Island. WATER POWER The utilization of water power in Korea is made possible by the facts that the mountains are lofty, with slopes reaching down toward the seas, and that rain is abundant in certain seasons of the year. The streams in the valleys are mostly torrential. The utilization of this water power, however, was limited until recently to the running of water wheels of a primitive type. In recent years, some plants have been established for the purpose of generating electricity, but the development of water power is rather in the cradle. One factor unfavorable to the establishment of such works is the freezing of water surfaces in winter in the north where most of the larger streams are found. Experts in electricity generation have been discussing the utilization of the the tides, taking advantage of the great difference between the water levels in full and ebb tides along the western coast. This difference is more than 25 ft. at Chemulpo. GAME The fauna of Korea like the flora is very rich; it includes many kinds of wild beasts and birds. Almost all varieties of animals of the eastern Asiatic continent are to found. There is big game, such as tiger and bear, as well as small game, such as weasel and squirrel. There are plenty of wild fox, badger, wolf, deer, and boar in the more remote mountain sections of the country. The game birds include goose, pheasant, dove, and duck. The Government is reluctant to give hunting permits to Koreans. 30 GENERAL CONDITIONS Accordingly, the most benefitted by the plentiful game are the Japanese. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS The industrial and commercial occupation of a society are closely related to its natural resources which determine the rural economy. A few facts about these occupations may here precede our dis- cussion of that basic subject in its major aspects. There are many remains to prove that industry was well develop- ed in Korea in the distant past. A retrogression in industry seems to have taken place during the Yi dynasty (1392-1910). At the present time, Korean industry is reduced to handicraft and cottage types, which in turn are swept away by the introduction of the factory system from Japan. Under its influence, many old cottage industries have gone out of existence and caused an increase in the number of jobless persons in the villages. To take advantage of cheap labor, Japanese capitalists have begun to establish manufac- turing enterprises in Korea. During the World War, the boom made it possible for them to launch a bold expansion of their industries, and to introduce the manufacture of cotton fabrics, sugar, porcelain ware, silk, canned goods, and other commodities. on a large scale. In recent years, a Japanese brewery, rayon com- pany, match company and similar large corporations have establish- ed branch factories in Korea. Korean industrialists cannot com- pete with their Japanese rivals because they have only little capital and limited experience. The backing by financial organizations and the Government is less favorable to Koreans than to Japanese enterprises. Accordingly, the former are losers in the arena of industrial competition. Table 9 shows that Japanese own nine-tenths of the total capital investment in industry in Korea and employ more than one-half of the total number of laborers. The comparatively smaller percentage of employees in Japanese manufacturing enter- prises means that they use more machine Power. As regards the number of factories, Japanese owned 2,425, whereas Koreans owned 2,751 at that time. This means that the Koreans have a smaller capital per unit of manufacture. The Japanese produce more than three-fifths of the total output of these factories. The rice milling process consists of husking and polishing. This 06-7 ANT } A: 31 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA } Ownership TABLE 9. MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISES CLASSIFIED BY OWNERSHIP, 1928 Government Japanese Korean Foreign J Total Capital (in 1,000 yen) Absolute 8,963 499,409 25,320 15,427 549,119 Per Cent. 1.6 90.9 4.6 2.9 100.0 Output (in 1,000 yen) Absolute 53,679 244,496 90,051 4,304 3 392,530 Per Cent. 13.7 62.3 22.9 I.I 100.0 Number of Employees Absolute 12,954 53,423 29,030 4,140 Can windin 99,547 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Chosen no keisai Jijo (Economic Status in Korca), 1930, p. 110. Per Cent. industry is the most important, because the Koreans are a rice- eating people. It contributes almost one-half, in value, of the total output of Korean industry! The manufacture of tobacco is monopolized by the Government; it comes second as regards the value of output. The distilling and brewing of alcoholic beverages follows as third in importance and the raw-silk and sugar industries come next. Commerce is almost monopolized by Japanese merchants. Prior to the annexation of Korea its doors were wide open, and all nations enjoyed the right of equal opportunity. Since the annexa- tion, Japanese manufactured goods have gradually replaced those of foreign make. Not only that, but they have driven out nearly all of the Korean goods which were produced by cottage and handicraft methods. Japanese wholesalers and retailers have pene- trated even to the remote mountain sections, carrying with them goods made in Japan. It is not too much to say that at the present time almost all manufactured articles, which are in the nature of daily necessities to Koreans, except those which Japan cannot produce, are Japanese-made. For example, matches, cotton, fabrics, Chinaware, hats, stationery, and paper are of Japanese make. Foreign goods are not able to compete with those of Japan in the Korean market, because of the low cost of production in Japan and the tariff wall. In all, Korea is a market monopolized 100.0 13.0 53.6 29.2 4.2 32 GENERAL CONDITIONS for Japanese-manufactured goods. This is amply shown by the fact that in 1929 nine-tenths (89 per cent) of the export and over three- fourths (74 per cent) of the import was to and from Japan. The commercial corporations in Korea are nearly all Japanese. There are three kinds of companies incorporated in accordance with the commercial law of Japan, namely, the joint stock com- pany unlimited, the joint stock company limited, and the stock company limited. The number of these companies and their authorised and paid-up capital, classified by nationality, are shown in table 10. 1 According to this table, the Japanese companies are predominant in number and capital investment. More than one-half of them are entirely for commercial purposes. Japanese commercial com- panies which have branch offices in Korea are not included. There were 144 of these with a capital investment, in the form of paid-up capital of 861 million yen, in 1928. Japanese commercial enter- prises carried on by individuals are more active and numerous than those incorporated. They are scattered over all the com- mercial centers, even the rural villages. There is no way of ascer- taining the magnitude or the total number of transactions made by them, but it would be an enormous sum in a year. Chinese merchants also play an important part. They can sometimes compete with the Japanese in the Korean market by their skill in business and by the extreme lowness of their standard of living. They have penetrated even into remote sections of the country and monopolized the vegetable market in and around the cities. From its geographical position, Korea would seem a country where an active commerce may well be developed, inasmuch as it is situated between China and Japan, with unlimited potential markets in both countries. In spite of this fact, the Koreans are poor merchants. Their historical development shows this plainly. At the present time a relatively small number of Korean business men carry on enterprises which are efficient enough to vie with those of Japanese and Chinese competitors. There are wholesalers, retailers, brokers, inspectors, commission merchants, shippers, etc.; but in the rural sections the retailers are mostly peddlers who move from one market place to another, without shops. Their capital and business turnover are small. The marketing organization in rural Korea retains the system of K 3. J € gehend Labs tu: tis 33 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Nationality Japanese Korean Korean-Japanese Foreign 35 TABLE 10. NATIONALITY AND CAPITAL INVESTMENT OF COMPANIES, 1928 L Total No. of Companies Absolute 1,134 283 126 4 1,547 Relative : (per cent.) 73.8 18.0 8.0 0.2 100.0 Authorized Capital Absolute Relative (in million (per cent.) yen) 335 47 125 3 510 65.7 9.2 24.5 0.6 100.0 Paid-up Capital Absolute Relative (in million (per cent.) yen) 176 21 48 3 248 Source: Ibid., pp. 162-166 periodical markets or fairs, held every five days. Peddlers and farmers meet in the market place for transactions. According to government rule, there are four kinds of markets, namely, (1) periodical markets which adhere to Korean customs, (2) public markets which are established by municipalities for dealings in such necessaries as foodstuff, vegetables, etc., (3) special markets for transactions in such special products as fish, vegetables, fruits, etc., and (4) exchange markets established for transacting future and actual exchange of stocks, grains, etc. In rural sections, only the first kind of markets is seen. The number of periodical markets exceeds 225; and in these individual market places, the annual average amount of transactions, expressed in terms of value, is over 200,000 yen. 100.0 71.0 8.4 19.4 1.2 The outlook for Korea's foreign trade is poor. An unfavorable balance of trade is caused by the unilateral demand for manufac- tered goods. This adverse condition will eventually drain all the wealth in any form from the Korean peasants and farmers. During the two decades ending with 1930, the total per capita amount of excess of imports over exports was 36.34 yen. In these twenty years, imports always exceeded exports, except in two years, 1924 and 1925. Particularly in recent years, the excess of imports over exports has become greater, reaching almost the 5 yen mark per capita in 1930. If we take only Koreans into account, the 34 GENERAL CONDITIONS margin is still greater, since the Japanese and foreigners in Korea produce more than they consume. Korea's trade with other countries has a tendency to increase, but the rate of increase is by far greater in that with Japan. Several countries in Europe also show an increase, but with a diminishing rate, whereas for America both the absolute and the relative trade figures are on the decrease. This fact is shown by table 11. Japan took four-fifths (81.4 per cent) of the total trade of Korea. The percentage of Japan's share in the exports is greater than that of its share in the imports, because all kinds of Korean raw materials are brought to Japan to feed its industries. TRAFFIC AND COMMUNICATION J The traffic and communication organizations in Korea, except for a number of bus lines and ferry boat services, are owned and managed by the Government or by Japanese individuals. In 1932 the mileage of railways owned by the Government was 3,142 km. (1,953 miles). The mileage of privately owned railways and trolley lines was 1,139 km. (708 miles), not including a few planned lines of 872.5 km. (542 miles). The total Japanese investment in these railway undertakings at the end of 1929 was 511,000,000 yen. The business condition of the Government railways has been very good. During the decade 1920-1929, the increase of income was about two and a half times, and the increase of profit about four times. The actual amount of net profit in 1929 was 14 million yen on a total capital investment of 348 million yen. The business condition of private railways also is very promising. The total business income, including government subsidies, was 4,680,600 yen in 1929, and the total business expenditure 3,839,000 yen, leaving a net profit of 841,600 yen. No steamers are owned by Koreans in Korea, except a single boat which sails between Quelpart Island and Osaka, Japan. Even the sailing boats are mostly owned by Japanese. According to government statistics, the tonnage of steamers and sail boats is as shown in table 13. There are boats which sail between fixed points at a fixed date. These are called "order liners", and their managers or owners are subsidized by the Government. The harbors of Korea are Shinwiju, Chinampo, Chemulpo, 7000 35 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Japan China TABLE 11. INTERNATIONAL POSITION OF KOREA'S FOREIGN TRADE, 1929 Country England Germany Canada U. S. A. British Straits Settlements Dutch India All others Total Source : Imports Per Cent. Absolute Per Cent. Absolute 625,2 309,9 34,7 89.6 10.3 315,3 73,0 3,7 107,7 3,7 3,0 3,0 J 0,3 0,3 0,3 9,8 4,2 0,3 7,5 10,1 O.I 0,6 0,1 345,6 100 423,I Exports Absolute 74.5 17.2 0.8 0.8 2.4 1.0 1.5 1.8 100 4,2 6,4 8,1 768,7 Total Government of Chosen, Showa Yonen Chosen Boeki Yoran (Manual of Foreign Trade of Korea), 1929, pp. 19-57. Per Cent. 81.4 14.1 0.5 0.4 1.4 0.5 0.8 0.9 100 36 GENERAL CONDITIONS Article Rice Millet Beans Flour Sugar Sake Beer Salt Woolen cloth Silk tissue Rubber shoes Paper Coal Cement Iron Medicines Timber Leaf tobacco Petroleum Matches Ginned cotton Cotton yarn Wild silk Cotton cloth Hemp cloth Fertilizers TABLE 12. VALUE OF LEADING EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, 1928-1930 (IN 1,000 YEN) 1928 9,714 225,488 3,324 6,873 8,701 1,400 2,417 2,133 5,651 613,380 5,594 8,124 10,380 4,091 of 16,888 5 16,005 10,852 13 4,145 4,284 1,895 6,508 7,166 11,056 144,530 6,153 19,482 Source: Imports 1929 J 14,202 3 20,856 2,970 6,911 9,285 1,577 2,385 1,465 4,219 7,671 10,237 3,133 419,608 5 16,698 8,871 2,470 5,795 1,690 1930 974 2,271 1,092 5,989 5,185 613,893 512,169 7,222 6,718 9,277 9,969 2 21,392 4,IOI 5,591 7,172 46 9,914 2,602 801 16,171 5,623 2,353 5,846 I,192 4,814 9,849 6,403 29,549 4,169 Article Rice Beans Fish Laver Sugar Hides Fish oil Red ginseng Timber Seaweeds Cotton Cocoons Raw silk Graphite Coal Gold ore Iron ore Iron Cattle Fertilizers 1928 183,730 24,639 2 13,366 2,597 5,707 3,285 4,516 1,719 4,852 1,506 6,140 3,869 16,250 3 1,156 2,007 1,891 1,545 4,840 7,228 Exports 1929 148,815 23,268 2 13,742 4,319 5,603 2,762 5,891 8,380 4,139 I 1,560 6,809 4,380 20,142 1,233 2,840 1,944 1,676 3,548 9,976 137,430 5,783 2 23,928 412,825 Government-General of Chosen, Annual Statistical Report, 1930, pp. 266-280. 1930 1 109,513 17,489 2 10,082 1,990 1,671 1,289 2,701 686 916 7,546 2,121 16,834 3 941 2,325 1,073 1,474 5,410 2,887 9,579 5 37 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Comfort Mix-54 ( TV) Art Kunsan, Mokpo, Masan, Fusan, Wonsan, Chungchin, and Sung- chin. Harbor construction works are being carried on at the present time largely by municipalities, but adequate subsidies are given by the Government. Fusan is the most important for trade between Japan and Korea. Chemulpo is the next and Wonsan follows. Kunsan and Mokpo are known as the rice-exporting centers of Korea. ANAM ·´► Roads in Korea are much improved since the annexation. There are three grades of roads: the first two classes are constructed by the Central Government, while the third class is built by the Local Government. The mileage of these three kinds of roads in 1929 was: 3,220,971 km. for the first, 9,505,959 km. for the second, and 11,792,499 km. for the third class. Most of the sites of the newly constructed roads were confiscated. This has caused much complaint among Koreans, but their grievances have remained unredressed. TABLE 13. STEAMERS AND SAIL BOATS AT THE END OF 1928. Boats registered in Korea Boats registered in Japan but sailing in Korean waters Total No. 493 20 513 Steamers Tonnage • S 53,311 1,155 54,466 ܕܡܪܝܐ ܕܪܐܐܺ 13 Sail boats No. 3,534 7 } KEY 3,541 Tonnage 105,632 307 105,939 No. 4,027 27 4,054 Total Tonnage 158,943 Source: Ibid., p. 194. PA The number of carts, cars, and other kinds of vehicles is increasing year after year, as roads are constructed and improved. At the end of 1928, there were 3,284 jinrikishas, 35,459 carts, 115,829 ox- carts, 4,059 horse-carts, 86 horse-carriages, and 2,544 automobiles. In most cases, the roads allow the driving of modern auto-cars. There are numerous bus lines, linking commercial points in the rural sections. The postal and telegraph business was conceded to Japan by the 1,462 160,405 38 GENERAL CONDITIONS old Korean Government in 1905. At the time of annexation, the business was taken over by the Government-General of Chosen, and since then no private undertaking in these services is permitted. At the end of 1929, the number of post offices was 725, and that of telegraph and telephone offices 109. With this equipment, the Government was able to handle 240 million letters, 3 million parcels, 21 million telegraphs, and also postal savings to the amount of 36 million yen. THE FREE OCCUPATIONS In this occupational group, are comprised the professionals and officials who are engaged in gainful occupations. Officials in the Government were honoured and dignified under the old regime, and official positions were much coveted. This time-honored attitude is still lingering in the mind of every Korean. However, since the annexation, most of the remunerative positions as well as the positions of underlings are occupied by Japanese, and Koreans have lost what they are most eager to gain. According to a statement made by the newspaper Dong-A, only 48 per cent of the total number of official positions are occupied by Koreans, and of the total amount of salaries paid only 22 per cent is received by Koreans. This is, of course, only in the Central Government and its subordinate offices. The same ratio probably holds with regard to local government. The Japanese officials are better paid than the Korean, even when they are of the same rank. Doctors and nurses are also largely Japanese. According to government statistics for 1928, there were in government and provincial hospitals 123 Japanese and 43 Korean doctors and 417 Japanese and 145 Korean nurses. The Japanese doctors and nurses receive much higher salaries than the Korean. Lawyers are evenly distributed between Koreans and Japanese in regard to their number. In 1928, there were 151 Japanese lawyers and 189 Korean. POPULATION The Korean race came originally from Manchuria and is believed to date back more than fifty centuries. Tangun, the first ruler of the Korean people, ascended his throne in 2333 B.C. The first available record of population in Korea was penned in the period V 39 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA of the Three Kingdoms. In the reign of King Heunkang (A.D. 875-886) of the Kingdom of Silla, the number of households in the capital alone was 178,936; when the power of Kokuryu and Baike was at its zenith, the number of households in the capitals of these two Kingdoms was 210,508 and 152,200 respectively. The first census was taken in A.D. 1404, the fourth year of King Tai- chong of the Chosen Dynasty. Since then, a population census has been taken from time to time. Table 14 is made up of these records. According to this table, the Korean population multiplied by four in 244 years, from 1404 to 1648. During the following three decades, it increased more than three times. In the following three decades, 1678-1717, however, it showed an increase of only 599,596 individuals. During the next 36 years, it showed an increase of 452,163 individuals, whereas in the following 27 years, 1753-1807, it showed an increase of only 262,174 persons-which is no more than 3 per cent of the number in 1753. During the 45 years between 1807 and 1852, the population decreased by 647,580, TABLE 14. GROWTH OF POPULATION Province Kyungki Choongchung Kyungsang Chulla Whanghai Kangwon Hamkyung Pyengan Modeller der globale verbete Total Households Population Households Population Households Population Households 1404 19,561 Population 44,476 174,052 (Households 48,991 115,125 Population 98,915 Households Population Households 20,729 38,138 15,703 39,151 14,170 29,401 15,879 29,283 11,311 Population 28,693 Households 27,788 Population 52,872 1648 36,109 176,813 67,624 40 424,572 122,659 431,873 24,687 54,927 10,660 54,003 24,530 69,348 Households 174,132 Population 360,929 1,531,401 1678 143,268 721,538 189,339 714,204 369,175 1,005,328 256,158 1,000,004 105,468 458,080 56,303 270,517 71,928 373,626 39,927 150,689 145,813 706,675 441,321 1,342,428 5,246,972 1717 155,024 751,992 212,165 846,100 473,595 2,165,736 285,024 1,101,641 116,449 410,464 64,190 277,881 86,365 529,414 167,749 763,340 1,560,561 6,846,568 ? GENERAL CONDITIONS Province TABLE 14 (Continued) Total Households Population Households Kyungki Choongchung Population Kyungsang Chulla Whanghai Kangwon Hamkyung Pyengan 1753 192,189 816,215 235,432 931,170 Households 392,297 Population 1,662,253 Households 326,924 Population Households 1,192,950 139,587 Population 540,349 (Households 90,814 Population 396,140 Households 98,443 Population 497,446 Households 297,603 Population 1,267,709 1807 209,958 884,513 224,607 892,747 365,053 1,607,044 330,990 1,251,069 136,046 582,930 82,321 336,122 124,424 706,012 302,005 1,305,969 1,775,404 Households 1,773,289 Population 7,304,232 7,566,406 1852 203,673 876,653 222,933 880,549 355,173 1,535,810 272,567 1,068,171 120,084 672,603 79,961 324,480 117,338 691,655 217,141 868,906 1904 213,154 864,976 201,247 774,657 293,409 1,111,130 235,145 930,955 96,466 382,230 82,154 31,885 103,858 750,008 194,866 819,287 : 1,588.870 1,420,299 6,918,826 5,665,128 Source: Chingbo Moonhuen Biko (Supplementary Book of Records), Vol. 161, part 1. Notes: a. Figures for Kyungki in 1404 were lacking. In this table the figures for 1406 were taken in their stead. b. In 1904, the number of provinces was 13, but they are combined into 8 in this table. c. Kyungki Province includes the population in Seoul, the capital. and during the following 52 years, between 1852 and 1904, it again dwindled from 6,918,826 to 5,665,128, that is, by about 13 per cent. Thus the Korean population reached its highest mark some time in the beginning of the nineteenth century, when it numbered more than seven and a half million. This would mean that during the four centuries, from the beginning of the fifteenth to that of the nineteenth, the population increased about twenty times. The decrease of population during the nineteenth century was probably caused by maladministration, the prevalence of epidemics, and famines. The average size of family for the whole of Korea was recorded as 3.4 in 1648 and 3.9 in 1678. The growth increased, and went up to 4.4 in 1717. In 1757, however, it decreased to 4.1 The 4I LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA average family size was stabilized around 4 in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, for it was 4.2 in 1807, 4.3 in 1852, and 4.2 in 1904. This would mean that man and wife with two children was the average. The population growth in the past quarter of the present century in Korea is more or less exactly known. There have been disputes regarding the accuracy of the statistics, but if they are not quite exact, they come near to the truth. The population has been steadily increasing. In 1910, the total popula- tion was 13,313,017. After a decade it has grown to 17,288,989, a net increase of 3,975,972, or 29.8 per cent. In the next decade it increased to 20,256,566, showing a net gain of 2,967,577, a 17 per cent increase over 1920. During the past twenty years, the population has increased from 13.3 to 20.2 million, a net gain of 6.9 millions. The Korean population is made up of three groups, namely Koreans, Japanese, and foreigners. Among the foreigners, the Chinese take the lead. In 1930, the Koreans made up 97.2 per cent, the Japanese 2.5 per cent, and the foreigners 0.3 per cent of the total population. The rate of increase of the three groups. is dissimilar. The tendency of increase for foreigners is much greater than for Japanese and Koreans. That for Japanese is greater than that for Koreans. As regards the beginnings of the foreign population in Korea, the Japanese came during the Hideyoshi invasion in 1592. Later they were allowed to reside in the Three Trading Ports in South Kyungsang Province, within limited areas and limited as to number. By virtue of the treaty concluded between Korea and apan in 1876, they came in greater numbers in the following decades and reached the number of 171,543 in 1910. Since the annexation, the Japanese population in Korea has been increasing more rapidly, as a result of government encouragement and private pursuit of gain. In 1930, there were 501,867 individuals, about three times the number in 1910. The Chinese also came in large numbers to Korea during the war period, 1592-1599, as soldiers and recruits, and later became naturalized. During the time of the Ch'ing Dynasty, in China, the two countries placed reciprocally a barrier against immigration, but during the later days of the Yi Dynasty in Korea and the Ch'ing Dynasty in China, this unwritten rule remained less and less effective. A large number of Korean immigrants went to 42 GENERAL CONDITIONS Manchuria and other parts of China, while Chinese came in larger numbers to Korea. Particularly, coolies came to seek their liveli- hood in Korea in large groups. In 1930, the number of Chinese households was 12,596, and the number of persons 67,794. The European and American population in Korea is of very recent origin. The pioneers were French Catholic priests. Then followed American and English missionaries. Merchants and concession hunters also appeared in the last quarter of the nine- teenth century. In 1910, there were only 876 European and American nationals, but in 1930 they had increased to 1,315. The density of population at the end of 1930 was 92 persons per square kilometer (160 per square mile) for all Korea. As to the differences according to provinces, North Chulla Province leads the list with 170 persons per square kilometer. Kyungki, South Choongchung, South Chulla, and South Kyungsang follow North Chulla Province in order. The smallest density occurs in North Hamkyung Province, with 35 persons per square kilometer. South Hamkyung (40 persons per square kilometer), Kangwon (54 persons), North Pyengan (52 persons) follow. Population per square mile of a country or that per acre of arable land, as the economic basis of that nation, do not, of course, offer a fair indication of rural economic status. The population per acre of arable land has a more direct bearing on the rural economy of a country. This we shall consider in greater detail below (p. et seq.) As shown in the table 15, Korea takes the position of the eighth nation as regards population density expressed in terms of number of persons per square mile of territory. When density of popula- tion is expressed in terms of number of persons per acre of arable land, Korea comes immediately after Japan and Great Britain, a consequence of the mountainous surface of the land and the shortage of arable land. 1 C++ Lady The Government distinguishes between Bu (municipality), Uep (town), and Koon (rural district). At the end of 1929, there were twelve municipalities with a population of 25,000 or over, including the capital and the largest city in Korea, Seoul, which has a population of 340,000; 43 towns with populations of 1,000 or more: and rural communities. The occupational distribution of popula- tion in 1929 also shows that over three-fourths (76 per cent) of the An 越来 ​bepert 43 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA D .. C 20 "0 B 。0090 FIGURE 6. THE POPULATION DENSITY IN KOREA, 1930 For the numerical data, see the Preliminary Census Report, 1930, the Government-General of Chosen (Each dot represents 5,000 persons.) 44 GENERAL CONDITIONS TABLE 15. COUNTRIES IN RANK OF POPULATION DENSITY Country Belgium Holland Great Britain Japan Italy Germany China Korea Poland France India U. S. S. R. U. S. A. New Zealand Canada Australia Total Land Area (Sq. miles) 11.7 13.2 94.2 148.7 119.7 180.9 1,532.4 84.7 149.1 212.6 1,805.3 8,144.2 3,789.5 103.8 3,690.0 2,974.5 Arable Land Area (in 1,000 acres) 4,535 5,564 14,198 15,444 32,881 50,318 341,164 10,752 44,478 57,044 304,151 246,609 344,256 1,843 68,502 21,672 (in 1,000 men) 7,996 7,626 44,174 62,938 41,168 62,349 375,000 19,520 30,213 40,746 318,886 158,500 119,319 1,407 9,934 6,429 Population (per square mile) 678.0 577.4 468.7 423.I 393.9 345.4 244.7 230.3 202.5 191.4 176.6 19.1 31.5 13.5 2.6 2.I (per 100 acres) 176 (4) 73 (10) 311 (2). 407 (1). 125 (5) 122 (6) 119 (7) 181 (3) 67 (12) 71 (11) 104 (8) 64 (13) 34 (14) 76 (9) 14 (16) 29 (15) Computed from figures in the World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1931, pp. 594-718. Note: The figures in brackets in the column for "Population per 100 acres" show the order of their position. Best, total population was rural. In Japan, only just a little over one-half and in the U.S.A. about 48 per cent is rural. The natural increase of population in urban centers and rural districts shows a marked difference in the five-year period, 1926- 1930. The average birth rate in the municipalities was 31.40, in other towns 32.79, and in rural villages 38.06; while the average death rate in the municipalities was 23.20, in other towns 20.31, and in villages 21.54. The trend of the birth rate during the five- year period shows an upward tendency while the trend of the death rate is downward. Accordingly, the rate of natural increase, is rising: the average rate jumped from 15.52 to 19.74 within the five-year period. The birth rate in Korea is rather high as compared with that of Japan and China. In 1930, the total number of births was 772,270, including 11,432 Japanese and 236 foreigners, which means 38.1 per thousand of population. The absolute number showed an 45 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA increase of 42,091 persons as compared with the previous year, but no change has taken place so far as the relative number is concern- ed. The sex distribution of these born babies was III males for 100 females. The monthly distribution of births is largest in January and second largest in March. The smallest number of births occurs in June. In general, the frequency of birth is greatest in spring and smallest in summer and fall. The number of deaths was 381,877 in 1930, including that of 7,681 Japanese and 474 foreigners. The death rate per thousand of population is 18.9. As compared with the previous year, the absolute number decreased by 79,852 persons, and the relative number by 5.0 persons. The greatest frequency of deaths is in January, March, and December. More deaths occur in winter; spring and summer come next, and fall last. Deaths of those under five years old in 1930 were responsible for more than one- third (34 per cent) of the death rate. On looking over table 16, one will find that the death rate is quite high: but on account of the high birth rate, the rate of natural increase is also high, being over 15 persons per thousand a year. The rates did not vary much within the decade, 1921-1930. The Korean people, thus, are shown to be very prolific. The sex distribution of the population is unequal as between different racial groups. In 1930 there were 100 males for 97 Korean, 93 Japanese, and 22 foreign females. The marriages taking place in 1930 were 19,281, including 1,683 Japanese and 35 foreign pairs. The average marriage rate was 9.84 pairs per thousand of population. The highest rate of marriage occurred Zin 1923, being 14.49 pairs per thousand persons, while the lowest was in 1924, being 8.6. The average marriage rate for the ten- year period was 10.02 paírs. The ages at marriage differ for males J and females. For the male Koreans, the age between 20 and 25 has the largest percentage, reaching 32.1. The age between 17 and 20 was next, being 31.1; and the age between 25 and 30 was 16.8 of the total. Of the males who entered marriage in 1930, 6.6 per cent were under 17 years old. For the age between 30 and 35, the percentage was only 7.7 per cent. The average age for husbands was 23.6 years and that for wives 20.3 years. The age difference between man and wife tends to be small for the well-to- do classes and greater for the poorer classes. The rate of divorce- 46 • GENERAL CONDITIONS ► TABLE 16. BIRTH AND DEATH RATES, 1921-1930 (Per thousand persons) Year 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Birth Rate - 29.71 33.8 + 40.2 38.2 38.0 35.4 36.5 37.6 38.1 38.1 36.5 Death Rate ; 19.8 21.4 20.5 21.5 20.6 20.3 21.5 23.1 23.9 18.9 Average Source: The Government-General of Chosen, Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 7, pp. 5-14, and No. 6, pp. 1-8, 1932, June and July. 47 Rate of Natural Increase 21.I 9.9 12.4 19.7 16.7 17.4 15.1 15.0 14.5 14.2 19.2 is not abruptly fluctuating, fairly even from year to year; the ten- year average rate was 0.42 for 1921 to 1930. 15.4 The number of married pairs in 1930 was 4,824,000, including about 109,000 Japanese and about 5,000 foreign couples. This is about 476 persons married for one thousand individuals. The number of spinsters is very low, but on the contrary that of bachelors is noticeably high. The institution of polygamy exists but is on the decrease. The social institution of the family is well preserved in Korea.. The clan system is also very persistent. One can tell by the names of an individual to which clan he is likely to belong, as a well registered genealogy is kept by each of the clans, and this goes back twenty and sometimes thirty generations. By the sound of the given name, one can tell how many generations a person is from the common ancestor of the clan to which he belongs. This clan system is well developed in the social belief that one shall not marry a member of the clan of which he is a member; and the tradition of class distinction causes one to be well versed in geneaology. The Yangban-upper class-must marry and associate LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA only with the other Yangbans, and the Sangnom-lower class— must intermarry with persons of the same class. This tradition has helped to preserve the clan system; but at the present time, the concept of social classes is changing, and the clan system is disinte- grating. In the near future, the system will remain only a memory of days gone by. The family in Korea, as in other countries, is the basic unit of social organization, but its solidarity and compactness are stronger than in Europe and America. It is the duty of the older members of a family to provide and care for the younger members; for example, the father or the elder brother has to support the children and younger brothers. In turn the younger, when grown up to be a man, has the duty to care for the older ones; an old father or grandfather must be well supported by his sons or grandsons. Filial piety is regarded as the highest virtue. Such is the closeness of the family tie that one can hardly break away from it. So far as the size of the family is concerned, the Government Survey Report shows that the number of households at the end of 1930 totaled 3,821,564, including 126,312 Japanese, 15,270 Chinese, and 465 foreigners. The term household may be a little different from family in its exact meaning, because, for example, a hired. laborer who lives with the family is a member of the household, but not a member of the family. In the broad sense of the term, however, the household is synonymous with the family, because even the hired hand is treated as a member of the family while he is staying with it. For this reason, it would not be very inac- curate to take the number of households as that of families. The average family at the end of 1930 was 5.3 persons. The greater the density of population, the smaller is the size of the family. In other words, the northern parts of Korea have a lower population density than the southern parts, but the size of the family is larger in the north than in the south. In the cities the average size of the family was 4.2 persons in 1929, in the large towns 4.5 persons, and in the villages 5.3 persons. Among occupations, in 1930, that of the agriculturalist, including forestry and livestock-raising, was the largest, numbering 786 per thousand of the total population, fishermen and salt makers 15, industrialists 25, officials and public servants 34, merchants and transport workers 75, others gainfully employed 48, and men of 48 GENERAL CONDITIONS no occupation and not reported 18. The character of the popula- tion is, thus, predominantly agricultural. This predominance is even greater for Koreans alone, since 805 per thousand of them are agriculturists and only 64 per thousand merchants and trans- port workers. Of the Japanese more than 352 per thousand are officials and public servants; among them, merchants and transport workers are also numerous, numbering 294 persons per thousand. The foreigners are largely engaged in commerce and transport, with over 449 persons per thousand; the number of agriculturists in the foreign population is also prominent, being over 240 persons per thousand. These foreign agriculturists are mostly Chinese engaged in vegetable gardening in and around urban centers. ܣ܂ At the end of 1930, the number of farm households stood at 2,869,957, being 78.4 per cent of the total, and the farm population 15,621,534, or 80.8 per cent of the total. When the farm households are classified as to those solely engaged in agriculture and those with some other business as a subsidiary occupation, the number of the former households is 2,536,347 (88.4 per cent), and that of the latter 333,610 (11.6 per cent). The provincial distribution of the agricultural population is as shown in table 17. EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES Today the cardinal principle of education in Korea is the Japan- ization of Koreans. The so-called “assimilation policy" is carried into all its methods, and the Government leaves no stone unturned to make Koreans loyal subjects of the Japanese Empire. The Japanese language is almost exclusively taught even in the primary schools; boys and girls six or seven years old have to learn it; they are taught in Japanese and required to speak Japanese in school. On the other hand, the Korean language is receiving little attention by the educational authorities. The number of schools, primary, middle and college or univer- sity, is very limited. In 1929, there were 1700 common schools, government, public, and private, for 443,435 Korean boys and girls, only 2.3 per cent of the Korean population, and 466 primary schools for 63,768 Japanese boys and girls, 13 per cent of the Japanese population in Korea. The Government has failed to show what percentage of Korean children of school age are in K 4. او را با دیدی که Last sp for t 49 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 17. DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL POPULATION BY PROVINCES, 1934 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung HER ER DER WA Total Farm Households With Subsidiary Business Engaged in Farming only 227,287 137,449 196,376 219,190 368,971 348,549 259,293 224,354 175,480 204,318 229,951 180,718 78,604 2,850,540 12,318 5,803 16,872 13,624 13,175 7,517 32,212 15,518 Total 15,377 2,801 162,564 239,605 143,252 213,248 232,814 382,146 356,066 291,505 239,872 4,445 179,925 9,263 213,581 13,639 243,590 196,095 81,405 3,013,104 Farm Population (1930) A 1,301,947 760,266 1,038,484 1,192,893 1,826,923 1,946,324 1,547,044 1,209,519 923,969 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Monthly Survey Report, Vol. VI, No. 11, pp. 2-5. school, but a reasonable estimate, allowing for probable errors, would be that it is only 18 per cent assuming the total number of children at these ages to be 2,452,000. In contrast, according to the govern- ment statistics, 99.5 per cent of the Japanese children of school age are in school. The government subsidies for these common and primary schools are such that the average per capita annual sum for the Japanese children was 11.43 yen and that for the Korean children 0.29 yen during the period from 1924 to 1928. In 1928, there were 35 middle schools for 12,308 Japanese boys and girls, and 21 high common schools for 7,428 Korean boys and girls, not including 18 private high common schools for 7,009 Korean boys and girls. Co-education of Japanese and Korean boys and girls is practised only to a limited extent. College education for Koreans also is limited, for there are only five government colleges with 355 Korean students, 31.1 per cent of the total college student population in 1929. The proportion between Japanese and Korean students in the colleges is about three 1,140,864 1,176,790 1,082,826 473,685 15,621,534 50 GENERAL CONDITIONS to one. There are also six private colleges which in 1929 enrolled 224 Japanese and 701 Korean students. The Keijo Imperial University is the highest educational institution in Korea, and here the number of students in 1929 was 387 Japanese and 166 Korean. The number of courses offered in this school in 1929 was 75. There are certain kinds of industrial, commercial, and agricul- tural schools of middle grade. The number of these schools in 1929 was one government, forty-four public, and five private schools. The number of pupils was 11,091, including 3,527 Japanese. Of the industrial schools, twenty-four were for agricultural training. A college of agriculture and forestry at Soowon trains boys for rural leadership. The agricultural department of the Union Christian College at Pyengyang, is the only missionary undertaking that trains young Koreans in practical farming. There are 74 voca- tional schools to train graduates of primary schools in certain lines of industry. They are somewhat like the Folk High School of the Danish system or the vocational schools established in America under the Smith-Lever Act. The number of boys enrolled in these schools in 1929 was 2,810 Koreans and 223 Japanese. There are various kinds of schools which are not fully equipped or which do not comply with the requirements in the government regulations. The number of these schools in 1929 was 508, of which 294 were established by private persons and general in educational principles, and the other 214 were religious in educa- tional principles. The number of pupils enrolled in these schools in 1929 was 46,540 Koreans and 1,298 Japanese. The old-fashioned educational institution called Sutang, usually, with one room and one teacher, is still in existence. In these Sutangs, simple language and Chinese characters are taught, and there is no organized curriculum. The teaching is in the nature of individual tutoring. In 1929, there were 11,469 such Sutangs with 162,247 boys and girls. The number of teachers engaged in this old-style pedagogy was 11,908. These schools are found chiefly in the rural districts. The conservative farmers have a tendency to dislike new things in educational organization and methods, and their attitude keeps the rural communities backwards. The teachers in the common schools, primary schools, high schools, industrial schools, colleges, and universities are largely Japanese. In the common schools more Korean teachers are found, 51 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA but from the middle-grade schools on, Japanese teachers predo- minate. All teachers must have qualifications which are regulated by government ordinance. Generally speaking, the educational facilities in Korea are very limited, especially for the Korean population. The conse- quence is a large percentage of illiteracy. In an interview with news reporters, Mr. Yamagada, a former Chief of Civil Administration of the Government-General, stated that “Koreans should be taught to follow, not to know." Anyway, there is much criticism of the present educational policy; but the economic ability of the Koreans should also be taken into consideration. TABLE 18. ILLITERACY AMONG 7,366 PERSONS IN 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS, IN 48 COUNTIES IN 1931 Ability to Read No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total male 2,222 57 30.2 male Ability to Read 790 20.2 can 10.7 can female 718 22.5 10.6 Korean Japanese female 141 4.1 1.9 male 1,614 43 22.7 male 3,106 79.8 42.2 cannot cannot female 2,692 77.5 36.5 female 3,470 95.9 45.2 0 52 GENERAL CONDITIONS g No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total Ability to Read male 1,404 36 19.1 Vrij Van de 4 date, dapagka male 2,007 51.3 27.3 Ability to Write male can 751 19.3 10.2 can can female 124 3.6 Ability to Write 1.7 Chinese female 568 16.4 Korean 7.7 135 3.9 1.8 a plan my Japanese female Na weekly bag male 2,492 64 33.8 male 1,889 48.7 25.6 male Magga dapat vykdymo add to car 3,145 80.7 cannot 42.7 cannot female 3,346 964 cannot 45.4 female 2,902 83.6 39.4 female 3,335 96.I 45.3 53 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA : No. of Persons Percentage Percentage in Total Ability to Write male 1,304 33.5 17.7 can A Chinese female 54 108 3.I 35.2 mga magg male 2,592 66.5 1.5 cannot Regarding illiteracy among Koreans no government statistics are available. In our own investigation, we obtained the results as shown in table 18. female 336 96.9 45.6 The farmers were asked to answer the question "Can you read Korean? Japanese? Chinese?", and similarly "Can you write Korean? Japanese? Chinese?." No attention was paid to the relative ease with which they can read or write. According to this table, only 30 per cent of the males and 10.6 per tent of the females in the total population read the Korean lan- guage. The ability to write is much less developed than the ability to read; 57 per cent of the males and 22.5 per cent of the females can read the Korean language, whereas only 51.3 per cent of the males and 16.4 per cent of the females can write it. As to the Japanese language and Chinese letters, the former has been encouraged by the Government in the past two decades almost to the point of compulsion, and the latter is taught in the so-called Sutangs in the old-fashioned way. The percentages of ability to read and write these languages and letters are compara- tively small, particularly among females. The Korean language is polysyllabic, and the Korean letters are made up of a phonetic alphabet, by 10 vowels and 14 consonants, the combination of which is so simple that one can master it within a few hours. J CHAPTER II CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE KOREAN agriculture is characterized by extreme intensity with regard to the amount of labor expended. Many kinds of field work are wholly manual, with the aid of only small tools, and naturally require a large amount of man power. No large machines are used in any section of the country. They are totally foreign to the farmers. The use of manures and fertilizers is one of the distinctive characteristics of Korean agriculture, as more or less in all Oriental countries. The fertility of the land must be maintained by their frequent application. The parcellation of farm land and the small size of the farm unit are also characteristic of Korean agriculture. THE PRINCIPAL CROPS, VEGETABLES AND FRUITS A large variety of field crops are raised in Korea. Nearly all crops which are cultivated in the north temperate zone are found, and many kinds of important alimentary crops, technical plants, vegetables, as well as delicious fruits are produced. Rice holds the foremost position among field crops. About two- fifths of the total yield of this crop is exported. More than one- fourth of the total value of all products, including industrial, commercial, and all other occupations, is contributed by this crop which, therefore, may be called the backbone of Korean agricul- ture. The young rice is nursed in a carefully prepared seed bed until it is five or six inches high. It is cared for in watery beds except in very unusual cases. When the main field is prepared, the young plant is transplanted by setting five or six stalks together in a spot, with an interval of about one foot between plantings. The rows of the transplanted rice should be regular, in square form, for convenience in weeding. For this reason the transplanting is done only by hand. After transplanting twice or thrice weeding is done at weekly or ten days' intervals. The harvesting is done 1. VARING MENŠIE 3.25% 55 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA B Low: with hand sickles in October or November. It should be noted that all the work done during the growing season of rice must be in from three to five inches depth of water. Numerous varieties of rice are found, but the chief distinction is between upland rice and watery field rice. In each case two varieties are grown, namely glutinous and ordinary rice. These varieties contain numerous sub-varieties which are classified according to the time of harvest, the kind of paddy, and the place where they originate. The Government is now encouraging improved varieties in order to increase the yield. The table below shows the acreage and yield of this crop for five-year periods from 1911 to 1930. TABLE 19. AVERAGE ACREAGE AND YIELD OF RICE CROPS, 1911-1930 Watery Field Rice acreage yield yield per acre Ordinary Glutinous acreage yield yield per acre Total acreage Upland rice yield yield per acre acreage index yield index value 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 3,582 68,143 3,686 74,546 19.06 20.00 3,292 57,076 17.30 222 3,453 15.52 40 498 12.59 3,554 107 61,027 123 80,087 3,515 65,969 18.82 208 3,397 16.31 45 563 11.9 3,768 113 69,902 142 185,079 | 182 3,117 17.15 55 664 12.06 3,819 115 71,904 146 219,607 148 2,666 17.94 1 86 1,152 13.03 3,961 118 78,170 159 191,061 Note: The units of acreage and yield, and value are in 1,000 acres, bushels, and yen; the yield per acre is in bushels; the index is taken with 1910 as 100. The figures are calculated from Government Statistics in the Monthly Survey Reports and Agricultural Statistics, 1929. According to the table, the acreage and yield of rice crops. increase steadily, showing an increase of 18 per cent for the former and of 59 per cent for the latter in 1930 as compared with those in 56 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE 1910. As to the value of the product, it has leaped to more than three times of what it was at the beginning of the period. One cause for this increase may be the lowered value of money, but another cause is certainly the increase of the yield. As shown in the table, the production of upland rice is not so significant as is that of the watery field rice, but its acreage and yield have also shown a marked increase. The increase of the crop is not entirely due to increase of acreage but largely to the increase of yield per acre. This increase again is largely caused by the adoption of improved methods of cultivation, for example more application of fertilizers, but a part of it is owing to government encouragement, particularly its recommendation, to the extent of coercion, to plant improved varieties, because of which the replacement of old varieties by new varieties is making giant strides. TABLE 20. PERCENTAGE INCREASE OF IMPROVED VARIETIES AND DECREASE OF OLD VARIETIES OF RICE, 1912-1930 Watery Land Average for three Crop Acreage | Crop Acreage years Percentage Percentage of Improved Varieties of Old Varieties 1912-1914 1915-1917 1918-1920 1921-1923 1924-1926 1927-1929 1930 A 5.5 34.2 52.8 64.2 71.4 74.3 73.5 1 94.5 65.8 47.2 35.8 28.6 25.7 26.5 Per Cent. of Total Rice Crop Acreage 98.8 98.8 98.8 98.7 98.2 99.I 97.6 Upland Crop Acreage Crop Acreage] Percentage Percentage Percentage of Total of Improved of Old Crop Varieties Varieties Acreage 3.2 13.1 20.7 23.4 26.1 30.7 33.1 96.8 86.9 79.3 76.6 73.9 69.3 66.9 1.2 I.2 cow i 1.2 1.3 1.8 0.9 2.4 Source Data based on Government-General of Chosen, Agricultural Statistics, 1929-1931. As will be seen, the expansion of crop acreage of the improved varieties of rice was very rapid between 1912 and 1925; and correspondingly, the crop acreage of old rice has decreased from 94.5 per cent in 1912-1914 to 26.5 per cent in 1930 for the watery land rice and from 96.8 to 66.9 per cent for the upland rice. The l upland rice area, being a small percentage of the total, has shown little change from the old varieties to the improved varieties, as compared with the watery land rice. The reason for the + 57 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA • coercive encouragement of improvements in rice growing by the Government is twofold. The Koreans, like the Japanese, depend on rice for their daily diet. Its yield, therefore, must be in- creased. And again this increase is regarded as an absolute necessity to solve the food problem in Japan. ( Barley is next to rice in importance, not only on account of its large crop acreage, but because it supplies the main food in the Korean diet, especially for the poorer classes. It is also used for making various kinds of cakes and candies. In southern Korea it is sown in the autumn, but in northern Korea in the early spring. This is because the crop is rather weak against the cold wind. This crop is favored by the farmers in the south for "double crop- ping"./ Barley is much used as the second crop in the same field where a rice crop has been raised. The method of double cropping with barley is that after the harvest of the rice crop, in October or November, barley is sown right away. It is harvested in June or July; thereafter rice is transplanted after the harvest of barley. Thus the circle goes on year after year. In such a case, the early varieties are much favored. TABLE 21. hav Eurow Five-Year Period 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 AVERAGE ACREAGE, YIELD, AND YIELD PER ACRE OF BARLEY, 1911-1930 Acreage Yield (in 1,000 acres) (in 1,000 bus.) 1,619 1,918 1,998 2,099 30,940 35,538 33,218 37,537 Yield Per Acre (bushels) 19.1 18.6 17.6 16.6 Value (in 1,000 yen) 14,382 30,995 32,229 31,300 Source: The original data are taken from the Agricultural Statistics, 1929, p. 5 and the Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 4, pp. 5-7. bu The absolute acreage and yield of barley is increasing steadily, ut the yield per acre has decreased by 13 per cent in two decades. Wheat is another important crop in the cereal group. It is & usually milled into flour. It is also used for distilling Korean spirits. Recently, a large amount has been exported to Japan, to be used in beer brewing. There are many varieties, including improved ones which have been recently introduced. Among 58 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE them, "golden melon" has proved very successful. Like barley, it is sown in the fall in the south and in the spring in the north. Winter wheat is more common. The crop is used for the purpose of double cropping, but it is not so much favored as barley because of its later harvesting. TABLE 22. AVERAGE ACREAGE, YIELD, AND YIELD PER ACRE OF WHEAT, 1911-1930 Five-Year Period 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 Acreage Yield (in 1,000 acres) (in 1,000 bus.) 697 830 881 881 8,039 9,234 10,138 9,294 Yield Per Acre (bushels) 11.5 II.I II.4 10.5 Value (in 1,000 yen) 6,402 13,357 15,394 12,183 Source: Ibid. The acreage of wheat increased during the period 1911-1920 but showed a standstill during the period 1921-1930, whereas the yield per acre, like that of barley, showed a slight decrease during the two decades. The value of wheat products has much to do with the fluctuation of currency, but at any rate it has almost doubled during the said period. Naked barley is another staple crop in the cereal group. It is commonly used by the poorer class. The acreage of this crop was over 152,000 acres with a yield of over 2,130,000 bushels, valued at more than 2,090,000 yen on the average during the period 1926- 1930. The average yield of the crop was 13.97 bushels to the acre. The acreage was on the increase, resulting in an increase of total production. The value of the production doubled during the two decades, 1910-1930. In spite of the intensity of farming in Korea, the yield per acre of these cereal crops compares unfavorably with that of other countries. When it is compared with that for Japan where the method of farming is similar, the discrepancy is almost incredible. Of rice, Japan produces 30.2 bushels to the acre, but Korea only 16.9 bushels. Of barley, Japan produces 31.4 bushels, per acre and Korea only 16.6 bushels, little more than one-half as much. In the yields of wheat and corn the difference is just as great. It 59 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA * N 5 S #TO SAPUCHAM must be taken for granted that farming is more intensive in Japan, yet one cannot help doubting the average figures given by the Government for Korea which are almost the lowest on record for any country, except for rice, The actual crop situation in Korea is not so very different from that of Japan in ordinary years. In our investigation, the crop yield of 1,249 farm households in 48 representative localities in Korea has been closely checked. The result of this investigation is shown in the following table. TABLE 23. ACREAGE, YIELDS AND YIELD PER ACRE OF UNHUSKED RICE CULTIVATED BY 1,066 FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN 48 LOCALITIES IN 1930 Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai Kangwon Kyungki * N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla Total No. of Total Acreage Cultivated Farms Investigated (acres) 38 79 16 87 114 IIO 50 39 134 129 74 107 89 1,066 136 202 70 181 273 319 163 48 298 228 162 280 158 2,518 Total Yield (bushels) 5,350 8,194 3,568 11,937, 15,311 T1,289 6,993 3,204 19,418 15,435 10,545 18,207 10,064 139,515 Yield Per Acre (bushels) 39.3 40.6 51.0 66.0 56.1 35.4 42.9 66.8 65.2 67.7 65.0 65.0 63.6 (aver.) 55.4 The preceding table does not include upland rice. In the following table the figures are compared with those of the govern- ment statistics. Thus the total acreage devoted to rice cultivation by the investi- gated farm households was 2,575 acres, with a total yield of 141,557 bushels of unhusked rice, giving an average yield at 43.9 bushels per acre. 山 ​When the rough rice is cleaned and hulled, in ordinary cases this will be reduced to approximately 60 per cent. Accordingly, 43.9 bushels would become 28.34 bushels of husked rice. The 60 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE TABLE 24. ACREAGE, YIELD AND YIELD PER ACRE OF UPLAND RICE (UNHUSKED) RAISED BY 61 FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN 10 LOCALITIES IN 1930 Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung S. Pyengan Whanghai S. Kyungsang N. Chulla Total No. of Households Investigated 6 14 22 16 2 1 I 61 Total Acreage (acres) 7.0 12.0 14.0 9.0 6.0 O.I 48.1 Total Yield (bushels) 134 243 570 491 173 3 1,614 Yield Per Acre (bushels) I.I 20.2 40.7 54.6 28.8 30.0 (aver.) 32.2 figure stands at 11.44 bushels greater than that shown in the pre- vious figure, yet it is smaller than the yield in Japan by 1.9 bushels. Since the government statistics are based on the data reported by the village (myun) clerks as their superficial judgment of the crop situation of the year, without actual surveys, an incorrectness of figures results. Not only that, but the clerks have a tendency to minimize the yield in order to lower the income tax payable by the farmers. For this reason, we are strongly inclined to assert that the government figures for yield are too small as compared with the actual production. Therefore, we shall take the 28 bushels of rice as the rice yield to the acre. Even then, there is room for further improvement of rice cultivation, since the average yield per acre is far smaller than that in Japan. The average yield of wheat, barley, and maize has been checked in the same way, and the result has been tabulated in detail. But in order to save space, we shall only quote the figures necessary for comparison. The total number of farmers who raised barley in the investigated areas was 837, out of 1249, with a total crop acreage of 895 acres. This area produced 22,885 bushels in total. Accord- ingly, the average yield per acre was no less than 25.6 bushels. A yield of 38.6 bushels to the acre in South Chulla was the maximum and one of 18.3 bushels in North Kyungsang the minimum. When these figures are compared with the government statistics, they show a considerable excess over the latter, being 9.0 bushels 61 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA • greater on the average. The yield of 25.6 bushels per acre is less than that in Japan by 5.8 bushels, and that in England by 8.6 bushels, but greater than in the United States by 0.8 bushels and that in India by 6.4 bushels. The figure exactly coincides with that for the French yield. The yield of 25 bushels is not to be construed as the maximum. The number of farmers who raised Indian corn was only 114 in the investigated areas. The total acreage devoted to this crop was 41 acres, and the total production from this land was 1,220 bushels, giving a yield of 29.7 bushels per acre. The largest yield occurred in North Hamkyung, 32.2 bushels to the acre, and the smallest in South Chulla, 15.0 bushels. These figures are far greater than those of the government statistics. However, corn is not an important crop in Korea. The total number of farm households which grew wheat in the investigated areas in 1931 was only 313. The total acreage devoted to the crop was 266 acres, with a total yield of 2,732 bushels, giving a yield of 10.2 bushels per acre. This amount approximates that of the govern- ment figures. Beans hold a very important place in Korean agriculture. All kinds of beans are grown, but the soya bean takes the lead. This crop also plays an essential part in the system of rotation, because it supplies the soil with nitrogen. Soya beans are subdivided into a considerable number of varieties. The yellow varieties are commonly found, but black and green varieties are not lacking. They are used for meals mixed with rice, as raw material for making sauce, for bean sprouts, for extraction of lubricating oil, and for animal feeding stuff. The beancakes are also excellent fer- tilizer. With its well-known nutritive value and other valuable qualities, soya bean has become an important article of international trade. According to table 25, the average annual total value of the leguminous crops for the period 1926-1930 was approximately 34 million yen, to which the soya bean contributed approximately 26 million yen, about three-fourths (76 per cent) of the total. The yield per acre seems too small. Qur investigation showed that in 1930 the number of farmers who raised soya beans was 822, handling an acreage aggregating 779, yielding 10,330 bushels. The yield per acre is, therefore, 13.2 bushels. Even this figure is much smaller than the yield per acre in Manchuria, where it was 18.4 1 62 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE TABLE 25. AVERAGE ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND YIELD PER ACRE OF LEGUMINOUS CROPS, 1926-1930 Crop Soya beans Indian beans Mung beans Peanuts Kidney beans Peas Other beans Total Production Acreage (in 1,000 acres) (in 1,000 bus.) 1,966 606 98 27∞ 17 8 21 21,219 4,460 624 68 184 2,718 99 144 Yield Per Acre (bushels) 26,798 10.90 7.35 6.34 34.05 8.55 11.69 6.74 Value (in 1,000 yen) 12.23 23,942 Source: Agricultural Statistics and the Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 11. bushels in 1929. The Indian bean is quite important, because it is mainly used for food. Its yield per acre is much smaller than that of the soya bean. Our investigation showed that it was 7.8 bushels to the acre in 1930. In our investigated areas, there were 267 farmers who had grown this crop. The acreage devoted to this crop was 141 and produced 1,497 bushels. The acreage and pro- duction of these legume crops have been steadily increasing. If we take 1910 as the basic year, 100, then the index of the average five years, 1926-1930, for acreage stands at 157 and for production at 148. This means that during the two decades past, the acreage and production of leguminous crops has increased by approxi- mately one-half. As will be shown elsewhere in greater detail, the consumption. of Italian millet is quite conspicuous in recent years. This is largely because of the falling standard of living among the mass of Koreans, namely the substitution of millet for rice in the diet of the poorer classes. The crop, however, is not so much favored by farmers. It is an annual plant, 3 to 42 ft. high, with broad and long leaves. Sometimes the straw of this plant is chopped to feed cattle and horses. A large amount of this crop is imported from Manchuria where it takes the nearest place to beans and wheat in Chinese husbandry as regards the quantity of harvest and consump- tion. The acreage devoted to this crop and the production therefrom are shown in the following table. 