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PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
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Photograph by Mr. Vivian Burnett
* THE Young ARtist''
An attractive portrait, showing artistic judgment. Though the
sunlight is shining through the window, there is no glare or fogging
from it.

PHOTOGRAPHY
for
YOUNG PEOPLE
By T U D O R J E N K S
AUTHOR OF “ELECTRICITY FoR T young PEOPLE”
NEW YORK
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
PUBLISHERS
tº-

Copyright, 1908, by
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
September, 1908
All rights reserved
Preface
THE first thing to understand about photography is
that we may mean by the word two very different
things. As the word is used by men who have
given the greater part of their lives to the study of
the subject, it means a deep science and a marvellous
art, to understand which completely is hardly possible
even to the deepest students, the wisest philosophers,
or the most painstaking workers in the laboratory.
To them the whole art is full of deep questions,
any one of which requires for its full understanding
years of study and experiment. Photography in this
sense belongs to men of science, who for our benefit
solve its puzzles and tell the world what they have
learned.
Fortunately for most of us, photography means also
something far easier, much pleasanter, and more useful.
There was a time when the great land of photography
was like an unexplored, pathless wilderness or forest,
through which only the hardy pioneer could make his
way a step at a time, gaining every advance at the
cost of a dozen painful blunders. But, owing to the
labours of these pioneers, at first the good paths were
found, and then were by other workers widened into
roads, and made so easy that even a child's feet may
travel in them safely, surely, and easily.
To study the science of photography is to learn how
these paths were first opened and then made into
W
2055 i 5
Vi PREFACE
broad roads. But to travel in the highways that have
been prepared for us later comers is in no way difficult,
and is full of pleasures.
It is believed that the reader of this book will wish
to do more than merely make his way along the easy
routes that have been prepared for him. It is hoped
that he will wish to know at least the outline of the
work that has been done to make photography a daily
pleasure instead of an absorbing and difficult study.
But at the same time we shall try never to forget that
for most of us the attraction of photography lies in the
making of good pictures, and that the history of
the art and the study of its processes are chiefly
valuable because they teach us to make good pictures
by knowing just what to do and just why each thing
is done.
In this book we shall try to tell even the beginner
how he may learn to use his camera, his chemicals, and
his material, to the best advantage. We shall not
forget that some like to work without bothering them-
selves about why results come; for such we hope to
give plain directions based upon the best authorities.
For those who wish not only to do good work, but to
be able to vary the work and to understand each step
they take, we shall try to give equally plain explana-
tions pointing out the reasons for what is done.
We believe, however, that to any user of a camera
who learns to enjoy his work, the wish to know more
and more about the art and the science that gives him
beautiful pictures or valuable records is sure sooner or
later to come. Once the wish to study out the art and
mystery of light, lens, camera, and print, is born, the
student may be safely left to himself. He will need
PREFACE Vii
no urging to give time enough, and possibly too much
time, to the fascinating work that has all the delights
of an art and all the depths of a science.
In choosing the three great helpers that have made
our times different from the past, a recent thoughtful
writer, George Iles, chose flame, electricity, and the
camera. Flame was the first great servant that
savage man won from nature; electricity, the second,
seems rather a powerful genie than a servant; but he,
too, has been reduced to bondage. Of the camera we
can hardly speak in the same sense as a “servant.”
It is, rather, a faithful friend and an intimate com-
panion who helps us to enjoy and to understand what
we see, to remember what we do not wish to forget.
At first, this new friend seemed but a pretty child
to amuse man's lighter hours, but as the years have
brought fuller growth, the child has become man and
has won the right to be thought of as a most powerful
helper in all man's work.
As printing makes the result of thinking immortal,
so the camera has made lasting the result of seeing;
as books tell us what men thought in the past, so will
the camera tell the future what men saw in the past.
All over the world the camera shutters are snapping;
at every instant thousands of cameras are recording
the forms of clouds, of waves, the beauties of land-
scape, the happenings in the great drama of nature.
They are noting for our children how their fathers and
mothers lived, what were their surroundings, what
they did. They are saving from forgetfulness types of
men and women, quaint happenings, occurrences both
commonplace and strange.
From the life of a king to the coming of a butterfly
viii _* PREFACE
from its cocoon, the camera records all; nothing is
too great or too small for its attention. None of us
are too grand or too obscure to be left out of its dark
box. By its aid we may see again the faces of those
who are gone, may recall places that are changed or
beyond our reach, may live again in our pleasures and
See again the sights that have delighted us. From the
camera come pictures moving us to laughter or to
tears; records that teach the wisest or explain what is
deep to the simplest. Perhaps as well as being his
daily friend and companion, it may become man's
most useful helper.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Y.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
YIV.
XV.
XVI.
YVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
Contents
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS © ©
WHAT THE CAMERA IS . º e o
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS .
CHOOSING A CAMERA e © e
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA . º º
LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES. e º
FIRST STEPS IN DEVELOPING . e º
MAKING A PRINT . e © º º
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH . º © Q
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY . º e
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS . º º e
FROM RULE OF THUMB TO KNOWLEDGE .
ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES .
THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS .
PRACTICAL HINTS ON EXPOSURE .
MODERN DEVELOPING © ©
FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING —
AFTER TREATMENT OF NEGATIVES .
PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES
LIGHT AND ITS ACTION . © o
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
FROM THE DAGUERREOTYPE TO THE DRY
PLATE . e & ſº tº e
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY
COLOUR WoRK AND OTHER APPLICA-
TIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY e
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE
APPENDIX e e tº e e e
INDEX & * e o e º
ix
~~~~3rº-ºr--ºf-i-º-º-ºrrºr--ºvº.
（~~~~--~~~~~~）*----~~~~--~~~--~~~~，




ILLUSTRATIONS
“The Young Artist’” e e G Q * Ç Frontispiece
Camera Accessories . ſº e • * * © ©
“The Man on the Box '' . O . . c ſº e
“Broadway in a Snow-Storm’” . º º º © e
Effective Photographs Taken With Small Cameras . ©
Instantaneous Photography e © e e © e
A Pinhole Photograph • • e * &
The Magnifying Power of a Telephoto Lens o te e
Camera Accessories & e e & e § tº
Photograph made with a Focal-plane Shutter, at Slow Speed
The Effect of Focal Length in Photography e O &
“Sunlight on Surf" . ſº © º © Q Ç ©
A “Firelight " Photograph & {} C G O ©
Monument to Daguerre . iº e e C O G
A Night Scene . c ©
An Unusual Scene in New York Harbour
A Duplicate Portrait O o ©
140
150
156
160
166
192
202
236
270
PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
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t
Photography for Young People
CHAPTER I
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS
Photography and its value in general – As a pleasure and as a useful
helper — What can be done with simple apparatus — What the
amateur should know — What part of the work he should do.
IN a number of that bright little magazine for ama-
teur photographers, the Photo-Miniature, an opin-
ion is quoted from John Richard Green, the English
historian, to the effect that photography was “the
greatest boon conferred on the poorer classes” by re-
cent inventions.
This opinion was called out by a talk he had with a
friend who was praising schools, museums, and other
things tending to make the poor man's lot happier.
But Green points out that by making it cheap to own
portraits of one's family, the happiness of the poor,
who by the need of making their living are often sep-
arated from one another, has been increased more than
any one can tell. As Green said, the little row of por-
traits over the fireplace still keeps alive in the home
the memory of “the boy who has gone to Canada, the
girl out at service,” the little one who died, the old
grandfather who still remains in his country home.
The writer who quotes this opinion says also that
these words carry the more weight since Green had
been for years a hard-working clergyman in a poor
l
2 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
district of London, and knew intimately the life of
the poor.
This is the side of photography of which we all
know something, and of late years the little home
pictures have become so common that they serve as
records of more than mere portraiture. At first they
Were, of course, stiff and dignified pictures of members
of one's family; but now there is no side of family life,
no daily happening, however trivial, no cause for tears
or laughter, that may not have its lasting record in
one's pictorial diary. While it has gained greatly in
Value as a profession or a business, and has widened
enormously as an art and science, it has likewise
become a most fascinating pursuit, amusement, and
pastime. -
According to the use we each make of it is the time
we can afford the camera. If it is to be no more than
a means of fun, we shall choose in all ways the easiest
methods, shall not trouble ourselves to learn more
than to press a button, and shall care little about the
expense or the waste coming from the numerous
failures we shall be sure to have, being satisfied by an
Occasional pleasing or amusing picture, the result of
some rare good luck. .”
But no young person who is wise and foreseeing
should be content with mere dabbling in the art.
There is too great a chance that any one of us may
find that the work of the camera will play a most
important part in his future. There is hardly a busi-
ness or profession in which photography does not have
an important place, even if photography were not often
a means of money-making in itself. -
As a means of education, too, picture-making with
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS 3
the camera may nowadays be compared not unfavour-
ably with drawing itself, and a great authority on
education, the French architect, Viollet-le-Duc, de-
clared drawing to be the true basis of all practical edu-
cation. He who uses the camera soon comes to look
with a new eye upon everything. If he is already a
draughtsman, he will find that the taking of photo-
graphs has increased his power of composition, or put-
ting together of pictures; his knowledge of light and
shade, his familiarity with outline, his knowledge of
form ; and particularly with the attitudes, gestures,
and motions, of living things.
Indeed, it may be doubted whether the artist in his
long study of a single subject acquires such a training
as comes to the photographer who can study in the
same length of time twenty subjects. For if the
camera is used with thought, as it must be by those
who become interested in its work, it induces the
photographer to study a hundred possibilities of pic-
ture-making for every photograph he takes. It will
teach him perspective, it will acquaint him with the
beauties of landscape, and, indeed, should make him
an artist, with the one exception that it does not yet
train directly the colour-sense except as it gives keen-
ness of eyesight and inclines the mind to notice the
beauties of natural appearances. But even colour pho-
tography is sure to be accomplished.
More and more every year are men and women find-
ing their work in different fields of science ; and there
is no scientific work which does not depend more or
less upon the use of the camera. To the student of
nature it has become indispensable, and has made him
able to do mechanically the picturing of the living
4 THOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
animal or plant in a way that was once most imper-
fectly done by laborious use of the pen and pencil,
even when these were wielded by genius. In botany,
geology, forestry, in surveying, in exploring, in medi-
cine, in astronomy, the camera is playing an increasing
part as years go on.
George Iles, in his “Flame, Electricity, and the
Camera,” has called the camera the “handmaiden of
literature,” and has, in the book mentioned, shown
Something of the thousand and one services ren-
dered by photography in every field of human
work.
In all these fields our boys and girls will find their
life-work, and that work will be the easier if they
have already acquired cleverness in the use of their
cameras and ability to understand its results. It is
not at all improbable that before many years a knowl-
edge of photography will become a branch of educa-
tion considered an essential to every boy and girl who
means to enter the battle of life well equipped to at-
tain success.
But even were all this not so, even if we could con-
sider the magic “dark box” as nothing more impor-
tant than a pleasant companion, the reader is assured
that the time spent in learning how to use it and to
understand what it can do is well spent merely as an
education in science and in learning how to see and to
observe understandingly. Just as the college student
studies many branches simply because they prepare
him to acquire other things more readily, so the ama-
teur photographer — using the word “amateur’ in its
right sense, as meaning one who practices photography
for pleasure — will learn from it how to understand
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS 5
better the world around him and to enjoy more what-
ever brings pleasure to the eye.
We believe, however, that no mere words can give
as clear an idea of what photography is and of what
it brings to him who practices it, as will come from
even a mere beginner's first use of the art itself.
With the use of the camera and the pleasure of pic-
ture-making will come the curiosity as to hows and
whys and the desire for skill in accomplishment that
will lead the amateur to read more widely and to
practice with more freedom the rules that are laid
down for his help.
For this reason we shall not ask you to begin with
the history of how photography came to be, nor with
long explanations pointing out just the laws according
to which experts are guided in giving us our rules of
working. We shall, instead, suppose that you either
have, or mean to have, a camera, and that you will, as
Soon as you have knowledge enough, begin at Once
the taking of pictures and the making of prints.
We shall, therefore, begin by telling you a little of
how photography is done, and then proceed by advis-
ing you how to choose a camera, or to make the best
use of those not too complicated for the beginner.
Fortunately, most of us cannot afford to confuse our-
selves by doing elementary work with the compli-
cated machines needed by the advanced photographer.
We begin with the simpler work, try to do that well,
and thus learn to walk before we run.
Fortunately also, there is very little that cannot be
done even with the simpler forms of apparatus. The
more complicated cameras and the more difficult proc-
esses are seldom needed. A recent photographic
6 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
annual gives us the marvel of a humming-bird pictured
in the air apparently with motionless wings. We see
in similar journals, or in the periodical press, examples
of other triumphs of skill — objects taken in rapid
motion, photographs taken on a large scale, flashlight
jungle pictures, views showing feats of mountain
climbing that must have been secured at the risk of
the photographer's neck — but we shall come to all
these soon enough.
A really good photographer is one who will secure
results that are beautiful, valuable, or interesting,
even if he has no better apparatus than a pasteboard
box with a pinhole lens, or a cheap camera that con-
sists of little more than this with the addition of a
tiny lens. So do not let the fact that you cannot own
an expensive camera and cannot afford hours of study
to acquire new processes, discourage you in seeking to
become entitled to the name of a skillful photog-
rapher. The very best work that brings about a
good photograph is done within the human skull, and
so it will ever continue to be.
The camera and its plates, the prepared papers and
the necessary chemicals are to-day made ready for our
use, and are of such excellence that no one can fairly
complain of his apparatus. If there is a failure to
secure good pictures the chances are that the trouble
is with yourself — either lack of care, lack of skill, or
lack of knowledge. You may for a small amount
to-day procure a better camera, better materials —
better everything — than the early photographers
could command without the exercise of their highest
skill and the most painstaking care.
In fact, the modern photographer who fails to make
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS 7
good pictures should be ashamed to bring to nothing
by his carelessness the elaborate and excellent work
of the manufacturers who furnish him with his
apparatus.
The reader of this book is asked to believe, at the
beginning, that in spite of all he may be told by
dealers interested in making him spend money, he can-
not take good photographs unless he understands the
reasons for what he does. By accident any one may
now and then get a good picture, especially if he has
a great part of the work done for him; but any one
who uses a camera will find it an expensive and
irritating instrument unless he learns how to use it,
and why he does things.
But one can learn easily, and then the camera will
be a delight, an educator, and a most valuable
companion all one's life.
The study of photography is full of interest and
pleasure. Even a little knowledge will not only
greatly increase your ability to take good pictures but
will also teach you to enjoy the work of others — to
know how to appreciate the thousands of pictures
reproduced in books, papers, and magazines, or made
by amateurs.
We need not know all the science of the subject,
but we may easily know the hows and whys of the
camera, the plate, the developing and fixing chemicals,
and the most usual printing methods.
All this depends first on knowing something about
light — for the photograph is the child of light, and
obeys the laws of its parent.
Next we must become acquainted with the machine
that is used for taking pictures, so that we know the
8 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
purpose of each of its parts and can understand how
it is to be made ready for picture-making under
different circumstances. And here, nowadays, many
will stop, at least for a while. They will be satisfied
to make the exposures, and will turn over all the rest
of the work to others.
We desire to say that there can hardly be a greater
mistake for the young photographer than to be con-
tent to learn only the use of the camera without
learning also to do every bit of the work that can be
done by the amateur. There are certain things which
it is better to buy ready-made. For example, the
preparing of plates and films is so delicate a piece of
work, and is so much better done by the great firms
who sell the best-known brands, that there can be no
good reason for trying to make one's own emulsion and
to prepare one's own plates or films, except as a matter
of study. But as to the developing and printing, it is
not too much to say that no one can be a good
photographer or can know what may be done with the
camera unless he learns to develop his own negatives
and to print from them by at least the usual proc-
€SS6S.
Perhaps not every reader knows that of late years
there has been a complete change in the whole art of
taking photographs. There was a time when the
amateur who meant to go into photography found
himself obliged to set apart a special room, to stock it
with a great array of chemicals, to provide all sorts
of apparatus, and to devote a large part of his time to
picture-making. Some writers on the subject regret
that these days have passed away, believing that
when amateurs were forced to do every step of the
SOME INTRODUCTORY NOTIONS 9
work they became interested and acquainted with all
the facts, and so were likely to make discoveries and
improvements.
But the subject to-day is far too big to be covered
by any one amateur, and in order to study a part of
the subject thoroughly, or to learn enough to make
good pictures, does not require either special dark
rooms, many chemicals, or a large part of your time.
It is necessary, however, even for one who has no
purpose beyond the making of pictures that will
please himself and his friends, to understand what
takes the picture, meaning by this the action of the
light and the use of the camera. He must also know
at least the commoner ways of developing and the
most usual methods of printing.
In fact, there is, even in this simple outline, plenty
of opportunity to study out the best ways and to
become skillful in them; for although the directions
given by those who sell cameras and materials are
made as simple as can be, and need only to be
followed in order to get excellent results, yet the
amateur will soon find that there are cases arising con-
stantly that require him to think for himself and to
make slight changes in what he is directed to do.
CHAPTER II
WHAT THE CAMERA. IS.
Derivation of “photography ’” — The nature of light — What light is
used in photography — The rays of the spectrum and their powers
— Which rays are used in photography — The purpose of the
camera — The simplest form of camera — Explanation of the pin-
hole camera — The bending of light rays — How a prism acts — A
lens like a number of prisms put together — The purpose of the
lens in the camera.
THE names that we use for things nearly always, if
we understand how they came to be given, show us
what those things were in their simple form. The
word photograph comes, as you probably know, from
two simple Greek words, 40s and Yodºety. The first
comes from a verb that means “show,” and thus signi-
fies “the thing that shows other things”; that is,
light. The second word comes from a verb that is of
great use in making compounds. It is often spoken
of as meaning “write,” but really, in Greek, the verb
had a wider meaning and was more in meaning like
our word “mark.” It could be used of any action
that left a trace, a mark, a cut, or a print. So the
compound word, “ photograph,” really means to mark
by light, or what has been marked by light.
In order, then, to understand exactly what pho-
tography is, we shall need, first, to know something
of the nature of light. Of course the great source
from which we get most of our light is the sun, and
in early days photographs were sometimes thought of
as “sun-pictures”; but it is a wrong way to think of
10
WHAT THE CAMERA. IS 11
the subject to look upon the sun as if it were the only
source of the light used in photography. Any kind of
light, whether coming from the sun, from the moon,
from the stars, from the action of chemicals on One
another, from electric action, or from even more un-
usual sources. •rch as the action of radium and other
light-giving substances or living creatures that are
phosphorescent, may be used in making photographs,
and has been so used by scientific men in studying
nature.
Neither is it right to think of photographs always
as pictures. To speak correctly we must include
under the name “photograph * any visible effect of
light upon substances.
It may be well to show that this is not merely a
fussy way of talking. For blunders will be made, if
we think of photographs as being caused only by the
direct or indirect light of the sun. In handling mod-
ern dry-plates any one who thought that they would
not be affected except by the sun or by daylight,
would be careless about exposing them too long to the
light of his ruby lantern, or might not understand that
a roll of film could be marked in branching lines when
unrolling it too rapidly had made it give out electric
sparks. -
These two instances are given to show that it is
best from the beginning to understand that a clear
idea of photography teaches us that it has to do with
any source of light. So, in trying to understand the
nature of light, we must get an idea of light in general,
at the same time remembering that to us on this earth
the most important light, of course, is that which
comes from the sun.
12 PHOTOGRAPEIY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
The reader must not get an idea, however, that the
sun, or any other source of light acts directly on the
plates within the camera, as it does on the paper with
which we print from the negative afterward. The
rays that enter the camera through its lens are those
received from the objects that we photograph — not
reflected from them unchanged, as from a mirror or
polished surface, but partly absorbed, and partly
modified in many ways, according to the colours and
the dark or light places in the objects. When we say
that we see dark and light in a scene, we mean that
we receive in our eyes light-waves in greater or less
amount; and when we say that we see different
colours, we mean that certain parts of the scene con-
duct to our eyes only red rays or yellow rays, absorb-
ing all the other kinds. Just as every separate shade
or colour affects our eyes differently from every other,
so it affects the plates, making a different impression
on different parts of it. You can understand this
better when you see the beautiful image the lens
throws on the ground glass ; and it may interest you
to know that the eyes are in fact little cameras, each
with a perfect lens and a sensitive surface back of it,
on which the images are thrown.
We expect in a later part of this book to give a
rather full explanation of what light is supposed to be,
and of how it acts to make changes in the plate that en-
able us to develop a negative. At present we shall
tell only the few things that must be known by every
practical worker to keep him from making mistakes
and to guide him in the use of his camera and its fit-
tings, as well as the after work of getting a finished
negative and from it a finished print.
WEHAT THE CAMERA. IS 13
These few facts have first to do with the kind of
light that makes photographs. It will be explained
later that in the ordinary light of day there are differ-
ent sorts of light rays, each having a different effect;
but, just now, it is enough for us to remember that the
light rays which make a photograph are not altogether
the same as the rays by which we see.
But perhaps it would be plainer to say that part
of the light rays are best for seeing, while others are
best for taking photographs. When light is broken up
by means of the prism into the different coloured rays
which go to make white light, we shall find, broadly
speaking, that there are three portions differing in
colour — the red, the yellow, and the blue. Of these,
those rays that are found toward the red end of the
spectrum have very little power on the ordinary photo-
graphic plate; those around the yellow part, while
slightly photographic, are at their best in helping us to
see. Toward and beyond the blue end of the spec-
trum we find the most active rays used for photography.
This will show at once that the eye cannot surely tell us
whether a subject for the camera is going to affect the
plate in the same degree that it affects the eye.
This is well known even to beginners with the
camera who have tried to photograph flowers, for ex-
ample, and have discovered that, so far as the photo-
graphic plate is concerned, it makes little difference
whether a flower be blue or white, or, on the other
hand, whether it be red or nearly black. The blue —
together with purple and violet–affects the plate
nearly as much as the white; whereas the weak
and the red and the yellow rays all fail to produce
much, if any, effect through the camera.
14 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
By this state of things it is brought about that we
must, in photography, always bear in mind that we
are trying to use, not the rays that we see, but the
rays that act most through the camera. In many
cases, of course, this will not make a very great differ-
ence, but now and then the knowledge of the different
rays will make all the difference between a good picture
and a bad one.
Of course the taking of a photograph means no
more than causing the proper light-rays to act upon a
surface made ready for them; and the camera, whether
it be a mere box with a tiny hole in the end or a most
elaborate instrument having a great number of attach-
ments, is, after all, nothing but a means for the shut-
ting out of all light except the particular part that we
wish to use, and for letting in those rays that are to
make the picture, in the right amount and for the
right length of time to act upon the plate.
This may seem to the reader at first as a primer-
like way of stating a well-known fact, but it will be
found, when we take up the question of using the dif-
ferent parts of the camera and using them rightly, that
we shall in this simple idea have a key to the right
use of the most complicated apparatus.
We know that the image within the camera is
formed by separating from the numberless rays which
are reflected from or sent out from any object, enough
of them to give us an image more or less distinct ac-
cording to what we want to have upon the plate, and
at the same time to shut out all the other rays that
would interfere with the correct image.
The simplest form of camera, then, is a mere light-
tight box that will keep out all rays of light except
WHAT THE CAMERA. IS - - 15
those let in at one tiny opening or gate. If this gate is
not small, the rays coming through it will be mixed
up and we shall have no clear image formed ; but, if
we make the gate small enough, we shall shut out all
except a few chosen rays, and these will give us an
image of whatever is opposite the little opening, for all
light rays travel in a straight line if not interfered
with. (Diagram I.)
_--~~
.*
_** ... → • *
--> * _----T
•T_-- - - -
* *
ST-- - -
Y- *>- -
* - --
S. *s
*~~
* ~
TS-
DIAGRAM I
If, in such a camera, we put a sensitive plate so as
to receive this image, we can take photographs, al-
though we have no lens, rightly so-called, no shutter,
no means of focusing and no plate-holders or other aids
to the mere dark box with a hole in it.
Let us keep this in mind as a foundation on which
to build a right idea of photography, for in this simple
box We have all that is really needed to take a picture.
But so soon as we ask to do more, we shall have to
improve this box in many ways. The little hole, in
order to make a clear image, will, as experiment shows,

16 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
need to be only about large enough to let a fine sew-
ing-needle pass through it. Just so soon as one tries
to make a larger opening to let in more light, he will
find that the image becomes confused and spoiled, be-
cause the rays of light go through in all directions and
the effect is simply to light up the whole plate, instead
of forming an image on it.
If we make a big opening it is just as if we should
punch a great number of little needle-holes close to-
gether, causing their images to overlap one another so
that we could not distinguish one from the other, and
so that the different coloured rays would be all mixed
up together, forming a white light, and merely light-
ing the plate instead of forming a set of pictures upon
it.
The whole subject of lenses, stops, and focusing,
depends upon understanding this state of things.
All the space around us is full of crossing and re-
crossing images. They interfere with one another
when received on a surface unless we can shut off all
but one, or can cause more than one to fall exactly
upon the same space inside the camera. By means of
the pinhole we make what is really one image, for al-
though a number of light rays may go through
together, yet the images they form are so nearly in
the same place that we see a picture almost clear.
But it is not entirely clear, and so the image formed
by the pinhole is always a little blurred.
Now let us see how a lens betters matters. We have
seen that the few rays coming through a very small
opening are kept separate, and that the image made
by them is not confused. If, now, we try to make the
hole larger, we get confused images, because it is the
WHAT THE CAMERA. IS 17
same as if a lot of small holes were put close together,
each forming an image at a different place. What we
wish to do is to make a big gateway so that we can
get as many rays as possible, and yet to bring all these
rays into the path that would be travelled by them if
they all had to come through the one small pinhole;
that is, we want to bend them from their straight line
of travel and send each ray where the other rays
coming from the same point of the object are coming.
To help make this important matter clear, let us
suppose that we have three boxes, each with a pinhole
in it, and each making an image. Now let us join these
three boxes and make a sort of a treble box with three
fronts and one back:
`-------" **
--~ *" Y-- e”
4. º ><.
**-><ſ - *s
.* º *~~~~ º
Cº- sº
DIAGRAM II
If we could take the three images formed by the
three pinholes and make all of them fall in ea actly the
same place, we should have an image three times as
bright and clear as any one of the boxes would make
alone.
But we can do just this thing if we put into two of
the pinholes little prisms that will bend the rays of
light just enough to bring all three together. It will
be necessary, to see how this is done, that we should


18 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
understand the effect of transparent things in bending
the rays of light from their paths, for it is easy to see
that if we should so bend the rays we could bring all
the images together. This bending is found to come
whenever the rays of light pass from a thicker to a
thinner substance, or from a thinner to a thicker
medium. Experiment proves this, and it is not neces-
sary for us just now to know more than that the path
of the rays is changed. To understand just how light-
rays are thus bent would require a long study into the
theory of light waves. In fact, no one fully under-
stands it.
Perhaps the easiest illustration of this bending of
the rays is observed when we thrust a stick into the
water. We know that the stick does not bend, and
yet any one who tries the experiment will see that it
looks bent where it enters the water. This is be-
cause the path of the rays of light is changed. In
going from air into glass and from glass into the air
again there are two bendings of a ray of light. If
this ray goes through glass having parallel faces, as in
the case of a plate glass window for example, the ray
is first bent from its path on entering the glass, and is
then bent back again just as much on going out, so
that the general direction of the ray is not changed.
(See Diagram III.) -
But if the two faces of the glass are not parallel,
but are inclined one to the other as in the case of a
prism, the direction is changed upon entering the
prism and again changed on coming out, but in a dif-
ferent degree, so that the ray takes now a new direc-
tion, which it does not do in going through the pane
of a plate glass window. We can alter the direction
WHAT THE CAMERA. IS 19
of the ray less or more as we like, by changing the
way in which the two faces of the prism are inclined
toward one another.
DIAGRAM III
Here, then, we have a means of bringing more than
one image sent out by the same object to the same
point. If we arrange a set of prisms rightly, we can
direct a number of rays to the same point.
Thus in Diagram IV we see that by two prisms
we can make two rays from a single point on one side
DIAGRAM IV
of the lens meet at a single point on the other side,
while plain glass with parallel faces in the middle
would let a straight ray through in the middle. By


20 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
making a circular ring of prisms (Diagram V) a whole
ring of rays could all be brought to one point.
Now we have only to suppose our ring of prisms to
be melted together on the edges and the centre to be
DIAGRAM W.
filled up, and we shall have a lens such as is used in
bringing the rays to a point. (Diagram VI.)
You will notice that in these three diagrams I., II.
and IV., we have used the same lettering — A for the
DIAGRAM WI
top of the object, B for the centre, C for the foot; a for
the top of the image, b for the centre and c for the foot;
and P stands for the “pinhole.” The line A Pa in


WHAT THE CAMERA. IS 21
each figure shows the course of a light ray proceeding
from A ; and BPb the course of one proceeding from
B and so on. If you look at Diagram I, we think you
will understand why the image thrown on the plate
is always upside down, for no rays from A can reach
C. In Diagram II we are supposing that our three
pinholes will bend the rays just as we want them to
go; so there are three rays from A, meeting at a, and
three from C meeting at C ; and therefore three im-
ages of AC, one on top of another. In Diagram IV,
we have merely taken away the boxes, leaving only
the prisms, so that you may see how they bend the
rays. P cannot really mean “pinhole" in this figure,
therefore, but we use it because, like a pinhole, the
prism receives rays from A, B, and C, and distributes
them again on the other side, in reverse order. A
mere prism of course, cannot make an image, but can
Only bend rays; but a lens, which is like a hundred
kinds of prisms arranged rightly and then joined as if
melted together, gathers all of the rays from all of the
points of the object (within the angle of vision), and
bends each ray just where it is needed for making the
image. Thus we see how different the lens is from a
pinhole, which (theoretically at least) lets in only one
ray from each point of the object. A lens is like an
infinite number of pinholes throwing their images one
on top of another.
It must be remembered that we can, if we like, by
changing the shape of the glass through which rays
are sent, make the rays bend in any direction. If, in-
stead of putting our prisms thin edge outward, we put
them all thin edge inward and suppose them again to
be united into a lens, we would have a lens that would
22 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
make the rays separate or diverge, instead of uniting.
(Diagram VII.) This sort of lens also is useful in
photography. Later on we shall explain the different
classes of lenses, but it is enough now to understand
that the simplest use of a lens is to bring a number of
images within the camera to the same point and thus
to get a brighter image because it is one made up of a
great number of light rays.
DIAGRAM WII
Having followed this reasoning, it is evident at once
why a photographer who could have a lens would
never be satisfied to use the pinhole, unless for certain
peculiar effects. Since the pinhole uses only a very
small amount of light, it takes a very long time for its
image to act upon the plate within the camera—so
long that even under the best circumstances a pinhole
might take three or four minutes to affect a plate as
much as a quick lens would do in the five-hundredth
part of a second, or less.
We therefore now understand why a camera must
be a light-tight box except where light comes through

WHAT THE CAMERA. IS 23
to make the picture, and we also see what use there is
in the lens. These matters we shall look into more
closely afterward, trying now only to get the general
ideas necessary to practical work.
CHAPTER III
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS
What receives the image — The silver compound — The sensitive
plate — What we must do to the plate — Avoiding light, pressure,
moisture, heat — Putting the plate into the right position to re-
ceive the image — Making sure the rays have a clear path to the
plate — Why motion spoils a picture — Exposure depends on colour
and strength of light — Care of the exposed plate — Its develop-
ment — Water the true developer — The action of the chemicals —
Fixing the plate — What a negative is — Using the negative to
make a photograph — The few main principles.
THE next matter is the question of receiving the
image after it is brought to the right place in the
camera. As before, we begin with the simplest way
of thinking of the subject.
It has been found that when light is allowed to
shine upon certain compounds of silver it has the prop-
erty of changing them chemically — that is, it changes
their very nature. Two or three of these compounds
have been found especially sensitive, and the plate or
film that goes into the camera consists essentially of
two things: first, the silver compound ; second, what
holds it in place. The way in which the compound is
prepared results in making a sort of a milky liquid
containing the silver preparation mixed thoroughly
with a gummy substance. This is prepared and spread
upon a support, which may be either glass, celluloid,
paper, or anything else that will hold it in place and
will not interfere with its chemical properties. Upon
24
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS 25
this it dries (all the latter part of its preparation being
carried on in a place free from the chemical rays of
light) and with its supporting plates or films is then
packed so as to keep it from any exposure to this light
except such as is given to it in the camera itself.
It is not important for us yet to consider just what
sort of a support is used for the sensitive coating, as
we are going to talk about things that are necessary
no matter what sort of support is used ; and we shall
take up the matter by thinking of the three steps in
the making of a picture on a sensitive surface. We
will call this surface a “plate,” meaning by that word
to include not only glass plates, but films, whether in
rolls or cut into separate pieces, and also any other
methods of preparing the coating to be exposed in the
Cà IIle I’8.
The plate, then, comes to us packed away from the
possibility of being touched by light, and with it we
shall have to do three separate things. These three
steps require, first, that the plate be kept from all
things that will make an impression upon it until we
are ready to expose it in the camera; second, that the
plate be acted upon only by the rays desired to make
the picture; and, thirdly, that the plate be changed
after exposure from a sensitive plate into an insensi-
tive negative that light will not affect.
Before exposing, one most important thing is that
there should be no light rays allowed to strike it ex-
cept rays that will not produce an impression. So
much you all know ; but there are other things beside
light that will injure the plate as much. For example,
it has been found that pressure upon the plate will hurt
its surface and will often cause the plate to act at the
26 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
place upon which pressure has been exerted as if light
had touched it there.
Then any moisture will injure it, even so little as
may come from the touch of the fingers. Thirdly, a
plate may be injured by high temperature. Con-
sequently, if you desire to get good pictures, you must
see that the plates remain in the dark, or in harmless
light, that the surface is untouched, kept dry, and not
heated. If these principles are borne in mind you will
be able to get the plate into place within the camera
and still keep it as sensitive as at first. -
The next step in order is the placing of the plate so
as to receive the image that is admitted into the
camera. As to this, the main principles are few, but
very important. You will remember that in talking
about the forming of an image we have shown that
the object of the lens is to bring the rays of images
all to one plane (which in all ordinary cameras means
all to the same flat surface), and that the surface is
considered to be one truly parallel to the lens; that is,
to a straight line joining its edges.
Consequently the plate must be absolutely upright,
and its right and left sides must be at the same distance
from the front of the camera. If either the plate or
the lens does not stand true, you will not get a clear
image; if parts of the image are distinct, other parts
are sure to be indistinct, because they will fall upon
a portion of the plate at a different distance from the
lens. Usually a camera is carefully made so as to
bring about the right position of the plate, but if the
camera gets out of order so that the plate no longer
stands true with the lens, you cannot make good clear
images until the fault be remedied,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS 27
The plate being correctly placed, we next have to
admit the rays that form the image and allow them to
strike the plate; but these rays must not be interfered
with. If, for example, the plate is dusty, the rays
will strike the particles of dust, and will not reach the
plate beneath them. If there is dust floating in the
camera, these little particles will come between rays
and plate. If the lens is not clean, the rays will not
get through without some interference. It will be
found that all these necessities are remembered easiest
by thinking of the one principle that there must be
nothing to interfere with the striking of the rays upon
the sensitive surface.
It follows also from our purpose to have a clear
image formed, that the plate, the lens, and the thing
of which we are taking pictures, must all be motionless
for as long as we need to let the rays act in making
the picture, since motion will cause the forming of
more than one image, and they will blur one another.
To show that this is not a useless thing to remem-
ber, it may be said that whenever you find that your
developed plate contains a multiple of images — that
is, for example, when you find two or three outlines
for everything in your picture — you may know that
the fault has been that the plate, camera, or object has
moved. If this defect is not general, it is a proof that
a part of what you are photographing has moved,
While the camera and plate have been steady.
The question of how long we shall allow the image
to rest upon the plate brings up the whole question of
exposure, which must be treated at a later time.
Here we are really talking only of the most general
rules, and we need say only that two things govern
28 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the length of time for the same plates and camera.
These are the strength of the light, and the kind of
light it is.
To give a brief illustration: It will not do to rely
upon what your eye tells you alone. For example,
the light given by a brilliant red or yellow sunset is
Very strong, so far as the eye can judge; but it is not
a light that is strong to affect the plate; and the same
thing to a less degree is true of such light as comes under
the trees through the bright green leaves of spring-
time. The eye finds such rays strong for seeing, but
the plate finds them weak for taking pictures. Con-
sequently it must be the brain and knowledge that de-
cides how long the image is to rest on the plate, not
the eye-judgment of clearness and light-strength.
It follows from this that although it is a help to
See what image is formed upon the ground-glass of a
camera, or in the finder of a camera, it is no more
than a help, as we shall explain more fully when
treating of exposure.
So soon as the exposure in the camera is finished,
we must take the same care of the plate as before ex-
posure is made, keeping it entirely from the things
mentioned above as injuring its sensitive surface until
we have changed it into a negative. And this change
of a plate with a sensitive surface into a negative is the
next process to be understood.
To begin with, we must say that exactly what the
light does to the plate nobody knows. We only know
that it makes it ready for certain chemicals to act, and
that on every part of the plate those chemicals will
act more or less just in the same degree that the light
has acted more or less. Where the light is strong the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS 29
chemicals act strongly ; where it is weak, weakly.
Where the light has not touched at all the chemical
has almost no action, unless after a very long time.
Now, the general nature of the chemicals used to
bring out the image on the plate is different from what
most people suppose. One writer, in speaking of this
subject in a photographic magazine, said, very truly,
that the really active chemical was water; for the
chemicals known as “developers ” act simply to Sep-
arate water into the two gases of which it is composed.
Even the simplest knowledge of chemistry teaches
us that water is formed by the combining of two
volumes of hydrogen with one of oxygen. When
separated, these are gases ; when so united, they are a
liquid. The developers are liquids that are eager to
take up oxygen from water ; but this taking up of
oxygen sets free the hydrogen, and hydrogen is the
chemical that acts upon the sensitive substance of the
plate, changing the compound of silver from one that
is white to one that is dark wherever the light has
made the compound of silver ready for the change;
and the hydrogen acts just as strongly as the light has
acted previously on the compound at different parts of
the image.
Thus, if a plate be held out in the open sunshine,
and then put into the developer it will turn dark all
over; for all the compound is ready to be changed by
the hydrogen into dark silver. An unexposed plate
put into the developer will remain unchanged in colour
for some time, but after a long enough period there
will be a slow action darkening the silver all over.
This action, however, is so slight and so slow that
ordinarily it need not be thought of.
30 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
We have now a plate on the surface of which there
remain after development two kinds of silver com-
pounds, one dark and insensitive, the other light and
still very sensitive to light. The next step is to take
from the plate all of the compound that is not dark-
ened.
For this purpose the plate is put into another chemi-
cal, which has the property of dissolving the sensitive
part of the compounds of silver, while unable to dis-
solve the other. When this chemical has acted, we
have changed our sensitive plate into a non-sensitive
negative. But this negative is still wet, still contains
traces of the chemicals used, and therefore needs to be
well cleaned and thoroughly dried. It is cleaned by
washing, since water does not dissolve the darkened
silver compound but does wash out the chemicals.
Then by drying we get rid of the water and have left
a negative ready for printing.
We must now for a moment consider what a nega-
tive is. In order to understand this clearly, let us
suppose that we are to make a negative by photo-
graphing the ace of clubs. When this is put up be-
fore the camera and its image is carried by light rays
through the lens and upon the sensitive plate, we shall
have an image made up of white rays coming from all
the surface of the card except the spot in the middle.
From this there will be no light reflected, so the sensi-
tive plate will all be affected by light except where
rests the image of the spot in the centre of the card.
Now we develop that plate. The developer will
turn dark all the silver compound around the centre,
but will not turn dark the compound where the spot
rested. We then put the plate into a chemical that
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS 31
removes the sensitive silver. When we take out the
plate we shall find that the darkened silver remains
on all the parts of the plate except the central spot
where the undarkened silver has been dissolved out;
and we shall then have a negative consisting of a plate
darkened every where except in the centre — just the
opposite of what we photographed, which was light
everywhere except in the centre. Now negative
means opposite; hence we see the reason for the
Ila, Iſle.
dº &
Object Negative Print
DIAGRAM VIII
But no one in photographing a lady in a black dress
would consider his work finished when he had pro-
duced a negative showing a black-faced creature in a
white dress; so the next step is to make from the
negative a photograph or a “light-drawn picture.”
For this purpose we have paper so prepared with a
silver compound that is sensitive to light and so will
turn dark where the light strikes it. Consequently,
if we put a bit of this paper below our negative of
the ace of clubs, after it has been left in the light for
a while we shall find that the darkened silver on the
negative has kept the light from darkening the paper
below it, while the place where the silver compound

32 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
has been removed, in the centre of the negative, lets
the light rays through and blackens the paper. So by
printing we reverse the negative, and get back to the
correct image that was in the camera.
The steps have been from the real object to an
image like it ; then to a negative where light and
shade are reversed; and then back again to a print
like the image of the real object.
Through all these processes there runs one very
simple principle, namely, that we wish the light rays
to act, to act in the right amount and direction, and
without any interference. Consequently there is in
the whole practice of photography nothing more im-
portant than neatness and cleanliness. All the prin-
ciples that have been explained in this chapter apply
to the use of any kind of plates, any camera and
lens, and to all the different methods of developing
and printing.
No matter how complicated directions for carrying
out every process may seem to be, they will be readily
understood if the principles here set forth, almost in
primer language, are borne in mind. In truth, you
will find that the thick books on photography are
really no more than directions reasoned out from these
few main principles, and put down as reminders to
those who might forget them. When we shall come
to give you practical advice about what sort of things
are best for you to use in photography, they will be
the things that will help you most to carry out these
simple directions.
It is a great mistake to think that the best camera
is the one which looks most complicated, or that the
best developers are those with the longest names or
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS 33
the most complicated formulae. Neither should you
make up your mind that because wise men have
given years to the study of photography, the making
of inventions, and the bringing out of new chemicals,
that the subject is one which these simple principles
will not enable you to understand.
For example, years of study have gone to the mak-
ing of lenses that will produce the best pictures under
all sorts of conditions, but the whole result has simply
been to make us able to throw upon the plate a clear
image and one containing the right rays to act chemic.
ally upon it. Even if eight pieces of glass, each
made of different materials, and all ground to different
shapes, are put together to form the lens, and so
mounted as to be capable of many changes, the whole
object is still the same — to bring the picture-making
rays truly upon the sensitive surface — and by going
carefully over the reasons for their making we shall
readily be able to understand why one lens is better
than another for this purpose. -
Do not, therefore, lose sight of these first simple
principles, but form the habit of reasoning about all
things that seem complicated until you see for your-
self how they come under these simple laws.
We have given this general outline so that we may
now take up matters more in detail and show you how
and why the different things used in photography act
to bring about the one simple result—a good negative
and good prints from it.
CHAPTER IV
CHOOSING A CAMERA
What the beginner needs—The question of expense — Advantages of
Small camera – The 3}x4} size — Large photographs most im-
pressive –The use of the ground-glass — Plates and films —
Rolls, cut-films, and film-packs — The plate camera recommended
for the learner-Using the ground-glass — Box cameras and fold-
ing cameras — Meaning of “fixed focus ” — As to the possible
exposure — Advantages of a shutter for various short exposures —
The “finder,” in various forms — Other camera adjuncts —
Focus, and what it is — Experiments that explain focusing.
WHEN one comes to consider what sort of a camera
to choose, it should be remembered that the beginner
is entering a road which very soon will divide into a
great many branches, and these will again divide un-
til the map of Photography Land will be seen to in-
clude a great many different destinations. The pur-
pose of considering this is that we may make the
right choice in the beginning and may select a camera
that will teach us most about the art we are trying to
practice.
For this reason, it would not be good to buy the
cheapest camera one could find, although there is no
doubt that even for as low a price as one dollar a
camera can be bought that will do excellent work.
What should be selected by the beginner who wishes
to learn is a camera that can be so changed as to do
different kinds of work, so that he can make experi-
ments and find out just what the camera does under
different conditions.
In the older books of photography there was a habit
34
CHOOSING A CAMERA 35
of advising beginners to choose first what was called
a “view camera,” a rather large instrument meant to
be used always on a tripod and without many of the
devices needed in making quick exposures. The idea
was that the beginner would become careless if he
found his work made easy for him and was not forced
to go about picture-making very slowly and carefully.
But later authorities say, truly, that there is no sense
in starting a beginner with an instrument different
from what will be used later.
The first consideration upon which the buying of a
camera depends is how much you can afford to give for
one, and in deciding this point it is not enough to look
only at the price of the camera itself. It depends a
great deal, also, on your own disposition. If one
chooses to be economical in the use of plates and
printing paper, a great deal need not be spent upon
them; but it is very easy to waste them, and the be-
ginner especially is likely, while the novelty of the
pursuit tempts him, to take pictures recklessly and use
up a great deal of material.
For this reason, if saving is or ought to be an object
to you, it will be best to commence with a moderately
small camera, since the difference in expense between
using a big one and a little one is mainly affected by
the size of the plate you use. Also, with a small
camera one can afford to make a great many experi-
ments in order to learn the art, and may in making
them feel that not too much has been spent. After
you have learned to use material safely, it will be time
enough to afford the larger camera, since you will
have cut down the first expense of your materials very
greatly.
36 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
It is also wise in the beginning to choose one of the
regular sizes of plates, so that you may be sure of
finding supplies wherever you may be. For this rea-
son probably the best size with which to begin is the
so-called “quarter-plate" camera, which makes pic-
tures 3}x4+ inches in size. This has the advantage of
being a size used both in England and in America, and
one that is always kept in stock by dealers not only
in plates and films, but in all sorts of printing papers.
A plate of this size is not too small for all sorts of uses
and not large enough to be wasteful of material; for
remember that the larger sizes require not only a
larger camera, but larger plates, more chemicals,
larger trays used in the dark room, larger printing-
frames, larger papers, and so on.
You save on all these items by using the smaller
plate ; at the same time it is only fair to say that a
photograph is impressive and striking directly in pro-
portion to its size, especially if you take landscapes or
interior views. But even here you may, whenever you
like, make from the small negative larger prints at
not very great cost, and yet this need not be done
except in the case of a particularly good negative.
The next question is what kind of camera in this
size is best for the beginner. And as to this, cer-
tainly he should have a camera in which he is able to
see the image upon a ground-glass, otherwise he will
do most of his work in the dark and by guess. And
here, right at the beginning, we meet with the great
question whether it is better to use plates or films;
and this is a matter upon which you will be puzzled
by receiving the most contrary advice — partly for
the reason that there are a great many firms in the
CHOOSING A CAMERA 37
photographic world deeply interested in your choice.
There are a number who make plates, and a smaller
number, perhaps, but an exceedingly powerful body
of manufacturers, interested in making films and
therefore in selling cameras to make the use of films
easy.
To go briefly into the matter, it should be said
that there are advantages on each side. The users of
plates find them cheaper; certainly quite as good, if
not better, in results; easy to handle in developing
and printing. But when you begin to collect nega-
tives on glass you will find yourself in possession of
bulky, breakable, and heavy glass plates, that, if kept,
will become more and more of a nuisance. You need
not keep them ; but, on the other hand, you will hate
to destroy them. ..
In favour of the films is their lightness, their dura-
bility, and the fact that you may keep hundreds of
them without trouble. If, however, you do your
own work in developing and printing, you will find
that the film is more troublesome to handle, always
requires the use of glass in the printing frame, is a
bother, if it be thin, from its tendency to curl up
and to become stiff and unmanageable; for, in spite
of what is advertised, you need not expect to find
films that do not curl somewhat. All curl, more or
less, and to be kept flat must be kept under pres-
sure. There are, however, a number of things that
cannot be done with plates in developing and so on,
that can be done with films.
Of course there is no variety in the choice of plates
of glass, but when you consider the question of films
there are three forms in which they may be bought,
38 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
and certain varieties of these. You may buy films in
the well known “rolls,” a long, coated strip that
unrolls from one spool and is rolled up on another,
while in the camera. It can be developed either in
the strip or when cut up into its separate exposures.
Then there are films cut to the plate-sizes and used
just as plates are. Thirdly, there is the “film-pack,”
a recent invention, where the films are packed into a
sort of envelope in cut pieces so that they can be
drawn from the front to back and exposed one by one.
The cut-films first mentioned are exposed just exactly
like plates. The roll-film may be cut apart and treated
like plates, or may be developed in a strip, either by
hand or in boxes that do away with the use of a dark
room. A film-pack allows separate exposures and
permits you to take out and develop separately ex-
posures before you have finished the use of the whole
pack; but works better if not opened till all are
exposed.
The only reason for considering this question at
present is its bearing upon the choice of your camera ;
and, as already stated, there are good reasons for
choosing a camera in which you can use the ground-
glass. It is possible to use films, and yet to focus on
the ground-glass, but in order to do that, you will have
to buy a special camera if you use the roll-film ; or if
you use the film-pack it will have to be with a special
device called the “film-pack adapter.” This device
has a cover allowing you to remove the pack from your
camera while you use the ground-glass. With plates
or cut-films you use plate-holders, which also have a
cover allowing them to be taken from the camera to
permit the use of the ground-glass. There are,
CHOOSING A CAMERA 39
besides, a number of “magazine cameras "using plates
or cut-films, but not all of these permit use of the
ground-glass.
The conclusion is that a camera using ordinary
plates in plate-holders, and using also a film-pack
adapter, is probably the best for the beginner. With
such a camera you can use the ground-glass for every
exposure, if you like, may use either plates or films,
and can thus have all the advantages of both. The
only thing that you cannot do with such a camera is
to use the roll-film — unless you buy for it a special
“roll-holder,” which is quite expensive, and which is
very little used at present.
It must not be forgotten that this advice is addressed
to the beginner, who is not yet certain just what sort
of photographic work he means to do, and therefore
ought to prepare himself for all kinds. The photog-
rapher who has special work in view may find another
kind of camera better adapted to it. For example,
there are many good reasons why he might use a roll-
film camera and develop all his exposures by means of
the boxes and tanks used in the daylight. We do not
mean to condemn this form in any way, but only to
advise the beginner to choose as his first camera one
that will teach him frequently to use the ground-glass
before exposing.
This “ground-glass” is a piece of glass fitted to the
back of the camera so as to occupy when in use exactly
the same place that the plate will occupy while being
exposed. Consequently when the lens is open, the
same image that is to be thrown on the plate is thrown
upon the ground-glass and may be examined in order
to see what you are going to take. The rough, or
40 |PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
ground side of the glass is toward the lens in the place
where the sensitive film is to be. Like everything
else about the camera, it should be kept scrupulously
clean, since otherwise you cannot judge correctly all
parts of the image received on it.
The next question in regard to the camera is whether
you shall choose what is known as a “box camera"
or a “folding camera.” These two types are well
known, and differ mainly in the fact that one has its
Working parts concealed by the outward box, while
the other opens to admit of the lens and its attach-
ments being drawn out when focusing. Here again
both forms have advantages, but perhaps the deciding
points will be found in the question of your own
character and the use you mean to make of the
camera. If you are of a bashful temperament, you
will often find that the folding camera will embarrass
you, since before making an exposure it has to be
opened and made ready for the exposure, which very
much changes its appearance and shows all lookers-on
that you are about to take a picture ; whereas the box
camera looks the same in each case and attracts much
less attention. Besides the box camera is all ready,
or may be carried all ready for “snap-shots.”
The name, “fixed focus,” is sometimes given to
cameras, but it really means nothing more than that
the lens is fastened in one place, so that the camera
will photograph everything beyond a certain distance.
There is no advantage in this over a camera with
changeable focus, except that you have in using it no
need to think about distance. The fixed-focus camera
cannot do a great many things that are done by the
others, while any camera may be made into a fixed-
CEIOOSING A CAMERA 41
focus camera by simply fastening the lens at a certain
place. Besides, the nodern folding cameras often have
a device by which the lens can be instantly brought to
the most generally useful focus — what would be its
fixed focus.
We have advised the use of the ground-glass because
it enables one to know what image is coming through
the lens; and in the same way we advise that a camera
be selected that permits of giving a long or short time
of exposure, and a time that you can measure.
Usually for the amateur there is supplied in the
cheaper cameras only two kinds of exposures, so-called
“instantaneous ” and “time.” The instantaneous is
made by pressing a button, causing the lens to open
for a very short time, usually about one-twenty-fifth
or one-fiftieth of a second. Time exposure may be, of
course, made of any length beyond the time necessary
to open and to close the shutter, since it will stay open
until you close it.
It is true that with these two kinds of exposure you
can give any time you like beyond about one-half a
second (except by using “stops,” as will appear later),
but short of that, you can usually give only an ex-
posure of one fixed length depending upon the quick-
ness of action of the instantaneous shutter. But this
is not enough. Most amateurs will wish to use the
quick plates, and with these it is most important to be
able to give various fractions of a second in exposing.
Until we discuss this question fully, we can only say
that on our general principle of knowing exactly what
you are doing, you should be able to give more than
one kind of very short exposure, and therefore we ad-
vise strongly that you afford for your camera a price
42 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
large enough to supply a shutter arranged for more
than one short exposure.
Until we can look more closely into the question of
selecting the lens, it will be enough to say that in
buying a camera with such a shutter as we have just
spoken of, you will obtain a lens that will work rightly
in connection with the shutter — which is all you
need think of until you begin to do really expert work.
It is worth knowing that the very expensive lenses
are of little extra value to the amateur ; that sufficient
clearness and practical accuracy can be obtained with
moderate-priced lenses; and that in many kinds of
pictures, such as portraits and landscapes, artistic
effect may even be spoiled by a too precise clearness
that shows every wrinkle, or every stick and stone.
The high-priced lenses are generally “quicker,” re-
quiring less exposure, so that with some of them you
can take good snap-shots on dark days; but probably
you will not need this rapidity very often.
One adjunct of which we have merely spoken by
name is the “finder.” This is a little camera, or box,
which has but one purpose — to tell you, roughly,
what is included in the image upon the ground-glass
or upon the plate. The usual sort has in it a small
lens, a piece of looking-glass, and a bit of ground-glass.
The lens is so aimed as to give as near as possible the
same image on a small scale that is given on a large
scale by the lens of the camera. The looking-glass
causes this image to appear right-side up, whereas the
image on the ground-glass inside the camera is always
upside down. But the finder is a tiny fixed-focus
camera, and cannot tell you anything except the di-
rection in which you have pointed your camera and
CHOOSING A CAMERA 43
give you an idea of what you are taking. The image
shown by the finder is always clear within certain
limits of distance, and therefore does not tell you
whether you have got your image on the ground-glass
inside the camera (that is, on the plate), in the right
focus. It is also reversed, because of the mirror used
in it.
Besides this form of finder, there are two others;
one uses a lens in the top instead of the ground-glass,
giving a slightly clearer and brighter image. The
other is not a camera at all, being simply a sort of
frame, either with or without glass, that shows you
how much of the scene you are taking is in the image
cast by your lens. The eye has to be at a fixed dis-
tance from this last sort, and it acts on the same prin-
ciple as the sights of a gun.
There are other adjuncts of the camera, but they
are all devoted to a few purposes, which may be briefly
told as follows: Means for changing the distance be-
tween lens and plate. Means for moving the lens up
and down or right and left, so as to change the image
thrown upon the plate. Means for turning the plate
around so as to bring the image in a different position
on the plate. Means for holding camera steady, and
knowing when it is level.

44 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
If we add to these the devices for making a longer
or a shorter exposure, and for using more or less of
the lens — that is, the shutter mechanism and the dia-
phragm mechanism — we shall have covered the things
used in making exposures.
As to altering the distance between lens and plate,
this covers the whole subject of focus. The word
focus means “fireplace,” and came to be used in con-
nection with the lens when the lens was used as a
burning-glass. The plate is in focus when it is at the
place where the rays coming through the lens from
any given point outside the camera come to a point
again inside of it. This place, in Diagram IV, is in-
dicated by the line drawn through a, b and c. In the
case of the burning-glass, the object whose image is
cast by the glass is the sun. Before we discuss the
theory of focusing, you will see the advantage of hav-
ing a camera permitting the use of the ground-glass
if you will make certain experiments in finding out
the effect of changing the distance between your lens
and the ground-glass.
Perhaps the easiest way to do this is to light a lamp
in a darkened room, and open your lens in order that
the lamp may cast its image on the ground-glass.
Then, as you slowly go nearer or move away, you
will find that this image becomes less blurred, and
finally becomes entirely clear. Now, leaving the
camera at that point, you may move the lamp itself,
and on examining the image again you will find that
it is again blurred ; and in order to get a clear image
you will have to move the camera again. If you have
moved the lamp nearer to the camera, in order to restore
the clearness of the image you will have to move the
CHOOSING A CAMERA 45
camera further away. If you have increased the dis-
tance between the camera and the lamp, you will have
to bring the camera nearer to the lamp again. You
will also notice that the size of the image changes ac-
cording to the distance of the lamp from the lens.
All these experiments should be made without
changing the distance between the lens and the ground-
glass. Next, having put the camera at such a distance
as to give a clear image, move the lens further from
the ground-glass, and you will find the image has
blurred. In order to make the image clear again by
moving the lamp, you must bring the lamp nearer.
If you have brought your lens nearer to the ground-
glass, you will have to put the lamp further off to get
the clear image.
DIAGRAM X
These experiments are well worth making, and they
will teach you the following rules: First, speaking
generally, the greater the distance between lens and
object, the nearer must the lens be to the ground-glass
to give a clear image ; in Diagram X, above, you will
see this shown : when the object is at M, the ground-
glass must be at M ; when the object is at O, the
ground-glass must be moved up to O. Second, there
is a distance from the lens at which and beyond which

46 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
all objects give a clear image; in the diagram this
image is at F, and the object may be 100 feet or
more away. Anything nearer than this will only give
a clear image when the ground-glass is moved more or
less away from the lens. Third, since your lens and
ground-glass cannot be separated in the camera beyond
a certain point (depending on the length of the box
or bellows), you cannot make clear images of things
nearer than a certain distance from any particular
camera. Fourth, as you already know, but may well
notice on the diagram for a clearer understanding,
the farther away the object, the smaller the image of
it on the ground-glass.
To sum up these principles, we will say that with
your lens there is a point beyond which all things are
in focus when the lens is adjusted at a given point.
Also, there is a limit to the nearness at which you can
get clear images. This limit depends upon how far
apart you can separate your lens and ground-glass.
This simple experiment should make clear to you
what is meant by the lens's “universal focus ”; the
use of the long bellows in taking objects near to the
lens; the need for moving the lens further from or
nearer to the ground-glass to make a clear image; and
also the fact that the size of the image on your ground-
glass may be varied at will from a mere point to the
image given when your lens is as far as possible from
your ground-glass.
CHAPTER W
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA
Camera drill — The lens and shutter mechanism and diaphragms—
The three kinds of exposures — The effect of the diaphragm —
What is meant by “depth of focus ” — Length of exposure af-
fected by sizes of opening in diaphragm —The “speed'’ of a lens
depends on the opening — The first picture-taking — Loading
plate-holders — Meaning of “dark room '' – Testing its safety —
Ventilating — Precautions in loading — ‘‘Daylight loading” –
Know what you are doing, and why — Device of a clever photog-
rapher — Quick and slow plates — How light delays its own action
— Advantages of slower plates — A common defect in plate-
holders.
SUPPOSING that you have such a camera as is
recommended, you ought to make yourself very well
acquainted with it before trying to use it for picture-
taking. For this purpose it would be well to set aside
an afternoon and to devote it to what is called by
Bayley, the English photographer, “camera drill.”
By this he means just such practice as is gone through
by the young recruit with his rifle before he is allowed
to load it. In the case of the recruit, this is done so
that he may not do damage or waste ammunition
when he actually fires the gun ; and in your case, it is
so that you may not spoil plates when, with loaded
camera, you try to take pictures. You should begin
your camera drill by sitting down before a table that
will support the camera and leave your hands free to
try the working of the different parts. With the
camera before you, go all over it, and be sure that
you understand the purpose of every attachment.
47
48 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Most important portion of all, and therefore proba-
bly a good thing to begin on, is the lens-and-shutter
mechanism, including the diaphragms, or stops. An
excellent way to understand this is to open the camera
So that you can see the ground-glass, and then point
your lens toward a window of the room so that the
window will be reflected as a bright spot upon the
glass. By looking at this bright spot you will see for
yourself just what is the effect of the different ways of
opening and closing the shutter.
For example, you will probably find on your shutter
front, the letters T, B, I. If, with shutter closed, you
turn the little index pointer to the letter T (meaning
“time ’’), and then touch the exposing lever, or squeeze
the bulb (if there is a rubber bulb), you will see that
the lens flies open, and that the image of the window
appears on the ground-glass. A second pressure closes
the shutter, and the image disappears.
Next, turning the index to “B,” meaning “bulb,”
touch the lever again, and you will find that this will
open the shutter, but that it will stay open until you
remove the pressure of the finger, or release the bulb.
There remains the “instantaneous” mark, indicated
by “I.” Turning the index to I, the exposing lever
causes the shutter both to open and close again more
or less quickly.
These are the three kinds of exposure possible with
the usual shutter. The third, or instantaneous, is
varied in time. You will find a scale on the shutter
marked with figures showing fractions of a second
during which your shutter will remain open for in-
stantaneous exposures. As the place of this device
differs in different shutters, you will have to find it
Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co.
Showing revolving back turned half-way
to vertical position
Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co.
Showing long bellows, fully extended
CAMERA. Accessories
Copyright, 1906, ºn 4. p phewan


FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 49
for yourself, or inquire which it is. Having found it,
set the shutter successively for the different speeds,
and by noticing the image on your ground-glass you
will get an idea of how long each is. You may not
be able to distinguish them very clearly, but until you
come to do expert work the fractional differences will
not be all-important. You will certainly know when
you want the quickest possible exposure, or a slower
one, and can distinguish between 9% or ; of a second
and 3% or rºw. The usual figures are 1, 2, 5, 25, 50, 100.
The first means one second, the next 9%, then comes
#, 's, and so on — the bigger the number the smaller
the fraction of a second.
Also attached to your shutter-mechanism you will
find some means for changing the lens-opening in size
so as to let more or less light through your lens; that
is, a larger or smaller number of rays or images. This
device usually takes one of two forms. The simplest
form is a slide with a round hole in it, to be placed in
front of, between, or back of, the lenses, that will allow
only a part of the central rays to pass. The second
form is what is known as the “iris diaphragm,” and
differs only in that it opens and closes circularly, like
the iris of the human eye.
In the first kind you are supplied with three or four
openings (or “stops "), each one usually half the di-
ameter of the next larger. The iris diaphragm, how-
ever, can be made any size you choose from largest to
smallest ; and the lever that moves it has an index
scale attached showing the ordinary sizes.
By changing the amount of light that passes through
the lens you simply diminish the number of images
that are brought to a single focus by the lens and thus
50 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
bring about two results. Since your diaphragm cuts
off light from the edges of the lens rather than its
centre, and since the rays that come through the edges
are the hardest to bring to a focus, at the same time
that you diminish the number of images brought to a
focus and so lessen the light-rays, you also use the
very clearest ones and get rid of those hardest to bring
to a true focus.
Consequently, the things for you to remember in
using the diaphragms are these : first, you lessen the
amount of light admitted; second, you thereby make
a longer ea posture necessary; third, you get a clearer
image with less blurring ; fourth, you are working
with what is really a smaller lens.
Now as to this fourth, it has not yet been explained
what the effect of working with a smaller lens is, and
we prefer to take up that subject when we talk of
lenses more in detail; but here we will simply say that
experiment will show you that a small diaphragm al-
lows more things to be in focus at the same time —
that is, more things at different distances.
For example, if you are taking a portrait of a friend
standing in front of a grove of trees, when you use
the largest diaphragm and so arrange your lens and
ground-glass as to get a sharp image of the person you
are photographing, by looking at the edges of the
whole image on the ground-glass, you will see that the
background is blurred, or “out of focus.” Now, if
you leave the lens and ground-glass where they are,
and simply change your diaphragm so as to give a
smaller opening, you will find that the smaller the
opening is made the more you bring both distant and
nearer objects into focus at the same time that the
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 51
person remains in focus. But the general lighting of
your ground-glass is lessened, and longer exposure
needed.
So remember that by using the large diaphragm you
get what is known as less “depth of focus.” That is,
your main object will be in focus, but things only a
little nearer or further away will be blurred. By
using a smaller opening you will find greater “depth
of focus,” or more things in focus, even though they
are nearer or farther from your camera than the ob-
ject on which you have focused sharply. (You must
be careful not to confuse “depth of focus’ with
“focal length,” which we explain later, for that is
quite a different thing.)
It is well worth while to experiment by focusing
upon some brightly lighted scene, and then changing
your diaphragm in order that you may become well
acquainted with the effect in lessening the light, sharp-
ening it, and changing the depth of focus.
There is a simple rule, easily explained, by which
you can understand just how much the change of open-
ing by using diaphragms, or stops, affects the length
of exposure.
If you remember your school-books, you will under-
stand that the amount of light admitted through a
circular opening as compared with the light through
another circular opening depends upon comparison of
the squares of the diameters. Simply explained, this
is only saying that the relation (or size compared to one
another) of two circular openings is the same as the re-
lation of two square openings. If we have a square
two inches wide, or 2 x 2, it will admit four square
inches of light. If we have a square 4 x 4, it will ad-
52 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
mit stateen square inches of light; because doubling
the sides doubles also the height. But the squares and
the circles are related in the same way, so that if we
double the diameter of a circle we shall admit through
it four times as much light.
Consequently the rule follows that a round stop, or
diaphragm, which cuts down the width or diameter of
the opening by half, requires an exposure four times
as long.
It may be well to
say here that all clean
and clear lenses ad-
mit practically the
same kind of light to
the plate; if there is
any difference it is
too slight to count.
Therefore the speed
of a lens depends
entirely upon how large an opening it admits of. A
“rapid lens” is only one so perfectly made and shaped
that it brings to a good focus nearly every ray (that
is, photographic ray), that goes through it. A poor
lens's action is likely to be worse and worse as you go
from the centre toward the edges; consequently a
poor lens to give a clear image must be used with a
stop that shuts off the outer rays.
A good lens, therefore, can be used with a wide
opening exposing nearly all its surface; and so lenses
are described as regards their working by telling the
largest size of the opening at which they will give
clear images.
Since the largest stop or diaphragm provided for
--------4 inches-----------

----2 inches---
+–
DIAGRAM XI
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 53
you to use with a given lens is the largest aperture at
which your lens will work satisfactorily over the
whole plate, it is an indication of how good a lens you
have. The larger the opening in proportion to the
diameter of the lens, the better and “quicker '' is the
lens, simply because it uses more light-rays.
Although it will be necessary to explain some other
attachments that have to do with making exposures,
we will leave these until we have to consider the
special circumstances where those attachments are
useful; and we will assume that you have made your-
self familiar with the way of making an exposure, or,
in other words, have completed your “camera drill”
so that you are ready to load the camera and begin
picture-taking, with some knowledge of what you are
doing.
Let us begin by loading your plate-holders with
glass plates. This must, of course, be done in the
“dark room,” and this will be a good place to explain
what is meant by a dark room.
From the general principles already set down you
will understand that the purpose is to keep the new
plates from any light that will act upon them. How
sensitive plates are you may understand by thinking
how faint a light is sufficient to impress itself on the
plate during exposure in the camera. Examine a few
photographs and you will see that they cover a wide
range of lighting — possibly from the bright light of a
White cloud to the shadowed side of a dark tree-trunk;
and yet the plate is sensitive enough to record even
the faint lightings in places that are almost quite dark.
[n other words, the very faintest light leaves some
“ace. So, to keep our new plates from spoiling, they


54 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
must not receive the slightest touch of light that can
act on them. The dark room, therefore, is a room
from which all such light is kept out, and only the
faint red and yellow rays (the non-photographic rays),
are admitted to help us see what we are doing. By
these we can see, even if they are too faint to affect
the plate.
The beginner is likely to fall into the error of think-
ing a small window in his lamp, or in his dark room,
is safer than a large one. This is not true. The light
from the larger opening is no more dangerous to the
plates than that from a tiny window. You may be
led into this idea because we have just told you that
increasing the size of the lens opening lets in a greater
number of light rays. But the plain-glass window,
you must remember, does not, like the lens, gather
light rays into one spot; so a large glass does not
increase the strength of the light, but merely ad-
mits light over a greater space. As it fills the
room fuller of light, it does leave fewer dark places
in which one may lay the plate when not examin-
ing it; but it is easy to screen the light from such
parts as you wish to be in shadow. A large lamp
with the flame turned low is safer than a small one
with a big flame, as well as being much easier to
work by.
During the daylight it is almost impossible to find
a place dark enough for handling new plates except
when a room has been built for the purpose. But at
night the problem is very much simpler. Unless there
is bright moonlight, you can handle plates or develop
safely in any room from which artificial light is abº
sent; but it is wise to sit for a few moments in the
{
|
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA. 55
room, until your eyes become accustomed to the dark-
ness, and then to examine whether there are any
lights that shine in from outside, any reflections that
bring in outer light, and so on. If there is no such
outside light admitted, a room with shades drawn will
be safe for your plates, especially if you do not leave
them long exposed. If you wish to be very careful,
you can test a room by leaving a plate face upward
on a table in the dark, half of it being covered with
black or red paper, the other half exposed to the ordi-
nary light of the dark room. After developing such
a plate, if you find the exposed side comes out darker
than the other it is a proof that the room is not
dark enough, or your developing light is not rightly
guarded.
But, having a room that is safe, you will light your
dark-room lantern, which should consist of a lamp that
gives light only through a piece of ruby glass, or, still
better, through two panes of glass, one yellow and one
ruby. The best lamps are so made. Here, again, you
can profitably spend a little time in examining your
lamp and seeing that there are no chinks from which
light leaks to make spots of light on your table or on
the ceiling. If such spots are found, the openings
must be covered by gluing on bits of red paper or
cloth.
There is, however, no need to shut air out of your
dark room. An oil lamp, especially if turned low, will
tend to make the air close, and you will find it wise to
have your room well ventilated. It is well, also, to
have the room cool, especially when you come to
developing.
Having room and lamp safely prepared, open your
56 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
box of plates by cutting around the lower edge, injur-
ing the box no more than is necessary, since it will
make an excellent receptacle for exposed plates or for
unexposed plates you may not use right away, and
afterward for finished negatives. But before un-
covering the plates it is wise to do all that you can
to make ready for the loading. Taking the covers
from the plate-holders, place the covers and plate-
holders at your right hand, put the box of plates
at your left hand, and be sure you have in front
of the lamp a clean place on which to work. It is
also wise to have a soft brush, a clean cloth, or a
little tuft of cotton, and with this to dust out the
plate-holders and their covers before putting out
all lights except your dark-room lamp. In other
Words, make all the preparations you can in full
light.
Then, with your dark-room lamp turned somewhat
down, but leaving yourself enough light to see what
you are doing, open the box of plates (which will
be found to consist of one box within another), put
the first cover out of your way, then remove the
second, and you will find the plates wrapped in
black paper. Get one plate-holder ready so that you
know where it is and where its covers are. Now
raise the black paper and you will come upon the
plates. These are always packed in couples, face to
face ; so, on raising the paper, what is opposite you is
the back of the first plate. It is slightly more shiny
than the other side, and reflects the lantern light
more clearly.
It is assumed that you will already have discovered
the workings of your plate-holder, which usually has a
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 57
spring to press on one edge of the glass, and hold the
plate firmly. Against this spring, or against the
yielding inside edge of the plate-holder, which may
conceal the spring, is put the plate; it is pressed into
place gently and then of itself it is forced by the
spring beneath a little ledge. The plate must not be
touched on the sensitive side, and should be held, if
possible, so that the direct light even of the lamp
does not reach this side. Be careful, but don’t be
scared.
There are two ways of knowing which is the sensi-
tive side. The back is plain glass and quite shiny, so
that if you let it reflect the light from the lamp you
will notice its brilliance. The other side is duller.
Even if you cannot see, or are loading plate-holders in
the dark, by just moistening the tip of your finger and
trying at an extreme corner of the two sides, you will
find that the sensitive side is a trifle sticky when wet.
But, as we have already explained, the plates come in
regular order, face to face, and by keeping count you
will always know whether you are taking a plate out
of the box back up or face up. The odd numbered
plates are always back up. As soon as possible after
putting the plate into the holder, insert the slide that
covers the plate and adjust the little catch that keeps
the slide from being again raised. While putting one
plate in, it is well to leave all the rest shielded by the
black paper, and, in general, even in the dark room,
do not let any light whatever come to the plates if
you can help it, never exposing more than one at a
time.
When you have loaded all your holders, give a
last examination to see if all the slides are in, all
58 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
plates covered, and so on, before you light the room
again.
Though the plates are so carefully wrapped, you will
find it wise to dust off the surface of each one gently
just before putting it into your holder, and also to dust
the slide, since dust is every where.
The more general principles apply to loading
cameras of other kinds; that is, to get along with as
little light as possible, even that of the lamp in the
dark room. The reason is that even a slight effect
upon the plate will prevent your getting clear blacks
in your final print — which require, of course, almost
perfectly clear glass in your negatives.
As to the loading of cameras that take roll-films,
modern cameras of this kind are usually loaded in day-
light, and in this loading it is important to remember
that by “daylight” is not necessarily meant the
brightest light possible. It is much safer to get along
with as little light as is convenient, avoiding bright
sunshine or very brilliantly lighted rooms for fear that
some little defect in your roll may let in a gleam of
light. Be sure also to follow very carefully the direc-
tions about getting your roll right-side up, and be sure
that the film is going to run square and true between
the rolls. If you happen to get a roll in wrongly, Wait
until you can go to the dark room and begin over
again; for, of course, “ daylight loading ” means only
that it is safe to load in daylight when everything
goes right.
There are so many varieties of film and plate
cameras that we can give no more than these general
directions, but with each kind of film or camera you
will find full directions given, or may get full ex-
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 59
planations from dealers, who are only too glad to help
the amateur by advice. Remember that it is to their
interest that you should get good results, and do not
be ashamed to ask about even the simplest matters.
We have all been beginners, and all remain learners
to the end.
If you wish to be very methodical (and it is a most
excellent plan) you can make a little list of the things
it is necessary to do in loading your camera and ad-
justing it for use, and then always refer to this list to
make sure they are all done. But you really do not
need to write out such a list, since you will find it
printed, usually, in the directions that come with your
camera. If you do not do this, you will find some-
times you have loaded the camera while leaving the
shutter open, thus spoiling the first plate ; or you have
not set back to (l) the device for numbering the
plates used in the magazine camera; or in some way
have left a part unadjusted and so will spoil plates.
Never be ashamed to take pains, as the best photog-
raphers are those who are most careful of details.
You will be amazed to find how many things can go
wrong.
After all, the best direction for all photographic
Work is to use your brains to know what you are
doing and why. As an illustration of this, one very
clever worker suggested that if a man happened to be
travelling and was in a hotel bedroom in the daylight,
and yet had to load plate-holders, he could do this
With perfect safety, in spite of the fact that he could
neither block up the windows nor find a room or
closet that was dark.
The way in which this feat was accomplished was
60 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
to thrust the box of plates and the plate-holders under
the thick covers of his bed, then, working at arm's
length with the bedcovers tight down, he was able to
open the box, take out the plates, load the plate-
holders, put in the covers, all without letting light
reach the plates.
Such a piece of ingenuity might do at a pinch, but
it would require a very careful worker, and the bed-
covering would have to be decidedly thick. It is not
a method to be recommended, except as showing what
may be done at a pinch.
As to selecting plates, it will be enough at first
to decide whether you are going to use slow or quick
plates. This will depend upon what you mean to
photograph. For snap-shots, you will want the quick
plates; for landscapes or interiors or other subject
in which there is time to make a long exposure, it is
much wiser to get the slower plates. The difference
between them mainly is in the thickness of their coat-
ing and also in their chemical preparation.
In the quick plates you must come closer to just
the right time of exposure. The slow plates will give
a good picture, even though you do not hit so closely
the right time of exposing, for their thicker coating
allows the action of the weaker rays to be impressed
more deeply on the emulsion, and a little too much
exposure given to the brighter rays does not so greatly
matter because their action on the surface of the plate
tends somewhat to protect the coating below from
their further action. Thus the brightest rays do not
produce a greater and greater effect in proportion to
the exposure, but their action is slower and slower,
leaving time for the less bright rays to “catch up,”
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 61
as it were. We shall explain this more clearly
later.