25,609 6,646 972 71 234 186 224 63 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 26. AVERAGE ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, YIELD PER ACRE, AND VALUE OF ITALIAN OR FOXTAIL MILLET, 1911-1930 Five-Year Period 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 Production Acreage (in 1,000 acres) (in 1,000 bus.) Source: Ibid. Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai Kangwon 1,527 1,838 N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla 1,915 1,948 Total According to the table, the value of the crop is approximately the same as that of soya beans. In our investigation areas, 532 farm households raised the crop in 1930; the tabulated result of our investigation is shown below. TABLE 27. ACREAGE AND YIELD OF ITALIAN MILLET BY 532 FARMHOUSEHOLDS, 1930 No. of Farms 34 54 18 66 100 34 35 mo 90 22 20,266 25,314 25,924 25,597 IO 66 532 Acreage (acres) 63 68 46 85 173 14 7 2 54 5 4 Yield Per Acre (bushels) I 50 13.45 13.80 568 13.54 13.16 Yield (bushels) 1,438 897 1,309 2,028 2,242 282 132 50 Value (in 1,000 yen) 1,015 69 28 1,140 12,141 23,279 31,686 26,900 10,630 Yield (per acre) 22.8 13.2 20 28.4 23.8 12.9 20.I 18.8 25.0 18.8 13.8 28.0 22.8 (aver.) 20.7 The yield per acre is small compared with that in Manchuria, where it was 28.7 bushels in 1929. The government estimate seems to be much lower than the actual yield. Barn yard millets and ¿ 64 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE sorghum, true millet, rye, and buckwheat are also commonly found. Space does not allow us to deal with these crops in detail, but some aspects of their economic value will be brought out by the following table. TABLE 28. AVERAGE ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF MISCELLANEOUS GRAINS, 1926-1930 Barn yard millet Millet Sorghum Maize Rye Buck wheat Total K 5. Source: Ibid. Acreage (in 1,000 acres) 229 4I 235 255 270 279 1,309 Production (in 1,000 bushels) 3,628 473 3,367 2,971 3,879 2,989 17,307 Yield Per Acre (bushels) 14.97 11.35 14.39 11.63 14.33 10.78 (aver.) 13.16 Value (in 1,000 yen) 2,798 530 3,374 2,427 1,752 2,914 13,795 1 The millet group, sorghum, rye, and maize are commonly called chapkok or miscellaneous grains. The acreage and production of these miscellaneous grains have considerably increased in recent years. If one takes the year 1910 as basic year, 100, the index for the acreage of all these miscellaneous crops shows 158 in 1930, and the production in that year stands at 162. This means that both acreage and yield have increased by over one-half during the two decades. This is owing to the growing demand for these miscel- laneous crops for direct consumption. ง Among the technical plants grown in Korea, the principal ones are cotton, hemp, ramie, triflora, sesame, perilla ocimodes, and wangul. The Korean climate is very suitable for growing cotton, which has been raised by the farmers for many centuries; but in recent years the growing demand for raw cotton from Japanese spinners and for military supplies has given an added stimulus to the cultivation of the crop. The Government, in view of the need in Japan, is giving strong encouragement to the growers. Expan- sion of the crop acreage has been urged upon the farmers to the industrial ? crops 65 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 모 ​341 point of compulsion in southern Korea where the climatic con- ditions are more suitable. New varieties like upland cotton, sea island cotton, kings improved, etc., have been experimented with. Among others, the upland cotton has proved very successful, and in the south this variety has been strongly recommended by the Government. The native cotton is grown in the north. In table 29, the five-year average of acreage, production, yield per acre, and value of this crop are shown. As shown by the indices, the increase of acreage, production, and value is remarkable: almost three times in acreage, more than four times in production, and more than seven and a half times in value within two decades. In spite of this development, the Govern- ment is making plans further to expand the cotton area. Other field crops have to be limited to make room for cotton, even though prices are such that sometimes the cultivation of this crop is not profitable for the farmers as compared with some other crops. Among the farms investigated, only 294 households grew this crop, in 1931. The acreage devoted to it was 153 acres, with a production of 88,000 lbs., making a yield of 565.6 lbs. per acre. This amount is far greater than that of the government estimate, but it is not to be overlooked that the weight is given in seed- cotton and not in lint. According to our investigation, cotton growing, both improved and native, does not take place in North and South Hamkyung, North Pyengan, and Kangwon Provinces. Regarding other plants for textile purposes, the government statistics deal only with hemp, ramie and triflora. These are the principal crops raised by farmers. A grass called Wangul is usually grown, but not for textile purposes; it is frequently used for the purpose of making straw goods and mattings. Hemp is used for making ropes, clothes, and various linen fabrics, while ramie has a very fine fiber which is suitable for making clothes. When it is bleached, the color becomes almost pure white. These white ramie fabrics are the favorite material for Korean summer garments. The yield of hemp in the last five year period was 636 lbs per acre, that of ramie 298 lbs, that of triflora 883 lbs, and that of wangul 1,095 lbs. Ng For the seasoning of foods and for the supply of lamp oil, sesame and Perilla Ocimode are extensively raised. In recent years 66 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE Five-Year Period 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 Source: TABLE 29. AVERAGE ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, YIELD PER ACRE, AND VALUE OF COTTON, 1911-1930 172 304 404 500 Acreage (in 1,000 acres) Index 100 176 234 290 Production (in 1,000 lbs.) 49,746 108,434 163,996 212,647 Index 100 217 329 427 Yield Per Acre (lbs.) 387 322 388 411 Agricultural Statistics, 1929, and Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 4, April, 1931, pp. 9-13. Index 100 83 100 106 Value (in 1,000 yen) 1,677 8,653 10,318 12,782 Index 100 516 615 762 67 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Year TABLE 30. AVERAGE ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF OTHER TEXTILE PLANTS, 1911-1930 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 Year 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 Acreage (acres) 50 64 71 72 Acreage (acres) 8 12 15 Hemp Yield (lbs.) 22,752 36,023 45,754 45,938 Triflora Yield (lbs.) 5,772 10,291 13,216 Note: The unit is in 1,000. Source: Ibid. Value Acreage (yen) (acres) 1,561 4,353 4,930 4,441 Value (yen) 1,524 1,580 718 3 m 3 + pag p 3 4 Acreage (acres) 4 67∞ 8 a ja se ma Ramie Yield (lbs.) 831 869 1,141 1,168 Wangul Yield (lbs.) 4,516 7,098 9,344 9,840 Value (yen) 152 393 475 348 Value (yen) 134 423 567 639 kerosene has taken the place of perilla oil for illumination, yet the crop is still raised in rural sections. The acreage of sesame for the five-year period, 1926-1930, was 23,372, with a production of 198,000 bushels. The value of this product was 542,646 yen. The average acreage of perilla for the same period was 34,001, with a production of 283,859 bushels, valued at over 522,000 yen. The acreage and production of all such technical plants as mentioned above have steadily increased during the past twenty years. Tobacco was formerly grown everywhere in the country. But since the promulgation of the monopoly law in 1919, the cultivation districts have been specified by the Government. Anyone who violates the regulations is punished severely. Another plant which has been put under monopoly control by the government for a long time is ginseng. This plant root has great popularity as a panacea among the Chinese. Accordingly it was an important 68 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE item in Korea's export trade with China. At the present time, the larger portion of its production is still exported to China, making up a large item of monopoly revenue for the Government. A peculiarity of this plant is that it cannot be grown everywhere, but only in and around the city of Songdo (Kaijo). The plant is a perennial herb and can usually be harvested only in the seventh year-the shortest being the fourth year-from the seeding. During this long growing period, the utmost care must be taken to avoid crop failure. The average annual acreage devoted to tobacco during the five-year period, 1926-1930, was 40,610 acres with an average yield of 37,995,510 lbs of leaf tobacco; and that to ginseng during the same period was 651,075 yards in bed length with an average yield of 687,554 lbs. The production of tobacco was 9,356 lbs of fresh leaves per acre, and the production of ginseng 1.5 lbs of fresh roots per yard. The average annual total value of these two plants amounted to 5,982,599 yen. Vegetables of various sorts which are grown in the temperate zone flourish in Korea. The principal ones favored by farmers, are sweet potato, Irish potato, radish, Chinese cabbage, melon, watermelon, hot pepper, garlic, lettuce, pumpkin, and eggplant. Our investigation showed that 37 kinds were grown by the 1,249 farm households in the investigated areas, but the land area devoted to each of these vegetables is too small to be tabulated. Vegetables are grown in the kitchen gardens of the farmers, the size of which runs from a few tsubo (six feet square) to about three or four hundred tsubo. Each farmer raises several kinds of vegetables by parcelling these small gardens into a number of patches. They are solely for meeting the demand of the home kitchen. Only in the vicinity of cities, truck gardens worthy of their name can be found. The professional vegetable raisers are largely Chinese. One thing which must be especially noted from the standpoint of land utilization is the high frequency of cropping on these kitchen gardens. The one patch of land may be used for three or four different kinds of vegetables. All around the year, vegetables of one kind or another are in the garden patches, especially in the southern parts of the country. 少 ​ The Government has not estimated other kinds of vegetables, because they are too small in quantity. But our estimate is that the total amount of acreage and value of all vegetables which are 69 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 31. AVERAGE ACREAGE, YIELD, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL VEGETABLES, 1926-1930 Kinds of Vegetable Sweet potatoes Irish potatoes Radishes Chinese cabbage Melon Total Acreage (in 1,000 acres) 28.7 199.4 142.5 103.2 36.4 510.2 Production (in 1,000 lbs.) 207,906 1,021,480 1,316,447 811,645 278,812 3,636,290 Yield Per Acre (lbs) 7,181 5,115 9,228 7,866 7,630 7,129 Value (in 1,000 yen) 3,657 9,548 10,464 9,167 3,914 36,750 Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, pp. 100-103. not included in the foregoing table is no smaller than those in the table. Y Fruit trees flourish under the ideal climatic conditions of Korea. All kinds of fruit trees in the temperate zone, except the citrous group, are to be seen. The principal ones are such genus as pear, apple, peach, persimmon, junubee, walnut, chestnut, pinenut, grape. Pears and apples are excellent in quality. Their market has been extended not only to Japan but also to Manchuria, Siberia, Shanghai, and Hong Kong. The apples have been able to drive out the best product of the United States on the Shanghai market. The important localities of production are the Chemulpo, Taijun (Taiden), Samrangchin, Whangju (Koshu) and Pyengyang dis- tricts. The technique of cultivation has been very much advanced, and the marketing system is rapidly developing on a modern cooperative basis. The acreage, production, and value of the principal fruits are shown in table 32. Other fruit crops, not included in the table, also are important items in the farm income. Their production and value are probably greater than that of the products shown in the table. The chestnut alone, for instance, was represented in 1920 with over 6 million trees and over 26 million pounds of production. The value of this production was over a million and seven hundred thousand yen. The production of peach and persimmon provides a notable income for the farmers. The growing of such fruit trees as the 70 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE TABLE 32. AVERAGE ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FRUITS, 1926-1930 Kind Apples Pears Grapes Total No. of Trees (in 1,000) 1,359 839 208 2,406 Production (in 1,000 lbs.) 46,648 27,763 1,488 75,899 Value (in 1,000 yen) 1,933 1,444 103 3,480 Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 102. persimmon is usually done by planting a few trees in or around the farmstead as fencing or shade trees, and there is seldom any land specially devoted to such trees. For this reason, their number is not taken into account. The green manure plants take a special position in the cropping system of Korean agriculture. The soil productivity, with intensive farming for a period of many centuries, must be maintained by the constant application of manures. For this reason many kinds of green manure crops are raised. The land devoted to the cultiva- tion of such a green manure crop has to be used again for the main crop in the same year. Accordingly, the farmers have to resort to such plants as can be harvested earlier than the season in which the main crop ought to be planted. For this purpose, the leguminous group is ideal, because plants in this group have the power of extracting the free nitrogen from the air for crop uses; and the rank leaves, cut while green, are also full of organic matter. Leguminous plants as green manure are extensively grown in the south where the climatic conditions permit such practice. The acreage and yield of these plants are given in the table 33. According to the Government's estimate, the value of these products for the period 1926-1930, was no less than 6 million yen annually. DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND SERICULTURE Animal husbandry in Korea dates far back. At present, how- ever, its status is pretty much reduced to the position of a secondary or subordinate occupation. The kinds of domestic animals and 71 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ! Ť TABLE 33. AVERAGE ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION OF GREEN MANURE CROPS, 1926-1930 Kind of Crop Soya beans (cut in green) Renge (lagotis glauca) Lucern (Alfalfa) Hairy vetch Other grasses Total CATTLE Acreage 109,900 94,699 786 2,869 6,028 214,282 Production (lbs.) 479,243,627 1,122,643,380 11,809,055 26,967,401 97,978,188 1,738,641,651 Source: Ibid., p. 103. fowls are as numerous as in any other country located in the temperate zone, including cattle, horses, donkeys, mules, swine, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, ducks, and geese. All are very prolific and prosperous-when they are permitted to be so. There are two distinctive characteristics of animal husbandry in Korea. (1) The amount of meadow and pasture land in relation to the number of animals is negligible. The land available for all purposes is so scarce that no large area could possibly be devoted to grass. Stock raising in Korea is largely "domestic", being left in the hands of housewife and children. (2) Cattle raising leads all other animal husbandry, with the purpose to provide animal labor and to supply meat. Dairy farming was formerly unknown, and even yet the use of milk is very rare amongst the peasants. Cattle make up an important constituent in the structure of Korean rural economy. The breeds of cattle are excellent for farm work. It is not too much to say that a single acre of land cannot be plowed without an ox or cow. Accordingly, the physical structure of cattle is developed for plowing purposes. As meat producers, the Korean cattle are also very good, although their maturity is somewhat late. The hide is strong and fine, of good quality for leather. The usefulness and economic advantage of these beasts to farmers are beyond any question. Accordingly, 72 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE farmers always desire to keep cattle when circumstances permit them to do so. Cattle are to be found everywhere in Korea, but the density of the cattle population varies for each province. TABLE 34. NUMBER OF CATTLE PER HUNDRED PERSONS, ACRE OF LAND, AND TEN FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN 1930 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Male Number of Persons 60,383 22,337 18,419 23,503 48,253 70,605 36,515 45,005 53,705 62,148 64,631 63,877 34,741 604,122 Female 55,615 41,454 38,312 32,053 39,488 Total 102,012 43,824 987,463 115,998 63,791 56,731 55,556 87,741 178,170 156,298 Number of Cattle 124,444 128,799 Per 100 persons 5.5 7.3 4.2 3.8 5.7 7.6 7.6 8.0 8.4 Per 100 Acres 13.0 13.0 II.2 10.7 107,565 119,783 79,439 75,094 133,001 195,149 119,823 184,454 165,889 17.3 78,565 15.1 1,591,585 (aver.)8.2 (aver.) 15.5 (aver.)6.0 Source: Computed from data given in the Annual Statistical Report of the Government of Chosen, 1930. 12.2 16.4 / 9.5 ✔9.6 13.8 18.6 """""" 22.9 12.8 10.8 Per 10 Farms 23.3 19.2 4.9 4.5 3.0 2.4 A larger number of cattle in relation to population, area of cultivated land, and number of farm households is seen in the north than in the south. The feeding stuff is largely made up of the by-products of farming. In winter rice straw and stocks of millet and proso-millet, mixed with been shell, bran, etc., are used, in summer cut grass only. During the working seasons, soya beans are fed, usually three times a day, in the heavy working season four times. Stables are of many kinds, ordinarily very poor in construction and upkeep. The cattle are extremely gentle and have endurance in an amazing degree; for farm work they are quite ideal. In the north, two are used for plowing, but in the south only one. The height is about four feet and a half, and 3.5 4.9 5.3 5.2 6.4 9.7 8.7 9.4 10.7 73 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA the average weight about 2,000 lbs. They can stand a burden of 250 to 500 lbs, 350 lbs on the average. An economic study of cattle keeping was conducted by local authorities during the year, May 1, 1929 to April 30, 1930, in North Pyengan, for the purpose studying the income and expense of farm cattle. The conclusion was as follows: of "The average net profit per head was 97.47 yen. When this is classified by the farmer classes, the greatest profit was to tenant farmers, 131.62 yen on the average; next to part-owner farmers with 109.19 yen, and the smallest to owner farmers with 51.59 yen. The principal items in the income were the labor wage, amounting to 200.74 yen; stable manure, 17.24 yen; the value of calves born and the growth of the animal, amounting to 51.58 yen, while the items in the cost list were 108.19 yen for stable, equipment, up-keep and depreciation, and feeding stuffs; 37.01 yen for interest on the capital value of cattle, taxes and rates, and other incidental expenses. The feeding stuff needed for a head a year was 662 kan of straw and grass, 3 koku 4 do of grain. The average number of working days was 151 (9 hours per day); and the distribution of work days according to months was 19 in May, 11 in June, 8 in July, 6 in August, 10 in September, 23 in October, 17 in November, 9 in December, 12 in January, 7 in February, 10 in March, and 21 in April. The kinds of work were plowing (44.7), transportation (81.1), and others (26.2) 221 All farmers are eager to keep a cow on the farm, and when the capital saving is not enough to buy one, they rent a cow from a well-to-do farmer in the neighborhood. In this case, they pay a fixed rent to the owner of the beast. The cooperative buying method is also often followed, under the name Ookei (cow-buying cooperative society). Cattle-shoeing is practised in the north only. Selling and buying of cattle are usually carried on in the periodical local markets. Cattle shipping assumes an important item in the export trade of Korea. In 1929, the number of exported cattle was over 48,000, and the value over 3.5 million yen. The export of cow hides in the same year was over 5 million lbs, with a value of over 2.7 million yen. The value of exported meat, fat, and bones in 1929 was over 311,000 yen. The number of calves born in 1930 was 356,040, of which 16,630 died and 216,254 were slaughtered and killed. The value of those slaughtered was over 16.5 million yen. 1 Chosen Live Stock Association: Livestock in Korea, Statistical Number, November 15, 1930, pp. 31-40. 74 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE Our investigation regarding cattle raising shows that out of 1,249 farm households only 605 kept oxen or cows: 48 per cent of total number of farm households between them had 737 heads, the number of cattle per 100 persons was 187 The total acreage of land farmed by these households was 3,724 acres, which give 5 acres as the average acreage per cow. The total value of cattle at the current market price amounted to 37,933 yen, which puts the average per capita value at 51.47 yen. This per capita value/ seems to be very low, and particularly so when considering that the average value includes the value of calves. The average number of cattle per farm household was 1.2. HORSES The native Korean horses are very small. They are believed to be the descendants of Mongolian horses: they are wild and rough, but can stand hard work and coarse feeding. Formerly horse rais- ing was a business of the Government for military purposes. In the early period of the Yi dynasty, (1392-1910) ten State Horse Breed- ing Grounds were established on a grand scale in various places, but in the later days of the dynasty they were left idle. At the present time, some of the government grounds are leased by private individuals and under private management. Quelpart Island is famous for horse breeding; the island was formerly a government ground for horse breeding. The use of horse power by farmers is not general. Horses were mainly used for riding, and yet saddle-horse breeds like the Arabian have never been built up. In recent years, Anglo-normans, Arabs, Orloff trotters, etc., have been imported to improve the breeds. So far, no commendable result has been reported. In 1930, the total number of horses throughout Korea was 55,544. The importation of draft horses has been a result of the development of wagon transportation. The number of horses imported reached over 500 head a year in 1920, but on account of the business depression the number has been very much reduced in recent years. Riding clubs have been formed in important cities. Racing has received legel recognition as a means to stimulate horse breeding. Like horses, mules and donkeys are not well developed. The structure of these beasts is very small. They are ordinarily used for saddle purposes, but sometimes donkeys are kept as beasts 75 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA of burden. In 1930, there were 5,900 mules and 1,767 donkeys. According to our investigation, the total number of farm house- holds which keep horses was only 32 out of 1,249, or 2 per cent of the total. The number of horses kept by these farmers was 45, valued at 1,471.00 yen at the current market price. The total number of donkeys and the farm households who keep them were both three in our investigated areas. The average value of a donkey was 26.00 yen. Two mules were kept by two farm house- holds, and their value was 5.00 yen and 26.00 yen respectively. SHEEP Old records show that a large number of sheep had been brought from Mongolia by the Nuchen tribes, but they did not come to take an important position in animal husbandry in Korea. Sheep at the end of the Yi dynasty were practically unknown to the farmers. Only a small number of them were kept by the Govern- ment in Seoul for the purpose of experimentation. In 1912, 9 Merino sheep were sent by the Japanese Kwantung Government. The result of experimental breeding was good enough to raise them on a larger scale. As a result, in 1914, 97 sheep were imported from the same source, and in 1917, another herd, numbering 220, was brought in The World War was at its height at that time, and the Japanese Government, seeing the necessity of self-sufficiency in wool production for military purposes, assigned to Korea the raising of 300,000 sheep. It was estimated that about 700,000 sheep could be raised in Korea for the wool supply of Japan, but as the appropriation was cut off in 1924, the experiment stopped automatically. While it lasted, the experimental work showed a promising future for sheep breeding in Korea. The Merino, of Mongol origin, has shown the best adaptibility to the Korean climate. The average birth rate was 98 per cent and the rate of growth 86 per cent. The difficulty lies in the fact that most of the farmers are not acquainted with the handling and breeding of them. In 1930 there were only 1,561 sheep throughout Korea. } Goats are kept from olden times. Many farmers raised them for the purpose of meat and milk production. The total number of goats was over 25,601 in 1931 which were kept by 17,482 farm households. In our investigated areas only 6 sheep kept by 5 farm households were seen. The average per capita value was A 76 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE 4.50 yen. The number of goats was 26 which were kept by 17 farm households. The total value of these goats was 294.50 yen. Accordingly, the number of goats per farm was 1.5 and the average per capita value 11.33 yen. SWINE Hog's have always been raised in Korea, and they were more numerous about half a century ago than they are at the present time. The Korean native breed are black, very short and small, weighing about 50 lbs; the mouth is projected and slender, and they are of late maturity. The amount of fat is also very small. On the other hand, they are exceedingly healthy and prolific. The pork produced is very palatable. In recent years, Berkshire and Yorkshire breeds have been brought in to improve the native breed by crossing, but at first they were not welcomed by farmers on account of the greater amount of feed needed; and the amount of fat was thought excessive. As time went on, the economic value, of these new breeds has been more widely recognized by farmers; accordingly the demand for them is increasing year by year. On account of the difficulty of obtaining feed stuffs and also markets, TABLE 35. THE CONDITION OF HOG RAISING BY PROVINCES Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai Kangwon Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla mmganga mendja Malgaja m Total Number of Farms 44 55 17 73 50 48 9 9 44 ma 3 9 37 68 466 Number of Hogs 82 130 96 100 63 162 IO ΙΟ 55 4 14 67 114 907 Number of Total Value Per Capita Hogs per Household of Hogs (yen) 2.0 2.3 _5.6 1.3 I.2 -3.3 I.I I.I I.2 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.6 (aver.) 1.9 732.00 882.80 452.5I 886.40 411.25 304.70 147.00 135.90 405.40 12.00 Value (yen) 8.92 6.78 4.71 8.86 6.52 1.88 14.70 13.59 7.37 3.00 5.07 9.96 6.33 71.00 667.50 722.50 5,830.96 (aver.)7.67 77 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA only Seoul, Chemulpo, Pyengyang, Taiku, Masan, Wonsan, and Shinwiju form centers of hog raising. In 1914 there were over 10,000 improved and 740,000 native hogs. In 1929, these figures were increased to over 480,000 heads of improved and over 480,000 heads of native. The number of hogs per 100 farm households was more than 47. In 1930 the total number of hogs was more than 1,386,000, including 826,000 of native breed and 560,000 improved. The density of hog population is greater in the north……. than in the south. .. It will be seen that 463 out of 1,249 farm households were raising hogs at the end of 1930, and the average number of hogs per farm household was 1.9. As a matter of fact, a few hogs are always raised by farm households to utilize the garbage and to increase farm income. According to the official statistics, the number of hogs slaughtered in 1930 was over 245,000, valued at over 3,327,000 yen. Hog's hair amounted to 343,171 lbs, valued at 38,611 yen, and fat to 1,071,387 lbs, at 197,026 yen. DOGS Dogs are extensively kept by Korean farmers. They are, of course, hardly to be considered in the province of animal hus- bandry. The Korean dogs are of Mongolian breed and as large as goats. They are kept not only as watch animals, but the poor peasants are fond of their meat, and the skin is exported in large quantities to foreign markets. For this reason their number is as large as that of hogs. In our investigated areas, 492 out of 1,249 farm households kept 633 dogs at the end of 1930. This would mean that, roughly speaking, one in every three farm households keeps a dog. The total value of dogs amounted to 929.90 yen, making 1.47 yen apiece. The Government does not give the number of dogs, because it is probably considered improper to classify them as farm animals. On the other hand, the Govern- ment has adopted the policy of exterminating them to prevent the spread of rabies. J RABBITS Rabbits are of recent import, and farmers keep them for pleasure rather than to get income from them. In our investigated areas WALSE" He' 78 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE only 6 farm households raised rabbits at the end of 1930. The total number was 39, averaging 6.5 per farm household, and the total value was 55.50 yen. POULTRY ཡ-… The poultry business, although on a small scale assumes an important position in the farm economy of Korea, since chickens are very extensively raised and form a salient item of income. The Korean native chickens are strong and active, but they weigh only from two to three pounds. The egg-laying ability does not exceed 70 eggs a year on the average. To eliminate these shortcomings, new breeds have been imported in recent years. Among others, White Leghorn, Nagoya Cochin, Plymouth Rock, and Rhode Island Red seem to be well acclimatized. According to government statistics, the number of chickens in 1930 was 6,146,643, including 2,223,649 improved breeds. The result of our investigation showed that 699 out of 1,249 farm households were chicken raisers. The total number of chickens, in the investigated areas, was 4,911, which means that 8.2 chickens were kept on the average by a farm household. The total value of these chickens was over 2,608 yen. Accordingly, the average value of a chicken was only 0.53 yen. The total number of eggs pro- duced by them was over 143,913 which were valued at 3,177 yen. The government statistics show that in 1929 the total number of eggs produced was over 187,000 million and their value over 5.2 million yen. Ducks and geese are rather small in number. For this reason, the Government does not keep records of these fowl. However, in our investigated areas, 20 farm households kept these fowl at the end of 1930. The number of these birds was 41, which were valued at 31.10 yen. The average number of ducks and geese per farm household was 2, valued at 0.75 yen each. The value of eggs pro- duced was over 60 yen in 1929. FISH ở nên hạt, nhưng được thành công Fish is sometimes kept in the ponds made for the irrigation of rice fields. / In our investigated area in South Kyungsang Pro- vince, a farm household obtained over 100 yen of farm income by One + 79 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA raising carp. Another such pond was found in the investigated area in South Chulla Province. The total number of fish kept by these two farm households was over 5,000 in 1930. BEES Bees are quite frequently kept by farmers in Korea. In our investigation, they were found everywhere, except in Kyungki, S. Hamkyung, and North Pyengan Provinces. At the end of 1930, 22 farm households kept 52 bee hives, averaging 2.3 hives per farm household. The value of bee hives was over 559 yen. The Korean native bee belongs to the so-called Oriental variety, and the economic value is far less than that of the European varieties. For this reason, Italian and German varieties have been imported in recent years. The German breeds seem to be better adapted to the cold winter climate of Korea. The honey is usually consumed at home, but the wax is largely exported. The total amount of wax exported in 1929 was over 43,000 lbs, and its value over 37,000 yen. SERICULTURE Sericulture is not only the most prevalent subsidiary business of the farms, but also the largest source of income which the farm women can contribute to the household economy. /The Korean climate is ideal for the raising of silkworms and also for the grow- ing of mulberry trees. The humidity of the air during the worm- caring season is not too damp, as in Japan, nor too dry, as in northern China. Sunshine and temperature are also entirely adequate for mulberry culture and worm raising. For these reasons, sericulture has been taken up by the farmers from olden times. The technique of silk weaving and raising of silk worms was kept secret from the neighboring peoples for a long time by the ancient Chinese, but, when the Koreans became acquainted with it, they did not hesitate to teach the Japanese. In the long run of Korean history, sericulture as a secondary farm business has had many ups and downs. We have no space to describe the changes of the industry in the days gone by, but toward the end of the nineteenth century the status of sericulture was on the wane. In recent years, the Government is making every effort to stimulate 80 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE the industry. Marked progress has been made during the last two decades; but, on account of the invasion of rayon products, the price of silk has been decreasing. Especially in 1929 and 1930 the price of cocoons and raw silk suddenly dropped, and this has hit the industry a fatal blow. The producers claim that the price of silk falls far short of the cost of production. Silkworm raising and mulberry culture are closely correlated, and one is useless without the other. It is very hazardous to raise silkworms without the cultivation of mulberry trees. The leaves of the mulberry tree, are, of course, sold and bought, yet the market is not warranted. For these reasons, the farm households which raise silkworms have to have mulberry gardens of their own. The trees are also planted around the farm houses as a kind of hedge. In short, every possible space of land is used for planting this tree. The length of time required to raise the silkworm is about 29 days. Toward the end of this period, intensive care and a large amount of labor are absolutely necessary; the raisers may have no sleep for some nights. The industry is possible only in places where plenty and cheap labor can be obtained. According to government statis- tics, the five-year average acreage and production of mulberry trees in Korea is as follows: TABLE 36. AVERAGE ACREAGE OF MULBERRY TREES, 1916-1930 Five-Year Period 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 True Acreage (acres) pp. 1-2. K 6. 23,313 31,926 58,640 Estimated Acre- age Including Tree Acreage (acres) 33,885 51,553 100,653 Total (acres) 57,197 83,479 159,293 Wild Mulberry Acreage (acres) Source: Government-General of Chosen, On the Korean cocoons, May, 1931, Appendix, 11,615 11,719 12,508 According to this table, the acreage of mulberry land has been tripled within the last fifteen years. For this increase the Govern- ment must be credited, since it has encouraged it, to the extent of coercing the farmers to expand the acreage. The five-year average number of farm households which have raised silk worms and produced cocoons was as follows: 81 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Five-Year Period TABLE 37. GROWTH OF SILK RAISING INDUSTRY, 1916-1930 Spring Worms and cocoons House- Cocoons holds (bushels) 1916-1920 301,255 1921-1925 404,300 1926-1930 615,727 449,086 835,387 1,528,918 Summer and Fall Worms and Cocoons House- holds 93,536 127,445 278,097 Cocoons (bushels) 91,975 168,563 552,712 Total House- holds Cocoons (bushels) 394,741 541,061 531,745 1,003,450 2,077,630 893,824 Value (in 1,000 yen) Source: Government of Chosen, Annual Statistical Report, 1930, 104-105. The cocoon production has increased a little less than four times, its value a little less than three times, and the number of farm households which raised it more than twice within the last fifteen years. The average amount of cocoon or value per household cannot be obtained, because a single farm household may raise spring, summer, and fall worms, while some others may not; the first kind of farm household would appear twice or three times in the table as producing spring, summer, and fall worms. The ratio between the average five-year acreage and that of the cocoon production and its value is increasing. That must be so, because of the direct correlation between the two factors of sericulture. The five-year average return per acre of mulberry land was 64.56 yen in the 1916-1920 period, 78.91 yen in the 1921- 1925 period, and 69.99 yen in the 1926-1930 period. This should be regarded as a handsome return from such land as mulberry gardens in general. Of the two million bushels of cocoons produced, more than 900,000 bushels are used by the producers as raw material for home woven silk, Myungju, Hangla, etc. The rest of the cocoon is marketed. About a million and half bushels of cocoon are con- sumed by the raw-silk manufacturers in Korea, and the rest is exported to Japan. In 1929, the number of raw-silk producers, including both the producers by modern factory system and the producers by home reeling, was 188,355; the number of cocoon- boiling pots was 194,041. The total product of raw silk was 2,326,000 lbs. which were valued at 20,823,144 yen. The Government has left no stone unturned to encourage and gh 3,692 6,587 8,504 82 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE control sericulture. The production of the silkworm eggs, which are laid on sheets of paper accommodating 28 moths, is put under strict inspection in order to eliminate baneful microscopic organ- isms. New varieties of silkworm and mulberry trees have been developed by scientific selection and crossing. For such kinds of work an experimental station has been established. A number of training schools and classes for both long and short periods, have been conducted, especially for girls and women. An order govern- ing sericulture in Korea was promulgated in April, 1919. A number of regulations have been made since to control the sericultural industry. As a result, giant strides have been made during the last twenty years. THE REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE ROMA The Korean peninsula is sometimes divided into four sections. with differences in topographical features and climatic conditions, namely, (1) the Southern Section, including South and North Chulla and Kyungsang Provinces; (2) the Central Section, includ- ing Kyungki, Kangwon, South and North Choongchung Pro- vinces; (3) the Western Section, including Whanghai, South and North Pyengan Provinces; and (4) the Northern Section, including South and North Hamkyung Provinces. This division is, however, too accentuated when viewed from the standpoint of diversity of agriculture. There is no marked difference in agriculture between the North and West Sections, and likewise between the South and Central. The differences, if any, between these sections are matters of the degree to which the varying aspects of agriculture may be seen. Sometimes, the country is divided into three sections, namely, South, Central, and North. Such division is, however, for the sake of convenience in dealing with matters of geographical environment. Not only does this division correspond to no marked diversity of agriculture, but it is not based on scientific grounds. When the division is made in such a way that the South and Central Sections mentioned above are combined into one section, called the Southern Section, and the Northern and Western "Sections into another, called the Northern Section, the differences are more or less apparent. They are recognizable by the distribu- tion of crops and also by the methods of farming. two sections is nearly the same, for the Southern OPERA, SPAC St The area of the Section covers a 12 autoins 83 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA [ territory of approximately 43,400 square miles, and the Northern Section one of 41,800 square miles. According to the latest data available, the percentage distribution of the acreage of principal crops between the North and South Sections is as follows: TABLE 38. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACREAGE UNDER PRINCIPAL CROPS, NORTH AND SOUTH, 1930 AND 1931 Crops Ordinary rice* Glutinous rice* Upland rice* Barley Wheat Naked barley Soya beans Small beans Green beans Other beans Acreage (in 1,000 Per Cent. acres) 2,999 105 48 1,898 414 175 1,092 South 174 38 9 77.5 78.0 51.1 86.7 48.9 91.7 56.3 22.6 38.0 47.4 Acreage (in 1,000 acres) 869 29 46 292 433 15 850 North 417 63 10 Per Cent. 22.5 22.0 48.9 13.3 51.1 8.3 43.7 77.4 62.0 52.6 Acreage (in 1,000 acres) 3,868 134 94 3,190 847 190 Total 1,942 591 IOI 19 Per Cent. *Figures are of 1931 and all other crops are of 1930. It will be noted from the table that rice, barley and naked barley, and soya beans are much more extensively raised in the south, while wheat, Indian beans, green beans, and other beans are raised more largely in the north. So far as barley and naked barley are concerned, more than 85 per cent is raised in the south. Similarly, three quarters of the rice crop, excepting the upland rice, is raised in the south. The maps shown under figure 7, plotted by dot method, give bird's eye views of the distribution of the principal crops. 100 100 100 100 IOU 100 100 100 100 100 Of the forty-four "field" crops raised in Korea, except vegetables, those crops which have more than 250,000 acres, are barley, wheat, Italian millet, maize, rye, buck-wheat, soya-beans, Indian beans, and cotton. Barley, Italian millet, and soya beans have an acreage of over a million acres and thus are the most important "field" crops in Korea. Those crops which have an acreage of 84 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE between 122,000 and 250,000 acres are millet, upland rice, mung beans, hemp, perilla, tobacco, pea, and ramie. In order to show the regional differences more vividly, the northern and southern limit lines of cultivation of some crops, drawn by the average figures for more than ten years, are plotted in figure 8. As shown in the figure the limiting lines are almost parallel to the isothermic lines. The irregularity of the lines is not caused by temperature only-but also by topographic features, the direction of sea current, the property of soils, and other factors. The climatic factors have a decisive influence on the formation of regional differences in agriculture When we examine this influence on the field cropping system, we find a sharp distinction between north and south. Sometimes, the north is called the "Spring Seeding Zone"; and, as against this, the south is called the “Autumn FIGURE 7. THE DISTRIBUTION MAPS OF PRINCIPAL CROPS IN KOREA. FIGURE 7a. GINGILI Each dot represents 50 "chobu" -222.5 acres. RICE Each dot represents 3,000 "chobu"-17350 acres. Z می و امور 85 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ADZUKI BEAN Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. 0.0 MUNG BEAN Each dot represents 100 "chobu" -245 acres. o FIGURE 7b. 00 6. KIDNEY BEAN Each dot represents 50 "chobu” -122.5 acres. PEA Each dot represents 50 "chobu" -122.5 acres. ཟ༧་ 9. S 0. 'C 86 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE S FIGURE 7c. BARLEY Each dot represents 500 "chobu” -1225 acres. NAKED BARLEY Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. ... H WHEAT Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. FOXTAIL MILLET Each dot represents 500 "chobu" -1225 acres. " art 87 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA OAT Each dot represents 200 "chobu" 490 acres. FIGURE 7d. 10.0 0 MAIZE Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. 92 22358 3452 } BUCK WHEAT Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. d. {{ SOY BEAN Each dot represents 500 "chobu” -1225 acres. J ¦ 88 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE FIGURE 7e. UPLAND RICE Each dot represents 100 "chobu” -245 acres. 20 JAPANESE BARNYARD MILLET Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. -2-2-753 (#{$\:)=4}={ ** GRAIN SORGHUM Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. 0`0 MILLET Each dot represents 100 "chobu" -24.5 acres. избя Z 89 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA } FIGURE 7f. HEMP Each dot represents 100 "chobu" -245 acres. RAMIE Each dot represents 50 "chobu" -122.5 acres. 0. Kingd PAPER MULBERRY Each dot represents 50 "chobu" -122.5 acres. Limor WANGUL GRASS Each dot represents 50 "chobu" -122.5 acres. 90 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE ་ • FIGURE 78. POTATO Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. "D 25 SWEET POTATO Each dot represents 100 "chobu” -245 acres. PIRILLA Each dot represents 100 "chobu" -245 acres. mes ä Und 0 COTTON Each dot represents 200 "chobu" -490 acres. 91 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA · H FIGURE 7h. APPLES Each dot represents 10 "chobu" -24.5 acres. 00 PEARS Each dot represents 10 "chobu" -245 acres. 92 GRAPES Each dot represents 1o "chobu" -24.5 acres. ༥༥༠འ་5 MULBERRY TREES Each dot represents 100 "chobu" -245 acres. ca. CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE Seeding Zone. In the north, the single crop system is prevalent on account of the bitter cold in winter, while in the south double cropping or multiple cropping systems are found. The following classification describes the differences in methods of farming. I. 1. The Northern Section (Spring Seeding Zone). Fallow lands (mainly of the "fire field"). 2. The Southern Section (Autumn Seeding Zone). a. Fallow lands (mainly of the "fire field"). b. Fields without fallow. (1) Three crops in two years, rotation by the order of Italian millet, wheat and beans. (2) Four crops in two years, rotation by barley, beans, or millet as main crops. (3) Other various combinations. In the Northern Section, the air temperature is so low in winter that no crops could be on the field. The farmers are forced to sow in the spring. This zone roughly corresponds to the -8°C isother- mic line of the mean temperature in January. Some experiments have shown that in the plain district of the southern fringe in the North Section, winter wheat and some other crops are possible, but in the highland districts, especially regions which are 500-1,000 meters above sea level, it is never possible to raise winter crops. In the South Section, the acreage of field crops is nearly three- fifths of the total field crop acreage in Korea. In this section, winter wheat and winter barley are ordinarily found. The limit line of winter barley is along the isothermic line of -8°C of mean air temperature in January. Barley is the most important crop for double cropping in paddy fields in the winter season. In such a case, the limit line becomes lower, by falling to the isothermic line of -4°C in January. It is of interest to compare these limiting lines of various crops with the weather charts (pages 6 and 7.) The influence of climatic factors is obvious with regard to the regional character of agriculture in Korea. The farm tools and the ways of using them are also somewhat different north and south. Generally speaking, the forms of tools. and the methods of using them in the north are for the farmer's convenience in dry field work, while in the south they are for use in watery fields. 93 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ·་ 30 Scale: Do ques YELLOW SEA English Miles SA 10 80 0 FIGURE 8. 100 080 ♡♡Gio ∞0 MANCHURIA Owens នាំខ D Wheat (n) $0 Naked barley (n) Wangul (n) 8 (12) APAN) Native Cotton (n) Oats (s) Corn (s) Upland Cotton (n) open Ramie (n) SIBERIA Irish Potatoes (s) Sweet Potatoes (n) KOREA CHANNEL THE LIMIT LINES OF IMPORTANT CROPS. (n. indicates northern and s. southern limit of the Crop named) 94 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE FARMING METHODS The farming methods of the present day are handed down from the practical experience of past centuries. They are very different from Western methods. The peculiarities of Korean methods, similar to those in the Far East in general, are: simplicity of farm tools and implements, extensive manual labor in seeding, weeding, ploughing, and harvesting, absence of the "rest" year for land in crop rotation, absence of dairying, and intensive application of fertilizers and manure. ¡ "Fertilizers have been introduced in recent years but are not as yet extensively used. The preparation of manure is, therefore, one of the painstaking jobs for the farmers. Manuring is absolutely necessary for the purpose of maintaining the soil fertility. In order to make a compost, all kinds of household refuse are mixed together with peat, weeds, litter, ashes, sod, and leaves. This is heaped up in a place for a long while for complete decomposition. This is usually done in the fall. The decomposed mixture is carried out in the early spring the following year, evenly spread over the surface, and ploughed into the soil. Human excrements are extensively used as a quick and immediately effective manure, but fresh refuse is seldom used. This is kept in peat for some time. Ploughing is done thoroughly, about twice or three times on the paddy field and once on the dry field. The purpose is to turn the soil completely upside down. A plough is drawn by two bulls or cows, and the ploughed lot is covered with parallel rows of inter- changing ridges and furrows. The latter being more extensively exposed to the action of sun rays, carry the needed heat to the tubers and roots of young plants. In periods of drought, the ridges attract, at night, moisture from the air, while in periods of exces- sive rain they allow the superfluous water to be drained off the furrows. In northern Korea, the direction of ridges is usually from east to west. This is to avoid the cold spring winds from the north, by seeding the plants in the south side of the furrows. The ploughing is conducted with variations which depend on the nature of the soils and also of the crops. The seedbed for barley, for example, is prepared in the following manner: the plough takes the track along the seedbed of the preceding year or the *******ams 95 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA preceding crop. As a result, the furrows appear where the ridges were before, but often the furrows and ridges take the positions as before. By a combination of these two manners, the farmers are trying to utilize the productivity of the soils as much as possible. Seeding is done mostly by hand, that is to say, by planting. Especially, when one sows the rice seedbed, he takes care to spread the seeds evenly over the surface of the bed. It is a common saying among farmers that the rice crop of the year depends largely on the preparation and care of the seedbed. The transplanting of rice seedlings to the main field is one of the most painstaking jobs. for the farmers, for it is done in the busiest season of the year and yet no time must be lost if a good crop is to be obtained. Seeding in the dry fields is much simpler: one man may go after the plow, dropping the seeds by hand, taking the seeds out of a container carried by him in the other arm. The seeds are simultaneously trampled into the soil by the sower; or another man may follow the sower and cover the seeds by using a rake-like tool called kalki. Weeding is also done by hand, with a tool called homi. Weeding has several functions: it makes the soils porous and soft, a necess- ary condition for roots to penetrate into the deeper soil, it takes away the miscellaneous weeds from the ground and keeps the soil fertility for crops. For these reasons, frequent weeding is done, for example, three or four weedings for the rice fields and two or three for the dry-field crops. { Harvesting is carried on by manual labor with a simple sickle. The harvested crops are spread over the ground to dry in the sun for some days. They are then carried to a yard near the farm house. A bundle of rice is repeatedly beaten on a wooden block until all the grain is removed from the heads, or a simple machine is used. For wheat, barley, soya beans, etc., flails are used in threshing. In recent years certain new threshing devices have been introduced, yet their economic value is still problematic. Cleaning and drying are done after the threshing. Grain is packed in a straw bag called sum or kamani. The cycle of work performed by the farmer is fairly complicated and diversified. Even the ploughing itself may be done in several ways, depending on whether it is on a dry field or on a paddy field. Lack of improved tools and machines reduces the efficiency of farm labor and results in too great an amount of manual labor for 96 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE the farmer. Consequently, from early spring to late fall, the farmer has very little leisure time. THE FARMSTEAD AND FARM LAY-OUT The Korean "farm" is different from the European or American farm; every farm has a small area of land, and these small areas are subdivided into many tiny plots, interspersed here and there, within a distance that ordinarily allows the farmer to go from one to the other in the course of his daily work. Therefore, it is not a farm at all in the meaning of the term which is applied to the unit of agriculture in America and Europe. For this reason, the term "farm household" is here consistently applied, instead of the term “farm”. Likewise, the term "farmer" is construed to mean petty agriculturist, not the manager of a farm as in America or in Europe. He is no better than the peasant who tills a small area of land, owned or leased, mainly by hand. With such restrictions of the term "farm" in mind, we shall study the Korean farmsteads and farm layouts. Farm houses in Korea are grouped together in villages. The villages are ordinarily located under a hill or on an easy slope of a foothill, accessible to the farming land which is located in the valley. In most cases, the houses face to the south; north exposure is the least favored. The size of a village varies with location, topography, and other condi- tions, from a few cottages to over a hundred farm houses. Such group living of the farmers in a village naturally separates the farmers' houses from the land they cultivate. In other words, the farm houses are not on the farm land. This village life of the farmers offers the opportunity to arrange and organize_group work! So, many kinds of farm work are done by collective methods, i.e. working in groups made up from a few to several tens of men. Transplanting, weeding, and harvesting are done in this way. The organization of this group work is based on the principle of reciprocity. For example, when farmer A invites his fellow farmers B, C, D, etc., to help him in a day's work, say transplanting of rice, he is obliged to return their service on the following days, as these farmers ask him to come to their aid. Thus the group work with the spirit of cooperation and reciprocity goes along smoothly and effectively. On many occasions, of course, an individual farmer does his work alone or with the aid of ( K7. cooperative 97 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA the members of his family, but the habit of working in company with villagers is so persistently practised that it may be said to characterize the life of Korean farmers. This group work seems to be a matter of great antiquity, though it is seldom found_in_ Japan or in China, where most of the farm work is done by the farmer himself independently or with the members of his family only. It has the advantage that it promotes affinity among the members of a rural community, develops the cooperative spirit, diminishes the fatigue and weariness of working alone, and results in an increased efficiency of labor. On the contrary, its disadvant- ages are seen when one reckons the differences of the working power of individuals, the unlikeness of the quality and skilfulness among the workers, and the roughness of the work done. To measure the extent of the interspersion of land lots which belong to a farm household, we made a special inquiry, with the following result: the number of farm households which manage two lots is 261 (20.9 per cent), three lots 243 (19.5 per cent), four lots 178 (12.2 per cent), five lots 133 (10.6 per cent), and so on down to fourteen lots 3. This means that over 71 per cent of the total farm households (1249) investigated manage from two to six lots of land. Out of the 1249 farm households, only a single farm house was located right on the farm land and had no other lots to manage. How far away are the land lots from the farm houses? Regard- ing this matter no information has ever been given, in fact no estimate has ever been tried. In our investigation, we made special inquiries regarding this matter. The result is tabulated in table 39. There are 296 (6 per cent) land lots whose distance from the farm houses was not reported. Thus, the 1249 investigated farm households cultivate 5,374 land lots. The largest number of these is within a chung (about 360 ft.); but more than 8 per cent are situated as far as over 10 chung. On the average, each farm household farms 4.3 land lots, and the average distance of the lots is 2.9 chung (approximately 1,000 ft.) away from the farmstead. Another question concerns the size of the lots. The area of land lots is greatly diversed according to the locality, as shown for each of the thirteen provinces in table 40. The average size of lots is one acre. The smallest size occurs in North Choongchung Province, and the largest in North Ham- 98 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE TABLE 39. DISTANCE OF LAND LOTS FROM FARM HOUSES. (Unit one chung = 360 ft.) Distance from Farm House Number of Lots in each interval Per Cent. of total Distance from Farm House Under One chung 1,680 33 Number of Lots in each interval Per Cent. total I-2 1,371 27 6.1-7 87 I 2.1-3 548 2 7.1-8 115 2 3.1-4 346 7 8.1-9 40 4.I-5 247 5 9.1-10 152 3 I 5.1-6 I kyung Province. Generally, the northern_provinces have larger lots than the southern provinces. This is caused by the prevalence of dry fields in the north. The average size is too small to permit the effective use of farm machinery. Furthermore, in the case of paddy fields, the lots are subdivided into many plots by solid, irregular, and permanent ridges. Such division is necessary to keep the water in equal depth on every part of the surface of the soil in the rice-growing season. Such condition cuts down the efficiency of farm labor to a great extent; even the efficiency of manual labor is greatly reduced. Farmers are aware of the disad- vantage of having such a plan of farmsteads. But it is not an easy matter for them to adjust the land lots, because of the legal, economic, and social obstacles. In Japan, in order to eliminate the inconvenience and to increase the labor efficiency, the so-called land readjustment work has been going on since 1890. Much has been done, but the work has still a long way to go to reach the desired end. In Korea, such work has been contemplated neither by the Government nor by the people, except as a partial and incidental adjustment involved in the Land Amelioration Project which will be more fully discussed in a later chapter. 95 2 Over 10 397 8 ܕܩ ܝܪ ܐ ܐ 99 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA N W‡E S other other farmstead Flowers E K Back yard H LL F O Bamboo bush LEGEND. B L K. Kitchen B. Bedroom W. Wooden floor E. Earthen corridor O. Cooking pots WE Scale; L The highe BSB courtyard Ꮃ u Earth threshing and working yard g. R. C. مه P. H. Working Hall m. F. L. Laborer's room u. Living room T. S. Storage Barrier other farmstead G. Guestroom Granary Village road Chicken yard 1 = 600 TG GE $table P gate Pig-shed Manure shed Fuel store Workroom, other farmstead Mulberry garden m O straw stacks Hill Slope well ☐ Hedge Vegetable garden FIGURE 9. A typical farmstead of medium size in South Choongchung Province. The arrangement of rooms, work halls, corridors, kitchen, stables, yards, gardens, etc., is common in that region. The farmhouse faces to the south. It is enclosed by an earthen barrier about 5 ft. high, except the outside portion which is fronted by the outer building. It is customary for every farmstead, no matter how small or large, to have some sort of barrier against the outside world. The vegetable garden and the mulberry garden are placed near the house, but the former is located too far from the kitchen. 100 CHARACTERISTICS OF KOREAN AGRICULTURE TABLE 40. NUMBER AND AVERAGE SIZE OF LAND LOTS BY PROVINCES IN 1930-1931 Kang að alla sp Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai Kyungki Kangwon N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla Total Number of Land Lots Surveyed 160 507 69 473 689 333 279 197 609 596 347 592 523 ΙΟΙ 5,374 A man pengan Average Size (acres) 2.7 1.3 2.I 1.4 0.9 0.7 2.0 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.6 (aver.) 1.0 r CHAPTER III LAND UTILIZATION THE FIRST land survey recorded in Korean history goes back as far as A.D. 10221. Since then the land has been surveyed from time to time. In 1769 a land classification was made accord- 848 tho, ing to grades and uses of land, standardized by taking account of fertility, topography, and location. This record is shown in table 41. The most recent land survey was begun in 1908 with the establishment of a Land Surveying Bureau in the Department of Finance. In the course of the work, the old Korean regime came to an end by the annexation in 1910. The Japanese Government took over the work and raised in Europe the so-called "Second Public Undertaking Loan", amounting to 17,963,920 yen, to finance the undertaking. The work spread over seven years and was 15,99m completed in 1918 at a cost of 15,986,202 yen. Trigonometrical and LE MAGNETIZZA topographical surveys of about 34,320 square miles were made, together with investigation of ownership, value, and topography of over 19,000,000 land lots, compilation of cadastres with corres- ponding maps and books containing the number, kind, area, ownership, and classification of each lot, and topographical maps on the scale of one to fifty thousand, one to twenty thousand, and one to ten thousand. The details of every land lot are recorded. The land classification also was completely done, but the old grade system was abolished. All land was classified under nineteen uses, namely, field, paddy field, sites, pond, miscellaneous land, forest, monastery land, grave land, park, railway land, channel land, road, river, ditch, reservoir, dam, fortress, rail land, and water-supply land. According to historians, the first statistics regarding land area were recorded in the third year (1391) of King Kong- yang of the Koryu dynasty (918-1392). The total number of kyul was 798,127 (approximately 1,995,000 acres)., However, a Kyol În 2013.29 Lain (NOT 1 Chung In Chi, et. al, History of Koryu, 1451, Rept. 1908, Vol. 78, p. 584. 2 Kim Chi In, et. al., Moon Huen Bi Ko (The Great Encyclopedia), Vol. 152, leaves 6-7. 102 Province All Korea Kyungki Choongchung Chulla Kyungsang Whanghai Pyengan Kangwon Hamkyung Total Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field Dry field Paddy field TABLE 41. LAND OF DIFFERENT GRADES, 1769 (In Kyul*) First Grade 42,118 19,955 22,163 1,743 1,650 5,113 9,430 11,461 10,747 457 237 1,181 99 Second Grade 87,567 38,661 48,906 9,116 8,633 13,932 25,696 15,539 14,571 | | | | │ 6 74 Third Grade 178,429 78,335 100,094 26,005 24,628 29,448 54,3II 22,182 20,800 111 683 354 17 I Fourth Grade 136,424 60,908 75,516 4,680 18,079 17,121 15,852 29,235 25,343 23,703 316 47 7 I 1,288 668 23 Ι Fifth Grade 75,885 42,113 33,772 7,021 7,334 6,946 5,477 10,102 5,262 4,934 8,124 1,901 5,670 902 2,537 1,316 7,709 650 Source : Moon Huen Bi Ko (The Great Encyclopedia), Vol. 161, leaves 8-9. * Kyul is the old Korean unit of land area, approximately 2.5 acres. Sixth Grade 328,177 228,959 99,218 27,311 11,702 1,323 1,253 217 400 23,181 21,737 59,405 48,138 66,361 10,564 2,543 1,319 48,618 4,105 Extra Grade 314 168 146 156 134 12 12 | | | ││ Total 848,914 469,099 379,815 27,467 23,537 63,612 60,243 70,039 129,174 102,968 96,552 67,845 50,086 72,038 I 11,467 7,508 3,894 57,622 4,862 LAND UTILIZATION 139/ 공양왕 ​1798 mil kyl Kyol LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA more detailed survey was conducted in 1404, and the result was 1404 태중​recorded as shown in table 42. 9227 TABLE 42. TOTAL AREA OF FIELD AND PADDY FIELD IN FOURTH H YEAR OF KING TAICHONG (1404) 1646 C A 1 6863 1718 1:395 пь 18489 Province Total Kyungki* Chulla Choongchung Kyungsang Whanghai Kangwon Pyengan Hamkyung Fields (in kyul) 478,443 75,046 109,827 60,489 112,627 72,056 39,281 5,987 3,130 Paddy Fields (in kyul) 444,234 65,096 113,263 113,501 111,998 18,866 20,708 661 141 Both (in kyul) 922,677 140,142 223,090 173,990 224,625 90,922 59,989 6,648 3,271 Source: Moon Huen Bi Ko, Vol. 152, leaves 1-6. *The figures are computed from the records in the History of Koryu, compiled by Chung In Chi, et al. The original record was made in 1390. The total area was approximately 2,306,000 acres, including both fields and paddy fields. Other data relating to the area of land used in other ways at that time are not available, since no adequate records are preserved. The total acreage of fields and paddy fields had dwindled to 686,335 kyul (about 1,715,000 acres) in 1646. As one would expect that the acreage of fields and paddy fields should increase with the growth of population, this abrupt fall must have special reasons. The historians explain it with the invasions of the Japanese (1592) and of the Manchus (1627 and 1636), which devastated the country to such an extent that nearly one-half of the population was lost. In 1718 82 years after the Manchu invasion, the total acreage of fields and paddy fields had increased to 1,395,333 kyul (about 3,488,000 acres), i.e. more than doubled. Disputes over land ownership and tenure were numerous, despite the increase of acreage. In the late years of the Yi dynasty, land 4 3 Moon Huen Bi Ko, Vol. 152, leaf 20. 4 Chung Yak Yong, Mok Min Sim Su (Prefect's Gide), Vol. 10, ed. by Hyunchai, Seoul, 1900, pp. 10-12. 104 LAND UTILIZATION owing to the corruption of the government. Accordingly, no dependable statistics on land utilization can be found for this period. Reference has been made to the land survey work during the period 1908-1918. Since then, slight changes have taken place with regard to the size, form, and use of some individual land lots, yet in the main the Government records on land remain as they were. Table 43 shows the area of land under various classifications at the end of 1930. Obviously, the purpose of the land classification was mainly taxation rather than better utilization. It is also noteworthy that a large area of land is publicly owned—that is, by the state. Formerly, the Korean Royal Household and the Households of the Royal Blood Relatives owned extensive areas of land with the special privilege of tax exemption. When the Japanese established their protectorate over Korea in 1905, the Japanese Resident- General lost no time in taking over all the royal lands on the pretext that land which did not pay tax should be returned to the state. This was merely turning the revenue to certain other purposes, for example, a part of it to the Oriental Development Company-a Japanese semi-official colonization organization further described below. This confiscation of the royal lands enormously increased the state-owned land area. In recent years, the Government is adopting the policy that the state should not own land in competition with private persons; but although it has been selling land to specially selected persons on instalment plans, the area is still large. The percentage distribution of land classified according to various uses in 1930 was:-fields 13.10 per cent, paddy fields 7.60 per cent (both single and double crop land), sites .60 per cent, lakes and ponds .03 per cent, miscellaneous land 0.23 per cent, forest 78 per cent, grave yards 0.23 per cent, and other, inclusive of temple and shrine, parks and gardens, railways, water works, roads, rivers, dams, reservoirs, canals, etc., 0.21 per cent. 66 (sue table - bu EAM-6 THE AREA OF ARABLE LAND AND ITS CHANGES The arable land in Korea is limited to two kinds: "fields" and paddy fields." These two kinds of land were the main source of government revenue for old Korea; and in order to meet the needs of the state treasury and to levy equal burdens upon the 105 CAN Y PANJOLS Mand . V Province Total Kyungki North Choongchung South Choongchung North Chulla South Chulla North Kyungsang South Kyungsang Whanghai South Pyengan North Pyengan Kangwon South Hamkyung North Hamkyung Ownership public 19,620,727 97,874 Staxable 10,952,844 6,723,921 private non-taxable 20,889,384 51,462,955 total 248 6,822,043 public 250,365 taxable 972,662 private non-taxable 1,693,195 total 2,916,222 public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total public private total 250,256 Staxable 396,898 non-taxable 1,074,337 Staxable non-taxable Total 293,033 Staxable 597,318 non-taxable 1,094,081 1,984,432 437,130 Staxable 1,032,410 non-taxable 1,761,844 3,231,384 taxable non-taxable 651,021 Staxable 951,737 non-taxable 2,765,055 4,367,813 taxable non-taxable Staxable non-taxable Staxable non-taxable Fields 1,721,491 212,596 285,730 2,109 617,592 200,027 949,866 1,853,188 202,136 7,519 442,631 112 450,262 727 211,869 355,273 taxable 713,113 non-taxable 1,791,318 2,859,704 261,621 1,315 162,846 164,161 25,196 485,594 88 510,878 2,180 468,405 470,585 3,104,791 Staxable 520,614 non-taxable 1,138,337 4,763,742 5,725 255,887 9 1,366,852 24,918 1,340,078 981,741 1,123,156 3,830,086 | 1,006,659 I,493,252 2,822 995,924 795,926 967,716 3,456,892 798,748 2,810,106 5,027 1,007,202 789,955 2,707,200 6,524,508 794,982 3,294,633 843,701 2,136,660 6,274,994 633,924 8,557 625,367 5,028,285 Staxable 963,595 non-taxable 1,686,619 7,678,499 829,172 8,278 820,894 3,501 482,779 39 486,319 Paddy Fields 48,531 3,836,328 3,884,870 II 5,544 485,577 7 491,128 485 169,789 170,274 2,822 385,179 388,001 5,380 407,136 412,516 4,348 495,627 2 499,977 2,744 468,682 471,426 9,038 408,481 2 417,521 8,974 312,034 321,008 2.986 167,116 170,102 2,847 193,755 196,602 1,134 196,972 54I 29,245 29,786 Sites LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 43. LAND AREA ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS, BY PROVINCES, 1930 (Acres) 8,443 301,191 203 309,837 2,006 36,752 196 38,954 93 15,072 15,165 438 26,607 27,045 240 23,539 23,779 259 39,396 7 39,662 526 13,362 13,888 1,114 28,064 29,178 362 29,015 29,377 708 21,011 21,719 367 20,002 20,369 1,132 20,501 198,106 21,633 1,688 116,735 118,423 463 19,553 20,016 735 8,317 9,052 Lakes and Ponds 2,144 2,385 4,529 541 149 690 73 44 117 215 49 264 3,807 343 ་ 4,150 1,874 254 2,128 3,062 142 3,204 1,264 761 025 568 173 741 32 227 259 71 2 73 272 73 345 223 154 377 142 14 : 156 Miscella- neous Land 28,683 19,391,938 89,019 117,702 2,712 7,553 10,265 9 124 133 436 5,730 6,166 1,217 3,454 4,671 879 11,539 12,418 282 1,146 1,428 700 19,920 20,620 8,508 17,115 25,623 10,437 11,644 22,081 2,575 3,488 6,063 66 788 854 Forest Land 257 6,259 6,516 605 259 864 145 20,701,483 1,582 40,093,421 228,310 30 1,677,889 267 1,906,199 297 247,969 1,067,099 1,315,068 278,868 936,495 1,215,363 278,942 1,080,871 1,359,813 402,566 1,743,792 2,146,358 637,737 2,742,245 3,379,982 334,381 1,770,705 2,105,086 1,320,361 1,100,074 2,420,435 1,473,856 951,518 2,425,374 2,797,322 2,692,976 5,490,298 3,282,012 2,125,024 5,407,036 5,014,314 1,679,477 6,693,791 Temple and Shrine 3,095,300 1,133,318 4,228,618 51 51 115,249 1,727 116,754 ང་ 78 85 7 122 129 9 193 202 19 262 281 17 198 215 218 73 9 73 82 2 51 53 26 117 143 5 85 90 2 1 Grave Yards 24 26 1,505 210 9,956 10,166 26 5,296 5,322 14 7,788 7,802 106 56 | 5,985 6,041 235 13,266 13,501 245 16,851 17,096 284 12,068 12,352 273 12,423 12,696 24 11,194 11,218 14 6,747 6,761 34 । 5,135 5,169 88881 78 4,988 5,066 12 3,552 3,564 CLASSIFICATIONS Parks and Gardens 79 82 161 2 | 17 19 44 9 9 7 11 7 9 1 9 18 31 31 17 24 41 | | 2 2 | | 4 2 | 9 II | | | | 1 1 4 4 2 T 9 II Railway Land 9,791 1,223 11,014 1,242 147 1,389 181 132 313 362 188 550 423 423 402 169 571 367 80 447 813 85 898 644 186 830 1,158 17 1,175 761 4 765 379 78 457 1,286 76 1,362 1,773 61 1,834 Water- works Land 245 397 642 46 63 109 1 1 ++ 4 4 ww | | 30 30 2 | 24 26 | | å å 90 90 | | 27 27 66 128 191 | | 2 2 41 2 43 | | 12 12 4 4 2 1 9 II 888888 4܆ ? } Rivers Highway and and Streams Road 6,972 13,671 20,643 762 727 1,489 166 563 729 | 159 436 595 588 1,627 2,215 671 1.411 2.082 029 1849 2878 602 1.977 2.579 529 1,065 1,594 453 1043 1496 693 435 2128 519 708 1227 333 480 813 468 I 350 818 3,270 7,244 10,514 737 1,024 1,761 129 499 628 61 869 930 428 842 1,270 152 465 617 125 649 774 492 1,695 2,187 619 240 859 144 222 366 227 II2 339 93 240 333 44 44 88 19 343 33 362 Ditches and Channels 1,813 26,719 15,73 17,544 30,721 132 1,416 1,548 32 l 93 125 14 722 736 448 2,494 2,942 44 414 458 24 321 345 76 1,924 2,000 703 2,695 3,398 73 962 1,035 58 1,884 1,942 44 1,602 1,646 36 705 741 129 Reservoirs Dams 499 628 4,002 54 । 852 906 223 269 492 186 2,462 2,648 51 2,097 2,148 333 1,381 1,714 2,281 2,435 4,716 418 1,296 1,714 90 5,747 5,837 27 2,459 2,486 90 3,797 3,887 249 3,383 3,632 534 534 | | ་ ་ 933 1,855 2,788 465 193 658 19 51 70 19 1 88 107 2 | 12 14 2 | 9 II 22 58 80 137 904 1,041 191 284 475 19 22 4I 24 169 193 4 1 22 26 29 96 29 58 14 14 Fortress 2112 44 11 44 2 2 2 | │ 2 4. | | 4 2 | | 2 4 4 34 1 | 34 7 11. 7 Rail line Land 4,253 3,571 7,824 9 325 334 124 274 398 9 703 712 120 120 149 539 688 343 271 614 J20 291 411 100 377 477 463 151 614 2112 78 1 347 425 I,249 176 1,425 1,467 117 1,584 Water- works line Land 7 115 122 4 4 2 2 7 7 7 7 9 9 7 7 7 | 12 19 49 49 4 4 1122 11 2 2 LAND UTILIZATION - - ** ** *****• surveying was neglected, even though the need for it was urgent, lands, frequent land investigations were made, the records of which although of varying accuracy, have been kept for centuries. Prior to the completion of the modern land survey in 1918, owing to the capricious will of the tax assessors, and the habitual tax evasion by the owners, the land area was never correctly entered in the registers. For this reason, we shall take the 1919 figures as the base of our calculation in measuring the changes of arable land area The fire field" is a field that needs brief explanation. Owing to the shortage of arable land, farmers in mountainous sections avail themselves of the opportunity to squat in the state-owned forest land. The method of farming here is most primitive because they do not settle on the land permanently, nor cultivate the land perennially. The common way of making a fire field is to set fire to the grass or bushes on a mountain slope; usually the inclina- tion is too great to start ordinary exploitation. When the surface of the slope is cleared in this way, they plant such crops as millet, potato, or sweet potato. No weeding and caring is necessary, but they let nature take care of them. On account of the sterility of soils, the squatters cannot continue cropping the same land for many years, but are obliged to move from one place to another. For this reason, the fire fields are at most cropped for two or three years, but usually for only one. When the soil productivity of such land has been restored by leaving it alone for many years, the squatters may come back and again set fire to the grass and bush which have grown during the fallow time. This practice has been condemned by the Government, because it often causes great mountain fires and burns down the woods. Not only that, but the burning of cover grasses and bushes on the mountain slopes causes gullying, and erosion when the rainy season sets in. It is, therefore, detrimental to the progress of forestation as well as the prevention of inundation and land slides. The poor squatters make use of the remoteness of the locality to evade the watchfulness of the Government. From such land no tax can, of course, be collected On the other hand, the squatters are contented with the hard but simple life in these far-away corners of "sub-marginal land.” During the twelve years 1919-1930, a very slight increase has occurred in the acreage of paddy fields and fields, showing addi- kat, pla slash & burn Jeg I07 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 108 Year 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Registered 3,781 3,782 3,783 3,786 3,696 3,807 3,831 3,856 3,888 3,916 3,942 3,963 Paddy Fields Un- registered 9 ΙΟ 15 16 2 M 6 in 25 mão ao gom 33 28 28 39 40 41 64 TABLE 44. AREA OF ARABLE LAND, 1919-1930 (in 1,000 acres) Source: : Total 3,790 3,792 3,798 3,802 3,721 3,840 3,859 3,884 3,927 3,956 3,983 4,027 Registered 6,815 6,807 6,808 6,792 6,790 6,782 6,822 5,108 6,862 6,843 6,819 6,789 Un- registered 131 IOI 149 149 157 176 Fields 143 145 124 119 114 126 Fire Field 344 313 353 330 353 393 375 374 376 370 433 442 Total 7,290 7,221 7,310 7,271 7,300 7,351 7,340 5,627 7,362 7,332 7,366 7,357 Government-General of Chosen, Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 90. Area 11,080 11,013 11,108 11,073 I1,021 11,191 II,199 9,511 11,289 11,288 I1,349 I 11,384 Total Per Cent. 100.0 99.6 100.2 99.1 99.0 100.9 IOI.I 83.2 95.4 102.3 102.9 103.3 LAND UTILIZATION tions of about 237,000 acres in the former, and 567,000 acres in the latter. The proportional increase of the former is faster than that of the latter. As the index indicates, the combined percentage increase in 1930 as compared with 1919 is only 3.3 per cent. The increase is very uncertain because only in six out of twelve years has such increase occurred. The tendency of increase is, however, definite in the last three years. Fo Theoretically and practically, the increase of acreage in one kind of use of land means naturally the decrease of acreage in another, since the extent of land area is fixed and all of it is utilized in one way or another. The economic advantage is usually increased by changing from one use of land to another; for example, by bringing a woodland under the plow. In Korea, rice land is valued higher than any other land used for agricultural purposes. Therefore, whenever a farmer sees a chance to change fields into paddy fields, he will not be idle about it. Likewise, fields are valued higher than forest land, and farmers never lose an oppor- tunity to change the latter into the former. The increase of acreage of arable land appearing in the table results from this effort of the farmers. The Government is also doing what it thinks best for the exploitation and reclamation of lands. This land policy we shall have occasion to discuss later. How is the increase of acreage of land related to the increase of farm population? Table 45 shows the change in the land area per farm household and per capita of farm population in the twelve years, 1919-1930. The acreage per farm household is the size of the farm and in Western usage is expressed as the "business unit" of the farm. The average size of the Korean farm fluctuates around 3.5 acres The smallness of this unit may be a matter of surprise to farmers who cultivate from 160 to 500 acres in the United States or in Canada. Yet it is noteworthy that this size as well as the per capita acreage has a tendency to diminish year after year, as indicated in the table. This tendency means that the increase in the acreage of arable land cannot catch up with the increase of farm population. | Land is so scarce that almost no farmer can cultivate as much land as he wishes to, and yet the acreage of arable land per farm household is declining. In order to see whether there is correlation between the growth of farm population and the increase of the acreage of Į 109 -- Lin LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 45. ACREAGE OF ARABLE LAND PER FARM HOUSEHOLD AND PER FARMER, 1919-1930 Year 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Per Household Acres 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.0 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.4 Per Cent. 100 97 97 97 97 97 97 80 97 90 90 90 Per Farmer Acres 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.60 0.56 0.67 0.66 0.65 c.63 Per Cent. 100 98 98 no 06 08 95 98 98 86 79 96 94 93 90 Note: The acreage is inclusive of the land put under double cropping. Σ (x-x) (y-y) n (s.d.x) (s.d.y) arable land, the Pearson formula r= may be adopt- ed. The result of the calculation is: r=0,220,18. The coefficient or correlation (r) is far less than six times the probable error (0.18), yet the magnitude of the coefficient is far less than 0.30. Accord- ingly, the correlation between the two variables, i.e. the growth of farm population and the increase of the acreage of arable land, is uncertain-practically no relation at all. THE FREQUENCY OF ARABLE LAND UTILIZATION It is a matter of common observation in the Far East that a piece of land is put under crops several times in a single year. Japan, China and other densely populated countries practise this cropping system and Korea is no exception. This method is primarily caused by the small area of land that an individual farmer is allowed to cultivate. The phrase "annual frequency of arable land utiliza- tion" is defined by Professor Nasu as meaning the percentage of the total area of all kinds of crops planted throughout one year in a given territory to the total area of the arable land in that territory. For the same matter Professor Buck uses the phrase "crop hectare IIO LAND UTILIZATION area." In both cases is meant the ratio between the actual land area and the cropped land area. It is simply the relation between the area of land provided by nature and that utilized. The term "double cropping" is often employed, but it is ambiguous with the practice of planting two or three crops on the same ground at the same time. Such practices are often found in China and Korea. Therefore, we shall use the phrase “frequency of land utilization” to denote the degree of intensivity of land use by planting crops one after another in a given year. In this respect, there is a marked difference between paddy fields and dry fields, as shown by the following table. TABLE 46. FREQUENCY OF LAND UTILIZATION BY PROVINCES, 1930 (PER CENT.) Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Average Frequency of Paddy Fields ΙΟΙ 125 115 149 169 182 208 100 100 100 IOI 100 100 128 Frequency of Fields 105 ? 183 178 163 146 183 184 131 124 121 132 113 119 139 } Both 103 154 142 156 157 182 192 715 II2 IIO I 12 107 109 134 Note: The frequency percentage is obtained by dividing the crop area by actual area and multiplying the quotient by 100. The annual frequency of paddy fields is far greater in the southern provinces than in the northern ones. Kyungki and Kangwon Provinces form the transcendental zone for double cropping by being 101 per cent., The dividing line approximately III LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA coincides with the isothermic line of 8°C. The frequency increases as one goes toward the south; and South Kyungsang Province, the extreme south, shows 208 per cent. This means that paddy fields are utilized more than twice in a year. 16 In the countries where the inhabitants are habituated to a rice. diet, paddy fields are much more valued than other fields. For this reason, all other kinds of land must give way to paddy fields where these are possible. The farmers are also skilled in arranging the cropping system so to make the most of a paddy field by using it more than once a year. In Korea the combination of crops is carried on in such a way that the second crop is planted right after the first crop is harvested. The winter crop is ordinarily barley, wheat, or naked barley. Often alfalfa, "renge," and other legumes are planted for green manure. But the summer crop is invariably rice. The limiting factors in such utilization of paddy fields are the physical conditions-largely climate and soil. As already pointed out, the temperature of the air directly affects double cropping. In the regions where the isothermic line is below 3°C, a winter crop is hardly profitable. Not only is the emperature too low, but the number of frostless days is too small. In the transcendental zone, namely, in the middle parts of Kyungki and Kangwon Provinces, the farmers sow summer crops between the rows of winter crop even on the fields. By doing so, they can harvest the winter crop just two or three weeks after the sprouting of the summer crop. This practice is a result of long experience, otherwise the time required by the summer crop is too short to produce a good harvest. In regard to soil condition, the paddy field for rice in summer must be turned into a field for wheat or barley in winter. Therefore, unless the land is perfectly drained and irrigated, double cropping is risky and often results in a complete failure of one crop./ However, such soil conditions are to a great extent changeable by human effort. This suggests the idea of extending the area of second crop on the paddy fields by proper drainage and irrigation. About a quarter of a million acres is in the potential area for such extension. Janyes As shown in the table, the annual frequency utilization is for fields higher than for paddy fields. The cropping arrangement of fields is much more complicated and varied than that of paddy fields! A great diversity, from lands lying fallow to lands used 112 LAND UTILIZATION several times, is seen. In northern Korea fields are generally employed for single crops and lie fallow in the winter. The sum- mer crops are of such kinds as legumes, millet, and corn. In southern Korea, summer crops are usually such plants as beans of various varieties, sweet potatos, tobacco, or flax, while winter crops are various kinds of cereals, as barley, wheat, and naked barley. The vegetable gardens, near a city or in the villages, are included in the fields. They represent the most intensive form of land utilization; most of them are cropped several times in the year. This is one reason why the annual frequency of utilization of fields even in northern provinces is higher than 100 per cent. It must, however, be taken for granted that in using the land several times a year, some crops are harvested prematurely. For example, certain kinds of vegetables are used in the "green," and a well planned com- bination of crops is scheduled to increase the yield in the year. There is no generally accepted arrangement for such crop rotation, since the circumstances differ widely from one locality in the south to: another in the north. In the vicinity of Seoul one observes that the farmers plant Chinese cabbage—a kind of lettuce—in the early spring. After harvesting this crop in the green stage, they plant eggplant, and then again moosu-a kind of Korean radish. In winter the land is left fallow. However, the varieties of such combinations cannot be fully described here. We shall name only some of the important crops that are commonly employed: cucum- ber, onion, garlic, hot-pepper, lettuce, radish, turnip, beans, potato, pumpkin, spinach, edible burdock. Sometimes barley is used to occupy the field in the winter season. Such combinations of crops increase the productivity of the land and make for a high rate of land utilization Mulberry gardens and fruit gardens are not included in the field, yet land which is put under such long-lived trees is doubly utilized in some other way. For example, in many cases, the growers plant alfalfa or vetch between the trees in the fall and harvest them in the spring. These are excellent green manure. In other cases, chickens are set free during the summer months in the fruit or mulberry gardens which afford an excellent feeding space. Such is the intensity of land utilization in Korea. According to the foregoing table, the annual frequency of land utilization is placed at 134 for all Korea: at 128 for paddy fields and at 139 for 113 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA fields. According to Professor Nasu," the annual frequency of land utilization for all Japan was 128, and that for paddy fields was (130 and for fields 127.Therefore, the frequency rate is higher in Korea than in Japan by 6 per cent. The year for Japan was 1926 and that for Korea 1930, yet we can safely conclude that the inten- sity of land utilization is nearly the same as between Korea and Japan Some comparable data regarding land utilization in China has been obtained through the efforts of Professor Buck. According to him, the index of double cropping, which is the crop hectare area divided by the crop area and multiplied by 100, is 147 for all localities (2866 farms in 17 localities in seven provinces, China, 1921-1925); 144 for North China and 150 for East Central China. If these figures represent Chinese conditions, the rate of frequency is much higher in China than in Japan or Korea. 6 The outstanding characteristic of land utilization in Korea, as in neighboring countries, is the extreme intensity, as represented by the high rate of the annual frequency of land utilization. This condition is brought about by the "bounty of nature" as Malthu- sians have it, namely, the excessive growth of population. ADVERSE FORCES AGAINST LAND UTILIZATION When Ricardo was expounding the concept of "margin" in con- nection with the famous theory of rent, he lamented the "niggard- liness of nature" and was driven into the pessimistic camp of the English classical school. The forces, irresistible and unavoidable, that work against the best utilization of land in Korea are far more than "niggardliness"; they are mercilessness of nature, when we consider the human effort to make the best use of every bit of land for the support of teaming millions. These forces of nature are excessive wind, rain, and hail. They work havoc not only upon the crops in the fields, but sometimes do damage to the land itself. For example, a great rain causes inundation, floods the field, and carries away dams and dikes. It is not a rare occurrence that a large area of land is denuded or covered with sand and gravel brought down from the mountain slopes by torrential rain. The acreage of land damaged by such adverse forces of nature is carefully recorded by the Government every 5 Land Utilization in Japan, 1930. 6 Chinese Farm Economy, 1930. 114 LAND UTILIZATION year. The registration of such damaged land is necessary, not only from the standpoint of better land utilization, but mainly for the purpose of adjusting the tax schedule. TABLE 47. ANNUAL DAMAGE INFLICTED ON LAND AND CROPS BY THE FORCES OF NATURE, 1926-1931 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Year Average of 5 years 1931 Acreage Damaged 315,035 467,187 330,278 592,173 683,174 477,569 1,887,765 Estimated Loss in Yen 7,340,619 5,262,510 6,828,658 5,208,772 13,027,163 7,533,544 7,717,122 Loss per acre (yen) 2.32 I.12 2.08 .90 1.90 1.59 0.40 Source: The Monthly Survey Reports, Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 18. According to the table, the damage inflicted upon crop area by nature was more than 683,000 acres in 1930, taking away no less than seven and a half million yen in value on the average for five years (1926-1930). The loss per acre amounted to 1.59 yen on the average. In 1931, the damage affected 1,887,765 acres, with a total loss of 7,717,122 yen-as compared with the five-year average, an increase of 1,410,196 acres in area and 183,578 yen in value; yet the loss per acre in this year was only 0.40 yen, one-fourth of the average for the preceding five years. The acreage affected as classified by crops and kinds of disaster, has also been recorded. The details are shown in table 48. According to the table, wind did the greatest damage. Inunda- tion also contributed not a small share of the havoc. Floods caused a loss of 2,990,349 yen (38.8 per cent of the total), hail of 620,000 yen (8 per cent), and wind of 4,105,764 yen (53.2 per cent). The miscellaneous crop land was the most affected, covering 46.2 per cent of the total area, the rice crop acreage comes next with 43 per cent. When looked at from the standpoint of money value, the rice acreage comes first by taking three-fifths (61.2 per cent) of the total loss, miscellaneous crops one-fourth (23.3 per cent), beans 7.2 per cent and the other various crops 8.3 per cent. 115 K 8. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 48. CROP ACREAGE CLASSIFIED BY KINDS OF DISASTER, 1931 (In Acres) Crop Rice Upland rice Barley group Miscellaneous Beans Cotton Technical plants Vegetables Fruit trees Others Total Flood 135,367 3,081 97,389 45,371 783 30 905 Hail 10,777 135 13,407 16,462 11,580 1,012 1,103 1,645 428 545 Wind 664,845 9,946 757,524 94,932 7,412 307 129 4,857 4,340 2,154 285,080 57,094 1,544,292 Notorious Insects 1,227 11111 56 | | 1,283 Total 812,216 13,162 13,407 871,431 151,883 9,207 1,440 2,679 5,285 7,039 1,887,749 Total Per Cent. 43.0 00.7 Source: Ibid. The question, then, is how far such adverse forces of nature demoralize land utilization. The completely devastated acreage of the above mentioned areas is not a small one. According to the government statistics, the devastated acreage caused by floods, storm, etc., at the end of 1930 was coming close to the 168,000 acre mark; the total loss in land value amounted to more than 13,419,257 yen. As compared with those of the previous year, there was an increase of more than 16,000 damaged acres and 2,443,508 yen in value. The area suffering the greatest loss was fields, aggregating to 97,110 acres; the next was paddy fields, totaling 68,143 acres (40.5 per cent). South Hamkyung Province leads the list with 27,240 acres damaged. It is followed by Kyungki (27,187 acres), Kangwon (18,493 acres), North Kyung- sang (17,778 acres), and South Choongchung (15,237 acres). The province suffering least was South Chulla, having only 2,028 acres damaged Such are the effects of the forces of nature which work against the fullest utilization of the land. They cause extreme misery among the peasants in the afflicted areas; and it is not surprising that many of them move out from the villages to seek a place where 00.7 46.2 08.0 00.5 00.1 00.I 00.3 00.4 100.0 116 LAND UTILIZATION 1 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung TABLE 49. ACREAGE OF DEVASTATED LAND CLASSIFIED BY USES AND PROVINCES, 1929-1930 (In Acres) Total { Year 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 Fields 12,872 13,456 4,283 5,494 3,248 4,253 1,031 1,298 799 731 9,036 8,893 7,374 5,986 9,417 7,938 3,470 2,774 4,187 3,761 7,412 11,974 24,844 22,910 5,324 7,642 93,297 97,110 Paddy Fields 9,371 13,146 4,589 6,108 5,903 10,752 2,036 4,423 1,099 1,150 7,995 8,612 7,685 6,259 2,053 1,909 806 643 4,328 4,227 3,758 6,387 4,971 3,856 437 671 55,031 68,143 Sites 540 63 19 22 32 30 20 20 ΙΟ 9 82 87 100 60 50 45 24 22 65 74 60 III 260 242 14 21 1,276 806 Ponds and Lakes 56 | | | | 1 3 3 t I | 2 | | | | IO 7 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 1, p. 23; and No. 9, p. 61. Misc. Land 716 516 48 315 202 121 145 151 138 173 186 329 342 IO 10 117 IIO 174 190 19 21 116 232 8 8 ∞ ∞ 2,253 2,108 ::- } Total 23,504 27,187 8,895 11,632 9,498 15,237 3,208 5,886 2,059 2,028 17,286 17,778 15,491 12,648 11,530 9,902 4,417 3,549 8,754 8,252 11,251 18,493 30,191 27,240 5,783 8,342 151,867 168,174 117 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA they can start again to gain at least the minimum sustenance of life. THE BREAK-UP AND RECLAMATION OF LAND Man wrestles with nature to restore the land which has been devastated by the forces described in the previous section, and to make up the losses by breaking up and reclaiming new land. Such utilization of land is fundamentally a process of taking up what Ricardians call "sub-marginal" land for the purpose of producing food. The process of bringing such land into use means costly effort. There are various ways to do so, but in Korea these may be classified as three kinds of effort, namely, (1) restoration of a devastated area, (2) breaking up hitherto untilled land, and (3) filling in the surface of the sea or of lakes for agricultural purposes. A traveller in the rural sections of the country in the spring will never fail to see numerous farmers toiling over the remaking of dikes and dams broken by floods in the previous year. If it is paddy fields, the sand and gravel that cover the devastated area are removed by dint of hard work. If it is fields, stones and gravel are taken out. Such work is done only when the return from that land promises to recover the cost of restoration. Otherwise, the land is left alone for years or forever. There is no estimate regard- ing the acreage of land restored in these ways, but the total acreage and cost must be reckoned in thousands of acres and millions of yen. Land which is broken up for the first time is usually situated below a foothill of a mountain. Most of such land is covered by woods, grass, or bush. It is rare that a large area is broken up in one place, though there are a few such exceptional cases. Most of such land is in a small area, and it is usually prepared for fields. However, in some irrigation association areas, paddy fields are also newly broken up. Whenever the conditions permit to make paddy fields, the people lose no chance of doing so. Regarding the acreage of this newly broken-up land, the Government has care- fully recorded the facts, and reliable figures are available, because it is a source of tax income. The value of the newly broken-up land amounted to 98,592 yen in 1930, an increase of 7,473 yen as compared with the previous 118 ; Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total TABLE 50. NEWLY BROKEN-UP LAND CLASSIFIED BY USES AND PROVINCES, 1929-1930 (In Acres) { Year 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 LAND UTILIZATION 1929 1930 Fields 561 363 1 1 1 1 19 18 85 85 64 64 152 164 111 881 694 Paddy Fields 777 767 2 2 I I 105 114 92 22626677 264 3 149 314 314 14 325 | | 1,859 2,313 Sites 119 | | | | | | | | | I | | │ I 55 ||m|mn||||| 3 14 22 7 Ponds and Lakes Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. I, No. 8, p. 23, and Vol. II, No. 6, p. 34. 70 70 88111 ││▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬│||||| | | | │ │▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ | Misc. Land 70 70 IO IO IO │││││| | | ││││ | | | 11 20 IO 1: Total 1,408 1,200 2 2 I I 124 133 187 175 361 362 416 428 6 149 319 319 28 325 2,852 3,094 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA "? L ...- ! year. The broken-up land was mostly paddy fields gained from forest land. The filling in of the surface of sea or lake is common along the south-west coast of the Korean peninsula. The inlets and bays along the coastal line here afford a good opportunity for such work, since there are numerous indentations with shallow sea base. When the sea water falls at ebb tide, the ground is exposed to the sun. The filling-in work consists of two parts, namely, making dams against the invading sea and drawing out the salt water by plentiful irrigation. Therefore, this form of reclamation is largely for the purpose of making new paddy fields. As shown in table 51, the total acreage of filled-in land in 1930 was 29,351 acres, valued at 676,068 yen. The total acreage of paddy fields was 28,343 acres, being 96 per cent of the total. As regards the provincial distribution, North Pyengan Province took the lead, with 18,593 acres, two-thirds (63 per cent) of the total, and South Chulla and South Kyungsang Provinces follow. Some parts of the broken-up and filled-in land are subject to the Land Amelioration Project inaugurated by the Government. There is no way to distinguish what percentage of the land area broken up and filled in is under the plan, because such clear classification has never been attempted. It is, however, safe to say that any of the small areas, not reaching 24.5 acres, that are utilized in these ways are not included in the plan. Such areas are private undertakings and have nothing to do with the Government project. In the following section we shall discuss the Land Amelioration Project somewhat in detail, since it is a comprehensive work which is aiming to increase the arable land area and also to increase the productivity of land. As to the potential area of land available to be broken up and filled in for agricultural purposes, there have as yet been no com- plete and thorough-going investigations. The chief kinds are the grass lands along river courses, the gentle slopes of foothills, and the land below shallow sea and lake surfaces. The former two kinds of land are suitable for breaking up and the latter for filling in. The first two kinds are distributed in small areas throughout the country, except in South and North Hamkyung Provinces where extensive areas of over several thousands of acres. in one place are found. The latter frequently occurs in large areas, * : 120 LAND UTILIZATION Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon TABLE 51. S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total { Year ACREAGE OF FILLED-IN LAND CLASSIFIED BY USES AND PROVINCES, 1929-1930 (In Acres) 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 1929 1930 Fields | mil 3 6 6 16 204 212 2 2 9 9 | 1 I I | | 1 1 222 249 Paddy Fields 536 799 | 366 mmin∞ 383 578 809 5,087 6,336 716 749 509 509 50 235 9,171 18,360 6 6 157 157 17,176 28,343 Sites I I I 8 8 56 70 ~ + mm + 1 ∞ | || 31 44 2 2 ||55|1|| | | 3 3 4 28 57 7 ... | | 133 193 Pond and Lakes | | | | 25 97 97 44 44 141 166 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. I, No. 7, p. 71 and Vol. II, No. II, p. 64. Misc. Land 6 6 9 all go, la 49 89 58 74 4I 35 2 I 168 175 | | 17 II I 350 400 Total 542 834 382 399 586 833 5,493 6,804 2 2 807 869 606 600 56 236 9,368 18,593 6 6 174 175 18,022 29,351 121 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA over several thousands of acres in one place along the southern and western coast of the country. The Government-General of Chosen has made the following rough estimates of the potential area of these kinds of land. TABLE 52. POTENTIAL LAND AREA FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES (In Acres) Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Sa pagal k Total Land Area to be Filled-In 90,997 29,532 14,330 98,614 12,360 123,918 107,476 31,068 508,295 Land Area to be Broken-Up along River Sides (acres) 12,862 2,151 12,740 8,322 8,001 8,050 35,887 9,841 12,071 3,986 24,056 9,763 33,195 180,925 on Foothills (acres) 136,220 99,715 104,370 98,980 195,020 212,170 180,320 141,855 131,320 247,450 184,730 147,980 123,970 2,004,100 Source: Manual of Land Amelioration in Chosen, 1928, p. 70. THE LAND AMELIORATION PROJECT AND IRRIGATION ASSOCIATIONS By Land Amelioration is meant, according to the government order issued on December 28, 1927, No. 10, any action which shall carry out the prescribed works listed below for the purpose of advancing the agricultural uses of land, excluding the works on a smaller scale and specified by the Governor-General of Chosen. "1. Equipment or construction works for irrigation and drainage; "2. Exchange, consolidation or division, change of classification, or change of the form of lots, and change or removal of roads, dams, ridges, ditches, reservoirs, etc.; "3. Any works or improvements necessary for the completion of works mentioned in the above two items." I 122 LAND UTILIZATION The most conspicuous plan of land utilization in Korea at the present time is the Land Amelioration Project inaugurated by the Government in 1926. It is so far reaching in its effect and so large that the present-day rural economy in Korea is overwhelm- ingly under its sway. It is not only a plan for better utilization of land, but a key to the solution of the food problem in Japan, accordingly also to a large extent of the population problem. We quote a passage from the Government publication. "7 "In our Japanese food supply, rice, the principal article of consumption, tends to be short year after year. As a step toward the solution of this problem, the Imperial Government is doing all it can to increase rice production -by effective enforcement of the Land Re-adjustment Law, by promulgation of the Reclamation Law, and by trying to improve agricultural techniques in every way. In spite of all these efforts, the increase in rice production clearly does not suffice to meet the demand in the near future. In view of these facts, and in order not only to help in solving the Empire's food problem but specifically also to develop the economy of Korea, the Government-General of Chosen planned in 1919 to have about 1,960,000 acres of paddy field reclaimed and improved within thirty years.¡ As a first instalment, the Government is trying to complete such work on about a million acres in fifteen years. In this way, and counting also on an increase of the yield by improved techniques of production, approximately 45,630,000 bushels of rice are to be added to the total annual output in that period. This is the so-called 'More Rice' project in Korea which has been under since 1920. way According to the Government's explanation, the land area to be improved was estimated to be (1) 9,600,000 acres by better irriga- tion, (2) 5,000,000 acres by the change of dry fields into paddy fields, and (3) 5,000,000 acres by breaking up and filling in. How- ever, the work had to be reorganized because of changes in the financial situation and difficulties unexpectedly encountered. In £925, the Government-General went to negotiate with the 51st Imperial Diet of Japan and got its sanction for obtaining the grant of a special "Low Interest Fund" to finance the so-called Land Amelioration Project from the Imperial Government. Under this project about 8,600,000 acres of land will be reclaimed or improved within twelve years beginning in 1926, and about 40,000,000 bushels of rice are to be added to the total production. The costs of this gigantic project vary for the different kinds of work, but the total estimate of cost per tan (0.245 acres) averages 7 Government-General of Chosen, The Land Amelioration Undertaking in Korea, Nov. 1928, p. 4. 123 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 19600, GOD 54 yen for the larger area (over 200 chobu) needing irrigation, and 63 yen for the small area (under 200 chobu); 76 yen for the change of dry field into paddy field, and 122 yen for breaking up and filling in. The Government's estimate of funds needed for the amelioration of the 1,960,000 acres came to 262,500,000 yen in all.) However, this does not include office expenses or incidental costs. Such expenses were estimated to be 15 per cent of the total expense of the work. Accordingly, the total cost of the project was estimated to be 303,250,000 yen. Of these total expenses, 65,070,000 yen were to be granted by the Imperial Government; 198,696,000 yen were to be carried by the office of the Government- General of Chosen by borrowing the Low-Rate Interest Fund; the rest of the total, namely, 39,484,000 yen, was to be raised by private concerns engaged in such works. The Low-Rate Interest Fund was made up of such money as is advanced by the Deposit Bureau of the Department of Finance and debentures issued by the Industrial Bank of Chosen and the Oriental Development Company. The money advanced by the Deposit Bureau, at the annual rate of 5.1 per cent, is to be handled by the Industrial Bank of Chosen and the Oriental Development Company which are entitled to charge an additional rate of 0.8 per cent to the borrowers, i.e. the undertakers of such work. On the other hand, the debentures issued by these business organizations were to bear interest at the rate of 8.9 per cent. The average annual rate of interest is therefore, to be 7.4 per cent. Moreover, the money is very easy to borrow. The repayment of the loan advanced in this way was to be paid up in twenty-five years on an annual instalment plan. The work has been going on as it was planned in the beginning, and the cost has always been less than the estimate. с The activities of the irrigation associations in Korea must be regarded as part of the Land Amelioration Project. As specified in the Land Amelioration Order, any irrigation work, except that on the smaller areas which are specified by the Governor-General, are to be included in the "irrigation and drainage" definitely provided for in the Order. Since irrigation is vital for the all-important crop, rice, the Government from olden times has paid a great deal of attention to it. Space does not allow to discuss at any length the various aspects 124 LAND UTILIZATION of the work in its historical development, but there were numerous and bangchuk intact until the end of the Yi dynasty (1910). By bo is meant any improvement made to stop the streams of rivers for the purpose of drawing water into the paddy fields. They are largely stone and mud dams thrown across the river course. By bangchuk is meant the place where rain water is held for later irrigation, a kind of reservoir. There were in 1918 over 20,700 dams and 6,300 reservoirs, covering an irrigation area of over 563,500 acres. For the construction and maintenance of these dams and reservoirs, the landlords or the users are responsible. Often they organize a so-called Ke a cooperative organization, for the purpose of maintaining them; the forming of irrigation associations. was encouraged by the enactment of the "Irrigation Association Regulation" in 1906. Under this regulation several such organiza- tions have been formed, but the situation and conditions are changing. Accordingly, the Government-General repealed the regulation, and in lieu of it, promulgated the so-called "Irrigation Association Order" in 1917. However, on account of various circumstances which worked against the orderly development of irrigation undertakings, the Government took another step by enacting the Irrigation Association Aid Regulations in 1919, enabling it to give such associations subsidies within the limit of 15 per cent of the total cost of work and also to make investigations and plans when the organizers apply for such assistance. Since then, the Government has promulgated the Land Amelioration Order in 1920. By virtue of this order, not only the incorporated irrigation associations, but any individual who undertakes such work is entitled to get aid from the government. The amount of subsidies was increased to 20 per cent of the total cost for works which aim to improve the irrigation facilities of paddy fields, 25 per cent for works which aim to change dry fields into paddy fields, and 30 per cent for the breaking up or filling in of land, except small projects which cover only 25 acres or less. Not only this, but in order to make more rapid progress, the Government caused the Oriental Development Company and the Industrial Bank of Chosen to undertake on a commission basis, for the benefit of organizers, (1) the organization of an irrigation associa- tion, (2) the required land surveying and planning of the work, (3) its supervision, and (4) other business of the association. 125 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA L Such is the effort made by the Government. However, one thing that must be noted here is that almost no Korean organizers of such work are benefited by the Government, since many of them are in business of small size on account of lack of capital and experience. They fall into the below-25-acres group. On the other hand, Japanese capitalists are taking advantage of Govern- ment aid and invest their money in the work. With such assiduous effort on the part of the Government, irrigation associations sprang up like mushrooms throughout Korea. Their total number at the end of March, 1931, was 177. TABLE 53. NUMBER, AREA, AND COST OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS, END OF MARCH, 1931 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Number 14 13 14 13 17 12 26 I I ΙΟ 16 II 10 IO 177 Area (acres) 34,942 5,706 23,233 96,351 18,830 17,216 48,544 108,165 23,941 56,389 36,532 45,888 15,770 531,507 Costs Per Tan (yen) 58.28 46.57 54.67 39.80 58.91 43.64 62.01 59.28 58.36 47.75 55.95 30.90 35.04 (aver.)50.89 Total (yen) 8,312,741 1,084,711 5,185,057 15,653,355 4,528,085 3,066,877 12,304,712 26,169,417 5,702,950 10,990,662 8,343,208 5,788,502 2,255,681 109,385,958 Debt Incurred (yen) 7,890,257 962,810 4,952,343 13,910,483 3,809,726 2,484,200 II,172,329 26,286,495 6,044,981 10,703,437 7,700,065 6,475,720 2,519,998 104,902,844 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Manual of Land Amelioration Project in Korea, 1930, Bureau of Land Amelioration, Dec. 1931, pp. 12-25. Note: I tan is equivalent to 0.25 acres. Of the total number of 177, 119 association areas are below 490 acres and 58 over 490 acres. When they are classified according to the state of the work, 138 projects have been finished, 23 are under construction, and 16 have not yet been started. The way of organizing an irrigation association is also definitely " 126 LAND UTILIZATION laid down in the Irrigation Association Order. Article 3 of that order reads: "When an Irrigation Association is to be organized, at least five men, according to the statement made by the Governor-General of Chosen, who wish to be the members of the said Irrigation Association, shall assume the promotion and make the articles of that association. They shall obtain a permit from the Governor-General of Chosen, after getting the approval of over one-half of the persons who are to be members and owners of not less than two-thirds of the area to be included in the association area." In reality the consent from the landlords concerned and the members is obtained by implicit coercion by the Government. To form such irrigation associations is its definite policy, and the persons concerned have to follow it, whether they like it or not. The work of such associations is carried out with the funds. advanced by the Government and loans obtained from other sources. The ordinary plan is a 25 years' instalment payment. The responsibility for paying the debt rests on the members. However, the income depends on the land area benefited by the association. Theoretically, the fee should be paid out of the increased product of the land. According to the Government's estimate, the expected increase of productivity and fees from associations were as shown in table 54 at the end of March, 1931. The prospective increased profit is always greater than the association fee charged for the purpose of repaying the cost of the association's work. Had the work of the associations been carried out without any suspicion of scandalous graft on the part of officials and contractors, and had the prospective profit from the increased product been realized as it was planned, there would have been no complaints from the members of the associations. On account of the poor appointments to the management of associations, of ill- management, of the economic depression, of the unprecedented fall in the price of rice, and some other contributing factors about which we are prohibited to talk, write, or give information, almost all of the associations have become targets of attack from the persons concerned, mostly the landlords and tenants in the associa tion areas. Let us quote a passage from Mr. Kenkichi Nishimura, an expert on colonial agriculture in Japan, who discussed the matter under the heading, This cursed irrigation work." "No one dreamed that a fall in the price of rice would become the cancer' of Korea's rural economy.. Irrigation on a large scale was the heart of a policy A 127 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA * TABLE 54. EXPECTED INCREASE IN PRODUCTIVITY AND FEES PAYABLE BY ASSOCIATIONS, MARCH 1931 (In Yen) Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Source: Ibid. Increased Production Per tan 8.66 7.23 10.00 5.81 7.46 6.47 9.50 9.18 8.70 9.65 8.36 6.90 9.10 (ave.)8.14 Total 1,235,319 168,392 948,161 2,284,983 573,569 454,719 1,881,690 4,053,981 2,002,860 943,203 1,246,094 1,292,305 585,310 17,670,586 Association Fee Per tan 7.71 5.94 6.54 3.96 6.24 5.62 7.53 7.29 6.12 7.84 6.16 4.58 5.96 ave. 6.16 Total Vabalaga dala 1,099,972 138,388 620,380 1,557,576 479,146 394,964 1,491,808 3,220,477 1,407,801 766,242 918,352 858,204 383,502 13,336,812 of increasing rice production. This work has gone on for twelve years at a cost estimated to be 54 yen per tan for the larger areas and 63 yen for the smaller ones, and at a cost of 76 yen for changing land classifications and 122 yen for breaking up and filling in land. The total cost is estimated as 262,500,000 yen. The work of irrigation cannot go on if it must be carried by so huge an amount of borrowing at a high rate of interest. It is only natural that the projects are in this embarassing position when the price of rice is as low as it is today. く ​“Let us examine the balance sheet of the Tongchin Irrigation Association which is considered to be one of the best managed of the 147 associations. The total cost of this association's project was 9,600,000 yen of which 5,600,000 yen was borrowed at an average interest rate of 8.3 per cent. The cost per tan was 58 yen. At present, the association is repaying its loans by charging 5.37 yen per tan of land benefited on the average. The prospective profit, estimated as 72 per cent. of the former yield, has never been realized. An estimate of increased profit from the land amounting to 2,563,000 yen was calculated on the assumption that the price of rice would never go below 13 yen per koku (4,950 bushels)-an assumption which has proved a dream. At present, the price of rice quoted is not more than 7 yen per koku. There- fore, with the charge for improvement weighing on it, sales of land in the 128 LAND UTILIZATION association's holding have stopped dead, with the result that land values have fallen and yet there are no buyers. In spite of this unfortunate condition, the association goes on charging fees varying between 6.11 and 6.97 yen per tan, a high rate. When a landlord has collected his rent from the tenants and paid these charges, there is nothing left. Often they are out of pocket because they have to make good the difference between the rent they can get and the fee they must pay. It is not difficult to see to what plight of the landlord class this will lead if this business goes on for another twenty "" 8 years. When the irrigation associations were formed landlords and tenants often tried not to sign their names as consenting to become members of the association. This frequently caused the use of coercive measures by the authorities. In many cases, the police stepped in and forced people to join the association. This was necessary to meet the legal requirement that the promoters must get the consent of at least one-half of the persons with interests in the proposed irrigation area. When the fall of price of rice became acute, these people could not make ends meet, and their complaints grew stronger and louder. Furthermore, the association work was sometimes considered by Koreans to be an intentional way to take the land out of the hands of Koreans as a part of the larger Japanese colonization policy. Such national resentment among Koreans increased the amount of discontent and complaint against the irrigation associations. Even the agricultural societies, semi-official farmer's organizations, were inclined to act against the policy. At an All Korea Farmers' Con- ference held under the auspices of the Chosen Agricultural "Society, the federation of all agricultural societies in Korea, on November 11, 1930, the following resolution was unanimously adopted. "RESOLUTION 3. Cut down the fees of the Irrigation Associations. "There is no question that the irrigation works are intended entirely for the purpose of increasing the rice production of Korea. But the decline in the price of rice has driven the irrigation associations into a sad predicament. They have become the objects of complaint by the landlords concerned; and it is to be feared that this growing antagonism may develop into a grave social question. We hope, therefore, that the Government-General will take the measures of relief and protection for Irrigation Associations suggested in the policies briefly outlined below: "1. In regard to Irrigation Associations already organized: 8 Agricultural Year Book of Japan, 1932, Buminkwai, Tokyo, pp. 41-50. 129 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA A. All debts incurred by these associations should be replaced by the Low Rate Interest Fund. B. The dates of repayment should be extended. C. Subsidies should be given to those associations which cannot stand by themselves, even when relieved by the two methods mentioned above. "2. In regard to Irrigation Associations newly forming: A. The rate of subsidies should be increased. B. The Government-General should assume responsibility for the planning and supervision of works. C. The repayment of debts should be on a progressive instalment plan. "3. In regard to both existing and newly organized Associations: A. The Government should grant subsidies for the settlement of farmers in association areas. B. The Government should pay the salaries of the agricultural experts employed by associations. C. In case the regulations relating to Irrigation Associations are to be amended or investigated, representatives of the private interests concerned should be permitted to take part in these procedures with the Government officials." This resolution was forcibly brought to the attention of all the Government officials and departments concerned, with information revealing to them the hardships and difficulties suffered by the members of these semi-official organizations. While landlords and farmers have been incurring great losses, the Government is optimistic and insists that the low price of rice is nothing but a passing phenomenon of economic depression. If the farmers will but wait until the time when conditions must turn to the better, the price of rice will go up, and all the difficulties will be solved. To the farmers this plea is unacceptable in every way since the prices of agricultural products have been low for years past, and nobody knows how far this depression will go. As a matter of fact, there are many so-called "bad irrigation associa- tions" which are virtually on the verge of bankruptcy. Seeing the plight of the farmers, some Korean economic and social leaders claim that (1) the management of the associations should be put in the hands of able members of these associations, and that the Japanese managers who are mostly corrupt, old, inefficient, and retired from the Government services should be discharged; (2) all debts of the associations should be replaced by the Low Rate Interest Funds and the term of repayment extended to fifty years; (3) the association charges should be reduced to one- ( • 130 LAND UTILIZATION half the amount of the present rate; (4) state subsidies should be increased. On account of the over-supply of rice in Japanese markets and the consequent difficulty of farmers in Japan, the Government was planning in 1933 to stop the execution of the Rice Increase Plan altogether. If this is the case, the formation of new irrigation associations will automatically cease, because the work is almost entirely semi-official in intent and control. LAND VALUES AND LAND TAXATION In our investigation, we covered an area of 9,137 acres. Of this area, 2,750 acres of paddy field were owned, leased, or managed by 1,069 farm households; 2,541 acres of field were controlled by 1,086 farm households; 141 acres of garden land by 403 farm households; 3,358 acres of forest land by 332 farm households, 244 acres of grass land by 23 farm households; 82 acres of sites by 621 house- holds, and 21 acres of other kinds of land by 46 farm households. There were altogether 3,580 farm households which were operating a land area valued at 1,763,317,184 yen. On the average for all Korea the "site" commands the highest value per acre. The value of the paddy field comes next. Garden land, fields, land for other uses, forest and grass land are the order according to value. Our investigators checked up the market. value of land sold and bought in 1930, lowest in recent years, as it was much affected by the abrupt fall of the general price level. The prices of agricultural products experienced a sharp slump in 1929, and this reflected upon land values in general. The low prices of farm products were responsible for a very small return on the capital invested in landed property. The money market was very tight in the years of 1927-30, and this contributed not a little to the fall of the level of value of agricultural land. The figures shown in table 56 are the records of our investigation. According to this table, the value of land classified as "other" was the highest. In this category building sites are included. The order of land classes arranged by value is "other" land, garden land, paddy fields, fields, forest land, and grass land—exactly the same order as in the official land classification. As a matter of fact, the average value per acre of the various kinds of land is not very different between the results of the two investigations, except i + 131 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA arrange rout by 132 N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai 6 Kyungki Kangwon 4 N. Choongchung 71 S. Choongchung 5 N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla 2 TABLE 55. VALUE PER ACRE OF VARIOUS KINDS OF LAND BY PROVINCES, 1930 (In Yen) 3 1 Province Average Paddy Fields 156.59 223.24 345.58 174.45 353.40 419.83 236.61 474.61 412.52 430.60 686.16 478.01 833.02 400.98 Note: Fields 164.26 73.20 85.51 263.25 100.31 3 315.01 241.08 153.44 169.55 159.89 2 367.27 131.17 1 374.68 176.27 Garden 240.00 577.40 328.65 384.78 246.98 140.00 278.81 118.10 84.79 237.30 605.00 284.86 488.01 278.74 Forest Land 48.84 86.71 23.30 51.02 22.63 49.42 57.20 6.10 28.98 14.89 28.00 35.63 54.00 36.46 Grass Land 64.28 30.00 156.62 80.80 80.37 24.36 62.50 536.66 6.27 23.84 Sites 112.96 807.50 464.53 202.45 342.66 391.12 71.42 302.19 459.78 1,616.08 330.68 370.84 470.90 The high value of sites in South Kyungsang Province is caused by the fact that a part of the investigation was conducted in Sahali village near Tonglai, in a suburb of the city, Fusan. Over 50 per cent. of the villagers were not farmers at all, and the value per tsubo was over 5 yen which is very high. Other Land 59.16 300.00 148.10 175.00 674.80 364.87 132.41 121.05 Average 111.65 112.19 486.89 239.23 120.69 342.14 186.14 114.62 233.42 181.71 488.42 205.26 281.98 192.98 LAND UTILIZATION TABLE 56. VALUE PER ACRE OF VARIOUS KINDS OF LAND SOLD IN 1930 (In Yen) Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Whanghai Kyungki Kangwon N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla Average Paddy Fields 199.29 233.93 265.08 240.62 304.88 180.00 417.21 428.45 347.21 683.76 532.23 1,112.09 303.23 Field 165.20 78.47 28.88 96.93 120.54 100.00 253.86 175.35 Garden 193.79 341.01 191.84 266.66 512.33 411.50 472.20 388.67 310.76 102.00 177.39 556.60 158.96 261.50 276.66 256.04 274.95 352.90 Forest 39.42 95.32 23.30 50.83 12.11 54.25 7.24 10.45 24.38 18.00 36.07 58.57 38.96 Grass 150.42 53.00 64.30 95.25 | 1 12.50 44.32 31.09 Other Land 13.33 116.66 1 1 491.50 13.25 401.97 Average 99.84 114.84 72.84 224.18 109.15 100.00 156.83 48.91 137.36 211.89 523.44 145.05 406.91 202.98 **Piln 133 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA in some individual provinces where values are widely diversified. The values of various kinds of land according to "grades" has been recorded by the Government for different localities in the thirteen provinces. They are the selling values reported in each year, separately for rural and city land. As has already been noted, the tendency of agricultural land values in Korea has been declining every year, since 1930. In keeping with a similar peculiarity of the land market elsewhere, the fall in the value of rural land in Korea is not so abrupt as that of some other commodity prices. Table 57 is useful only to point out the tendency of land values. in the period 1926-1930, because the actual selling value is very much diversified. The table indicates the average value of each of the three grades for various kinds of lands. It is not to be overlooked either that the seasonal variations are not taken into account. Generally speaking, transfers of landed property are much more frequent in winter and spring than at other times. The tendency of land values for the upper grade of all lands is rising except for the last year, whereas that of the values repre- senting the middle and lower grades of all lands is slightly falling. The average value of all grades and all kinds of land shows a slight upward trend during the five-year period; that representing the average value of all arable lands shows a downward trend. The trend of value of all kinds of land except the agricultural is slightly upward. However, the serious economic depression in 1929 and 1930 forced all values down. The rental value of these various grades of land has been record- ed by the Government, as the foundation for land taxation. In the original records, it is classified according to provinces as in the case of the selling value. We have no space here to describe the historical develop- ment of land taxation in Korea, except to say that the principal taxes in the early days were the land and household taxes, and these two supplied the greater part of the national revenue. For this reason, land was frequently surveyed even in the early days of the Yi Dynasty. The compilation of register books for land on modern lines was completed not long after 1910. This has made possible a more equitable collection of the land tax. In 1913, the customary collection of this tax from tenant farmers was legally 134 LAND UTILIZATION TABLE 57. TENDENCY OF LAND VALUES BY GRADES AND CLASSES, 1926-1930 (In Yen) Upper Grade Kind of Land Fields Paddy fields Sites Ponds and lakes Misc. land Average Kind of Land Fields Paddy fields Sites Ponds and lakes Misc. land Average Kind of Land Fields Paddy fields Sites Ponds and lakes Misc. land 1926 84.52 199.73 323.48 18.58 86.00 142.46 1926 40.19 119.23 117.55 6.39 23.37 61.34 1926 17.22 59.73 44.42 3.23 7.34 26.39 1927 85.21 207.46 402.15 20.55 67.69 156.61 1927 42.31 105.46 106.39 8.89 23.31 57.27 1927 1928 143.34 192.38 466.76 21.26 68.35 178.41 Middle Grade 1928 41.80 100.03 110.30 6.55 26.18 56.97 Lower Grade 1928 15.87 56.34 44.00 Note: (a) All the figures are averages for the thirteen provinces. 