The beginner will find it best to select a plate rec-
ommended “for general work,” and to stick to that
exclusively at first ; for until he becomes an expert,
he will not have occasion to photograph unusual sub-
jects, such as frost-markings, lace, or flowers, or waves
or athletes in motion.
You need remember now only that if you can give
the right exposure for the slower plate you will be
more apt to get good pictures than if you used the
Quick plates, since the quick plates require you to be
very exact in giving the right time. The quickness
and slowness is denoted by names and numbers, the
higher number meaning the quicker plate.
In films, since these are prepared for general use,
they are usually of one quickness, fitting them especially
for snap-shots or instantaneous exposures. It is there-
fore important to get the exposure of films right.
Very slow plates are made for special purposes, such
as copying other pictures, making transparencies, or
lantern slides, and so on. It really would be wise for
you to commence with not the quickest plates, though
you will very soon begin to use these. And, indeed,
there are but few subjects requiring extreme quickness,
and those require also a “quick” lens — one with a
wide opening — a good shutter and much skill in mak-
ing exposures. There are many cases in which you
will get richer, better negatives from the slower plates
by giving them enough time. The slower plates also
are less liable to be spoiled in the developing and other
processes.
Of course the taking of pictures in the flash of an
62 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
eyelid is very wonderful, but, after all, the most
satisfactory pictures are those that make one say
“How beautiful!” rather than “How remarkable *;
and you are really more likely to get the good
pictures when you can take time enough to think of
what you are taking. The difference between the
so-called “quick” plates and those of the next degree
of rapidity is less than the beginner might suppose.
Before making your exposure, one caution is neces-
sary : if you should take apart the plate-holder, you
would find that there is inside a sort of little shutter
— a strip moved by springs — which closes the slit
through which the cover is withdrawn. This shutter,
or strip, rests against the cover of the plate-holder as
you withdraw it, and should close as soon as the cover
is drawn completely out. If, now, you draw the
cover out one corner first, this little shutter will Open
and light will get in at the top of the holder, slightly
affecting the plate at the upper edge. The same thing
will happen if in putting back the cover you put one
corner in first, instead of putting it in squarely. For
this reason it is well to be sure that the cover is drawn
out and put in smoothly and squarely, and it is also
wise not to let the sunshine or a strong light fall upon
the upper part of the plate-holder where it projects
from the camera. If you wish to be especially care-
ful you may put a cloth over the camera while you
withdraw the slide, or COVer.
This trouble with plate-holders is especially common
with the cheaper grade, and with old plate-holders.
You may know that this defect exists when you find
the upper edge of your negatives spoiled by bands
or portions of darkening while the rest of the neg.
FIRST USE OF THE CAMERA 63
ative is clear and good. You may see where the
light leaks in by withdrawing the cover as you look,
toward the light, through the slit where the cover
enters.
CHAPTER WI
LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES
What to seek from your early exposures — The best first subjects —
Making the camera ready — Things to be careful about — The
most important question in photography — Length of exposure —
Exposure meters — Things that affect exposure — Season of the
year — Time of day — Weather — Plate-speed — Lens opening—
Quality of subject — Distance from camera — How the latitude
of the plate helps — A rule of thumb guide — Diaphragms — An
experimental method — Exposure less difficult than it sounds —
Development does little to aid poor exposure — The use of ready-
made developers at first.
WE have now supposed you to have gone as far as
choosing a camera, learning about its more important
parts, loading it with plates, and being ready to go
forth into the broad world and take pictures.
But we wish to warn you, at first, against going too
fast. Do not be anxious to secure any result from
your first few exposures except experience. It may be
that you will hit upon a masterpiece of the photo-
graphic art, but the odds are decidedly against it :
and you will be likely to arrive at the masterpiece all
the sooner if you look upon the first box of plates, at
the very least, as being a means of teaching yourself
what they will do.
Set before yourself, therefore, the purpose of pro-
ducing a good clear photograph of whatever you at:
tempt, and put aside for the present all ideas of artistic
results, interesting or picturesque composition, and
other things that will come later.
64
LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES 65
If you wish to make sure that the first plate shall
be a success, it will be best for you to make an ex-
posure upon a distant landscape; for there is nothing
in the world so easy to take. In the first place, by
taking such a picture you get rid of all troubles about
right focusing. You will find on your camera a
focusing scale with a pointer that moves along it
showing where the lens is to be placed in order to
take objects at different distances in feet. If there are
two sets of numbers, one is feet and the other meters.
The highest number they give you is the place where
you ought to put the pointer when you are taking a
distant landscape. Your experiment in focusing upon
a lighted lamp will have shown you already that be-
yond a certain distance from the camera all objects
are in true focus, or so near it that the eye cannot tell
the difference.
Before putting in the plate-holder, set your lens at
this extreme distance, and move the camera in such a
Way as to form upon the ground-glass any image that
pleases your fancy. When you have selected the right
thing to take, close your lens, insert the plate-holder,
being sure that it goes in rightly until it is chock up
in place. Set your shutter, and then draw out the
plate-holder cover, leaving the plate ready for ex-
posure.
Remembering what has been said about the need of
keeping the camera motionless, you will either have
set it up upon a firmly planted tripod, all parts of
Which are set securely, or will have selected some
steady base on which to rest your camera. Having
done so, be careful that you do not spoil your picture
by setting the camera so that the picture is crooked
66 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
upon the plate, or by striking the camera or the tripod
in moving about it so as to shake your plate just at
the moment of exposure. Unless you are careful of
these things, you will occasionally do them. You
have no idea how easy it is to catch your toe under
One leg of the camera and upset the whole apparatus.
The same cautions apply even more to snap-shot ex-
posures, where the camera is in the hands or against
the body. In this case even the breath must be held
at the instant of exposure and the camera held as
steadily as possible.
It seems almost childish to insist upon things so
evident, but the plates and exposures ruined by these
very elementary errors are numbered by the thou-
sands. If we could each imagine that plates were
worth five dollars apiece, there would be ever so many
fewer spoiled plates in the world ; and even though
they are cheap, you should take pride in workman-
like success. -
Now you are ready to let the image be admitted to
the sensitive plate, and here comes the most difficult
question in photography — that of how much exposure
to give. If you are using quick plates, and the light
is strong, say such as that on a sunshiny day in sum-
mer, the exposure will be a very small fraction of a
second. It may be as small as the hundredth part,
or even less with a quicker lens; that is, with one that
admits of a wider opening without blurring some part
of the image.
We must lay down here the general principles that
regulate exposure, and perhaps the quickest Way to
get at this is to tell what “exposure meters” are.
There are for sale various devices for measuring ex-
IEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES 67
posures, and by getting an idea of these you will see
how many things have to be considered in order to
decide just how long to expose a plate in a camera.
These meters often contain a way of exposing to the
light a little bit of sensitive paper, and from this as a
starting-point they work out the problem of exposing.
This problem involves a number of things. First,
the time of the year. Though the light of the sun
does not vary, the direction in which it comes to us
does vary. In the northern hemisphere, in which
we live, the sun, in summer, though farther away, is
highest in the sky, that is, more directly overhead at
O SUru. Surn.
at Ito On. afnoon,
Summer Winter
DIAGRAM XII
noon. In winter, it is further south ; that is, if its
course were traced out as a line in the sky, there
would be drawn for midsummer a semi-circular arch
from east to west, going almost directly overhead. In
winter there would be another similar arch, all of
which would lie southward of the first.
Now when the sunlight comes to us slanting, it
travels through more air, and is weaker. So in winter

68 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
exposures need to be longer than in summer. If you
imagine the sun to be travelling on its course, either
in winter or summer, you will see that it comes most
directly to us at noon, and comes through thicker lay-
ers of air both morning and evening. When just
above the horizon, either east or west, it is at its worst
for photography. At noon it is at its best so far as
brightness is concerned and chemical action; (though
We shall see later that the absence of long shadows in
a picture taken at noon is considered by good pho-
tographers a drawback). So we are compelled to con-
sider time of year and time of day.
Next we must bear in mind the speed of the plate
We are using, and the size of the opening for light
through the lens, - all these things, whatever the
subject we are taking.
Next we have to think of how much light the sub-
ject gives off and the colour of that light. Last, we
have to think of the question of distance from the
camera. The further away the object is, the more the
light will be interfered with by the air and the hazi-
ness it produces, especially when containing dust or
moisture. The effect of this is to soften or lighten
distant shadows, producing the same effect as if there
were more light on the object. This effect is not im-
portant for distances less than perhaps a hundred feet
from the camera, but beyond that it tends to shorten
the exposure. Experts say that for very distant Ob-
jects the exposure is perhaps lessened by one-tenth, for
this reason. The further away an object is, also, the
more light-rays will be reflected so as to enter the
camera; the nearer it is to the lens, the less light it will
reflect and the duller image it will give.
Photograph by Dr. A. R. Benedict Courtesy ºf Photo-Era Magazine
--
-
-
“THE MAN on THE I:ox *
A good study in composition. The picture would lose much
of its effect iſ the puddles in the foreground, catching the light,
were absent, or if the cabman's body did not follow the lines of
the trees overhead. -


LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES 69
As to colour, we have already spoken. This whole
matter turns on how many of the active rays, those
toward the violet end of the spectrum, are sent into
the camera, and how many of the less active rays,
those toward the red end.
All these things are laid down in the directions that
come with the exposure meter. You have to set the
little instrument for time of year, time of day,
character of weather, whether bright or dull, nature
of object taken, and its distance from the camera.
Complicated as this sounds, fortunately we are not
compelled to get an answer to the problem that would
satisfy a college professor examining you in your
knowledge of photography. The fact that the plates
have a certain latitude comes to our assistance. This
means that they will give good results even if you do
not always work out the problem exactly to a small
fraction of a second.
Perhaps a good rule-of-thumb guide may be found in
the fact that the ordinary film such as is supplied for
cameras is sensitive enough to take good clear pictures
on a bright day in something like one-fiftieth of a
second, with a lens of fairly good quality working
with an opening about one-eighth of the lens's focal
distance (designated on the diaphragm indicator by the
figure 8). It is such a lens as this that is supplied
with most hand cameras of fairly good quality. This
gives a sort of rule by which to estimate our exposures.
Under very favourable conditions, you can take good
pictures outdoors by means of instantaneous ex-
posures of from one one-hundredth to one-fifteenth of
a second.
As to the use of diaphragms, you have already read
70 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the rule that we must multiply by four whenever we
diminish the diameter of the opening one-half. As to
subject, before we discuss this very closely, it will be
enough to say that when you come to take indoor pic-
tures near a Window, with the same sort of a camera
that we have described, you will find yourself able to
get good results by an exposure under favourable con-
ditions, good light, and so on, of three to five seconds.
In the middle of a dark room you might have to in-
crease this exposure to thirty seconds.
All this, you may well say, is vague ; but it is to
know something more definite about these conditions
that you are asked to make use of your first box of
plates.
There has been recommended recently in the photo-
graphic magazines a very good method of judging the
necessary amount of exposure by a practical trial.
This is done by making several exposures on one plate,
first withdrawing the cover slide of your plate holder
only about one-fourth the distance, so as to expose a
quarter of the plate only. To this you give an ex-
posure of one-fiftieth of a second. Then, withdrawing
the cover another quarter, or half way out, give a
second exposure of the same length. Tepeat this for
the two remaining quarters, being very careful not to
stir the camera any more than you can help, and the
result will be that you will have exposed a plate in four
different strips along its length. The first strip will
have been exposed for four-fiftieths of a second, the
next for three-fiftieths of a second, the third for two-
fiftieths of a second, and the last quarter for one-
fiftieth of a second. This is supposed to be for such a
distant landscape view as has been recommended for
LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES 71
making your first exposure. When you come to
develop this plate you will see experimentally for your-
self what effect is produced by four exposures of dif-
ferent lengths, the longest being four times as long as
the shortest.
This same experiment may of course be applied, and
should be applied, to making time-exposures of greater
length. In this case you might make the exposures
four, three, two, and one seconds. If this is done upon
a fairly lighted subject, not in full sunshine outdoors,
you will probably find that your longest exposure is
too long. Indeed, in a bright light they may all be
too long; but on a grey day one of them is apt to be
right, or nearly right, enough so that you can see
which is nearest correct.
We shall give you, in a chapter devoted to tables
and formulae, some of the guides that have been
drawn up by experts to help you to measure the
strength of light and to judge of the subjects requir-
ing longer and shorter exposures. By turning to
these you will obtain an idea of these elements which
change the amount of exposure ; but you may take
comfort in the fact that every photographer very soon
learns some knack at guessing correct exposures, or
near enough to them for all practical purposes. Ex-
posure meters are, however, very useful; even the
simplest are useful as guides, and cost very little, con-
sisting only of a card of paper or celluloid with sliders
or disks allowing you to adjust them to suit the condi-
tions of light and subject, lens and plate.
You have been warned of all the difficulties of judg-
ing an exposure, so that you may see it is a subject
well worth your special attention; but we must repeat
72 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that it is not necessary to make a bogey of it. In
actual practice, many of your pictures will be taken in
the open air and in good light, with plates or films
that give you a margin in judging the length of ex-
posure; and you will realize that in taking indoor pic-
tures the time required is increased from a fraction of
a second perhaps to three or four seconds, or more in
places not well lighted. For taking snap-shots in the
winter months, when the light is poorest, you will
need a diaphragm of large opening.
If we add to these few general directions the fact
that it is better to err on the side of giving plenty of
time, and to expose for the shadows rather than the
lights, we shall have told you all that is necessary for
you to learn at the beginning.
It used to be said that even if an exposure was not
right, the error could be corrected when the plate was
developed, by changing the proportions of different
ingredients in the developer, or by developing for a
longer or a shorter time, and so on. But the latest
theories do not permit us to take this view. Even if
developing can make some difference in plates, it is
mainly a difference in the time required to make
prints from them, and not a difference in the quality
of the print produced — that is, in the relation of the
light and shade.
Consequently it is of the utmost importance to
make your exposures with as much judgment as you
can possibly give to them, and so we recommend un-
qualifiedly the use of the exposure meter, at least in
the beginning and until you have trained yourself to
judge with some correctness about the conditions and
to bear them all in mind. The expense is small; the
LEARNING ABOUT EXPOSURES 73
benefit to your skill is very great, and the saving in
plates will be considerable.
Let us now suppose that after trying a landscape or
two you have made several varying exposures to the
best of your ability, and are ready to develop them.
We do not need to repeat what we have already said
in regard to the dark room, as to being sure that the
light is safe and that the room is made as comfortable
for you as possible. Developing is a matter that
needs all one's careful attention, and you should not
be distracted by being uncomfortable, by stumbling
over furniture, by upsetting trays, by stopping to look
for things in the dark. Again, you must begin by ar-
ranging in convenient and handy places whatever
you are going to use in the process. Ten or fifteen
minutes is wisely expended in thinking over carefully
just what you are going to do from beginning to end,
and preparing everything ready to hand so that it may
be picked up as soon as needed and in the order
needed. Since it is the intention here to describe the
most usual way of proceeding, we will not as yet take
up the question of which developer you are to use;
that will be treated later, and here we shall assume
that you have the developer made ready by dissolving
some of the powders already measured, and standing
in a graduate, or measuring-glass, from which it is to
be poured. -
You should use the developing powders or mixed
liquid developers as sold ready for use; for this is ad-
visable at first. There is plenty to learn in photog-
raphy without trying to learn all parts of the proc-
esses at once. Therefore, until you have become used
to the general way of taking pictures and making
74 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
negatives you will profit by getting materials all
ready-made, and giving your attention to learning
what they will do and how they act. So follow
directions, and leave the “whys” of chemistry until
later.
CHAPTER VII
FIRST STEPS IN DEVELOPING
The necessities — Taking out the plate — Pouring on the developer —
First signs of development — Burton on the magic of developing
—Watching development — What takes place — Keeping the de-
veloper at right temperature — When development is complete —
Fixing the plate — How long to leave it in the hypo — The reason
for washing after fixing —Thorough washing necessary — Drying
—Warnishing especially valuable negatives.
THE real necessities of developing are: three trays,
at the least ; one for the developer, which should
stand directly in front of you and where it can re-
ceive the light of the lantern. Next to that, right or
left, as you find it convenient, have a tray of cold
water; beyond that, your tray of hypo. A fourth
tray, for washing, will make your work easier. Be-
sides the trays, you will find it well to have something
to lift the plates from the different trays. For this
purpose we think there is nothing better than a clean
new stick, sharpened to a broad, flat end. You also
should have a piece of cloth to serve as a towel, but
one that you will not mind spoiling with chemicals;
a large, clean rag is just the thing.
Now, with the lamp turned pretty well down, but
still high enough to give you a fair amount of light,
and with your glass of developer standing close to
your developing tray where you can pick it up quickly
without knocking it over, you are ready to begin.
Holding your plate-holder vertical in such a way
75
76 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that the plate you are to develop is toward you and
away from the light, draw out the cover promptly,
press down the little spring that keeps the plate in
place, letting the plate be tipped a little forward so
that you can take it by the edges but keeping it close
to your body so it will not fall out. It is then wise to
dust off the surface very gently with a soft, dry brush
of camel's-hair or with a bit of cotton. Put it into
the developing tray, back downward, without delay,
and then raising the tray and plate in your left hand,
pour the developer over the plate in the way recom-
mended by Bayley, the English photographer; that is,
letting it flow without splashing, but very quickly,
from one corner of the plate in a little wave over the
whole surface. This will prevent little bubbles of air
being caught below the developer and making spots,
and will avoid streaks caused by wetting the plate
unevenly.
As soon as the plate is seen to be covered and free
from air bubbles, put a piece of pasteboard over the
tray so that while the plate is still sensitive it may be
as nearly in the dark as possible. If your plate has
been exposed somewhere near the right time, it will,
after a few seconds, begin to show signs of develop-
ment, and by raising the pasteboard now and then for
an instant, you may keep on the watch for these
signs.
From what has been said already you know that
the effect of the exposure has been to make some un-
known change in the coating of the plate, preparing
it to be acted on by the developer; and that this
change has been greater or less according to the dif-
ferent amounts of light that have been thrown by the
FIRST STEPS IN DEVELOPING 77
lens upon different parts of its surface. Wherever the
brightest light has rested, the action of the developer
will begin earliest : the plate will be seen to darken at
this point.
One of the pioneers of modern photography, the
Englishman, Burton, says in regard to developing:
“Now, if everything has been rightly done, will be-
gin one of the most wonderful of the phenomena of
science or nature which man has been given the
power to control, a phenomenon which is always new
and always beautiful — the development of the latent
image. Let the beginner watch it closely. The
plate has no indication of having been acted upon at
all, before the developer was poured over it. After
perhaps twenty or thirty seconds there is a slight
darkening of some part . . . the brighter parts
of the landscape have become visible in negative.
Now is the time when you can tell whether
the exposure has been correct. If it has been, the
development will progress with beautiful regu-
larity.”
We would by all means advise you to see a correctly
exposed plate developed by some one else who is
familiar with the process before attempting it for
yourself. But if you have taken the advice given, to
begin by making an exposure upon a distant land-
scape, and have given anywhere near the correct ex-
posure, you will probably have no difficulty in devel-
oping your first plate.
As you watch the process you will see the brightest
parts appear first and these will be followed by others
in regular order until every part of the plate is dark-
ened except those parts where the light has hardly
78 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
acted at all — that is, those parts of the landscape
which looked very, very dark to the eye.
The next question that will come up for your de-
cision is when to stop the development by taking the
plate out of the developer.
A photographic dealer suggested to the writer that
amateurs should be carefully informed that the devel-
oping solution will not “eat away the plate ’” — which,
he says, is a very prevalent idea. You need not be
afraid of this, as the effect of the developer is only to
darken the silver compound where light has acted,
and in proportion as it has acted. It is true that the
Solution does soak into and thus soften the emulsion ;
if it did n’t, it could not reach the silver compound in
it, but the emulsion will not dissolve if your solution
is not too warm. It certainly should not be warmer
than sixty-five degrees, and may be as cold as sixty
degrees. This need not worry you, however, for it
really is only the temperature of a rather cool room,
not hot enough to make you uncomfortable, nor cold
enough to make you chilly. In summer, you may
easily keep your developer at the right temperature
by partly filling a rubber bag (hot-water bag) with
cold water, and resting your tray upon this. Or you
may rest your developing tray in an outer one in which
there is a little water kept cool by a bit of ice. The
hot-water bag filled with warm water could also be
used in winter if you have to develop in a very cold
I’OOIſl.
As to judging when the plate has been sufficiently
developed, that is another of the things best learned
by experience; but, in general, you should keep it in
the developer until all of the detail can be seen fairly
TIRST STEPS IN DEVELOPING 79
well when the developed plate is held up between your
eye and the dark-room lantern. By the time the de-
velopment is completed, too, you will be able to see at
least the dark portions of the image by looking at the
reverse side of the plate. It is well to develop pretty
thoroughly, since the effect of a long development, if
not extreme, is mainly to make the plate print a little
more slowly, while under-development will leave cer-
tain portions of the image unfinished, not brought
out — a much more serious fault.
The methods of developing by time and temperature
alone, without watching, will be given at another
place.
As soon as the image has appeared over the whole
plate, you may safely turn up your red light flame so
as to be able to see very clearly, for the plate has lost
a great deal of its sensitiveness and does n’t need nearly
so much protection from red light. -
As soon as you have decided the plate to be rightly
developed, place it in a tray of clear water for a mo-
ment, so as to rinse the developer from it, and then
put it promptly into the hypo tray. Of course in all
cases your plate should be face upward so that noth-
ing will injure its surface, and nothing but the solu-
tion should touch the surface, since when wet it is very
easily injured. For this reason, if you use the sticks
for lifting, do it with the utmost caution to prevent
their touching the face of the plate. The only object
in using them is not to put the fingers too much into
the liquids. -
What you have done so far is to change that portion
of the silver compound which has been affected by the
light into metallic silver, which, when finally divided,
80 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
is dark, and which is insoluble in water or hypo. The
next step, the one which you began by putting your
plate in the hypo tray, is to melt away the compound
that has not been made insoluble by light and devel-
oper compounds. Consequently you leave the plate
in the hypo until this white compound, or part that is
unaffected, completely disappears, and your plate looks
dark all over.
But even then the hypo has not finished its work. It
has dissolved the undarkened silver, but it has changed it
into another chemical compound that also must be dis-
solved out, even though it is an invisible one. Conse-
quently, to get rid of this, you must leave the plate in
the hypo nearly as long again. After coming from
the hypo bath, the plate has ceased to be sensitive to
light, and so far as that plate is concerned, you are at
liberty to examine it freely by any artificial light, or
even by daylight.
But although our plate is now safe from light, it is
not yet clear of chemicals that will do it injury. It
now consists of a wet compound containing the me-
tallic silver that makes the negative, but also contain-
ing the hypo solution, which, if left in the negative,
would crystallize when dry, and ruin it. Consequently
there must follow a thorough washing, either in run-
ning water or in successive baths, until all the hypo is
drained out.
This process is usually underdone, but if your nega-
tive is to last, it must be done thoroughly, and “thor-
oughly " means until you are tired to death of it. The
makers of the kodak film, for example, recommend
that their films be soaked in five changes of water,
five minutes each time, occasionally moving the film
TIRST STEPS IN DEVELOPING 81
about. Or they recommend two such changes, fol-
lowed by an hour in gently running water. The plate
will not require quite so long a washing, but you will
be very glad if you always err on the side of thorough-
ness. Otherwise, some time in the future when you
take up a favourite negative you will find it stained
and ruined, and will recall sadly Whittier's lines about
what “might have been.”
After the washing, comes the drying. You may
safely, if carefully, wipe all moisture from the back of
the plate, but avoid the tragedy of making a mistake
as to which is the back. By looking along the edges
you will soon see the difference between the smooth
edge of the glass side and the slightly puffy, irregular
edge of the film side. The plate should not be set up
to dry so that it will touch anything else. If it is put
with others in the drying-rack, there should be a good
distance between them — certainly two or three inches,
at least — otherwise your plates will dry too slowly.
A quick drying is important, since in some cases
skilled photographers tell us that the clearness and
sharpness of the image suffers by too prolonged a dry-
ing. But remember that the drying must not be
helped by putting the plate in warm air or in the sun-
shine, for fear of melting the softened film — which
is easily done.
A little point worth remembering is the necessity
of removing from the lowest corner of the plate the
drop of water that forms there when it is put up to
dry. You can remove this by a touch of a soft cloth
or a bit of cotton, or even with the finger, and your
plate will dry faster. Until thoroughly dry, do not
think of attempting to print from the negative, for
82 EPHOTOGRAPEHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
fear that the printing-out paper and the negative will
stick together in the frame.
We do not know anything more important to insist
upon in all this question of developing than care in
not letting anything touch the film and injure the
negative. It is so easy, and so irremediable, to dam-
age the wet surface. Once the negative is dry, it is
not so easily hurt.
A last process to insure the keeping of the negative
is to warnish it. This is done by gently warming the
dried plate, and pouring the warnishing liquid Smoothly
over the level surface, and then draining the surplus
off at one corner into the bottle again. It is, how-
ever, not necessary to varnish plates except as an extra
precaution to preserve an unusually valuable negative.
If negatives are properly kept in paper or in boxes,
they will be safe enough.
CHAPTER VIII
MAKING A PRINT
Judging your negative — The true object to get good prints — print-
ing-out paper and developing paper — The printing-frame—
Errors in using the printing-frame — Printing by diffused light —
Toning the print — Washing before toning — Toning with gold
— Fixing with hypo — Cleanliness essential — Trimming the
prints—Mounting — Developing papers — The strength of light
in printing — How to test it — Varieties of developing papers —
Brush-development—Local development.
WHEN your plate is thoroughly dry, and not until
then, will you know for certain the value of the result
you have reached, for the only test of a negative is
the making of a print from it; and this for the reason
that the transparency of the plate when held up to
the light does not give you an entirely correct idea
of what sort of a print can be made from it. It does,
however, tell you a great deal about the relation of
lights and shades in your negative — whether there is
a good gradation from the darkest to the lightest, or
whether they are too much alike all through.
Even if your plate, however, should not be very
transparent to your eye, if, in other words, although it
has a good breadth of values (which means a great
many different darker and lighter shades, shown in the
right relation to one another) it may yet give you an
excellent print provided it be left long enough ex-
posed to the light in the printing-frame. And in the
same way, even if your plate be what is called “thin,”
83
84 BHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that is, very transparent in general, yet if there is
the same range in value, the same differences in light
and shade, you will get a good print from the nega-
tive provided you do not leave it printing too long.
This is another way of saying that what we must try
to get in our exposure and developing is true relation in
light and shade, whether the whole plate be dense or
thin — that is, whether it needs to be printed only
a short time, or is a slow printer.
In examining your negative, therefore, the first
thing is to compare its lightest with its darkest parts,
and to see whether there is something of the same
difference between them that there was in the scene
you have photographed. If you have succeeded in
keeping the relation true, if your blacks and whites
are not too near together or too far apart in value,
you may be sure that you have made a good negative,
and with care you will be able to make a good print
from it.
It is a wise maxim in photography that the object
of the whole process from the beginning is to get
good prints, and all the rest is but a means to this
end. Until you have made a good print, you have
not done what you set out to do.
As to printing methods, we shall consider in this
general going over the subject only two main methods
of printing from the negative. These two consist
really in using two kinds of paper. One sort is known
as “printing-out” paper (or as the English call it,
“P. O. P.”) for the reason that by exposing a piece of
the paper to light when it is covered by the negative
we secure a print at once. The other method uses
what is known as “developing paper” (such as
MAKING A PRINT 85
bromide, Velox, Cyko, and so on). In this, although
there is a printing process, the paper is developed by
a process of regular developing, exactly as if you had
exposed a plate, and until development is finished you
do not see the print in anything like the state it is to
reach. -
The first of these methods is the older one, and
consists in using paper so coated that under the nega-
tive it is exposed to the light and printed until the
image is as dark or darker than it is meant finally to
be. The apparatus used for this purpose is known as
a printing-frame. It consists of a frame that holds
the negative, film side inward, so that the paper can
be placed with its glossy side toward the film, and
then covered by means of a hinged back. The whole
object of the frame is to keep the paper and film firmly
and immovably together while printing, and yet allow
you to examine a part of the print to see whether it is
printed enough.
The best printing-frames are those which are
closely fitted to the size of the negative you are using
and allow the widest surface of the negative to be
reached by the light. The front of the frame should
be thick enough to be rigid, but should cast as little
shadow as possible on the negative. The back should
also be hinged firmly so as not to move from side to
side, the pieces under which the springs go should be
kept tightly screwed into place, and the springs should
be strong enough to exert quite a pressure upon the
paper but yet to turn easily when the movable part of
the back is being opened to look at the print. The
best backs are those which are cut in two unequal
pieces so that the larger one will allow you to see a
86 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
large part of the print. Sometimes you will find on
them a little numbered wheel. This is merely a means
by which the printer keeps account of the number of
prints he has taken from that frame.
In setting up your frame for printing be careful to
turn it squarely toward the light so that the front of
the frame shall not by means of its edges cast little
shadows, shadows that will keep part of the negative
from printing. The mistakes one is apt to make in
printing are: allowing the negative to fall, putting the
paper in with the back against the negative, or crooked,
setting the frame where a shadow will fall across it,
either at the time it is set out or later (because the
earth is moving), unfastening both ends of the back at
once before you are certain the printing is finished,
and (for a beginner) forgetting that you are making a
print, and so leaving it too long. You may not think
you are apt to forget having put a printing-frame in
the light, but if you are busy at other things you will
often find that the print is entirely forgotten, while
you are about something else.
Skilled photographers will tell you that it is always
best to print by means of diffused light — that is,
not in the direct rays of the sun. This is undoubtedly
sound advice, although if you always take it you
will be more docile and patient than most amateurs.
The reason the advice is good is that the printing in
direct sunshine is very apt to be harsh, and if there
are any slight defects in the glass, or there is dust
or any impurity on the back of the negative, it will
seriously affect the print. Diffused light will give
softer prints and defects will be less apt to show. The
usual way of avoiding direct sunlight printing is to put
MAKING A PRINT 87
tissue paper or a piece of ground-glass over the face of
the frame.
Other matters in which care is necessary are in ex-
amining the print. This should never be done in
direct sunlight, since you may always, when opening
the frame, shade it by your body, and it is best en-
tirely to avoid touching the front of the paper with
the fingers, or scratching the negative as you raise the
paper. As fast as prints are dark enough, which in
nearly all these processes means quite a little darker
than they are finally to be, they may be placed in a
box, a table-drawer, or shut between the pages of a
book, which will entirely protect them until you are
ready for the next step.
In speaking especially of printing, there are a num-
ber of methods that will be mentioned later, but here
we shall take always the very simplest and most
straightforward methods until we have been through
one whole process from exposure to finished print.
The next step with your prints is to tone them —
that is, to substitute a pleasanter and an enduring
colour. After printing, you will have a picture from
which you can get an excellent idea of the success of
your work, but it is still somewhat sensitive to light,
and would of course gradually turn dark all over un-
less protected. But do not be afraid, if your paper is
fairly well protected from long exposure to light,
dampness, and so on, that there will be any change
until you are ready to tone.
The steps in toning are these. First, to wash in
water made slightly salty with a little table-salt, for
the purpose of removing as much as you can of the
silver compound that has not been turned dark by the
88 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
.*
light. This compound, when dissolved in the water,
makes the water slightly milky, and therefore so long
as by gently rinsing the print the water still whitens,
you may know that you have not removed all the
silver compound possible. When the water remains
almost clear, which will be after a few minutes' wash-
ing, you are ready to change the colour of the print.
This is done by taking away from the print a
portion of the darkened silver and supplying in its
place a darker compound made from gold. Usually
chloride of gold is used in a weak solution, as the
formula at the back of the book will show you. In
this solution the print is placed and kept gently mov-
ing, so that any little particles floating about will not
settle in one place. You will then see that the print
will gradually change in hue, losing its reddish tone
and taking on a little darker tone, approaching nearer
to a purple-black — the usual colour of a finished
photograph with which we are all so familiar.
When the colour is right, the print is put into a
hypo solution which dissolves out still more of the
unchanged silver compound, but does not attack the
darkened portions. The print is now not sensitive to
light, but, being soaked in hypo, has to be washed
just as the plates were washed after developing, and
even more thoroughly, since the hypo in this case has
soaked well into the fibre of the paper, as well as into
the coating.
All through the processes of washing, toning, and
fixing prints, cleanliness is, if possible, more important
than in making the negative. It will be wise to handle
the prints as little as possible, lifting them when neces:
sary by the corner or by using a glass rod. Then,
Photograph by Mr. K. Theodor Krantº
* BRoadway in A SNow-Storm. "
An artistic picture obtained from an ordinary city scene.
In the original the effect of falling snow was increased by using a rough surfaced bromide paper.
Courtesy of the Photographic Times
The photograph was made during the snow-storm.

MAKING A PRINT 89
too, they must be dried, and for this purpose many
use a specially made blotting-paper, the fibres of which
do not come off on the prints. Photographic supply
dealers sell “blotter books” in which leaves of blot-
ting-paper alternate with leaves of oiled paper. The
prints are laid in facing the oiled paper and put under
gentle pressure. Before putting prints between blotters,
you should mop off all surface wetness with an old soft
handkerchief. They may afterward be pinned up by
the corners, after being slightly blotted on the back; but,
whatever you do, they will, in drying, curl more or less,
since the coating on them tends to contract and roll
them up face inward. This, however, can be corrected
afterward, by passing a stiff card or flat paper-cutter
over the back of the print with a wiping motion, while
holding up one edge with the other hand. The curl-
ing that occurs after they are mounted may be reme-
died by running the photograph through a cold bur-
nishing machine.
If your prints when taken from the washing bath
seem particularly soft, tender and inclined to stick to
the blotter, let them dry first in any fashion that they
will, spread out in any convenient place. When they
are dry, dip them into water again only long enough
to make them limp, and place them between blotters;
this time, not being quite so saturated, they are less
likely to stick.
Before you come to mounting, however, you have
an excellent chance to show your good sense and
artistic taste in the great art of trimming, and for this
purpose there is nothing better as a guide than two
pieces of cardboard cut into two right angles. These
two pieces, each shaped something like a carpenter's try-
90 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Square, can be slid one over the other so as to leave an
opening between them of any rectangular shape. By
placing them over your print, and trying them at
different places, you can find out just how much of
the print is best saved. Having decided this, holding
your pasteboards steady, mark lightly with a pencil
on the print where it is to be cut, or, with a pin or
needle point mark the four corners. With the four
corners marked by tiny holes, you can turn the print
Over, rule between the holes, and then cut out the print
with knife or scissors, either of which is quite as good,
carefully used, as the sharpened wheel sometimes sold ,
in the shops for the purpose.
The question of mounting your print comes next,
and is almost endless in variety. But for mounts and
so on, you must refer to the dealers' catalogues and
stocks. It will be better for you to use either the pure
photographic pastes sold for the purpose, or the dry
mounting-tissue which, pressed under a hot iron, fixes
the print firmly and keeps it from curling. If you use
paste, it should be put on very evenly from the centre
outward, placing your print face downward on a news-
paper. The print should then be applied to the card-
board, middle first, paper put over both, and pressure
gently applied from the centre outward, making sure
that the extreme edges stick. Then wipe the edges
clean with a damp cloth. Dry the whole under heavy
pressure, and you will have done all that you can do
unless you go into the matter of burnishing the surface,
or giving it a glacé finish.
After the print is mounted there is no way of
burnishing it except with a rotary burnisher, which is
rather an elaborate machine and hardly Worth the ex-
MAKING A PRINT 91
pense. The glossy surface is not much liked at present;
but if desired it can easily be obtained on P. O. P.
by the use of a “ferrotype plate,” a thin sheet of soft
iron coated with black enamel, sold by photographic
dealers. The ferrotype plate is prepared by putting
on it a few drops of benzine in which a little paraffine
has been dissolved, and then polishing the plate off;
this is to prevent the print from sticking. The print
while quite wet is laid on the plate and the air bubbles
pressed out lightly with a blotter. When it is dry, it
will easily come off, showing a high surface. A
“matt” surface that is really more satisfactory to the
eye may be obtained on P. O. P. by using a good
piece of ground-glass in place of the ferrotype
plate.
Besides the method of mounting the print on a card
there is that of “tipping ” the print on by its two
upper corners. Of course, in this case the print must
be made to lie flat, and in this respect platinum,
gum and carbon prints (which will be explained in
another place) have an advantage, for they have no
tendency to curl. But the method is good for all
prints in that it allows the use of mounting papers in
beautiful shades, which may be had from dealers in
fancy and “cover * papers. These are made to be
used on covers of booklets, programs, and the like.
Any obliging dealer will furnish a sample book of
cover papers and will probably sell as few as half a
dozen sheets of whatever you select.
The developing papers, or “gaslight papers,” as they
are sometimes called, are really much like slow plates
in their action, and the method of treatment is so
similar to that of developing plates that the same
*
92 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
principles apply to it, except that there is a difference
in the emulsions used. As to the printing, it has the
great advantage of being done by artificial light, the
strength of which can be perfectly regulated, so that,
having learned just how to make a print of a certain
quality by regulating the light and the time and dis-
tance you can repeat the same method again and
again, getting uniform prints.
Of course, in the printing-out papers you use day-
light, or sunlight. This varies in strength, and con-
sequently your prints are not so certain to be uniform.
The best way of finding out how to print a negative
under artificial light is to take a sheet of paper, such
as Velox or Cyko, cut it into a number of narrow
strips, perhaps half a dozen, keeping all these strips
except one protected from the light ; put this one strip
under the negative, and keeping it at a known distance
from your light, whether it be candle, lamp, gas, or
electricity, guess as near as you can at the right ex-
posure after reading the directions that come with the
paper. Then develop that tiny strip. If it is right,
make your exposures at the same distance and for the
same length of time. If it does not make a good
print, take a second strip and try a different time at
the same distance, and so on until you have a strip
printed to suit you.
By these experiments you will discover the best
time for printing each particular negative at a certain
distance from a certain light. If you are truly sys-
tematic, this can be noted down, so that you will
always know how to print that particular negative ; for
negatives differ in their printing quality, needing
different exposures according to whether they are
MAKING A PRINT 93
more or less transparent and contain more or less
variations in their lights and shades.