1929 82.85 200.08 566.38 19.02 87.65 191.19 1929 42.14 107.21 122.53 9.65 31.50 62.60 1929 15.52 43.40 38.72 1930 2.75 8.37 52.00 145.66 525.77 15.21 72.64 162.25 15.97 49.42 43.22 3.33 4.23 7.09 8.49 Average 23.81 25.78 21.75 17.74 Source: Annual Statistical Reports of the Government-General of Chosen, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929 and 1930. 1930 33.05 83.92 88.46 7.55 23.45 47.28 1930 12.26 37.52 30.97 2.15 5.82 (b) The unit of land area is 100 tsubo for sites and one tan (.245 acres) for all other kinds of land. 135 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA upper 8.97 18.77 42.80 TABLE 58. AVERAGE RENTAL VALUE OF LAND BY CLASSES AND GRADES, 1926-1930 (In Yen) Fields Paddy fields Sites Ponds and lakes Miscellaneous land I.99 9.83 16.47 Kind of Land 1928 middle 4.84 II.IO 14.35 0.59 4.82 7.14 Average Source: Note: lower 1.23 6.65 6.05 2.17 2.46 3.39 upper 9.60 19.80 32.12 2.0I 16.78 16.06 upper 8.65 17.75 34.89 1.70 9.83 14.56 1926 middle 5.14 14.68 13.79 0.95 7.56 8.42 1929 middle 4.45 11.52 15.50 0.44 4.49 7.53 lower 2.37 8.74 6.86 0.75 5.66 4.87 lower 1.63 6.19 5.11 1.90 2.14 3.39 upper 9.25 19.49 35.57 1.96 9.31 15.11 upper 10.70 I 14.36 39.94 1.90 7.61 14.90 1927 middle 4.80 13.51 14.18 1.07 4.46 7.60 1930 middle 2.92 8.51 12.75 1.14 3.42 5.74 Ibid. The unit for area is 100 tsubo for site and one tan (.245 acres) for all other kinds of land. + lower 2.10 7.75 6.13 2.69 6.25 4.98 lower I.22 4.47 4.22 0.19 1.37 2.29 136 LAND UTILIZATION abolished, but the detailed and exact register books were completed only with the finishing of the land survey in 1918. In the old days, the land tax was levied according to grades of land. This was necessary in order to place an equal burden upon land accord- ing to its productivity. On the completion of the land survey, the Government placed a fixed value on each lot according to its valuation. The standard of valuation was, of course, the producti- vity of the individual lot and also took into account other conditions, local and general, which affect the value of land. The tax rate, then, was fixed at 1.3 per cent of the land value. However, the Government's fixed value of land was set for all time. Accordingly it takes no account of changes in productivity or fluctuations of the selling value from other causes. The value entered in the register books is commonly called the "legal value" of land. The tax rate, 1.3 per cent, was that used in Japan; but in 1922 a revision was made, distinguishing between rural and urban land. After this revision, the tax rate was changed to 1.7 per cent for the former and 0.95 per cent for the latter, Accord- ingly, the burden on rural land was increased by 0.4 per cent. In 1928, urban land taxation was again put on the same basis as rural As a result of this reform, the Government estimates that the income from the land tax for 1930 amounted to 15,600,000 yen, that is 45 per cent of the domestic taxes, placing it first in the revenue items. The rate in Japan was reduced to 1.0 per cent, while that in Korea was increased to 1.7 per cent for agricultural land. In 1911, the year after the annexation of Korea, the total estimated amount of land tax was 6,240,000 yen. Comparing this with that of the fiscal year, 1930, the revenue from the land tax was two and a half times as large in that year. According to the Land Tax Ordinance (Order No. 1, March, 1914, amends, No. 9, June, 1918; No. 4, 1922; No. 10, Dec. 1928), such lands as fields, paddy fields, sites, lakes and ponds, and other miscellaneous lands are taxable if private property. In 1930, the taxable land area constituted only one-fifth (21.3 per cent) of the total land area. The tax rate fixed at 1.7 per cent of the "legal value" of land is, of course, only for the national treasury, that is, the revenue of the Government-General of Chosen. The provincial and township rates are levied independently; their amount, however, is exactly 137 OPSTONESATO STO లా r и K 9. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA v proportional to the original rate of the state tax According to the Order issued by the Government-General in February 1927, the provincial governors are restricted in their taxing power within limits drawn by the Governor-General of Chosen. These limits vary for different provinces. For example, the provincial rates. must not be more than 70 per cent of the land tax levied on land by the state in such provinces as South and North Pyengan, Kangwon, South and North Hamkyung, whereas in all other provinces they must not be more than 60 per cent of the state tax. All the provinces are under the necessity of raising more revenue for their budget. So these limits are always the actual basis of pro- vincial taxation on land. The rate of taxation by the township, or colloquially the myen, is fixed by Orders No. 1 and 4, June, 1917. According to these, the rate levied by the townships must not be more than 46 per cent of the land tax. The rate levied by the municipalities, however, may be up to 60 per cent of the land tax. The school tax also falls on the land. Governing this school tax an order was promulgated in July, 1920 (No. 14), according to which the taxing power is delegated to the decision of the coun- cillors of the local school; but the power is restricted to a maxi- mum of 30 per cent of the land tax levied by the Government. The annual burden which falls on the land, inclusive of state, provincial, township, and school taxes, is therefore 3.65 per cent of its total "legal" value. I There are some incidental and occasional taxes which directly fall on the land such as the registration fees. Such fees may, in a sense, not be considered as taxes, but they fall directly on land under transactions. According to the Registration Ordinance, issued March, 1912, No. 16, "registration fees shall be paid at the following rates, on change of ownership of immovable properties. "1. Acquisition of ownership by inheritance: 0.7 per cent. of the value of the property; 2. Acquisition of ownership by gift, surrender, and without compensation: 3.8 per cent. of the value of the property; 3. Acquisition of ownership by any causes not described in item (2): 3.3 per cent. of the value of the property; 4. Preservation of ownership: 0.5 per cent. of the value of the property; 5. Division of common ownership: 0.5 per cent. of the value of the property; 138 LAND UTILIZATION 6. Acquisition of superficies, permanent tenancy, and the right of lease for 10 years 0.1 per cent.; for 20 years 0.2 per cent.; for 30 years 0.4 per cent.; for 50 years 0.7 per cent.; and for 70 years 1.0 per cent.; of the value of the property; >> 9 7. Acquisition of pawn or mortgage rights on immovable property, 0.55 per cent, of the value of the obligation.' The registration of land property under the Registration Ordin- ance is done by the courts, and the fee takes the form of a stamp tax. According to the government statistics, the number of cases registered under the provisions of the ordinance is increasing every year. The extent to which this tax on land is paid is shown in the following table. TABLE 59. TAXES PAID ON REGISTRATION OF LAND TRANSACTIONS, 1930 Registration Number of Number of Cases Lots Kind of Transaction Inheritance and gifts Selling and buying Acquisition of ownership by other means than the above Preservation of ownership All other transactions Total 24,345 486,660 15,398 267,378 546,337 1,340,118 91,923 950,681 * 56,293 596,252 2,464,067 4,159,216 Amount of Tax Paid (yen) 17,859 4,259,142 269,086 503,480 1,057,399 6,106,966 Source: Annual Statistical Report of the Government-General of Chosen, 1930, pp. 442-443. According to the table, the total stamp tax collected from transactions on landed property alone was more than six million yen in a single year. There is another item of taxation that must be added, the acquisition tax levied on the buyer of landed property by the provincial governments. The rate of this tax is 1 per cent of the selling value. The registration and acquisition taxes may be regarded as incidental or occasional taxes as against the other land taxes which are standing and regular. In conclusion, we may 9 Government-General of Chosen, Chosen Horei Shuran (Laws and Orders in Korea), 1930, Part II, Chapter I, pp. 39-41. 139 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA say that the standing rate of land tax, 36.5 mills, is quite high as compared with those in Japan and China. Another charge on land which is similar to other public charges is the fees charged by agricultural societies. These organizations have the character of semi-official bodies, since they are sponsored by the Government. There are county, provincial and national agricultural societies.) The provincial societies are federations of county societies, and the Chosen Agricultural Society is the central federated body of the provincial societies. They have been organized under the Ordinance of Chosen Agricultural Societies, promulgated in January 1926, by Order 1. They are often called the "systematic" agricultural societies in Korea. All of them are strictly under the control of the administrative authorities. The budget of these agricultural societies is made up from two sources namely, the membership fee and the charge on land located within the jurisdiction of the societies. This charge is limited to not more than 7 per cent of the total amount of land tax borne by the land. The societies are empowered by the order to collect the charge by foreclosure without court decisions, if the member should neglect to pay. This privilege is equal to the power of collecting a land tax and is so regarded by many owners, since all arable land in rural sections must pay the charge as if it were levied by the Government. All private taxable land cannot be taxed on account of special conditions. The reduced productivity of land visited by flood, drought, hail and the like, for example, may make collection of the land taxes impossible. Exemption from tax payment on account of crop failure is an age-old practice. On the other hand, agricul- tural policies with regard to better land utilization make it advisable to encourage the people by exempting them from taxes under certain conditions of land utilization. Such policies also have been taken over from former times. The Land Tax Ordin- ance provides the following articles in regard to tax exemption: "Art. 9. When the form of a land property or the nature of its soil is changed or damaged by a natural calamity, it shall be exempted from the payment of the land tax for a period not exceeding ten years, the term of which shall take into account the relative seriousness of the damage. K "Art. 10. When the nature of a land property has been changed by labor so as to make it come under a higher grade in the classification, the original 140 LAND UTILIZATION assessed value for its taxation shall remain unchanged for a period not exceeding twenty years. When land previously non-taxable has by the exercise of labor upon it been changed into land of a taxable grade it shall be exempted for a period to be fixed in accordance with the conditions in the individual case. When land previously under the sea or other water surface has by the exercise of labor upon it been changed into land of a taxable grade, no tax shall be levied upon such land for a period not exceeding sixty years and to be fixed in accordance with the circumstances." 10 Not only land of the kinds described above is exempted, but land put under certain other kinds of use is similarly privileged. These include properties owned by private persons but used for public purposes, by townships or municipalities, by the Japanese School Associations, by Irrigation Associations, by Common Schools, by the Provincial Government, by private schools as their sites, and by Foreign Consulates. According to the government statistics, the tax-exempted land areas and values were as follows in 1930. TABLE 60. AREA AND VALUE OF TAX-EXEMPTED LAND, 1930 Kind of Land Field Paddy field Sites Misc. land Total Acres 2,182 654 4,576 269 7,681 Area $ Per Cent. 28.4 8.5 59.6 3.5 100 Yen 257,234 153,478 2,992,520 63,231 3,466,463 Value Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 5, pp. 9-14. Note: The total amount of exempted tax was over 58,929 yen for the year. Per Cent. 7.4 4.5 86.3 1.8 Where the state tax on land is exempted, all other kinds of regular taxes follow its example. 100 10 The Government-General of Chosen, Chosen Horei Shuran (Laws and Orders in Korea), 1930, Part II, Chapter I, pp. 11-25. : 141 P CHAPTER IV LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY LAND OWNERSHIP Li AND ownership in Korea may be divided into four kinds, namely, land owned by the Government, land owned by public bodies, land owned by private individuals, and land owned in common by a number of persons or by a community. However, one may also distinguish simply two classes, namely, public and private land. The total area of public land is 19,620,727 acres, being over one third (36.1 per cent) of the total land area of Korea, including that occupied by fields, paddy fields, sites, lakes and ponds, miscellaneous uses, forest, temples and shrines, graveyards, parks and gardens, railways, waterworks, highways and roads, rivers and streams, ditches and channels, reservoirs and dams. Of the public lands, the forest land is the largest in area, being over *(19,391,000 acres. This is the result of the wholesale confiscation of private forest land soon after the annexation of Korea in 1910. The land owned by the municipalities and townships or other public bodies is not included in the above-mentioned figures, since the extent of its area is not ascertainable from data at our disposal but included with privately owned land in the non-taxable class of the government classification. The common ownership of land by individuals or by a com- munity is a remnant of the old traditions of the Korean people, a survival from the past. There is no legal recognition of such common ownership, as by a community, in the register books. Yet in fact there is such land, and the title is entered in the register books in a single name or those of a few individuals representing Eve 142 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY the community or the group of owners in common. This practice has caused a great deal of trouble and inconvenience in recent years. For example, in a case in which land is owned in common by a large family or a clan, and the title is entered in the register book by the head of the family or the clan as the representative, he is empowered to dispose of the land regardless of the family's or the clan's approval. No substantial legal protection is given to the members of the family, the clan, or even the community. Of late, the Government has enacted laws and orders to protect the interests of the members of clans and communities. To ascertain the extent to which such customary common ownership of land by village communities in rural sections continues, we made a special investigation. Our investigators visited 183 villages in all the provinces of the country. Of these, 33 villages own 306 acres of land, including less than 10 acres of paddy field, about 100 acres of fields, over 186 acres of forest land, and 10 acres of grass land. The total number of village households which have claims of ownership in common aggregate to 2,073. The provinces reported not to have such communal land are North Hamkyung, Kyungki, and Kangwon. This is, however, by no means a sure guarantee of a lack of such communal land in those provinces. Since over 18 per cent of the investigated villages had such land, the communal ownership of land may be regarded as a general tradition. It is also noticeable that the communal land is largely grass or forest land rather than paddy fields and fields. Such kind of communal utilization of land is not found only in Korea, but in other parts of the Far East and even in the New England States of the United States where the early settlers brought this land system over with them from their mother country and where it has remained intact to the present time. The clan land, that is the land owned in common for the purpose of maintaining the interest of a clan or a large family, probably covers a large area, the extent of which is not known. The title to such land is entered in the register books either by a single name or, if several, not more than seven persons. Accordingly, from a legal point of view, the land is owned by an individual or a group of private persons. ! The racial and national aspects of ownership exert great influ- ence over the utilization of land, because there we find many 1 VP HAT, THỰ V tom je gefragt. 143 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA causes of friction between Koreans, Japanese, and foreigners. It is an established fact that a bitter hatred existed on this score between Koreans and Japanese./ The annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 has by no means reduced this hatred. Japanese rule, on the contrary, has intensified it. Furthermore, since the annexa- tion, Korea has became a profitable investment colony for large capitalists in Japan, and the Government has encouraged such investment, in opposition to the national sentiment and racial feeling of the Koreans. Under such conditions, the land area owned by Japanese has increased by leaps and bounds. The Government is very reluctant to publish or otherwise to make known the area of land owned by Japanese and in recent years has stopped publishing anything regarding this matter., The probable reason is that this kind of publicity would irritate the Koreans and might cause an outbreak of a revolutionary movement like that in 1919. The latest government statistics on the ownership of land classified by nationalities, are partial and incomplete, and relate to 1927. The data are very detailed, but they fail to tell the exact area of land which is owned between the two peoples. From the standpoint of statistical technic, the class intervals are too irregular. At any rate, the outstanding facts observable in the data are: (1) the number of Japanese owners is increasing faster than that of Koreans; (2) the number of Korean owners is increasing, but almost stationary; (3) the number of Japanese who own large areas of land is greater than that of Koreans; (4)/the number of Koreans who own more than 50 cho of land is decreasing rapidly, whereas that of Japanese is increasing, and (5) the number of owners, both Japanese and Koreans, is increasing greatly as the area of land holdings becomes smaller and smaller. To ascertain the approximate area of land owned by Japanese and Koreans and to see the rate of increase in area, we shall analyze the foregoing data. Since the multiplication of number of persons in a single class interval in the table by the given area of land in that class interval will give the total land area for that class interval, in order to make it accurate as far as possible, the midpoint of each class interval, except the two extremities, is taken for the calculation. Following this method of calculation, we obtain the following table. 144 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY comfort '98 pla TABLE 61. NUMBER OF JAPANESE AND KOREAN LAND OWNERS, 1927 Acreage Over 200 SK. cho U. Over 150 SK. cho U. Over 100 SK. cho U. Over 70 K. cho U. Over cho Over 40 SK. cho V. Over 35 SK. cho Ս. Over 30 SK. cho U. Over 25 K. cho V. Over 20 SK. cho V. Over 15 SK. cho Over cho Over cho Over cho Over cho Over cho Over cho 50 SK. ឃ. Over cho Over 2.5 K. cho Over cho ་སད་་་རྩF་་་ Över 0.3 K. U. cho Over 0.1 K. cho U. Less than o.I cho Total Sésé-esésésésésésésés Source: Note: IO. Od K. 1921 U. 66 169 94 108 213 563 246 1,078 273 1,338 240 1,570 228 2,386 261 3,460 281 5,504 410 Over 1.5 SK. 210,230 cho 2,244 9,635 553 20,0II 991 35,258 1,040 315,257 3,127 Over 0.7 JK. 326,862 3,120 cho U. Over 0.5 K. 344,724 cho U: 3,668 30,662 678 45,408 837 64,297 1,068 56,871 1,130 72 74 105 113 130 122 121 266424 1893 27 217 356 237 356 270 389 229 391 210 335 199 220 228 230 245 239 580 300 101,455 1,235 139,132 1,655 457,742 4,919 600,184 6,431 1922 563,424 563,424 8,180 62 176 76 450 258 911 271 1,122 234 1,266 239 2,008 263 2,931 356 4,840 441 9,482 653 20,876 1,081 35,869 1,191 29,527 812 45,625 1,033 64,240 1,201 57,312 958 102,972 1,432 143,012 1,861 211,947 2,635 315,885 3,527 325,391 3,429 346,286 3,740 459,539 5,399 632,589 7,216 1923 572,360 67 178 456 286 927 308 1,226 286 1,281 268 2,235 329 3,253 412 4,723 499 9,43I 794 20,244 1,218 31,101 885 44,804 1,198 65,673 1,286 59,459 1,193 105,462 1,693 143,230 2,091 215,308 2,788 307,797 3,939 326,669 3,855 348,874 4,145 471,605 6,001 1924 634,895 7,601 48 167 35,193 35,904 1,356 I,443 599,558 8,968 9,187 71 126 500 296 1,007 318 1,445 335 1,560 277 2,348 366 3,227 429 5,021 569 9,650 847 20,406 1,282 33,193 1,026 47,385 1,261 69,205 1,430 62,909 1,402 107,823 1,861 148,349 2,363 216,195 3,044 310,399 4,090 334,415 4,059 353,680 4,395 1925 475,948 6,273 45 170 634,947 7,684 610,582 557 299 950 360 1,538 382 1,655 307 2,788 417 3,610 502 5,605 616 10,344 995 22,403 I,394 36,918 1,692 34,300 1,131 49,207 1,413 71,850 1,586 65,944 1,440 116,552 2,054 149,514 2,657 215,045 3,377 314,596 4,809 338,869 5,534 362,334 4,573 487,694 6,067 1926 66 655,162 8,045 177 96 1,109 376 1,438 339 2,499 361 2,505 391 3,996 465 5,589 629 10,392 915 22,224 1,450 38,014 1,704 34,549 1,169 51,043 1,441 75,785 1,682 70,647 1,612 115,992 2,194 150,236 2,803 Government-General of Chosen, Chosen no Kosaku Kwanshu (Tenant Customs in Korea) Survey Material No. 26, pp. 11-14. I cho is equivalent to 2.45 acres. K. indicates Koreans, J. Japanese. 145 221,730 3,475 319,252 5,125 343,020 4,756 1927 363,983 14,927 45 192 80 526 298 I,c91 385 1,438 360 1,746 329 2,700 435 3,562 528 5,900 683 10,113 924 21,845 I,479 37,301 1,757 376,879 5,332 400,130 510,851 6,874 7,019 669,023 8,659 $ 697,044 8,992 651,852 678,787 635,192 9,915 10,023 \10,332 10,500 33,619 1,186 47,309 1,5II 67,011 1,730 63,178 1,546 II1,279 2,160 151,791 2,900 221,448 3,483 320,998 5,015 346,255 4,884 SK. 3,319,467 3,386,767 3,433,760 3,486,454 3,583,016 3,645,979 3,713,006 Ս. 43,305 47,678 52,129 55,486 60,230 62,522 63,989 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 62. ARABLE LAND AREA OWNED BY KOREANS AND JAPANESE (Area in cho) Acreage Over one) 200 cho. > 150-200 175 cho. 125 cho. 100-150 70 là 85 cho 10-70 60 cho. J. 40-50 45 cho. 35-40 37.5 cho. 30-35 32.5 cho. 25-30 275 cho. 10-7 8.5 cho. 6-7 6.5 cho. (-6 5.5 cho. 4-5 4.5 cho. 3,5-4 3.75cho. 3-3.5 3.25 cho. 2.5-3 2.75 cho. 2-2.5 2.25 cho. ht-2 1.75 cho. 1,5-2 20-21 22.5 cho 15-20 17.5 cho. JK. |-|.5 1.25 cho. i7 / No.85 cho. 70.6 cho. |0-15 12.5 cho. K. I F リー ​0.4 cho. 2525252525 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 és EsESESÉSESES ÉS ÉS ÉS ÉS ÉS ÉS [K. Total K. Note: (K. SK. 1921 13,200 33,800 33,250 26,625 47,855 20,910 12,400 13,400 35,200 35,600 12,600 16,450 13,300... 23,400 18,375 19,775 60,210 10,800 58,875 8,550 66,220 54,660 16,380 16,260 77,545 8,482 100,100 7,727 123,840 9,225 168,612 9,677 299,693 8,840 199,303 4,407 249,744 4,603 289,336 4,806 213,266 4,237 262,840 3,552 250,137 260,950 12,387 13,512 304,886 10,124 279,001 3,396 313,047 3,723 367,902 3,927 394,071 3,908 277,832 2,652 224,070 2,384 3 0.2 cho. { 120,036 o.I cho. 1922 183,096 1,967 56,342 818 23,625 27,125 24,875 27,500 38,250 38,760 21,930 24,310 50,490 55,170 10,530 12,270 65,260 8,547 80,602 9,790 108,900 9,922 165,935 I1,427 47,475 48,037 8,962 191,925 5,282 250,937 5,681 289,080 289,080 5,404 214,920 3,592 275,210 4,098 1923 283,173 3,938 321,777 4,187 370,907 4,611 394,856 4,408 270,582 2,914 225,085 2,431 183,815 2,159 126,517 1,443 57,236 896 55,620 18,480 I cho is equivalent to 2.45 acres. 10,050 72,637 10,692 89,457 11,330 106,267 11,227 165,042 13,895 244,050 15,225 298,140 11,526 202,156 5,752 246,422 6,589 295,528 5,787 222,971 4,473 276,133 4,758 290,020 4,655 322,267 4,704 376,789 4,879 384,746 226,768 2,694 188,642 12,400 126,979 1,520 1924 59,955 918 9,600 33,400 12,425 22,050 29,625 28,500 42,500 25,160 60,420 19,080 65,025 15,075 58,500 10,387 76,310 11,895 88,742 11,975 112,972 12,802 168,875 14,822 255,075 16,025 305,184 12,265 215,754 6,669 260,617 6,935 311,422 6,435 235,908 5,257 279,766 5,385 296,513 5,117 333,785 5,316 378,341 5,327 387,998 1925 190,379 2,509 126,989 1,536 61,058 991 9,000 34,000 13,200 35,400 12,950 30,625 22,750 21,175 28,625 30,625 23,750 28,750 47,345 25,415 57,000 21,600 29,210 17,190 62,062 11,512 90,610 13,552 96,275 13,805 126,112 13,860 181,020 17,412 280,037 17,425 313,803 14,382 222,950 7,351 270,638 7,771 323,325 7,187 247,290 5,400 301,281 6,295 320,518 5,648 4,923 5,112 277,068 284,252 280,038 3,276 3,853 3,450 229,892 2,856 336,406 5,978 376,328 6,679 493,245 6,0II 235,517 2,972 195,077 2,642 131,032 1,609 63,519 1,002 1926 K. is Koreans and J. Japanese. 146 49,300 25,500 66,540 22,560 64,710 15,255 93,712 12,225 81,412 12,707 109,890 12,787 125,752 14,152 181,860 16,012 277,800 18,125 323,119 14,484 224,568 7,598 280,736 7,925 341,032 7,569 264,926 6,045 299,594 6,808 318,978 6,033 338,031 6,306 388,027 6,081 399,065 6,406 291,567 291,50 4,042 236,588 3,202 196,052 2,749 133,804 1,731 65,185 1,033 1927 9,000 38,400 14,000 31,350 26,250 29,875 44,710 25,330 65,460 23,100 64,710 16,200 65,475 12,375 87,750 14,137 97,955 14,520 132,750 16,367 176,977 16,170 273,062 18,487 317,058 14,934 218,523 7,709 260,199 8,310 301,549 7,785 236,917 6,797 289,464 6,287 306,017 5,940 341,529 6,525 387,534 6,095 401,247 6,268 294,316 4,151 244,971 3,465 204,340 2,807 SK. 4,745,903 4,643,693 4,723,349 4,877,927 5,006,773 5,224,698 5,069,049 V. 242,469 250,498 289,208 296,331 323,053 337,938 346,232 139,408 1,798 67,878 1,050 qabatan Kaplakater je A LA D LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY The figures in the table may not be exact, but they are not far from the true facts. As might be expected, individual Japanese own exceedingly large areas of land, and the accumulation of large areas of land in the hands of a few big Japanese capitalists is pronounced. The Koreans are in the main petty owners. One thing that must be noted here is the land area owned by the Oriental Development Company and the Funi Industrial Company which owned more than 150,000 cho at the end of 1927.! The rate of increase in land-owning by Japanese was more than 8,000 cho in 1922 over 1921, 29,000 cho in 1923 over 1922, 16,000 cho in 1924 over 1923, 25,000 cho in 1925 over 1924, and 502,000 cho in 1926 over 1925, whereas in 1927 it showed a decrease of over 479,000 cho over 1926. The average annual increase during the period 1921-1927 was over 12,000 cho. The land area owned by Koreans showed a decrease of over 297,000, 112,000, and 141,000 cho in 1922, 1924, and 1927 respectively over the previous years, whereas it increased over 283,000 cho in 1923, 514,000 in 1925, and 76,000 in 1926. *** The number of foreigners, largely Chinese, who owned land at the end of 1927 was 1,465, covering an area of over 3,000 cho. The proportional distribution of land between the racial groups in Korea is, thus, that Koreans own 92 per cent, Japanese 6.8 per cent and foreigners 0.5 per cent of the total arable land area. (The Japanese capitalists' activities are largely in southern Korea. The huge area of land owned by a few Japanese landlords makes it more conspicuous. It has been reported by newspapers that in North Chulla Province more than 30 per cent of the arable land area has fallen into Japanese hands. When the Oriental Develop- ment Company and the Funi Industrial Company replaced Koreans by transplanting agricultural settlers from Japan, the small Korean farmers lost their source of livelihood! Such being the case, the Japanese investment in land is very much disliked by Koreans. This state of things caused numerous troubles in rural communities, and has had a bad effect on the improvement of land utilization. According to the latest materials available, the number of Japanese land owners who own more than 200 cho was reduced to 145 in July, 1929. On the contrary, the area of land owned by these persons and organizations increased to 244,170 cho. Suppos- ing that the number of persons in the various groups of landowners レ ​147 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA E has not undergone a substantial change, and also that the area owned by these landowners has not much changed, making due allowance for the annual increase of 12,000 cho, the Japanese-owned land area-excluding, of course, such land as forest grass land and other miscellaneous land-would be no less than 625,365 cho at the end of 1930. This would be about 11 per cent of the total taxable land area in Korea. Such accumulation of large areas of land by a few Japanese owners and capitalists has been caused, it is thought, partly by the carrying out of the Irrigation Association Project which has been dealt with in a previous chapter. A column article appeared in the Dong-A Ilpo, the leading newspaper in Korea, on January 1, 1932, from which we shall quote a passage: "Japanese landowners, less than 8 per cent., own more than 50 per cent. of the land in the 122 Irrigation Association Areas. The landownership is a more vital problem than the increase of agricultural production for Koreans who, over 80 per cent. of the total population, are engaging in agriculture. The Government-General of Chosen has created over 150 Irrigation Asso- ciations since the inauguration of the Land Amelioration and Rice Increase Plans. The undertakings have invited a great deal of resentment on the part of the Korean farmers. Many reasons could be found, but one of the most important factors is that as soon as an Irrigation Association forms in a locality, the petty Korean landowners are not able to hold their land which, on the contrary, falls into the hands of large Japanese landowners and capitalists. This speedy accumulation of land necessarily puts the Koreans down into the tenant or landless classes. According to a recent investigation made by the Bureau of Land Amelioration of the Government-General of Chosen, the situation of landownership in the 122 Irrigation Association Areas at the end of 1930 was as shown in the following table. (See page 149). "The number of Japanese landowners does not exceed 7.8 per cent. of the number of Korean landowners, yet they own more than 59 per cent. of the land area. This This is an astonishing fact. It is, therefore, surmisable into whose hands the fertile and good lands in Korea are falling and who is profiting from the Land Amelioration Project." Such being the tendency of accumulation of large areas of land by a few Japanese landlords and capitalists, the consequence of this concentration clearly appears in the so-called tenant disputes. A detailed discussion of this point will be made in a later section. TENANCY The tenancy system in Korea is too large and too broad a subject to discuss here in a thoroughgoing manner. In a limited space, 148 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY NUMBER OF PERSONS WHO OWN LAND IN THE 122 IRRIGATION ASSOCIATION AREAS, 1930 (In cho) Japanese Size of Land Property Less than o.5 cho Less than I cho Less than io cho Less than 50 cho Less than roo cho Over roo cho Total Number of Persons 1,339 792 2,237 416 60 65 4,918 Area of Land 333.97 577.41 7,292.57 8,592.21 4,749.47 25,515.00 47,060.63 Number of Persons 30,833 15,010 15,695 849 61 12 Koreans 62,460 Area of Land 7,511.50 I1,034.22 35,701.16 15,937.97 4,254.88 4,560.56 79,000.29 Source: The Dong-A Ilpo, Jan. 1, 1932. it will be best to bring out some of the salient facts which vitally affect land utilization. The latest available data on this matter are the 1931 government statistics. According to table 63, the total area of arable land amounted to 11,495,153 acres, including 4,023,069 acres of paddy fields, 6,979,101 acres of fields, and 492,893 acres of “fire fields." The proportional strength of these three kinds of arable land is 35 per cent for paddy fields, 60.7 per cent for fields, and 4.3 per cent for fire fields. The last kind of land is not utilized regularly. For this reason, it is proper to exclude it from the total acreage of arable land. The proportion, then, between paddy fields and fields is changed to 37.1 per cent for the former and 62.9 per cent for the latter. No investigation has ever been attempted of the question, how the farmers get the land they farm. The result of a special in- } quiry into it is summarized in table 64. The control of land by purchase is 28.9 per cent in area and 26.8 per cent in value, by lease 26.0 per cent in area and 44.8 per cent in value, by inheritance 27.9 per cent in area and 20.9 per cent in value, by gift 4.5 per cent in area and 5.8 per cent in value, by possession or squatting 2.3 per cent in area and 0.2 per cent in value, and by government lease 0.4 per cent in area and 1.5 per cent in 149 * LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 63. ARABLE LAND AREA BY PROVINCES AND USES, 1931 (In Acres) Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Source: Whanghai N. Pyengan S. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total One Crop Area 493,925 138,922 343,502 272,542 309,087 255,691 198,049 321,532 180,039 215,599 216,356 129,101 37,099 3,111,444 One Crop Area 2,576 1,085 3,122 9,841 6,837 1,061 2,907 20,907 1,201 803 2,064 811 4,104 57,319 Paddy Fields Double Crop Area 7,421 38,267 50,869 140,362 200,057 222,415 187,095. 2,125 2,770 161 851,545 Paddy Fields Double Crop Area 2 84 286 285 345 188 1,569 | │ 2 I 2 | | 2,761 Registered Area Total 150 501,346 177,189 394,371 412,904 509,144 478,106 385,144 323,657 180,041 215,600 219,126 129,262 37,099 3,962,989 Unregistered Area Total 2,578 1,169 3,408 10,126 7,182 1,249 4,476 20,907 1,201 803 2,066 811 4,104 60,080 Fields 450,925 215,163 202,976 163,711 564,455 468,549 252,460 1,008,509 1,626 1,326 1,316 1,106 620,522 840,953 486,206 6,851,840 33,895 1,698 954 11,358 Fields 1,243 1,262 8,888 31,694 30,895 127,261 789,993 787,418 Total 4,204 2,495 4,724 11,232 41,077 2,947 5,430 32,265 2,444 2,065 10,954 32,505 34,999 187,341 The Government-General of Chosen, Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 7, July 1932, pp. 16-19. Total 1 952,271 392,352 597,347 576,615 1,073,599 946,655 637,604 1,332,166 970,034 1,003,018 839,648 970,215 523,305 10,814,829 Fire Fields 877 2,665 331 727 436 2,328 143 12,211 57,742 159,113 76,405 151,110 28,805 492,893 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY Mode of Acquisition urchase Gift TABLE 64. ACQUISITION OF FARM LAND BY 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN 48 COUNTIES IN 1930 (In Acres and Yen) Paddy Fields nheritance ossessed leased Government leased Mode of Acquisition Purchase Gift nheritance Possessed Leased Government leased Area (acres) 820 108 371 3 1,435 3I Area (acres) 1,375 131 1,222 Value Area (yen) (acres) Forest Land 3 533 248,656 53,417 174,839 820 607,267 18,115 Value (yen) 53,579 10,426 46,562 60 12,688 763 107 606 172 826 4 Fields Area (acres) 32 4 24 7 Value (yen) Grass Land 146,434 24,449 121,623 2,611 150,453 2,335 Value (yen) 2,221 18 1,303 2,375 Gardens and Sites Area (acres) 39 9 35 30 Area (acres) 2 I 13 Other Land I Value (yen) value. The possession of, or squatting on, government land is mostly found in the mountainous sections in North and South Hamkyung Provinces. Most of this land is the so-called "fire fields." 14,080 2,102 12,035 5,540 Value (yen) The distribution of paddy field and field over the total area of arable land in each individual province, the proportion between paddy field and field in each province, and the proportion of arable land in the total land area, are very uneven.. The area of arable land in the total area of land is largest in Whanghai Province, with nearly one-third (32.9 per cent); Kyungki, South Chulla, and South Choongchung Provinces follow, with 30 per cent. The average proportion of arable land area in the total land area is one-fifth. In general, the absolute acreage of arable land area 1,017 590 1,557 507 151 rank provrict ہوا 152 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang 'S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total TABLE 65. DISTRIBUTION OF ARABLE LAND BY PROVINCES, 1931 Percentage of Paddy Field and Field in Provincial Arable Area Percentage of Paddy Field and Field in Total Arable Area Paddy Field 12.4 4.3 9.8 10.4 12.7 11.8 10.7 8.5 4.5 5.3 5.4 3.2 I.0 Field 100 6.6 3.1 3.0 2.4 7.4 6.8 3.7 14.8 11.5 11.5 9.1 12.6 7.5 Total 100 8.7 3.6 5.5 5.4 9.4 8.6 6.3 5900 12.5 8.9 9.2 7.7 9.I 5.I Paddy Field 100 52.6 45.0 2 66.1 72.0 50.1 50.5 63.2 25.3 18.6 121.5 $25.9 12.9 37.3 Field 1047.4 155.0 33.9 28.0 $49.9 449.5 30.8 (av.)37.1 |(av.)62.9 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 7, July 1932, pp. 20-21. 74.7 $81.4 78.5 =74.1 87.1 92.7 Total 100 100 100 100 100 I100 I00 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Percentage of Arable Land in Total Land Area Paddy Field 15.8 9.6 19.8 20.I 15.0 10.2 14.2 8.3 4.9 3.I 3.4 1.6 0.8 (av.)7.4 Field 14.2 11.7 10.2 7.8 15.0 9.9 8.3 24.6 21.5 II.2 9.6 10.9 I0.2 Total 30.0 21.3 30.0 27.9 30.0 20.1 22.5 32.9 26.4 14.3 13.0 12.5 II.0 (av.) 12.6 (av.)20.0 : LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA } LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY 1 } 153 ✓ Province TABLE 66. ARABLE LAND AREA CLASSIFIED BY CLASS OF USERS, 1931 (In Acres) Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Area Owned and Tilled by Part-owners Paddy Field 77,867 30,655 58,147 55,842 104,960 Field 84,393 42,315 43,913 44,365 Source: Ibid., pp. 21-22. 145,229 116,298 197,233 185,541 162,003 35,902 49,671 34,369 7,982 742,614 1,581,484 Area Leased and Tilled by Part-owners 110,425 123,589 85,409 62,037 122,660 47,089 74,801 44,296 173,953 219,184 105,020 Paddy Field 自小​作 ​109,935 99,441 38,016 47,486 89,915 44,634 95,575 136,042 42,002 36,170 48,692 31,907 6,476 955,780 Field 31,571 98,725 63,443 220,698 45,924 30,822 67,031 112,567 89,965 60,647 193,191 150,064 122,326 Area Owned and Tilled by Owners 154,275 60,118 1,398,539 Paddy Field 53,190 28,084 592,024 Field 104,472 49,835 45,017 185,571 31,274 186,382 43,773 194,750 47,129 190,724 31,406 370,631 17,762 309,146 1,888,525 自​作 ​61,093 35,209 33,802 18,789 148,121 Area Leased and Tilled by Tenants Paddy Field 260,125 79,217 203,307 240,466 206,512 153,052 164,579 176,394 73,363 100,064 Field 205,955 89,667 81,623 80,001 120,259 134,169 77,092 411,654 226,121 281,420 139,966 117,608 73,950 30,484 8,333 38,744 1,769,846 2,004,279 小​作 ​ LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA is far greater in the northern Provinces than in the south. On the other hand, the relative acreage in these northern provinces is much less than it is in the southern provinces. The arable land in the northern provinces is mainly field, on an average 57.9 per cent of the total area; in North Hamkyung Province the acreage of field reaches nine-tenths of the total area> (92 per cent), and Pyengan and South Hamkyung Provinces four-fifths. The area of paddy field in the Northern provinces is less than one-quarter (22.5 per cent) of the total. Table 65, from the latest available government statistics, shows how the arable land is distributed among the various classes of farmers, that is, owners and tenants. The owned area was 1,324,458 acres of paddy fields and 3,470,009 acres of fields, while the leased area was 2,723,626 acres of paddy fields and 3,402,818 acres of fields. The proportion of owned and leased areas in each province is shown in table 67. It will be seen that the percentage of leased farm land area always exceeds that of land farmed by the owner, except in South and North Hamkyung, and Kangwon Provinces. In North Chulla Province, it runs up to more than three-fourths. There is a tendency for the leased land area to increase in proportion. In 1927, the percentage of the leased land area was 53.4, in 1928, 54.1; in 1929, 55.1; in 1930, 55.6; and in 1931, 56.1. This change is largely caused by the accumulation of land in the ownership of Targe Japanese landlords. According to table 68, the size of the Chinese and other foreign population in agriculture is negligible. The Japanese rural popula- tion is composed in the main of owners, large and small, and has an important influence on the rural economy. It is more or less thickly distributed in the southern provinces, where the climatic conditions and the geographical environment have enabled them to settle on farm land in an earlier period. The Korean farm population still makes up more than 99.6 per cent of the total. We have seen that over 70 per cent of the total population is rural, and almost all-99.6 per cent of this popula- tion is Korean. Only about one out of every ten farmers is doing some subsidiary business. The Government authorities are accustomed to classify forms of land tenure into seven classes Class A, landlords, are those who 154 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY K II. 155 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total TABLE 67. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF OWNED AND LEASED AREAS IN THE THIRTEEN PROVINCES, 1931 Owned 29.1 34.9 30.2 23.8 45.3 44.6 37.6 35.0 45.0 43.5 54.5 66.3 79.4 Total Area Source: Ibid., pp. 24-25. Leased 70.9 65.1 69.8 76.2 54.7 55.4 62.9 65.0 55.0 56.5 45.5 33.7 20.6 (av.)43.9 (av.)56.1 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Paddy Field 47.4 43.I 57.2 62.0 37.0 47.6 56.6 19.4 15.0 18.2 21.0 10.0 5.9 (av.)27.7 Owned Area Field 52.6 56.9 42.8 38.0 63.0 52.4 43.4 80.6 85.0 81.8 79.0 90.0 94.I (av.)72.3 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Paddy Field 54.8 46.1 69.9 75.1 61.0 52.9 67.2 28.4 21.6 24.0 32.0 18.7 13.0 Leased Area Field 45.2 53.9 30.1 24.9 39.0 47.I 32.8 71.6 78.4 76.0 68.0 81.3 87.0 (av.)44.5 (av.)55.5 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total A Japanese Number of Household 853 102 463 1,289 1,074 884 1,350 548 93 29 150 80 38 6,953 B 610 75 470 363 644 644 570 147 93 34 78 64 82 TABLE 68. AGRICULTURAL POPULATION CLASSIFIED BY RACIA GROUPS, PROVINCES, AND OCCUPATIONAL VARIATIONS, 1931 3,874 Total 1,463 177 933 1,652 1,718 1,528 1,920 695 186 63 228 144 120 10,827 Population 6,261 760 3,909 7,307 7,545 5,990 8,643 3,118 741 221 792 573 398 46,258 A Koreans Number of Household B 216,532 19,492 130,198 10,570 158,084 27,132 209,808 13,841 301,051 62,457 348,633 19,803 247,422 39,637 18,813 214,295 147,079 20,767 183,478 19,709 189,940 21,246 151,073 20,686 70,839 5,984 2,568,432 300,137 Population Total 236,024 1,288,471 140,768 759,688 185,216 1,030,715 223,649 1,173,845 363,508 1,834,556 368,436 1,980,326 287,059 1,511,546 233,108 1,195,591 167,846 920,244 203,187 1,150,612 211,186 1,170,343 171,759 1,074,568 76,823 491,106 2,868,569|| 15,581,611 I $24 C 12 II Nimber of Household 事 ​13 185 Chinese 153 473 43 303 398 2,136 B 9 3 13 5 3 33 I 3 5 30 8 3 28 144 Total Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 6, pp. 1-5. Note: A. Farmers who are engaged in agriculture only. B. Farmers who have some subsidiary occupation. 206 27 73 130 46 152 14 188 158 503 51 306 426 2,280 Population 694 60 217 493 128 444 32 656 543 2,264 172 1,050 1,367 8,120 A 4 4 Foreigners Number of Household B 4 4 I 9 Total 4 I 4 13 Population 12 9 6 8 35 A Number of Household Total 760,508 1,034,841 1,181,645 217,582 20,115 237,697 1,295,438 130,324 10,648 140,972 158,607 27,615 186,222 14,209 225,431 63,104 365,272 349,636 20,484 248,785 40,208 288,993 215,028 18,963 211,222 302,168 1,842,229 370,120 1,986,769 1,520,221 1,199,365 921,534 B 147,325 20,866 183,980 19,773 21,332 190,137 151,456 71,275 2,577;525 Total 20,753 6,094 304,164 Population 233,991 168,191 203,753 211,469 1,153,097 1,171,315 1,076,191 172,209 77,369 492,871 2,881,689 15,636,024 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY - Ma de van voi. own large areas of land and do not cultivate the land themselves. Most of them are living in towns and large cities, sometimes at a considerable distance and without knowing where their lands are located. These are the "absentee landlords" in the true sense of the term. The agents of the landlords are commonly called Saeum or colloquially Mareum. For their service, they receive a monetary consideration and often also enjoy the privilege of cultivating, at an appropriate rent, as much of the land as they want to. In recent years, they are called Nongkam, which means supervisor of farm- 2 ing. Class B, landlords, are those who own land and themselves cultivate a part of their land, while the remaining part is rented out to tenants. In most cases, they live on their land, but some parts of this may be placed under the management of a Saeum or Nongkam. They are the smaller landowners. The class fowner- 3 farmers" are those who own and till the land they own. The class 4 part-owners" are the farmers who own a part of the land they cultivate, and tenants are the farmers who lease entirely the land they cultivate. The class tenant-squatters" are the farmers who lease a part of the land they cultivate from landlords, but till the other part by squatting on government land. The class 7squatters/are those who make their living entirely by squatting on government land. The last two classes are the so-called "fire-field" tillers, mostly found in the remote mountainous sections of the country, whose operations have already been described. They do not stay in a place for a number of years, but move along. They are wretchedly poor. How the land is distributed among these classes, is shown in table 69. Exc G Almost one-half farm households—48.4 per cent—are those of tenants. The part-owner class comes next with almost one-third DE DIGILIWA 29.6 per cent. The owner class contributes about one in every six-17 per cent. The least in number is the landlord A class, with less than one per cent—a class which really should not be included in the category of farmers at all and not included as such in our investigation. The proportions of these various farmer classes vary according to localities. In general, the tenants are more numerous in southern than in northern Korea. North Chulla Province has the largest percentage of tenancy, a result of the more frequent and penetrating activities of Japanese landlords. The so-called Chulla plain, with its fertile paddy fields lies in this C K 12. ✓ дан да талай BERAN V m 1. 157 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total ALT RESTA TABLE 69. NUMBER OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS CLASSIFIED, 1931 Total 238,943 143,031 186,720 226,616 365,970 372,021 289,169 239,007 177,366 232,311 234,304 190,283 82,414 2,978,155 Source: Ibid., pp. 5-6. Landlord Landlord A B 3,632 372 695 512 854 3,964 1,347 1,902 1,974 4,560 789 1,503 909 23,013 6,979 3,315 4,166 2,545 5,542 8,725 4,484 7,178 9,275 14,160 6,010 5,220 4,092 81,691 Owner 17,021 16,207 14,799 10,163 63,579 66,311 38,779 33,065 33,777 37,223 49,179 65,670 42,806 488,579 Part- owners 61,565 42,985 55,734 50,832 128,088 109,523 89,547 60,554 59,016 46,333 75,849 54,439 19,305 853,770 Tenant 148,158 77,131 110,802 160,681 166,741 179,272 154,778 129,749 60,524 Tenant- squatter 91,953 70,106 1,246 2,059 498 1,185 698 1,901 176 5,016 9,175 28,558 22,835 34,590 18,074 8,939 5,045 1,393,424 96,466 Squatter 342 962 26 698 468 2,325 58 1,543 3,625 9,524 9,536 10,787 1,318 41,212 158 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY ) province. Japanese landlords have invested their capital in this profitable area; so the percentage of tenants goes up to over 70 & per cent. In Kyungki it is more than 60 per cent. In South Choongchung and Whanghai Provinces, landlords who are living in Seoul own large areas of land, because of the accessibility of the land from the capital. The smallest percentages of tenancy occur in North Hamkyung and South Hamkyung Provinces. largest proportion of part-owners occurs in North Kyungsang Province, where it is over 37 per cent. The largest percentage of owners is seen in North Hamkyung Province. Landlord B class shows the largest percentage in North Pyengan. In general, their proportion is not more than 7 per cent of all farmer classes. The strength of landlord A class is even less and almost insignificant. The The firing squatters show a relatively large percentage in North Pyengan Province, where they constitute 4.4 per cent. In the Kangwon and the South Hamkyung Provinces, they also are more prevalent than in the other provinces. This is largely owing to topographical conditions, for in these mountainous provinces the surface of the land is very rough. The probable reason why North Hamkyung does not have a larger percentage of firing squatters is that in this province the climate restricts such practices, even though the geographical conditions would seem to favor them. If we include the part-owners almost four out of every five Korean farmers are tenants. It is, therefore, not too much to say that the fate of Korean agriculture depends largely on the fortunes of the tenant class. The large proportion of tenancy in Korea has few parallels in the world. England and Australia are countries with a large percentage of tenancy, but when we include the part-owners, these countries do not compare in this respect with Korea. In the United States the percentage of all farms operated by tenants is 42.4 per cent," and this also is far less than in Korea. According to Professor J. L. Buck, of Nanking Univer- sity, the land tenure of 2866 farms in 17 localities, seven provinces, in China (1921-1925), showed that owners constituted 63.2 per cent, part-owners 17.1 per cent, and tenants 19.7 per cent for all farms in China.12 In Japan, the percentage of owners was 31.07 V 11 Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930, Agriculture, General Statistics, p. 31. 12 J. L. Buck, Chinese Farm Economy, Shanghai, 1930, p. 146. 159 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA per cent, and of tenants 26.53 per cent in 1930, while the percentage of land area operated by tenants was 49.34 per cent.13 Korea, then, exceeds the other large countries in the Orient in the prevalence of tenancy. The size of farms operated by these farmer classes further indicates their economic status. The historical changes in the size of land holdings have already been referred to. In our investigation of 1,249 farm households in 1931, we obtained the following additional facts. TABLE 70. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ALL FARMER CLASSES AMONG 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS AND AVERAGE AREA OF LAND OPERATED BY THESE CLASSES, 1930 Class Landlord Full-owner Part-owner Tenant Total No. of Farm Households Absolute 77 308 436 428 1,249 Relative Per Cent. 6.3 24.7 34.7 34.3 100.0 Area of Land Absolute 806 1,426 2,203 1,298 5,733 Relative Per Cent. 14.4 25.6 36.6 23.4 13 Fuminkyokai, Japan Agricultural Yearbook, 1931, p. 29. 100.0 Average Area Per Farm Household (Acres 10.4 3.8 4.6 3.0 5.4 As shown in the table, the average size of the landlords' farms is the largest, amounting to more than ten acres per farm house- hold, whereas that of the tenants is the smallest, with about three acres. The full-owners have less area than the part-owners, yet both of them have a much larger average of farm acreage than the tenants. The computation of farm size by using the Government figures is possible only in the case of tenants; its average in 1931 was 2.7 acres. This is a little less than our figure. A study of the frequency of farms of different sizes in each class of the 1,249 farm households in 1930 gives the following results. Full-owners, part-owners and tenant farmers have the largest frequency in the class interval from 1,500 to 3,000 tsubo (1 acre is equivalent to 1224.5 tsubo). The landlords' largest frequency occurs 160 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY in the interval of 4,501-6,000 tsubo, yet the curve is not so sharp as that for the other farmer classes. The average farm size from 1.22 to 2.45 acres forms the center of the distribution! We may ask, what are the historical changes of these farmer classes, what are the prospects for their future development, and what are the reasons, if any, for such changes? As we have seen, the land area operated by owners is dwindling in recent years. This fact indicates that the number of part-owners, full-owners, and landlord B class tends to diminish, and that tenancy is on the increase, as is also that of landlord A class. Landlord B class also was on the increase_until 1926, but since then has gone down, while the numbers of the landlord A and tenant classes show a sharp rise. These changes in the relations of the farmer classes mean that the middle class of rural society is declining and, on the other hand, that the two extremes, the large landlords and the peasant tenants, are growing in importance. In other words, the wealthier class is getting wealthier, and the poorer class is getting poorer. ↑ ) The reasons for these changes are many. First of all, Japanese capitalism is entering deeper and deeper into the rural economic structure. As we have shown elsewhere, the land accumulation by Japanese capitalists is going on so rapidly in southern Korea that most of the native small owners have lost their land. Second, the falling price of agricultural products in recent years has put the small farmers in an embarrassing position, because in many cases, what they received for their farm products did not compensate/ them for what they spent in raising them. Third, this state of things made the middle classes fall into deep indebtedness, and they could hardly get out of it, unless they sold what they owned. Fourth, the production methods of the farmers retain many features of the old pre-capitalist system, but the consumption side of their living is becoming rapidly modern. This means that the cost of { materials bought by middle-class farmers tend to exceed the receipts for their products. In this way, the well-to-do class of the rural community merges into the poorer class. The effects of this ✓ gradual disappearance of the middle class are many, but the most pronounced is the growing uneasiness or the "class struggle", as we may say, among the farmers. This state of things naturally makes land utilization less effective in many ways. To this point we shall pay special attention in a later section. cartpise L 161 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Ka So SOME CUSTOMS OF TENANCY Customs, good and bad, relative to tenancy are numerous in Korea, as elsewhere. We cannot hope to discuss all of them in this limited space, but we shall try to bring out certain facts, result- ing from the customs, which vitally affect land utilization and rural economy. First of all, we shall give due attention to the lease system. Rents are paid both in cash and in kind. The cash rent is less prevalent than the share rent. This again, “is of three different types. (1) The tenant pays a "fixed rent" annually for the use of land, whether the crop in that year is good or bad. (2) He pays a Tochi rent when the landlord or his agent surveys the crop in the fall and, on the basis of the yield, fixes the amount of rent which the tenant must pay him for the year. (3) He pays Tachak rent when the landlord takes one half of the product raised during the year, The merits and demerits of these renting systems naturally affect land utilization. For instance, the fixed rent encourages the tenant to utilize the land as best as he can; on the contrary, the other two renting systems discourage him from using the land in better ways, because only one-half or an even smaller portion of the benefit resulting from better land use will go to his account. On the other hand, the fixed rent is more risky for the tenant According to our investigation, the proportional preva- Tence of these kinds of rent payment is as follows. TABLE 71. NUMBER OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS CLASSIFIED BY METHODS OF RENT PAYMENT, 1930 Landlords B Received Part-owners { Tenants Paid Received Paid Cash rent Total I Tachak rent 42 19 218 227 506 Fixed rent Tochi rent IO 12 IIO 100 60 67 133 Note: The Numbers represent the tenant households paying cach kind of rent. According to the table, the cash rent constitutes 10.9 per cent for the total number of households investigated, while the Tachak rent is 41.7 per cent, the fixed rent 19.2 per cent, and the Tochi rent 31 24 126 160 232 341 162 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY 28.2 per cent. Therefore, the Tachak rent system is the most pre- valent, whereas the cash rent is rare. When we come to the amount of rent, it is clear that the tenant is the weaker of the parties, because land is scarce and the persons who want to lease it are numerous and offer a competitive price for the use of the land. Not only this, but in the rural communities, the landlords exert a great influence by taking advantage of their superior economic power. According to an investigation made by the Government, the amount of rent varies greatly with localities and also with the types of rent payment. Į The maximum amount of rent runs up as high as four-fifths and even nine-tenths of the crop and the minumum amount goes down as low as one-third and one-fifth. The most prevalent amount is about one-half of the yield! In certain localities, how- ever, like Namwon country, North Chulla Province, about four- fifths of the yield is paid in rent. In North Choongchung Province, the prevailing amount of rent is about seven-tenths. These high rents result from a gradual raising of the amount by the landlords at the time of new leases! In such places, even the Tochi rent runs up as high as 70 to 80 per cent. In Whanghai Province, the Tochi rent goes up to 80 per cent. In Milyang, Chinju, and Kimhai counties, South Kyungsang Province, likewise, a rent of 80 per cent prevails. Compared with the rent which prevails in Japan, even the average of 50 per cent for Korea is higher by 10 to 15 per cent. The Korean tenants probably pay the highest rents for leased land in the world. The amount of rent is deter mined at bottom by the competition among the peasant-tenants Our investigation also shows that the most prevalent amount of rent is 50 per cent of the products of the land. This is true of all kinds of agricultural or garden land. - مامان ما 14 The Government-General, Chosen no Kosaku Kanko (Tenant Customs in Korea), 1930, p. 469. Extr Ta Not only is the amount of rent customarily high, but there are other tenancy customs which detract from the most advantageous uses of land. The prevailing duration of the lease, for example, is only one year, although in rare cases it may run as long as the life time of the lessee. the lessee. According to an investigation made by the Government in 1921,14 the proportion of the land area passing from one tenant's hands into those of another in a year was: in I V IME ジュ ​AW $277,99%== 163 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ✓ TABLE 72. AMOUNT OF RENT EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGE OF THE PRODUCT OF LEASED LAND, ACCORDING TO PROVINCES AND METHODS OF RENT PAYMENT Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Max. 8m88 DO KARO 90 73 60 70 80 65 60 Fixed Rent Med. 50 50 49 45 50 50 51 * + A hou 40 45 45 49 48 Min. 47 25 20 75 70 70 30 бо 30 58 36 Source: The Dong-A Ilpo (Far Eastern Daily), April 19, 1932. 39 30 30 23 38 | 30 20 Max. KAMARUNRIůŮŮ 75 50 53 70 70 65 57 70 50 60 бо 59 Tachak Med. 50 50 51 50 50 50 Youuuuu 45 60 50 50 50 50 50 Min. 40 30 44 30 40 30 43 40 50 40 35 43 Max. 80 8 kuo norin 80 70 50 Tochi Med. 50 50 51 50 55 55 52 55 50 55 50 51 50 Min. 30 35 44 30 30 30 43 45 30 50 40 40 50 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY Kyungki Province 27 per cent for all kinds of land; in North Choongchung, 30 per cent; in South Choongchung, 20 per cent; in North Chulla, 25 per cent; in South Chulla 20 per cent; in North Kyungsang 10 per cent, with variations for each county, in South Kyungsang, from 30 to 40 per cent; in Whanghai from 7 to 20 per cent; in South Pyengan 7 per cent; in North Pyengan, 10 per cent; in Kangwon 30 per cent; South Hamkyung 15 per cent; and in North Hamkyung 20 per cent. It is interesting to see that in the southern provinces the replacement of tenants is more frequent than in the northern ones. According to table 73, the one-year term of tenancy occurs most frequently. As a matter of fact, more than seven out of every ten of the lease contracts investigated were of this duration. This means that the tenant, not knowing whether he will next year cultivate the land which he controls this year, is likely not to make any but unavoidable improvements on the land. The thing for him to do is to exploit the soil fertility as much as possible during the current year. It is not necessary here to dwell on the social prestige enjoyed by the landlords as a factor in rural economy; but some of the economic advantages they have over the peasant tenants must not be overlooked. Sometimes they require their tenants to pay the rent (in kind) in a place far from the farm. They often force the tenants to pay the taxes and other public charges, although this is illegal. They order their tenants to give personal services. Such demands of the landlords are, of course, exceptional, but in some cases such services may be required for more than ten days in a year, and entirely without compensation. Sometimes the landlords require the tenants to pay the rent about half a year in advance. The tenants, on their part, make every effort to win the landlord's goodwill and to prevent the transfer of the lease to another person. They make presents to the landlord on national holidays and other occasions. They are not allowed to sell or transfer the lease to a third party. They have to obey the landlords' orders in regard to manuring and fertilizing, sometimes even in regard to the utilization of the ridges of fields or paddy fields. In all, the tenants have to do what the landlord thinks best lest they be deprived of the lease. In this way, the landlords are a powerful element in a rural community. matre tebl 165 { ་ TABLE 73. DURATION OF LEASES ACCORDING TO USES OF LAND AND FARM CLASSES, IN THE INVESTIGATED AREAS, 1930 Landlord B paddy field Lfield Part-owners Tenant Note: paddy field field paddy field field Garden Total One year 20 3 116 4I ΙΙΟ 1-3 years Ι Ι 23 I 24 9 4-5 years 59 I 8 3 17 16 4 6--8 years 34 13 337 The figures are the number of households with leases in each of the year intervals. 49 I I I I 4 9-10 years I 6 2 I ΤΟ 11-15 years I Ι I 2 5 16—30 years 4 7 II Over 30 years LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY There is no such thing as the "cropper" system which is found in the cotton belt of the United States, nor is there anything like the "ryot❞ system of India. The conditions of tenancy are more like those of the Irish "cottier" system, as described by John. S. Mill. The supremacy of the landlords over the peasant-tenants is somewhat like that of the feudal lords or the rural gentry of days gone by. The result is the extreme poverty of the tenants. Yet this tenant class constitutes over seventy per cent of the rural population. RETURNS FROM INVESTMENT IN LAND. Aside from the social side of the landlordism, the economic aspects of investment in landed property requires brief considera- tion. The landlords, of the A class, are by no means tillers of the soil, but simply prefer land to other means of investment and, in their role as investors, always attempt to collect as high an amount of rent as they can get. This may be illustrated with the ratio between the selling value of land and the amount of rent derived from it in a given year. Although the rent is in most cases paid in kind and not in cash, it can be expressed in terms of money value by computing the market prices of the commodities pro- duced. Concerning this matter, data are exceedingly scarce, but the Government is able to give us the information shown in table 74. According to this table, which relates to paddy fields only, the rate of return on the capital investment of the landlords averages about 10 per cent annually, with a maximum of 14.7 and a minimum of 5.6 per cent. The tachak rent gives the highest return to the landlord, and the tochi rent the lowest. In the southern provinces the rate of return is higher than in the northern pro- vinces, as is only natural, since the amount of rent paid by the tenant is higher. The rate of return on capital is somewhat higher in the case of fields than in that of paddy fields. The tachak rent here also gives the highest return to the landlords. The annual average rate is about 10 per cent in both cases. When this rate is compared with the rate of interest on loans in Korea, it can be seen to be very high, for some banks lend money at an annual interest rate of 8.8 per cent, others lend at 7.5 per cent on mortgage of landed property. The prevailing rate of interest on the surest loan would Wome 167 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 168 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung | N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Average Maximum Minimum Source: TABLE 74. Selling Value 160.00 143.00 144.30 € 300.00 150.00 240.00 219.00 120.50 150.00 80.00 120.0 127.50 111 Fixed Rent Rent 13.60 17.23 15.50 16.80 15.00 32.55 22.57 10.16 10.75 7.00 14.40 98.75 LAND VALUE AND RENT OF PADDY FIELD, 1928 (In Yen per tan = 0.245 Acres) Tachak Rent 1 1 1 Per Cent. 8.5 13.5 10.7 5.6 10.0 14.5 10.4 8.4 7.0 9.9 12.0 8.0 9.1 14.5 5.6 Selling Value 160.00 164.07 144.40 250.00 150.00 $240.00 206.00 114.75 146.50 100.00 120.00 76.50 165.00 Rent 16.00 20.03 17.00 14.10 22.50 27.70 19.58 11.15 13.29 10.00 15.60 10.85 12.60 | | | Per Cent. 10.0 13.8 11.8 5.6 15.0 14.7 7.5 9.7 9.0 10.0 13.0 8.1 7.6 10.6 14.7 5.6 The Chosen Nonghai (Korean Agricultural Society), Tenant Customs in Korea, 1930, pp. 412-413. Selling Value 160.00 260.00 144.30 260.00 I20.00 226.00 182.00 136.25 93.30 120.00 85.00 1 111 Tochi Rent Rent 15.80 15.00 18.80 14.10 15.00 30.58 22.26 12.38 8.14 16.80 7.00 1 1 1 Per Cent. 9.8 5.8 11.6 5.6 12.5 14.4 12.2 9.I 9.0 1 14.0 II.O 8.9 14.4 5.6 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY 169 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Average Maximum Minimum Value 80.00 65.28 50.70 10.00 1 70.00 | 99.00 45.88 60.42 60.00 50.00 61.00 105.00 Source: Ibid., pp. 413-414. TABLE 75. LAND VALUE AND RENT OF FIELD, 1928 (In Yen per tan = 0.245 Acres) Tachak Rent Fixed Rent Rent 8.50 7.36 6.00 1.50 9.70 8.54 3.58 2.92 5.00 6.50 5.51 7.50 Per Cent. 10.6 • 12.0 11.8 15.0 15.7 8.6 7.8 5.0 8.2 13.0 9.4 7.I 9.3 15.7 5.0 Value 80.00 53:41 50.70 70.00 70.00 107.00 47.17 62.96 70.00 50.00 53.00 105.00 Rent 9.00 5.11 9.00 II.IO 8.00 9.40 4.06 4.65 6.00 6.50 4.07 8.00 Per Cent. IO.I 13.1 17.8 1 16.0 11.4 8.8 8.6 7.0 8.5 13.0 9.5 7.5 10.9 17.8 7.0 Value 80.00 | | | | 80.00 55.00 61.67 50.00 62.00 | Tochi Rent Rent 9.00 111 11 8.41 3.26 2.95 I 7.00 5.00 1 Per Cent. IO.I 1111 10.5 5.9 5.0 14.0 8.0 1 8.9 14.0 5.0 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA g be about 8 per cent annually.Capital investment in land is considered to be the safest. One consequence of the high returns from agricultural land is the surprising rate at which it gets into ever fewer hands. The rate of return on the capital invested in land varies with the fluctuation of the price of agricultural products and the value of land. On the whole, the tendency is upward, because the amount of rent is increasing little by little, from year to year, as will be seen in the following table. TABLE 76. COMPARISON OF LAND VALUE AND RENT IN FIVE-YEAR PERIODS, 1912-1921 (In Yen per tan) Years 1912 1917 1921 { Paddy Fields Paddy Fields Fields 1 Paddy Fields Fields Value 40.00 14.00 60.00 20.00 120.00 35.00 Rent 4.00 1.26 6.50 1.85 24.00 6.00 Per Cent. 10.0 9.0 II.O 9.0 20.0 16.0 Source: Ibid., p. 415. The data are somewhat old, but the tendency has not much changed in recent years. There seems to be a direct correlation between the price of agricultural products and the selling value of land. Both were at their peak in 1920. Since then, both have shown an abrupt decline, yet they are keeping their parallel movement up to the present time. LIVING CONDITIONS OF TENANTS The amount of rent which the landlords have been accustomed to collect from their tenants is so high, the duration of the lease contract is so short, and all the other conditions and customs of tenancy are so unfavorable to the tenant, that the living conditions of tenants are miserable. When the peasant-tenants harvest their crop in the fall, they have to pay, first of all, the rent and other debts which were incurred to meet the bare necessities of life during the growing season. Most of them have nothing left. How to live through the coming winter and spring is a problem for them. 170 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY The extreme poverty can hardly be imagined by an outsider, nor can the whole story of their difficulties and hardships be told. Many of them are suffering from hunger and cold all winter and spring. The newspapers of Korea in these seasons are filled with stories which tell of the peasant-farmer's unhappy life. To quote a column from the Dong-A Ilpo (Far Eastern Daily), Seoul, March 24, 1932. The head line was "A Starving Hell": "The impoverished peasants are looking ahead to the seeding season, to start on their beggars march!” "Where will the floating exodus go?" Spring has come. Every living thing is beginning to start a new life. Yet the villages of the peninsula are gloomy and melancholy. News reports from all parts of the country are filled with the stories of the death and life struggles of peasant farmers. In spite of the sowing season ahead, number- less impoverished peasants are drifting away from their villages. Northern Korea is experiencing the greatest hardship the peasants have ever encountered. The conditions are no other than a living hell. The peasants in Bookchung county had not enough to maintain even their bare lives since the early autumn months. They have been depending on grass roots and tree bark for their sustenance, but even such stuffs have now been exhausted. There is no other way for them than to go out to beg. The number of those Teaving the County has already been more than three thousand. The rest of the inhabitants, over ten thousand, must go away to seek a living somewhere else. Those remaining are surviving only by eating millet bran and legume pods. They live because they cannot die. They are soon to start out, a roaming army, for the maintenance of a bare existence!" Another column, in the Chosen Ilpo (Korea Daily), Seoul, on March 27, 1932, asks: In "How can the hunger-stricken peasants live? In Dukwon county alone, there are twenty thousand starving peasants. Over two thousand have wandered away, because they would not wait for death by staying at home. The irrational system of rural economy in Korea has cursed the peasant-class to such an extent that the villages are devastated. The present is the hardest season of the year for the peasant-farmers. Most of them are roaming about the countryside nearly starving, and the cry of their distress is causing great consternation among those who are concerned in social conditions. Kongju county, South Choongchung Province, the whole population is in a hopeless plight. In spite of continued damage to the crops by the forces of nature, the peasant-tenants were deprived of such farm products as they had by merciless landlords and by iron-hearted usurers in the early autumn. They have been suffering from lack of food. By eating the grass roots and tree bark they barely escaped imminent death. It often happens that they have nothing at all for several days. The situation is hopeless. They have to wander away from the villages with their little children on their backs and arms. Words fail to describe the perilous circumstances of these hungry peasants." · 171 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ܡܣܘܝܐ "Around Changsung county, South Chulla Province, the soil fertility is said to be of first grade. On the other hand, the living condition of the peasant-tenants is extremely poor. It is reported that the number of peasants who are struggling on the death line is over 90 per cent. of the total population of the country. Many of the peasants have got to the point at which they cannot escape death by starvation. For this reason, the locality is wrapped in a deep fear. They have managed to live until now by eating grass roots and tree bark, but even these have gone. The wives of the peasants went Vout to the fields to gather grass roots, but often they were mercilessly chased away by the landlords. Not only that, they were weeping and crying, because the landlords snatched away the baskets which they had carried with them to gather the roots. 2/2/1/=90 마지 ​There are many such accounts in the columns of the newspapers. A local correspondent of the Dong-A Ilpo reports— Daemp The following is a passage from a contributed report in a current magazine by an investigator in Kangwon Province: "I went to Toli village to look into the possibility of conducting an investi- gation. The village has about 120 households of which about two-thirds are those of peasant farmers. They are living in broken huts without means of protecting themselves from the bitter winter cold. Many of the huts have been deserted, because the dwellers had to wander away to keep their slender hold on life. The remaining villagers have no vitality; their complexion is blue and gray. The signs of starvation can be read on their wrinkled faces. Most of the houses have not even a small amount of food, not even a little coarse millet. A mountain called Changhaksan near the village was dotted with women and children who were seeking for the grass root called Chik (arrowroot). They were clad in ragged linen clothes in the coldest time of winter. I met a villager named Yi Ryeng Tai, and conversed with him. The following is exactly what he said: We cropped eight Machiki (local unit of area; one Machiki is about one-eighth of an acre) last year. In the fall, our creditors took away half of the crop by forced "spot seizure,” while the crop was in the field. And the rest of the crop was taken away by the landlord as rent. We had nothing to harvest for ourselves. Accordingly we I had to eat roots, largely arrowsaat, to sustain life. But on account of the heavy snowfalls the collection of these roots was impossible for some time. During such periods, we did not eat anything for several days. We often faced death in this way. You can never imagine what hunger is unless you have experienced it. The most intolerable thing is the children's cry for food. On such occasions, our children often could not get up from the bed, for they did not have enough strength to move. We could not but be heart- broken. Many of us live because we cannot die of ourselves." When sickness and disease befall them, their fate is doomed. Health services and administration of hygiene in these rural sections are far behind the times. 172 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY TENANCY DISPUTES Although the tenancy customs in Korea are entirely unfavorable to the peasant-tenants, the latter are familiar with them for long ages. Between the landlords and tenants, there were certain traditional relations which were maintained through goodwill and benevolence on the part of the landlords. In former times, the economic hard- ships of tenancy were softened by these social amenities. The landlords were in a sense the protectors of the weak tenants against certain kinds of social abuses and against special misfortunes. When the individualistic and capitalistic system of economy came into play between the two parties, the disadvantageous position of the tenants became more pronounced or conscious to them. They began to realize that in the arena of economic struggle they are helpless. Their wretched poverty, largely resulting from the payment of exorbitant rents and other charges made by landlords, drives them to rise in self-defense. A trampled worm will eventually turn. They began to plan to fight for existence. This was the state of things in the early years of the twentieth century. When the World War was over and the Tzarist Government in Russia was overthrown by the Communists, social and economic thought in the Orient as a whole underwent a great change. The fighting. shout of the so-called proletariat against the capitalists was first strongly heard in Japan. Social unrest was universal in Japan at that time; and so the echo of the vigorous voice of Soviet Russia: was heard also in Korea, where it reached the ears of the peasant- tenants who are mostly ignorant and helpless. Accordingly, many. kinds of tenant associations were formed to guard their interests. The leaders of these associations were naturally educated in cities and abroad, mostly in Japan. The situation was like setting a match to oiled fuel, and the movement spread as a wild fire fanned by the wind. Peaceful rural communities were deeply stirred. Naturally such a movement led to disputes between landlords and tenants. The fire of the "class struggle" between tenants and landlords was lit in this way. The attitude of the Government was to look upon such movement as a challenge. It treated any man who proclaimed the idea of class struggle or showed a socialistic tendency as a "dangerous person";, even the economic theories advanced by the old-type socialists were stamped as The K 13. Marita FOR THE ENTIRES. 173 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 7 "dangerous thoughts." It is a matter of course that the Govern- ment took the movement seriously and played a strong hand by applying police intervention. In consequence, many of the leaders were put in jail, and the associations were ordered to dis- solve. In many cases, bloody scenes were witnessed. In the south, tenant uprisings against Japanese landlords were numerous, and many tenants were imprisoned. The most serious case was the Poongsan Tenant Dispute, in South Kyungsang Province. Another serious case was the Uenvul Tenant Dispute in which the Oriental Development Company was the landlord. Over five hundred tenants appeared in the office of the company; the police tried to eject them by force; this action caused more violence on the part of the desperate tenants; finally many persons were wounded by pistol shots from the side of the police. S In 1920, the number of the tenant dispute cases was only 15; in the next year it was 27; in 1922, it jumped to 124 cases; in the following years it increased at an even more surprising rate, as is shown in the table below. TABLE 77. NUMBER OF TENANT DISPUTES, 1922-1931 Year 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 Total Number of Cases 124 176 164 204 198 275 1,590 423 726 667 4,424 Number of Participants 2,539 9,060 6,929 4,002 2,745 3,973 4,863 5,319 13,012 10,282 62,724 Index of Per- centage Changes 100 356 273 157 108 156 191 209 512 404 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 6, pp. 21-23. Of course, the Government did what it thought to be necessary. For example, in 1925 it promulgated an ordinance called the Peace Maintenance Order which was to check the increasing number of 174 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY tenant disputes and to end any social movement led by so-called "dangerous persons." The strict enforcement of the order did not act upon the disputes at all, but only put in prison many men who were black-listed by the police. TABLE 78. TENANT DISPUTES CLASSIFIED BY CAUSES, 1930 AND 1931 Cases Ejection Poor crops Delayed payment of rent Increased rent Too high amount of rent Payment of tax and public charges by tenant Irrigation expenses paid by tenant Method of rent fixing Charge of marketing ex- penses to tenants Charge to tenants of trans- portation of rent paid in kind Unequal charge of rent among tenants Free services of tenants Expenses of land better- ment charged to tenant Quality of products offered in payment of rent Other 1931 } 281 43 + 56 42 84 47 I 25 7 6 15 12 31 13 4 Per Cent. 42.I 6.4 8.4 8.3 12.6 7.0 3.7 1.0 I.O 2.3 1.9 1.9 4.8 0.6 1930 489 37 31 58 67 20 15 2 2 11 I 5 Per Cent. 67.4 5.I 4.3 8.0 9.2 2.8 2.I 0.3 0.3 | | | 0.7 Source: Ibid., pp. 18-19. According to this table, the transfer of the lease from one tenant to another by landlords was the largest cause, responsible for two- fifths of the disputes in 1931 and two-thirds in 1930. The next important cause was the amount of rent collected. The third cause of disputes was attempted increase of rent. In such cases the tenant demanded that the landlord do not cancel the lease, that L 2 تو 3 175 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA The he reduce the amount of rent, or that he do not increase the rent. A method of protest often employed by the tenants was that they would not cultivate the land under dispute so as to inflict on the landlord a material loss. This method is called the "non-cropping strike." Often they employ violence to force the landlord to consent tp their demand. At all events, the center of the tenant disputes is in what they consider an unwarranted transfer of the right of lease from one tenant to another and too high a rate or an increased rate of rent. Other causes are contributing their share to the totality of disputes, but they are not so important. ( In the disputes in 1931, 62 cases were very serious. Seven out of every ten of these cases were conducted by tenant organiza- tions. The landlords involved were such large capitalistic manage- ments as the Kamata in South Chulla Province, the Bokuma in South Kyungsang Province, the Tagi in North Chulla, the Saito in Whanghai Province, and the Funi in North Pyengan Province. All of them are Japanese. When a dispute begins between Japanese landlords and Korean tenants, it easily grows serious beyond the immediate economic issues at stake because of the national and racial feeling. The local frequency of the disputes in 1932 was in such proportion that South Choongchung Province leads the list, with more than 39 per cent. It is followed by South Chulla Province, 21 per cent, and North Chulla Province, 12.6 per cent. The frequency of disputes is far greater in the southern provinces. The occurrence of the disputes shows their seasonal character. It is largest in the winter and spring months, with their culmination in April. The smallest number of cases occurs in July and August. This is because during the growing season the occa- sion is much smaller: during the summer months, leases are not terminated nor do high rent payments become due; both tenants and landlords are waiting for the harvest in the coming fall. When we examine what was the outcome of disputes, we find that in 1931 there were 271 compromised cases, making up two- fifths, 41 per cent of the total; cases won by the demanding parties 209, or 31 per cent; cases withdrawn by the contenders 80, or 12 per cent, cases without serious disagreement 86, or 13 per cent; and cases remaining unsolved 21, or 3 per cent. As compared with the previous years, the number of cases ended by compromise or won by the demanding party have increased considerably. There strike E 176 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY were cases, two-thirds of the total, in which the dispute was terminated by the arbitration of a third person. The arbitrators were county magistrates and heads of townships, agricultural societies and other local bodies, or simply influential local men, The average number of landlords in a single dispute case in 1931 was 1.5 persons, while that of tenants was 13.8 persons. / It is an interesting question what sort of land is most often involved in a tenant dispute. There have been instances in which land was wasted for the year, on account of the refusal of cultiva- tion on the part of the tenants conjointly. This is the so-called “land strike" or "tenant strike." But in 1931, such strikes did not take place. The area of land taken up by landlords as a result of disputes was 550 acres. The number of tenants taking part in the disputes was 417 and that of landlords 75. The area of land returned to landlords by tenants was 464 acres. The number of participating tenants was 287 and that of landlords 89. The total land area involved in the disputes was 15,067 acres. The tenant dispute in Korea is often a source of social unrest and at times is detrimental to the effective utilization of land. This is not, however, a form of social maladjustment confined only to Korea; the situation has at times been far more acute in Japan. For this reason, the Japanese Government has enacted several laws and regulations to cope with the situation. The Tenant Dispute Arbi- tration Law and an act for the creation and aid of farms owned by those who cultivate them (Jisakuno sotei Jchi Ho) are good examples. In Korea, the Government was very tardy in taking any steps to cure social and economic_evils.. This delay occurred probably not because the Government had any intention of treating the poor Korean tenants badly, but simply through the negligence of officials with very limited understanding and sympathy for the life of the peasant-tenant class. At all events, the Government did not at once take any measure to meet the situation. Only when tenant disputes had changed from bad to worse, did it begin to contemplate doing something about them. It did not pro- mulgate any law or order to check the growing tendency; on the✔ contrary, the officials, particularly the police, pressed hard on the tenants. When the police started to interfere with disputes over the distribution of the products of the soil, it applied the iron- handed Peace Maintenance Ordinance promulgated in 1924.、 The 177 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 3 purpose and intention of that ordinance was to cope with the so- called "dangerous persons and thoughts" in relation to the revolu- tionary movement in Korea. But the police abused the law and put many non-political leaders in prison. When it was too late, the Government began to think seriously about the problem, and in May, 1930, the Director of the Industrial Department of the Government-General spoke the following words to the Industrial Engineers' Conference. << 'Among the matters requiring careful attention, the most important are the improvement of the prevailing system and customs of tenancy and a wise policy of dealing with disputes between landlords and tenants. Only so can existing barriers be removed from the path of agricultural progress. We are fortunate in that the tenancy disputes which have arisen in Korea have not assumed the grave proportions which they have reached in Japan. Neverthe- less, the authorities must not neglect to find proper ways of dealing with these difficulties. It is always possible that the situation may grow worse unless we find thorough-going solutions for the tenancy problems and incorporate these in adequate laws and regulations. The Government is contemplating such legislation but, for the time being, believes that it is better to proceed by means of administrative measures." During the conference, the Government requested the members of local authorities to observe the following directions when they got back: "The Survey of Tenant Custom which will begin in May and take one year and two months, is to collect data for a permanent solution of tenant problems and for a complete re-shaping of the policy regarding tenant disputes. This survey must be done accurately and minutely. The matters to be surveyed are largely not concrete facts, but psychological phenomena. There- fore, should there be carelessness or negligence on the part of the surveyors, the result would be incorrect, and the purpose of the survey would be lost." This survey was to pave the way for an order to be issued by the Governor-General in the near future. The Government did not take any actual measures to cure the economic malady, but it led many people to believe that an order to this effect would soon be made public. An order pertaining to the interference by officials in tenant disputes was given out to the local governments in 1928. A passage of it reads: "When tenancy disputes are brought before the courts, they produce a good deal of expense and costly delays; moreover such litigation always creates ill- feeling between the tenants and landlords concerned. This can be eliminated if the administrative officials intervene by offering to arbitrate between the contending parties. Furthermore, in those provinces where such disputes are frequent, an official should be appointed either from the state or from the 178 LAND OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY local civil servants to make continuous studies of the problems of tenancy. If disputes do occur in spite of his efforts, he should keep close contact with the police or cooperate with the county magistrates and heads of townships. in efforts to bring them to a speedy end." "15 With this order, it is no wonder that the police have since exerted great pressure on the disputants. In all, the Government has done very little to change the circumstances from which disputes arise. In this connection, a brief mention regarding the government plan for the increase of owner farmers will not be out of place. The plan is said to be effective in preventing the accumulation of large areas of land by few persons. The Governor-General issued an order in October, 1932, to the following effect. "Although in recent years the danger of permitting land to accumulate in fewer hands has become evident, extensive areas of agricultural land are still being bought by people with large capital who only make a pretext of farming. There are also others who admit the aim of making big money through land speculation. As a result, the value of land has been boosted to an excessive degree. Shortsighted as they are, many owners of small and middle-sized holdings sell out at such high prices the land they have inherited from their forefathers. This is much to be regretted. When one considers the almost daily improvement in the system of communications and the gradual progress of many industries, it is plain that the middle and small farmers ought, instead, to try to keep what land they have. It is certain that they would greatly increase their wealth in not too distant a period. If they take no account of this promising future and sell their land for small immediate gain, they are bound to become poorer. This state of things not only threatens to bring misfortune to the farmers who are immediately concerned but in the long run must weaken the position of the farming class as a whole and shake the structure of rural society. Wherever this situation exists, the provincial governors should keep themselves informed of this state of things and try to prevent the concentration of land ownership by protecting the small farmers. To the agricultural settlers from Japan protection and help should be given; but wherever speculators try to buy up land with a view to future gain, proper measures should be taken to protect good farmers and to dis- courage the shortsighted sale of their land. Only so can the owner-farmers be preserved as a class.”16 As has been stated, land accumulation by Japanese capitalists still continues, regardless of this government policy. In conse- quence, there has been an increase of tenant disputes in recent years. Steps which the Government might take to check this tendency would be to prevent land accumulation as far as possible, 15 The Agricultural Society, Handbook of Korean Agriculture, 1932, p. 8. (Trans- lation ours). 16 Ibid., pp. 1-2. 179 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA surile 乡 ​Rok onli on one hand, and to protect the owner-farmer on the other, although this would react on the situation indirectly rather than directly. The Government's plan for increasing the number of owner-farmers may be summarized as follows: the Government will loan money to the tenant for buying land up to 1,000 yen per household, at an annual interest rate of 4.8 per cent. The loan shall be paid back in 25 yearly instalments. The value of land should be under 150 yen per tan (.245 acres) for paddy fields and under 60 yen for other fields. One farmer should not usually buy more than 5 tan. The Government is going to create two thousand farm-owning households every year for ten years, starting from 1932. The fund for this loan is to be advanced by the Deposit Bureau of the Finance Department, Japan. The plan has been put into effect, and the Government has started to select tenants. to be benefited by it. The annual increase of tenants, however, is over 25,000 households, on the average, and the decrease of owner- farmers and part-owners is over 15,000 households. The number of owner-farmers created under the plan is, therefore, only about 8 per cent of the increasing number of tenant households. We can only say that the plan, though it does not fulfill its purpose, is better than nothing. ✓ While the present manuscript was being prepared, the Govern- ment issued the "Chosen Tenant Arbitration Order", made public by Order 5, on December 10, 1932. It consists of 33 articles. The purpose of the order is to enable contenders in a tenant dispute to make a formal application, written or verbal, to a local court for an arbitration. Such application can be made through the county magistrate, the head of a police station, or the mayor of a munici- pality. The order aims to eliminate the difficulties of litigation. The arbitration procedure instituted by the court has the same effect as the compromise made between the disputants, and when its findings are promulgated, should be obeyed by the parties. The date of enforcement of this Chosen Arbitration Order was to be set by the Governor-General of Chosen. How the order will affect the actual situation remains to be seen. Furthermore, tenant commissioners were to be appointed in the provincial governments to control the system of tenancy as a whole. They will make investigations in the case of disputes and help the judges in the courts to arbitrate. Cus 180 CHAPTER V THE UTILIZATION OF FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND. THE UTILIZATION OF FOREST LAND KOR OREA is a mountainous country, and more than 70 per cent of its total area is occupied by forest land. Hence, the good or bad utilization of forest land must have a vital effect on the economic life of the inhabitants. For this reason, administrative measures taken by the Government in regard to forest management are frequently recorded in the history of Korea. The earliest record was made in the reign of King Sungchong (982-997) of the Koryu Dynasty. At that time, great havoc was wrought by the ravages of the noxious insect called songchoong (Gastropacha Pini. L.), Since then, efforts to control this pest are frequently recorded. Space does not allow the description of such measures at any length, but it is historical fact that in former times due attention was paid by the governments to protect the forest lands. In the reign of King Hyungchong (1010-1031), the court began to grant forest land to officials of the government for the supply of fuel. Since early days, people and government alike have placed a high value on the pine forests. The records mostly relate to pro- tection of this wood by prohibitory measures. For example, a Royal Decree proclaimed in the first year (1660) of King Hyung- chong contains this passage: "The restrictions on reckless felling of pine forests have been well under- stood by the people at large. Recently there have been violations of this rule. The individual pine trees selected and cared for in the Reserved Forests are for the purpose of building war boats and other public constructions. Magistrates of any locality who cut them down or governors of any province who give out, at their own discretion, permission to cut, shall be punished with heavy penalties.1 1 S. Saigo, The History of Korean Agriculture, Suwon, 1922, p. 338. 181 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Again in the fourth year of his reign, the King said: "The pine is the king of all trees. They say that the people do not cut it in the proper seasons. From now on, lumbering of pine trees, except the necessary cutting for public uses, shall be strictly prohibited." Provisions are contained in the "Codes of the State" (Kyungkook Taichun) to protect the State Reserve Forest Lands. It was well known among the people that the pine trees in particular should be preserved, and they used to call the orders and decrees the songkeum—“pine prohibition." Afforestation work also seem to have been carried on from time to time. On a grand scale was the afforestation at Suwon where the mausoleum of the then reigning king's father was. The work continued for fourteen years (1789-1803), covering the area of the ten counties around Suwon county. The total number of seedlings of various trees planted was 5,542,504, and more than 10,275 bushels of seed were used. In order to conserve the forest land, county magistrates were authorized to forbid any breaking of land for cultivation on the upper half of a hill. This was to protect the forest land from the constantly encroaching plow which probably caused frequent land slides, sand-drifts, and erosion of soils. Notwithstanding the prohibitory orders and the strictness with which they were enforced, the corruption of officials toward the end of the Chosen Dynasty, that is, in the latter half of the nine- teenth century, made the forest land in the places near population centers almost barren and treeless. Deforestation was universal in the seventies and eighties of the last century. As a result, more than two-thirds of the forest land was entirely denuded. For this, there were at least two reasons besides the general corruption of the old government. In the first place, there was lack of forethought among the people, who felled the trees carelessly, without refo- restation. In the second place, much havoc was done by the noxious insect-the songchoong. This insect throughout history showed itself an unconquerable enemy of forests in Korea, especially of pine. At present, it is ravaging large areas in different provinces. Towards the latter days of the Yi rulers of the Chosen Dynasty, the old orders and laws relating to forest protection remained in the pigeon holes of government archives, and nobody took care of even the state forest land, with the result of general confusion in regard to the ownership and management of such land. Unscru- 182 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND $ pulous felling of trees and reckless exploitation went on for many decades, and resulted in a denudation of all except certain protected forests and forests located in remote places. In 1908, the old government promulgated a law by which the people were required to report to the Government the forest land they owned within three years; but the people were afraid of a new tax, and most of them did not respond to the call. After the annexation of Korea by Japan, in 1910, most of the privately owned forest land was taken over by the Government as state land, because the owners had failed to register it under the law of 1908. By doing so, the Government acquired more than four-fifths of the entire area under forest. Among other things, the new law also provided a way by which unreserved state forest land might be leased to private persons for the purpose of afforestation and ultimately be trans- ferred to those who were to show success in this work. Japanese as well as Koreans took advantage of the opportunity and leased large areas from the Government. To the many Koreans who failed to register their land the Government is nothing but a hateful go-between who has deprived them of their property and given it to Japanese or Korean leaseholders. The complaints from the old owners were so noisy that the Government was moved to action and a survey of forest readjustment was started in 1917 and completed in 1924. As a result, old owners who had material evidence of their ownership were allowed to be Enkosha- "claimants" in the state-owned forest land. According to this survey, there were 1,025,175 lots, covering an area of 8,439,000 acres, of "claimed", and 30,322 lots, covering an area of 12,673,000 acres, of "non-claimed" forest land. There were also 2,121,233 lots, covering an area of 16,526,000 acres, which were owned by private persons. Any forest dispute as regards ownership was required to be brought before the Committee on Forest Investiga- tion which was formed to give adjudication on such cases. The so- called “claimed” land is granted to the persons connected with the land for ownership in the future, unless the land has already been leased out to another person. In order to reserve certain forest land for state or public uses a classification of forests into reserved and unreserved has been attempted since 1911. Lands to be reserved are (1) that which necessary for military and scientific purposes; (2) that which is is V 183 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA necessary for the public welfare; (3) that which has an area extending over more than 4,900 acres and is suitable for a unit of large business undertaking; and (4) that which is necessary for the purpose of some other profitable undertaking. According to the statistics, the land area to be reserved totaled 11,738,000 acres and that not to be reserved 7,511,000 acres at the end of 1930. Including the privately owned area, the total acreage was over 40 million acres. The present state of forest land utilization is shown by the following table. TABLE 79. FOREST AREA CLASSIFIED BY USES, 1928 Classification Wooded land Thinly wooded land Denuded land Fire fields Suitable for breaking up Suitable for pasturing Suitable for grass growing Non-classified Total State-owned Area (acres) (omit 000) 12,256 5,342 2,995 690 280 224 301 384 22,472 Area(acres) Per Cent. (omit ooo) 54.6 59.3 55.I 77.0 55.3 51.2 Privately owned 43.I 43.7 (av.)55.7 10,227 3,686 2,425 207 227 214 397 495 17,878 Per Cent. 45.4 40.7 44.9 23.0 44.7 48.8 56.9 56.3 (av.)44.3 Total Acres (omit ooo) 22,483 9,028 5,420 897 507 438 698 879 40,350 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Chosen no Lingyo (Forest in Korea), 1929, p. 8-12. According to the table, the state-owned area of forest land occupied more than one-half of the total. Almost four-fifths of the total area is wooded or thinly wooded land, and over 55 per cent is wooded. This wooded land is largely situated along the courses of the rivers Apnok (Yalu) and Tooman (Tumen), bordering on the Manchurian frontier, but some of it is in the mountain ranges of the central and southern parts of the peninsula. One great forest is also found on Quelpart Island. Located in 184 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND the remote places of the country, these forests are not easily accessible. On the other hand, around the large cities and popula- tion centers, the country looks barren. The timber asset of the wooded forest land has been estimated by the Government, and the detailed figures are shown in the following table. TABLE 80. TIMBER ASSET OF WOODED FOREST LAND (In 1000 cu. ft.) Classification State-owned land Privately owned land Total Needle-Leaved Trees 4,308,748 2,305,908 6,614,656 Broad-Leaved Trees 2,745,675 536,479 3,282,154 Total 7,054,423 2,842,387 9,896,810 Source: Ibid., p. 9. According to this table, the total timber asset of the forest land was over 9,896 million cubic feet at the time of estimate (1927). The forests, thus, are an asset of immense potential wealth to the people; but at present lumbering on a large scale is only carried out by the Government. The great forest zone along the river courses of the Apnok and Tooman covers an area of over five million acres, and those in other localities cover more than seven million acres. These forest zones are, of course, owned by the state. The Government has engaged in the lumbering industry since 1910 in the valleys of Apnok and Tooman rivers; a reorgani- zation and unification of the business units was accomplished in 1926 by establishing the Forest Management Station. A systematic lumbering project has been planned in detail, to make the timber resources inexhaustible. The amount of timber sold is increasing year after year, and the value is parallel to the amount. The aggregate amount of timber sold from 1910 to 1928 is about 66,000,000 cu. ft., and its value more than 41,000,000 yen. If the value of timber in 1910 is taken as 100, the index number in 1928 reaches 412. The average receipts amount to over three million yen per annum. This shows that the lumber resources of Korea yield an immense revenue to the Government as well as to the people. The timber felled in the valley of the Apnok is rafted 185 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA down to the mouth of the river and marketed at Antung, which has become a great center of the timber trade. The total area of forest under the control of the Forest Manage- ment Station is about 12,000,000 acres, with an estimated lumber asset of 6,360 million cubic feet. Of this asset about 2,580 million cubic feet is of broad-leaved trees, and the rest is largely made up of pine, larch, birch, and fir. The quality of timber is excellent for construction of all kinds. Under the Forestry Law of 1908 and orders promulgated at later dates, the Government is leasing out the state-owned and so far unreserved forest land to private individuals for the purpose of afforestation. If the leaseholders are successful in afforestation, the land is to be ultimately given to them. The Government is also selling unreserved land to individual utilizers. The land area thus leased, sold, and given to individuals in 1930 was as follows: TABLE 81. GOVERNMENT FOREST LAND AREA LEASED, SOLD, AND SURRENDERED TO INDIVIDUAL PERSONS IN 1930 Classification Leased Sold Given Number of Cases 2,797 442 2,347 Area (acres) 79,517 28,912 206,419 Amount charged or received (in yen) 7,069 220,578 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Annual Statistical Report 1930, p. 118-119. Most of the leaseholders are Japanese, and accordingly the transference of ownership largely benefits Japanese. The amount of money received by the Government in these ways is an important item in the treasury revenue. The Government is so loud in praising its own work relating to afforestation in Korea that to quote a passage from a government publication saves us the trouble of using additional words of praise. "The first step taken toward afforestation was the creation of model forests in 1907 on the hills near Keijo (Seoul) and Heijo (Pyengyang), followed later by similar undertakings near the towns of Suigen (Suwon), Kaijo (Songdo), and Taiku. In recent years, reclothing of denuded woodlands. around large centers has been taken up extensively to prevent sand-drifts and . 186 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND to afford a future supply of timber. The area so covered at state expense up to 1930 totaled 45,000 cho, and the number of seedlings planted 80,000,000. "The first afforestation project maintained at local expense was started in Kogen (Kangwon) Province in 1911, and this example being followed, all the provinces are now engaging in the work, the total area afforested up to 1930 reaching 18,077 cho, and the number of seedlings planted 65,217,000. of Afforestation under private management has also made rapid progress late years; the aggregate number of young trees planted up to 1930 amounted to 665,089,000 over an area of 931,171 cho. Among those engaging in the work on a large scale may be mentioned the Oriental Development Company and other large companies. "In connection with the model forest, three public nurseries or seedling plantations were started in 1907; and, more being formed each year, they numbered 82 by the end of 1930. The principal seedlings raised at these plants are pine, oak, chestnut, poplar, larch, and at first distribution was made gratis to interested people. In 1930, those maintained at national expense covered 23 cho in area, raising about 13,670,000 seedlings, and those at local expenses 110 cho, raising over 10,669,000 seedlings, while private undertakings accounted for over 267,549,000 seedlings covering an area of 1,373 cho. Besides, every possible opportunity was seized by the authorities to arouse the interest of the people in afforestation. Schools were provided with lands on which to plant trees, and the 3rd of April, the anniversary of the death of the first Emperor of Japan, was fixed upon as Arbor Day, on which day planting is everywhere encouraged." 2 It is true that the Government is doing well in reforesting the denuded areas, although there are some who would not accept this statement as undisputed fact. Such is the effort of the Government and people to utilize the forest land to best advantage, but there are some conditions which interfere, causing great damage to the forests. According to the government investigation, such adverse conditions are forest fires, insects and disease, erroneous felling, stealing of cuttings, wind, flood, snow, and other miscellaneous forces. Some of these condi- tions cannot be changed by human effort, but others could be avoided if more attention and protection were given. The total damage in 1930 covered about 1,303,000 acres in area, of which more than 278,000 acres were state-owned, 978,000 acres privately owned, and the rest commonly owned. The loss is not small when it is remembered that it occurs every year. Naturally, all the products of forest land cannot be exactly investigated, and any figures given as regards their amount and 2 Government-General of Chosen, Annual Report on Administration of Chosen, 1922-1930, 1931, pp. 101-104. 187 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA value are simply estimates. According to the government statistics, the total products of the forests expressed in terms of value were as follows: TABLE 82. TOTAL PRODUCTS OF FOREST LAND IN 1930 へ ​Forest Product Timber for construction Timber for fuel Charcoal Branches and leaves Grass and roots Bamboo Subsidiary products Total Quantity (in 1,000) 50,000 cu. ft. 6,336,312 cu. ft. 160,463 lbs. 8,056,078 lbs 10,919,000 lbs 292 pieces Value (in 1,000 yen) 8,389 12,208 2,214 19,022 18,055 547 2,925 63,360 Source: Ibid., pp. 122-123. It appears that timber for fuel use is a large item, and the use of branches and leaves of trees is also important; grass and roots are the second largest item on the list. This is so simply because the poor people use the grass and roots as well as the branches and leaves for their daily fuel; they can afford to buy only very little wood for fuel, because of the high cost. Branches, leaves, and grass are universally used for cooking and for warming rooms through the so-called ondol system of heating; accordingly they command a rather high price in the fuel market. For this reason, the grass on the hills is carefully cut and dried in the late fall every year, to say nothing of the branches and leaves of trees. UTILIZATION OF MINERAL LAND Korea is very rich in minerals of many kinds, chiefly because the old government prohibited the mining of certain minerals, notably gold and silver, and the people were not well acquainted with the uses of some, for example, coal. This hidden wealth has thus been preserved. The mining of some other minerals was carried on in small and primitive ways. Upon the opening of the country to the world, foreign mining activities by concession were started. In 1896, J. R. Morse, an American, took the lead in securing a conces- 188 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND sion of a gold mine in Woosan District, and the example was followed by other citizens of his country, by French, Germans, Japanese, and others. At the beginning of the present century, most of the gold mines were in the hands of foreign nationals. In ~1906, a mining law was enacted in which all nationals were allowed to enjoy mining rights in Korea; but in 1916, considering it necessary to monopolize the natural wealth, the Japanese Govern- ment revised the law so as to prohibit all foreign mining activities. thereafter, except for mines which had been in operation prior to that date. Not only that, but certain other provisions were made, such as an increase of minerals prohibited to be mined from 17 to 29, the issue of mining permits according to priority of applica- tion, and regulations of the use and appropriation of land for mining purposes. In 1921, another revision extended the scope of permissible mining claims. The number of applicants for mining permits has been on the increase since the beginning of the present century. The high value of mineral products and the general prosperity of business in the period, 1916-1920, made it possible for the Government to receive and dispose of three to five thousand applications in a single year, but the fall of prices after the World War caused a fall in the number of applications; only a few over one thousand were received in 1921. Since then, mining undertakings have not yet. recovered their war-period prosperity. In 1924, there were only six hundred applications. In recent years, however, mining enterprise. has improved, and the number of applications for permits increased to 935 in 1929, and 1,392 in 1930. With the embargo on gold in 1931, gold mining was stimulated, and the number of applicants for gold mining permits was expected to increase enormously in 1932. The aggregate number of applications for mining permits. from 1910 to 1932 was 30,805, of which 22,413 were from Japanese and 8,392 from Koreans. The number of foreign applicants up to the end of 1916, the date of prohibition of foreign mining, was 204. The aggregate number of applications granted by the Government during the same period was 7,856, of which 4,865 were Japanese and 2,991 Korean. When the applications are classified according to kinds of minerals, gold and silver lead; only in 1916, molybdic tungsten, in 1917 graphite, in 1918 iron, in 1919 and 1920 coal, took first place. K 14. 189 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA These preferences were caused by the special economic conditions created by the war. Gold and silver-mines are the most important ones in Korea. Iron, coal, graphite, and the others follow. The number of mining districts has been increasing gradually. In 1917, the newly opened districts numbered more than 1,200; but since 1919 the number of mines that have stopped work exceeded that of the newly opened ones. The number of working mines in this way gradually diminished until 1925, when there were signs of recovery. At the end of 1930, there were 429 working districts and 727 non-working districts, making a total of 1,156 mines. When the mines are considered as to ownership, in 1910 Japanese owned about three-fifths, Koreans one-third, and foreign- ers 6 per cent. Since the prohibition of mine ownership by foreigners in 1916, the number of mines owned by them has dwindled until there were only four left in 1928. On the contrary, in the same year the number of those owned by Japanese increased to four-fifths. As to the kinds of minerals, there are gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, mercury, zinc, iron, iron sulphate, mangan, tungsten, molybden, molybdenic tungsten, arsenate, phosphate, graphite, coal, petroleum, mica, asbestos, kaolin, marble, silex, fluor-spar, alum-stone, placer-gold, and tin. The most important ones are gold, iron, coal, and graphite. These have been called the Four Great Minerals of Korea. Ore and placer gold is the most important mineral produced in Korea. Gold was used in Korea before the Christian era, and it is thought that it was mined here at that time. By the end of the Yi or Chosen Dynasty, the mining of this precious metal was inactive, but the mines were again worked, by foreign concession owners, at the beginning of the present century. Most of the gold ore is found in the granite veins of the pre-cambrian, palaeozoic and mesozoic eras, but it is found also in the metamorphized strata. It is distributed over almost the whole peninsula. The number of mining districts was only 246 in 1910, but had become 624 in 1928. The climax was reached in 1917, when more than 1,000 districts were reported. The number of working mines was only 42 in 1910, but had increased to 249 in 1916. On account of high wages and the high price of materials, the number decreased to 52 in 1920. A recovery was made in 1924 with the gold currency 190 * + FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND policy of the Japanese Government, and since then production showed steady rise until the gold "mania" period of 1931 and 1932. Before and immediately after the annexation of Korea, the foreign-owned mines took the lead, those Korean-owned followed, and Japanese-owned were the least. But since the enforcement of the prohibition law of 1916, Japanese ownership has taken the lead. However, the foreign-owned gold mines are those of largest scale. Placer gold is no other than the gold ore which has decomposed and been deposited in bottom land. The distribution of placer gold is as wide as that of gold ore, but there are fewer mines in the south than in the north. In 1928, the number of mining districts was 99, of which only 9 were working. One of the largest placer gold mines is owned by an American concern in Chiksan county, south Choongchung Province. The use of iron by the early Koreans is evidenced by many ancient images, bells, and other iron wares. About four centuries prior to the Christian era one of the kingdoms in the peninsula exported iron to Japan. In the Silla dynasty, the Government had an iron foundry of its own. In the eighteenth and the nine- teenth centuries, the mining of iron ore was reduced to a primitive stage. When the Treaty of Protectorate was concluded in 1906, Japan assumed an active hand in iron mining in Korea, and the industry has since been monopolized by the Japanese. At the present time, there are 29 working and 120 non-working mines. The principal mines are located at Chairyung, Eunyul, Whangju, Anak, Kaichun, Kangsu, and Riwon. The mines in the vicinity of Whangju are prolific in output, and accordingly a Japanese iron foundry on a large scale was established at Kemipo by Mitsubishi and Co., with a capacity for producing 120,000 tons of pig iron and 10,000 tons of steel annually. About 1910 the export of iron ore was about 160,000 tons a year; since then it has increased to 250,000 and 300,000 tons in 1927 and 1928. The destination of this iron ore is of course, Japan. Korea is the largest graphite-producing country of the world. In 1926, it took the lead by producing nearly 19,000,000 kilograms of this mineral which is found almost everywhere in Korea. There are two kinds, namely, the scale-like, crystallized, and the earth-like non-crystallized graphites. In 1910, there were 140 mining districts, and 1926, 165, of which, however, only 191 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA " 30 were working. The mines are nearly all owned by Japanese. In 1930, the total output of this mineral was more than 20,000,000 kilograms, and its value was 423,000 yen. дет The origin of coal mining cannot be traced, but it is said to have been late, compared with that of other kinds of minerals. Up to the end of the nineteenth century, its excavation was done only by the natives of the mine districts. The presence of anthracite became known to the world about 1900. Some mines in the vicinity of Pyengyang have been opened under joint enterprises of French and Korean or American and Korean owners. Coal was exported to China by Chinese merchants. But excavation on a large scale began only after the annexation of Korea in 1910, when coal mining was monopolized by Japan. The anthracite strata belong to the Palaeozoic or Mesozoic era, and the coal is produced in the form of dust. The bituminous, however, belong to the Tertiary Period, and can be used in factories and locomotive engines, because they produce a large amount of calories. Anthra- cite is produced in western and southern Korea, bituminous in the northern parts. Only in North Chulla Province have no coal deposits been found so far. The total extent of the coal deposit is not yet exactly known. The known deposit is placed by experts at 1,100,000,000 tons, of which 720,000,000 tons are anthracite. De Chapte The coal-mine districts numbered 42 in 1910; since Japanese activities began in the field, the number has been increasing steadily. In 1928, there were 463 districts. The working mines were, however, less than 60, most of them controlled by Japanese. One of the famous coal mines in Korea is located in the vicinity of Pyengyang. The mine was formerly exploited by the old- Korean Government and with the annexation was taken over by the Government-General of Chosen. In 1922, the mine was ceded to the Department of Navy and has become an important source of its fuel supply. The mine district covers an area of over 6,000,000 tsubo. The mine has an equipment for putting out annually over 300,000 tons, and the aggregate output up to the end of 1928 was 1,750,000 tons. Most of it was consumed by the Japanese navy; only a very small portion of it is sold for general use. Such is the present state of mining enterprises in Korea. The government has reserved certain gold mines for future uses. 192 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND : : Oo :: @B >{} چی O'ER 0 20 o S • ... .. ·· .. Gold Platinum Silver Copper Iron Graphite Coal Silicate Kaolin Marble FIGURE 10. LOCATION OF PRINCIPAL MINES. Adapted from charts attached to Report on the "Renaissance of Korea" (in Japanese), Government-General of Chosen, 1929. 193 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Among these reserved mines, the Sangju gold mine covers an area of about 125 square miles, and the Wiju Gold Mine about 200 square miles. The following figures will serve to show the distribution of important minerals. The smaller iron and coal mines are omitted in figure 10. The area covered by the various mining districts in 1928 was 1,537,810,625 tsubo (about 1,225 acres) excluding the river bed area of about 100 miles in length. Of this area Japanese controlled over 1,303 million tsubo, Koreans 224 million tsubo, and foreigners about 10 million tsubo. When this area is classified by the working or non-working of mines, the former covered 250,517,057 tsubo (about 201,000 acres) and the latter 1,287,293,568 tsubo (about TABLE 83. FIVE-YEAR AVERAGE MINERAL PRODUCTION Five-year Period 1910-1914 7,156 1915-1919 19,580 1920-1924 18,150 1925-1929 1930 Total Value in 1,000 yen Quantity 1,000 kg. 128 205 339 754 884 Coal 24,420 24,655 Value 1,000 yen 573 1,281 3,070 5,384 5,328 Gold and Silver Quantity gm. 4,990 6,032 4,177 7,269 8,288 Quantity 1,000 kg. Value in 1,000 yen 893 3,700 12,536 19,085 20,074 5,656 6,531 Graphite 4,092 6,407 6,677 Value 1,000 yen 192 494 268 414 423 Quantity 1,000 kg. 139 276 375 579 673 Iron Quantity 1,000 kg. 8 2,145 673 1,850 888 Value in 1,000 yen Other Minerals 262 6,140 8,082 9,145 8,732 Value 1,000 yen 473 5,134 2,638 3,070 3,495 Source: Government of Chosen, Annual Statistical Report, 1930, pp. 174-176. 