The Welsbach gas lamp is said to be the quickest in
its printing action on developing papers, and with a
rightly exposed negative the print is made in ten or
fifteen seconds, but some dense negatives may not
give good prints in less than three or even five
minutes. It is sometimes well to print from such
negatives by faint daylight, in spite of the fact that in
daylight printing it is difficult to judge exposure of
the print. A negative which by artificial light yields
a print that is harsh and too violent in its contrasts
will give a softer print, with better detail in the shad.
ows, by daylight exposure.
A secret worth knowing, if you are ever without a
printing-frame, is that developing papers may be quite
as easily printed by holding the negative and paper in
the hand. A piece of pasteboard of the size of the
plate should be placed back of the paper, and an old
plate, or any other plate, should be placed back of
that. If gripped firmly, with the knuckle of the fore-
finger pressing on the rear plate, there is no danger
of the print shifting its position. Strong elastics or
metal clips may be used to hold the plates to-
gether if one does not want to hold them with the
hand.
It is understood, of course, that in the developing
paper no image is visible, even when the paper is
printed correctly, until you have put the paper into the
developer and waited for the image to appear. The
manner of developing these papers is exactly the same
in principle as the manner of developing plates, and the
processes throughout may be said to be the same —
94 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that is, they must be developed, rinsed, fixed in hypo,
Washed, thoroughly dried. You will notice, however,
that there is no toning, if you are making simply a
black and white print.
An advantage of this method of printing is the fact
that you can buy the sensitive paper in perhaps half a
dozen different qualities, thin and thick, quick and
slow, glossy or rough, and that each of these varieties
is of great use in securing the best effect from partic-
ular negatives. Another advantage is the fact that
since these papers are printed in the evening, the prints
can be made when the amateur is at leisure.
Although the process is generally like that of
developing negatives, there is a method of develop-
ment for these papers which should be mentioned,
since it is a very economical and easy way of working
and tends to keep your solutions clean. This is what
is known as “brush development.” After you have
printed the paper, it is placed face upward upon a
glass plate lying in and against the side of a tray.
With one hand you hold the print down against the
glass, touching it with your fingers only at the cor-
ners, and then with a wide camel's-hair brush made
for the purpose, or a tuft of cotton, the developer is
gently applied to the face of the print, at first in a few
broad sweeps so as to cover it all evenly and quickly,
and then to and fro across the face, keeping it evenly
wet. In this way you “brush out ’’ the image, using
only enough developer to keep the surface wet, letting
the surplus solution run down the glass plate into the
tray. Thus for each new print you use fresh
developer, keeping the solution clean. Otherwise
brush development proceeds as before. To a certain
MAKING A PRINT * 95
extent you can bring out with the brush certain parts
of your print, only leaving others undeveloped ; but
this art can be acquired only by experiment, and much
the same effects can be attained by methods of print-
ing.
CHAPTER IX
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH
Photography and art — Choice of subject — The effect of colour — The
importance of contrast — The eye and the camera — Imagination
and fact — The eye's wide view -– A view-finder – Possibilities of
a small camera – An instance given — Suiting the work to the
camera — Pictorial facts and pictures for pleasure — Portraiture
partakes of the actual and the artistic.
THERE has been a great deal of ink wasted over the
question whether photography is, or is not, an art, but
no such discussion leads to any practical result. So
far as the amateur is concerned, he must treat photog-
raphy as an art in order to derive either pleasure or
profit from it; and even if some wise professor is able
to prove by a series of perfect arguments that photog-
raphy is not entitled to be thought one of the fine
arts, all we should have to do to satisfy him is to
cease to use the word “art ’’ as applied to photography
and content ourselves by calling it “photography.”
In other words, the whole thing is a mere matter of
names and ways of expression. It is undoubted that
photography is a means of producing pictures, and that
these pictures are of two kinds — good and bad. Our
purpose is to make good pictures whenever we can ;
and in order that they should be good, the first thing
to resolve upon is to choose such subjects that photog-
raphy is able to make them into good pictures.
At the very beginning we must never forget that,
so far as we are concerned, we are making a black and
white negative. The charms of colour may afterward
96
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH 97
in various ways be added to the photograph, but in all
cases except a few complicated processes carried on
under peculiar conditions, the first necessity is a good
black and white negative. Consequently the first
thing to learn in thinking of what to photograph is
how any natural object will translate into black and
white. Of course, in certain processes the photograph
is afterward printed in other colours than black and
white, and so by the terms “black and white ” we must
be understood to mean also lighter and darker shades
of the same colour — in other words, monochrome — for
unless a picture is good in black and white, good in its
gradations, it will not be good in any tint.
The next thing to think of is what shades of black and
white are produced by natural colours in photographs.
For the amateur it is perhaps enough to remem-
ber the general principle that of the three main colours,
– red, yellow, and blue — red and yellow will come
out darker than either appears, and blue, lighter.
With this rough guide we shall be able to judge
generally the effect of colours when translated into the
photograph.
As to tints between the three primary colours, we
can judge of the effect of these by remembering of
what they are composed. To take the two common-
est—green and brown — we must remember that green
is made of yellow and blue in varying proportions,
and consequently it will incline to light or dark in the
photograph as it has more of blue or of yellow. The
yellower the green, the darker it will be so far as
colour is concerned, though it must not be forgotten
in applying this rule that brilliancy of light, the
amount of light reflected, has much to do with the
98 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
result. The second common colour, brown, is made of
all three primary colours, or, it may be said to be a
mixture of red and green. Here, again, we must judge
of its effect in the photograph by a general idea of the
proportions of the three main colours a common brown
contains.
You will not often need to think of these things in
taking outdoor pictures, but when you come to con-
sider the effect of different colours in costume, you
will find these principles a great help in getting good
results.
Even more important than the question of colour is
the question of contrast. In fact, an old photographer
has declared that the whole secret of making, good
pictures by means of the camera consists in being sure
to secure your contrast of light against dark and dark
against light. Whenever you are thinking of mak-
ing a photograph of any scene or object, it is well to
form the habit of examining the whole subject of
your photograph in order to see whether light things
are brought against dark backgrounds and dark things
against light backgrounds. That is, of course, unless
you wish certain parts not to stand out strongly. In
taking a portrait of a person in a white dress, you
would usually want the face, which is the important
thing, to stand out, and the dress to be less notice-
able; SO you might use a light background behind
the dress.
It is amazing, in examining a number of snap-shots,
to see how many pictures are spoiled in effect by the
coming of things of much the same tone one against
the other. You will secure many almost charming
pictures that would be exactly what you desire except
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH 99
for some unfortunate carelessness in bringing (for
example) the face of your principal figure against a
background in which it is almost lost, or in losing the
outline of the head against a background too like the
hair.
And the remedying of this defect is often exceed-
ingly easy. It may mean only a moment's experi-
menting in moving the camera a little more, up or
down, right or left, so as to bring nearer and more
important objects against backgrounds of the right
shade. Here, too, the colour question comes in. To
give a simple example, imagine a young girl wearing
a bunch of red roses on the front of her bodice. If
the dress be black, the contrast of colour may appear
strong and artistic; but in the photograph if the red
happens to be the pure red shade that makes little
impression on the plate, you will lose this contrast
almost entirely.
Unless you bear this principle of contrast constantly
in mind, it is not a matter that will be suggested to
you by the eye, because the eye sees largely as the
brain directs it, while the camera is a mere brainless
machine. When we look at a scene, a group, or a
person, what we see with the eye is largely governed
by our interest in the subject. We are unconscious
of what does not interest us, but the camera is just as
much interested in an ugly background as in the most
charming person who stands against it, in the gleam
of a brass button as in the bright eye of a belle.
This same remark applies just as forcibly to the
foreground. The eye overlooks many trifling ob-
structions in giving its whole attention to the main
subject of the picture; but the camera is quite as
2
º e -
e
: º ©
100 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
willing to take the picture of a dead branch that
comes in front of a medieval castle as it is to receive
the impression of the romantic old castle itself.
You must therefore teach your eye to examine the
whole scene with the impartial, matter-of-fact, un-
romantic eye of the camera lens, for the camera will
not pay any attention to your preferences as to what
it should take.
A rather poetic and yet useful way of putting the
suggestion as to what subjects ought to be chosen will
be conveyed by saying that while the human mind is
infinite, the camera and the picture that comes from
it are finite. This means that the picture made on
the retina of the human eye is not thought of exactly
as it is, but is thought of in connection with what
we are imagining about it; it is unlimited. The
pleasure that we take in a scene comes not alone from
what we see, but sometimes even more from what We
are thinking about what we see. When the same
scene is taken upon a sensitive plate in the camera, We
get only what was seen and not what the mind of the
photographer had added to it. It may well be that
when the picture is shown to another eye than his,
the mind of the other person will think Very
differently about the scene, and so may miss the very
things that made it charming to the photographer
himself.
In one thing especially is this true. The eye at
one time can take in a very wide horizon, and every
part of that horizon, even if it be not distinctly seen,
has its effect upon the mind and so helps to decide the
effect of the view. Usually the camera can take in
but a small angle of the horizon, or, if it takes in a
e • *e e
© ſº
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH 101
larger angle, this must be at such a distance that the
objects included are so reduced in size as to lose much
of their character.
Hence it is that in considering what to photograph
we must try so far as possible to put ourselves in the
place of the camera, giving our attention only to
what appears within its angle of view, and consider-
ing all things that are within this view as equally
important.
An excellent way to teach us how to know just
what the camera will include is to cut out of a sleet
of paper a small square opening, perhaps not more
than half an inch on a side, or, better yet, a small ob-
long opening of the general proportion of the plate
used. Holding this paper at such a distance from the
eye that it will include as near as possible the same
view that is shown by the finder, we shall be able to
know beforehand how much of a given view will be
included upon our plate in the picture to be taken.
By moving this screen in different directions we shall
soon find that there are a great number of different
pictures to be taken from nearly the same point.
After a time we can use the finder of the camera for
the same purpose, but at first it will be better to use
the screen with a hole in it because the image seen
through the opening is very much brighter than that
reflected in the finder, and is much easier to be
studied. There are, it has been mentioned already, a
great number of finders made upon this principle —
an oblong opening serving simply as a frame to show
what the camera includes; and these, of course, offer
the same advantages as the paper screen, excepting
only the fact that they do not shut out surroundings.
102 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Unless you use some such device you will be sure to
make the mistake of trying to include upon a
3% x 4% plate a scene that would be too much even
for a plate of quadruple the size.
For example, admiring the view from some mountain
top, you will unsling your portable camera and make
an exposure with some idea that you have secured
upon your plate at least a faint impression of the wide
expanse before you, with its sense of distance and
space. When a print is made from such a negative it
will be amazing if you have not a most commonplace
and uninteresting result. If, beforehand, you had
used the paper screen and reflected that you could not
possibly get on your plate more than the little section
of the distance visible through the opening, you would
have saved yourself your plate, your trouble in ex-
posing, developing, and in printing, and a sense of dis-
appointment over the limitations of photography.
This does not mean that even with a tiny camera it
is not possible to secure distant views that are well
worth while. Give a skillful photographer even one
of the miniature cameras of west-pocket dimensions,
and he will secure for you results that for artistic
value compare favourably with those of twenty times
the dimensions. For example, there was a young man
amateur who took a great fancy to the original “Pocket
Rodak,” the small oblong box camera brought out a
number of years ago, and small enough to be held in
the palm. Using this little box upon an ocean voy-
age, he brought home a number of beautiful prints that
owe their value almost entirely to the good sense and
artistic taste he had used in making the exposures.
The prints were one and a half by two inches in size,
Photograph by Miss Florence M. Robuts
Courtesy of Photo-Era Magazine
Courtesy of American Photography
This picture would have been better with a
light background for the small boy, showing
his head more plainly and giving less promi.
- - nence to his white suit.
Effective Photographs Taken With Small Cameras



WHAT TO PEIOTOGRAPH 103
z'
and yet by making sure that he did not forget what
his camera could and could not do, he secured beauti-
ful pictures. Of course many of them were vessels
passed on the voyage, but the time of taking each
picture was chosen exactly right. If he made a snap-
shot of a passing steamer, the picture was so placed
that the trailing smoke, the passing boat, and the
lighting of the waves, made up a charming composi-
tion. Or, if there was a particularly artistic effect of
clouds during a sunset or a storm, he had chosen just
the right section of sea and sky that made a picture.
Aboard ship he had been careful not to get too near
his subject, and had thus avoided bad proportions —
that is, the proportions which were not such as the eye
recognizes as usual; and he had also been thoughtful
in placing figures against the right background or in
the right surroundings, and so had been as wise in his
compositions as when making little distant views.
Probably if this same man had owned three or four
cameras of different sizes he would never have become
so skillful with the baby camera he carried; but prac-
tice and natural good taste taught him to use the lit-
tle box to the very best advantage.
We have spared a little space to tell of his success
because it carries in it the secret of good art, or good
photography. A good workman fits his work to the
tools he uses, not attempting to execute miniatures on
ivory with a house painter's brush, nor to paint a
board fence with a fine red-sable pencil.
Consequently you must first of all remember to fit
the work you are about to do to your camera and the
size of its picture and the speed of its lens, to your
own skill in handling it, and to the purposes of your
104 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
work. The meaning of this last phrase is to remind
you that there is more than one reason for taking
photographs. We deal mainly in this book with the
pictorial side of photography, but it is often the case
that a photograph will be made for scientific purposes,
or for a record. We wish to remember certain facts,
and find the camera a most accurate and ready means
of keeping them for the future. Much of the work
that is done by tourists in foreig. lands must be of
this character. It is intended to be shown to friends
at home and to convey do them certain facts we wish
them to know. For such photography our standards
must always be a little different from those by which
we go when making pictures for artistic reasons.
It may be that much of the dispute that has taken
place about photographs and their artistic value has
come from not clearly understanding that many pho-
tographs are no more than pictorial facts, instead of
being pictures created for mere esthetic pleasure.
And yet the distinction is one of the greatest im-
portance to the young photographer, and should be
borne in mind when he is choosing his subject and
posing his picture, for the principles governing the two
kinds of work are widely different. In the one case
you must secure your facts, whatever else you sacri-
fice; and you cannot therefore pay chief attention to
mere matters of composition and arrangement. For
the artistic picture the thing to think about is the im-
pression to be made upon the mind of the spectator,
and the question of mere fact is quite unimportant in
comparison.
The case of making portraits partakes, strangely
enough, of both sorts of photography. It must at the
WHAT TO PHOTOGRAPH 105
same time be a record of recognizable facts about the
person photographed, or the picture must be a failure
as a portrait ; and the portrait must also be so artistic
as to make the right impression, or it will be no more
than a sort of catalogue of facts about a human being
and will lose all personal interest.
This all sounds rather difficult, but unless pho-
tography was difficult in these very ways — unless it
gave you a chanci to show your own good sense and
good taste — it would have no charm and only a very
practical value without artist; pleasure. -
CHAPTER X
OUTDOOR PEIOTOGRAPHY
Differences between indoor and outdoor work—Light and distance —
Width of view — Landscapes — Views — People — Plant life —
Animal life — The seasons — Cautions about each season's work
— Landscape work – How to look at a landscape — Seeing truly —
Artistic composition — Need of a principal object — Avoiding
exact divisions — Place of the sky-line — Leading the eye into the
picture — An outlet — The study of composition — Right lighting
— Pointing the camera toward the Sun — Making a screen — Tak-
ing near objects — Effect of tipping the camera – Wind blowing
blurs branches — Value of reflections from water — Emphasizing
Ş. character — Taking portraits outdoors — Position of the eyes —
\ Direction of motion important –Seizing the quict moment —
Nature photography — Value of the tripod.
So far nearly all the principles of which we have
been talking apply to every kind of work, but when
\ we speak of outdoor photography it will be necessary
\to divide the subject somewhat so that we may give
imore definite directions; for it will be readily ad-
n itted that so broad a phrase as “all outdoors” is
ra. her a wide and comprehensive matter to talk about.
Yet there is a difference between all camera work
done under the sky from that done under a roof.
There is a marked decrease in light just so soon as you
enter a house. Outdoors, light rays are diffused in
all directions, to be everywhere present, ready to act
pon the plate. Consequently, in general, and except
\r the early morning or later evening hours, outdoor
tography is a matter of comparatively short ex-








106
OUTDOOR PEIOTOGRAPHY 107
It has also for the most part to deal with varying
distances; that is to say, the distance of the object
taken may be from a very few feet to as far as the eye
can see. Indoors, on the contrary, the light is more
concentrated in direction, less abundant, making longer
exposures usual, and the distances at which objects are
taken are greatly limited. These differences alto-
gether bring it about that most Outdoor exposures are
snap-shots, or very short ; most indoor exposures re-
quire considerable time.
Another difference is the range of view. Since, as
we have already pointed out, the angle of view of the
camera — that is, the field of the scene it can take in
— grows larger the further the objects are from the
camera, it follows that indoors the field of view is very
narrow, and outdoors it may be exceedingly wide.
We can divide the subjects for outdoor pictures only
very generally into classes. The first of these we may
call “Landscape,” including in the term views the pur-
pose of which is to show aspects of nature, large
natural objects, or scenes. For the second we shall
have to make up a name, and call them “Views,”
meaning outdoor pictures in which the main interest
consists in objects not very far from the camera, cer-
tainly not more than a hundred feet. The third class
may be generally called “People,” including such
views as owe their interest to persons, or human life.
In addition to these we may consider the photograph-
ing of animal life and of plant life.
Though these terms do not by any means cover all
possible subjects, yet they will be found to serve as
good general names for the most usual classes of out.
door work.
108 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
But before taking up these separately something
should be said about work at different seasons. Tak-
ing these in their regular order, beginning with the
spring, it must be remembered that though the light
is growing stronger every day, it is not yet nearly
equal to the light at midsummer, and allowance for
Athis must be made in exposing. The great charm of
spring landscapes lies in their delicate colouring and in
what the budding foliage promises to the mind.
Both of these features are commonly not to be ob-
tained in a photograph. The delicate colouring, un-
less by a happy accident of contrast, is lost in a hazy
shade, and the promise, is one wholly of the human
imagination, the sparse foliage (until it is well out, at
least), being rendered by the camera usually as a col-
lection of uninteresting dots. In order to make pic-
tures that shall give the impression of spring, much
careful study will be necessary and such early vegeta-
tion selected as is by contrast made very evident to
the eye.
When we come to summer, the conditions for photog-
raphy are at their best so far as the light is concerned
and so far as the masses of foliage help in the composi-
tion of the picture. But there are times of day when
the strong light from near the zenith, at noon, gives
harsh and unpleasant shadows, owing to the too
strong contrast between light and shade. The heavy
shadows cast by the trees in summer also make photog-
raphy difficult in shady places and exposure must be
lengthened to compensate for bad lighting. In places
where the uninterrupted glare of the sun lights every-
thing with great brilliancy, summer is the time to
beware of over exposures. This is especially the case
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY 109
at the seashore or on the ocean, where, in addition to
the light of the sky is the light reflected back from
the water-surface in all directions. This also must be
allowed for by shortening the time of exposure, or,
more easily perhaps, by using a sumaller stop for the
lens thus making less exposure without changing the
speed of the shutter. There are innumerable failures
made upon the seashore every year by amateur photog-
raphers who do not realize that the Ocean and sand
are enormous reflectors turning back into the air the
vast numbers of rays of light that on land are absorbed
by the vegetation of the earth. -
In autumn the American photographer, especially,
needs to be warned against trying to secure by means
of the camera the exquisite autumnal colouring that can
be got only by the artist's eye and palette. Yellow
and red are the dominant notes in this gorgeous dis-
play of nature, and they are not good photographic
colours, as you know. Consequently, where the eye
sees a sharp, brilliant and striking contrast, the photo-
graphic plate will give a dull and uninteresting result.
Nothing has yet been said of “orthochromatic ’’
photography in this book, but since that is a means of
holding back the quicker-acting light so that the
slower-coloured light may have time to do its work on
the plate, it usually means a slower exposure, and con-
sequently must in most cases be reserved for such pic-
tures as will admit of time-exposure.
In the same general way we shall say of winter pho-
tography that, with all its charm, it is difficult. The
two things to bear in mind in winter are the weakness
of the light, owing to the low angle of the course of the
sun, which then is further south in our latitudes, and,
110 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Consequently, the fact that where there is snow in a
Scene the exposure should be adapted rather to the
shadows than to the bright lights. This for the reason
that it is a good general rule in photography to look
out for the shadow-exposure and leave the lights to
take care of themselves, since the plate in a way pro-
tects itself after the first instant that light has acted and
does not, in the well-lighted portions, receive so much
effect afterward as in those that are dark.
The first chemical effect of the light on the surface
makes the spot where the lights touch less sensitive,
so they do not afterward receive the same action in
proportion that is exerted upon the shadows. If this
be borne in mind, and sufficient exposure be given,
winter scenes will be found to give excellent results
for the reason that there is less interference of de-
tails, more breadth and simplicity in the views. The
coating of the snow changes a rough and irregular
ground into a more uniform surface. Shadows cast
upon it are more sharply cut, and the absence of foli-
age makes broad views possible while the often cloudy
skies give excellent contrast with the whitened earth.
So much for the four seasons.
In regard to distant landscapes, the photographer
will do well to acquire the artist's habit of squinting
the eyes to get the general view — to lose sight of de-
tails. In this way, without the trouble of looking
into his finder or using the paper screen, or view-
finder we have recommended, one may at a glance
make a rapid estimate of the value of different views
he sees; for when reduced to the scale necessary to
include a distant view upon a small plate a great deal
of the detail seen by the eye is necessarily lost. Trees
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY 111
become masses, buildings do not show their smaller
features, and, in general, we see only the broader
effects. Another excellent hint is contained in the
advice to look at a scene with one eye, thereby getting
rid of the stereoscopic effect, that is, the effect of re-
lief given by two-eyed vision. The camera gives this
flat or one-eyed view, having the same lack of relief
that is given by vision with a single eye.
As to the natural features of the landscape, it is
only people whose eyes have been trained that see
them truly. It is well known among artists that we
mentally exaggerate mountains, for example, as is
shown by the fact that only very careful draughts-
men will draw a distant range of mountains truly ;
the temptation to the human fancy is to make them
much higher than they really are. From this error
the camera of course is free; and when it gives us a
true picture of a distant range of mountains or of a
single peak we know to be impressive, we are often
disappointed to see how it is reduced by the camera to
a not at all surprising feature of the landscape.
As to the making up of a distant picture, the selec-
tion of a good composition, of course this is so vast a
subject that artists spend their lives in studying noth-
ing else. It brings in the whole question of artistic
composition. Nevertheless, a few principles are so
simple and so well understood that they should be
borne in mind.
Perhaps the most important of these is what is
known as “principality.” This means the necessity
that the picture should have in it at least one main
object that exceeds all others in interest. In making,
for example, the picture of a distant horizon, you will
112 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
obtain nothing interesting if one part of the horizon
is no more interesting than every other. Somewhere
there must be a point that attracts the eye, even if it
be no more than a bit of cloud, a distant vessel, a
single tree, or an abrupt headland. A second princi-
ple forbids the dividing of your picture surface ex-
actly in the middle by the horizon line. As to this, it
can be said only that such a division is seldom pleas-
ant to the eye, that either the sky or land portion of
the picture should get the lion's share. In many old
Dutch pictures, for example, the artists have made the
sky and its clouds the most important part of their
painting, while the wide and flat stretch of land be-
low, diversified perhaps by a windmill or the sail of a
sloop here and there, does little more than give one
the impression of distance.
It will be a good lesson to photograph the same
scene from the same point, but at different elevations;
so as to make a number of pictures that are alike ex-
cept in proportion of sky they include. In pictures of
the sea, especially, this question of the sky-line and its
place on the plate is most important. In pictures
taken on land it will be found most valuable to in-
clude, if possible, some effect that leads the mind of
the spectator to travel into your picture. This may
be, for example, a bit of road or a pathway that serves
as a means of measuring the extent of the picture,
gives some idea of the distance included, and directs
the eye from the foreground gradually to the distance.
A stream occasionally catching glimpses of light by
reflection will serve the same purpose of giving the
spectator the unconscious belief that it is possible to go
into the picture. Perhaps equally important is to give
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY 113
the mind also an outlet from the picture. Landscape
artists, except when they are seeking eccentric effects,
are accustomed wherever it is possible, to give at least
a small portion of their picture to a bit of distance, or
to a spot of sky, to prevent the effect of being shut in
among the nearer objects of the picture.
As we talk on this subject we are constantly com-
pelled to refer to the practice of painters, for this is
really their art and one which has been studied since
the beginning of landscape art. The best place to
learn about the composition of landscapes is in the
great picture-galleries where we can see the work of
capable painters and can pick up hints as to the meth-
ods of making their pictures successful. If you have
the ability to draw at all, it will be a most valuable
exercise to take to a picture-gallery a small pad of
paper, or a sketch-book, and on this make little outline
studies showing the composition of pictures admired.
These studies should not be larger than a visiting-
card, for they are not meant to include any study of
detail whatever, but only to guide you to the general
principles upon which artists act in the composition of
their landscapes.
If you are wise enough to take advantage of this
suggestion, pay especial attention in each case to the
direction from which the light of the pictures comes.
This the shadows will show you. You will soon
discover that much of the picture's value is due to
right lighting, and you will begin to understand why
a scene that is comparatively uninteresting at midday
may be full of charm shortly after dawn or when the
sinking sun casts longer shadows toward the east.
Unfortunately, some of the most delicate lighting
114 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
effects are not the best for photography, since in order
to act well upon the plate the sun must be some
distance above the horizon.
It may be well here to say a word about pictures
taken with the camera pointed more or less toward
the sun. Naturally enough, those who publish in-
structions for amateurs desire to make their picture-
taking as easy as possible, and they almost invariably
direct the photographer to take things upon which
the sun falls, and not to point the camera toward the
sun. As a general rule, this is well enough, but like
other general rules in art it is to be ruthlessly broken
under certain circumstances. It is true, of course,
that sun-lighted objects take most easily in the
camera. It is also true that it will not do to let the
blazing sun strike through the lens upon the plate.
But very many beautiful effects will be secured by
taking pictures in which the light comes from in
front; you thereby photograph the shadow side of
objects against a lighter background, and you secure
shadows running toward the spectator.
In order to take these pictures, however, the lens
must be protected by a hood, so that the direct rays
of the sun will not enter it. This hood can be cut
from a piece of cardboard, like the peak of a cap, and
secured over the top of the lens or a little to one side,
as is necessary to screen it, being fastened in place by
a rubber band. So protected, you may safely take
pictures toward the sun, if only the sun's rays are
kept from the lens itself. You may even shade the
lens with your hand, or your hat, for the moment of
making an exposure.
This question of the direction of light becomes
OUTDOOR PEIOTOGRAPHY 115
especially important so soon as we change from the
taking of distant landscape to the photographing of
nearer scenes, in which, of course, the interest of the
picture depends mainly upon a few principal things in
the foreground. The lighting will be found to make
all the difference between an attractive picture and a
failure.
A very little change in the point of view — holding
the camera a foot or two higher or lower, more to the
right or to the left — will give an entirely different
effect. In such subjects we must recall to mind the
importance of securing contrast by choosing a back-
ground that will relieve the light and dark sides of the
principal object. If you are taking buildings, monu-
ments, or other structures in which there are hori-
zontal and level lines, it becomes most important that
the camera should be held level, since tipping it in
any way gives you a very different result from that
the eye sees. As to tipping the camera up or down,
the effect will be to change the distance of the upper
and lower parts of the object from the lens and plate.
Tipping up the front of the camera has the same
effect upon the picture, or view, that would be caused
if you could view it from a station or bit of ground
tipped in the same way. Also, by the change of
perspective it causes all perpendicular lines to seem
to come together as they recede. The tipping of the
camera will make your vertical lines seem to come to-
gether toward the top, if the camera is tipped up, or
toward the ground if the camera is tipped down. In
either way you will get an unnatural and distorted
view, more amusing than valuable.
This does not apply with so much force to natural
116 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
objects, as these seldom have truly vertical lines and
Consequently a slight distortion of them does not
strike the eye as an impossibility. The matter of
keeping the camera level sideways is of much less
importance. Even if your view is a little tilted to
right or left, the worst effect produced is the loss of a
portion of it when you come to trim down your print
so as to make the lines of the picture square with the
edges. Consequently, unless you are photographing
something in which the view is important up to the
very edge of the plate, there will be little harm done
even if your camera is tipped a little right or left.
In photographing natural objects outdoors, such
as trees and plants, you must be careful to remember
the effect of the wind in blurring moving branches.
For near objects this is important; and you will have
to make a very quick exposure, or else select a calm
day, if you wish to avoid a woolly appearance in
foliage.
A most valuable help in making little natural pic-
tures will be found if you are able to include in the
view even a small bit of water. A tiny pond some-
times by its reflections brings the light of the sky into
dark spots and so gives life and variety to your photo-
graph. When the object is to bring out the beauties
of rocky formations, or such natural banks as the
shores of streams and rivers, it will be found most
helpful to take up a position from which you bring the
outlines of your foreground sharply against the sky or
against brightly lighted fields or masses of foliage so
as to give the outline, or profile, great strength by
COntrast.
And this suggests the secret of making successful
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY 117
pictures of natural scenery — which is to decide what
is the character of the scene and then to emphasize
this by selecting the right point of view, the right
lighting, and suitable position. You will see how this
applies to the photographing of a rocky ledge, for
example. If such a ledge be photographed from
directly in front, it will lose its character of rockiness
and angular strength unless the lighting is such as to
throw portions of it into deep shadow and others into
high light. In the same way the picture of a beach
should derive its interest from the apparently limitless
expanse of shore line and ought to be so taken as to
conduct the eye naturally along the foreground to the
distance. Here again we must refer you to the suc-
cessful work of painters, who embody these principles
in their best work.
When you photograph people outdoors you will be
guided by your purpose in taking the picture — that is,
Whether you are seeking to make portraits, to secure
incidents, or to make attractive compositions. In the
case of a group taken for the sake of the portraits, you
will find it almost impossible to get good results if the
group is too near the camera. As the figures approach
the camera a little difference in distance makes a very
great difference in the scale governing the size of the
figures on the plate.
As a proof of this let us take, for example, a row of
persons standing in a straight line at about ten feet
from the camera. You will see that the shortest dis-
tance between the camera and this line will be drawn
from the lens to the centre of it. The longest distance
Will be drawn from the lens to the two persons at the
ends of the line. Consequently the people nearest
©
118 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the centre will be shown on a larger scale in the pic-
ture than those at the two ends, and the picture will
not truly represent their heights. If, on the contrary,
you place the same people in a semi-circular line all at
the same distance from the lens, they will be truly
represented in the picture, all being at nearly the
same distance from the camera. The nearer the
whole group is to the camera, the more difference is
made by taking the portraits at different distances.
As you go further away from the camera the differ-
ence in distance from the lens becomes of less and less
importance.
In making outdoor portraits, if the light is bright
you ought to have little difficulty in securing the
natural expression on the faces of the people you
photograph. You have only to watch the group un-
til they have lost for a moment the stiff attitudes they
will all try to assume, and then to make your quick
exposure while they are at their ease.
A very common fault is carelessness about the di-
rection in which people are looking. To have them
gaze fixedly into the lens is bad enough, but to have
them look far off to one side is still worse, since the
light striking upon the white of the eyeball usually
gives a ghastly expression to the face.
When it is a question of pictures of incident, you
will find it makes a great difference in taking moving
pictures whether the direction of motion is directly
across the camera, or coming toward or receding from
it. During the time of exposure, objects that move
across the camera of course displace their images most
upon the plate, and the quicker the motion the more
likely are the images to be blurred. Hence it is that
OUTDOOR PHOTOGRAPHY 119
in order to take pictures of moving objects the point
of view should be a little in front or a little to the
rear of a moving object, rather than directly across
its line of motion.
You will also secure many more successes if you
will notice that in all such motions as walking, run-
ning, jumping, throwing, and so forth, there are certain
moments in which the motion is at its least. Thus, in
taking a walking figure, if you catch the swing of the
foot at either end of its motion, you will be likely to
get a clear picture ; but if you time your exposure so
that the moving foot is swinging past the other, it will
be almost sure to be blurred.
Suppose, again, a ball be tossed into the air. It is
not difficult to catch an image of it at just the mo-
ment when the ascent ceases and changes into descent.
But when the ball has fallen almost to the ground, its
speed is so great that it is beyond the capabilities of
any except the quickest lenses and shutters. There-
fore, before taking pictures of moving objects be sure
to think out clearly the nature of the motion and to
select that part of it which is slowest. Fortunately
this will give you the effect with which the human
eye is most familiar, for it is one which the eye most
frequently catches and remembers. The human eye
is far slower than many of the quickest photographic
shutters, and so it is quite possible for you with a
shutter moving at no greater speed than the fiftieth of
a second to obtain pictures that to the eye mean very
rapid motion.
These principles will be particularly helpful to you
when you are making portraits of children and babies.
Though their motions are very quick, there is in any.
120 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
occupation nearly always some instant at which they
can be caught by the camera.
When we come to the photographing of animals, in-
sects, and flowers, we come to a field in which there
is room for all manner of ingenuity, but we must be
guided somewhat by what has been said about the
sort of picture we desire to secure. If our object is
scientific, and we wish to make merely a record of use-
ful views, we must keep in mind exactly what those
facts are and arrange our picture to bring them out
plainly. But if the purpose is artistic, it should never
be forgotten that we must secure such views as the
eye is likely to catch. The camera must be placed as
nearly as possible in the position from which the eye
ordinarily views the object. It is far better in such
pictures to get things upon a smaller scale rather than
from unnatural points of view. -
Take, for instance, the question of making a picture
of a squirrel in a tree. There is very little object in so
tipping the camera as to give a view of a squirrel upon
a tree that, though upright, seems in the picture to
lean at an angle of forty five degrees, even if by this
we can get the animal upon a larger scale.
With flowers it may be that this rule need not be so
strictly followed. These are so frequently brought in-
doors and arranged decoratively that we become famil-
iar with them from all points of view, and so it is in-
different from what point they are taken with the
camera. In illustration of the ingenuity shown by
some workers in this branch of photography we read
that in order to secure clear-cut views of flowers, a
clever photographer used light backgrounds of tissue
paper of any desired colour which could be stretched
Made with a Bausch & Lomb-Zºr'ss Tessar tº:
INSTANTANEous Photography

OUTDOOR PEIOTOGRAPHY 121
upon a slight frame of sticks and set up behind the
flower he wished to photograph, so as to give him a
picture of the entire plant without interference with
other growths. By changing the colour of this little
screen he could be sure of getting good contrast
photographically whatever the colour of the natural
flower.
We will, in closing, make a little plea for the tripod.
Unless the light and season are such that you may be
sure of taking snap-shots at will, be sure to take your
tripod with you whenever you go out with the camera.
By its use you will be sure of being able to make a
time exposure whenever and wherever you choose,
and will thus secure pictures otherwise impossible.
Merely because it is an accident that so often happens,
we wish to warn you once more against walking
against the legs of the spread tripod. While you are
absorbed in arranging your camera, or in studying
your view, it is fatally easy to forget the little tripod
legs that straddle out so widely, and if you upset your
camera you will be lucky indeed to escape injuring it.
CHAPTER XI
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS
IT is evident at once that the chief difference be-
tween outdoor and indoor photography is a matter of
quantity of light, or rather one of length of exposure.
It is true, of course, that in certain very brightly
lighted rooms a shorter exposure may be given than
in certain dark places in woods or between cliffs, and
so on, outdoors. But even when the indoor light is
apparently quite as strong, it will be found that the
reflected lights which are so generally present out-of-
doors are lacking indoors, and that the illumination is
therefore less even. Especially will this be found
true in the taking of portraits. We are more used to
seeing people quiet indoors, and so are more familiar
with the scheme of lighting. It is only when we
come to making photographic portraits that we find
how crude that lighting is, and how strong are the con-
trasts between the lighted and the shadowed side in-
doors.
There is also a very great difference between the
light at or near windows and doors and that even a
very few feet away toward the centres of rooms.
From this it comes that the best general rule in using
the camera in this weaker light is to be sure not to
underestimate the right exposure. If you must err,
let the error be always on the side of giving the full
length of time to the darker shadows.
122
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS 123
An experiment easily tried, and well worth trying
for the information it gives, is to expose a piece of
ordinary printing-out paper to the light in the mid-
dle of a fairly lighted room and to note how very
slowly its tint is darkened. Then, on even a dull day
expose the same kind of paper outdoors, and you will
see that the rate of darkening is very much more
rapid.
From this general statement you may draw the
necessary rules for indoor photography in ordinary
houses, for of course we are not here considering such
lighting as the professional photographer gets in a
studio especially prepared with skylights and side-
lights and curtains. Under such a big skylight the
times of exposure may be very nearly as short as out-
doors. But in our own homes most of the lighting is
from windows in the side walls that seldom give the
direct light of the sky, and the colours of hangings,
walls, furniture, and so on, are such as absorb light
rays and prevent their being reflected back again.
The two chief principles of indoor photography,
therefore, are to give enough exposure and to secure
an even lighting. The first is a matter of judgment
and experience. If you are at all systematic you will
by a few experiments learn about the right number of
seconds to give when taking photographs in certain
rooms of your house, and will allow a little more time
whenever you are further from the source of light.
In some of the circulars and hand-books, particularly
those that come with small cameras, you are directed
to use for indoor pictures a smaller stop than that
used for snap-shots outdoors. There is no sensible
reason for this piece of advice, unless it be the fact
124 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that in a long exposure, the beginner has more leeway,
and a few seconds more or less will not spoil his nega-
tive. The large diaphragm f/8 is the natural one for
portrait photography, and an even larger one is often
desirable ; for the shorter the exposure, the less chance
there is of your subject's moving, or losing the charm
of a fleeting expression. Besides, the sharp detail
produced by a small stop is generally objectionable in
a portrait. Perhaps, when you photograph your
dog you may like to be able to see every hair distinct;
but in the face of a person, sharp lines and little de-
fects are things to be made inconspicuous, for the
camera records many things which one's friendly eyes
do not perceive. Five seconds ought to suffice you for
a portrait exposure; rather than take longer, you had
better secure brighter lighting. In a light room or
sheltered part of a piazza you may be able to get the
exposure down to less than a second ; in which case, if
you have a shutter that can be regulated, you will find
it convenient to use it set for one second or less.
As to the length for different plates and films, you
may secure very valuable hints in the directions given .
by the manufacturers, especially those issued by the
Kodak Company or by companies that sell exposure
meters. Remember, however, that it is to the interest
of these professionals to make sure that the amateur
gives plenty of time, so you need not be afraid of err-
ing if you do not go beyond the various lengths of
exposure they set down for rooms variously lighted
and variously finished in colouring.