194 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND 1,051,000). Accordingly, only about 16 per cent of the mining area was exploited in 1930. The amount of all mineral products and its value is given in table 83 for five-year periods, to indicate the main tendencies. THE UTILIZATION OF URBAN LAND The utilization of urban land, though of interest in regard to land utilization in general, has very little to do with the rural economy and will, therefore, here be discussed as briefly as possible. The cities of Korea have been developed, not so much by the industrial or commercial activities of the people as by administrative needs. Even today, the urban districts are largely centers of admin- istrative activity. A resulting phenomenon is the small size of their population. Not a single city in Korea is busy and brisk like a trading center of the Western world, or Tokyo or Shanghai Seoul, the largest, has a population of less than 370,000, and even here everything seems at a standstill and quiet. It has been the capital of the nation for more than 530 years, but has not developed into an important commercial or industrial center. Pyengyang, the second largest city, was the site of a capital for more than two thousand years until the eighth century, and has been the capital of a province for more than 1,000 years. Other cities in Korea all have this administrative character, except a few which have grown up recently as seats of commerce. These are mostly the treaty ports and rice-exporting centers, opened by the treaties concluded between Korea and foreign nations toward the end of last century, including such ports as Chemulpo, Kunsan, Mokpo, Fusan, and Wonsan. The administrative metropoles have, of course, also been the industrial and commercial centers of the peninsula, but administrative activities were the primary and industry and com- merce the secondary causes in the growth of these towns. song "Sports *** u can some 27"'" Chemulpo, Kunsan, Mokpo, Fusan, Masan, Wonsan, Chungchin, Chinampo, Sinwiju, and Taiku are cities newly formed during the last half century. The rest are capitals of provinces, and Seoul is the capital of the nation. The location of these capital cities is ܡ A The Japanese are more urban than the Koreans. When the number of city dwellers is compared with the total population, the proportion of Koreans is only 5 per cent, whereas that of Japanese is 52 per cent, and that of foreigners 37 per cent. **** 195 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA BARET AFTER TABLE 84. CITY POPULATION, 1930 Name of City Seoul (Keijo) Chemulpo (Jinsen) Songdo (Kaijo) Kunsan (Kunsan) Mokpo (Moppo) Taiku (Taikyu) Fusan (Fusan) Masan (Masan) Pyengyang (Heijo) Chinampo (Chinampo) Sinwiju (Shingishu) Wonsan (Gensan) Hamhueng (Kanko) Chungchin (Seishin) Total 14 Total 255,426 63,658 48,575 25,961 31,817 101,078 130,397 25,810 136,927 37,401 44,398 43,060 40,177 33,725 1,018,410 Population Korean 251,228 49,960 47,007 16,541 23,488 70,820 85,585 20,149 116,650 30,415 29,003 32,503 32,523 24,003 829,875 Japanese 97,758 11,238 1,390 8,781 8,003 29,633 44,273 5,559 18,157 5,894 7,907 9,334 7,096 8,355 263,378 Foreign 6,440 2,460 178 639 326 625 539 102 2,120 1,092 7,488 1,223 558 1,367 25,157 Source: Government-General of Chosen, Statistical Report, pp. 22-31. convenient for defensive purposes. They are natural strategic points. The earlier city builders gave very little consideration to trade requirements. For this reason, these cities are located at places physically inconvenient for the traffic of a modern metro- polis. On the other hand, cities opened by treaties, with the exception of Taiku, are located along the sea coast, and have the promise of growth. This is only possible, of course, with industrial and commercial development; for the natural resources to exploit are limited, and the sphere of influence for a seaport over a section of the country is limited. The fourteen cities have been incorporated as municipalities by the law of April, 1928. They enjoy a measure of local autonomy, but their power is very much restricted by the Central Government. Although the area covered cannot be given for each of the fourteen municipalities, the total area of urban land in Korea is exactly known, because the Government is keeping accurate records for the purpose of taxation. In 1928, there were 22,059 acres of urban land, including a taxed area of 20,849 acres and a tax- 196 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND exempted area of 1,210 acres. The value of this land totaled 56,063,000 yen, excluding 3,237,000 yen for the tax-exempted land. The kinds of land in urban districts are classified in the same categories as arable land; namely, fields, paddy fields, building sites, lakes and ponds, and miscellaneous lands. More than 43.2 per cent of the area is occupied by building sites, while 36.4 per cent is fields. The 22,059 acres of urban land do not include such non-taxable land as that devoted to streets, roads, parks and gardens, and all other publicly used sites. TABLE 85. GROWTH OF THE URBAN LAND AREA Year 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 Acres 18,595 18,599 19,077 19,314 20,348 21,052 21,089 20,805 21,988 22,375 22,059 Area Index 100 100 102 104 109 113 114 I12 118 120 118 Source: Ibid., pp. 692-694. Note: * Indicates a decreased acreage. in 1,000 yen 51,671 51,463 51,862 52,175 54,087 55,479 56,272 Value 57,537 58,510 62,425 59,300 Per Acre 2.77 2.76 2.71 2.70 2.65 2.63 2.66 2.76 2.66 2.78 2.68 Increase Acres 1 5 478 237 1,034 704 37 284 * 1,133 387 316 According to the above table, the expansion of the urban area during the eleven years ending with 1928 was one of about 18 per cent. The value indicated in the table is the so-called “legal value" entered in the register books as the basis for taxation. According to it, the average value per acre of urban land was about 2,650 yen. The selling value of urban land in 1928 was not only very uneven for the various localities and grades of land; but in a single city there are great differences. In Seoul, the front tsubo (6 ft. square) in a main thoroughfare may be worth 1,000 yen, but in a secluded place the value may not be more than 10 yen per tsubo. In Pyengyang, the value of a field in the Hommatchi was valued 197 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA レ ​at 4,500 yen per tan (.245 acres), while a building site in Chukjunli was sold at 20,000 yen per 100 tsubo. Other miscellaneous land in Koranematchi was valued at 6,000 yen per tan. Around the growing cities, suburban land speculation is going on pretty busily. City zoning and planning have been introduced in recent years. Generally speaking, the older cities and sections of cities have a very irregular appearance as to the streets and other arrangements of land use, but the younger cities and sections have been planned. Hence, utilization of urban land is very complicated by the irregularity of sites in the one, and simplified in the other. THE UTILIZATION OF OTHER KINDS OF LAND One of the most productive uses of land is communication. The road system in Korea was well developed in the middle ages but deteriorated toward the end of the last dynasty. Since the begin- ning of the twentieth century, new roads have been built. These have been classified in three classes of public highways, not including village roads. The Government's procedure in making new roads has been much blamed by the people, in that no com- pensation was given to the owners of land used, and the inhabit- ants of a locality were forced to contribute their labor free for -making and repairing new roads. In 1930, there were 20,643 acres of land devoted to public highways and roads, of which 6,972 acres were owned by the state and 13,671 by private indivi- duals. The first class road is 24 ft. in width, the second class road 18 ft., and the third class road 12 ft. The total length of the im- proved roads built in 1930 was only 63 km. for the first, 690 km. for the second, and 165 km. for the third class. According to the latest returns, the length of road constructed is more than 10,241 km. of the first and second class and 8,674 km. of the third class. This is about three-fourths of the total length of roads which the Government has planned to construct as the highway network of Korea. It goes without saying that the new roads will very much help the economic development of the country; but on the other hand their significance as a further means of ruling over the people must not be overlooked. No railway existed in Korea before the advent of the western nations. The first railway was constructed by an American con- cern in 1900 between Seoul and Chemulpo. The example was 198 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND followed by a Japanese private company which built a line between Seoul and Fusan in 1904. When the Russo-Japanese War was imminent, Japan hurriedly opened the Seoul-Sinwiju line. Like- wise for strategic reasons, the main trunk line between Fusan and Sinwiju was completed in 1905. In 1906, Japan took over all existing lines and placed them in the hands of the Railway Bureau of the Resident-General's Office, then the political agency of Japan in Korea. Upon the annexation of Korea in 1910, all railway control was transferred to the Railway Bureau of the Government- General of Chosen. The following table will give some idea of the steady growth of mileage, freight, passenger traffic, and receipts. TABLE 86. THE GROWTH OF STATE RAILWAYS Year ܀ ܫ ܣ ܕ ܕ ܃ ؟ 0Ɛ61 1925 1920 1911 Length (miles) 1,777 1,309 1,157 674 Freight Passengers Receipts (in 1,000) (in 1,000 tons) | (in 1,000 yen) 20,650 18,241 12,421 2,024 6,936 4,297 3,186 888 کا Source: Annual Report on Administration of Chosen, 1929-1930, December, 1931, p. 124. 36,821 30,708 28,816 4,095 In this railway enterprise, Japan invested up to the end of March, 1931, over 350 million yen, covering a length of 1,777 miles in operation with 377 stations and 16,607 employees. "The mission of railways is very important for the control over Korea and for the national defence of Japan. It is closely concerned also with the development of natural resources and the progress of the people at large." Political and military considerations have been the more import- 3 Y. S. Lee, Statistical Korea, Vol. II, Seoul, 1931, pp. 199-120. ant reasons for the development of railways in Korea. Za rok Private railways also have been built by Japanese promoters. Provision for the encouragement of such private construction, was made by the Government in the Railway Regulations of 1912 and 1914. The Government is granting special subsidies to important private lines to meet any deficiency in returns below a certain percentage on the paid-up capital of the companies so 199 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA specially favored. In 1921, the Japanese Diet approved a further increase of the rate of subsidies, but as a whole the private railway business is not as yet prosperous. The total length of private railways opened up to March, 1931, was over 676 miles, and new lines under construction or projected, were more than 362 miles. These enterprises were carried on by seven companies organized by Japanese and under special protection of the Government. In 1930, the total investment in the private railway companies totaled 87 million yen, not including the aggregate Government subsidies of 36 million yen. The number of passengers carried in 1930-was over two million, freight 980,000 tons, and receipts 3,196,865 yen. Thus, the total investment in the state and private railways up to March, 1931, amounted to 473 million yen, and the returns on this investment in 1930 to 40,017,000 yen. The land area devoted to the state railways was only 2,791 acres, and that to the private railways 1,223 acres, totaling 4,014 acres in all. 4 The location of grave yards has been given great importance by the people, although religious ideas associated with it have begun to die out in recent times with the advance of modern education. This is true not only in Korea but also in China. Space does not allow to describe the theory or myungtang or the philosophy of tomb location, but it is sufficient here to indicate that the land utilization for grave yards has a peculiar meaning to an old- fashioned Korean or Chinese. The land area devoted to grave yards in 1930 was 116,754 acres, including 1,505 acres of public cemeteries. This area is only the registered area and does not include the private grave yards in the forests or on grassy hills, scattered here and there near the villages. The total area covered by graves must be an enormous acreage at the present time. We have already referred to the area of fish ponds and devoted to salt deposits in 1930. The total area was over 29,000 square miles for fishing and 5,992 acres for salt making. While most of this is land covered with sea water, there are also nurseries and hatcheries on inland waters. Many of them utilize swamp or bottom land not suitable for rice cultivation. The land devoted to such uses is classified according to public and private owner- ship. 4 J. L. Buck, Chinese Farm Economy, 1930, p. 33. . • 200 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND ! FIGURE 11. The Railway Network of Korea, 1932. Completed line Projected line YELLOW SEA Scale: English Miles 9 80 JDTC zzz 385 do o MANCHURIA KORBA CHANNEL SEA OF JAPAN SIBERIA 201 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA qua The more than 16,000 acres of land devoted to fish culture, with a production of more than three million yen in a single year, 1930, evidently show a very profitable use of land which is mostly swampy. TABLE 87. AREA OF LAND DEVOTED TO FISH-CULTURE AND VALUE OF PRODUCTION, 1930 Public Private Total No. of Places 526 49 575 Area (acres) 16,251 202 16,453 Production Quantity (1,000 lbs) 6,583 145 6,728 Value (1,000 yen) 3,243 85 3,328 Source: Annual Statistical Report of the Government-General of Chosen, 1930, p. 139. THE UTILIZATION OF STATE LAND The utilization of state-owned unreserved forest land has already been referred to. Here will be considered other forms of utiliza- tion of land owned by the state. Before the advent of Japanese control over the government affairs of Korea, the state owned arable lands called yukto and toonto. The former were used to support and maintain the postal system which in each county maintained a post for the transmission of government letters and military orders, each with a number of soldiers and horses. To defray the cost of these posts, land was assigned to each of them. The toonto was the land assigned to military camps to meet their current-expenses. Then there was the land which belonged to persons of the royal blood. This was called the koongto, meaning palace land. The land was so named because it was devoted to the House of the Royal Blood Relatives. The old government had granted land to such royal houses or palaces in a generous manner, and the acreage thus granted became exceedingly large. Once granted, such land became the private property of the Royal Houses, with the special privilege of tax exemption. When the Japanese began to control Korean affairs, they caused the old government to amalgamate all 202 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND Year TABLE 88. ACREAGE OF AND AMOUNT OF RENT FROM STATE LANDS (In 1,000 acres, bushels, and yen) 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 three kinds of land and to place it permanently under state owner- ship, without compensation, and with a view to its use for coloni- zation projects. When the annexation was completed in 1910, the total area of these lands was registered as more than 252,000 acres; in 1918, it had increased to 348,760 acres. In spite of the generous concession, in the form of payment for the stocks shared, about 24,500 acres were granted by the Government-General of Chosen to the Oriental Development Company-the Japanese semi-official colonization organization in Korea. This came about through the discovery of additional land areas by the land survey completed in 1918. 1927 1928 With the land on hand, the Government-General has been acting as though itself a great land owner, in leasing it to tenants. The rent paid in kind was after the annexation replaced by cash rent, but in 1914 the amount was increased about 40 per cent over that paid in former times. As a result, the amount of rent per tan (.245 acres) averaged 0.76 yen for field, 2.50 yen for paddy field, and 2.03 yen for site. In 1919, the amount was again increased, to 1.00 yen per tan for field, 3.18 yen for paddy field, and 2.43 yen for site. On account of the fluctuations in agricultural prices, the amount of rent has been changed in such a way that the tenants pay in cash at the current price of the commodity in terms of which the rent has been fixed. Acreage 285 278 276 293 278 248 226 209 186 Source: Ibid., p. 749. Unhusked Rice 1,082 1,062 1,046 1,013 998 940 889 825 766 Barley 113 108 103 IIO 106 97 93 90 72 Soya Beans 49 46 45 43 4I 37 33 30 26 Millet 193 186 183 179 174 155 133 118 100 Rye 4.9 5.0 4.8 4.4 4.I 3.5 1.9 1.0 0.8 Cash 125 67 46 24 20 14 13 II II 203 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA The acreage and the amount of rent received has recently been dwindling with the sales of state land to private individuals, mostly to the tenants, on payment in ten yearly instalments. This sale of state land is for two reasons, namely, to meet the financial needs of the Government and also to increase the number of owner-farmers. The state land of these kinds is leased out for rent, but for certain reasons, as for example, to recover land from the damage wrought by flood, drought, etc., some land is leased out without charge. At the end of March, 1929, the figures stood at 178,605 acres for rent, about 245 acres without rent, and 8,780 acres not leased. The number of tenants was about 150,000. The amount of rent received in kind was 772,000 bushels of unhusked rice, 88,000 bushels of barley, 26,500 bushels of beans, 11,000 bushels of millet, and 500 bushels of rye. This was the basic quantity by which the money rent is to be calculated according to the market price of TABLE 89. AREA OF STATE-OWNED UNEXPLOITED LAND GRANTED TO PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS, CLASSIFIED BY USES AND BY PROVINCES, MARCH, 1931 Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Total Paddy Fields Fields (acres) (acres) 1,268 2 114 1,050 595 16 1,751 509 1,149 3,708 32 473 297 2,643 596 1,484 148 86 911 690 939 192 498 146 291 104 Fire Fields (acres) 425 46 422 26 76 307 426 30 I I 3 635 29 10,964 8,728 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 5, pp. 6-7. 2,425 Other Uses (acres) 411 93 33 ΙΟ 47 14I 22 548 411 376 4 H 4 I 2,097 Cases 82 5 22 14 IO 29 43 39 25 17 13. 13 9 321 Total Area (acres) 4,829 742 2,042 1,271 777 1,310 3,051 1,539 1,914 4,637 1,202 781 440 24,535 204 FOREST, URBAN, AND MINERAL LAND the harvested grains. The rent in cash amounted to 11,000 yen. There is also an extensive area of land owned by the state which is not yet utilized as arable land. Such lands are called mikonchi, meaning unexploited land. They are considered to be potential arable land. Â law was enacted in 1907, enabling private persons to apply for the use of such land. Permits are given to such individuals only as have enough capital and experience for a successful utilization of such land. On the other hand, if the area of such land is small, it is granted to the natives of the sections where it is situated. The power of making such grants is divided. For large areas (over 24.5 acres) it is in the hands of the Govern- ment-General, whereas for small areas (less than 24.5 acres) it is delegated to the provincial governors. The former type of grants is largely taken up by large Japanese capitalists and the latter by Korean petty owners. When the applicant is successful in his undertaking, the land is given him free of charge. We conclude this chapter by noting that land utilization is quite intensive in all directions as compared with that of many western nations. This is only natural when we reflect on the fact that a relatively small area has to support over twenty million people. K 15. K 205 CHAPTER VI CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND FRO ROM THE standpoint of the farmer, land is a part of his capital and its utilization a process of management on the effectiveness of which largely depends the success or failure of farming. Other forms of capital are needed, however, to operate the farm as a business. In the present chapter we shall devote our attention to these other forms of capital in relation to land utiliza- tion. FARM BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS The farming method is usually so simple, and the farm as a unit of business is so small, that the Korean farm does not need build- ings entirely used for farm work only. The peasant farmers dwell in the village and go out to work in the non-contiguous plots of the open fields. No buildings are found in most cases on the farm land. The dwelling houses must be considered farm buildings in so far as they are also used for farm work. On the other hand, the dwelling houses cannot be considered as representing capital investment in the farm business. Only the part used for farm business should be regarded as farm capital; and any expenses thereon should be classified as cost of farm production. A clear distinction between these two parts is, however, not possible. An investigation was made in 1931 by Mr. T. K. No, of the Chosen Christian College, Seoul, regarding the number of rooms, value, and the house sites of 1,256 farm households. He found that the average number of rooms for all farm houses was 16.3 for landlords, 8.0 for owner farmers, 7.4 for part-owners, 5.5 for tenants, 3.1 for "impoverished peasants, " and 2.5 for "non- farmers." The average number of rooms for all of these classes 1 Peasants who do not have any means to start farming even as tenants, but live on wages earned by working on others' farms. 2 Farmers who live in rural villages but do not farm. 206 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND was 5.3. The average value of a farm house was 454 yen for land- lords, 107 yen for owner-farmers, 99 yen for part-owners, 51 yen for tenants, 23 yen for impoverished peasants, and 24 yen for non-farmers. The average for all of these classes was 84 yen. Only 5.9 per cent of the houses were roofed with tiles, the rest were straw-thatched. 3 In our investigation, we did not try to measure the farm houses as to number of rooms, area of sites, or value, because even if we know these facts we cannot distinguish the parts for farm and for dwelling uses. We have investigated, however, the buildings and improvements which are entirely devoted to farm uses. For the dwelling houses, we made a survey of cost of maintenance, con- struction, repairs, etc., for a single year. (See below, Chapter XI). We are here concerned with the question of how much the farmers are expending on buildings and improvements which are to be used solely for farm work and thereby are bona fide capital invest- ments in the farm business. The buildings and improvements include fences, dikes, dams, ditches, waterways, and any other construction works which are to be used for many years in the farm business. TABLE 90. BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS ON FARMS OF 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS AT THE END OF 1930 Class Landlord Owner-farmer Part-owner Tenant Total Number of Farm Households 50 128 264 98 540 Value of Number of Buildings Buildings and and Improvements Improvements. 120 263 524 136 1,043 2,077.80 2,775.80 7,268,20 1,235.30 13,357.10 Value of Blgs. and Imps. Per Farm Household 3 Oriental Review, Vol. I, No. 3, 1932. Appendix, pp. 18-19. 41.55 21.68 27.53 12.60 25.07 More than one-half of the farm households had no buildings and improvements for farm purposes solely. This tells the simplicity of the farming system. The average value of buildings and 207 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA improvements per household was only 25.07 yen; that is, where there are buildings and improvements, these are of very small structure. To learn of the condition and utilization of buildings and improvements during the year 1930, we made several other inquiries; the buildings and improvements of all kinds during the year were checked up, and the result was as follows: TABLE 91. BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS PAID FOR, 1930 Class Landlord Owner-farmer Part-owner Tenant Total Class Landlords Owners Part-owners Tenants Number Total I 4 IO 8 23 min 3 Value 5 II 4 Number of Number of Households Repairs 23 II0.00 82.00 233.00 Of the 1249 farm households, only 44 had paid for any kind of farm improvements during 1930, at an average cost of 13.70 yen. The cost of such building repairs and improvements was also checked up. TABLE 92. BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS REPAIRED BY FARM HOUSEHOLDS, 1930 30.00 II.00 7 II 18 7 43 Number of Households Total (yen) 10.00 42.50 31.30 21.00 127A 104.80 I ク ​17 Cost Per Household 30.00 5.50 14.26 11.70 (av.) 13.70 Per House Per Repair (yen) (yen) 3.33 8.50 2.84 5.20 1.43 3.86 1.61 3.00 (av.)4.55 (av.)2.44 Farmers not only buy buildings and improvements, but make them themselves. 208 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND It is interesting to note that tenant farmers made the improve- ments themselves, while landlords employed labor for this purpose. 93. TABLE Class Landlord Owner Part-owner Tenant Total BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS MADE BY FARMERS THEMSELVES, 1930 Number of Number of Households Pieces 6 18 42 3 69 7 52 IOI 17 177 Value (yen) 51.00 398.08 431.85 110.50 991.43 Value per Household (yen) 8.50 22.20 I0.20 36.66 FARM MACHINES AND TOOLS The plots of farm land are so narrow, the size of farms is so small, and the method of farming so much depends on hand work, that no large machine could possibly be used in Korean farming as now conducted. If there are machines, they are used in experi- mental farms in exceptional cases. Most Korean farmers work with hand tools. Simple and primitive as they are, these constitute a part of the farmer's capital investment. In recent years, the Government has been encouraging the use of improved tools, and such of them as can be used to advantage are rapidly winning popularity. In 1929, the farmers of Korea used 5,531 gasoline power engines which could produce 24,999 horse powers, 22,362 water pumping machines, 56,994 improved plows, 6,476 bean- cake crushers, 513,050 rice threshing machines, 81,960 rice hulling machines, 5,660 rice polishing machines, 73,954 winnowing machines, 28,960 milling machines, 23,757 straw-cord winding machines, and 291,751 straw-mat weaving machines. These are the improved farm "machines", but in reality they are more in the nature of complicated tools. Such machines are produced in the factories of Japan. The use of these machines doubtless increases the productivity of farms, but on the other hand, it is a process of substitution of factory made tools for farm made tools. Accord- 4 4 See Appendix 2 of the 1929 Agricultural Statistics, p. 34. 209 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ingly, they add to the costs of the Korean farmers, while there is certain gain to the factory owners in Japan. To see in how far different kinds of tools are used, and how much they cost we made special inquiries. The total number of various kinds of farm tools and their value according to the various groups of farmers at the end of 1930 have been carefully checked up, and the result indicates two outstanding facts, namely, the simplicity of the tools used and their small value. The most prevalent tools are the chike, sickle, shovel and plow. The value of farm tools for 1249 farm households at the end of 1930 totaled only 14,219.94 yen. The average value of tools per farm was yen 15.89 for landlords, yen 11.29 for owner-farmers, yen 11.46 for part-owners, and yen 10.79 for tenants, with a general average value per farm for all classes of farmers of only yen 10.45. It is, therefore, only a small portion of the total capital investment. The extent to which farmers spend money for purchase of farm tools is shown below: TABLE 94. VALUE OF FARM TOOLS PURCHASED BY 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS, 1930 Quantity Class Landlords Owner-farmers Part-owners Tenants Total No. of House- holds 56 209 399 308 972 No. of pieces 314 1,440 1,999 1,560 5,313 Per farm 5.6 6.8 5.0 5.0 (av.)5.4 Value (yen) Total Per farm 196.45 I,409.50 1,721.54 1,277.74 4,605.23 (av.)4.68 3.50 6.78 4.31 3.72 Of 1249 farm households; 972 bought one kind of tool or another in 1930. The average number of pieces, large and small per household was 5.4, and the cost was 4.68 yen. Over fifty kinds of farm tools were listed. Sa pang Another matter to be inquired into was the value of farm tools made by the farmers themselves during the year. Ordinarily farmers make bamboo rakes, chike, straw mats, shovels, plows, and many other small tools. Naturally, the cost of making small tools 210 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND is less than that of buying them. The number of farm households which make them also is smaller, namely 269 with an average of only 1.7 pieces valued at 1.16 yen each; while 776 farmers repaired on an average 4.6 tools in the year with an average value of 45 sen. Blacksmithing is the most costly item. The depreciation of farm tools is rapid. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS For Korean crop growing, the soil fertility must be maintained through constant application of manures and fertilizers. Farmers habitually apply them, almost without exception, and their cost is an important item in the farm economy. According to govern- ment statistics, the total production and consumption of manures and fertilizers in Korea comes to an enormous amount annually. The progress of the techniques of farming has necessitated a steady increase in recent years. ment According to table 95, the application of various manures and fertilizers in Korea is increasing year by year. The consumption exceeds the production, notably in the last few years; the total deficit being over 10 million yen in value a year. The manures and fertilizers of animal origin include dried fish and bone dust; those of vegetable origin are made up of such materials as bean- excre- cakes, oilcakes, and rice bran; and those of mineral origin are such chemicals as ammonium sulphate, calcium phosphate, chili saltpetre, etc. Human and other animal exereta are universally used and are here included in the manures of animal origin. The deficiency of manures and fertilizers is met by importation from Japan and Manchuria. Some compound fertilizers are imported from the United States, Germany, and other countries. Most of them are of such nature as to supply nitrogen. Green manures are also largely used; they are grown in the field by the farmers who use them. Clover, alfalfa, vetch, and beans are the favorite plants for green manures. Stable manures are the most important for maintaining soil fertility. Over twenty kinds of manures and fertilizers were reported. Some of the important ones were stable manure (toibi), ashes, excrements, bean cake, bran, ammonium sulphate, green manures, phosphates, dried fish, and oil cake. Under the heading of "home- made”, stable manure led the list while among the purchased, K 16. K 211 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Manures and fertilizers of animal origin Manures and fertilizers of vegetable origin Manures and fertilizers of mineral origin Compound manures and fertilizers Total Manures and fertilizers of animal origin Manures and fertilizers of vegetable origin Manures and fertilizers of mineral origin Compound manures and fertilizers Production Total Consumption Production Consumption Production Consumption Production Consumption oduction TABLE 95. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS Production Consumption Production Consumption Production Consumption Value of balance of consumption over production Consumption Production Consumption Production SQuantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value SQuantity Value {{ Quantity Value SQuantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value (Quantity Value SQuantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value SQuantity Value SQuantity Value SQuantity Consumption Value Value of balance of consumption over production 1920 1,443 734 624 235 15,209 1,700 13,613 5,222 691 446 462 152 153 20 46 473 17,496 2,900 14,745 6,082 3,182 1925 3,828 1,501 1,067 219 22,624 2,374 26,128 5,866 410 263 5,683 2,953 1,031 259 371 IZI 22,893 4,397 33,249 9,169 1921 4,772 1,916 957 520 234 17,145 1,774 13,080 2,576 1,260 274 1,476 282 328 38 643 254 20,649 3,043 15,719 3,346 303 1926 8,692 2,004 2,676 648 27,864 2,411 39,278 8,437 418 263 9,730 5,211 498 157 621 303 37,472 3,835 52,305 14,599 10,764 1922 1,507 780 579 208 21,180 2,221 15,714 3,181 852 259 1,177 321 849 98 972 204 24,388 3,358 18,442 3,914 556 1927 14,921 5,994 299 93 26,877 1,911 40,759 9,409 396 208 12,698 5,341 288 123 889 362 42,482 8,236 54,655 15,205 1923 1,838 714 734 241 21,620 2,278 16,649 3,447 1,342 340 1,853 514 1,194 178 1,006 239 25,994 3,510 20,247 4,441 931 1928 13,019 5,284 212 79 31,429 2,214 44,472 10,361 440 223 17,463 8,165 2,472 1,003 44,888 7,721 64,639 19,608 W 1924 2,353 753 1,119 191 21,186 2,241 26,379 4,769 507 286 6,969 11,887 Note: The unit of quantity is 1,000 kwan (1 kwan is equivalent to 8,267 lbs), and that of the value 1,000 yen. Source: Agricultural Statistics, 1929, Appendix No. 1, p. 33. 212 3,432 1,569 448 III 307 75 24,494 3,391 31,257 6,604 3,213 1929 18,088 6,053 452 142 26,887 2,161 35,650 9,009 554 249 25,641 11,036 4I 13 5,107 1,974 45,570 8,476 66,850 22,161 13,685 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND I TABLE 96. VALUE OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS PRODUCED, SOLD, AND CONSUMED ON 1,223 FARMS IN 1930 Class Landlords Owner-farmers Part-owners Tenants Total Class Landlords Owner-farmers Part-owners Tenants Total No. of Households 71 291 425 436 1,223 No. of Households I I 2 4 Home made Value (yen) Total 2,038.27 28.70 14.91 4,341.42 9,520.38 22.42 5,451.49 12.53 21,351.56 (aver.) 17.46 Sold Value (yen) Total Per Farm 1.75 2.45 3.00 7.20 Per Farm 1.75 2.45 1.50 (aver.)2.04 No. of Households 58 175 329 280 842 No. of Households 72 290 426 424 1,212 Purchased Value (yen) Total 2,255.37 2,404.06 8,285.92 1.90רליז 17,887.25 (aver.)21.24 Consumed Per Farm 38.88 13.73 25.18 17.64 Value (yen) Total 4,291.89 6,743.03 17,803.30 10,393.39 39,231.61 Per Farm 59.60 23.25 41.78 24.52 (aver.)32.36 213 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA L ammonium sulphate, bean cake, calcium phosphate and ashes occurred in this order of importance. The home-made manures utilize the waste in homes, barns, gardens, stables, and roads. Almost every farm surveyed produced manures of one kind or another. The average value per household for all farmers was more than 17 yen in 1930. The purchase of fertilizers has much increased in recent years, and the use of so-called "cash-manures". is universal. For this reason, the average amount of purchased fertilizers per farm household was more than 21 yen for 842 farm households. The total consumption of manures and fertilizers for 1,212 farm households was valued at more than 39,231 yen.The average per household was over 32.36 yen. This is heavy cost for poor Korean peasants. As a matter of fact, the tenants have very little or no means to buy the needed manures and fertilizers; the customary way of getting these is to ask the landlord to advance TABLE 97. RELATION BETWEEN CHANGES OF ACREAGE OF ARABLE LAND, APPLICATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS, AND YIELD PER ACRE Year 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 Acreage Absolute (acres) 9,494,447 11,011,306 11,079,073 I1,013,923 11,108,212 I1,022,771 11,020,781 11,191,658 11,201,089 ** 9,514,115 11,289,396 11,288,698 11,348,923 Per Cent Change ** 100 115 116 115 117 115 115 118 118 100 118 118 119 Average Application of Manures and Fertilizers per Acre Absolute (yen) 0.07 0.17 0.36 0.55 0.30 0.34 0.40 0.58 0.81 1.53 1.34 1.64 1.96 Per Cent Change 100 242 514 784 428 485 571 828 1,157 2,185 1,914 2,342 2,800 Absolute (yen) Average Production per Acre 58.69 82.04 97.93 109.06 74.41 84.03 80.32 88.36 91.09 100.27 83.39 C 71.94 66.37 jka 23 € "qa yer tutulur Per Cent Change 100 139 166 185 126 143 136 150 155 170 142 122 113 Source: The basic figures of the three variables are taken from the Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 90, and Agricultural Statistics, 1929, p. 1, and Appendix, p. 1. 214 1 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND the money for buying them. Such loans are repaid in the fall, when the harvest is done, but the rate of interest is so high, 40 to 50 per cent in most cases, that it is doubtful whether the tenant is better off by using fertilizers or not. In order to see how the larger use of manures and fertilizers has increased the productive power of land, we have studied the rela- tion between changes of acreage, application of manures and fertilizers, and production per acre. It would be better to use the absolute quantities of the manures and fertilizers used and the yields of crops, but the government figures are too incomplete to make this possible. As will be seen, the average value of manures and fertilizers applied per acre has increased enormously during the thirteen years under consideration. On the contrary, the average produc- tion per acre has not much increased. These two variables are far from parallel to one another. The index of the percentage production per acre shows a tendency of diminishing returns. We may possibly admit that the index of prices of manures and fertili- zers may not parallel the index of prices of farm products; yet, the discrepancy between the two variables is too great. If the statistics. are dependable, and the supposition holds that the value of manures and fertilizers and the value of agricultural production is somewhat parallel, the benefit of increased application of manures and fertilizers is problematical. SOME OTHER FORMS OF CAPITAL Like manures and fertilizers, some other items, such as seeds, feed stuffs, etc., make up a part of the farm capital along with the land, buildings, improvements and tools. Without them, a farm cannot be run. Of the amount of seed sown, or of feed stuff used, no study has ever been made. The results of a special effort to get the facts regarding their use are shown in the follow- ing tables. The different kinds of seeds used in the farms in a particular year are derived from three sources; they are carried over from the previous year, they are bought, or they are produced on the farm during the year. The average cost per farm household, 8.44 yen during the year, is not as high as the cost of manuring and fertilizing, but far exceeds that of the farm tools and machines. VERS 215 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 98. SEEDS ACQUIRED IN THE SURVEYED FARMS IN 1930 Value (yen) Seeds kept at the beginning of year Seeds bought dur ing year Seeds produced dur- ing year Total Seeds consumed Seeds carried over the year No. of House- holds Total 752 806 275 1,833 No. of House- holds 1,083 696 Quantity (bushels) Total Per Farm 1,779 4,241 3,316 775 8,332 5,621 3,316 8,937 (aver.)4.0 TABLE 99. AMOUNT OF VARIOUS SEEDS USED AND CARRIED OVER THE YEAR BY 1,779 FARMERS, 1930 5.6 Quantity (bushels) Total Per Farm 5.5 4.8 4.9 2.8 Total Per Farm 6,589.95 6,308.05 1,158.25 14,056.25 (aver.)7.67 Value (yen) Total 9,220.70 5,168.16 14,388.86 8.77 8.44 7.82 7.42 4.21 Per Farm The number of animals kept by the farm households investigated has already been mentioned. To keep farm animals, feed stuffs are absolutely necessary. P The items included are hay, bean pod, grains, brans, lees, garbage etc. The quantity of each of these stuffs was given in the original investigation, but the unit of measurement varies so greatly that it is impossible to summarize them by a single standard. The cost per farm household represents, of course, only that cost incurred by the farmers who have such expenses. The average is only that for farmers who keep animals and amounts to only 3.59 yen. Straw is extensively used as feed stuff, but it is also used for many other purposes. For this reason, we made a separate invest- igation of its cost. 216 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND TABLE 100. COST OF FEED STUFFS USED BY THE FARMERS INVESTIGATED IN 1930 (In yen) Landlords Value ... P At beginning of year Produced during year Bought during year Consumed during year At end of year Part-owners Value Total 1,462 3,092 434 3,819 1,197 Per Farm 4.20 3.27 6.57 3.97 3.00 Total Per Farm 178 761 62 839 169 Tenants Value Total 832 549 308 1,768 448 3.70 3.94 4.05 4.25 2.91 Per Farm 2.74 90 10.61 2.93 2.51 Owners Value Total 853 2,235 86 2,457 694 Total 3,325 6,637 890 8,883 2,508 Per Farm Total Value 4.08 3.09 4.77 3.45 2.94 Per Farm 3.86 2.69 6.94 3.59 2.88 The importance of straw in the farm account is a peculiar characteristic of Korean farming owing to the large acreage devoted to rice cultivation. It provides the raw material for mats, shoes, cords, ropes, and other manufactures of many sorts; it is used for thatching roofs; it serves as fuel for the ondol-the heating system of rooms; it is good for feeding domestic animals. The cost of straw used by all farmer classes was 13.05 yen per farm household during the year. There are numerous other things which ought to go into the account of farm business expenses. Among them, taxes and fees, other public charges, irrigation fees, association charges, cost of irrigation and drainage, veterinary charges, insect powders and sprinkling stuffs, and other small cash expenses are reported in our investigators' records. 217 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 101. COST OF STRAW AND STALKS USED ON FARMS INVESTIGATED, 1930 At the beginning of the year Bought during the year Produced during the year At the end of the year Quantity (bushels) 67,776 1,761 233,524 222,586 80,475 Part-owners Total 2,174 29 4,634 4,495 1,951 Value Per Farm 14.77 4.88 15.86 15.23 11.68 Note: Quantity (bushels) 5,428 53,920 6,038 Quantity (bushels) Landlords 26,757 I,249 Total 349 1,214 239 Value Tenants Per Farm Value 24.92 22.48 14.92 Quantity (bushels) Per Farm 30,150 830 80,078 32,673 Total 817 11.19 2.99 45 2,854 137,423 II.44 504,945 178,864 2,853 II.02 483,145 36,565 783 8.07 155,751 The units are bundles for quantity and yen for value. Quantity (bushels) 130,111 3,840 Owners Total 1,072 30 2,120 971 Total Total 4,412 104 10,822 10,734 3,943 Value Per Farm Value 13.68 3.35 9.95 11.69 Per Farm 14.46 3.46 13.27 13.05 10.81 7 218 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS OTHER THAN IN LAND Item of Cost Taxes, fees and (No. of farms Total cost other public charges Per farm Irrigation and association charges Irrigation and drainage costs. Veterinary costs TABLE 102. VARIOUS FARM COSTS INCURRED 1930 (In yen) Insect powder, etc. Small cash expenses Other small costs No. of farms Total cost Per farm No. of farms Total cost Per farm No. of farms Total cost Per farm No. of farms Total cost Per farm No. of farms Total cost Per farm No. of farms Total cost Per farm Landlords 77 5,757 74.76 15 837 55.82 4 21 5.30 6 19 5.23 5 13 2.60 44 1,709 38.85 54 14 2.86 Owners 302 4,838 16.02 44 952 21.63 7 62 8.78 7 14 2.25 3 9 3.00 98 1,918 18.57 9 23 2.54 Part-owners Tenants 433 7,628 17.61 77 2,226 28.90 19 166 8.72 28 48 1.71 25 63 2.53 171 4,470 26.14 64 160 2.50 4II 2,599 6.32 38 845 22.23 15 76 4.70 8 35 4.40 6 12 1.96 169 2,273 13.45 114 228 2.00 The cost for irrigation and drainage was more than 35 yen per farm for those farms which have incurred such expenses. Taxes and other public charges are a heavy burden on the farms. The small cash expenses also add up to a rather heavy item in the list. Total 1,223 20,822 17.02 174 4,860 27.93 45 325 7.10 49 116 2.37 39 97 2.49 482 10,370 21.51 192 425 2.2I 219 *** CHAPTER VII FARM LABOR SINC INCE Korean farming utilizes very little mechanical power, the labor power used on farms is largely from human and animal sources. Wind and water power are only occasionally used, wind power for winnowing and water for milling. In recent years, gasoline engines are more often employed in pumping water for irrigation, milling, etc., but even here the application of machine power is only occasional and just beginning. The number of man-work days on farms could be roughly estimated by available data. According to the government statis- tics the total number of persons reported to be engaged in agriculture, forestry, and livestock raising in 1930 was 15,853,332. This number does not include the Japanese, Chinese, and foreign farmers. Therefore, the total number would be about 15.9 million persons. Of this number, about one-half would be able to work on farms, because the juveniles under twelve years of age, persons over fifty years old, and those disabled must be excluded from the total. Accordingly, nearly eight million men and women would be able to work on farms. Supposing that the working days for a farm worker are 150 during the year, the total aggregate number of man-work days for a single year would be no less than 1,200 million. The use of animal power is indispensable in Korean farming, especially that of ox and cow. Horses are seldom used. There- fore the labor power derived from cattle is the largest source of farm labor power, except the human. According to the govern- ment statistics, the total number of cattle in 1930 was 1,611,585. Supposing two-thirds of the number are able to work, and about 100 working days a year, the total aggregate would be no less than 107 million ox- or cow- work days for a single year. These, then, are the two great sources of farm labor. Strangely enough, no adequate study has ever been made, in spite of the 220 1 FARM LABOR importance, of the labor element in farm economy. The Govern- ment has no substantial data concerning labor conditions, pro- blems, and solutions in relation to rural economy. This may be owing to failure on the parts of the authorities to realize the importance of the labor question in rural communities, but the difficulty of investigating farm labor conditions, requirements, and problems seems to have something to do with the total lack of available data. In our investigation, we put forth especial effort to get the desired facts as accurate as possible. Since the farmers themselves, in most cases, did not know how many days they work during the year, much difficulty was experienced. AMOUNT OF LABOR NEEDED FOR FARMS If we view the farm as an independent business unit, an operator of a farm is a laborer when he works on the farm. He is an entrepreneur of farm business at his own risk as well as a laborer. The distinction between the rewards for management and for labor is almost impossible to make. For this reason, we counted the operator or the master of a farm as a laborer when he works on the farm. The family members of the operator or manager are, of course, laborers when they work on the farm, although they may receive no wage. There are several kinds of hired workers on farms. The annual Taborer is the most important; lives with the farmer and is treated as a member of the family. The difference is only that the hired laborer gets the contracted amount of wages, usually at the end of the year. When he wishes to be hired continuously, he may do so by renewal of contract. On the other hand, if he wishes to leave, he is free to go. There are also laborers who work on farms by the month, especially during the busy season. The seasonal laborer works for wages, not by the month, but by the season, the length of which is usually three months. Day workers are employed as extra help. They are commonly called the "hands." Hauling, ploughing, and burden-bearing are largely done by the labor of oxen and cows. When cattle and horses are kept by farmers they usually do various kinds of farm work not only for the farmer who owns them, but also for other farmers. The payment for their work represents rent paid for the animal and a wage for the man who goes along with the animal. 221 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA .. Province N. Hamkyung S. Hamkyung N. Pyengan NS. Pyengan Whanghai Kyungki Kangwon N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang N. Chulla S. Chulla Total TABLE 103. NUMBER OF MEN AND ANIMALS EMPLOYED ON 1,249 FARMS, 1930 Farm Acreage 819 826 341 694 1,266 328 949 244 649 811 381 979 852 9,139 Farm Family Operators Members 57 109 18 98 106 56 107 29 90 I02 82 79 79 1,012 102 60 18 129 85 57 102 21 28 85 62 61 126 936 Annual Monthly Laborers 26 16 I 3. 16 IO 19 25 47 44 24 23 20 Seasonal Laborers Laborers 250 2 6 2 1 Jment I lul +42 26 I | | | Ι ∞ 8 | | 2 2 1 5 5 S I 20 Day Laborers (No. of Work Days) 398 2,124 741 714 3,296 2,239 858 4,089 3,198 4,740 5,693 3,685 31,775 Horses Cattle (No. of (No. of Work Days) Work Days) 483 4,921 2,890 3,022 8,222 1,746 511 8,423 3,833 967 402 35,420 165 349 68 | | 732 1,314 : FARM LABOR For the day laborers, cattle, and horses, it seemed better to show the number of work days instead of the number of persons and animals. The operator and his family members worked on the average 139 days a year on their farms, the annual farm laborers 225 days. The cattle worked on the average 49 days a year, although the number of cattle work-days varies greatly by provinces, being greater in the north than in the south. Some farmers and their families are not working. For this reason, there were only 1,012 operators on 1249 farms. The annual laborers have to work more days and harder, hence the discrepancy between the number of work days for the operators and the annual laborers. To ascertain how much labor is needed to get the farm work done, we investigated the number of work days on the 1249 farms during the year 1930. In making the survey, classifications were made in such a way that the monthly amount of labor required on the farm by various kinds of farm workers was checked up, in other words, the number of work days in each of the twelve months by the farm operators and their family members, the annual laborers, seasonal laborers, monthly laborers, and day laborers. We also made a special effort to check the animal work-days along with those of laborers. The result of our investigation is represented in figure 12. The distribution of farm labor employed expressed in terms of work days is very unequal as between months. For instance, in January, February, and March a small amount of labor is need- ed; but in April, May, and June, a large amount is required. In August, less labor is needed than in September and October, and somewhat less than in May and June. May represents the highest peak of the required amount of labor, because of the conjunction of various kinds of farm work to be done in that month-for example, rice transplanting, barley and wheat harvesting, soya bean sowing, and silk worm raising. The next busy month is September, because in that month harvesting sets in, and the fields must be cleared. It is interesting to compare the monthly differences in the number of work days between various kinds of farm laborers. That for the farm operators and their families is similar to that for the annual laborers. There is a similarity also between the annual work distribution for seasonal, monthly, and day laborers. 223 K 17. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA < 1000 Day's 30 Number of man work days of operators and members of their families. 20 10 100 Days бо 50 Number of man work days of day laborers. 40 30 201 100 Days 30 · 20 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112 MONTH Number of man work days of month laborers. T 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 MONTH · I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MONTH Number of man work days of seasonal laborers. Days 30 20 10 Number of man work days of the annual laborer. 100 Days 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 100 Days 80 70 Number of man work days of labor animals. 60 50 40 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month 20 10 → I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MONTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MONTH FIGURE 12. NUMBER OF MAN OR CATTLE WORK DAYS OF FARM LABORERS AND LABOR ANIMALS BY MONTHS (Data obtained primarily from 1249 Farm Households, 1930) 224 FARM LABOR The operators and the members of their family work for themselves and, accordingly, as continuously as possible. For this reason, the number of man-work days in January, July, August, and December is quite a little higher than for hired laborers. The annual laborers are employed on a yearly basis, and have to work as much as the operators; for this reason the distribution of their work over the year is very similar. All other farm laborers are employed by farm operators in seasons, months, or days when they cannot do all the work on the farm themselves. The number of man-work days for the 1249 farm households investigated seems rather large. TABLE 104. TOTAL NUMBER OF MAN AND CATTLE WORK- DAYS, AVERAGE NUMBER OF WORK DAYS, AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF MAN AND CATTLE WORK DAYS PER ACRE OF LAND, 1930 Farm operators and their family Annual laborers Seasonal laborers Monthly laborers Daily laborers Farm cattle Total Total Number of Work Days 242,401 41,467 194.4 33.1 111 1.7 I.2 25.4 29.1 284.9 2,175 1,673 31,775 36,500 Average Number of Work Days per Farm 355,991 Average Number of Man and Cattle Work Days per Acre 26.5 4.5 0.2 O.I 3.4 3.9 38.6 347 ) According to the table, the average number of man work days per farm was 84.9 days. Of course, it must be admitted that every kind of farm work, even the making of straw ropes and mats, is included. The per acre average of man or cattle work days was 38.6 days. THE EFFICIENCY OF FARM LABOR By efficiency we mean here the amount of work done by man or animal in a given period of time. The amount of work done is to be measured by the area on which man or animal has worked, For example, if a man has done weeding on 5 acres in 10 hours, 225 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA his efficiency is 1:2, while another man who did 6 acres' weeding in 10 hours has an efficiency of 3:5. Therefore, the latter has greater efficiency than the former. The ratio between the time required for the work and the amount of work done during the given time is the efficiency of the man or animal engaged in that work. In farming, the tasks are so numerous and their nature. is so different that the efficiency of a man or animal may greatly vary with the kind of work. For this reason, we have studied the efficiency of some important farm activities, for example, plowing, weeding, transplanting, and harvesting (cutting rice). The efficiency in such kinds of work would be different as between field and paddy field. Accordingly, such classifications have been made in the survey schedule. In the main, our purpose was to find out the working ability of men and animals in paddy fields for rice cultivation. 12 TABLE 105. THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN ENGAGED IN FARM WORK, 1930 Kind of Work Plowing Weeding Paddy field Harvesting Field Transplanting Field with cattle without cattle with cattle without cattle Paddy field Paddy field Field SPaddy field Field Man (hour- tsubo) 145 17 152 28 23 25 34 33 33 47 Juvenile Woman (male) (hour- tsubo) Note: (a) The juveniles were aged between 12 and 18 years. IO 1입 ​12 15 17 14 14 21 (hour- tsubo) ΤΟ II 12 II 14 13 15 20 (b) The figures in the table indicate the average number of tsubo (6 ft. square) on which work was done in an hour, i.e. “hour-tsubo" working ability. 364 226 FARM LABOR The total number of farmers who answered our question were 917 for plowing paddy field with farm cattle, and 483 without cattle; 1,053 for plowing fields with cattle and 519 without cattle; 937 for transplanting rice seedlings on paddy fields and 530 for the same work on other field crops; 874 for weeding in paddy fields and 1,009 on fields; 996 for cutting rice crops on paddy fields and 1,071 for cutting various crops on fields. Such numbers suffice to give reliable averages for various kinds of farm work. The number of women and juveniles questioned was less than the number of men, but for the sake of comparison average figures, as in the case of men, were put in the above table. We find that on the average an adult man working with farm cattle can plow 145 tsubo (6 ft. square) of paddy field an hour, while without cattle he is only able to dig up 17 tsubo of paddy field an hour, using the Korean sosirang instead of a plow; that on the average the man can plow 152 tsubo per hour if he is working with farm cattle, but can dig up only 28 tsubo of field when he has no cattle; that there was no case of plowing paddy field with farm cattle by women and juvenile male workers, but when they work without the aid of cattle they can dig up 10 tsubo of paddy field per hour and 10 tsubo of field in the case of women and 11 tsubo in that of juveniles. The efficiency of women and juveniles is little more than one half that of adult men. Such is the efficiency of work on farms, when 10 hours a day are taken as a man-work day. In practice, farm workers are working from dawn till dark, and the number of work hours for a day varies with the seasons of the year. In summer they work longer, and in winter less. Four or five rest periods of about twenty to thirty minutes a day are commonly observed. On the average, the ten-hour day prevails. As regards the animal work efficiency, we have some data from a study made by the Korean Live Stock Association. The working cattle weigh about 630 lbs in North Kyungsang and the plow weighs about 50 lbs. The former weighs about 830 lbs and the latter 80 lbs in Whanghai; the former 660 lbs and the latter 60 lbs in North Pyengan; in Kangwon, the cattle weigh about 830 lbs and the plow about 65 lbs. The method of plowing also differs with the surface inclination of the ground. On even land, the seedbed is made by plowing 227 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 106. THE EFFICIENCY OF LABOR ANIMALS IN A TEN HOUR DAY Province N. Kyungsang Whanghai N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung Inclination of Land Surface Level land Under 15° slope Up to 40° slope Level land Under 15° slope Over 15° slope Up to 50° slope Level land Under 15° slope Over 15° slope Up to 40° slope Level land Under 15° slope Over 15° slope Up to 45° slope Level land Under 15° slope Over 15° slope Up to 35° slope · Breaking- up (acres) 0.39 0.36 0.10 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.24 0.75 0.50 0.49 0.17 0.49 0.36 0.24 0.17 Ploughing Weeding (acres) (acres) 1.20 I.40 0.20 1.75 1.59 1.22 0.62 1.22 1.00 0.98 0.71 1.22 0.98 0.75 0.24 I.34 I.IO 0.85 0.49 1.40 0.80 2.94 2.45 1.96 0.17 2.00 · 1.80 1.20 0.98 1.75 1.82 I.22 0.61 Source: Y. Yoshita, The Export of Korean Cattle to Japan, Seoul, 1931, pp. 22-25. from both sides, going and coming, forming a ridge in the middle; the direction is toward the length of the field. Under 15° slope, it is made by turning the soil from the lower to the upper part of the field. The plow is always placed on the level line so as to give the seedbed a level position. When the slope is more than 15°, the plow is always placed in the lower side of the field and makes a terrace. In any case, the plow is put into the soil about six inches deep for field plowing and about 7 inches for breaking up new soil. In northern Korea two oxen are employed for ploughing the field, but in southern Korea a single cow is used for paddy field plowing. 1.71 1.34 228 FARM LABOR The number of farm households which kept oxen or cows in 1930 was 605, and the number of cattle was 737. The efficiency of the cows and oxen was that on the average they can plow 128 tsubo (six ft. square) an hour on paddy fields and 134 tsubo on fields. The soil property and the power of animals vary greatly, of course. THE COST OF FARM LABOR The labor cost is a very important item in the list of farm expenditures. It is made up of the wages paid for farm workers and the cost or hire of farm animals, as well as the provisions for such workers and animals. When the farm is looked upon as an independent business unit, a part of the income of the operators and their family members should also be considered as reward for their labor. It is customary for annual farm laborers to live with the farm operator's family, and to get their board, room, and clothes from the operator. The seasonal and monthly laborers do not get their clothes from the operator, but get board and room. The day laborers do not get room, but board on the days on which they are employed. The boarding of day laborers varies with the kinds of work and localities; that is, sometimes the operator provides them with three meals a day for certain kinds of farm work, for example, seeding and threshing, but sometimes only with two meals, one meal, or no meal at all, for certain other kinds of farm work. Drinks and tobacco are also often part of the bargain, alcoholic beverages being offered at certain times of the day. The clothing of the annual laborers consists of four Korean suits, suitable for the four seasons of the year. All the laborers get wages, apart from the perquisites mentioned. The farm labor cost, therefore, is made up of these two items of expenditure. As regards the cost of animal work, the employers must pay the cost of wages and provisions of the laborer who goes with the work animal as well as the reward for the animal work and the cost of feeding. The labor market in Korea is generally dull, especially in the rural sections. There are always crowds of laborers waiting for jobs. This naturally brings down the wage level to an extremely low point. Wages go up at certain seasons of the year-for You 229 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA example, in April and May. But such rises are temporary and short-lived. According to the government statistics, the wages paid for. Japanese laborers and for Korean laborers are different, being higher for the former than for the latter, although there is no difference with regard to the physical strength, working ability, skill, or efficiency between the two sets of laborers. The reason is largely racial discrimination which also affects the salaries paid government officials. For this reason, no Korean farm operator would hire a Japanese laborer. In numerical strength, the Japanese laborers are negligible in the Korean labor market. In 1930, the average wages of farm workers in eight metropolitan areas where the government has kept records were as follows: Japanese Koreans Chinese TABLE 107. WAGES OF FARM LABOR IN 1930 (In yen) men women men women men Monthly 15.68 8.17 11.72 5.55 13.00 Note: The monthly laborers are provided with board and room. Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 256. Daily 1.34 0.85 0.73 0.42 0.61 As shown in the table, Japanese farm day laborers, both men and women, get twice as much as Koreans; but Japanese wage-earners can get jobs only because of special favoritism, based on racial feeling, on the part of government officials. The Chinese can out- bid both the Japanese and Koreans by their low wages and industry. The annual wage index for all kinds of workers stood at 84.9 in 1931, when the 1926 level is taken as base. In 1927, it was at 101.5, in 1928 at 105.0, in 1929 at 103.5, and in 1930 at 95.0. The wage level was high in 1928, but since then the drop has been sharp. The level of farm wages is far below that of general wages. The discrepancy between the two wage levels. varies according to the seasons of the year, but there is some regu- larity in the movements. The wage level of farm laborers is somewhat higher in such months as April, May, and November. 230 FARM LABOR The fluctuation of farm wages is greater than that of general wages. It is interesting to compare these wage levels with the price levels in the same period of the years. The general commodity price movement is very sympathetic with the movement of general wage scales. The movement of farm wages also runs somewhat parallel to the movement of farm prices. There is no direct relation of cause and effect between these two sets of facts. Com- mon to both movements is the declining trend of the movements caused by the world-wide business depression of recent years. The actual amount of wages paid in money was 0.50 yen a day for a man and 0.35 yen a day for a woman in October, 1932. This is the wage paid for farm day laborers without board and room. However, the amount varies according to locality. The monthly laborer gets, on an average, nine yen per month, with board and room, whereas the annual farm laborer gets about 60 yen a year, in addition to board, room, and clothing. In hiring farm cattle for day work, about 3 yen is the prevailing scale. It varies with the age of the animal and with localities. The cost of board, room, and clothing for laborers is rather difficult to assess. In our investigation, the number of meals and the number of refreshments given to laborers in a day in the case of day laborers, the cost of boarding and rooming by months in the case of seasonal and monthly laborers, and the cost of boarding, rooming, and clothing per year in the case of annual laborers, were carefully checked. In most cases, the cost of a meal was from 0.04 to 0.30 yen; on the average it was not more than 0.10 yen for a meal. The cost of refreshment is rather large as compared with that of the regular meals; this is because tobacco and alcoholic beverages are more expensive than the main foods. The average boarding cost was 4.51 yen for a monthly laborer, including the cost of rooming, The clothing cost was 11.50 yen, on the average, for an annual laborer, although it varied according to locality. mapa nak da The annual average labor cost per farm household was 190.46 yen for the 1249 farm households. The annual average labor cost for the 77 landlords was 208.45 yen, that for the 436 part-owners 201.80 yen, and that for the 428 tenants 173.92 yen. Generally speaking, the 1249 farm households had spent about, 190.00 yen 2 231 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA on the average for labor. This is quite a large amount for the poor farmers of Korea. TABLE 108. TOTAL LABOR COSTS OF 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS IN 1930 Kinds of Laborer Farm operators Family members Day laborers Monthly laborers Seasonal laborers Annual laborers Cattle Horse Part-owners No. of Persons 345 315 197 15 8 Total 113 348 2 Costs (yen) 32,040.02 24,144.61 7,868.68 No. of Persons Landlords 49 52 u w uz www 362 278 212 36 53 No. of Persons 257 41 Tenants 5 7 4 308 3 I Costs (yen) 3,523.92 3,286.00 2,603.50 245.30 140.50 3,842.12 2,406.54 32.20 16,080.08 Costs (yen) 36,532.00 21,189.69 5,361.16 110.80 70.00 3,874.02 6,994.26 209.05 No. of Persons 256 291 145 I Owners 234 25 3 60 1,015 No. of Persons 1,012 936 607 26 20 181.30 821.92 9,893.23 250 13,005.05 948 32.48 31 1,343 87,987.29 1,215 74,340.98 3,830 Notes: (a) The labor costs include not only wages but boarding, rooming, clothing, and harnessing. (b) When the farm operators work on the farms, they are included as though annual laborers, and accordingly their wages as well as other costs, such as boarding, rooming, and clothing, during the working seasons, are included. The operator's family members are treated in the same way. (c) Cattle and horses are accounted as one unit of labor. Total Costs (yen) 18,473.34 14,545.34 3,592.5I 13.67 124.70 6,078.81 5,345.23 1,302.51 49,476.II Costs (yen) 90,569.28 63,165,64 19,425,85 551.07 1,157.12 23,688.18 27,751.08 1,547.24 227,855.46 232 CHAPTER VIII RURAL CREDIT A CCORDING to the Dong-A Ilpo, September 6, 1931, the total indebtedness of farmers was investigated by the Govern- ment and reported in the following manner. "I. Loans advanced to farmers by Rural Credit Societies (Keum Yung Chohap), banks, and government organizations: A. Loans advanced by the Rural Credit Societies.. B. Loans advanced by banks on mortgage C. Small Farmers' Fund advanced by the Govern- ment-General of Chosen D. Fertilizer Fund advanced by the Industrial Bureau of the Government Total "II. Loans advanced from other sources: "" A. Loans advanced by individuals B. Loans advanced by trust companies, etc.. 101,000,000 yen 238,000,000 yen 58,000,000 yen 9,300,000 yen 23,000,000 yen 90,300,000 yen C. Loans advanced by the Mushin Loan Societies. Total "The total amount of debts described above is 435,750,000 yen. This amount, however, does not include the inascertainable credits between private individuals, the loans advanced by banks without mortgage, and debts owned by the farmers' Water Irrigation Associations. When such items are included. in the total debt of the farmers, the aggregate sum would not be less than 500,000,000 yen. [ "Now, the total aggregate amount of the "legal value" of arable land in Korea is 846,000,000 yen The selling value of it is variable according to locality, but is supposed to be, on the average, about three times the "legal yalue. Accordingly, the total selling value of arable land would be 2,538,000,000 yen. At the present moment, no less than 60 per cent. of the total land area is under mortgage." • 2,450,000 yen 4,000,000 yen 345,450,000 yen Such is the magnitude of farmers' indebtedness in 1931. With the unprecedented agricultural depression in recent years, it must have increased enormously in 1932. According to an official state- ment, the debts of farmers in Japan amounted to 4,400 million yen In 1931. On account of the ever sharpening rural crisis, these debts increased by about 100 yen per farm household in a single 233 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ㄷ ​year; and in July, 1932, the aggregate total farmers' debt had increased to more than 5,000 million yen. There are no compar- able data for Korea, but the increase would be proportional or parallel with that for the Japanese farmers, because conditions are much the same in both countries. On such a basis, we may place the total farmers' debt in Korea at no less than 600 million yen in 1932. In 1931, an investigation was made by the Industrial Bureau of the Government-General of Chosen, regarding the loans made between individuals. The survey was conducted by the Heads of Township (myun) in such a way that the loans advanced by banks, the Rural Credit Societies, the Water Irrigation Associations, and by government organization, were excluded from the schedule. The result showed that the aggregate total amount borrowed by farmers from individuals was over 101,113,000 yen. The number of farm households under this kind of debt was 1,733,000. This was more than 75 per cent of the total number of farm households. The average debt per farm household was 58.34 yen. According to an investigation made by the Provincial Government of South Kyungsang Province: "The number of farm households investigated was 26,160, the number of persons in debt 16,298; the total amount of debt 1,528,658 yen. "The average amount of debt per person was 107 yen, the average amount of debt per household 58.40 yen. "The investigation was conducted exclusively on small peasants in the villages where the Farmers' Mutual Aid Societies (Kwon Nong Kongje Chohap) operate. The maximum amount of debt for a person was 22,000 yen, while the minimum was 2 yen. The average amount of debt is beyond the power of the small peasants to recover. It is, indeed, a desperate situation." 