Even if you make no further use of an exposure
meter than to adopt it for a set of trials to aid your
judgment, the small amount the meter costs will be
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS 12.5
very wisely spent in teaching you to judge conditions
of light. Even those cheapest forms consisting of
celluloid cards, or little disks that revolve upon a card,
may be so used as to give you within a very short
period most excellent ideas of the right exposure un-
der various circumstances, at different times of day,
and different conditions of the weather. From them
you will at least learn, as we have remarked before, to
think of all the different elements that go to make up
judgment of exposure; and without some such mechan-
ical aid the chances are very much against your guess-
ing the right exposure until you have had considera-
ble experience and thereby spoiled much material.
As to the second principle, that of securing even
lighting, this is largely a matter of common sense and
home-made contrivances. For example, if you wish
to take a portrait indoors, and should place your sitter
close to a window with the light striking upon one
side of the face, it is almost inevitable that you will
get a very harsh result, full of contrast, and thereby
make a picture that will strongly accent all wrinkles,
irregularities of the face, and defects of complexion.
And yet, even with the sitter in this position, a mo-
ment's reflection and a little ingenuity will show you
that it is a very simple matter to arrange white cloth
or a large sheet of paper so as to reflect the light of
the window upon the shaded side of the face, and
thus greatly reduce the excessive contrast in lighting.
This is often recommended.
A still better plan is to place your sitter facing, or
nearly facing, a window while you take the picture
from near the window, looking at the fully lighted side.
And even the fact that the sitter holds a book or
126 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
newspaper as if reading it, will make all the difference
between a pleasing and an unpleasing portrait, on ac-
count of the lights reflected from the surface of the
paper upon the sitter's face. If you wish to get an
even stronger reflected light, it is often possible to do
it by setting up a mirror in the right position to re-
flect, not the sunshine, but the White light, where it is
needed. The flash-light, too, may be used for the
same purpose even in the daytime.
The same sort of home-mad , will often
serve to give you a plain ba at will throw
out the sitter's head into excellu, v relief. If you wish
to avoid showing the detail of this background, you
should not use your lens with a small aperture, since
the smaller the stop opening the more depth of
focus there will be — that is to say, the more things
will be in focus at the same time. Another way of
avoiding detail in a background is to keep that back-
ground in motion, so that it will be blurred in the
photograph. Thus, behind the sitter's head you might
have some one to hold up a plain shawl and to keep it
gently moving so as to destroy the effect of its texture.
If you do not have an artificial background, remem-
ber what has been said already about the great im-
portance of noticing all the little things that come into
your picture, in order to make sure that there is no
small detail to take attention from the portrait. We
have seen, as a horrible example, a portrait group, one
member of which, a bald-headed man, happened to be
so posed that his head apparently formed part of a
drawing of the “Sistine Madonna" and served as a
convenient resting-place for the Child in his mother's
arms. The one who took the photograph was so used
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS 127
to the presence of the picture on the wall that he
never noticed the absurd effect until it was brought
out clearly by the photograph, and the group picture
thereby made an absurdity.
Of course such a blunder as this ought easily to be
avoided. One you will be less apt to notice is the
presence of little reflections of light from the glass of
pictures, from the surface of polished furniture, or
even from the backs of books. These reflections,
hardly noti ve, often make very emphatic
white streaks - raph and require much treat-
ment of the negative or print to remove them. These
things ought of course to be noticed in the finder at
the time of taking the picture, but only a very minute
examination will show them there, because of the
small scale. A very slight change of position of either
camera or sitter will usually enable you to leave out
objects that interfere with the simplicity and direct-
ness of the portrait.
Since photography is with the amateur so often a
summer amusement, a warning to him to consider
dark piazzas as part of “indoors ” will not come amiss.
Usually their ceilings are low and shut out the light
of the sky, so as to make a long exposure necessary.
If the sunlight strikes upon the sitters there is danger
again of harsh contrasts and crude lighting effects.
Perhaps, as an aid to the young photographer, an
account of an actual experience in judging and making
an exposure may be helpful. An amateur photog-
rapher, sitting upon the piazza in a country place,
noticed that his daughter, sprawled upon the piazza
floor, had taken a rather picturesque attitude assumed
unconsciously while reading. Being a believer in keep-
128 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
ing a camera at hand, he warned the little subject
against moving, stepped inside the door and brought
out his magazine camera containing twelve 4 x 5 plates.
The first thing was to see that the camera was in
order, but a glance was enough to make sure of this.
That glance showed that the shutter was closed, that
the speed indicator was at one-fiftieth of a second
(instantaneous), and that the diaphragm, or stop, was
set at f/7.5. It was not necessary to see that the
plates were in position, as the camera had been newly
loaded and the index set at No. 1. Consequently the
Only adjustment that had to be made was for distance,
and the indicator was set at ten feet, since the object
was to include not only the child, but something of the
background and the surroundings, which were pictur-
esque.
The next matter was to determine the length of the
exposure. For this purpose an exposure meter was
used, being the one fitted into the cover of a little
photographic diary issued in England. This diary
contained all necessary directions, tables, and so forth,
for the photographer, and was used to find out the
necessary factors that go to make a correct exposure.
The first thing to ascertain was the nature of the
view to be taken. This, on a well-lighted piazza almost
directly under the sky, evidently belonged to the
class called “light foreground.” One reason for this
decision was the fact that the house was of rough-cast
painted white, and gave much reflected light. The
next thing to be sought was the “light value.” This,
as given in the tables printed, was, for the month of
June, between the hours of 9 A. M. and 3 P. M., the
fraction W6. This fraction referred to the meter,
1PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS 129
where different light values appeared on a little wheel.
The third question was that of the plate used. From
a list of different plates was taken the figure opposite
the Hammer brand, 94. This also referred to a set of
numbers on the meter.
The exposure meter was a disk, and the directions
were to turn this disk until the nature of the scene
(light foreground) came below the light value figure
(%). This turning of the disk moved, of course, the
whole edge. The next step was to find the plate-
number (54) on the lower edge of the disk. Opposite
this plate-number, on the paper back of the disk, were
found, printed in red ink, the figures º'o - that is, so of
a second was indicated as the correct exposure, all the
things mentioned being taken into account. But this
correct exposure was for the stop f/8, and conse-
quently for f/7.5 the exposure might have been a trifle
shorter, since the opening was larger. It was not neces-
sary, however, to be so exact, since the plate, like most
modern plates, had sufficient latitude to allow for the
exposure being not quite correct, and no account was
taken of this difference by the photographer because
it is better to err, if at all, on the side of giving plenty
of time.
It will be seen that the shutter happened to be set
at the right stop, and so the photographer had nothing
to do but to look into the finder, see that the attitude
of the subject and the surroundings were what he
thought picturesque, and then to press the bulb that
made the exposure.
Immediately after making the exposure, the photog-
'rapher, having had several years’ experience, changed
the plate. That is, he turned the handle which put
130 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the exposed plate away, and brought a fresh one into
place. This to avoid the danger of a double exposure
on the plate already used.
If your subjects are interiors without figures, or in
which the figures are subordinate, the main things to
be guarded against are distorted perspective and
halation. Distorted perspective comes from so taking
a picture that the lines of objects are not such as the
eye usually sees. It is not that the perspective is
untrue; it is true for the lens, ordinarily. But if we
take such views as are unfamiliar to the human eye,
the pictures will appear absurd, unfamiliar, or mon-
Strous.
An early attempt of one amateur to take a photo-
graph of a small child at the breakfast table, resulted,
because of his inexperience, in the picture of a very
small human being in the background and a gigantic
coffee-pot dominating the whole photograph in the
foreground. No doubt the human eye in this case
would really have seen the coffee-pot on the colossal
scale shown in the print; but since the mind of the
observer would have been fixed entirely upon the
child, the coffee-pot would not have been present in
his mental impression. In taking interiors, therefore,
be careful to remove such objects of furniture as come
too near the camera and so seem greatly enlarged.
Get as far away as you conveniently can from the
room or from the walls that show in the picture, so as
to secure ordinary perspective effects.
We shall not here speak of the means of lighting up
dark corners by the use of flash-lights and reflectors;
but we should say, merely as a reminder, that it will
not greatly help except in very long exposures to use
PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS 131
gaslight or lamplight, since neither is able to act
strongly upon the photographic plate.
Halation is the tendency of strongly lighted spaces
or objects to affect the photographic plate beyond
their true outlines. Thus, in a photograph if halation
is not prevented a brightly lighted window will seem
to be surrounded by a little halo of light, and the same
effect will be produced by an electric light or by any
point that strongly reflects a beam of light. This
effect is produced in the following way:
The rays of light go through the photographic
emulsion on the plate, then through the glass or cellu-
loid, and are somewhat reflected back again into the
emulsion. You will see by a moment's thinking that
the glass plate or film back of the emulsion having
->
C Nº. .A.
Yº: A
§§e 43'
* 4—Emulsion.
<– Glass
zr-º- Emulsion.
*— Glas s
~ Bacting
DIAGIRAM XIII
behind it a dark surface is really a mirror, and as such
reflects such rays of light as pass through the emulsion
and support. Since these rays are reflected back, they
follow the regular rule in regard to such reflected rays
— that is, they make the same angle in striking the
reflecting surface and in being reflected from it.
The diagram shows how the amount of space affected
by halation depends upon the thickness of the support


132 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
of the emulsion and is wider as this is thicker. In
Order to prevent halation plates are often “backed ”;
that is, they are painted with some substance or pro-
vided with a backing of some material good to absorb
light rather than reflect it.
Very often halation can be greatly avoided by
making two exposures in taking the photograph of a
single room. The first exposure is made with the
windows covered — an easy matter when the room
has white window shades. When sufficient exposure
has been given, the lens is closed without moving the
camera, the coverings are removed from the windows,
and a very short exposure is given so as to show the
windows uncovered. If it is desired that the view out-
side the window shall also be clear and distinct, the fo-
cus may be shifted to the proper distance before the sec-
ond exposure. This should be done with care, so as not
to move the camera, and by means of the focusing scale
only, for it will not be safe to remove the plate-holder.
It is usually best in taking interiors to select a view
that will make the danger of halation smallest. But
by the use of specially made non-halation plates, or by
using films, which being thin have much less tendency
to halation, it is not difficult to avoid the spreading
of the light effect.
In taking pictures of interiors when architectural
features are important, as in public buildings, it is
often well to use the “wide-angle ’ lenses — lenses so
made as to take in more of an object close to the lens.
Their effect really is to show the object as it would
be if the observer were farther off than the camera
stands — sometimes as if he were at a distance that
would take him outside of the building altogether.
CHAPTER XII
FROM RULE OF THUMB TO KNOWLEDGE
Résumé – Rule of thumb — What can be done by it — Rnowledge and
its advantages—Steps necessary to knowing photography – Op-
tics — Mechanics — Chemistry — What each includes for the pho-
tographer — Laws of light — Theory of the camera — The emul-
sion — The developer — The fixing solution — Washing—Toning
— Different processes—The old and the new — Value of the his-
tory of photography — “Photographer ” and “amateur.”
So far, after a general talk about photography, We
have tried to give you merely a short and practical
account of the ways of picture-taking, with hints
about the best subjects and about what to look for if
you wish to get good results. There has been no dis-
cussion as to why certain things are done, and no
giving of reasons for the taking of some steps rather
than others.
Even in all this we have spoken to the beginner,
and suggested what is best suited to him. In so do-
ing, however, we have tried to tell especially those
things that are not made clear in the printed circulars
of directions, and to give the warnings that we should
have found most useful when taking our first lessons
in the art. Now we are convinced that the time to
save plates is before the exposure is made, and that
the most economical way of taking pictures is ex-
pressed in old Davy Crockett's motto — “Be sure
you're right, then go ahead ' " But in order to be
sure one is right, it is not enough to go by directions
given by others. The rule of thumb is only good
133
134 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
until one has something better. Even by its guidance
a careful photographer can do much. So many are
the books and pamphlets and circulars that there is
little for which directions cannot be found; and if
these are closely followed, bad failures may be avoided.
But there will be no improvement, no deep interest in
the work, no delight in making skill take the place of
elaborate devices, none of the pleasure that comes
from seeing and overcoming difficulties.
It cannot be necessary to say to young people of to-
day that there is more education, more pleasure, and
more benefit generally to be derived from a game or
amusement requiring skill than in one depending on
chance. Photography so greatly repays knowledge
and skill that it is foolish indeed to depend upon mere
chance for your results. As well might one own a
horse, and never learn to ride, or a rifle without learn-
ing to shoot, as to pretend to be master of a camera
without understanding how to make it do its work.
Neither should the young photographer be content
to know the process of picture-making only in part.
He need not know every way by which prints can be
produced, but he should be able to make exposures,
finish his own negatives, print from them satisfac-
torily, and understand, in general, the “reasons why ’’
for each step he takes. If there were no other argu-
ment for this, it would be found in the increased
pleasure brought by fuller knowledge.
For example, there are a few main principles that
will give a good understanding of how rays of light
act in passing through the air, and through glass, or
through other substances, or in being reflected from
surfaces. These the young photographer will find it
FROM RULE OF THUMB TO KNOWLEDGE 135
helpful to know, and they may be known without
delving too deep into the science of optics.
Knowing these principles, the subject of lenses and
their making will to a great extent become clear. He
will see why one glass or a number are used ; he will
be able to comprehend the making of compound lenses,
and see why the surfaces take certain curves. He
will have no trouble in seeing the use of the dia-
phragm. He will find out what causes lens-makers to
charge high prices for a few pieces of glass cemented
together; and also he will be glad to learn that even
with a low-priced lens excellent work can be done
within its own rightful field. He will be able to
understand the reference books, the special articles,
that are all the time coming out to help the learner ;
and he will not be misled by absurd and impossible
statements made by irresponsible dealers or ignorant
salesmen. Best of all, he will get the best results
from his own camera, whatever it may be.
A knowledge of the mechanical side of photography
also has its great value. The modern camera is so
made that, like an excellent rifle, it requires to be
understood if one is to take advantage of its capabil-
ities. It is humiliating to possess one of these ex-
Quisite machines, fitted with every needful device,
and yet to know little more than the names of its
parts. The best cameras are really works of art,
and marvels of skill; they deserve the careful study
and expert use of which they are capable. Besides,
every bit of knowledge one gains leads to more,
and widens the field of the instrument's use, whether
as a helper or as a pastime, as an instrument of pre-
cision or as an artistic resource.
136 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
The chemistry of the subject is undoubtedly very
deep; but even this part of photography has its more
general rules which can be readily acquired, and used
to aid one in consulting books whenever more exact
information is needed. For, after all, photography is
a practical matter, and one can pursue each part of it
knowingly without needing to carry the whole science
in one's head. But the elements must be known so
that the particular directions may be understood and
rightly applied.
He who would get the best results from photog-
raphy must therefore know at least in a broad way
the laws of light — how it is produced, how it travels,
of what different kinds it consists, what effects these
kinds have upon the compounds used in photography,
how the light is affected by passing through lenses, or
by being reflected by differently curved surfaces, or
absorbed by others. He must be able to tell what
parts of the camera are really essential, and what
parts can be spared. He must understand how to ad-
just the camera to meet various conditions of work,
and how to remedy those little defects that might
interfere with its best working, and how to keep it in
the best condition for use.
It is not necessary to be able to manufacture all
one's own plates and papers, but one should be able
to make an intelligent choice after having tested
different makers’ goods, and to find out which are the
best for his own use, whether for one occasion or
another. And the same thing may be said of the
chemicals used in developing and printing. There is
a great variety of them to-day, and though they do
not differ so greatly as was formerly supposed, yet
FROM RULE OF THUMB TO KNOWLEDGE 137
there are uses for which each is best fitted, and some
make easy results that are difficult if others be used.
Knowing the general laws by which they act, the
right chemicals for each kind of work may be chosen.
The securing of a good negative is not always easy,
and no one can tell beforehand just at what step of
the process a difficulty may arise. The only safe way
is to understand what is taking place, so that the
right remedy may be applied when the hitch occurs.
If you know how to do everything rightly, you will
know at once when anything goes wrong, and so can
do what is necessary to save your negative or your
print. Knowledge also prevents much unnecessary
drudgery in following rule-of-thumb rules without
good reason.
It is worth while to see a professional at work in
order to see with what ease, rapidity and certainty the
different processes may be carried out when one has a
clear idea of what is to be done and how to do it.
Washing and toning, fixing and drying, all can be
done cleverly or stupidly ; and whoever has seen such
things rightly and intelligently carried through will
thereafter be unwilling to go blindly through a half-
understood procedure.
It is not, of course, necessary to know all the
different ways of making prints. But it is well to
study out those that you like best, and to understand
these from end to end so they may be done in the
best way and will produce the highest results.
The interest one takes in photography will be
enormously increased when at least some of the more
common processes are entirely understood. Then the
technical magazines will take on new interest, the
138 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
exhibitions and competitions will have a new mean-
ing, and will become helpful in your own work. You
will be able also to keep up with the progress of the
art, appreciating new discoveries and inventions, and
taking advantage of what other workers are doing.
The history of photography is not a long one. The
whole story, from the first prints made upon sensitive
paper to the improvements of our own time, covers.lit-
tle more than the life of one man. The growth of the
art and science, from being merely a curiosity and
amusement to its present position when it is one of the
most valuable of all helpers to exact knowledge, covers
a still shorter time. To read the whole record, or
even to study it carefully, does not demand much time
or a great number of books, and yet will greatly add
to one's appreciation of the wonderful achievements
due to modern makers of lenses, of cameras, and of
modern dry-plates.
There is a debt of gratitude and a tribute of fairly
won fame owed to the men who have created pho-
tography, and have shown others how to follow in
their footsteps. The work of such men should be
familiar to us, and we should be ashamed to forget
them while we remember the names of poets, Warriors,
monarchs, and teachers to whom possibly is due no
more of the benefits that make our lives pleasanter
and more useful.
If, however, one cares only to follow blindly the
rules given, and to be satisfled with chance results, he
may be entitled to the name “photographer,” but he
has no rightful claim to be ranked among the “ama-
teurs” — who love the art as well as practice it.
CHAPTER XIII
ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES
The pinhole — Its faults and their correcting — Difficulties with lenses
—Spherical aberration — Chromatic aberration — Distortion —
Curvature of field — Astigmatism — Forms of lenses — Simple
lenses — Rectilinear lenses — The anastigmats — Covering power
— Rapidity — Convertible lenses — Portrait lens — The telephoto
lens — Expensive lenses are for special work.
IN order to understand fully the theory of the pho-
tographic lens, one must go to the special books on the
subject, as much space and many diagrams are neces-
sary to make the whole matter clear. Here we shall
try to give the amateur some acquaintance with the
different kinds of lenses, the meaning of the names
given them, the uses for which each is fitted, and their
right management.
We have already shown that a small clear opening
— a pinhole — will take pictures, and would be the
best of lenses except that it has certain serious faults.
It is, when made carefully in thin material, really bet-
ter than any lens in several respects: It is (within
wide limits) always in focus ; it never distorts its
image; it takes far and near objects with equal re-
sults; it includes an angle of 180°– half the whole
view ; covers any size plate; and lights all parts of
the plate equally. These virtues are hard to equal
in the best lenses, and until the defects are explained
One is inclined to say, “What lens can be better than
a mere pinhole P”
139
140 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
One is reminded of the horse which had but two
faults — he was hard to catch, and no good when
caught. So with the pinhole. Its two defects are
lack of rapidity, and lack of definition. That is, it
admits very little light, and does not give a clear,
sharp image on the plate. It is a perfect lens where
one wants only a general soft picture, and is in no
hurry. But nearly every photographer requires either
good, clear definition, or quick exposing; and conse-
quently we are driven to use lenses for the purpose of
taking in a great many rays of light, so as to get quick
exposures, and for the purpose of causing all the rays
possible to come to the same focus, so as to get clear,
distinct images. -
Thus the whole purpose of the lens-maker is to keep
the advantages of the pinhole while adding rapidity
and sharpness.
Hence the value of a lens depends on the number of
rays it can bring to a true sharp image — that is, on
“rapidity" and “definition.” But in trying to get
these virtues, we meet with difficulties brought in by
the use of the glass disk or disks. These difficulties
are described as follows:
Spherical aberration. To make lenses their curved
surfaces must be spherical, so that they may be ground
by tools that can move from one part of the surface
to another without fitting unevenly. On a sphere all
parts of the surface have the same curve, and the same
tool will fit any part. Now the truly perfect lens
should have another kind of curve known as the
parabola or parabolic; but this is so difficult to make
that it is never attempted, especially because it is
easier to correct the fault of curvature in another Way,
ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 141
The effect of spherical aberration is to make the rays
nearer the edges of the lens come to a different focus
from those nearer the centre.
Chromatic aberration. Of this we have already
spoken. When the rays go through a lens the differ-
ent colours are differently bent or refracted, and so
come to different focuses, being separated by the lens.
Distortion. This means the changing of straight
lines in the object to curved lines in the image. When
a stop or diaphragm is used in front of a single lens,
it cuts off certain of the oblique or slanting rays com-
ing from the margins of the scene photographed.
These rays are those that would go through the centre
of the lens, and instead of them the diaphragm lets
through the slanting rays that go through parts of the
lens further from the centre. These are not bent to
the same point as the others, and so make the image
at a different point on the plate. So the further away
these points strike from the centre of the lens the more
they are bent.



& A C
DIAGRAM XIV
Hence if we photograph a square (a) it becomes in
the image barrel-shaped (b) — the images of the corner
part of the lines being brought too near the centre.
If the diaphragm be put behind the lens (between lens
and plate), it cuts off the rays that pass furthest from
the centre, letting pass the more central rays, which
142 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
are less bent. Consequently the curving is reversed,
and the image of the square becomes cushion-shaped
(c). Taking a single lens, and putting a diaphragm
made of paper before it and behind it, successively,
while casting an image of a sharply drawn square,
will show this effect, though it is not very marked in
a small picture, and is of less importance in a smaller
camera. In a double lens, with the diaphragm be-
ſ tween lenses,
the distortion
| caused at the
first lens is
-] cured by that
| at the other,
and the im-
age c 0 m e S
right.
Curvature of field. The ordinary lens brings its
image to a surface that is not really flat – like the
sensitive plate or ground-glass – but curved, or saucer.
shaped. (Diagram XVIII.) That is, when we focus
to get perfect definition at the middle of the plate, we
find the marginal parts slightly blurred. If we focus
for these, the middle is blurred. To get perfect deſi-
nition, the plate or ground-glass would have to be
slightly saucer-shaped, which though possible is not
convenient. -
Astigmatism. Astigmatism means that the lens
having this fault will not focus truly horizontal and
perpendicular lines at the same time. Thus in trying
to get a perfectly sharp image of a cross, we should
have to make the horizontal arm sharp, and the up.
right one blurred or vice versa. Or else we may so

DIAGRAM XV –CURVATURE OF FIELD
ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 143
focus as to have a compromise— neither very sharp nor
very blurred ; and this fault is worst at the edges of
the plate. Where correctness throughout the whole
plate is needed, astigmatism is a serious fault.
There are other errors possible in lenses, but these
are the ones that are considered in dividing lenses into
classes, and the most important in practice. These
errors can be corrected more or less, and in the best
lenses the most serious are corrected. But it is not
possible to correct all errors in any case, because all
merits cannot exist in a single lens or system of
lenses ; the merits do not go together. An example of
this is seen in the fact that there is always some loss
When light goes through even the cleanest glass, and
yet some of the finest lenses require eight or more
disks of glass to give them their good qualities; and
that to get rapidity the lens should have a wide open-
ing, while to get clear definition the opening must be
kept small in comparison with the lens. So in mak-
ing lenses the object to be attained is borne in mind
and the lens made to suit that object.
Here (a, b, c, d, e and f) are the simple forms of
lenses from which all the combinations are made up ;




(! b C d .* € f
DIAGRAM XVI
These may be understood quickly by noticing that
either side may be flat in a lens if the other be curved;
144 PHGTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
that both may be curved ; that in the case of a curve
it may be concave or convex. These forms all bend
rays of light ; and rays coming from a convex surface
are brought together ; from a concave surface are
separated; from a flat surface they come unchanged.
By knowing these principles, and by using surfaces
curved more or less, lens makers make the rays go
where they please. But it is also true that different
shapes of glass bend rays differently, and by putting
together lenses of varying sorts of glass, the faults of
one can be corrected by the merits of another. Let us
see how these methods are used in making lenses use-
ful in photography.
The simplest lens is the bi-convex (a), which makes
an image, but has all the faults possible to a lens,
being entirely uncorrected. It is practically never
used alone. The ordinary “single lens” is really
made of two pieces of glass; and the bi-convex if found
in a camera will be supplied with a small stop, an
opening about 3% of its focal length in size. With this
small opening only the very middle of the lens is used,
where the errors are least. The only advantages of
this “single non-achromatic ’’ are the fact that it ab-
sorbs little light and is not apt to reflect light from its
curved surfaces — a defect known as “flare.” It is
slow, has poor definition, and is generally lacking in
all good qualities. It can be useful only in very
bright light, with a small stop, and where defining
power and correctness of lines are not important.
The “single achromatic " or “meniscus” or “achro-
matic meniscus ” lenses are made of two lenses
cemented together. The “meniscus’ lens is one with
a concave surface on one side, and a convex on the

*
º
-
-
Photograph by Mr. Ellwood Crane Courtesy of Photo-Era Magazine
A Pinhole Photograph
Notice:–1. Depth of focus, or equal definition of near and
far objects. 2. Equal definition at corners and at centre.
3. Absence of distortion. 4. Absence of halation or ſogging,
shown in the detail in the curtain.





ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 145
other (c). By grinding these surfaces to the right
curvatures, or by putting together two lenses of dif-
ferent shape (Diagram XXI), the errors of chromatic
and spherical aberration are lessened or corrected.
Sometimes a “ double meniscus, non-achromatic ’’ lens
is made (Diagram XX) with
a diaphragm midway be- Diaphragm
tween the lenses; but this
is not corrected for the
chromatic error, and con-
sequently the focus of its
photographic rays is not the
same as the focus of the
visual rays, or the image DIAGRAM XVII
seen on the ground-glass. If
put into a camera, it is usually one that focuses en-
tirely by scale, not on a ground-glass, and so allows
for this defect. Yet putting this lens at the right dis-
tance does not make it act like an achromatic lens, for
the less active rays, though not in focus, act some-
what on the plate to blur it.
The true “single achromatic lens,” of two kinds of
glass, is corrected somewhat for chromatic and spherical
aberration, and when used with a small stop is capable
of good work on bright sunny days, or on quiet sub-
jects not needing great quickness. If used with a wide
opening, these lenses show distortion and some astig-
matism, which becomes evident when straight lines
appear in the picture. In purely pictorial work the
single achromatic lens is more useful. Its small aper-
ture gives depth of definition, and its lack of sharp-
ness is often an advantage.
The amateur must not think that the “perfect lens”
T
Wº
|


146 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
is indispensable for good work in photography. For
example, the smaller kodak cameras, Brownies, Num-
ber 0, No. 1 Folding and No. 1 A Folding, with which
so many delightful pictures are taken are supplied
with meniscus lenses, and meniscus achromatic lenses.
An expert could in a moment prove their limitations,
but many of their pictures can hardly be improved
upon because the camera has been used under the
*ight conditions.
ØN §§
º
2S
§
§
RRCTILINEAR LENS WIDE ANGLE RECTILINEAR
DIAGRAM XVIII
The “Rectilinear ’’ lenses (also called “symmet-
rical,” “aplanatic,” and so on) are made up of two
lenses or lens combinations, mounted in a tube with a
diaphragm between. (Diagram XXI.)
They are “symmetrical” when the two combina-
tions are alike in focus and make up. These lenses
are usually so corrected that they will do good work
with an opening of 96 the focus or more. They bring
the colour rays together, have little spherical aber-
ration, and little distortion. It is an excellent lens for
all except the most rapid and most exactly defined
work, provided it be good of its kind — which can
only be known by actual test. The “Photo Minia-

































ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 147
ture' on lenses (No. 79) says of the rectilinear : “It
is still quite good enough for 80 per cent. of the work
of the photographer, provided he does not attempt
high-speed work, three-colour, or fine reproduction or
scientific photography,” and again, “For all ordinary
purposes, where critical definition from the centre to
the edges of the plate and rapidity are not essential,
the rectilinear of to-day with a rapidity expressed by
an aperture of f/8 is as good a lens as the amateur
can desire.”
The Anastigmat lens is one that may be described as
the highest type of rectilinear — one that carries the
corrections to the furthest extent possible for the pur-
pose it is intended to serve. To discuss all the different
types would be only to copy the learning of others
from various books on the subject. The anastigmat
lenses became possible when the new kinds of glass,
made in the town of Jena, Prussia, led to new experi-
ments and triumphs in lens-making. Though even
with the older varieties of glass the highest classes of
lenses can now be made, it was the Jena glass that
first caused their making, and showed them to be
possible.
The anastigmat lenses, because of their superior
corrections, possess many advantages over the
rectilinear. First, they are able to focus sharply at
the same time both vertical and horizontal lines.
Second, being so corrected, they can be used with a
bigger opening, and so are quicker because they let in
more light to the plate. Third, they have a flatter
field — that is, bring the image nearly into a single
flat surface, and so can be used with clear definition
OVer a larger plate. All this amounts to saying that
148 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the anastigmat is a better corrected lens than the
rectilinear, and so makes a better, clearer, brighter
image on the photographic plate.
Since the different anastigmats vary in their quality
and Work, it is not possible to pick out particular ones
as “best "for all sorts of work. The qualities that
are best worth seeking are thus set forth in the
“Photo Miniature" on lenses (No. 79):
Covering power. Select a lens with which one can
focus with a large opening, and yet keep the same
covering power if the opening is made smaller.
Select that giving the widest angle of view.
Rapidity. Choose the lens working at the larger
aperture if it is equally good otherwise.
Convertible lenses. Choose a lens of which the
Separate parts, when unscrewed, can be used as
separate lenses of different focal lengths, if the whole
lens is equally good.
As to these matters, in buying of a dealer of good
reputation, you may seek his aid and advice. But be
careful to bear in mind, and to let him know, the pur-
pose for which you mean to use the lens. For general
hand-camera work, such as most amateurs will do,
there is no need to pay for a lens of the greatest possi-
ble speed and perfection. Such are made for scientific
work, reporters on race-tracks, and for the making of
process plates to be used in publications. A reason-
ably fast lens — one working sharply and clearly at
an opening of f/8 — will do everything except the
taking of objects in very rapid motion; and for these
there will be needed the very quickest forms of shut-
ters — such as the focal plane.
So far as picture-making is concerned, the really
ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 149
“instantaneous pictures” are seldom very pleasing,
and except for these the chief benefit of using the
quicker lens is in the ability to take snap-shots on
grey days. Therefore do not be dissatisfied even if
you cannot pay from $20 to $150 or more for a lens;
excellent work is done daily with rectilinear lenses
costing only four or five dollars.
There are certain special lenses made for particular
classes of work, and with these the young photog-
rapher should have some acquaintance. There are
the Wide-Angle lenses, which are merely lenses of
shorter focus (or “focal length '') than is usually em-
ployed with a plate of a given size in a certain camera.
All lenses of the same focus, used on the same size plate,
give the same amount of a given view — that is, they
cover the same angle of view. A wide-angle lens is
therefore one made to include a wider view on a given
size of plate. It is useful to enable you to get more
of a scene upon the plate your camera uses, but in
order to widen the angle, the focus of the lens is made
short, and it often works at a smaller aperture, being
therefore slower. The small aperture is necessary in
order that the illumination may be made as even as
possible, for wide-angle lenses cause the illumination
to decrease rapidly as the edge of the plate is ap-
proached; and, besides, these lenses made for special,
limited use, are often not so well corrected as finer
lenses, and must be used with a smaller opening in
Order to give even definition.
The Portrait lens is one so made as to give clear
definition over a limited part of the plate and to be
usable at a very wide opening, giving great speed.
The same class of work can be done with the best
150 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
anastigmats, which besides have other advantages. If
a soft, not too defined effect is sought, it can be had
by slightly changing the focus of the lens that will
give clear definition, so even on this ground the por-
trait lens possesses no necessary advantage.
The Telephoto lens is merely an additional lens (or
set of lenses) that will give larger images of distant
objects. The size of an image depends on two things
— the distance from the camera, and the focus of the
lens that is used. The nearer you bring the camera,
the bigger is the image ; the longer the focus of your
lens, the bigger is the image, other conditions being
the same. The telephoto lens is merely a means of
adding to the lenses on your camera another lens (or
more lenses) that will make the whole combination
act with a longer focus, and thus make a larger image
on the plate. Since it spreads the image over more
space, it gives an image less bright, and so must have a
longer exposure, to make up for this. Also, as will be
seen when we speak of diaphragms, the addition of
the telephoto attachment making the focus of the lens
longer changes the value of the number of your stop.
It is not possible in one chapter to do more than
state certain general principles about lenses. The sub-
ject may be studied more closely in books devoted
especially to the subject, and also in the pamphlets
and catalogues issued by lens-makers. Remember, in
closing, that in order to decide upon the lens you need,
you must sacrifice those qualities which are least im-
portant to secure those that are most important in the
work you are doing. You must choose your lens to
suit your camera, your plates, the subjects photo-
graphed, and your purse. It is absurd to buy a lens
Taken with a Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Protar, Series VII a, with a High Power Tele-Photo Attachment
The Magnifying Power of A Tele-Photo LENs
The small picture in the upper corner shows the same scene as it appears in a photograph made
with the same lens without the Tele-Photo Attachment.

ABOUT LENSES AND THEIR QUALITIES 151
at a great price when you can do your work with one
that costs a fraction as much. Expensive lenses are
meant for securing the greatest possible speed, defini-
tion, and covering power. For hand-camera work on
small plates and for the general run of amateur sub-
jects, a lens of reasonable cost will serve every purpose
until you reach a very high degree of skill.
CHAPTER XIV
THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS
Value of the tripod — Various attachments of the camera—Simplest
camera the best —The level — Distance-measures — The swing-
back—How it is used — Swing-bed — Reversible and revolving
backs — Rising and falling front — Cross-swing — The value of a
long bellows — Extension front — Drop front — The finder — Ex-
posing with a cap – The virtues of a shutter — The focal-plane
shutter — Its merits and its defects — The multi-speed shutter,
and the reason for its action.
WE shall limit this big subject at once by confining
overselves to the “hand camera,” as it is with the port-
able camera that young people have to do ; but it must
not be concluded that we mean to say nothing of the
tripod. On the contrary, we recommend the tripod
should be used whenever possible, which means
always except for snap-shot work. And in order
that you may be willing to carry the tripod about, be
sure to get one that is compact, small, and simple.
The metal tripods that have telescoping legs are by
far the best except that they are not (and cannot be)
so steady as the wooden ones; but care in their use
will remedy unsteadiness, and it is to be feared that
you will dislike the trouble of setting up the other sort,
and so will leave them at home.
The same convenience in use recommends the box
camera, as we have already said. It is ready always,
and attracts less attention from onlookers. But the
folding cameras are small, light, and will probably be
152
THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS 153
carried oftener, and you should get into the habit of
having your camera at hand.
But whichever sort of camera you choose, there are
important things to know about its equipment and the
uses of its important parts. These are divided mainly
into attachments relating to the position of the camera,
the placing of the plate, the moving of the lens, seeing
the image, the regulation of the exposure, the changing
of the plates. At least, these are the most essential.
Under one of these headings come all ordinary
devices that have to do with the exposure of photo-
graphic plates in the camera. We cannot describe them
all, but mean to give the chief kinds, and to explain
the principles upon which they act. Knowing these
principles the young photographer will learn how to
use his own camera, and will understand the action of
other cameras, and their advantages for special kinds
of work. Still, though it is well to understand com-
plicated apparatus, for regular use we are told by the
most experienced photographers to choose the simplest
camera that will do good work of the sort we want.
If your attention is given to making all sorts of
adjustments of the camera parts, you will not give
your main thought to what is most important — the
subject you are taking, the value of the light, the
length of exposure. -
To begin with the tripod, the amateur should choose
one that is firm when set up, and light to carry. The
metal tripods are most portable, the wooden ones firmer.
When putting the camera on the top, screw it fast.
If it rocks or turns when you make the exposure your
plate is ruined, and it will rock or turn unless it be
screwed fast. There are adjustable heads that allow
154 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the camera to be movable, but you will want your
camera level except for special and peculiar work,
and the plain tripod is therefore most useful.
In tripod work, that is, for time-exposures, you may
find use for the level. The best form is the single
level, with a circular box. The level is only useful in
Work that must be very accurate, such as architectural
pictures; and for this work, you will have plenty of
time to see that the bubble is in just the right place.
In hand-camera work, the picture, if slightly crooked
on the plate can be corrected by trimming the print
true to the picture lines, and in such work the level is
almost useless, merely taking your attention from
more important matters.
The same criticism may be made on the little
plumb-line attachment for levelling, and on the distance-
measures and so on. They are seldom useful, and often
distracting. You will soon learn to judge distances
fairly, and also will learn to make your camera level
and straight by the eye alone. The real essential is a
firm tripod and care in placing the camera.
The attachments meant to move the plate, to change
its relation to the lens, are the swing-back and the
reversible or revolving back. The swing-back allows
the plate to be tilted or turned on its centre so as to
bring one edge nearer the lens than another. This of
course changes the focussing of part of the subject.
Suppose, for example, you are making a portrait of a
man seated. If you bring the camera near him to get a
large image, you may find that his feet are apparently
magnified, and look out of proportion. By using the
swing-back, you may bring the upper part of your
plate nearer to the lens, thus getting a smaller image
THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS 155
of the lower part of your subject. Trying the experi-
ment with the ground-glass, you will see how this may
be done.
In the same way, you may better the appearance of a
landscape subject at times by changing the focus of
part of the plate.
Another use of the swing-back is to make plate and
subject parallel even when the camera has been
slightly tipped up or down to take in a different part
of a subject. Unless plate and subject are kept
parallel, the focussing is changed on different parts of
the plate — as we have just shown. So — unless we
mean to make this change — whenever the camera is
pointed up or down, the plate must be brought
parallel with the subject by means of the swing-
back. Ordinarily the tipping will be very slight, and
the swing-back will be used only to keep the straight
lines of buildings, pillars, and so on from being made
to look out of perspective.
The same effect can be produced by means of what
is known as a “swing-bed.” In this arrangement the
lens is tipped by raising or lowering the part of the
camera on which it is supported.
Besides being able to tip the plate on its centre, we
can change its position by means of the attachments
known as “reversible " or “revolving ” backs. The
“reversible back" can be turned so as to bring the
plate either long way or short way upward. The “re-
Volving back" may be put in any position to suit the
subject taken. Combined with a swing back, the re-
Versible back allows almost any part of the plate, except
the exact centre, to be slightly changed in focus. But
these adjustments will not be often used by the
156 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
amateur, and the want of them is not a defect in a
camera although they are convenient at times.
More important is the “rising and falling front,”
and the “cross-swing.” These are methods of allow-
ing the lens to be moved up or down, right or left,
without moving the part that holds the plate. The
lens-board is held between two uprights so it may be
raised or lowered, by loosening a screw. The effect is
to make the lens take a higher or lower view of the
subject. Thus, if the lens be raised, it will take in
more of a tall building; if it be lowered, it will
include more foreground. The cross-swing allows the
lens to be moved sideways — viewing more of one side
or the other. Of course, if the camera be turned on
its side (as so many cameras may be) these attach-
ments exchange offices.
If your camera has these attachments, include them
in your “camera drill,” using the ground-glass to see
how much the view is affected by each of the move-
ments of the lens out of its usual place. Though you
may not often use these attachments, now and then
they become important, and will help to get a good
picture otherwise impossible.
The other way of moving your lens — to or from
the plate — is of vital importance unless you are
using the simplest “fixed-focus camera.” You will
not be able to get all the good out of your lens unless
your camera has a long bellows, and some means for
supporting the lens firmly when the bellows is at its
longest extension. The nearer you bring your camera
to an object you wish to photograph, the further away
must the plate be from the lens.
Notice the divisions on your focussing-scale, and
Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co.
º Eastman Kodak Co. . - -
Courtesy of Ordinary Shutter, with Iris
Focal-plane Shutter Diaphragm
Courtesy of
Courtesy of Eastman Kodak co. Messrs. Burke & James
Developing Tank for Roll Film Developing Tank for Plates
CAMERA Accessories . . . . . . * *
- - --





THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS 157
you will see how quickly the spaces between the
marks increase in length as you come nearer your sub-
ject. With a short bellows you cannot get near
views, or views on a large scale, without the use of an
additional lens; usually you can get nothing nearer
than about eight or ten feet. But with a long
bellows, a view within two feet or even less is quite
possible, and this is often desirable in taking portraits,
pictures of flowers, insects, or still-life objects. The
long bellows is often supported by an “extension
front”— a part of the base that is arranged to slide
forward. The long bellows, having many folds,
sometimes needs a support from above, and a ring is
attached so that a cord may be tied to it and to the
top of the camera to keep the bellows from sagging
by its own weight, and so cutting off part of the image.
These things may seem very elementary, but often they
are not explained in the directions for using cameras.
The long bellows camera may be utilized also as a
copying apparatus. If you have a photograph already
on hand of which you want to make an enlarged or
reduced copy, by setting it up in a bright light before
the camera, extended at length, you may photograph
it as you would any other object. It will probably
be necessary in this case to unscrew and take off one
of the lenses of your camera, if your lens is of the
sort to permit the use of half of it at a time. By
using the ground-glass, you can determine this. Be
careful to arrange matters so as to have no reflec-
tions from the surface of the picture you are copying.
With this class of work, however, one cannot obtain
the best results without special “copying plates” and
development to bring out strong contrasts.
158 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
One more mechanical attachment or arrangement is
the “drop front.” When a very short focus or wide-
angle lens is used, the front that extends out to sup-
port the bellows might be in the way, and cut off part
of the view. The “drop front ’’ is hinged, and can be
turned down so as to be out of the view.
Of the different sorts of finders, we have already
spoken, and here we need only repeat the warning
that the finder remains unchanged even when the
main camera has been adjusted in several ways. The
finder usually shows only the view that the camera,
unadjusted, takes in : so remember that you may have
altered the view the finder shows — especially when
you change the focus or move the lens in relation to
the plate. Possibly it may be well to say that the
glasses of many finders are framed in an opening of
this shape (a):
F----------
l
- - - - - - - - - * * * * * **
!----------—
©2 A. C
DIAGRAM XIX
This is when they are reversible, and is meant to
show the limits of the view when the plate is turned
one way or the other. Whichever way the finder is
used, you may see what is on the plate provided you
remember that the plate ends at the projecting corners,
and you must take your oblong space either straight

THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS 159
across, as in b , or upright, as in c, leaving out the pro-
jections. Possibly it will be well for you to mark in
ink or paint the limits of the views, as they are dotted
in the two diagrams; it will save you some blunders.
There are plenty of little things to think about when
using a camera intelligently, and every help is useful
in saving errors and trouble.
In this chapter we shall not speak of exposure
except as connected with the mechanical arrangements
for regulating it. The earliest of these we all re-
member from experiences at the professional photog-
raphers. It is not nearly so much used as it deserves to
be. It is the “cap,” or little leather cover that can be
removed from and replaced over the lens. Of course
it is used practically always in time-exposures, but for
these it is most valuable, and often recommended by
very skillful workers. Rightly used, it avoids all
jarring of the camera, enables one to regulate exposure
very accurately, and is simple in use. The usual fault
of the amateur being to under-expose, the cap has the
advantage of lengthening the exposure a little by the
time between the decision to end the exposure and the
putting on of the cap. Besides all this, the cap is
simple. You cannot help knowing when you take it
off and when you put it on. It should be put on
and taken off by means of a turning or screwing
motion.
As to shutters, they should of course work promptly,
smoothly, and without jarring. The ideal shutter
should expose a plate wholly, during all the time it is
open, or at least should expose all parts of the plate
With exact equality. There is only one shutter in
common use that does this — the “focal plane’”
160 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
shutter, the sort that is used in making the very
shortest exposures.
The focal-plane shutter is put as near the plate-
surface as possible, and consists of a long curtain like
a window shade, wound on two rollers, top and bottom.
In this curtain are one or more slits crosswise, the full
width of the plate. If there is one slit, it is adjustable
so that it may be either a wide or narrow space. If
there are more than one, they are of different sizes.
By loosening or tightening the spring that moves the
curtain, or by using a wide or a narrow slit, the plate
is exposed for a longer or a shorter time.
DIAGRAM XX—CURTAIN OF FOCAL-PLANE SHUTTER
Suppose the spring so set that the curtain will be
pulled across the plate (say, four inches) in 's second.
Now suppose the slit in the curtain is 9% inch across.
That yá is in front of each bit of the plate successively.
There are of an inch in the four inches across the
plate, so the slit covers 32 spaces in ſo of a second
and each space gets an equal exposure of 330 of a
second — from top to bottom of the plate.
Again, if the slit moves across in ºn of a second,
then each space gets an exposure of rº'ow of a second,
and so on.
Compare this with a shutter that opens from the
centre, and then closes to the centre again, and you
will see that the ordinary shutter lights the middle of

Courtesy of Motor
Photograph MADE WITH A Focal-PLANE Shutter, at Slow Speed
(See explanation on page 161)

THE CAMERA AND ITS ATTACHMENTS 161
the plate first, and darkens it last — so the edges of
the plate are for a much shorter time exposed to light
than the middle.
Different forms of shutter-leaves have been made to
remedy this inequality somewhat, but the only one
that does so entirely is ingeniously made so that its
four leaves begin their opening at the centre, open
into a star-shape, then (turning over on their pivots)
close from another part of the circle, so exposing the
edges a little longer than the centre, but making the
exposure nearly equal all over the plate, and bringing
the longer exposure where it is most needed. This is
the “Multi-Speed" shutter, and remarkable pictures
are said to be secured by its use.
It is to be hoped that this shutter will prove to be
what is claimed, since the focal-plane shutters are open
to the serious defect that the picture secured is made
up of strips taken at different instants. Now, suppos-
ing a locomotive or an automobile to be photographed
by means of the focal-plane shutter, it is clear that the
object moves forward a little between the times of
taking the top and the bottom of the car, making a
slight misfit ; and causing the picture to seem distorted.
This effect must always be present to some extent, and
in taking pictures of very quickly moving objects it
may spoil the picture. Of course, if an object is
moving downward or upward, the picture is affected
otherwise, and the object is apparently shortened or
lengthened as it happens to be moving with the slit or
against its motion. So much for the focal-plane
shutter, which, though mainly used for very short ex-
posures, may also be made so it can be set for all
lengths.
CHAPTER XV
PRACTIOAL HINTS ON EXPOSUIRE
Importance of right exposures — The latitude of plates — Practical
ways of judging exposure — Time of year and day — Speed of
lens — Size of image – Effect of diaphragms — “Catching up ’’
of weaker lights — Effect of over-exposure — Effect of under-
exposure — “Expose for the shadows " — General lighting of
Subject — Exposure-meters — The system of marking the stops
— Adapting exposure to your shutter-speed — How the stop
affects depth of focus — Measuring time-exposures — Objects in
motion — Exposure tables — A photographer's advice.
ENOUGII has been said already, it is hoped, to
convince the young reader of the importance of
making right exposures. It is so entirely the key to
success in photographic work that it comes second only
to the choice of subject — hardly to that, for unless
you can get a good picture, the selection of the subject
is of no use. Consequently you must fix your mind
on the question of exposure every time you take a
picture, so as to get into the habit of judging exposures
correctly.
Fortunately you are not required to make a bull's-
eye at every shot. The photographic plates have
much “latitude,” or range, and may give good results
even if you give as much as double the exposure —
speaking generally. If you will think the matter over
you will see that whenever you take a picture contain-
ing variously lighted surfaces, you are making a
single exposure do for lights of greatly differing
strength; in a landscape, for example, if you take a
snap-shot of ºn of a second you give that time both to
162
1PRACTICAL HINTS ON EXPOSURE 163
sunlighted spaces, and spaces in shadow. It is the
latitude of the plate that gives good results in both
parts of the picture. You will also see that it is the
same latitude of the plate that gives good gradation
– or wide variety in your lights and darks. Now,
plates of medium speed have the most latitude, and
give the most gradation, having a thicker coating, and
more ability to record different kinds of lighting.
In making exposures, then, you have only to get the
time generally right — fitting it to the average lighting
of your picture (except, of course, in scientific work,
copying work, and other such cases where exact results
are possible and necessary).
The practical way of getting at the right exposures
is to do one of two things. Either you must get all
the information your can about your plates, camera, and
the light, and then follow fixed rules taken from
books and directions; or you must learn by practice,
keeping a record of your trials under various circum-
stances and with various apparatus. A third way — if
you “don’t care,” is to guess at it blindly, and trust
to hitting the right exposure now and then. But this
we do not advise unless you have a long stock of
patience and can afford to waste time and material.
As to getting information on the subject of ex-
posures, and proceeding scientifically, the Italian
proverb is a good adviser, “ Chi va piano, va samo;
chi va Sano, va lontano,”—“Who goes slowly, goes
safely; who goes safely, goes far.” It is the surest
method of learning to make your exposures correct,
and your pictures good.
The things to be determined are five :
1. The light strength. 2. The lens speed. 3. The
164 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
plate's speed and latitude. 4. The lighting of the
subject in general. 5. The question of motion.
The first of these means the value of the light at
different times. As to this, it is a matter fixed by the
position of the sun in the sky and this depends on the
time of year, and time of day. Consequently, it is to
be found out from tables regularly printed in photo-
graphic books, almanacs, diaries and so on. Such a
table is in the chapter of this book given to rules and
formulae.
Lens-speed is only another way of saying size of the
lens-opening compared with its focal length.
Focal length is, to be exact, the distance from the
“optical centre' of a lens to its “principal focus”:
and the principal focus is the point back of your lens
where parallel rays coming from outside of the camera
meet. But, since the rays coming through your lens
from a point a great distance away are pretty nearly
parallel, the principal focus of your lens is about at the
place where the ground-glass is when you adjust it
for objects 100 feet away or more ; and the focal
length of your lens, roughly speaking, is the distance
from the centre of the lens or from the diaphragm
between the lenses to the ground-glass when set for
100 feet away. Other names for focal length are
“equivalent focal length,” “ or “equivalent focus.”
The word “focus’’ (meaning “principal focus ”) is fre-
quently used to mean focal length.
The reason why the focal length of a lens affects
length of exposure is simply because it affects the
distance of the plate from the lens, and so the size
of the image and the amount of surface over which
the light from any object is spread on the plate.
PRACTICAL ELINTS ON EXPOSURE 165
Whatever the size of the image, from any object, the
light from that object makes the image. Suppose a
square piece of paper, two inclies on a side, to be the
thing we are photographing. The image on the plate
gets all its light from the rays reflected from those
four square inches. If the image is doubled in height
on the plate by using a lens of greater focal length,
the image is made by the same light spread over a sur-
face farther away from the lens and four times as
large. Consequently it is one-fourth as strong, and
requires four times the exposure.
DIAGRAM XXI
Diagram XXIV shows this principle. Through b,
which represents a card with a round hole in it, pass a
certain number of rays from the candle, a. C is a
card, say, four inches from a and d a card eight inches
from a. The light spot made on d is four times as
large and four times as weak as that on c. -->
A large camera, say one taking a 5 x 7 plate, has
usually a lens of greater focal length than a small one.
But you must not think that with a large camera it is
necessary to make a longer exposure than with a small
camera ! It would be so, if the two lenses were the

166 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
same size; but in the large camera the manufacturer
puts a larger lens, and usually, a better one, so that
the greater distance of the plate from the lens in a
large camera is more than made up for by the larger
number of rays admitted.
But first, the size of the image depends on the focal
length of the lens and the distance of the object;
secondly, the amount of light admitted depends on the
size of the opening.
A lens of short focal length makes a small image; a
long-focus lens makes a large image, if both are used
at their principal focus. For this reason, “wide
angle "lenses, which are always of short focus, are
used to photograph rooms in which one cannot get far
off and yet wishes to get everything in. For objects
very much nearer than 100 feet (as in copying, and
enlarging), the lens is really used as one of a different
focal length.
And this becomes important when we consider the
effect of the diaphragms or stops on exposure. Since
stops are named by their fractional value compared to
the focal length of the lens — as f/8, f/12, meaning
an opening with a diameter V6 of the focal length, or
with a diameter I's of the focal length, when we
change the focus at which we use a lens, the stops
change in value. This is only important, of course,
where the change is large — as usually in taking
photographs very near the object, in enlarging, and
in copying, where the ground-glass or the plate, is
moved far away from the lens.
Of course this theory is only to help you in seeing
the reason why. The practical thing to remember is
that when you make a big image, you are spreading
Courtesy of American Photography
The EFFEct of Focal LeNoth iN Photography
The numbers on the portraits indicate the focal length of the lens used.
the 6-inch lens it was necessary to place the camera very near to the subject, hence
the great disproportion between the nearer and the farther hand. As the lenses of
greater focal length were used, the camera was moved further away, and the dis.
With
proportion became less.

PRACTICAL ELINTS ON EXPOSURE 167
over a larger surface the light that makes the small
image — and so must lengthen exposure to make up.
And this is true whether you get the big image by
bringing your camera near to the object or by using
a lens of longer focus — as you do by adding a
magnifying portrait lens, or a telephoto lens, both of
which merely make your lens equivalent to one of
longer focus, and so spread the image.
It is, perhaps, a little hard to understand why
the image of a near-by object is less strong than that of
a farther object. An additional reason why this is
so is the fact that for near objects the ground-
glass screen is moved farther away from the lens,
spreading the image over more surface. You will be
helped by referring again to Diagram X, several chap-
ters back.
The plate's speed, or latitude, of course affects the
exposure by the ability of the chemicals in the plate-
coating to receive an effect quickly or slowly. If
you use rapid plates or films, you can use your lens
at smaller openings, or for quicker exposures. Slow
plates require the larger openings or longer exposures.
Now, the effect of light on a plate is greatest at first
(at any given spot), and then lessens because the place
already acted on is less and less sensitive. So long ex-
posure tends to give the weaker lights time to catch
up with the stronger ones. Therefore a plate that can
be exposed a longer time will show the effect of more
lights of varying strength, than a short-exposure plate
will record.
If you expose too long, all parts of the plate will
tend to arrive at the same state of exposure. If too
short an exposure be made, the strong lights will act,
168 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the others will not. Stopping exposure at the right
time, you will get the strong lights not too strong,
and yet the weaker lights will have a fair chance to
catch up, and will have their right relation in the
negative.
Suppose, as an illustration, your plate was divided
into a lot of minute squares, and each square would
hold only a given amount of water. Then suppose the
light rays to be streams of water of different sizes and
speeds. Turning on all these streams together, we
may accomplish three results. If we turn them on for
a mere instant, a few boxes will be filled by strong
streams, some partly filled, others nearly empty. If we
keep them turned on too long, all the boxes will be
equally full. Neither case will give us a result from
which we get a close idea of the amount of water that
should go to each box to record the flow in right
proportion. We must let the streams run long enough
to fill up only the boxes where the strongest streams
are, and must shut off the water before the weaker
streams can have as much effect as the stronger ones.
Over-exposure overflows all the boxes. Under-
exposure gives too little to the boxes where streams
are small. Right exposure represents fairly all the
intensities. Right exposure begins when the weakest
light has had time to act on the plate, and ends at the
moment when there ceases to be difference between
the highest lights and those not quite so bright. You
can see that the important matter is to give the duller
lights time; the higher lights will cease to act so
rapidly before the other lights are through their work.
Therefore, it is an old maxim, “Expose for the
shadows.” But this does not mean to forget the high
PRACTICAL HINTS ON EXPOSURE 169
lights entirely; it means only that they hurt your plate
less by a little over-action than the plate suffers from
failing to record the duller lights.
A quick plate is sensitive, and goes through its
whole action rapidly — arriving sooner at the “over-
exposed ” state. The slow plate gives more time to
the whole process, and having a thicker or richer
emulsion, gives the high lights more to do in affecting
the chemicals, so that it does not so soon become over-
exposed, and the range of action is wider. It is not
unlike a long distance foot-race compared to a short
dash. Supposing the light rays to be runners, the
long distance race will leave them more spread out,
and will record their relative speeds more plainly than
the short dash.
As to the question of the general lighting of the
subject, there have been many attempts to classify
subjects in regard to length of exposure, and there
will be as many as there are authorities. The things
to bear in mind chiefly are the colour and the amounts
of light and shade. Of colour we have already said
much, and we need only remind you that red and yel-
low rays mean dark, blue and violet rays, light to the
camera. Green in nature is more apt to act as yellow
than as blue ; and the difference of lighting between
the sky regions and the earth regions, is simply enor-
mous. We shall give the usual suggestions as to sub-
ject, however, in the chapter for such tables, leaving
you to consider them as guides only.
Many exposure meters exist, and are especially
helpful in training your judgment. They are not
exact when based upon the effect of exposure as
judged from the turning dark of a piece of printing.
170 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
out paper, since the light does not act on the plate
just as light acts on the paper. Neither can they be
based on transparency of any material as judged by
the eye, for vision-light and photographic-light differ.
Still they help you to think of all the things that af.
fect exposure, and the latitude, or range, of plates
helps to make up for their shortcomings.
You will find that the exposure-meters give you the
right time for a certain stop or diaphragm opening.
You have already been told how the diaphragm af-
fects the speed of your lens by regulating the light
that is admitted through the opening. We must,
therefore, consider the stop as a means helping toward
right exposure. Luckily, the relation between stops
themselves is very simple, the rule being to take
the ratio between the stops, and square it to get
the increase or decrease of time. That is, twice
the diameter across, requires four times the ex-
posure.
Stops are marked in two systems. One gives the
diameter of each stop as a fraction of the focal length
of the lens. The usual openings in this system are
f/4, f/8, f/12, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64.
This means that the openings an e V4, 96, ', and so on,
of the focus of the lens. Supposing a 6-inch focus
lens, the openings would be , , ;", and so on, of an
inch, or I }% inch, 34 inch, 9% inch across. Conse-
quently, if for the stop f/8 you needed to give (by
your meter exposure) 1 second, for f/16 (which is a
stop of half the diameter) you would need to give four
seconds. All this you will find given in the tables.
Ordinarily you will be able to go by your general rule
that y4 the opening means 4 times the exposure, or
PRACTICAL HINTS ON EXPOSURE 171
twice the opening, 94 the exposure. This is the focal
or “f” system.
The other system is the “Uniform System,” or
“ U. S.” method of marking. This is so marked as to
save you from calculating. In this the openings are
marked 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and so on — each number be-
ing twice the last, and requiring twice the exposure.
The number 1, U. S., corresponds to f/4 in the other ;
consequently the f/8 is U. S. 4, and f/12 is (nearly)
U. S. 8; and, luckily, f/16 agrees with U. S. 16 —
which enables you to compare the two systems with-
out a table. You have simply to write down your
f / system numbers, and then put U. S. 16 opposite
f/16. Then you can calculate the other U. S. num-
bers thus:
f /4 U. S. 1
f /5 U. S. 2
f / 8 U. S. 4
f / 12 U. S. 8
f /16 U. S. 16
f/22 U. S. 32
The fnumbers you will soon learn, as they are
likely to be marked on your stops. But if the U. S.
numbers are on you, stops, it will be well to learn
what they agree with, for writers on photography
constantly refer to the fºsystem.
To make short exposures, use the wider stops; to
lengthen the time of exposing — as in the blinding
light of the seashore, or on the open sea in sunshine,
wse the smaller stops, and keep the shutter speed the
same. The stops thus help to prevent over-exposure.
With a lens good enough to be usable with a wide
opening, you may often select a length of exposure to
172 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
suit your shutter-speed, since a longer exposure with
a small opening has the same effect as a shorter ex-
posure with a wide opening. Thus ºn of a second at
f/16, has the same effect upon the plate as sºn of a
second at f/8 — so far as mere exposure goes.
You must remember, however, that using a smaller
stop brings more objects into correct focus; and also
that motions which sºn at f/8 will catch may be
blurred if you expose for ºn second at f/16. All
these matters should be thought of whenever you
change the diaphragms.
In order to make time exposures, either measure
them by the second hand of your watch, or learn by
a little practice, to count seconds thus: “One and —
two, and three, and four.” Try this with watch in
hand, and you will soon hit on the right rhythm. Or
you may say, “One second, two seconds, three sec-
onds " — and so on. As rate of speaking differs you
must find out your own rate.
Another way is to swing a small pendulum, made
of a bullet painted white and attached to a string about
ten inches long. This will beat seconds very closely,
and you can see it without looking at it directly.
As a general rule, give generous time whenever you
can do so without spoiling your picture because of
moving objects. Learn all about your camera and its
lens, so you know what it will do for you when in
various kinds of light. There is no attempt made
here to go into details, for you will in all doubtful
cases be guided by the tables made for the purpose ;
but do not forget that tables are made to suit certain
stops, and are of little use unless you know at what
opening your lens is working.
PRACTICAL HINTS ON EXPOSURE 173
The catching of objects when in motion is often a
matter of cleverness in the use of the camera. The
secret of the whole matter is to suit your exposure to
the kind of motion, and also to make the exposure at
the right time and from the best point of view.
The rapidity with which an image changes place on
the plate, depends on how near you are to the object,
and upon whether the moving things are in motion at
right angles to the direction in which the camera is
pointed. If you are near, the image moves fast, and
so slower exposures may be made as you are further
away. If the motion is directly across the line of the
camera, the image moves faster than when motion is
nearer in the direction of the pointing. Consequently,
to catch a rapid object, get as far from it as you can
afford to, and let the camera be pointed somewhat to-
ward the direction of motion.
Thus, in
D i a g r a m
XXV, he re,
the object
moving from
A to B takes
long er to T-
move its im- B D & 2.
age across the
plate than one
moving from C to D. And a to b is a path longer
than A to B, while c to d is longer than from C to D.
Consequently the shortest exposure is required for
the path C to D, the longest may be made on a to b.
Then, too, make the exposure just at the slow-
ing down point, if there be one, as when an ob-

C A. C Če
DIAGRAM XXII
174 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
ject thrown upward is just changing motion from up
to down.
A few cents spent for exposure tables, which come
in note-books for recording your work, will save you
time and trouble in the long run, and will teach you
much.
But, above all, do not be afraid to try experiments
so long as you learn something from each one. The
making of creditable photographs is done by thousands
of people every where, every day, and this would not
be so, if the subject of exposing correctly was an in-
soluble mystery.
One writer in a photographic magazine says: —
“From one-tenth to one-fourth of a second is far more
apt to be suitable to average outdoor pictures than one
one-hundredth, and to make slow exposures the camera
cannot be held in the hand.
“It would almost insure success, so far as printing
quality may be concerned, if one who knew little of
photography used a rapid plate, a rather large stop,
and a quarter-second exposure invariably. IIe would
certainly obtain far more printable negatives than he
would at a fiftieth or a hundredth, and the artistic
value would, whether he knew it or not, be greatly
enhanced through better definition of distance, better
perspective and more truthful representation of what
might be doing.”
CHAPTER XVI
MODERN DEVELOPING
The new knowledge — The old way – Hurter and Driffield system —
Their method of work — A “good negative '' – How it must be
judged — The laws of transparency — The curve of development—
Conclusions from it — The four stages in development — Explan-
ation of them — Developing to keep the right transparencies —
Effect of long developing — The rules resulting from the new
knowledge — The factorial system – Effect of temperature —
Tank and machine development — The old and new contrasted —
Choice of a developer — Need for exactness in new methods.
WITHIN four or five years there has been an entire
change in the art of developing photographic expo-
sures. This has come from new knowledge about the
process, and this knowledge is entirely scientific.
That is to say, it is the result of study meant to find
out in a scientific way just what are the principles and
rules by which plates must be treated in order to get
the best results.
Before these studies were made, each photographer
made his own experiments, reported his results, and
gave his advice to others. This filled the photographic
books and magazines with a lot of receipts, dodges,
notions, and suggestions not unlike those to be found
to-day in cook-books.
The result was to leave both professionals and ama-
teurs to grope in the dark. Some did well, others
badly; but none were certain. The wise ones with
plenty of experience learned to get good negatives
175 -
176 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
most of the time by sticking to the same plates, the
same developer, and the same general procedure. But
this was to go by “rule of thumb,” and often their
ideas about the process were all wrong in spite of the
fact that their results were good nearly every time.
In very truth it may be said that their notions were
always wrong, for they believed that development
could do many things now known to be impossible.
The change came about solely through the wise, pa-
tient and able work of two amateurs in photography
— an eminent chemist, Dr. Hurter, and Mr. W. C.
Driffield, an engineer who was his fellow worker.
These men about the year 1890, after some years of
careful study succeeded in finding out and setting forth
the principles on which the process of development
depended. This was no fortunate accident, but the
result of a determination to make developing scientific.
By exposing and developing plates under known
conditions, and by carefully testing the results in each
case, they found out the exact rules by which negatives
can be produced, and then put the rules in such form
that others could understand them, follow them, and
secure certain kinds of negatives at will. In brief,
they created a science of developing.
Although their experiments and discussions are not
easy for young readers to follow, the general idea of
them is simple enough to be easily known by every
user of a camera.
Here is a brief statement of the method by which
they came to their conclusions.
In order to get a good negative, the first thing is to
fix in our minds what is meant by those two words.
If we think over the question we shall see that we are
MODERN DEVELOPING 177
seeking to make a negative containing parts of differ-
ent resistances to the passing of light. The whole Ob-
ject of a negative is to make a good print. A good
print is one in which the lighter and darker parts are
lighter or darker just as the lights reflected from the
original scene into the camera were lighter and darker.
The print must represent the original scene in its gra-
dations from lightest to darkest. If it does this fairly
and truly, it is a good print.
But the print depends upon the negative. So the
negative must be such that light (in making the print)
must come through lighter and darker portions in the
same relations as that light was reflected from the
original scene. To put it in other words — the trans-
parency of the negative must be in right proportions,
in agreement, with the lighting of the original scene.
So the whole question is to secure just the right grades
of transparency in the negative. So far there is no
disagreement with the old notions. But here the dif-
ference begins. ~
The old way of judging this transparency was by
the eye or by actual trial in making a print. The new
way is to inquire “what makes a negative transparent
in some places and less so in others?” And to settle
this question Hurter and Driffield made their experi-
ments, in order to get actual scientific answers, rather
than guess work.
They proved that the transparency or opacity of
any part of a plate (that is its power to let light
through) depended on the amount of silver which ex-
posure and developing brought theretostay. Then they
showed by a long list of accurate experiments the laws
by which silver was made in various parts of the plate.
178 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
This amount of silver depended upon the length of
the exposure to light, so they measured the rate at
which the light acted in preparing silver to be dark-

/ N
/ \
|/
Jº | * | | | | , | }
o 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 &c. up to 524,288
Exposure : Seconds.
From the Photo-Miniature, No. 56
DIAGRAM XXIII
ened by developing. The amount of silver thus made
ready was shown to be governed by an exact law, and
this law came from the fact that as the different parts
of the plate were acted on by light the amount of sil-
MODERN DEVELOPING 179
ver to be acted on became less all the time. Thus, at
first, the light has all the silver to act on, then some
part of this is changed, thus leaving less, and so on till
all the silver has been changed, and no more can be done.
As is the custom of modern scientific men, they set
this forth in a diagram. They drew a horizontal line,
and divided it into lengths to represent time of ex-
posure. At the left end of this line they drew another
at right angles to represent the effect of the light in
changing the silver. Then, by means of their tests
with plates, they could show just how much silver was
affected at each differing length of exposure.
This diagram showed the facts, and from it the
effect of exposure could be studied. They made many
such diagrams and found that all agreed in certain
general features. The points indicating how much
silver was affected by each length of exposure were
connected by a curved line drawn through them, and
this showed to the eye just how the changing of the
silver proceeded. If you examine the diagram, you
will see that at the starting point, left hand lower
corner, there is no time of exposure, and no silver;
then the curve seems to rise rapidly, both time and
silver increasing. Then the curve rises at a steady
even rate that makes it almost a straight line; then it
droops, turns, and begins to go downward. This
means that the changing of the silver at first proceeds
increasingly, then regularly, then lessens, and finally
decreases. But this agrees with what was already
known — namely, that the effect of exposure is at first
too slight, then remains about right for a time, then
is overdone, and finally reverses its action. Photog-
raphers call these different stages: Under-exposure,
180 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
right exposure, over-exposure, and reversal. The curve
shows us that the second stage, or right ea posture, is
longer than the others, and this enables us to get good
negatives if we can only stop before over-exposure be-
gins. It is the length of this stage that gives plates
latitude.
Now let us see if we cannot guess at the reasons for
the shape of the curve. At first the light has plenty
of silver to act on, and rapidly affects what is on
the surface; as it goes deeper the light is obstructed
by the particles already acted on, and also has less
material to affect ; so it acts more and more slowly
until it has been all through the film; then it probably
begins to undo its work, causing reversal.
It will be noticed that in the diagram the lengths of
exposure (marked on the horizontal line at the bot-
tom) double at each mark, while the amounts of silver
Persity Transparency Opacity Value (on the per-
ſ
e n dicular
1 DJ fo 1O #. increase
2 [D] ića zoo regularly in-
stead of doub-
3 [III] zºo 1,ooo ling. This is
made so be-
4 CDIT] Zoº, 10,000 cause the light
arza, so orz. works m or e
DIAGRAM XXIV a n d m O re
slowly, and has to be allowed longer and longer times
to do a similar amount of work on the silver. To
make the horizontal line represent equal increases of
exposure would only flatten and lengthen the curve,
without changing its character, or showing a different
law of action.
MODERN DEVELOPING 181
But since transparency and opacity (the lack of
transparency) depend on the amounts of silver, we can
now see just what the effect of exposures will be on
the transparency of our negatives at each step of the
process. And during the time of right exposure,
where the silver is affected regularly in proportion to
exposure, we see that each time the exposure is doubled,
silver is affected by one unit more.
If we represent densities by little blocks of which
one has such transparency that it lets through I's of the
light, then it is easy to see that if one block lets through
*, of the light, two blocks will let through I's and then
* of that, or rºw of the light. Three blocks will let
pass ſº of ſº, of ſº, or rººt of the light (Diagram XXVII).
So we see that each increase of a unit of destiny, in-
creases the opacity or decreases the transparency in
geometrical proportion.
This will help in understanding this chapter.
Now we have to see how much the transparency of
the plate is changed to opacity by this change in the
amount of silver. The experiments showed that each
time the silver affected by light was increased by one
unit, the opacity was doubled, so long as the exposure
was kept within that part of its action where the
curve is nearly straight — as it is during the “right
exposure " period.
Practically this means that at first the light acts
too much on the plate where the light is strongest,
and too little where it is weakest ; then, as the action
of the light slows down on the best lighted parts, the
others catch up somewhat and act in true proportion
for a while, affecting the silver according to their
strength. If we shut off the light during this time
182 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the plate is rightly exposed because the silver has
been affected in the proportion to the strength of the
lights of the image. But if we go on further, the
strong lights become weaker in their action, the
Weaker lights catch up, and the plate is too equally
affected all over — i. e., over-exposed and spoiled.
The effect of over-exposure is generally to give the
negative (on the print) the appearance of lacking con-
trast, having the high lights too gray, and the dark
spots not dark enough. Sometimes a negative which
you have over-exposed will be thin and transparent, so
that you may be deceived into thinking that it has
been under-exposed. But the reason that it is thin is
because you have under-developed it. Seeing the
image flash up quickly and the plate blacken over in
the developer, you have probably, as most beginners
do, taken the plate out sooner than usual. The de-
veloper, therefore, has not got below the surface of
the emulsion and its deposit is thin.
Such is the general result of the Hurter-Driffield
experiments, namely, that there is a time of ea posure
during which the strengths of the lights are truly rep-
wesented by such changes in the silver compound as to
Anake the transparency of the plate, when developed,
ovary in right relation to the lights upon it.
The next question was the developing of the plate
so as to make a negative that would show just the
transparencies the lights had given it.
The experimenters developed plates that had been un-
der-exposed, rightly exposed, and over-exposed. Then
they tested the amounts of silver darkened by the de-
veloper. It proved that no matter what was done, it
was impossible to bring out in a plate any different
MODERN DEVELOPING 183
relation of tones than the one governed by the ex-
posure made. This they illustrate by supposing three
pins put through a piece of elastic. If you stretch the
elastic, you change f T I
the disuance between | |
f

the pins, but you do |
B ſ
lation to one another. | | |
C |
not change their re-
So with developing. f I
You will increase or | |
decrease the differ-
ences between the DIAGRAM XXV
various tones, but you will not change their relation to
one another. You may make a negative including a
wide or a narrow range of tones, but you cannot make
wrong relations right.
A simple illustration will make this clear to every
photographer. If you take a negative and make prints
from it, you can make your prints very dark, or very
light — but you do not change the relation of the
tones toward one another, unless you much under-
expose or over-expose and spoil the print entirely. If
the negative is a good one, too, there is one right
amount of printing to represent the natural scene as
truthfully as possible.
So in developing. By shorter or longer develop-
ment (or by weaker or stronger developer, which is
the same thing), we may change the negative from one
that is thin to one that is dense, or the opposite; but
we cannot change the relation of the tones one to an-
other equally all through the series.
To put the principles of the new method in a few
words: Long development increases contrast, but
184 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
contrast only increases till the development has acted
entirely through the silver compound, or until
“fogging ” begins. Warmth hastens, cold delays de-
veloping.
Detail in a negative depends entirely on exposure,
and the developing cannot bring out more than is
there already.
After developers begin to act, it is useless to alter
them. Slow or fast, they will produce the same re-
sult. Restraining a developer is not of any use after
detail once begins to show, since it only makes de-
velopment slower without making the result different.
Long development by making a plate denser may fit
it better for certain kinds of printing or for enlarging.
Short development may make the plate softer in its
contrasts, and thus suit the subject better, or fit it for
contact printing.
From these conclusions come certain modern ways
of developing negatives, all dependent upon the time
of developing and the temperature of the developer
used.
One of these is known as the factorial system. It
was devised by Alfred Watkins, and is based on the
observation that the time for correct development is
always to be found by noting how long, after a plate
goes into the developer, it takes to show a trace of the
image's appearance.
This differs greatly according to the developer used,
and the temperature of the solution. But whatever
the period may be, the time of complete development is
a certain number of these periods. Thus if a trace of
the image appears in 18 seconds, and the developer is
(say) metol, then if we multiply by 30, we shall have
MODERN DEVELOPING 185
30×18–540 seconds as the correct time to develop
that negative. This number 30 is metol’s “factor”
always. Had we used rodinal (another developer) the
factor would have always been 40.
If the solutions had been stronger or warmer, the
image trace might have shown more quickly; but that
changes the total time of development without chang-
ing the factor.
In other words, by using the factor we need not
think of the temperature or strength of developer.
These have their effect in changing the time of ap-
pearance, and affect the development in that way.
On the other hand, in tank or machine developing,
we fix the time and the temperature beforehand, and
use the developer that is directed. Consequently we
do not need to know the factor, which we must know
if we do not fix time and temperature.
All this comes down to a few simple ideas, which
we may easily remember. First, development is a
scientific matter that depends on chemical facts.
These facts are the exposure, which determines the
question of how the negative is to represent the image
received ; the developer used, the temperature of the
solution, the time for which it is applied.
If you use the factor system, you simply need to
know how quickly the action of the developer first
shows, and then multiply by the factor given to know
when to stop.
If you use the tank system, you must arrange the
time according to the temperature and strength of the
developer used, and then apply it to your plates ac-
cording to rule. --
If you use the old system, you must keep your eye
186 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
on the plate as it develops, and do your best to guess
when to stop. And this is not said sneeringly, for it
is the plain truth, since by the old methods success
was a matter of experience and individual judgment.
One regrets that the old way is so difficult, for the
pleasure of seeing the images come out was very great,
and very educational. But it seems undoubtedly
proved that the modern methods produce better nega-
tives, whatever the exposures may have been. In fact
it is claimed that the uniform developing is best
whether you get exposure right or not, bringing out
all there is in the negative, and making what there is
in it truer to nature's scale of lighting than it can be
made by the most solicitous tinkering.