1 | Prlja Wat Aru The result of our investigation of farmers' debts, in 1931 and 1932, is of interest for the purpose of comparison and for the study of other facts involved in the rural credit system. We shall pro- duce first the results of the 1931 investigation which covers the 13 provinces and 1249 farm households. Out of the 1249 farm households, 983, or more than three fourths, were in debt. On the average, the amount of debt was more than 184 yen per household and 29.68 yen per person; the debt is heaviest in the case of landlords; and the personal credit is the greatest. An average debt of 184.99 yen per farm household 1 The Oriental Review, July and August, 1932, Appendix, p. 30. 234 RURAL CREDIT Landlords Owner- farmer Part-owners Tenants Total Class TABLE 109. EXTENT OF DEBT, CLASSES OF FARMERS AND KINDS OF SECURITY IN 1930 FOR 1,249 FARM HOUSEHOLDS Mortgage No. of farms No. of persons at the end of 1930 (yen) No. of farms No. of persons at the end of 1930 (yen) total per farm per person total per farm Uper person (No. of farms No. of persons at the end of 1930 (yen) at the end of 1930 (yen) total per farm per person No. of farms No. of persons at the end of 1930 (yen) total per farm per person No. of farms No. of persons total per farm Uper person First 26 233 29,370.00 1,129.61 120.00 90 552 20,046.00 227.73 36.31 104 687 34,859.00 335.38 50.74 30 152 2,500.00 83.33 16.45 250 1,624 86,775.00 347.10 53.43 Second 2 17 4,000.00 2,000.00 235.28 3 29 444.00 148.00 15.31 8 53. 2,330.00 291.25 43.96 4 20 129.00 32.24 6.45 17 119 6,903.00 406.05 50.44 235 2 Personal Chattel Credit Mortgage 20 128 4,557.00 227.85 35.61 104 698 20,586.00 197.94 29.49 241 1,593 30,335.00 125.87 19.04 266 1,473 27,322.00 102.71 18.54 631 3,892 82,800.00 131.22 21.27 2 10 500.00 250.00 50.00 I 7 300.00 300.00 42.85 5 37 1,280.00 256.00 34.59 2∞ 8 65.00 32.50 8.12 IO 62 2,145.00 ; 214.50 34.59 Changli I 5 3.50 (25 bu.) 3.50 .70 20 124 1,363.25 (970 bu.) 68.16 10.99 54 266 855.40 (610 bu.) 15.84 3.21 75 395 2,222.15 (1,585 bu.) 29.62 5.62 Total (Averages) 50 388 38,427.00 768.54 99.03 199 1,291 41,379.50 207.93 32.05 378 2,494 70,167.25 188.53 28.13 356 1,919 30,871.40 86.71 16.08 983 6,092 180,845.15 184.99 29.68 K 18. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA makes the total sum for all farmers in Korea approximately 424 million yen. This amount approximately coincides with the government figure of 435 million yen. In our investigation, we excluded the landlord class A as not being farmers. If we add the debts incurred by these landlords, the total amount is certainly over 500 million yen. Our survey conducted in 1932 covered thirty-one villages in ten counties of the five provinces South and North Pyengan, Whang- hai, South Chulla, and South Choongchung. The number of farm households surveyed was 338. The survey was especially intended to measure the credit situation, with emphasis on farm debts. Among these farm households, the number of farmers free from debt was 84, about one-quarter of the total. When the investigated households were classified according to groups of farmers, the indebtedness of each group was as follows: TABLE 110. AMOUNT BORROWED BY 338 HOUSEHOLDS, 1932 No. of Households Class Owners Part-owners Tenants Non-farmers indebted Total 63 61 116 14 not indebted 254 17,861 283.50 42.02 10,711 175.59 27.11 11,218 96.70 16.53 1,195 85.35 23.90 40,985 161.36 26.52 Note: The non-farmers in the table are those who do not have land to farm, but earn their living by working on farms and other miscellaneous work in rural communities. 73 27 20 Total Amount of Debt (yen) 120 Amount of Debt per Household (yen) Amount of Debt per person (yen) According to the table, the owner class was under a heavy debt. The owner-farmers are under such heavy debt that many will doubtless become part-owners or tenants. At any rate, the average amount of debt per farm household was 161.36 yen, as compared with 184.99 yen which was the result of the 1931 survey. The amount of debt per acre was 25.23 yen for the 254 farm households. in debt. This was, of course, the average for all the provinces and villages where investigation was carried on. 236 RURAL CREDIT To sum up, about one in four of the farm households were free from debt, and the rest were heavily in debt, averaging about 170 yen per household and 28 yen per person. The amount of debt was heaviest in the case of landlords and owner-farmers. THE RATE OF INTEREST ON FARM LOANS Generally speaking, capital is scarce in Korea. The consequence is a high rate of interest. According to the government statistics, the average rates of interest charged by various credit agencies in 1930 were as follows: TABLE 111. AVERAGE RATES OF INTEREST CHARGED BY VARIOUS CREDIT AGENCIES IN 1930 Deposits Agencies Bank of Chosen Industrial Bank Ordinary (over 6 Current months) Per Cent. (sen) of Chosen Other Banks Rural Credit Societies 5.0 5.0 6.1 4 7.0 46 Overdrawn Ordinary Accounts (sen) (sen) 2.4 • 2.6 3.4 7 3.4 Note: For the ordinary deposit and instalment of long-term credit, the rate is expressed in terms of per cent. per annum; for the rest is the daily rate. Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, pp. 262-265. 2.4 2.8 3.5 Loans 2 Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 4, p. 27. 4.0 Discount (sen) 2.2 2.4 3.2 I On Instal- ment and Long Term Credit Per Cent. The rates of interest on loans between individuals vary greatly. According to the government statement,² in 1931, the monthly rate on ordinary loans per 100 yen was 2.3 per cent among Japanese, 2.9 per cent among Koreans, and 2.5 per cent among foreigners; while it was 2.8 per cent between Japanese and foreigners and 2.9 per cent between Koreans and foreigners. The monthly rate for market loans on 10 yen was 5.8 per cent. The highest rate on ordinary loans was 4.2 per cent and the lowest 1.7 per cent; while 8.8 | 10.5 · 237 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA the highest rate on market loans was 7.9 per cent and the lowest 4.5 per centy The Japanese Civil Code prohibits exorbitant charges of interest on the part of lenders, but the law is enforced only in case of litigation between creditors and debtors. In the actual money market, the rate of interest is determined by the forces of demand and supply. Consequently, the farmer in dire need of money has to offer a high rate of interest. It is commonly observed that in rural villages which the influence of banks is too remote to reach and where credits are tied up, the rate of interest is exorbitantly high, running up to 60 or 70 per cent per annum. Of course, the amount of such loans is small in the total amount of credit. The changly is a kind of loan made in the form of farm products. For example, the debtor may borrow a bushel of rice in spring or summer and pay back a bushel and a half in the fall when the harvest is done. This is the remnant of a barter exchange system once common, but the rate of interest is so high, that in terms of an annual rate, it sometimes comes to more than 100 per cent. The poorer classes, mostly the tenants, are suffering very much under such an irrational credit system. The total amount of changli borrowed by the farmers investigated, mostly by part- owners and tenants, was 1,585 bushels. According to our 1931 investigation, the lowest rate of interest was 7 per cent and the highest 40 per cent for mortgage credits; the lowest 7 per cent and the highest 70 per cent for personal credits. The mortgage credit is not so risky as the personal credit, so the rate of interest is lower. The greatest frequency was at 15 per cent for mortgage credit, and at 30 per cent for personal credit. The landlords and owners enjoy the lower rates of interest in borrowing. The result of the 1932 investigation showed that the greatest frequency was 30 per cent for all kinds of credits and for all kinds of creditors. The number of borrowers at this rate of interest was 188 out of 338. Generally speaking, the number of frequencies on both sides of the maximum points, 30 per cent, was rather symmetrically distributed in the results of both investi- gations. ► The rate of interest went as high as 70 to 80 per cent, with a mean rate of about 30 per cent. The amount of interest paid was 20,870 yen against the total principal of 180,845 yen at the end of 238 RURAL CREDIT TABLE 112. AMOUNT OF INTEREST PAID BY 983 DEBTORS, 1930 Kind of Credit First mortgage Second mortgage Personal credit Chattel mortgage Changli Total Landlords Owners Part-owners Tenants (yen) (yen) (yen) (yen) 1,591.00 710.00 1,131.60 61.00 Landlords Owners Part-owners Tenants 1,769.14 81.00 1,926.29 40.00 1.75 (0.25) 3,818.18 Total 2,566.28 30.00 4,477.65 185.50 149.10 (21.3) 7,408.53 3,493.60 Note: The figures in brackets show the amount of changli in kind, and the unit is one koku (4.9 bu.). 1930. Accordingly, the rate of interest actually paid was a little over 11 per cent annually. Increased 8,090.00 6,499.70 196.80 21.30 5,707.40 25.20 199.50 (28.5) 6,150.20 To see what changes have taken place in the indebtedness of the farmers, we have investigated the amount of debt paid back and that newly borrowed during 1930. The result is shown below. 9,535.75 4,164.85 28,290.30 TABLE 113. INCREASE OR DECREASE OF FARMERS' DEBTS, BY CLASSES, DURING 1930 (In yen) Total (yen) 6,123.22 842.30 13,242.94 311.70 350.35 (50.54) 20,870.51 Decreased 6,184.46 6,931.77 6,068.30 6,293.96 25,478.49 Balance * 1,905.54 432.07 3,467.45 *2,129.11 (aver.)2,811.81 Note: The mark * indicates a deficiency. The landlords and part-owners have incurred more debts, while the owners and tenants have paid back a little in 1930, but on the whole the increase was more than 2,811.81 yen. Thus, the farmers in rural Korea are getting more and more into debt as time goes on. The duration of credit terms has also been checked up in our L 239 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA A investigation. In the case of personal credit, one year is the most prevalent term of loans, although the range varies from five months to an indefinite period. In the case of mortgage credit also, one year is common but the terms are generally longer than for personal credit. In the case of chattel mortgage, the half-year term is most frequent, and generally the terms are very short. In the case of changli, the term is usually one year. The long-term credits exist between landlords and banks, such as the Industrial Bank of Chosen, and the Rural Credit Societies. TABLE 114. NUMBER OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS WHICH BORROWED MONEY FROM THE VARIOUS LOAN AGENCIES, CLASSIFIED BY KINDS OF CREDIT, 1930 Credit Agency Individuals (Korean) Individuals (Japanese) Ke (Korean Cooperative Societies) Cooperative Credit Societies Rural Credit Societies Industrial Bank of Chosen Livestock Association Farmers' Mutual Aid Societies Farmers' Association Oriental Development Com- pany Savings Societies Temperance Societies Farm Tool Company Mat-Weaving Association Labor Association Total Personal Credit 381 16 94 2 IOI 6 4 15 4 221 I I I 631 Chattel Mortgage Mortgage 73 14 3 I 152 13 11 2 6 0 ||||| 264 IN 2 | | 7 | | | | I 1 | | │ IO Total 456 30 97 3 260 19 4 15 6 121 9 I I I H H 905 THE CREDIT ORGANIZATIONS Individual lenders are the predominant creditors, although the amount of money advanced is usually very small. The next largest 1 group are the Rural Credit Societies (Keumyung Chohap), the controlling agency of rural credit organization in Korea. The 240 RURAL CREDIT Industrial Bank of Chosen is another important creditor, though the number of cases appearing in the investigation is rather small, because it lends a large amount of money in each case to members of the landowning classes in rural communities. The Farmers' Mutual Aid Societies are semi-official credit organizations and give credit to peasant farmers in small amounts. The Bank of Chosen is the financial center but not important as a source of credit for rural enterprise. This is the function, rather, of the agricultural and industrial banks, a number of which were established since 1906 by the old Korean government which helped them by holding shares and by making subsidies. These banks give long-term credits to both industrialists and farmers. In order to control the credit system, an amalgamation of the agricultural and industrial banks was effected in 1918, and a new institution, the Industrial Bank of Chosen, was created from their joint resources, with an additional grant of capital. The Industrial Bank is organized by an order of the Govern- ment-General, and has a “special mission" in the field of credit operations; its authorized capital amounts to twenty million yen, and the business lines are: (1) to make loans against immovable property or rights thereon on terms of instalment payments within a period of less than fifty years or payment on fixed date within a five years' period from the date of loan, (2) to make loans against the right of fishing on term of payment within five years, (3) to make loans, without security, to groups of persons not less than ten on terms of payment on a fixed date within five years, (4) to make loans without security to public bodies, rural credit societies, fishermen's associations, and like organizations which do not aim to gain profits, (5) to make loans against products of Korea or goods which are necessary for the development of industry in Korea, (6) to give credit on the security of valuable papers which are recognized by the Government-General of Chosen, and govern- ment debenture papers, (7) to issue notes and bills for exchange and storage, (8) to buy stocks of industrial companies in Korea and debentures issued by public bodies, (9) to conduct the business of a trust company, (10) to give protective storage of gold or silver bullion and valuable papers, (11) to act for other banks and the Oriental Development Company when permitted by the Governor-General of Chosen, and (12) to conduct other bank- 241 K 19. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA R ing business, such as loan-making, discounting of notes and bills, establishment of current deposit accounts, etc., when such are permitted by the Governor-General of Chosen. The bank is privileged to issue its own debentures, up to fifteen times the paid- up capital, to obtain the necessary funds for operation of the bank, but this privilege is restricted by certain conditions. Of the loans made in 1928-30, over 145,924,000 yen were mort- gages on immovabilities. The largest part of this sum was probably on farms. As a matter of fact, the bank is the center of rural credit, especially for loans of long term and large amounts. The Oriental Development Company is a semi-official coloniza- tion organization, and has a department which makes loans to farmers. Such loans are of two kinds: loans to be repaid at a fixed date, and loans to be repaid on the instalment plan. The former type of loans meets the needs, particularly, of Japanese settlers, provides credit on mortgage for agricultural production and on immovabilities, and, without mortgage, for public bodies, industrial corporations, and groups of farmers, not less than ten persons, on their mutual responsibility. The latter type of loans also are taken up largely by Japanese settlers, and provides mortgage loans on immovabilities and loans without mortgage for public bodies and other privileged organizations. At the end of 1930, the total amount of loans made was over 58,730,000 yen, the larger part of this, to water irrigation associations. The rural credit societies are closest to the farmers. They may be called the "people's banks." The Industrial Bank of Chosen and the Loan Department of the Oriental Development Company are too far away for the middle and small farmers to utilize, because they have not enough economic power to get loans from such organizations and do not need large amounts but petty money. Therefore, a kind of small credit organization was necessary. There were numerous Kes (cooperative societies) in old Korea, but they were quite new to the Japanese authorities who were gradually getting hold of the real power in the financial affairs of Korea at the beginning of the present century. In order to control the credit facilities in the rural sections of Korea, these authorities planned to introduce the Raiffeisen system of credit organization. Accordingly, in 1907 an Imperial Ordinance was promulgated, regulating the purpose, business, organization, etc. 242 RURAL CREDIT of the rural credit societies. This ordinance was amended three 1 times: in 1914, 1918, and 1929. The 1918 amendment was rather radical, since it separates the urban credit societies from the rural credit societies. The purpose of such a society, as set forth in the Regulations, is that it is a corporate juridical person whose aim is to facilitate credit for farmers and to develop agriculture. The business lines. of the societies are: (1) to make loans which are necessary for farming by members, (2) to take custody of and to store farm products for members, (3) to lend or distribute agricultural neces- saries, for example, fertilizers and seedlings, to members (4) to sell farm products for members on a consignment basis, (5) to receive deposits from members, (6) to discount notes and bills for members, and (7) to represent the business of the Industrial Bank of Chosen and to act as go-between for the bank and its debtors. In short, the credit societies became nothing other than small banks for the mass of farmers. In a typical society of this kind, the membership fee is 10 yen. There must be not less than seven promotors, to whom the Government grants 10,000 yen as its operating fund. Usually, this government fund is the only capital with which the societies are run. The societies are careful to extend the privilege of membership also to the landless tenant class. In general, they are following the principles set up by Raiffeisen in rural communities and by Schultze in cities, under the special protection and encouragement of the Government. They are, so to speak, semi-official organizations; the directors and other important officials are appointees of the Government and largely Japanese. Under such sponsorship, rural and urban credit societies have grown up without difficulty. Their business in the two-year period 1929-1930 is shown in table 115. The number of rural credit societies in 1930 was 690, with 639,705 members, and loans made to the amount of 101,568,035 yen. It will be seen, therefore, that the credit societies in Korea are largely rural. The increase in the number of societies in 1930 over 1929 was 62, and that in members 91,284. The increase in loans was 17,737,756 yen over the amount in 1929, and 29,199,286 yen over that in 1928. The average amount of loans borrowed by members was 151.72 yen in 1929 and 158.77 yen in 1930, an increase of 7.55 yen in a single year, and an increase of 54.69 yen 243 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 115. BUSINESS OF RURAL AND CITY CREDIT SOCIETIES, 1929-1930 (In 1,000 yen) Particulars No. of Societies and branches No. of members Amount of loans Total amount of membership fees pledged Total amount of membership fees paid Reserve funds Government funds Funds borrowed Deposits Loans made on account of banks Value of products stored for members Total profits Total losses Balance 1929 589 580,560 104,939 11,545 8,561 12,295 3,770 46,838 76,892 12,233 39,500 15,699 14,345 1,324 1930 751 671,844 123,368 12,505 9,010 13,133 3,857 61,269 80,128 12,197 39,729 16,602 15,682 9,920 Source: Dong-A Daily News, Dec. 2, 1932. し ​compared with 1928. This growth of the indebtedness of the members was caused by the unprecedented agricultural depression. The astonishing increase of the number of members also has the same cause, since only members are permitted to borrow from the societies. As a matter of fact, farmers join the societies only, as a rule, when they want to borrow from them. Accordingly, the growth of the societies means a diminishing economic power of the farmers. According to an investigation made by the Government in August, 1932, the total amount of debts owed by the members of the rural and urban credit societies was 265,466,000 yen, of which 124,620,401 yen was borrowed from the societies by 682,326 members and the rest from outside of the societies; namely, 74,179,824 yen from banks, 9,134,317 yen from insurance and trust companies, and 57,591,550 yen from individual lenders. With the steady development of the credit societies, the Government felt that it was necessary to organize federations of them to facilitate the exchange of funds between them and better to direct and control them. Thirteen federations were organized 244 RURAL CREDIT TABLE 116. AMOUNTS BORROWED BY FARMER MEMBERS OF CREDIT SOCIETIES AT VARIOUS RATES OF INTEREST (In yen) Annual Rate of Interest (per cent.) Over 30 30-25 25-20 20-17.5 17.5-15 Total Against Securities 2,927,371 3,381,945 4,964,966 3,010,886 4,173,257 18,458,425 Without Securities 18,482,533 5,902,751 4,328,086 3,332,727 3,347,120 35,393,217 Source: Ibid., Dec. 6, 1932. in 1918, one for each province/ Operating funds of the federations, 500 yen for each society, were paid by the member societies, and in addition the Government granted 200,000 yen without interest charge to each federation for a three-year period, starting with 1918. With this aid from the Government, the federations have grown steadily. In 1930 they had a total of 708 member societies, money borrowed 31 million yen, deposits received 36 million yen, and money lent 64 million yen. In 1928, an association of all credit societies was organized in Seoul, to assume the central power by coordinating the federations. The chairmanship of the association was to be always assumed as Cex-officio by the Chief of the Financial Department of the Govern- ment-General, and other important offices are also to be taken by government officials who are holding important positions in the administration of the country's financial affairs. A central treasury was established in the Industrial Bank of Chosen as one of its bureaus. This organ is to coordinate the financial needs of the federations and their member societies by keeping direct and close, touch with the bank. It will be noted that the systematic organiza- tion of rural credit facilities under semi-official management has thus shown a marked development during the past two decades or so. Its effect is that the small farmers are getting more and more into debt, since the credit organization is not of, by, and for the Korean farmers, but largely Japanese in managerial personnel and 245 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA operating funds. The total amount of loans made to farmers by the credit societies in 1931 was 101,767,791 yen. TABLE 117. LOANS TO FARMERS BY CREDIT SOCIETIES CLASSIFIED BY USES, 1931 Particulars Long-term credit for Agricultural im- provements Long-term credit for special industrial developments Short-term credits for agricultural im- provements Industrial developments Total Particulars Long-term credits Short-term credits on mortgage Short-term credits on personal security Total Grand total Special Loans No. of Borrowers 327 8,129 64,038 47,132 119,626 No. of Borrowers Amount of Loan (in 1,000 yen) Ordinary Loans 119,202 137,170 560,839 817,211 918,862 25 1,996 877 2,309 5,207 Amount of Loan (in 1,000 yen) 33,794 23,047 39,717 96,558 101,768 It will be seen that all special loans were used for improvements and development of agriculture and industry; and yet, as a matter of fact, the industry and agriculture of the members are not much improved and developed. The "agricultural improvements" were such that 7,631 members borrowed 1,967,555 yen for buying land for their own cultivation, 24,526 borrowed 1,071,026 yen for buying farm cattle, 63,686 borrowed 865,656 yen for buying fertili- # 246 RURAL CREDIT zers, 524 borrowed 32,728 yen for buying farm tools and machines, 174 borrowed 66,929 yen for housing and improvements, and 5,115 borrowed 1,202,240 yen for other useful purposes in farming. The purposes of the loans were thus largely productive; but the increas- ed production does not increase the economic power of the borrowers. These may state that they are going to use the loan in the ways mentioned, but in reality they may use it in some unproductive way. Moreover, the increased production which may result from using the borrowed capital does not guarantee an increased income for the borrowers. The rate of interest on the loans made by the credit societies varied with the kinds of societies and the terms of the loans. TABLE 118. RATES OF INTEREST ON LOANS ADVANCED BY CREDIT SOCIETIES (Per Cent.) Kind of Society Rural Credit Society City Credit Society Kind of Society Rural Credit Society City Credit Society max. personal 0.041 0.039 14.3 13.6 max. Short-Term Credit (daily) Source: Dong-A Daily News, Dec. 23, 1932. personal min. 0.036 0.034 min. mortgage Long-Term Credit (annual) 13.4 11.8 max. 0.038 0.035 max. min. mortgage II.4 10.9 0.032 0.029 min. 9.9 9.4 247 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA According to the table, the rate of interest charged by the societies is higher in rural communities than in the cities. This is because of the tied-up money facilities in the rural sections of the country. In general, the rate is not higher than the prevailing rate of interest in petty money transactions, but it is higher than that of the big money market, for example, the banks. Many people have tried to evaluate the credit societies in Korea. Their merits. have sometimes been exaggerated by those who are interested in them, but much criticism has also been voiced, more often by outsiders. Without attempting to pass judgment, it may perhaps be said that the merits and demerits of the societies in their effect on the rural economy are balanced. Rural mutual aid societies have come into existence since 1928. The purpose of these societies is to stabilize the living conditions of the small peasants who compose the greater part of the rural population, by making small loans to them. The organization is semi-official, backed by the Government-General of Chosen. The funds of these societies are advanced by townships which issue debentures on their own responsibility. They are lent to peasants, not over 20 yen per person, on the easiest terms and lowest rate of interest. The loan should be used in such a way as to give the borrower a chance to increase his farm production, to better his living conditions and to promote the spirit of industry and economy. For the expediency of the government stewardship, about thirty borrowers of the fund are to be organised into a society, with a village as its territorial basis. An elder among the members of such societies is chosen as the leader of the society, to carry out the duties imposed upon it by the Government. At the beginning, the plan was thus to create in every township a loan fund of 2,400 yen. Since there are about 2,500 townships in Korea, the plan was to collect 6,000,000 yen in five years by securing deposits amounting to 1,200,000 yen on the average every year. The undertaking, however, is not for the mere purpose of making loans, but also to exert social influence In trying to carry out the plan, the Government soon found that the plan would not succeed on account of the shortage of workers, and because many townships have suffered from droughts, floods, and other calamities, and could not raise the money The Govern- ment has therefore placed more effort in the qualitative rather 248 RURAL CREDIT than in the quantitative progress of the plan. Up to 1931, the small Peasants' Fund advanced by provincial governments to townships amounted to over 2,409,000 yen. The number of townships benefited under the plan was 1,700; and the number of rural mutual aid societies formed was over 4,200, with a member- ship of over 123,000 persons. In other words, the plan is another government-organized credit system in rural communities. Its purpose is to encourage social improvement among small farmers. From another point of view, it simply adds to the indebtedness of these peasants. The total amount of loans advanced to them up to the end of March, 1931, was over 2,007,000 yen, 59 per cent of which was used to buy farm cattle, the thing most needed on Korean farms. The rest of the loans was used to finance the weaving of straw mats, hog raising, and purchase of fertilizer, food, farm tools, and farm land. Repayment of the loans is somewhat slow. The total amount of loans due at the end of 1930 was 1,755,000 yen as principal, and 194,000 yen as interest. Of this sum, the repaid amount was 1,356,000 yen (77 per cent) for the former and 183,000 yen (95 per cent) for the latter. The amount of renewed principal was 322,000 yen (18 per cent) and that of unpaid principal 76,000 yen. The amount of unpaid interest was over 11,000 yen (5 per cent). Comparing this with that of the previous year, a decrease of 8 per cent in the repayment of principal and 3 per cent in the payment of interest is witnessed, while the renewal of principal has increased by 6 per cent. The main reason for this was the rapid fall of the prices of agricultural products. The unpaid principal was to be collected from the borrowers or else from the persons in mutual responsibility in the following year (1931). According to the government statement, the members of mutual aid societies are very eager to increase production by good utiliza- tion of the loan fund. Furthermore, they made certain mutual agreements on some matters: for examples to economize on the expenses for marriages and funerals, to encourage field work by women, to pay their taxes promptly, to wear colored clothes, not to use rubber shoes, to cut their hair, to refrain from drinking and smoking, and so forth. In winter, they work at night to make certain kinds of small tools and other useful things, thus to effect small savings. In these ways, the total saving at the end of March, 249 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Куд 1931 amounted to 215,000 yen by 91,000 members-about 84 per cent of the total membership. This was just about 10 per cent of the total loans advanced by the rural mutual aid societies. The amount of saving had doubled compared with that in the previous year. The Government-General of Chosen gives subsidies for the work, since 1929, mainly to the townships and also to the provincial governments. The total amount of subsidies given to various provinces was 27,420 yen in 1930. Prizes have been given to twenty-two societies for accomplishments in conducting their business. The Government is doing what it thinks will help the small farmers; but the total sum is too small to meet their needs. Anyhow, these semi-official organizations are better than none. The rate of interest is too high, with the lowest rate at about 7 per cent and the highest as high as 12 per cent annually. The Ke is an old fashioned Korean cooperative society. Its origin cannot be traced back to an exact date, although some his- torians insist that it was organized in the first year of the reign of King Sooro (42 B.C.), the Kingdom of Karak. The first known record regarding Ke is in a census book compiled in 1663. Accord ing to it, the Ke was used to designate a village, and also used synonymously with Li. This was probably because the Ke is composed of all members of a village. The Ke is an organization formed by a few or several hundreds to promote their economic interest and to raise the moral standards of the members, and furthermore to undertake various kinds of business in cooperative ways. The people were generally poor and felt that the only way open to them to better their status was mutual aid. There are many kinds of Ke, when classified accord- ing to their purposes: (1) Kes which aim to promote some public interest, for example, the village Ke, the tax Ke, the school Ke, etc.; (2) Kes which aim to apply mutual aid to more intimate affairs, for example, the marriage Ke, funeral Ke, etc., by contribut- ing fixed amounts of money for costly occasions; (3) Kes which aim to promote the industrial interest of the members, for example, agricultural Ke, etc.; (4) Kes which aim to increase the wealth of the members by lending funds contributed by them to non- members, i.e. credit societies; (5) Kes whose aim is to promote social amenities, for example, the Oldmen Ke, Brotherhood Ke, Poetry Ke, etc. 250 RURAL CREDIT In short, the Ke is made up of persons who have some specific purpose in common. The management of the business is entrusted to a president, secretaries, and treasurer, elected by the members at a general meeting, ordinarily held at a six months' interval. There are many varieties of articles and rules; here it is sufficient to indicate that the organization is really a primitive form of coopera- tive society. The number of Kes existing at present, their member- ships, their funds, etc., are not known. According to our investigation, there were in 1930, 58 Kes of various kinds in 183 villages visited in different parts of the country. The membership was 2,900, and the total amount of their funds 26,214 yen. The number of members in the 1249 farm households studied was 7,366, about two out of every five. The average amount of funds for each of the Kes was a little less than 452 yen. • Vaata Individual lenders are notorious for their usury The landlords → in this way often extract from the peasant farmers as much as they can by charging high rates of interest. There are also numerous Japanese usurers who charge exorbitant rates of interest. In our investigation, we found 30 farm households out of 1249 which had borrowed from individual Japanese usurers. The ignorance of the common farm villagers sometimes makes them disinclined to go to banks or credit societies. They are also fre- quently lacking in responsibility. As a result, they are at the mercy of the individual usurer. MENS SACS Edu GB 240 مسمار L S 251 CHAPTER IX MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS THE ORGANIZATION OF MARKETING A RECORD describing the opening of a market in Korea goes back as far as the tenth year of King Sochi of the Kingdom of Silla (490 B.C.)?. It was "the first opening of a market in the capital to exchange goods from everywhere." The capital was Kyungju, South Kyungsang province. In the tenth year of King Chiching (A.D. 509), a market office was established for the eastern section, and fourteen years later similar offices for the western and southern sections of the capital city, to supervise the markets there. It is thought that trade had rapidly developed so that it was necessary for the Government to open more markets and to establish organs for controlling them. In each office, there were two supervisors and two secretaries. At that time, transactions in the markets seem to have been carried on mostly by women. It was before the wider use of money, so that trade was carried on by barter, and rice was used as the chief medium of exchange. According to an old record, "all women carry a willow basket to the market, and the price of goods is determined by rice-as a medium of exchange. All other trade follows the price of rice in price deter- mination between buyers and sellers." There are ample records dealing with the markets from that time down to the present, but lack of space forbids a description of the development of the marketing system. At present, there are four kinds of markets: (1) ordinary period- ical markets; (2) markets where dealers gather together for trans- actions, mainly, in grains and foodstuffs; (3) markets where goods are sold by auction on a consignment basis; and (4) markets where business men in the same line meet and transactions, both present and future, are carried on with samples of grains. The 1 Government-General, Markets in Korea. Seoul, 1924, p. 15. 2 Ibid. 252 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS first kind is the most prevalent in rural Korea. The periodical markets are open on the first and sixth, second and seventh, third and eighth, fourth and ninth, and fifth and tenth day of the lunar month. Accordingly, there are five or six recurrences of market days in a place in a month. Of such marketing places there are from one to ten in a county. Daily markets where people gather together and deal in the same way as in the period- ical markets are found in cities, where the goods dealt with are chiefly fruits, vegetables, and other daily necessaries. The periodical markets are the centers of commercial activity in the rural districts. On market days, all the village dwellers who have something to buy or to sell turn out into the market place. A market usually has a trading influence over a radius of about five miles. In a big market place, several thousand men and women may turn out on a single day. The market place is not only a place for trading, but also for amusement, communica- tion, and association generally. The transaction of grain selling was done originally in such market places. Even at the present time, they serve the sale of grains for local consumption. For larger grain deals, the farmers use these markets less and less in recent times. Grain sales at the present time take place in the farmers' yard, at local shipping points, mills, railway stations, and harbors. To sell a pretty large quantity of grain, farmers do not go to the market place, but to some point where they can ship the grain to a larger commercial center or to a miller who has bought their grain. The number of market places was investigated in 1909 by the Bureau of Taxation, of the Treasury Department of the old Korean Government, but it was not a complete survey. A second investi- gation was made by the Land Surveyors, from 1913 to 1917. In its report, market days, the amount of transactions, the territorial extension of the origin and destination of goods, the number of men coming to the market place on market day, the ownership of the market ground, the history of the market place and the market customs are described in detail. The Government-General, feeling that a more central control and supervision of the markets was required, promulgated in September, 1914, the Market Regulation by Government-General Order No. 136. The Regula- tion has twice been amended, namely, in September, 1920 (Order 253 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA No. 38), and in September, 1924 (Order No. 5). It provides for four classes of markets, as described in a previous paragraph. New markets should be established and managed only by munici- palities and townships. The provincial governors are empowered to give permits for the establishment of markets and to order their abolition and rules. The organization, administration, supervision, and other matters were minutely prescribed in the regulation. The 1920 amendment was to make possible present and future dealing in grains and stocks. The number of markets organized under the Market Regulation was 1,425 at the end of 1930 Of these the number of old-type periodical markets was 1,369 publicly organized and 2 privately organized. The value of transactions carried on during the year was over 153,150,000 yen. The number of markets where over twenty traders are selling grains and foodstuffs in one establishment, was 14 publicly organized and 2 privately organized. The amount of their transactions was 9,303,453 yen. The number of markets where goods are sold and bought by auction on consignment, was 8 for public and 38 for private. The amount of transaction was over 10,709,034 yen. There were ten markets where present and future dealings in grains or value certificates were transacted by means of samples or trade names. The amount of transactions was 394,657,869 yen. THE MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCTS For expediency's sake, it may be best to divide the farm products marketed into two groups, namely, livestock and all other farm products Korean farmers, as we have seen, use cattle power for their farm work and keep a relatively large number of cattle. Not only that, but the breeding of animals provides a good source of income. Experts have estimated that more than 2,500,000 cattle are brought to market in one year, and more than 900,000 (about 4 per cent) are sold. According to the government investigation in 1922, the number of livestock markets was 764. We regret that there are no available data to show recent changes, but the number has not increased very much. North Kyungsang Province has the largest number of markets, and North Hamkyung Province the smallest. The number of cattle brought to the markets was largest in North Kyungsang Province, namely 360,000; and next largest was in South Kyungsang Province, namely 300,000; North Hamkyung 254 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS Province had the smallest, only about 80,000. Much cattle is sold and bought at home without going to market; and sometimes the farmer goes to market only to find out the price on which buyer and seller may agree, while the actual transaction takes place at the home of the seller. Such dealing enables the buyer and seller to trade without paying commission to a broker, fees to the live- stock association, and other market charges. The actual number of cattle sold or bought is, therefore, far greater than that recorded. Not only cattle, but swine, chicken, horses, and all other kinds of farm animals and their products are brought to the markets. The estimated annual total number of hogs was more than 300,000 and that of chickens more than a million. Horses and donkeys are few in number. In all these commodities, of course, there is much home transaction going on. Commission and other charges differ greatly, the average fee for the entrance of livestock in the markets in 1922 was from 1 to 20 sen. The average broker's commission was 1.50 yen for full-grown cattle, 70 sen for a calf, and 50 sen for a hog. The credit necessary for the smooth transaction of livestock business largely comes from the rural credit societies. The total amount of credit advanced by the societies goes up as high as 7,000,000 yen annually. The rate of interest for such credit is about 15 per cent on the average. Repayment is usually to be made. within half a year; the longest term is one year. Another credit organization is the Oriental Livestock Company which advances credit to farmers for buying farm cows as a business asset. Organized by Japanese, the company charges a rate of interest which comes near to extortion, namely 20 per cent annually at the lowest. The total amount of loans made up to the end of 1922 was 200,000 yen. Another type of credit organization is represented in the cooperative cow buying societies Wuke) These societies exist from times immemorial. The main principle is that those who have not enough money to purchase a cow or an ox get together and form an organization by paying a small amount of money as their share; by lottery one member gets the first chance, and eventually all members are enabled to buy a cow or an ox in their turn. The total number of these societies is 1,500, and the total amount of money gathered over 300,000 yen annually. With this money, more than 7,000 farmers are able to buy a cow or an 255 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA ox in a year. There are, of course, also numerous individuals and private organizations advancing credit for the buying of cattle. The total amount of money lent by this group is more than 700,000 yen annually. In recent years, the exportation of cattle to Japan is an outstand- ing item in the list of exports. Formerly Japanese farmers did not know about the use of cattle for farm purposes. Since the annexation of Korea by Japan, they have learned the use of animal power from Korean farmers, and the demand for cattle in Japan has grown steadily. The total number and value of cattle exported to Japan is shown below. TABLE 119. NUMBER AND VALUE OF CATTLE EXPORTED TO JAPAN, 1927-1930 Year 1927 1928 1929 1930 Number 42,064 57,764 48,196 37,011 Value (yen) 3,318,050 4,769,042 3,490,661 2,887,722 Source: Manual of Trade in Korea, 1929, p. 235, and Annual Statistical Report, 1930, Pp. 272. Besides, markets for Korean cattle are also found in China and Soviet Russia, but the number and value of these exports are not large. [ Among the grains, rice is the most important with regard to marketing. Our study showed that about one-fourth of all economic activity in production, is devoted to rice production, when viewed in terms of total value. In 1929, 71.6 per cent of the total. production was grains, and over 45.4 per cent of the total grain production was contributed by rice. Strangely enough, thousands of small Korean farmers are on the verge of starvation, yet roughly more than 30 million bushels of rice have been exported to Japan in recent years. This means that about two-fifths of the total /rice production is marketed by the farmers for cash, amounting to 150 million yen a year on the average. ་ 256 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS The marketing places are: (1) the farmer's home yard, (2) periodical markets, (3) river landings, (4) railway stations, (5) commercial centers, and (6) harbors. When the harvesting of crops is finished, the local dealers visit farmers at their homes and collect the grains held in small quantity by farmers. In these transactions, much haggling and bargaining is going on. The standard price is that established at the near-by central market. When the local dealers get a considerable amount of grain from the farmers, they ship it to the near-by shipping points, usually a railway station, a landing place, or a commercial center, where they sell to millers or hullers. Sometimes, these hullers and millers dispatch their agents to rural villages to collect grains directly from the farmers. Most farmers living near a shipping point bring their grain to millers or hullers, and transact with them directly. Large landowners transport the grain collected from tenants as rent to a commercial center or a harbor, because they will get a better price there by eliminating the middlemen. They negotiate directly with exporters or large millers in the exporting harbor. In the local periodical markets rice is sold, but other miscellan- eous cereals, like millet, beans, and kaoliang, are also found. Farmers are obliged to sell their rice and to buy Manchurian millet at a lower price. Their economic distress thus makes the perio- dical market a place where active buying and selling of miscellan- eous grains goes on. WOLS PORTA To facilitate the transactions in rice, the provincial governments carry on sorting, grading, and standardizing. At important shipping points, public rice inspectors are stationed for these purposes and stamp the mats or bags which contain the rice with marks which show instantly the quality, and thereby make it easy for buyers and sellers to transact business. This grading and standardizing of rice is of great benefit, especially to the exporters who are mostly Japanese. There is a proposal that this work should be taken up by the Central Government in order to control the prices of rice. A The result of the grain inspection conducted by the provincial governments for the three years ending with 1930 is shown in table 120. For the storage of rice, exporters and large dealers have their 257 ܥ ܩ ***** K 20. LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 258 Grains Hulled rice Polished rice Soya beans Year 1928 1929 1930 1928 1929 1930 1928 1929 1930 TABLE 120. RESULTS OF GRAIN INSPECTION Total No. of Lots Inspected (in 1,000) 12,607 10,346 8,849 8,860 6,049 6,527 3,540 3,509 3,570 Source: Extra Fine Grade 18 15 SH Ι 46 32 25 62 64 30 I. Grade 244 187 123 7,869 5,855 6,272 268 247 280 Graded (in 1,000 lots) II. Grade 1,148 1,118 365 196 112 180 365 294 320 III. Grade 6,000 5,625 4,032 2,048 1,775 1,903 IV Grade 3,709 2,733 3,163 757 1,085 998 Government-General, Agriculture in Korea, 1932, pp. 70-72. V Grade I,279 1,067 532 4I 4I 41 Ungraded (in 1,000 Lots) 210 188 134 7 18 ΙΟ 40 43 40 ¦ MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS own granaries. However, owing to the rush of rice to shipping points at one season, right after the harvest, a great quantity of rice is stored under straw mats in station yards and on embankments. Most of the farmers are in such dire need of cash at harvest time that they cannot wait longer than a few days or weeks. For this reason, they do not store their grain and wait for a better price. A few cooperative grain stores have been established in recent years. The construction and organization of such cooperative stores are semi-official activities and not the farmers' own. Their purposes are (1) to help the farmers receive a better price for grain by waiting a little longer, (2) to store at very low charges, (3) to advance credit to farmers at a low rate of interest on mortgage of the grains stored, (4) to issue certificates by which transactions can be made or money be borrowed against the face value of the certificates, and so forth. These cooperative stores were originally planned to aid the middle class of farmers; but they are mostly utilized by big landlords. At the present time, the number of agricultural stores (Nongup changko) is altogether twenty-six, and their capacity about 1.85 million bushels of rice. There are a number of grain markets in which not only spot grain sales are transacted, but also sales in futures. Their features are not very different from those of grain markets in Western countries. The first market of this kind was opened at Fusan in 1907, and the next at Kunsan in 1910. Since then, the number of such markets has increased rapidly, and certain bad effects have begun to appear. The transactions are, too, largely for speculation. For this reason, the Government reformed the regulations in 1920 and placed these markets under strict control. In spite of this, the attending evils have never been wiped out. At present, they are in nine places, namely, Seoul, Kunsan, Mokpo, Fusan, Taiku, Chinnampo, Shinwiju, Wonsan and Kangkyung. Of these, Kunsan, Taiku, and Fusan are the most active in grain dealing. The organization and matters pertaining to transactions in these grain markets are very similar. Every one of them is a free association of grain dealers. The members are required to pay up their share and also a guarantee fund. The articles dealt with in these markets are mainly grains; but in Seoul and Fusan ferti- lizers, and in Wonsan straw mats, salt, and fertilizers, are also handled. Only members of the association are empowered to deal 6. Maynelad Page tag 259 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA in the market, and there is a limited number of brokers. Spot transactions are carried on by sample; for future delivery transac- tions samples and other methods are used. Such grain markets are mostly organized by Japanese rice or grain dealers, especially exporters. As distinct from these markets, the first grain exchange was established by Japanese in Chemulpo in 1909. At first, it was intended to transact business on such merchandize as rice, soya beans, kerosine, Myungtai fish, cotton yarn, cotton fabrics, and raw cotton. The methods of dealing were cash sales, time bargain, and settlement dealings; but later the variety of articles was reduced to only grains, and the methods of transactions were reduced to future dealings only. The grain exchange was organized as a company and started business with a capital of 30,000 yen. In 1915 and 1916, the total amount of business per month was not more than 1,200,000 bushels, but it has shown a steady increase year after year. In 1918 and 1919, the amount leaped to 20,000,000 bushels of grains for a month on the average. The exchange was put into a very difficult position at one time through bad manage- ment, but has come safely out of this danger and at the present time enjoys full strength under the strict control of the Government. TABLE 121. VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTS HANDLED IN THE VARIOUS MARKETS, 1930 Kind of Market Periodical markets Grain and food markets Consignment auc- tion markets Grain exchanges Total No. of Markets 1,371 16 38 10 1,435 No. of Grains and Marketing Other Farm Frequencies Products 96,761 5,248 13,050 2,219 117,278 37,269 5,813 1,720 367,076 411,878 Animal Products 46,246 159 46,405 Total 83.515 5,972 1,720 367,076 458,283 Source: Monthly Survey Report, Vol. II, No. 9, pp. 37-48. The volume of business is on the increase year after year, both of farm products and of all goods. For example, it was only 56 million yen in 1910, but reached 173 million yen in 1930, not 260 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS including the business transacted in the future exchange markets. THE MARKETING AGENCIES Both as producers and as consumers, the farmers have to pay for the charges of middlemen. There are all sorts of wholesalers: for example, the "kings" of the grain trade in the big centers and the local wholesalers who are retailers from the standpoint of a big wholesaler, but collect the grain from producers and distribute it to retailers. There are also several kinds of brokers between the producers, the wholesalers, the retailers, and the consumers.. To take a concrete example, a local farmer goes to a commercial center, where usually he is not informed of the market conditions. Accordingly, he has to find somebody who will deal on his behalf with the wholesale buyers. Such a person Such a person is called Kaikchu, meaning hotel manager. The term is derived from the custom of producers who are coming to sell farm produce to stay at the house of this broker. The Kaikchu will make bargains as best he can and in reward for such work receive a commission from the seller. In recent years, communication facilities and the dis- tribution of commercial news have so much advanced that the use of Kaikchu by the farmers is becoming less frequent. In the exchange markets, jobbers, scalpers, brokers, etc., exist as in the grain exchanges of Western countries. In the periodical markets, a peculiar agency of marketing, called Kanko, is found. They are neither brokers nor jobbers, but primarily persons who measure the amount of grain. The manners and ways of measuring grain are so many that disputes easily arise even when the same measur- ing instrument is used. This is not necessarily because of fraud but because skill is needed in measuring. Under these circum- stances, buyers and sellers are both better off by hiring a Kanko who is supposedly fair and square, and so, the hiring of such an intermediary has become customary in grain transactions. The Kanko gets a small fee from both sides. Since middlemen, whether they are retailers, brokers, or jobbers are not necessary for fair transactions in grains, their elimination would be beneficial to both parties; and in recent years cooperative societies are trying to conduct buying and selling for the farmers. But the development of this form of procedure is tardy, and the organizations are not as yet experienced in such matters. C Low some 261 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA THE PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS Agricultural prices are affected by the movement of world prices. Prosperity and depression thus visit Korea in turn. A peculiarity of Korean agricultural prices, however, is their dependence on the Japanese markets since Korea has become a colony of Japan which effectively controls the economic affairs of the country. For example, the price of rice, the most important agricultural product of Korea, is directly affected by market conditions in Osaka and Tokyo. The rice market, unlike the wheat and cotton markets, is controlled by the Orient. The areas of largest rice consumption are Japan, the southern parts of China, Cochin-China, India, Netherlands India, and the Philippine Islands. The big markets are Rangoon, Hong Kong and Osaka. The ever increasing population of Japan and Korea and their dependence on imports has made the Osaka market the most important. It determines the rice quotations in the Far East. The available data on prices of farm products in Korea go back as far as 1910, but for comparisons we shall take 1915 as the starting point. The available price records for farm products are limited to such important grains as unhulled and hulled rice, polished rice, soya beans, barley, and wheat. These are the important cereals in Korea which indicate the general movement of farm prices. Any one familiar with the price movement of the world will readily see that the changes in the prices of Korean farm products are closely following those of the world at large. The peaks and troughs are very similar. As shown by the index the World War boom found its climax in 1919 and 1920 when it reached 356 and 349, as compared with 100 for the base year, 1915. The peak abruptly ended in 1921, with a sudden drop to 231. In the follow- ing years the prices have shown a little improvement and went up as high as 339 in 1925, almost reaching the 1920 level. Since then, the movement has shown a downward tendency, reaching the 216 mark in 1930. A similar movement was witnessed in the United States and in European countries. ÷ It is generally accepted among economists that there are four different factors in the price movement, namely, the secular trend, the business cycle, the seasonal variation, and random fluctuations. The first three of these factors can be separated with a certain 262 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS Year 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Source: Note: TABLE 122. AVERAGE RETAIL PRICE MOVEMENTS OF IMPORTANT GRAINS, 1915-1930 (yen per koku) Unhulled Hulled Rice Rice 3.99 5.10 7.52 11.69 17.82 16.23 10.67 12.16 II.14 14.51 16.26 15.01 13.62 11.88 12.02 10.14 9.09 11.16 16.12 26.08 38.36 36.14 24.23 27.83 26.19 32.50 36.14 32.64 29.78 25.94 25.96 22.58 Polished Rice 12.22 13.81 19.47 30.18 44.00 42.98 28.36 33.06 30.73 37.15 40.41 36.65 33.47 28.69 28.63 24.67 Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 220. The mark indicates an estimate. Soya Bean 5.85 6.92 9.08 13.31 16.66 19.80 11.68 14.08 15.55 16.41 19.10 15.93 15.19 15.73 15.91 12.17 Barley 3.19 3.98 5.72 8.58 II.44 11.18 6.68 7.44 8.41 10.80 10.55 9.40 8.59 8.57 8.32 7.23 Wheat 7.10 * 7.89 9.63 15.31 19.47 18.73 14.22 14.82 13.97 17.15 18.37 17.33 16.25 17.42 15.33 13.11 Total 41.45 48.86 67.54 93.46 147.75 145.06 98.84 109.39 105.99 128.52 140.83 126.96 116.90 108.23 106.17 89.90 Index 100 117 162 225 356 349 231 263 255 310 339 306 282 261 256 216 263 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA degree of precision by statistical analysis. It is too laborious a task to treat the data in the table in this way, but a generalization regarding the nature of the price movement of farm products in Korea can here be ventured. Its trend is in an upward direction during the past two decades. The causes for this movement lie in the general development of world economic conditions on one hand, and the increase of population in the Far East on the other. It is only natural that the latter cause will increase the volume of demand for foodstuffs, resulting in higher prices. The business cycle in Korea is tracing the same course as that of the world situation. Great prosperity was experienced in 1919-1920; then followed the panic in 1921 and 1922. The condition was some- what improved in 1925, but the depression continued until 1928 and 1929. A heavy depression was seen in 1930 and thereafter. In 1932, farm prices were going through the bottom of the depression, and no signs of recovery were yet to be seen. Only the random fluctuations are caused by changes peculiar to the Far East, for examples, the gold embargo in Japan, the abrupt fall of the rate of exchange of Japanese money, and the Manchurian war. So far as the seasonal variations of the farm prices are concerned, there are available data from which certain conclusions can be drawn. The seasonal movement of the prices of farm products is clear. The average price of all grains for the five-year period, 1926-1930, was highest in August and lowest in November and December. It is only natural that after the harvest grains are rushed to the markets for sale, and that the supply always exceeds the demand during that season. Accordingly, prices begin to fall in October and reach the bottom in December. On the contrary, in August grains carried over the year are almost consumed and the new harvest is not as yet in. Accordingly, the demand is always stronger than the supply, and prices are high. The price of rice alone fluctuates in much the same way; it is higher in July, August, and September and lower in November and December. The price of barley and wheat presents a different sequence, explained by the fact that these are harvested in May, and the season for market- ing is earlier than for rice or beans. So far we have been dealing only with the price movement of farm products in Korea. It is, however, important to see it in 264 MARKETING AND PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS TABLE 123. FIVE-YEAR (1926-1930) AVERAGE MONTHLY CHANGES OF PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS (yen per koku) Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Unhulled Rice 12.37 12.88 13.03 13.02 13.17 13.46 13.62 13.49 12.64 11.43 10.83 10.41 Source: Hulled Polished Soya Rice Rice Beans 27.35 27.81 27.90 27.90 28.17 28.80 28.84 28.86 28.15 26.13 24.77 23.85 Ibid., p. 220. 