As to the choice of a developer, the experts agree
that it is merely a matter of whether one prefers a
quick or slow development. Pyro, however, gives the
negative a slight yellow or brown tinge at times, and
thus acts as a stain as well as a developer. Bromide
added beforehand, keeps the image from appearing so
quickly, but otherwise does not change the result ma-
terially.
In the factorial system two developers, pyro and
amidol have different factors when differently mixed
in solutions; but these things are given in the tables.
It should be said that not all photographers are
ready to accept the new conclusions; but the evidence
for and against the theory has been most carefully ex-
amined, and the great weight of opinion is in favour of
the new as against the old. At all events, young
photographers cannot fail to welcome a method that
will enable them to secure good results by regular
rule, instead of one that says to them, “It is all a mat-
MODERN DEVELOPING 187
ter of long experience. Just keep on spoiling plates,
and after a while you’ll probably get the hang of the
thing.” That was not encouraging to say the least !
The practical ways of applying the new methods are
seen in the developing machines and tanks, that are
filled with the solution of developer, and then moved
to keep the solution in motion for a given time. But
one word of warning : If you use the new methods,
remember that they are scientific, and you must fol-
low the directions as exactly as possible. You must
always have fresh developer, a thermometer, and an
accurate time-measure. Otherwise you will do better
to stick to the old methods where you can keep your
eye on your plate.
CHAPTER XVII
FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING — AFTER
TREATMENT OF NEGATIVES
Value of correct methods — Following directions — Rocking in devel-
opment — Development without rocking — A few notes on devel-
opers — Pyro — Metol – Hydrochinon — Getting familiar with
one or two — Fixing safely – How to wash and to dry negatives —
The question of varnishing — Defects upon inspection — Weak
and strong negatives — Fog — Intensifying and reducing : why
not advised — The tabloid system — Local reduction — Retouch-
ing — Spotting out — Destroying negatives — Preserving nega-
tives.
IT must be remembered that the whole purpose of
correct methods in development is to get correct neg-
atives, truly representing nature. Consequently, if
you do not want correct negatives, these methods are
to be changed accordingly. Thus, for example, if you
wish to copy a line drawing, you will want black
lines — great contrast; and you will therefore develop
all the contrast possible. Or if you want a figure to
stand out against a soft background, you may help
that effect by developing the plate in that place
locally; in which case you might prefer the old style
of developing. But if you know how to develop cor-
rectly, it is easier to make these changes since you are
working from an exact starting-point. Likewise, you
may develop to suit some particular style of printing,
or to suit your subject. This can be done by chang-
ing the factor in the factorial system, remembering
188
FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING 189
that long developing increases contrast and gives den-
sity, while shorter developing gives softness, and a
thin negative that prints more quickly.
Every package of supplies — chemicals, plates,
papers, and all apparatus – tanks, printing devices,
— and the many handbooks — photographic booklets,
almanacs, annuals and so on, will supply you with
plenty of special advice. The main object of this
book is to give such a general understanding of the
principles that you will be able to judge for yourself
what is important, and to see reasons for the rules
given.
Naturally enough the makers of plates, films, and
chemicals give the best methods for using their own
goods; and it is, advised that you note carefully the
directions given, even if you find reason for changing
them in certain particulars. The manufacturers must
give directions that will suit even the most ignorant
beginners, and so sometimes err on the side of over-
caution. Besides, you will wish to make your own
solutions, and so on, or to vary the amounts given ;
and this must be done with knowledge.
In developing, nearly all the handbooks advise the
worker to rock the tray while the plate is in the
developer. As a rule this is wise, as it keeps new
solution applying to each part of the plate, dislodges
any little impurities that might settle on its surface,
keeps the developer evenly mixed, and also removes
the chemical products of development from the plate
surface. Consequently, most workers adopt the rule.
But there are advantages in not rocking the tray, if
you understand the matter. When light strikes the
emulsion on an unexposed plate, which contains
190 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
silver-bromide, the compound is broken up, and
bromine set free. This bromine in contact with an
alkaline developer, forms a bromide again — which is
a restrainer of the developer. Rocking the plate
mixes the bromide all through the solution. But if
the tray be left motionless, the bromide remains
where formed, and is most plentiful where the lights
are strongest. Consequently it tends to restrain the
developing of the higher lights, and thus give the
duller lights time to develop more evenly, producing
soft negatives.
The method used is to put a plate into a very weak
developer in a pan, and give a long slow motionless
development under a cover that can be raised without
jarring the tray — as a big pasteboard box-cover
which will not touch the tray, but rest on the table
around it. After about half an hour, the plate may
be examined in the tray, but must not be moved until
development is done.
This method is said to make beautifully soft nega-
tives, but the developing solution should be highly
diluted, as in what is called “stand development,” say
with six times the usual amount of water. And this
sort of developing is of course expert work.
As to the choice of developers, it has already been
noticed that modern workers find this really a matter
of their convenience. The most frequent developers
are pyro, metol, hydrochinon, eikonogen, and less
often used are amidol, ortol, tolidol, rodinal. There
are so many that only professional treatises attempt
to describe them all, and no amateur is likely to use
more than a very few of the best known.
Pyro, perhaps the one entitled to first place, all
FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING 191
things considered, is a feathery white powder, a
strong poison, with a tendency to stain your fingers
and your plates a brown shade. The action of pyro,
according to the experts, differs greatly according to
its strength in solutions, as to which a table is given in
the chapter of formulae. Here we will say only that
its tendency to stain is prevented by mixing it with
sulphite of soda. Pyro, properly managed, Will do
almost anything in developing plates, but the impor-
tant thing is to be sure to get enough density in your
plates by long enough developing.
Metol is an excellent developer, with the very
serious fault that it poisons the skin of some persons,
the effects differing with the person and the con-
ditions. Most workers who take pains to keep their
fingers clear of the solution will escape unpleasant re-
sults, but if you find your fingers are injured by it, it
will be wise to choose another developer.
Hydrochinon (or hydroquinone) seems to be used
most often with other developers. It is often called
“quinol,” as in the “metol-quinol” compounds, the
well known “M-Q’” tubes containing this. Like
pyro, it brings out the surface image quickly, and you
should not let this induce you to shorten development
for density. The use of metol-quinol is especially
recommended by the makers of gaslight and other de-
veloping papers, while pyro is very apt to stain, if
used for making prints.
The best course in regard to the use of developers
is to make a choice of one or two, and then study the
books about these until you know all its characteris-
tics. Now it is well established that the same results,
generally speaking, may be obtained from each of
192 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
them, and there is no excuse for changing from one to
another in the hope of special advantages. By using
the same developer under different circumstances you
will learn to take advantage of all its good qualities,
and to adapt it to your changing needs.
But your care with the developing will avail little
unless you fix your negatives thoroughly and rightly.
Yet the matter of correct fixing is not difficult. With
plates, you will use the regular “Hypo ’’ bath (hypo
being an abbreviation of “hyposulphite of soda,” for
which the right name chemically is sodium thiosulphate),
either plain, or made acid by the addition of alum,
acetic acid, and sodium sulphite — the last being
added to keep the sulphur from being precipitated.
The only safe rule is to leave the negative in the
hypo bath until all the white disappears, and then as
long again. But a few rules will help to make your
fixing right. Use fresh hypo, it is very cheap; rinse
plates clear of developer before fixing; slight rocking
helps fixing; the plain hypo bath becomes discoloured,
the acid bath remains clear till exhausted ; keep hypo
solution cool; do not let films stick together in the
fixing bath.
After fixing, wash out all hypo by rinsing and
draining your plates over and over, say eight or ten
times. The draining is quite as important as the rins-
ing. This is done by putting the plate into a tray of
clean water for about two minutes, then setting it up
to drain while you pour out the water and wash out
the tray. Then another two minutes soaking, and
another draining, and so on. In running water, the
hypo will be washed out thoroughly in from one to
two hours. This is a bore, of course, but it is the only
Courtesy of American Photography
“SUNLIGHT on SURF * - -
An effective picture made from a very simple scene.
and the lighting give it interest. It is proof that the rule “not to photo-
graph against the sun” may often be broken to advantage.
ing would have made this a “moonlight” picture.
The composition
Dark print-




FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING 193
way to be sure your negative will not spoil. Films
may be pinned to a board, and floated face downward
in a bath. Hypo is heavier than water, and will be
removed by its weight.
The drying of negatives should be done as quickly
as possible without heat, since the grain of the image
coarsens slightly by long drying. A current of dry
air is the best drier, and an electric-fan is an excellent
helper. Do not put drying plates or films too near one
another, as this tends to delay drying. Keep them in
an even temperature if possible. For artificial drying,
plates may be mopped with soft cotton, immersed in
alcohol for three or four minutes, and then taken out
after the alcohol has replaced the water. Spirit alco-
hol is best for this purpose. After the alcohol bath
the plate will dry in fifteen or twenty minutes. This
method cannot be used for films, and is not so good as
ordinary drying for plates, being, as Bayley’s “Com-
plete Photographer ” says, not so clean looking.
The same authority advises against warnishing nega-
tives, as the process is a bother, seldom necessary, and
prevents the subsequent working upon the negative to
reduce or to intensify it, which may save an otherwise
faulty negative. When your negative is dry, you will
for the first time be able to know how far successful
your work has been. But this can be tested certainly
only by making a print, since the eye-judgment of
negatives is often somewhat misleading, the trans-
parency of the plate to the eye and to the printing
light being different things.
But certain matters will make themselves evident at
once, such defects as clear or dark spots and streaks,
mottling and blotches. Most of these come from lack
194 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
of cleanliness, such as dust and impurities, and a list
of them will be found in the last chapter. General
Weakness of the negative may come from under-ex-
posure or under-development, or weak lighting may
be the cause. Under-exposure is known by lack of
detail in the Shadows, or absence of all except highly
lighted portions of the picture; under-development by
general lack of strength throughout; weak lighting
by lack of strength in the highest lights though there
is detail in the shadows. But a weak negative with
detail in shadows may also be caused by over-ex-
posure, with under-development, or development in too
cold or too weak a developer. The trouble comes
usually from being afraid of developing too long, if
the image comes up quickly in the developer, or from
being afraid to stop development soon enough if the
image has come up slowly. Remember that the same
development is best for under, correct, or over-ex-
posure. It will in the first case bring out all there is
in the plate; in the second case, it is of course right;
in the third, it may increase density and make slow-
printing negatives, but it will give you the detail and
contrast you will otherwise lack.
Too much contrast in a negative if not caused by an
exposure so short as to give only higher lights, may
come from harsh lighting with under-developing, or
from short exposure with too long a development,
that makes the high lights too dense.
Fog, or a general dullness of the negative, may come
from too much light in the dark room, from too long
a development or too warm a developer— both of which
will affect the white edges of the plate as well as the
picture; or from light in the camera leaking through
FURTHER REMAIRKS ON DEVELOPING 195
some opening, or diffused by a dusty lens, which will
not fog these edges. With cleanliness, fresh cool de-
veloper, proper lighting in the dark room, a light-tight
camera and holders, and correct developing, there should
be no sign of fogging.
To remedy weakness in a negative, the process called
intensification may be used, though no after-process
is likely to make a poor negative as good as a good
one would have been. There are a number of formulae
given, many of them requiring the use of chemicals
that are dangerous to handle. The intensifier given
by the Seed Dryplate Company is as follows:
INTENSIFIER
After fixing and washing thoroughly, soak in
Mercuric Chloride . . . . . . . . 120 gr.
Potassium Bromide . . . . . . 120 gr.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 oz
When the image is white throughout, wash thoroughly and place in
Sodium Sulphite, 1 to 8 of water. The darkening action takes place
steadily and slowly. Wash fifteen minutes in running water to free
from Sulphite.
There are also sold preparations for the purpose by
various dealers, and it will be best to use these follow.
ing directions very carefully because the processes are
delicate.
When a negative is too dense, the process of “re-
ducing” is resorted to, and for this the following
formula is given by the Seed Company:
REDUCER
A. B
Water . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz. Water . . . . . . . . . . 32 oz.
Red Prussiate of Potash . . 15 gr. Hypo . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
Add A to B. Immerse plate in solution and watch closely. Action
196 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
is best seen when solution is poured over negative in a white tray.
Remove plate from solution when reduction is quite complete. After
reduction wash thoroughly. -
Where contrast is too great, a reducer that will act
most strongly upon the higher lights is required.
From the same source as the two preceding formulae
comes this one :
TO REDUCE CONTRASTY NFC ATIVES
A
Permanganate of Potash . . 24 gr. Water . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
B
Sulphuric Acid . . . . 24 drops. Water . . . . . . 1 oz.
For use
1 dram . . . . . . . . . . . A
2 dram . . . . . . . . . . . B
8 oz. . . . . . . . . . . Water
This solution works rapidly, reducing the high lights without ap-
parent reduction of shadows.
\
Those amateurs who desire to go fully into the sub-
ject of intensifying and reducing are advised to get
the Photo-Miniature, No. 74, called “Intensifying and
Reducing Negatives.” The subject is one requiring
more space than can be given to it except in special
treatises, especially as the kind of process to be used in
any given case depends much on the particular neg-
ative. It is rarely that the young photographer will
have negatives that are both defective and valuable
enough to be worth the trouble of either of these
treatments; and the chemicals employed are not such
as may be handled carelessly. Perhaps the simplest
way of meeting the difficulty will be to use the
“Tabloid' chemicals made by Burroughs, Wellcome
FURTHER REMARKS ON DEVELOPING 197
& Company, New York City. These come in little
hard tablets securely sealed in glass tubes, and after
the solutions for intensifying and reducing have been
used, they can be thrown away, and the graduate and
trays thoroughly rinsed.
If a portion of the negative is a little too dense, it
can be somewhat reduced by rubbing in a circular mo-
tion with a tuft of absorbent cotton — a little box of
which costs a few cents at a druggist’s — dipped in
alcohol. If the negative is too thin in portions, it is
sometimes remediea by attaching a bit of damp tissue
paper at the back to the four corners or edges with
paste, and then after it is dry strengthening the thin
parts by shading lightly with a pencil, or a thin wash
of red water-colour, or by “retouching ” on the film-
side. To retouch the negative, is an art in itself, but
it can do no harm to know enough of the matter to
remedy plain defects in your negatives. A retouch-
ing varnish may be made by dissolving 60 grains of
resin in 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, and a bit of soft
rag just touched to this may be gently rubbed on the
film where you wish to work. Then with a pencil,
very sharply pointed, lightly mark where you wish to
increase the density of the negative — or, in other
words, to lighten the print. Practice on an old neg-
ative first, and be content to remedy the worst faults
first, taking up others as you find you have the skill.
Transparent spots, “pin-holes,” or scratches on the
negative made by care'ess handling, may be remedied
by painting them out with one of the various brands
of “spotting out ’’ medium, or “opaque’” — a pasty
material, usually red in colour. This, of course,
makes a white spot on your print; but this is far bet-
198 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
ter than a black spot, for you can then, with dilute
India ink and a brush, or perhaps with only a pencil,
touch up your print so that the spot will not show.
With P. O. P. you will not be able to do much by this
method, but on gray papers it is very satisfactory ; on
prints toned to various colours you have of course to
match the colour with paints.
It may not be known to every amateur that when
you wish to destroy a negative, there is nothing
simpler than to put it into very hot water, which will
melt the film, and leave clear glass. As to celluloid
films, though they can be burned, this should be done
very cautiously, a single one at a time, as they burn
almost explosively.
To keep glass negatives, the best way is to put them
into the partitioned boxes made for the purpose. If
you do not care to do this, keep them upright in tin
cracker boxes, or in the pasteboard boxes in which
the plates come. Lay them film-side to film-side with
clean bits of wrapping paper between each pair, and
in a dry place. Manila envelopes are sold in plate
sizes by all dealers in camera supplies, and these are ex-
cellent and handy. Examine them now and then, and
remove any that may spoil. If a little hypo should
crystallize on the surface, and the plate is found in
time, it may sometimes be saved by a thorough
washing, as at first, and re-drying.
With a needle set in a holder, you may scratch at
the edge of the film any date or number or inscrip-
tion. Film negatives are by far the best for storing
away.
CHAPTER XVIII
PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES
The print the final object — Choice of process — Which are perma-
nent —Ease of working — Number of processes — What they de-
pend on — Silver papers — Plain Salted paper — Albumen-coated
papers — Gelatine-coated paper—How they compare — Bromide
paper, for prints and enlargements – Gaslight papers — Their
fitness for amateur work – Papers that depend on iron salts—
Blue prints – Platinotypes — Advantages of the platinum process
— The Kallitype — Bichromate papers — The Carbon process —
Reversing the image — Gum-bichromate process — The Ozobrome
process — Which the amateur is likely to use — Advantage of
choosing the simplest — Value of handbooks and photographic
periodicals.
As the negative does not represent nature, it is only
a step to the print, and only good pictorially as
it will make a satisfactory print. So, when we
have carefully avoided all the rocks and the shoals
that surround our course from nature to negative, we
have only reached the beginning of another channel,
and perhaps one more difficult to navigate — the chan-
nel leading from negative to print.
But there is a difference. There are many courses
leading from negative to prints, and accordingly we
have to make a choice among them, a choice that
should be largely decided by the sort of negative we
have secured, and also by the sort of print we wish to
make from it. The two depend somewhat upon one
another. Some negatives are better fitted for one kind
of paper and process, others that might fail with one
199
200 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
paper Will give good prints with another. Yet in
general it is true that with a clear, strong negative
you may get a good print whatever the process, while
a weak negative, though doing better under one proc-
ess than another, will require shrewd, skillful hand-
ling with any.
A question requiring consideration also is that of
permanency. If your picture is to be kept for years,
you must choose the sort of print that will surely
last — and of these there are not an embarrassing
number, though most prints if carefully and cleanly
made will last for many years. Still another thing to
think about is the question of ease and simplicity in
working, especially because simple processes are most
likely to be carefully and correctly carried out.
Even without the minor modifications, there are
a dozen ways of making prints, and each has its pur-
poses and advantages. This whole chapter could
easily be devoted to almost any one of them without
exhausting its interest. Consequently we cannot hope
to do more than give you a first acquaintance with
each, to help you to choose among them.
Five of the best known processes make use of silver,
three of iron, and the other three of bichromate of
potassium.
The papers depending for their action on silver con-
sist of paper coated with a chloride (or iodide) of silver
held in a film of gelatine, of collodion, or in the paper
itself. The last of these three, known as plain salted
paper or plain silver paper is the earliest of them, and
the simplest. It is usually made by the amateur for
himself since it is merely a matter of coating the paper
(any suitable sort) with solutions of nitrate of silver
PRINTING – METHODS AND PROCESSES 201
and chloride of sodium, or ordinary salt. A formula
for it will be given in the chapter of processes. If an
iodide of silver be made, the paper will need develop-
ing. With the chloride of silver, it can be printed
readily, and toned with gold or platinum, like the
papers bought ready-made. The process is simple,
cheap, and said to be reasonably permanent — an ex-
cellent process for those who do not live near supply
houses.
If the same chemicals are used with an albumen
(white of egg) coated paper, there is a gain in detail,
a glossy instead of a dull or “matt' surface, and the
paper keeps better while unprinted. The albumen
also keeps the image at the surface, whereas in the
plain salted paper it sinks into the fibre. Albumen
papers may also be prepared with a dull surface. The
old-fashioned family photographs were mostly on
albumen papers. The process of making the albumen
prints is longer than some more modern methods and
has no great advantage, either in brilliancy or keeping
qualities.
Substituting gelatine for the albumen to give sur-
face, but using still the same chloride of silver, we get
the modern “printing-out papers” (often abbreviated
to P. O. P.), though the Photo-Miniature, No. 7S, tells
us that the surface of the paper is first prepared with
baryta to give smoothness. If collodion be used for
holding the silver chloride, we have another variety
the two being “gelatino-chloride,” and “collodio-
chloride.” An example of the first is “Solio,” of the
second, “Aristo, Jr.” These papers are in general use
where fine detail is required, especially in photographs
meant for reproduction, as plates, and for taking first
202 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
proofs of negatives. In order to be permanent they
must be carefully made and thoroughly washed, and
even then their lasting may be doubtful, and they are
not used where permanency for years is of great mo-
ment. Usually glossy, they are also made with the
matt surface, and may be toned with gold or platinum
so as to give brownish or blackish tones.
Bayley in “The Complete Photographer” says, “Al-
bumenized paper is practically obsolete. Gelatino-
chloride paper must be dealt with at only ordinary
temperatures (for fear it will blister or melt). e -
With collodion P. O. P. . . . the film is quite
insoluble, hot or cold.”
Two of the kinds of papers using silver compounds
require developing. One of these is “bromide" paper,
coated with gelatine — with bromide of silver much
like that used in making dry-plates, and needing very
similar treatment. Like the plate, bromide paper
shows ordinarily no trace of the image until the de-
veloper brings it out; and it must be handled in ruby
light only except when exposed for printing. In fact,
it may be considered a “dry-plate” on paper. It
prints not only in contact with the negative, but also
is used in making enlargements, the image being pro-
jected on it from a lantern or from a camera used as a
lantern, or by letting outdoor light pass through an
opening and then through a negative so as to project
the picture on the paper. There are various methods
of developing and toning, so as to give different
colours and shades to bromide paper, and the prints
(carefully made) are said to be permanent.
The other class of developing silver papers is what
is known as “gaslight” papers, such as Velox and
Photograph by Mr. Henry E. Corke
A “ FIRElight " Photograph
Made by daylight entering through a low opening.
(See note in Appendix.) The portraits of persons light-
ing pipes, often seen, are made in a similar way.

PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES 203
Cyko. The Photo-Miniature already quoted and an-
other of the series call these “washed chloride” pa-
pers. “Welox” was the first of them, being invented
by Dr. Leo Baekeland in 1894, but the exact process
of manufacture is a secret. They are very sensitive to
light in printing, and yet can be safely handled in
subdued daylight or in artificial yellow light, as if they
were very slow dry-plates. This style of paper seems
especially suited to the amateur, being simple, con-
venient, and being made in many varieties of surface,
substance, and style. The prints, rightly made, seem
to be permanent as a rule, but this is not absolutely
established, since there has hardly been time. Cer-
tainly, they are safe enough for all average amateur
work, and make a beautiful variety of prints.
Three kinds of papers depend for their sensitiveness
upon the ferric oxalate — a salt of iron. The best
known of these is the “blue-print,” which, except for
its colour, would come into universal favour. The
result of mere printing and washing is permanent and
unchanging, so the prints are most excellent for filing
away as records, either of your negatives, or of the
facts they contain. A very few subjects suit the
colour — sea-pictures, for example; but there is some-
thing about the tint that is unpleasant to the eye if
seen often or too much at one time. There are
methods of changing the colour, but they are said to
be uncertain in result and in permanency. Besides,
When you make the blue-printing a troublesome, long
process, you might better use a better method.
The Platinotype is also, at the beginning, an iron
paper. The paper is coated with ferric oxalate, and a
Salt of platinum. After printing till the image shows
204 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
faintly, the paper is treated in a warm solution of
Oxalate of potash which causes the image to reduce or
deposit the platinum from the platinum salt, giving a
platinum image. The Photo-Miniature, No. 78, says:
“In simplicity of manipulation, and beauty of result,
as well as in permanency, the platinum process is not
surpassed by any other printing process known.” The
objection to it is its expense. Platinum is a rare
metal, and is constantly rising in value because the
demand for it in electric arts and for many other pur-
poses is increasing. Consequently, while it can be used
for good and valuable prints, it is not to be used reck-
lessly.
Platinum paper, or “platinotype paper,” as it is
sometimes called, does not give quite the “snap,” or
contrast and sharpness of detail that makes the gas-
light papers, such as Velox and Cyko, so popular. Nor
is it, in some respects, quite so easy or convenient to
print and develop. It has to be printed in daylight,
though not in the sun ; and even in the so-called “cold
bath" process, the manufacturers recommend one to
maintain the temperature of the developer at 60° to
90° Fahrenheit. But if it lacks the contrast of Velox,
it possesses a far greater beauty in the richness and
softness of its shadows, and in a quality of “depth,” by
which we mean that it makes us feel that we are look-
Žng into the scene. It records, also, many shadings
too delicate to show on other papers, such as light
clouds in a sky which on the gaslight papers would
appear as a white blank. It has one other advantage
— it lies quite flat without curling. It shows at its
best in prints larger than 4 x 5 in size, and for portraits
is the ideal paper.
PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES 205
The paper is usually of a dull surface, but glossy
platinum papers are made. The prints are black but
are toned to the sepia brown, to red and to blue by
various treatments. Some platinum papers may be de-
veloped by mere exposure to a jet of steam, a simple
and fascinating method.
Altogether, the amateur is advised to print his very
best negatives carefully upon a platinum paper for
preservation, being sure to make the washing in the
acid solution thorough, and to use fresh and dry paper.
Thin negatives may be used for platinum printing, if
printed just right, but the best are those with well-
balanced contrast. Those who like fancy tones will
find a number of processes for them given in the
special handbooks on Platinotypes, but it is doubtful
whether any of them are an improvement upon the
simple straightforward, black-and-white method of de-
velopment. For coloured prints with sure permanency,
use the carbon process, and keep the platinotype at
its best. 3-
The third iron process is that known as Kallitype.
It is (or rather was — for it is now seldom used)
printed on a paper prepared (usually by the amateur
himself, since it does not keep) with ferric oxalate and
silver nitrate chiefly. The printing shows an image
in yellow, which is developed in various ways, and
fixed with hypo.
A process for Kallitype recently recommended by
James Thomson (Photo-Miniature, No. 69) advises that
a good paper (Whatman's or “Scotch linen ledger")
be sized with gelatine, sensitized in a solution he gives,
and then printed to show deepest shadows only, de-
Veloped in a nitrate of silver solution, and fixed in
206 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
weak hypo. This is said to give prints equal to
platinum ; but the process is more troublesome if
cheaper, and also stains the finger-nails. Mr. Bayley,
the English photographer, throws doubt on the per-
manency of the Kallity pe process in some forms, but
it may interest some amateurs.
There remain three forms of printing that depend
on an entirely different principle — that of the change
of a gum treated with bichromate of potash under the
action of light from a soluble to an insoluble condition.
In these processes paper, or some other substance, is
coated with dyed gelatine, then made sensitive by
dipping into the bichromate solution, and dried. The
paper is then printed under a negative, but shows no
image. The light makes the gum insoluble in propor-
tion to the lighting. Next, the film on the paper is
transferred, reversed, to another support, so the printed
surface is beneath. Now, by Washing with warm Water,
105° to 115° Fahrenheit, the gum is melted wherever
it is untouched by the light, and least melted where it
has been most lighted. The result is to leave more
gelatine where the light was strong, less where it was
weak — making a print in the coloured gum.
The name “carbon ’’ comes from the fact that car-
bon (such as the pigment lampblack or India ink) may
be used as the pigment to colour the gelatine, and if
used makes a perfectly permanent print. The earliest
carbon prints were printed from the back through the
paper – but in 1864 Sir Joseph Swan devised the
method of transferring the film so as to bring it with
the unprinted side upward. Of course the print
developed with the printed side uppermost would
have been melted from its support. The present
PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES 207
process makes the whole method simple, if somewhat
long.
The carbon-tissues, or prepared papers, come in a
great variety of colours, either sensitized or not. If
sensitized it should be fresh, only a day or two old to
be at its best. The sensitizing is not difficult, nor are
the other processes, while the results are declared to
be unexcelled by any other, if the possibilities are
taken into account. Carbon prints may not only be
of any colour, but may be transferred to any substance
— such as glass, china, wood, metals. If printed from
glass negatives they will be reversed, but from films
they may be printed so as to come out right, by print-
ing through the film back — that is, with the smooth
side against the carbon paper. The printing does not
give a visible image, but there is considerable latitude,
and one may print a negative of the same general
density on a printing-out paper at the same time, and
this will be a guide to the unseen result on the carbon ;
or one may go by some actinometer or light measurer.
The so-called Gum-Bichromate process is similar in
its principles, but needs no transferring of the print,
and the third process — the Ozobrome — is also
one of the same sort. But the Ozobrome process is
unlike any other in the fact that the prints are made,
without light, by putting a bromide or gaslight print
into contact with the Ozobrome tissue (of various
colours) in a special solution. Then the tissue is devel-
oped like a carbon print, either by itself, or on the
bromide print. The process is a new one in this coun-
try, and seems valuable because it will enable ama-
teurs to make large prints on the Ozobrome tissue,
simply by making a bromide enlargement from a
208 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
small negative. Both allow of much modifying of
the print, which recommends them to experienced
workers; but they are not likely to be used except by
experienced workers. All three of the bichromate
processes use a solution that is dangerous to handle
except with the utmost care, not only because it is
poison taken into the mouth, but also may be absorbed
by a cut or sore on the fingers. If used, the worker
should remember this, and see that the skin is un-
broken, and that the hands and nails are thoroughly
cleansed from it.
The young photographer will find that the ordinary
and best known processes — blue print, printing out
and gaslight papers, and the platinotype will give him
all the variety he needs, and will also teach him the
possibilities of other processes. To master these
should be his first task, and when he has learned
them, he will have graduated from such a book as
this to the special books on each method of printing.
It is wisest to learn the few best processes thoroughly
before attempting the more unusual; and having
learned the simpler methods, the others will be quickly
understood.
To those named above should next be added the
making of bromide prints and enlargements, and then
the carbon process — which will make the amateur a
well equipped worker. -
The making of positives is only the printing of a
negative upon a new plate, the new unexposed plate
being put into the printing-frame against a negative,
precisely as if it were a printing-out paper. Exposure
is made to a very weak light, and will be very short,
unless special plates meant for making the positives
PRINTING — METHODS AND PROCESSES 209
are used. Lantern-slides also are made in the same
way. Positives, transparencies, and lantern-slides are
all simply prints on sensitive plates instead of paper.
Plates specially made for these purposes are usually of
slow speed, and directions for exposure come with
them. The development is varied also to suit the re-
sult desired.
In fact, space will not permit our giving here more
than the most general rules; nor is it necessary. Un-
less we should equip ourselves with knowledge greater
than that of all the experts employed by manufac-
turers — a task that might puzzle a photographer's
congress — we could not do better than to copy for
you the directions given by manufacturers and dealers
in the printed matter accompanying their wares. This
will come to you unsought, and you have only to fol-
low intelligently the advice given, never modifying
rules unless you understand their purpose. For any
special work, such as enlarging, copying, making lan-
tern-slides and so on, you will do well to buy the hand-
books on your special subject. The cost of them will
be repaid many times by the time, labour, and money
they will save you. It is also well worth while to
take at least one good photographic periodical, so as
to know what is doing in the world of photography.
The experience of the best workers is given to the
world, and nearly all the photographic journals are
edited with constant remembrance of the needs of
the beginner and the not too skilled amateur. The
publishers of such magazines, too, can usually supply
you back numbers containing articles on special sub-
jects which may have appeared in them, if you write
for information on any particular point. Not only for
210 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
their special articles on processes are the periodicals of
value, but for their advertisements as well, from which
you may learn of new contrivances for the assistance
of the photographer, new printing papers and plates,
on which you will want to keep posted, as improve-
ments are always being made.
CHAPTER XIX
LIGEIT AND ITS ACTION
What is light? — How it acts — The ether and its waves — Different
effects — Light of the sun — Relation of electricity and light
waves—What causes them — Electricity changed to heat and
light — Different ether waves, and how they are separated — The
prism — The spectrum, how its different parts act — How light
rays act on various substances — Chemical effects — Examples in
fading or bleaching — Experiments by the old alchemists — Nitrate
of silver — Horn-silver — Earliest making of light-prints.
WHAT light is we do not certainly know. Its ef-
fects are known, and scientific men have studied its
action, and the laws that it obeys until they have
worked out a theory or guess what light must be. So,
though we do not know any exact answer to the ques-
tion “What is light P’’ we can say a great deal in
reply to the inquiry:
“How does light act, and by what laws is it gov-
erned P”
The idea that is believed to be nearest to the truth
may be thus simply put :
Throughout all the universe, so far as we know
anything of it, there is a something called the
“ether.” This is named from a Greek word meaning
“air,” since we think of this ether as filling all space
much as air is in the space close about our earth that
we know best. But the ether is thought to be in
every way a finer, lighter, thinner, less gross sub-
211
212 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
stance than air ; it is thought to extend through all
substances, and to possess remarkable properties.
Just as air can be set into motion, and just as it has
motions great and small, from the grand rushes of
great masses of air which we call the “winds,” down
to the smaller motions of air that are caused by
sounds which we call “ vibrations,” so there are differ-
ent sorts of motion which we believe are caused in the
ether when it is disturbed — that is, when a portion
of it is moved from its place, pushed, or shaken, or set
into vibrations, as water is moved and made to form
waves, or air is moved in pulsations.
In the ether it is thought that there are set up by
disturbances different kinds of motions, some irregu-
lar, others regular, just as in the sea we find ripples,
regular waves, regular great motions like the tides,
and occasional disturbances, like earthquake Waves,
for example, which move large bodies of water at a
time irregularly.
To the regular motions, or waves, believed to be set
up in the ether we have given certain names accord-
ing to their effects. The effects were known to us
long before any one thought of explaining them by
imagining ether waves, for those effects are heat,
light, and electricity. It is thought that when the
waves move in one fashion heat is caused ; when the
waves move more quickly, what we know as heat be-
comes changed into light; other regular waves cause
the effects that we call electricity. These last are
very like light waves but are much longer.
Nearly all of the work that man does in the world
is brought about by causing these movements in the
ether. By means of friction or chemicals or fire al-
LIGHT AND ITS ACTION 213
ready alight we start heat waves, as in making a fire,
or increasing one. We use these heat waves to give us
power and motion, as in the steam-engine. We may
change this power or motion into electricity by set-
ting our steam-engine to turn a dynamo; and then,
having caused the form of ether waves known as
electricity, we change them, perhaps by putting such
a substance as carbon under their action, and so
produce that other ether-motion which we know as
light, as in the incandescent light.
It is an every-day matter to change heat to power,
power to motion, motion to electricity, electricity to
light, or heat, or power. And by experiment it has
been shown that light and electricity obey so many
laws in common, that it is believed they are different
forms of one action.
Light, then, is one of the forms of ether motion.
We can, of course, know nothing directly except by
our five senses; and since everything comes to us
only by sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, we can
never be certain that there is such a thing as this
ether, since it must be changed to motion, heat, light,
sound, or electricity, to reach our senses. We do not
get at or know the ether except in these forms.
But men have found that if they think of the ether
as existing they can understand many laws by which
it acts; and so can explain and control the action of
heat, light, and electricity. Let us accept the idea of
the moving ether, then, to explain the action of light.
From the sun, from the electric light, from the
candle, from the reflected light of the moon, from the
firefly, from phosphorus, come ether waves we call
“light.” Their speed in moving from point to point
214 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
has been measured; the laws of their motion have
been studied out. s
It is believed that when these motions in the ether
proceed in certain wave lengths the effect is what is
known as light. According to Clerk Maxwell, when
the ether vibrates in from 400,000,000,000 to
700,000,000,000 waves a second, the sensation of
“light” is caused. When the waves of ether
are from a few hundreds or thousands up to
200,000,000,000 a second we call its action “elec-
tricity.” But we must not think these are the only
ether waves, since at both ends of the spectrum the
effects of others have been traced, and exhaustively
studied.
Some of the things that may set the ether in
motion so as to give out light are chemical action of
one substance on another; friction, or a rubbing of
one substance against another; and electricity, which
consists of ether waves that can be shortened into other
waves and thus become waves of light. In the sun,
to us the chief source of light, it is thought that there
is enormous heat, possibly caused by the contracting
of the great mass of the sun into smaller dimen-
sions; and that in this heated sphere there is intense
chemical action among the gases of which it is made
up or which surround it.
But whenever the ether waves are of the right
length and speed, they take the character of what we
know as light waves, and may be recognized either by
the eye, or by their effects upon different substances.
We have seen how the electric waves, when caused
to travel in waves of less length by putting into their
way something which retards or shortens them, be-
LIGHT AND ITS ACTION 215
come heat or light waves, and are therefore led to
think that electricity, light, and heat, are really the
same sort of action when at different speeds. There-
fore it is not hard to understand that since one kind
of waves pass into another kind, as electricity into
light, this change from one wave length to
another is not always made abruptly or instantly.
But there is a succession of waves, each somewhat
shorter than the one before, when the wave length is
shortening; and also a succession of waves each
longer then the preceding one, when the wave length
is lengthening, as when light changes to heat.
Suppose, for example, we put into an electric-circuit
made of copper wire a piece of carbon, which it is
harder for the electric waves to go through than
through the wire. When they first reach it, the
waves are very greatly slowed down, so much that
they become heat waves and the piece of carbon be-
comes warm to the touch. If the current is strength-
ened, or the carbon becomes hotter, the waves get
through more easily. As the waves gain a higher rate
of speed, the carbon grows hotter and hotter and some
of the waves escape into light waves — that is, we say
the carbon becomes luminous, or “red hot.” When
still further heated, the waves are more rapid, and the
carbon becomes white hot. In this state it may begin
to combine with the oxygen of the air, or, in simple
language, to burn up.
In the sun, it is supposed that there are different
kinds of action among the heated gases, and that from
these different kinds of action come ether waves of
various speeds. Each one of the different sorts of ac-
tion in the sun is sending off ether waves through
216 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
space, and so we should suppose that these ether
waves are of different speeds and lengths. Some of
the waves are at the right rate to become light waves.
But not all these light waves are alike.
If, then, we can find out a means of separating one
set of light waves from another, we can find out what
sorts make up the sun's light. Sir Isaac Newton has
done this for us, and shown us how to repeat his ex-
periment.
Into a dark room he admitted through a small hole
a ray of sunlight. In the path of this beam of sun-
light he put a three-sided piece of glass known as a
prism. This had a thick and a thin edge. In going
through the prism the ether waves were interrupted
and bent from their paths; that is, they were “re-
fracted,” which means bent or broken aside as we
have explained in talking of the lens. The waves that
travelled quickest were the most bent; those that were
going more slowly were the least pushed from their
path; and upon a screen were received the different
light rays that made up the sunbeam, each striking on
a different place according as each was more or less
bent from a straight line.
Then it was seen that instead of being made up of
one kind of light, the sunbeam contained many rays
that differed from one another in colour and were
spread out in a patch work band in which the eye
could see a succession of brilliantly coloured lights in
a certain regular order.