30.34 30.71 30.62 30.50 31.06 31.86 32.36 32.28 31.99 29.48 27.26 26.49 14.98 15.22 15.18 15.41 15.68 15.84 15.92 15.58 15.62 14.11 13.25 13.01 Barley 8.85 8.88 9.01 9.10 9.21 8.51 1 7.79 7.68 7.95 8.09 7.98 7.97 Wheat 16.96 17.17 17.04 17.24 17.51 16.72 15.19 14.65 14.56 12.48 12.43 14.79 Total Average 18.47 18.47 18.79 18.87 19.13 19.19 18.59 19.59 18.48 16.95 16.08 16.08 265 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA • relation to the price movement of general commodities. Inas- much as the farm prices are a part of the general commodity prices, the former would be parallel with the latter. Some characteristics. of the former, however, are quite different from those of the latter. The monthly movement of the general commodity prices, from June, 1930, to October, 1932, was always above that of the grain prices. Likewise, the monthly index of all grains during the same period was higher than that of polished rice. The trend of the price movement showed a downward tendency, commodity, grains, and rice prices alike. The 1926 level, 100, had fallen to about 90 for all commodities, in June, 1930, to about 80 for all grains, and to about 72 for polished rice. In October, 1932, the general commodity price level came down to the 70 mark, all grains to 61, and polished rice to 57. The discrepancy between the price level of the general commodities and that of all grains is somewhat irregular. This is the case also between all grains and polished rice. Whatsoever the discrepancy may be, the fact that the price level of the farm products, especially grains and rice, is always below the price level of general commodities, has a signifi- cant effect on the economic life of the farmers: the goods which farmers buy are higher in price than the goods which they sell. Grains and rice are produced and sold by farmers, while most of the general commodities are produced in Japanese factories and sold to farmers. Accordingly, the farmers in Korea have been in a disadvantageous position. They have been paying more and receiving less; their conditions of life are becoming harder. 266 CHAPTER X FARM INCOME AND EXPENSES FARM PROFITS AND LOSSES REGARDING the farmers' income and expenses, no thorough- going investigations have ever been conducted by the Govern- ment, and such data as it has published are incomplete. The Finance Bureau has been investigating farm economy by delegat- ing the work to the rural credit societies since 1924. But the result is not yet available to the public. The result, of a partial investi- gation, a survey carried on by the Social Section of the Home Bureau of the Government-General, in 1925, is available. The investigation covered a year's period, and surveyed the income and expenditure of farmers classified as landlords, owner farmers, part- owner tenants, and impoverished, i.e. landless, peasants. Each of these classes, except the last, is divided into four sub-classes, large, medium, small, and smallest. According to them, (1) landlords were classified by the area they owned or cultivated, namely, large landlords owned more than 49 acres, medium landlords from 12.25 to 49 acres, small landlords from 2.45 to 12.25 acres, and smallest less than 2.45 acres; (2) owner farmers were large if they owned over 7.35 acres, middle from 2.45 to 7.35 acres, small from 0.735 to 2.45 acres, and smallest less than 0.735 acres; (3) part-owners were so classified that the large cultivated over 7.35 acres, the medium from 2.45 to 7.35 acres, the small from 0.735 to 2.45 acres, and the smallest less than 0.735 acres; (4) the tenants were classified in the same way as the part-owners; and (5) the impoverished peasants are farmers struggling for a bare existence by working as farm hands. The total number of "large" landlords was 6,866 households, “medium” 22,944, "small" 39,455, and "smallest" 52,670. The total number of "large" owners was 94,453 households, "medium" 179,016, “small” 172,390, and "smallest" 107,817. The total number of "large" part-owners was 98,628 households, "medium" 263,747, “small” 329,431, and "smallest" 225,605. The total number of the "large" A CEST 267 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA tenants' households was 88,226, "medium" 233,029, "small" 354,399, and "smallest" 298,084. The total number of impoverished peasants was 162,209 households. In regard to the balance of income over expenditure for all the farm households, classified according to the standards described in the foregoing paragraph, it was found that "It is difficult to make a summary generalization regarding the balance. of income over expenditure of these farmers, because it varies according to locality and class of farmers. But the total average of the income and expenditure of these farmer classes showed that the balance per household of landlords was 545 yen, that of the owners 87 yen, and that of the part-owners 25 yen; the balance per household of tenants was 11 yen short, and that of the impoverished peasants was 4 yen short. At the present time, the balance of income over expenses is somewhat better for the majority of farmers, but that for the medium farmers is very bad. Particularly, the smallest part- owners, the medium, small, and smallest tenants, and the impoverished peasants are suffering from lack of income over expenses. These farmers' groups make up 38.4 per cent. of the total, and they are placed in a miserable position."1 Table 124 shows that the economic strength of the farmer classes below the small part-owners and the medium tenants is weakening step by step. When they meet with floods or droughts, they have to change their occupation or else leave the village. The number of farmers who have changed their occupation or left was 150,102. Of this number, 69,644 persons have become farm laborers, 25,308 went over to Japan to earn a living there, 23,725 became small peddlers, 16,839 found a new opportunity in industry or other miscellaneous work, 6,835 went out of their village as wanderers, 4,123 persons migrated to Manchuria and Siberia, and 3,497 changed to other callings than those named. Even the landlords and owners, except those of the "large" classes, are extremely distressed. Their living has been somewhat bettered by the introduction of factory-made goods, but the income does not catch up with the expenses of living, and they are falling into debt. Indirect evidence though it may be, the total amount of farm production in a given year divided by the number of farmers shows the average amount of income per capita in that year. It is, of course, granted that the result of such a calculation is far from the actuality, because it represents the average of all farmer classes, rich and poor, old and young, intelligent and ignorant. At any rate, 1 Government-General of Korea, Tenant Customs, pp. 31-38. 268 AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION TABLE 124. AVERAGE BALANCE OF INCOME OVER EXPENDITURE PER FARM HOUSEHOLD, 1928 (In yen) Landlords Owner- farmers Farmer Class Part-owner Tenants { large medium small smallest large medium small smallest large medium small smallest large medium small smallest Impoverished farmers Income 10,712 2,236 9,954 467 1,237 732 44I 314 1,015 595 381 241 824 591 333 215 102 Expenses 5,130 1,532 714 420 1,004 635 401 297 924 55I 374 242 808 596 353 227 106 Note: * indicates shortage. Source: The Government-General of Chosen, Tenant Customs, p. 38. Balance 5,582 704 240 47 233 97 40 17 * * * * 91 44 7 I 16 5 20 I2 4 the government has kept records of the value of all kinds of farm crops, vegetables, fruits, animals, manures and fertilizers, sericul- tural products, and all by-products thereof, from 1910. Dividing the total value of all farm products by the number of farm popula- tion in each year, we find that the average per capita income of farmers in 1910 was 23.1 yen. It increased to 48.0 yen in 1930. It is to be noted, however, that this increase by more than 100 per cent is owing not only to the increase of the quantity of farm products, but also to the ever falling purchasing power of money. This is proved by the fact that the average per capita income in 1920 was 99.4 yen and in 1925 91.5 yen, because in these years the prices of farm products rose considerably. Although this is, 269 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA perhaps, too abstract a point to be of value, one may note that the average per capita income per day of the farmers in Korea in 1925-1930 was about one-fifth of a yen, or about six cents in American money. The Government does not show the total cost of farm business in Korea. Accordingly we have no way to calculate the expenses directly as in the case of income. But there is an indirect way by which we can roughly measure the average per capita expenses of the total farm population. First, the farm population is over four-fifths of the total population. Second, the margin between income and expenditure of the total population is expressed by the excess or shortage of exports and imports. This supposition seems to be logical, because the exports are the goods sold after the country has consumed part of what it produced, and imports are the shortage of goods that must be bought. Accordingly, exports may logically be counted as income, and imports may logically be distributed per capita as an item of expense. With these figures, we can theoretically find the individual income and expenses of the farmers. According to the foreign trade figures for 1910 to 1930, the Korean people have been consuming more than they have produced, except in the two years, 1924 and 1925. In other words, the per capita income falls short of the expenditure over a score of years. The minimum shortage of per capita income over that of expenses was 0.23 yen in 1923, and the maximum was 4.77 yen in 1930. The total shortage of the average per capita income over the average per capita expenditure during the twenty-one years ending with 1930, comes to 36.34 yen. Since the Korean people are four- fifths rural, we may say that this average per capita shortage of income is applicable to the farm population. Supposing that a farm household has five family members, the total excess of expenditure over income would be 181.70 yen during the period (1910-1930). There have been several partial studies in recent years of the balance of farm business. A few of them which are relatively reliable will provide us with additional data. According to a government study, made in Kyungwon county, North Hamkyung Province, in 1931, a landlord named Park Hi Kiu had received an income of 435.00 yen from all kinds of farm sources, such as vegetable, animal, forestry, and other crops. His 270 FARM INCOME AND EXPENSES expenditure was 319.43 yen, including all such items of costs as public charges, foodstuffs, clothing, communication, doctoring, education, matrimonial and funeral expenses, and others. The balance was a surplus of 115.17 yen. An upper-class farmer called Chai Tong Huen had earned a total income of 314.43 yen, and his total expense was 324.05 yen, leaving a shortage of 9.62 yen. A middle-class farmer called Kim Li Kak got an income of 187.58 yen, while his expenditure was 245.88 yen, leaving a shortage of 58.30 yen. A lower-class farmer named Lyu Chang Hak had earned 69.88 yen, but spent 100.35 yen, leaving a shortage of 30.47 yen. Such was the financial status of farmers in one locality. The original data show the details of the farmers' accounts item by item.² Although they fail to explain the distinguishing mark of the "upper", "middle" and "lower" classes of farmer, there were 282 upper, 497 middle, and 201 lower-class farm households. The investigation shows that all of these farmers, except the landlords, had incurred a loss of no small amount in 1932. It must be taken into consideration that the study includes the cost of living in the total expenditure. The Agricultural Society of Chosen was engaged in 1933 in a survey of economic conditions of farmers throughout Korea under the direction of the Government. A partial investigation in South Chulla and Kyungki Provinces has been completed. The result of another investigation conducted by the Bureau of Agriculture. and Forestry of the government is also available. The findings of these two investigations are summarized in table 125. According to the table, all farmers showed a loss, except the part-owners investigated by the Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry. The average shortage of income over outgo was 44 yen for farmers surveyed by the Agricultural Society and 13.77 yen for farmers surveyed by the Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry. In either case, the farmers could not make ends meet. One thing to be noted is that the outgo includes also the cost of living. Under such circumstances, the farmers have no other alternative but to fall into debt. The balance of farm business of the 1249 farm households. surveyed in 1931 was as shown in table 126. 2 Monthly Survey Report, Vol. III, No. 12, pp. 113-128. 271 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 125. INCOME AND OUTGO OF FARMERS, 1931 (In yen) Total Outgo (a) 701 2000 473 327 500 Farmer Class Owner-farmers Part-owners Tenants Farmer Class Total Income Landlords Owner farmers Part-owners Tenants (a) 679 392 297 456 Total (b) 479.50 484.60 387.80 453.90 Income Average Source: The Practical Life, Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan., 1933, p. 22. Note: (a) indicates the result of the investigation conducted by the Agricultural Society of Chosen and (b) that by the Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry of the Government. The mark indicates shortage of income over outgo. Total 95,683.20 162,803-43 (b) 507.20 468.00 428.00 467.70 Per Farm Expenditure Total TABLE 126. BALANCE OF FARM BUSINESS OF THE 1,249 FARMS SURVEYED IN 1931 (In yen) (a) ** 78.32 48.37 63.50 62.99 22 * 81 * 30 140.13 47,199.04 78.49 100,016.35 89.79 239,441.77 295,295.74 180,373.20 57.42 172,596.48 734,155.57 (av.)74.39 559,253.64 (av.)61.32 Per Farm ** Balance 44 ** * Balance * Per Farm 62.81 30.12 26.29 5.57 13.07 (b) 27.70 16.60 30.20 Note: The mark * indicates shortage. In the income and expenditure, such items as crops, rent, farm tools, fertilizers, seeds, feeding stuffs, livestock, sericulture, eggs, subsidiary occupations, interest, special incomes and expenses, were included. The items represent strictly the farm business as an independent operating business unit. The farm labor, for example, may be that of the farm operator or of members of his family without receipt of wages, but it is counted in the outgo as an item of farm expenditure. In this case the living costs are not counted as farm expense. Of the farmer classes, the tenants incurred losses, averaging 5.57 yen per household. Other farm 13.77 272 FARM INCOME AND EXPENSES } classes have made some profit, but the surplus was surprisingly small, being only 13.07 yen per household on the average. With such adverse conditions as these, they cannot go on farming indefinitely. But the farmers cannot change their occupation easily because farming is the calling in which they have engaged for generations, and there are no forms of profitable business in the rural district. They are placed in a position in which they cannot make a shift; if they do not continue to farm, they have to starve, there is no other way. The relatively few farmers who can take up other lines have the best opportunity. For most, the only way to meet the deficit is to reduce their standard of living. In extreme cases, they are forced to wander away from the village, often without having a definite destiny. The large exodus to Manchuria, Siberia, and Japan in recent years is the result of such distress. The heavy farm debts are the last dyke to support any- thing like the accustomed standard of living, and to make possible continuance of the farm business. Should the present adverse conditions continue for too long a time, even that last protection must break down. WES 273 د. NO EXIT K 21. CHAPTER XI THE STANDARD OF LIVING IN RECENT years, as shown in the previous chapter, the general economic depression has caused such difficulty that in most cases the farmers cannot make a living by farming. Accordingly, the alternative for most farmers is either to fall into debt or to reduce their standard of living. Usually they have to do both Borrowing money to meet a shortage of income over expense cannot be con- tinued for long. As has already been pointed out, the owner class is gradually becoming that of part-owners, part-owners become tenants, and tenants, losing their last patch of land, are making a bare living by earning wages in the farming communities. When these impoverished farmers cannot sustain even mere existence, they have to leave the villages and seek their livelihood in towns and cities, or else drift to Japan or Manchuria. Their emigration to Japan, however, has been barred by the Government, because they compete with the laboring class in that country. The "death" of rural Korea has been proclaimed in numerous articles and news reports. The authorities are reluctant to say things like this, but occasionally words to the same effect are expressed by responsible government officials. AN INDEX OF DECREASING FOOD CONSUMPTION There are no available data to show the falling standard of living of the farmers by statistical methods, since no records have ever been kept for such purpose. It is difficult to find any reliable records. kept by farmers in regard to their farm business accounts, much less in regard to their cost of living. Most of them are running the business, so to speak, like a clock running without hands. For this reason, the falling standard of living of the farmers is not as such statistically measurable. But we can measure it in indirect ways. One of these is to compare the amount of rice consumed by the farmers at different times. In Korea rice is the most highly 274 THE STANDARD OF LIVING valued food of the people, and when they can afford it, they con- sume a large quantity of it. On the other hand, when they are getting worse off, they reduce its consumption and substitute some other cereals. This is indisputed fact. For this reason, the change in the quantity of rice consumed is an excellent barometer of the rise or fall of the standard of living of the Korean people. TABLE 127. PER CAPITA ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF RICE, 1912-1930 Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Population 14,827,101 11,028,567 15,458,868 10,254,276 15,929,962 16,278,389 16,648,129 16,668,997 17,057,032 17,149,909 17,288,989 17,452,918 17,629,761 17,884,963 18,068,116 Total Consumption of rice (Koku) 19,103,900 19,137,968 19,189,699 19,311,061 20,256,563 0.744 0.663 11,052,725 0.694 Rice consumed (Koku) Per Capita 11,790,347 0.724 11,255,610 0.676 Absolute 12,406,347 0.731 11,627,581 0.682 12,588,245 0.734 10,768,488 0.623 0.660 19,015,526 9,544,026 11,514,320 11,465,459 0.650 0.628 11,231,471 10,928,076 0.605 0.502 0.523 0.524 0.569 9,994,553 10,025,056 I1,030,395 8,239,256 9,317,174 0.43I 0.459 Index 100.0 89.2 93.2 97.3 90.9 98.2 91.6 98,6 83.7 88.7 87.3 84.4 81.3 67.4 70.2 70.4 76.4 57.9 61.6 Trend (5-year moving average) 0.700 0.697 0.701 0.709 0.589 0.686 0.669 0.659 0.633 0.609 0.581 0.556 0.544 0.509 0.501 Source: The numerical data are obtained from the Annual Statistical Reports of the Government-General of Chosen. Notes: 1. The trend is calculated by five-year moving average. 2. The koku equals 4.96 (English) bushels. The table shows that the per capita consumption of rice is decreasing in amount. If we take 1912 as the base year, the index 275 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA フ ​for 1930 was less than two-thirds. There are some fluctuations, but the trend is decidedly downward. In absolute quantity, the per capita consumption of rice in 1912 was 0.744 koku; (about 3.16 bushels), but in 1921, it was reduced to 0.623 koku and in 1930 to 0.459 koku-three-fifths. According to the Government statistics, the per capita consump- tion of rice in Japan during the period, 1912-1930, remained virtually the same or showed a slight increase. For example, it was 1,068 koku in 1912, but 1,138 koku in 1928. The movement of annual consumption witnessed certain changes, but the general trend shows that the level is stationary. If one reflects upon the rapid increase of population in Japan, it is remarkable that the Japanese people can maintain the even level of the per capita consumption of rice. When the absolute quantity of per capita consumption of rice in Japan is compared with that in Korea, it is found that the former consumes twice as much as the latter. Koreans, like Japanese, prefer rice to anything else for their daily diet, and there is no marked difference in physical requirement between the two races. The Koreans want to eat rice as much as the Japanese, but they cannot afford to have it. Regarding the per capita consumption of rice in China, there are no reliable data. But in Formosa, the Chinese population con sumes about one koku a year per person. They eat a little less than Japanese, but much more than the Koreans. The per capita consumption of rice in Formosa does not show a decline in the past two decades. It remains stationary, as in Japan. The decrease of the average per capita consumption of rice in Korea is sure sign of the decline of the standard of living of the people. Nor must it be overlooked that the average per capita consumption shown in the foregoing table includes the Japanese and foreign population in Korea, who consume much more rice than the Koreans, so that the actual per capita consumption by Koreans is even smaller than shown in the table. The question arises, what do the Koreans consume, when they reduce the amount of rice? The answer is that they use more foxtail millet which is much cheaper in price. But this is not simply a saving: the substitution of the coarse millet is a real sacrifice for most Koreans. Under present circumstances, the consumption of millet in Korea 276 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 1. is bound to go up. A greatly increased quantity of millet is annually imported from Manchuria, as the following table shows. TABLE 128. ANNUAL AMOUNT OF FOXTAIL MILLET PRODUCED AND IMPORTED, AND PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION (In thousand koku) Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923. 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Produced Imported Total Sources: 3,812 4,576 4,024 4,383 4,820 5,182 5,662 3,816 6,036 5,862 5,138 5,298 5,077 4,756 4,777 4,994 5,233 5,244 5,573 28 299* 126 102 6 119 212 914 840 88 716 1,087 1,359 1,687 2,184 1,894 1,500 1,500 1,581 3,840 4,875 4,150 4,485 4,485 5,826 5,874 4,730 6,876 5,950 5,854 6,385 6,436 5,443 6,961 7,436 7,127 6,744 7,154 Per Capita Consumption Absolute Quantity 0.258 0.315 0.260 0.275 0.289 0.312 0.344 0.279 0.398 0.335 0.329 0.357 0.356 0.286 0.365 0.388 0.371 0.349 0.353 Five-year Index moving average 100 122 100 107 I 12 125 121 108 154 130 129 138 138 118 136 149 143 136 137 0.279 0.291 0.296 0.299 0.324 0.333 0.337 0.339 0.355 0.332 0.338 0.350 0.353 0.351 0.365 Annual Statistical Report of the Government-General of Chosen, 1930, pp. 23, 275. South Manchurian Railway Co., Investigation Material, No. 83. "Millet conditions in Korea," Sept. 1928, p. 57. The average per capita consumption has increased by almost two-fifths in two decades, and the trend shows an upward move- ment. It is a common saying among farmers that they cannot consume what they produce-the rice-but they sell it for cash and buy millet. The economic pressure compels them to follow this course, because they have to meet urgent needs with the surplus cash which they get from the exchange of rice for millet. At the 277 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 1 same time they are gradually reducing their standard of living also in other ways. They may use other grains than millet to substitute for rice, because other grains are also somewhat cheaper. Barley is most frequently employed for such purpose, especially in the diet of the poorer classes of people in rural communities. Barley, wheat, kaoliang or sorghum are commonly used in direct substitution for rice, but the increase in the per capita consumption of these cereals is not so marked as that of millet. THE ACTUAL STANDARD OF LIVING } To measure what the Korean farmers' standard of living is, we have made a special investigation. All daily necessaries and other articles used by the farmers were ascertained, with the prices they paid, to arrive at the cost of living in 1930. The items were mainly classified into fifteen groups, namely, cereals, meats, beverages, fuel, clothes, furniture and tools, cost of worship, sociability, communî- cation, education, doctoring, marriage, funerals, tea and smoking, and miscellaneous costs. In the cereal group, all kinds of grains, like rice, barley, wheat, millet, and buckwheat, were included; in the meat group all sorts of meat, such as beef, pork, chicken, and fish; in the clothing group, all kinds of fabrics, hats and shoes, and all sorts of garments used; in the furniture group, the sheltering cost such as roofing, repairs of dwelling houses, as well as all kinds of utensils, tools, and furniture; in the next group the cost of all kinds of religious observances were put together; likewise, in the groups of social expenses, communication, education, doctoring, marriage etc., all costs that should go under such items were combined. Any cost incurred which did not fall under these headings was included in the "miscellaneous" group. The total cost of cereals consumed by the 1240 farm households was 195,115.53 yen, making 51.7 per cent of the cost of living of the 7,366 persons, The cost per household for landlords was 285.38 yen, that for owners 138.53 yen, that for part-owners 176.99 yen, and that for tenants 124.54 yen. The average cost per household of all classes was 156.21 yen. The total cost of meat consumed by 1,181 farm households was 13,067.38 yen, making 3.6 per cent of the total cost of living, The average per household for landlords was 22.95 yen, for owners 11.50 yen, for part-owners 11.84 yen, and for tenants 7.71 yen. The average cost of meat per household in all classes was 11.96 yen. L 278 THE STANDARD OF LIVING The total cost of beverages, including alcoholic drinks, sugar, and salt, etc., consumed by 1,231 households (18 were not reported), was 19,091.26 yen, making 5.7 per cent of the total cost of living. The average cost per household for the landlords was 23.42 yen, for owners 15.99 yen, for part-owners 18.07 yen, and for tenants 11.05 yen. The average cost per household of all classes amounted to 15.50 yen. The total cost of fuel consumed by the 1,249 households was 33,040.57 yen, being 8.7 per cent of the total cost of living. The average cost per household for the landlords was 41.74 yen, that for owners 22.24 yen, that for part-owners 29.44 yen, and that for tenants 23.67 yen. The total cost of clothes was 26,326.14 yen, being 6.9 per cent of the total cost of living. The average cost per household for part- owners was 24.29 yen, and that for tenants 14.58 yen. The total cost of furniture and tools was 13,425.82 yen, being 3.5 per cent of the total cost of living. The religious expenses of 394 households totalled 5,020.51 yen, being 1.3 per cent of the total cost of living. Likewise under 2 per cent of the total cost of living, the social expenses amounted to 6,923.80 yen. The average per household cost being 10.80 yen. The cost of doctoring and medicine was 9,616.22, or 2.5 per cent of the total cost of living. The average per household cost of this item for all classes was 10.79 yen. Marriage expenses amounting to 10,423.05 yen were incurred by 186 households. The average cost was 56.03 yen for each occasion. The average cost of marriage in the households of landlords was 123.83 yen. All other classes spent quite a little less money than the landlords. The expenses for communication totalled 5,121.78 yen, making up 1.3 per cent of the total cost of living, while that for education, 15,851.18 yen, was 4.2 per cent of the total costs. Funerals and festivals were rather high in cost: over 6,467.15 yen was spent by 655 households. This cost was about 1.7 per cent of the total cost of living. The cost of smoking was quite significant, namely 8,861.40 yen, giving the average figure for 1,081 households of 8.19 yen. The cost is about 2.3 per cent of the total. The cost of various items which were classified as miscellaneous was 8,178.73 yen, making up 2.1 per cent of the total. The average per capita total cost of living for all classes was 279 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 129. COST OF LIVING OF ALL FARMER CLASSES IN 1930 Class Landlords Owners Part-owners Tenants Total No. of House- holds 77 308 436 428 I,249 No. of Persons 550 1,810 2,738 2,268 7,366 Total Cost (yen) 47,628.82 86,871.36 146,009.86 96,018.48 376,528.52 Cost per Household (yen) 618.55 282.04 Per capita (yen) Cost Per day per capita (yen) 86.59 0.237 47.99 0.131 334.88 53.32 0.146 224.34 42.33 0.116 (av.)301.46 (av.)51.11 (av.) 0.140 rather low, namely 51.11 yen for the year and 0.140 yen for the day. While the landlords maintained a somewhat higher standard of living, the owners and part-owners were very much on the same standard, the former spending a little less than the latter. The tenants were the most distressed group among the farmer classes. Their cost of living per day capita was not more than 0.116 yen, only a little over 3 cents in Amerian money. Such was the cost of living of the farmers, but even this low cost could not, as we have seen, be met by the income derived from their farm business. Under these circumstances, the farmers have further to reduce their low standard of living and fall into heavier debt. When they go below the minimum limit which they can bear, they become beggars and wander away, roaming over the countryside. For many thousands of farmers, the situation is hopeless, unless some radical change in the economic regime makes possible more tolerable conditions. 280 CHAPTER XII AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION BY THE annexation in 1910, Korea lost overnight her sovereign- ty as an independent state, which it had enjoyed for more than forty centuries and became a colony of Japan. This is not the place to discuss the causes and effects of this historical change; but it is because of it that we witness the colonization of Japanese in Korea as a factor of outstanding importance in the country's economic life. Many prominent scholars, like the late Professor E. Inoue, of the Imperial University of Tokyo, are of the opinion that Japan. should not settle her people in Korea, because it is over-saturated with population and, unless Japan drives Koreans out of Korea, there is no room for new settlers. Furthermore, the Koreans are largely rural, and consequently there is no occasion for agricultural colonization. These views are held by many intelligent people in Japan. But the more influential imperialistic and militaristic circles in Japan would not listen to such words, and so agricultural colonization work in Korea is now well under way. To carry out colonization work, there must be agencies to take care of the business. Of such agencies there are many, but the Oriental Development Company and the Funi Industrial Com-, pany are the two most active of those operating in Korea at the present time. THE ORIENTAL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY The Toyo Takushoku Kaisha is the largest Japanese agricultural organization in Korea, carrying on effective and systematic programs of colonization on an extensive scale. At the commence- ment of the Japanese protectorate over Korea, in 1905, Japanese, both officials and private individuals, conceived the idea of starting it. The Japanese Resident-General, then the dictator of all political affairs in the peninsula, invited experts from Japan to study the situation and to map out a workable plan. Dr. Masao Kambe and 281 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 1908 in g 7 others responded to the call. After careful investigation, they suggested the internal colonization program which had been suc- cessfully practiced by Prussia in Posen, formerly a part of Poland. In March, 1908, a bill was passed by the Imperial Diet; and by virtue of this bill, the Oriental Development Company was brought into existence in December of the same year. The company was formed as a joint stock enterprise, composed exclusively of Koreans and Japanese, with a capital of 10,000,000 yen. Its purpose was announced ostensibly and plausibly to be the improvement of agricultural conditions by settling in Korea Japanese farmers who were superior in the technique of farming to the Korean farmers. Of the authorized capital, the old Korean Government was required to pay one-half. Since that Government had no alterna- tive but to obey the dictator, the request was promptly complied with. The Korean Government, however, had no funds from which to pay, and so it paid its share in land., Prior to this, the Japanese Resident-General had directed the Korean Government to transfer all the crown land, controlled by the Accountant's Office of the Korean Imperial Household, to the Department of Finance, in readiness for use by the state. The private property of the Royal Family was confiscated without a single penny's compen- sation. There were also other kinds of state-owned lands, for example, the military land (toonto), the Post Land (yukto), etc., covering an extensive area. CONVEYERTON, To pay its subscrbed 60,000 shares, the Korean Government made available from this enlarged reserve a total area of 24,306 acres. The other half was to be paid by the Japanese Government and "public spirited" individuals in Japan. The company was authorized to issue debentures to the extent of ten times its paid-up capital, and the reimbursement of such debentures to the extent of 20,000,000 yen, together with the interest thereon, was guaranteed by the Japanese Government. The business of the company was prescribed as: (1) farm manage- ment, (2) selling, purchasing, renting, and leasing of land necessary for colonization, (3) management and control of land necessary for colonization, (4) construction, sale, purchase, and leasing out buildings necessary for colonization, (5) collection and distribution of Japanese and Korean settlers, (6) supplying settlers with articles necessary for colonization, and (7) furnishing funds 282 AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION to the colonists. Furthermore, the company was authorized to engage in fishing and other undertakings upon the approval of the Government. The classification of the financial business under- taken by the company is: (1) lending of necessary funds to Japanese settlers to be paid back by instalment in not more than 25 years, (2) making loans to settlers against immovable property, to be repaid by instalment in not more than 15 years, (3) making loans to settlers and farmers against immovable property to be redeemed at specific periods within five years, (4) making loans to settlers and farmers on security of their products or articles acquired by them, and (5) making loans against immovable pro- perty for a period not exceeding three years. The Government granted the company an annual subsidy of 300,000 yen for eight years from 1908, on condition that, should the rate of dividend on the paid-up capital exceed 8 per cent per annum, an amount corres- ponding to the excess should be deducted from the subsidy. This, in other words, was a government guarantee of 8 per cent annual dividend for the private shareholders in Japan. With such power and privileges, the company proceeded to acquire more land than the area contributed by the old Korean Government in order to carry out an extensive program of agricul- tural colonization. It had acquired more than 31,800 acres of land at the end of 1910 and 220,500 acres at that of 1911, creating a land boom in Korea. It drew up a comprehensive plan of colonization which was embodied in its Settlement Regulation of 1910. Accord- ing to this regulation, the Japanese settlers who immigrate into Korea under the company's guidance and protection are of two classes. The first class of settlers get five acres of land from the company to start farming, The value of this assigned land should be paid back to the company, with 6 per cent interest, by instal- ments in 25 years and with the privilege of omitting payments for the first five years of settlement, if the settler wishes to do so. The second class receive 10 acres of land from the company on their arrival (originally it was 25) and are required to pay one-fourth of the land value at the time of signing the contract, and the rest by instalment within 25 years, with an interest of 7 per cent on the unpaid balance of the land value. At the end of 25 years' the land is to be owned by the settlers. The company provides many inducements and facilities for Gree * ! The 283 EX LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA inf KLAS MU TABLE 130. NUMBER OF JAPANESE SETTLERS AND ACREAGE OF LAND ASSIGNED TO THEM BY ORIENTAL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY nd butto MMA 19 Japanese settlers. For example, it gives them a half-fare ticket on railway and steamship lines, other travelling expenses, a house, seeds and seedlings, manure and fertilizer, tools and necessary equipment, credit for buying farm animals, special funds for emergencies and calamities, and so forth. Not only this, but the company spends a huge sum of money annually for the betterment of social, educational, and sanitary conditions, communication, and facilities for religious worship, all this under such favorable terms that Japanese immigration is steadily increasing. Ji Year 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Immigrants Number Number of Fields of Households Persons (Acres) 4,051 3,951 3,928 3,939 4,056 4,037 4,004 3,971 3,967 3,943 17,275 17,779 18,069 18,513 19,299 19,279 19,591 19,452 19,515 19,860 1,745 1,987 1,854 I,942 2,219 2,273 2,317 2,317 2,307 2,285 Land Assigned Paddy Fields (Acres) 18,637 18,370 17,855 18,698 21,432 22,623 22,706 22,517 22,623 22,194 Total (Acres) 20,582 20,349 19,710 20,641 23,652 24,896 24,923 24,835 24,93I 24,480 Acreage per farm 5.07 5.14 3.02 5.24 5.83 6.17 6.21 6.24 6.27 6.19 Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 115. As we have seen, the average size of farm cultivated by Korean peasant tenants is about 2 acres. Accordingly, when the company J invites a Japanese settler from Japan, about three farm households of Korean peasants have to move out from the rural section where they were living, to make room for the new settlers. There are many instances in South Kyungsang and North Chulla Provinces. in which a whole Korean village community is replaced by Japanese settlers invited by the company. The company was further favored, in 1917, by the Government- General of Chosen, when, with a view to assisting the colonization 284 AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION work, it gave up its claim to the dividend on 60,000 shares formerly paid by the old Korean Government. Needless to say, this is another form of subsidy in disguise. In spite of such Government patronage and aid, the management of the company has been poor and was compelled to reorganize completely by increasing the capital stock to 20,000,000 yen in May, 1918, and to 50,000,000 yen in October, 1919. Under this new organization, the number of shares was 1,000,000, with a face value of 50 yen. The 200,000 shares of 1908 and 200,000 shares of 1917 are called the "old" and the 600,000 shares of 1919 the "new" shares. The former are all paid up, but the latter only partially. The head office of the company, which had been located at Seoul, since its extablishment in 1908, was removed to Tokyo in July, 1917. There are at the present time nine branch offices in various parts of Korea and elsewhere. The principal ones are at Fusan, Taiku, Mokpo, Riri, Taijun (Taiden), Seoul, Wonsan (Gensan), Sariwon (Shariin), Whangju (Koshu), and Pyengyang. At present, the company has an operating fund of 35,000,000 yen as paid-up capital. But in order to carry out the gigantic scale of colonization, it has been borrowing money from both Japan and foreign countries. With the Government's authoriza- tion, it has issued debentures first at Paris, to the extent of 50,000,000 francs in March, 1912, through the medium of the Industrial Bank of Japan. The second, fourth, eighth, and eleventh debentures were all subscribed by the Deposit Bureau of the Finance Depart- ment of the Imperial Government of Japan, while the rest of the issues were all subscribed by Japanese in Japan, except a loan, amounting to $2,000,000, floated in New York in 1928. The rate of interest for this borrowed money is not more than 5 per cent annually, but when the company lends it again to the farmers, the rate never goes below 8 per cent annually. However, since the fall of the Japanese yen, in 1931, the company has found it difficult to pay interest on its foreign loans. In 1932, it appealed for help to the Finance Department, and it is reported that over 2,000,000 yen have been subsidized by the Department to meet the shortage in paying interest on foreign loans. The business condi- tion of the company is not so sound as the plan seemed to guarantee, as will be seen from table 131. It will be noted that land area owned by the company has been 285 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA TABLE 131. BUSINESS CONDITION OF THE ORIENTAL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY, 1921-1930 Year 1921 1022 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 + Money Loaned g the pinkish, (in 1,000 yen) 53,047 54,094 53,114 54,732 54,811 53,598 60,628 66,072 73,708 83,019 Surplus Money (in 1,000 yen) 10,952 24,018 12,615 20,313 13,668 11,032 14,873 8,311 3,227 2,926 Money Borrowed (in 1,000 yen) 9,025 9,000 7,500 7,360 7,500 7,456 Source: Annual Statistical Report, 1930, p. 114. 12,859 2,803 7,398 8,116 Field (in 1,000 acres) 49 48 48 47 45 44 43 43 41 41 Acres of Land Owned Paddy Field (in 1,000 acres) 127 127 126 125 122 120 120 118 114 114 Other Lands (in 1,000 acres) 34 36 www. 37 39 40 57 57 77 102 147 increasing steadily. As a matter of fact, it has announced that by adjusting the land uses, it will be able to collect 2,500,000 bushels of rice from the tenant peasants as rent. The company is, of course, the largest landlord in Korea. The amount of loans advanced is also steadily increasing, Targely because of the ever increasing demand for loans from farmers. The Korean feeling toward the company's colonization work has been very bitter. After the independence movement of 1919, the Government for a time considered stopping the scheme altogether, because it was recognized as a menace to the life of Korean farmers. Even the settlers themselves often fail in spite of the patronage of the company. The company, in fact, stopped the inflow of new settlers of the first class in 1921 and of settlers of the second class in 1927. SOME OTHER COLONIZATION AGENCIES AND THEIR WORK The Funi Industrial Company is another colonization agency which has a large operating capital. Its main office is in Seoul, but its land is scattered here and there, mostly consisting of filled-in land along the sea coast. It has a large area of land in Okku ST ALBUM LA Total (in 1,000 acres) 210 211 211 211 207 221 220 238 257 302 286 AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION county, North Chulla Province, and approximately 2,450 acres have been separately planned to transplant Japanese settlers from Japan. The original plan was to settle 300 families en masse, but later it was increased to 333 families. Up to the end of August, 1931, the new settlers numbered 281 farm families. These Japanese immigrants the Over-Sea Department of the Japanese Government has subsidized with 300 yen each as a special encouragement. Another colonization agency is the Keiko Cooperative Society, formed by Japanese at Pyengkang, (Keiko), Kangwon Province. The society owns an area of over 1,225 acres en bloc in the district and plans to invite 100 settlers from Japan. Up to the end of May, 1931, the settlers numbered 80 farm families. The Government-General of Chosen has been trying to lend a helping hand to these Japanese immigrants. For the two sets of settlers mentioned above it used its good offices in getting the low rate interest loans for the pioneer work of the settlers. There are also numerous individual Japanese colonizers, mostly landlords who themselves have come from Japan. These indivi- duals settle in the rural districts and at first farm on their own. account; then frequently they invite other settlers from Japan to cultivate the land they own. The total number of Japanese agricultural settlers of this kind, was estimated to be more than 5,000 families at the end of 1930. They are the so-called "free settlers" as against the so-called "protected settlers" of the Oriental Development Company and other agencies. The area of land owned by these "free settlers" is not exactly known to the public. Regarding this matter, the estimates given by Korean authorities have a tendency to exaggerate, while the figures given out by the Government are thought to be much too low. This tendency results from political delicacy and racial feeling. As we cannot depend on a Korean estimate that 25 per cent of all arable land is now owned by Japanese, we shall quote a publication of the Government. (See table 132). With a total number of free settlers of about 5,000, the number of those who own more than 70 acres of land is about one-tenth of the total. The number of free settlers who own less than 70 acres of land is not ascertainable in any way, but must be many times greater. In our judgment, the total area of land owned by free settlers who own less than 70 acres would be no less than twice 287 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA 20212 Klass The Cole (g TABLE 132. TOTAL LAND AREA OWNED AND CONTROLLED BY JAPANESE SETTLERS WHO OWN MORE THAN 70 ACRES, 1929 (In Acres) Province Kyungki N. Choongchung S. Choongchung N. Chulla S. Chulla N. Kyungsang S. Kyungsang Whanghai S. Pyengan N. Pyengan Kangwon S. Hamkyung N. Hamkyung Number of Persons Total 34 2 ار 34 102 199 5 34 52 17 6 32 17 4 538 Land Area Owned 24,509 921 16,684 90,167 91,096 6,179 16,283 77,336 7,401 13,002 24,353 41,611 142 Land Area Controlled 409,684 1,217 921 2,018 23,468 24 233 20,174 3,212 10,620 Total 25,726 1,842 18,702 113,635 91,096 6,203 16,516 1,985 1,516 470 65,858 474,542 Source: Government-General, Korean Agriculture, (Chosen Nogyo), March, 1932, Note: The figures in the table do not include the area owned by the Oriental Development Company. pp. 177-206. 97,510 10,613 23,622 26,338 43,127 612 that of the area owned by those with more than 70 acres. These free settlers from Japan exert a great influence over the rural econ- omy of Korea. Any person who owns more than 50 acres of land in Korea is regarded as a large landlord, and this landlord is practically the master of the village, using his economic power over the tenants and neighbors. We have already seen that the number of large Japanese landlords is far greater than that of Koreans. The logical conclusion is, therefore, that the Japanese free settlers, especially the large land owners, are coming rapidly into control of economic affairs in rural Korea. The colonies made up entirely by "free" or "protected" Japanese settlers have been surveyed by the Government. Many of them have replaced Korean villages by driving out Korean peasant farmers. In 1930 there were 61 such colonies where the village is (PAPASADO Demy 288 AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION entirely Japanese in the fullest sense. The size of these colonies. is from four to 106 Japanese farm households; the model village has from 20 to 30 farm households. 289 K 22. APPENDICES 1) Province (5) Name of the farmer. (7) Landlord's name (9) (II) "" "" (13) Landlord's agent 15) Topography of the farm. (16) Soils Name I Bought Given (17) Irrigation and drainage works on the farm.. (18) How far is it to the nearest market from the farm? I K 23 ور (19) How far is it to the nearest railway station from the farm? (20) How far is it to the nearest shipping point from the farm? (21) How many farmsteads are in the village? (22) What per cent of the village population is farmers? (23) Do they own land in common? if any, state the kind. value.. 2 3. 4. 5. 6 Inherited Possessed Rented Other Total area.. and yields (24) Are there agricultural societies organized by the village farmers? if any, note the name. and membership.. purpose... Items Relation- ship 2 I ور 2 3 4 5 6 • 7 (2) County. I Date of Birth Let me s 3 Paddy Field Area Value SURVEY SCHEDULE* I. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE FARM (3) Township. (6) Age. 8) Address 2 Date of Death 4 3 Field • · II. FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS OF THE FARMER Date of Marriage 5 4 (10) (12) (14) • "" 5 ور III. ACQUISITION OF LAND Gardens در Area Value Area Value Area Value 6 8 29T Read Write Korean Japanese Chinese Korean Japanese Chinese 8 6 7 • Forest 7 (4) Village.. Education ▼ 9 9 Grassland IO Other Land Area Value Area Value ΙΟ II II *This Survey Schedule was used in the investigation work which was carried on during the year 1931-1932 by employing the door-to-door method by our surveyors, who were especially trained for the work. 12 IV. LAND UTILIZATION I Total I II Area Value Yield III IV Crops V VI Crops 2 3 4 5 6 เก 7 8 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Items Area I Ist Crop I Area 2 II 3 3rd Crop Yield No. of Plots 21 Field (continued) Yield Forest I 2 2 3 4 5 6 12 A Area Paddy Field 2nd Crop 3 Area 22 13 Grass land (1) Cultivated area ¿ Yield Total 4 Yield 23 14 Pasture I Area Kinds of Utilization Area Site 5 15 (2) Land area other than cultivated 24 Total 292 Ist Crop Yield 6 V. FARM Layout Yield 16 Roads 25 .C Area 2 Area 7 Ist Crop 17 Area Ditch 26 2nd Crop Yield Garden 8 3 Yield 18 Grave yard 27 Field Area K 9 2nd Crop Area Idle land 19 28 3 Total Yield 10 Yield 20 Other lands Distance from the Farmstead 29 VI. CROP ROTATION AND FALLOW M First Second Third Fourth Fifth * Year Total Farm building Improvements Plough I Items 2 Items 3 4 5 Jord I 2 3 4 5 6 Spring I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I Paddy Field I Summer Purchased during the year No. Value 2 2 VII. FARM IMPROVEMENTS, MACHINES, AND TOOLS Made during the year No. Value 6 2 Fall 3 3 Sold during the year No. Value 4 4 VIII. CHANGES IN THE USE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS Beginning years of the change 3 ~293 57 5 Spring 4 6 7 Field Summer 7 5 Repaired during the year No. Value 8 Fall 6 Inventory at the year end No. Value 9 10 Prevailing Disappearing 8 9 اسم IX. MANURE AND FERTILIZER RECORDS 2/ J Ammon. supp. Bean cake Total Total Items Operator Daily Monthly Seasonal Yearly Ox Horse Mule Laborers Men Laborers Operator Day Monthly Yearly Animals Women Children Item I 2 3 4 มา 5 6 7 8 9 IO. I 2 3 4 5 I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 Quantity I Jan. I I Bought Wages Male Female Juvenile I 2 2 Without animal help 2 Value Quantity Value Quantity Value 6 Plowing acres X. FARM LABOR AND LABOR COSTS Cost of boarding Meals 3 Home-made 3 With animal help 2 4 one 4 two XI. ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR (A day's work in terms of land area) 5 Feb Mar Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. 3 6 8 4 5 3 5 XII. EFFICIENCY OF FARM LABOR (A day's work in terms of land area) Transplanting acres Paddy Field 294 between three meals 6 7 Sold 7 4 8 9 Cost of garments Beverage given or "Sool" harness used Weeding acres Paddy Field field 10 5 Quantity Value 8 7 II 9 Oct, Nov. Dec. Total Used Paddy field 6 Total cost of labor for the years 12 10 Harvesting acres 13 Field 7 XIII. LIVESTOCK RECORDS * . Cattle Horses Mules Hogs Chickens Ducks Dogs Sheep Goats Bees Rabbits Fish Total Ducks Dogs Sheep Goats Bees Cattle Horses Mules Hogs Chickens Items Rabbits Fish Total Items K 24 Spring worm Summer worm Fall worm Total I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 14 I facend 2 3 4 5 6 Items 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 14 Beginning of the year @ No. I Purchase during the year No. 10 I 2 3 4 2 II @ Value No. 12 I Value No. of egg sheets hatched 3 13 No. + Born during the year 4 14 End of the year @ 2 @ Value No. 16 XIV. SILK WORM RECORDS Cocoon produced Quantity 295 5 15 Died during the year @ 17 Value Value 6 3 Sales during the year @ 8 No. ང་ Value No. 18 19 Quantity 4 Value Killed during the year @ 20 Mulberry leaves used Value 9 5 Value 21 XV. EGG RECORDS Chickens Ducks Total Bran Seeds of Crops Hay and straw Grains for feedings Materials for feed Total Items Items Total Items Retail shop Weaving cotton Others Mats I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 4 I Jual 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 > I Quantity I material purchased I XVI. COST OF SEEDS, FEEDS, AND OTHER SUPPLIES Beginning of the year End of the year 2 Raw Finished goods sold 2 Produced during the year Consumed during the year Purchased during the year Amount Value Amount Value Amount Value Amount Value Amount Value 6 3 4 · 4 5 XVII. SUBSIDIARY OCCUPATIONS 296 @ 2 Changes (date of beginning) 20 years 15 years 10 years 5 years ago ago ago ago 3 6 มา 5 7 New 7 8 Total Value Rising 8 3 Character of changing Declin- ing 2.- 9 9 ΙΟ Extinct 10 Total Man labor wage Animal labor wage Machine rent Tools rent Building rent Milling fee Straw, stocks Total 1930 Mortgage (1) Mortgage (2) Chattel mortgage Personal credit "Changli" 1929 1928 1927 1926 1930 XVIII. OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME 1929 1928 Items 1927 1926 Items Year Year I 2 3 4 5 I 2 3 4 In I 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 H I 2 3 4 Ι΄ 55 6 7 8 IO 13 9 Prices Amount at the end of the year Horses I I 2 Rice Area Yield Sold Area Amount received 14 Net change during year Amount of Amount of increase decrease 3 2 2 15 I Live Stock Sales 3 Cows Hogs Sheep Dogs 16 XX. FARM Liabilities 2 Taxes 17 Fees Ass. charges 297 Irrigation Drainage Medicine Fuel XXI. CROP ACRES, YIELD, LIVESTOCK, OUTSIDE WORK, AND RECEIPTS IN THE PAST YEAR Barley Yield Sold Area Yield Sold Area Yield Rents Storage Total Source of loan 3 4 18 I XIX. OTHER EXPENSES Items Interest rate 19 5 2 3 I 20 2 3 4 Wages Sub. occ. 5 6 7 8 9 IO II Amount of interest paid 6 Amount paid 21 I Receipts from Outside I 2 22 Year to run 7 D Sold 3 Total 23 XXII. STANDARD OF LIVING * + Rice Barley Millet Wheat Buckwheat Soya beans Green beans Red beans Kaoliang Sesame Yemols oil seed Maize Vegetables Fruits Meat Fish Eggs Salt Oil Sugar Honey Fuel I. 2. 3. Items 4. 5. ம் 6. S I f 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO ΤΙ 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 S Quantity I Value 2 "Sool" Papať Page 19 pag mag "Kwangmok" "Tangmok" "Okyangmok" Items Cotton fabric Flax cloth Brocade Other cloth House repairs Roofing costs Furniture Utensils Religious expenses Social expenses Communication expenses Education expenses Medical expenses Marital expenses Festival expenses Tea and smoking Other expenses Total XXIII. MATTERS NOTED ON THE FARM Japanese Kan French 3.75 kg. = I English 8.267 lbs. Japanese 1 Kin = French 0.60 kg. = English 1.323 lbs. I Japanese 1 Koku = French 180.391 litres = English 4.96 bushels. I 298 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4I 42 43 44 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS USED IN THIS STUDY LENGTH AND Area Japanese 1 Ri = Metric 3.92727 km. = English 2.440 miles. Japanese 1 Cho = French 0.991 hectare = English 2.45 acres. I = Japanese 1 Tan (300 Tsubo) = French 0.099 hectare English 0.245 acres. Japanese 1 Sq. Li = French 15.423 sq. km. = English 5.955 sq. miles. CAPACITY AND Weight V Quantity I Value 2 P Arbitration Act Absorptive power of soil Acid Soil Acreage Accumulation of land Administrative division Adverse forces Afforestation Agricultural Associations Agricultural Societies Alfalfa Americans Ammonium • • Balances Bank of Chosen Barley Basalt Bean Cake Beans Bees Birth-rate Boats Break-up of Land Brokers ► • Asiatic monsoon nsoon Assimilation policy ► • • Buckwheat Business cycle Animal husbandry Animal labor Animal power Annual laborer Anthracite Apples Aquisition of land Arable land area .. Area of field and paddy fields Ashes • · • • • Calcium phosphate Caln ► • • • • · • • • • :: • : • • · 25 25, 26 59, 61, 63, 64 148 3 114ff 182 • · INDEX ་ Pages 177, 180 43 21I 71ff 226ff 221ff 221 192 7,92 151 .197ff, 150 104ff 211 269, 272 241 .58, 84, 87, 112, 113 23 214 62, 86, 113 80 • 129, 140 140 I12 5 49 45, 47 35, 38 118ff 261 65, 88 264 214 143 Capital Investment Cattle Cattle exported Cause of dispute Cheap labor • Chemical ingredient Chickens Chosen system City growth Claimed forest Class struggle Clay-slate Climate Coal Cocoon Cottier Cotton Croppers · • .. Daily laborer Dams Dangerous persons Death rate Deforestation Depression Devasted land • • Co-efficient of correlation Code of State Colonization Commerce Common Land Communication College Companies Consumption of rice Cooperative Societies Corn Cost of farm business Cost of living ·· • • • Dikes Dispute of tenants Ditches • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • : • • • • · Pages 33, 34 72ff 256 • 175 81 28 79 17 197 183 161, 173 25 4 192 81ff IIO 182 281ff 32 142 35 50 33, 34 275 74, 250ff 62, 113 65ff, 84, 91 167 270 278ff 167 221 207 173ff 46, 47 182 264 117 207 173ff 207 299 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Divorce Doctors Dogs Double Cropping Drainage cost Dwelling Houses Ducks Economic evils Education Efficiency of labor Engineers Conference Europeans Evaporation Ever-white Mountain ·· Farm expenses Farm settlers Farmers income Farmsteads Farm Household Farm houses Farm Labor Farm layout Farm loans Favoritism Feedstuffs Fertilizers Factories Family Farm Farm buildings Farm costs Farm Debts Farmer Classes Farmer Class land area .. Farm population Farm products Farm Size Fences Fields area Filled-in Land Fish Fish culture. Fish ground Fishing tools Flora Fire fields •• • • • • • • Firing squatter Fog Food consumption Food problem Forest • • A • • · • + Forest area Forest investigation Forest management Forest products Forestry •• · • • • • • • • • ↑ • • • • Pages 46 39 78 58ff, 93, 111ff 177 49 98, 99, 225ff 178 • • • • • • • • • 97, 100 97, 98, 158 • 219 206 79 • • 43 II I 31 47ff 97 206 219 233ff 154 153 271 284 267ff 207 220ff 97 237 109, 156 254 160ff 230 215ff 95, 211ff 207 152 121ff 79 202 200 29 29 107, 157 159 12 274 123 181ff 184 183 185 188 29 300 Fossils Fowls Foxtail millet ► • Free settlers . Freights Foreign trade Frequency of land use Funi Industrial Co. Fruits ·· Gingeli Ginseng Goats Gold Games Geographical environment Geological origin Grain inspection Grain Market Granite-gneiss Grapes Graphite Grave yard Green Manure crops Harbors Harvesting Havoc Hemp Hogs Honey Horses Humidity • • • Ke Killing frost • Isochronic Lines Isothermal zone Italian millet Juvenile labor Illiteracy Immigration Imperial diet Improved varieties Improvements Industrial Bank Industry Irrigation associations Irrigation costs Iron • ·· • · • • ·· •• .. • · • 1 A • • • • Labor cost Labor Custom Land Accumulation Land adjustment Land amelioration area U · • • • • • · • • · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • :: • • Pages .20, 22, 23 79 87 287 * • • • • • • • 199 34, 36 • IIoff 286ff 70ff 30 83 15, 24 85 68 76 190 258 259 16 71, 92 16, 191 200 71 35 96 115 65, 90 77 80 241, 124, 125 31ff 122ff 75 II, 80 5I 42 123 56 122, 207ff 219 191 14 6 63, 84 227 125 12 229ff 229 179 99 120 INDEX Land amelioration project .. • Land Classification Land Grades Land lots Land survey Land taxation Land Value Language Leased area · • Machines Maize Leaseholder of Forest • Legal value.. Legumes Leguminous crops Limestone series Limit lines of crops Livestock dealing Living conditions Loan agencies Low-rate interest fund • ► • Manufacture Manures Man-work-day Marine wealth Maritime province Markets • • Mileage Military camp Millet Millet consumption Mine Concession Oats Officials Ondol system Marketing Places Marketing regulation Marketing Agencies Marketing organization Meteorological Observation Method of farming Middlemen D ► • Minerals Mineral land Mineral products Monopoly Monthly Changes of Prices Monthly laborer • • Mortgage Credit Mulberry Trees Mules Mutual Aid Society • • • Naked barley Non-cropping Strike Number of disputes • · * • • • • • • · Pages 122ff 102, 104 103 98ff, 102 102ff 131 131ff 49 155 186 137, 197 113 62, 63 18 94 255 170 240 124 96, 209 65, 88 32 95, 211ff 220 28 II 33, 34, 252ff 257 253 261 33 9 95ff 261 199 202 89, 113 276 189 28 188ff 194 68 265 221 238 8off 75 248 59, 87, 112ff 176 174 88 39 188 Operator Oriental Development Co. Owned area.. Ownership of land Paddy fields area Palace land Panic Part owner Passengers Pasture land * Pea Peace maintenance order Pears Peasant Per capita expenditure Per capita income Pine insect Pine prohibition Prices · • Percentage distribution of crops Perennial herbs .. • Prices of farm products Prices index Principal Private land Private railway Productivity Prosperity Provincial rate Police intervention Pork Post Postal system ·· Population Population density Population increase * Potatoes Potential area Reclamation Registration ·· ► Poverty Poultry Power Engines Pyengan system Quaterniary System Rabbits Racial ownership of land Railways Railway Network Rainfall Ramie Random fluctuation Rate of interest Raw silk Rayon .. : · : · • • • • • • • Pages 223 281ff 155 142ff · 152 202 264 157ff . 174, 177ff 199 72 86 71, 92 97 270 268 84 69 181 182 231 262ff 262 238 142 199 137 264 138 174 39, 40 .43, 44, 45 45 77 38 202 91, 113 122 171ff 79 209 18 22 78 145ff 35, 198ff 201 8 65, 90 264 237ff 82 81 118 139 301 LAND UTILIZATION IN KOREA Registration fee Renge Rent • • Reserve forest Reservoirs Retail prices Returns of land Rice Rice crop Rice markets Rye Ryot Roads Road system Royal household Rural Community Rural credit Rural credit societies .. • · • • Salt Sandstone Seasonal laborer Seasonal movement of price Seeding Seeding zone Seedlings Seeds Sericulture Sesame Sex distribution Schools School Tax Sheep .. Silkworm eggs Silkworms Silver Single crop system Size of family Size of farm .. Soils • • · · · Sorghum Soya beans Snowfall Stable manures Stalks Standard of living State land Steamers Speculation Squatting • • • • • • · • • • • • • • Pages 138 112 162 183ff 125 263 167 55,85 96 256f 38 198 202 98 233ff 242ff 65 167 29 25 221 264 96 93 96 215ff 8 off 65 46 49ff 138 76 83 8off 190 93 41, 42 109 23 65 84, 88 13 211 218 274 202ff 35, 38 259 149, 151 Storage Straw Swine .. Subsidiary business Sunshine Taxation Tax exemption Tax-rate Teachers Telegraph Temperature Tenancy Tenant commissioners Tenants Tenant strike Term of lease Terms of credit Tertiary system Textile plants Threshing Timber asset Tobacco Township, rate Traffic • • Transaction Triflora Typhoon Vegetables Villages • • • • Unexploited Land Upland rice Urban land Urban population · • Wages Water power Water ways Weeding Wheat Wind • · · · • ·· Winter wheat Winter barley Woman labor Wool Working cattle Yield Yield per acre • • · • • • • • • • · • · • :: • · · • • • • · ·· · • Pages 259 218 • 77 80 80 230 30 207 96 .58, 84, 87, 112, 113 8 • 105 140ff 137 51 69ff, 84, 113 97 39 4, 80 148 180 159ff 177 163 239 21 68 96 185 68, 113 138 35 253 65 205 89 195 196 93 93 227 76 227 61 59, 64 302 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 00179 5163 Pending Preservation 1994 (NEH) ܘ ܘ : 2014; .. ? 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