At one end of this band was a bright violet, at the
other end a bright red, and between these, passing
delicately one into another, were other coloured bands,
making up the following list: red, orange, green, blue,
LIGHT AND ITS ACTION 217
indigo, violet. It was also seen that by their direction
the colour most changed from a straight path was the
violet, while the least turned from its course was the
red. In other words, the quickest rays were those
that we know by the name violet, and the others were
slower in regular order until at the other end of the
band, or spectrum, were the slow red rays.
It was also easy to show that when these coloured
rays were all brought together again, by means of
mirrors or prisms, they gave a beam of white light.
Once having caused the rays that made up the sun-
beam to separate themselves one from another, it was
easy to place a screen to stop all but any one of them,
and then to see which one of the rays acted most pow-
erfully in giving any effect known to be caused by the
whole sunbeam. The rays were carefully studied, and
it was found that each had its specialty ; that is, pro-
duced certain effects of sunshine more than others.
Most powerful of all in chemical action were the
violet rays, and certain rays that were not visible to
the eye, but were beyond the visible violet rays, and
were called the ultra-violet rays. For the visible
spectrum is not all of it; there are rays at each end,
beyond what we see.
The study of the spectrum is of course, as you may
guess, a whole science in itself; but so far as it has to
do with photography the important thing to remem-
ber is that the changes with which photography has
most to do are caused most intensely by the violet
rays and, generally, by all those nearest to that end
of the spectrum, and that the weakest rays for photog-
raphy are found at the other end of the spectrum, that
is, where the red rays are. This, for example, ex-
218 PEIOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
plains at once the use of the red glass of the dark-
room lamp : it is a substance that lets the red rays
pass easily and slows down the other rays of light un-
til they too come out as red rays.
When the ether waves known as light strike upon
different kinds of surfaces, they act in different ways.
Some of the rays are reflected; that is, they are turned
aside and into a new path, and it is by means of these
reflected rays that we see, and it is these reflected rays
that come into the camera. Some of them are slowed
down so as to be changed from light rays into heat, as
is very evident to us where the direct sunshine rests
upon any surface. Thus we see that the light rays
have two effects which are so easily understood that
they have always been noticed.
A third effect is so much slower in its action, ordi-
narily, that we do not think of it so often nor under-
stand it quite so well until it is studied. Still, we all
know that if a person, on a bright sunshiny day, is
out in a boat exposed to the direct sunlight for some
time, he will be aware that the light is brightly visible
and that the sun's rays are warm, and he knows also
that there will be a third effect produced in time. The
sun will change the colour of his skin, darkening it.
This is not exactly the same as “sunburn,” which
means the redness of the skin coming from the warm-
ing effect and from bringing the blood to the surface,
but it is what we know as “tan.” This darkening of
the skin is the effect of a chemical action of the Sun's
rays— that is, of the sun's ether waves — and by
chemical action is meant the changing of the nature of
substances so that their properties are entirely dif-
ferent.
YIGHT AND ITS ACTION 219
For example, if we take any given substance, like
sugar, and break it, grind it, powder it, dissolve it in
water, let it crystallize again into its old shape, and so
on, we change its form, but without changing its
properties. If, however, we burn a lump of sugar
in a closely covered receptacle so that no part of it
can escape even in vapour, we shall find that it has
been changed in its properties, caused to separate into
simpler substances which can then be combined into
new things having none of the properties of sugar.
This is a chemical change, for burning is only a chem-
ical process in which the oxygen of the air is allowed
to act upon the other chemical elements that make up
whatever in the sugar will unite with oxygen — that
is, will burn.
Now the action of the sun is of this nature upon
some things — it changes them chemically. And it
is hardly too much to say that, sooner or later, strong
light acts chemically upon all substances, sometimes
less, sometimes more. In fact a recent scientific work
on photography says that wherever light is absorbed
by a body work must have been done on that body —
or some change in it caused. We can see this action
very quickly upon some dyes, for example, when they
have been used in wall-paper. Often it will be found,
on moving a picture, that the part of the paper which
has been hidden from the more direct action of the
light is different in colour from that exposed to the di-
rect light. We say that uncovered paper “fades
more,” but really this means that there has been a
chemical change in the pigment used in staining the
paper. Upon some substances this action is very
quick, upon others so slow as to be almost imperceptible.
220 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
The bleaching of clothes in the sunlight is another
example of the sun's chemical action. An old book in
speaking of this says that it was for a time thought
that this change was the effect of heat, but by putting
cloths coloured with a dye that faded quickly in the
Sun, into an oven much hotter than the sun's rays it
was found that very often no change at all was pro-
duced. Another little proof mentioned is the fact
that Wax which is whitened by sunlight, darkens
when heated. But most of the changes that were
noticed in the old times were rather slow. The most
important of all these changes is that seen in the
leaves of trees, which under the action of sunlight ab-
sorb carbonic acid from the air, and then give off
Oxygen. Without light this cannot be done.
In the case of one metal, however, the action was
quick enough to excite men's curiosity.
Many years ago, in the beginning of chemistry, it
was believed that it might be possible to find a mag-
ical substance which would change cheaper and com-
moner metals into gold or silver. This caused the old
chemists to make many experiments about dissolving
gold and silver in acids. Silver would dissolve readily
in nitric acid and make a clear and colourless liquid.
If, then, this liquid was left alone, it would evaporate
or disappear, and would leave behind it white crystals.
These were a new chemical form made up from part
of the nitric acid and from the silver. These crystals
were called “ nitrate of silver.”
By making an experiment with this new substance
it was found that it would dissolve readily in water,
and that anything wet with the solution would, when
exposed to light, turn to an intense brown or black.
LIGEIT AND ITS ACTION 221
This solution is still used for marking clothing —
being called “Indelible Ink’” — which is melted nitrate
of silver, having a little gum added to give it sufficient
thickness not to “run” in the cloth. Here then was
something that quickly darkened when exposed to the
light. But the same metal, silver, formed also another
compound upon which light would act quickly, and
this too was soon discovered.
In a German mine there was found a kind of silver
ore that when first picked up was nearly colourless and
transparent. In fact it was called “horn-silver,” be-
cause it looked not unlike clear pieces of horn. When
exposed to the sunlight it very rapidly changed to a
violet tint, the change occupying only a few minutes.
This rapid change in the ore of silver could not but be
noticed.
When it was seen that light turned nitrate of silver
and some other silver compounds to a darker colour, it
was but a simple step to place upon paper that had
been wet with nitrate of silver solution, objects that
would cut off the light from parts of the paper, and in
this way leave the paper to be darkened except where
they had rested. A leaf, for example, placed flat
upon such a piece of prepared paper and out in the
sun would keep the nitrate of silver below it from
turning dark; and when the paper was taken to a less
strong light and the leaf removed, there would be a
picture of the leaf's outline in white.
But although we shall see that many uses were
made of this knowledge, so long as the printed picture
could not be left in the light without turning to the
same dark all over, the process was of little use. Con-
sequently, search began for some way of keeping the
222 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
printed pictures from changing ; but for a long time
no way of making a lasting difference between the
two parts of the paper, the printed and the unprinted,
was known. The only way of preserving them was
to keep them shut up in portfolios or in dark cup-
- boards.
CHAPTER XX
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Who invented photography 2–What photography includes—The
work of many minds — The camera obscura – Da Porta's account
— The chemist Schulze — Experiments on silver compounds —
Scheele's researches — Wedgwood and Davy make silver prints in
the camera — Niépce makes heliographs – His process — Daguerre
joins with Niépce — Story of Daguerre's life — His experiments
with Niépce — The use of iodide of silver — Discovery of a means
of developing the image — The daguerreotype explained.
MR. ALFRED WATKINS, the celebrated photographer
and inventor, in a recent address said: “There has
been much misdirected inquiry on the question, “Who
discovered — or invented — photography P’ Almost
as truthfully might it be asked, ‘Who discovered Wind-
sor Castle P’ Our present practice of photography has
been evolved, like all branches of science and industry,
through the labours of countless workers, each adding
at least one stone to the edifice of knowledge. Here
and there stands out the name of a worker of surpass-
ing genius or application who has contributed a founda-
tion, a story, or a whole wing to the building ; and in
giving due honour to such a name we are apt to forget
how dependent he was on the work of others.”
This witty and sensible paragraph should be borne in
mind by all amateurs in order to prevent their giving
too much honour to some of the noted workers in the
science and art of photography, while robbing others
of their rightful share of fame. Just as the great
223
224 - PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
castle at Windsor is due to a vast number of workers,
so is the process that gives us photographs to-day.
Not only is it useless to ask who invented it, but it
is equally foolish to ask who made the first photograph.
The answer to such questions depends entirely upon
what is meant by them. “Photography” means a
great many things, and each may be thought of by it-
self, or in connection with all its fellows. Each of
these things has existed in many forms; and as it ex-
ists to-day, it usually is a combination of a number of
inventions and discoveries. We can tell, sometimes,
what man made the discovery that was the first step
toward some part of photography, but that first step
was very rarely a complete one.
We will suppose that any one of us sets out to take
a photograph, and has to begin at the beginning
by getting together the things needed. First, then,
a camera is bought, whether simple or elaborate, cheap
or expensive. This consists of a box, a lens, and ways
of exposing plates or films. Secondly, comes the
sensitive plates or films. Then, thirdly, there are the
developing chemicals, and the apparatus and chemicals
for making a print. 'Fourth, there is the apparatus
for the dark room — the lantern, the trays and so on.
These ready, an exposure is made, the plate de-
veloped, fixed, washed, and dried. Then the print is
made, finished and handed over — a complete photo-
graph.
All this proceeding is photography. And before the
art could be practiced, there had to be invented the
camera, with its devices; the plates, with their chem-
ical treatment; the print, with the way of making it
lasting.
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 225
No one man invented the whole process. Perhaps
the nearest to the inventor of a complete process Was
the Frenchman, Daguerre, and yet what he invented
was only a very small part of one process. The art of
photography grew up by steps, slowly made, gradually
set right.
First came the camera, then came the ways of
getting a clear image into the camera; then the mak-
ing of this image lasting ; then a way of making this
lasting image so it could be used to print copies of
itself.
Each one of these steps was an invention, or often
the combined inventions and discoveries of many men.
So it can be seen that it is hardly fair to call any one
or two or three men the inventors of photography, or
discoverers of its methods.
In a very recent and delightful book on photography,"
it is told how in tropical countries, where the sunlight
is so bright and houses were made with few openings
so as to be cool, the people must often have seen from
the very earliest times, the forming of pictures in the
darkened rooms by a ray of light coming in through
a narrow chink. Among the earliest civilized nations,
such as the Egyptians, the forming of these pictures
must have been noticed ; and so we find in the very
oldest authors, descriptions of such appearances. Aris-
totle, who seems to have had all the knowledge of his
time, and who lived nearly 2,300 years ago, tells us
that the spot made by the ray of sunlight coming
through a very small hole of any shape is always more
or less circular. This any one may prove for himself
by cutting square, triangular, or irregular holes in a
* Bayley’s “Complete Photographer.”
226 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
bit of paper, and letting the sun shine through them.
If the holes are not too large, all the spots of sunlight
will be round. The lights under a tree, for example,
on a sunny day, when the sun is high in the sky, will
be seen to be round. Further, Aristotle noted that
during an eclipse, when the sun was changed in shape,
the spots, too, changed to the shape of the sun at the
time, which showed that the spots were images of the
sun. Euclid, the geometer, some generations later,
used to show how the sun made its own image through
a small crevice. Of course, we know that the crevice
acted like the pinhole lens, already explained.
All this shows that the general idea of the camera
was understood in very ancient times; but the first
real box or camera made for showing the images
was possibly made about fifty years before the dis-
covery of America. Next we find an account of such
a camera written by the great artist, Leonardo da
Vinci. In 1558, however, is found the first clear and
exact account of the camera written by an old Italian
philosopher. Born about 1543, in Naples, Giovanni
Battista della Porta from his youth up devoted him-
self to philosophy, to experiment, to publishing what
science he could gather, and, strangely enough, also to
the writing of plays. At the age of twenty-six he
published a book in which, among other things, he
described the camera obscura, saying that if a small
opening is made in the shutter of a dark room, images
of external objects—that is, of the view — will be
shown on the opposite wall in their true colours. And
he further adds that if a convex lens (a lens thick in
the middle and thin at the edges) be put in the opening
and the image is received on a surface at the right
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 227
distance from the lens, the picture will be made so clear
that a person standing on the outside of the window
may be known in the image. But the using of a lens
in this way had already been told about by another
writer.
Porta made an apparatus for showing these images,
and he also pointed out that the eye is such a camera
obscura, though he seemed to think that the images
were formed on the pupil instead of at the back of the
eye as we know them to be. It would hardly seem
from this that Porta invented the instrument.
It may be well here to remind the reader that camera
obscura is only Italian for “dark room.”
The image shown by the camera was upside down,
and this had led very early to the adding of a mirror
so inclined that the images could be viewed right side
up. When the device had been improved, it was ar-
ranged so that it consisted of a dark room, on top of
which was a revolving opening that could be turned
toward any direction of the view. In this opening
was a lens that made the image clearer and brighter
and sent it to be received upon a table placed in a
room below, where it could be conveniently viewed.
It will be seen that by putting a flat white surface
such as a piece of paper, upon a table, the scene would
be received upon this and could be copied at leisure by
an artist. It was not an uncommon thing before the
improvement of photography, to build these camera
observatories upon points that afforded a good view of
the surrounding country, and it was a popular amuse-
ment to observe from within the scenes that came
through the lens.
The idea of using these images as a help to drawing
228 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
came to many, and artists and astronomers found the
camera image a great help in sketching. The camera,
with its lens, was carefully studied, and was well un-
derstood long before there was any idea that the pic-
tures made by it could be made lasting. So we may
say that the camera was ready for use as soon as the
chemists found out how to make it take pictures. The
principles of the action of the camera obscura were set
forth in full by the great astronomer Kepler, and there
were many forms of the apparatus, some for use, oth-
ers for mere amusement. It was also known at a very
early date that the human eye was a camera, receiving
inhages in the same way, and governed by the same
principles. All this was known before there had been
any step toward making the camera images perma-
nent, though some fanciful writers had suggested the
possibility of doing this.
In telling of the effects of light, we have spoken of
the discovery of horn-silver, and of the sensitiveness
to light of certain silver compounds. The nitrate of
silver may have been known to the Egyptians, and
was described in the seventh or eighth century by an
Arabian chemist, who speaks also of certain dyes or
pigments made from silver. The first mention of sil-
ver as producing dark stains was in 1546, by George
Bauer, who also says that a certain silver ore changes
to a darker tint. But the earliest statement that horn-
silver darkens, is in a book by Fachs, in 1567, and there
is no clear understanding of the cause until the work
of Schulze.
The first chemist to make sure that it was light that
darkened the silver was Johann IIeinrich Schulze.
He accidentally mixed nitric acid in which a little sil-
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 229
ver had been dissolved, with chalk, and noticed while
working by a window that the compound darkened to
a purplish red where the sunshine rested on it, and
only there. Following up this hint, he put the same
mixture into bottles, and covering them with paper in
which openings were made, he was able to print the
shape of the openings upon the contents of the bottle.
He also proved by a series of experiments that it was
the silver that caused the change.
He published his experiment in 1727, and Mr. Bay-
ley thinks that the later English experimenter, Wedg-
wood, got his suggestions indirectly from Schulze's
account, through another Englishman, Dr. William
Lewis. Lewis made many experiments with the silver
nitrate, showing how it was darkened by light, and
also with other chemicals. Dr. Lewis's experiments
were told of in a book published in 1763. Before this,
in 1757, the Italian chemist, Beccari, had studied the
chloride of silver, and proved its darkening to be due
to light. Nine years later than Lewis's book appeared
a work on “Discoveries relating to Light, Vision and
Colour,” by Dr. Joseph Priestley, describing Schulze's
discoveries, and mentioning also those of Beccari, and
Lewis's book; and only a short time before (1770), John
Dollond, an English optician, had explained how it
was possible to make an achromatic lens — a discovery
made by Chester More Hall, an astronomer, some time
earlier, and one that was to prove most essential in
photography.
Another step was taken by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
About the time when the Revolution broke out in
America, this German chemist became much interested
in the action of light upon horn-silver, and following
230 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Beccari, he made a great many experiments to find
Out not only how sunlight acted upon this substance,
the chemical name of which is chloride of silver, but
also he tried the effects of the different parts of the
spectrum upon the chloride to see which one acted
most rapidly. -
There is little to record about this chemist's life ex-
cept the appearance every now and then of deep
treatises written by him and telling the results of his
experiments. There is, in the encyclopedias, a long
list of valuable facts he learned in his quiet life in the
laboratory. To him is due the proof that air consists
of two gases, the invention of a valuable dye, the ex-
plaining of the souring of milk, and the discovering of
glycerine. Not only did he discover numberless
things, but in each case he studied completely the ac-
tion of each body he discovered. -
In short, he was a great genius, who, in a brief life,
made discoveries of priceless value to mankind. He
was the first to find out that the rays most powerful
in blackening silver were the violet rays. Such inves-
tigations were carried still further by other chemists,
and it was not many years before it had been shown
that nothing seemed to have the same quick sensitive-
ness to the action of light possessed by silver or its
various compounds. We cannot note the various dis-
coveries, but will record that in 1800 and 1801 Sir
William Herschel discovered heat rays beyond the red
rays, and J. Ritter discovered the invisible rays beyond
the violet, and proved their action on silver salts.
There is a claim that about 1780 a French professor
named Charles made silhouette profiles by casting the
shadows of his pupils' heads on paper prepared with
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 231
chloride of silver; yet the evidence is very slight; and
there is also a statement that Lord Brougham sent to
the English Royal Society in 1795 a paper suggesting
that ivory rubbed with nitrate of silver might retain
camera images, but neither of these ideas led to any
practical result — which is the important matter.
During the years when these investigations were
carried on, there was in England a number of friends
interested in such discoveries, and often meeting and
corresponding. Dr. Priestley, the discoverer of oxy-
gen, and author of the book on “Discoveries relating
to Light,” was one of them ; the father of Charles
Darwin (whose brother married a daughter of Josiah
Wedgwood) was another; James Watt, inventor of
the steam-engine, and Josiah Wedgwood, the famous
maker of pottery, were also included in it. Mr. Bay-
ley tells us that a former assistant to Dr. Lewis came
as secretary into the service of Wedgwood, and was
employed partly in educating Thomas Wedgwood, his
son. This was Alexander Chicholm (or Chisholm, or
Chisolm).
Undoubtedly this assistant knew of Lewis's experi-
ments with nitrate of silver, having been thirty years
in Lewis's service, and through him Wedgwood
(Thomas) became acquainted with its properties, and
began to experiment with it. It is hardly to be
doubted that Tom Wedgwood also knew of Priestley's
work, since his father was a subscriber to it, and Tom
corresponded with Dr. Priestley.
About 1802 came out a paper by Thomas Wedgwood
with notes by Sir Humphry Davy, then an assistant
lecturer in the Royal Institution. This paper told how
to copy paintings on glass, and to make profiles by
232 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the “agency of light upon nitrate of silver.” In this
paper Wedgwood claimed the invention of the method.
What he had really done was to combine the knowl-
edge that nitrate and chloride of silver would darken
in the light, with the use of the lens and the prism, as
told about in the works of Priestley and others.
It was natural that those who knew the beauty of
the little images formed in the camera, and who knew
that light could print the outlines of objects laid upon
paper wet with nitrate of silver, should see what
beautiful results could be secured if the images made
by the camera obscura could be caused to print them-
selves upon paper, and thus save the artist his trouble
in copying the scenes the camera showed. But at first
Wedgwood did not make much progress in this.
Thomas Wedgwood soaked paper or white leather
in the nitrate of silver solution, and then printed upon
it images of ferns or pictures in outline. Davy, in his
notes, remarks: “Nothing but a method of preventing
the unshaded parts of the delineation from being col-
oured by exposure to the day is wanting to render the
process as useful as it is elegant.”
In making his experiments Wedgwood had tried
also to fix upon his prepared paper or leather the
images made in the camera obscura; but though he
was able to get traces of the light's action, it was only
by making very long exposures, and even then the
traces were faint and showed probably only the bright-
est lights.
When the same experiment was tried with images
cast by the sun through microscopic objects, and
thence through a microscope upon prepared paper or
white leather, better success was met with, probably
TEIE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 233
because the light was more concentrated. But the
experimenters had no very great success, and could
not preserve the images except in the dark, though
they tried by prolonged washing to leave only the
blackened or metallic silver in the paper. Conse-
quently until more knowledge was gained, little could
be gained.
Meanwhile, others were likewise working on the
same problems, though they did not always approach
them from the same direction. The next step in ad-
vance was taken in trying to improve upon certain
printing processes in lithography — which is the method
whereby a drawing made on soft stone can be used to
make prints in ink.
The next noted experimenter was Joseph Niépce, a
Frenchman, born in 1765. He became interested
when about forty-eight years old (1813) in lithography,
mainly with the idea of reproducing certain line-en-
gravings. In order to save himself the trouble of
copying these, he tried to make them transparent by
oiling or warnishing them, and putting them upon
metal plates covered with different substances, in the
hope that the light shining through the transparent
engravings would print an image that afterward could
be engraved by the use of acid.
He seems to have tried a great number of different
substances, including some silver compounds, but was
most successful with a kind of resin. This was bitumen,
or asphalt, which he spread on polished metal plates.
Exposed to the light under an engraving or drawing,
this bitumen was so affected that where the light had
acted the bitumen was hard to dissolve, while the parts
protected by the lines of the engraving could be dis-
234 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Solved away by the use of a chemical — the oil of
lavender.
When a plate so covered with bitumen had been ex-
posed to the light and then had been put into the oil
of lavender, those parts of the plate that had been
struck by the light were still covered by the bitumen,
and therefore looked brown, while the parts protected
by the lines of the drawing had been dissolved away
by the oil of lavender and so the lighter metal showed
through. Thus he had made a plate on which the
original drawing was reversed in colour, black lines
showing white, white places showing brown.
It was not a quick process, since even in direct sun-
light the printing time was from four to six hours;
and when the same process was tried in order to fix
the images of the camera obscura, the necessary time
of printing was immensely increased.
When once he had succeeded in getting these re-
versed pictures, he tried all sorts of experiments with
them, among other things putting them in acid which
bit into the plate where the bitumen did not protect
it, making a sort of an etching, or engraving, in which
the white lines were changed to lines engraved upon
the metal.
These plates when engraved, after the bitumen had
been removed entirely (which could be done easily by
heat, or friction) could be used to print from exactly
like plates cut with lines by an engraver. One of these
plates still exists, and a print of it is reproduced in
the Photo-Mānºature for March, 1904.
Niépce also used his processes in attempts to fix the
image in the camera obscura, using paper to receive
the image. It is also said that he used chloride of sil-
THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 235
wer in certain of his experiments; but the process he
brought to the most successful results was that with
, the bitumen on metal plates, either by direct printing
or in the camera. And the same general method is
to-day in use for modern photo-engraving, and a similar
one in making carbon prints. - *
In writing an account of his process for an English
friend, Niépce mentions that he is indebted to a certain
M. Daguerre, of Paris, for the suggestion that glass
could be used instead of metal, and that the lines
etched on glass could be filled with ink, causing the
drawing to be visible when the glass plate was backed
with white paper.
Louis Daguerre was a painter living about nine
miles from Paris, a scientific man “much esteemed
for his goodness and geniality of character,” as an old
writer puts it. Daguerre was born about ten miles
from Paris in 1787. His father was crier to the local
court in Cormeilles, his mother a villager. The boy
was educated in the public schools, and had a strong
taste for drawing. He went into an architect's office,
and learned to make tracings, but in 1803 entered the
shop of a scene painter. He was engaged to make
panorama paintings, and invented or planned a
Diorama, a circular building around which pictures
were shown to spectators on a turning platform. He
introduced the idea of lighting these pictures from
the front, and then from the back — so as to bring a
new picture to view by looking through the first.
He also showed his own paintings in art exhibitions.
It was in 1824 that he began his experiments with
the camera, using chloride and nitrate of silver, as
Wedgwood had done. Two years later he began to
236 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Work with Niépce, and went into partnership with
him in 1829.
An old book on “The Camera and the Pencil,” by
M. A. Root, tells how, in 1825, at the end of a lecture
by a distinguished French chemist, a lady came to ask
a question, saying, “I am the wife of Daguerre, the
painter. For some time he has let the idea seize him
that he can fix the image of the camera. Do you
think it possible P. He is always at the thought, as he
can't sleep at night for it. I am afraid he is out of his
mind. Do you, as a man of science, think that it can
ever be done, or is he mad?”
The great chemist, Dumas, said: “In the pres-
ent state of knowledge it cannot be done, but I cannot
say that it will always remain impossible, nor set the
man who seeks to do it down as mad.” As this was
fourteen years before Daguerre's process was pub-
lished, Root well says that it gives us some idea of
what the discovery cost him.
These two investigators, Niépce and Daguerre,
used, among other things, iodine to darken the surface
of their plates. By letting the vapour of iodine — a
substance first extracted from the ashes of seaweeds,
discovered by Courtois, and investigated by Humphry
Davy (who reported Wedgwood's work and assisted
in it) — act upon the surface of a silver plate, a com-
pound formed of the iodine and silver was left upon
the surface of the plate. Like other silver com-
pounds, this was sensitive to light after a long ex-
posure, far too long to make portraiture possible.
But, owing to a most remarkable accident, Daguerre
made a discovery that at once gave him a quick proc-
ess by which visible images could be formed upon
Courtesy of T. M'. Smillie, U. S. National Museum * . .” -- - -
Monument to DAGurr R.E.
In the grounds of the National Museum, Washington, D. C.

TEIE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY 237
the iodide. Daguerre had been exposing some silver
plates coated with the iodide, but had not made long
enough exposures to get an image he could see. He
put the plates away in a closet where he kept chemic-
als, and upon examining them at a later time was
astonished to find that both showed a visible image.
This, he reasoned, must have been caused by Some of
the chemicals in the closet; and with the ingenuity of
a genius he patiently went to work to find out which
chemical had caused the images to appear.
One after another he took out of the closet a
chemical at a time, putting a fresh plate like the first
into the closet after each time a chemical was re-
moved ; but when be thought he had taken out all the
chemical substances he found that visible images were
still produced.
At length he discovered upon the floor a dish hold-
ing quicksilver, which he had hitherto overlooked.
Knowing that quicksilver is very ready to evaporate,
giving off vapour even when slightly warm, he tried
the experiment of allowing the vapour of the slightly
warmed quicksilver to rise against the surface of the
silver plate coated with iodide. “To his intense de-
light,” says Dr. Vogel in his “Chemistry of Light and
Photography,” “an image appeared, and the world
was enriched by one of its most beautiful dis-
coveries.”
This process discovered by Daguerre consisted, as
will be seen, of the following steps: A polished
silver plate was “fumed,” that is, exposed to the
vapour of iodine. The vapour made with the surface of
the silver a chemical union, producing the chemical
substance, iodide of silver. This iodide is sensitive to
238 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
light. On being exposed to the light, say in a
camera, no image is at first seen; but if the plate be
then placed over a dish of mercury, and the mercury
slightly warmed so as to give off a vapour, the mercury
particles combine with the iodide of silver more or less
as the iodide has been more or less acted on by the
light, and so produce a darkened image made up of
the combining of the mercury with the iodide.
Fortunately for Daguerre, there had been dis-
covered before this time at least two-chemicals that
would wash out of the plate those silver compounds
that had not been affected by the light, without dis-
turbing the parts that had been so affected. When the
unaffected silver was washed out, of course the
pictures could be exposed to daylight without injury.
Of these substances we shall say something in the
next chapter. We must also reserve for that chapter
an account of the work of Fox-Talbot, whose re-
searches and inventions led most directly to modern
ways of making photographs.
CHAPTER XXI
FROM THE DAGUERREOTYPE TO THE DRY
PLATE
Seeking to fix the images — Daguerre uses salt – Herschel dis-
covers hyposulphite of soda to be the best fixer — Objection to the
daguerreotype — Morse and Draper work together in America –
Fox-Talbot's invention — He makes real silver prints from nega-
tives — Draper's work — He uses the “chemical focus ” — The
first portrait — Summary of the work of invention — Niépce
St. Victor introduces albumen — The use of collodion — Scott-
Archer's wet collodion process — The seeking for a dry process —
Dr. Taupenot's gelatine plate — Bennett heats the emulsions
— Dr. Maddox's gelatine plate — The making of emulsion—
Monckhoven adds ammonia — “Modern photography ’’ begins
— The Petzval lens — Dr. Vogel.
To make the nitrate of silver prints last, Sir
Humphry Davy and Wedgwood tried long washing
in water, but without success. Niépce, on the other
hand, had found a way of making sun-prints that
would last, but these were his bitumen plates. He
could not fix his silver prints. Daguerre was the first
to find a solution that would “fix” silver prints by
washing away the parts not made insoluble by light.
IIe used a solution of ordinary salt — chloride of
sodium.
In 1839, Sir John Herschel, the English astronomer
and chemist — who lived until 1871 — showed that
hyposulphite of sodium was a far better solvent, and
Daguerre at once adopted this substance, which has
been used ever since. It was discovered in 1799 by
239
240 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Chaussier, and Herschel had described its effect on the
silver compounds in 1819.
The Daguerreotypes were very beautiful pictures
even from the first, and the process was rapidly im-
proved.
The improvements were needed. For after the first
Wonder and delight over the new process, serious ob-
jections to it appeared. The pictures were very deli-
cate, being ruined by the slightest touch, and if ex-
posed to the air they soon were spoiled. A chemical
treatment due to a Frenchman named Fizeau made
them more permanent. A mixture of hypo and of
chloride of gold was poured upon them and evap-
orated by heat. This left the gold on the image, mak-
ing it both clearer and more lasting.
Put under glass, and viewed at the right angle, the
pictures were beautiful as works of photography, but
the long exposure necessary caused portraits to be un-
satisfactory. In his “House of the Seven Gables,”
Nathaniel Hawthorne points out the defects, saying
that the faces were “hard or stern '' and the sitters
“conscious of looking unamiable.” This in view of
the twenty minutes' exposure sometimes required does
not seem unnatural. The cost of the pictures was ex-
cessive — from five dollars up to twenty-four, the lat-
ter price being charged for Daguerre's own work.
But many workers helped to improve the processes.
Dr. Goddard, of Philadelphia, and another Goddard,
an Englishman, both treated the plates with bromine
fumes, and a Frenchman, Claudet, used chlorine ; both
these treatments made the plates more sensitive, and
reduced the necessary exposure to from five minutes
to one minute — or even less in the best light. Yet
FROM DAGUERREOTYPE TO DFY PLATE 241
even at this time — 1840 and 1841, the very long ex-
posures were often necessary where lenses were im-
perfect or conditions were unfavourable.
Daguerre's process had been made public early in
January, 1839, in return for a pension of 6,000 francs
($1,200) to Daguerre and 4,000 to the younger Niépce.
But in 1839, Professor Morse (of telegraph fame) had
visited Daguerre and seen some of his pictures. Re-
turning to America, Morse met with Professor John
W. Draper, who had for many years been interested
in the study of light and its chemical effects — using
chemically prepared or “sensitive ’’ paper for the pur-
pose. Draper had repeated the experiments of Wedg-
wood and Davy, and had especially studied the work
of Fox-Talbot, an Englishman whose researches upon
photography had been carried on several years before
Daguerre's process was published. Talbot was an
amateur, born in 1800, and died in 1877. He was
educated at Harrow, and Trinity College, and being
rich could afford to give his time wholly to the scien-
tific studies that interested him, and in them he spent
his life.
Talbot's experiments began in 1834, but he had not
published his work when Daguerre's invention was
announced. Three weeks after this announcement,
Faraday showed some of Talbot's prints, and on Jan-
uary 31, 1839, Fox-Talbot read a full account of his
process before the London Royal Society. Talbot
made prints on paper, ſirst salted and then soaked
with nitrate of silver, and fixed them in iodide of
potassium and salt. He also devised a method of de-
veloping — possibly taking the general idea from Da-
guerre — by using gallic acid. This process was
242 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
finally known as “Talbotype,” though patented as the
“Calotype ’’ process. It was rapid as compared with
the Daguerreotype, and was also a means of making
prints, rather than a positive picture.
Professor Draper repeated Talbot's experiments,
and tried to shorten exposures by usi, ºnses of wide
aperture and short focus, and in 18.9 he learned of
and tried Daguerre's process with success on buildings
and other outdoor objects. Then, with a lens of five
inches diameter and seven inches focus, he attempted
a portrait — dusting the sitter's face with flour, and
arranging his camera so that the plate would be at
the chemical focus of the rays. After certain fail-
ures, he succeeded in photographing a sitter— mak-
ing the first photographs of a human being from life.
At this time the Daguerreotype process was used for
making landscape and still-life pictures and required
from twenty to twenty-five minutes' exposure. Pro-
fessor Morse was at work during the same time, and
declares that he cannot say whether “he [Draper] or
myself took the first portrait.” After a while they
worked together, Morse, as an artist, taking especially
the artistic side of the work, and charging his sit-
ters for the portraits.
There are other claims as to the earliest photo-
graphic portraits, but the weight of evidence seems to
favour that of Professor Draper.
To sum up a little, now that we have reached the
first portraiture, we may remember that the achro-
matic lens — a necessary step — came from Hall and
Dollond ; Wedgwood printed with nitrate of silver
in the camera ; Daguerre found out the printing with
iodide on a silver plate, and developing with mercury
FROM DAGUERREOTYPE TO DEY PLATE 243
and fixing with salt; Fox-Talbot printed on paper
with silver salts, developed with gallic acid and made
negatives ; Herschel taught the fixing of the image
with hyposulphite; Draper probably made the first
portrait.
But it should he said also that the developing with
nutgalls (gallic acid) is due to Reade, an English
clergyman, who published a method in 1839, and that
Fizeau and the Goddards used the chlorides and
bromides of silver to make plates more sensitive. To
Herschel is due the use of the terms “positive ’’ and
“negative.” About this time also, 1844, a worker
named Claudet suggested the use of red or yellow
light in the working room to prevent spoiling the
plates. So great were the advances that had been
made in the years from 1839 to 1850.
In 1851 came a process that really gave the begin-
nings of the marvellous modern photography. The
Talbotype had been printed through paper, and often
showed the paper's grain ; and this led to waxing it to
make it more transparent. Herschel had suggested the
use of glass-plates, but his method did not prove prac-
tical, until a relative of Niépce, Niépce de St.Victor, saw
the need of some substance to hold the silver salts to
the plate, and introduced in 1847 the use of albumen
and starch for that purpose. His process was pub-
lished the next year, and improved and extended by
two other Frenchmen — Blanquart-Evrard using paper
coated with the albumen for printings, and Le Gray
using collodion (a solution of pyroxyline, a kind of
gun-cotton) to replace the albumen in the plates. The
inventor of collodion was a Boston medical student,
John Parker Maynard, who in 184S advised its use as
244 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
a medical plaster, and gave the substance its name
from the Greek word “kolla,” glue. Then an English-
man, Scott-Archer, made the collodion process certain
and practical.
He was a sculptor, and studied photography to pre-
Serve records of his work. Between 1847 and 1850 he
tried the calotype and the daguerreotype, but soon
improved on these processes by using collodion and
his methods soon took the place of both. Archer's
method was to dissolve cotton-wool in nitric and sul-
phuric acids, making “pyroxyline.” This was washed
and dissolved in ether and alcohol, making collodion.
To this was added iodide of potassium and potassium
bromide, and the mixture poured on a glass-plate and
allowed to set. The plate is then sensitized in silver
nitrate, put into a holder (still wet) and exposed in the
camera for “from one moment to a quarter of an
hour.” It was developed in gallic acid, acetic acid,
and water, and fixed in hypo.
This is the “wet collodion ” or wet-plate process.
It gave most delicate and beautiful negatives, or if
preferred a positive could be had by making a short
exposure, and whitening the negative in bichloride of
mercury. The plate so treated was then backed by a
black background, and gave an effect like the daguer-
reotype, but more lasting and very much cheaper.
When such a picture was covered by another glass
plate, the “ambrotype" was formed,— a kind of pic-
ture very well known years ago, say from 1854 to 1807.
The wet-plate process is still used in making plates
for lantern-slides, delicate negatives for reproduction,
and wherever the finest detail is needed, as in astro-
nomical work or scientific photography. The claim is
FROM DAGUERREOTYPE TO DFY PLATE 245
made that it still produces the most beautiful of nega-
tives.
But though the wet-plate process may be looked
upon as the first step in modern photography, it was
not convenient to have the silver-bath always ready.
Consequently many efforts were made to unite the
silver with the collodion coating, and then to dry the
plates without their losing sensitiveness. A French-
man, Dr. Taupenot, was the first to succeed, though
many improvements designed to keep the plates moist
were tried before the really dry-plate was devised.
Taupenot coated the sensitive plate with albumen,
dipped it in silver nitrate, and found that the dried
plate would keep its sensitiveness for six weeks or two
months. To this process the main objection was the
plates required about six times the exposure of the
wet plates. There were many preservatives suggested,
— such as sugar, beer, pyrogallic acid, but it is not
necessary to describe the many processes, for the im-
provement that was to be most successful took another
course. This was the making of an “emulsion ” — a
mixture containing all the chemicals and substances
necessary to coat the plate. Many tried, but the
earliest to succeed were Sayce and Bolton, of Liver-
pool, who formed an emulsion containing bromide or
iodide of silver, which was quickly so improved as to
become most valuable. This was early in the sixties,
and they used a collodion mixture. Then in 1871 a
Dr. Maddox substituted gelatine for collodion, and
thus introduced the gelatino-bromide process, and
this proved to be a great advance though it required
the efforts of a number of workers to find out just
What was needed to make perfect dry-plates.
246 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Harrison, in his “History of Photography ’’ says
that in an exhibition of photographs held in 1876–7 in
Edinburgh, 709 exhibitors used the wet-plate and 105
the dry-plate process. In 1878, however, Charles
Bennet, an amateur, showed gelatine negatives in Lon-
don which were so good and produced by so short an
exposure that he was asked to explain his method. He
published his process, and showed that his results
came from having heated the emulsion from two to
seven days, which greatly increased its sensitiveness
to light. Then another worker, Stuart Wortley,
shortened the time and increased the temperature;
George Mansfield boiled part of the emulsion for ten
minutes, and then added the rest. Still another, Dr.
Monckhoven, added ammonia to the emulsion and
gained the sensitive silver bromide without heating.
Thus, by 1880, says Mr. Bayley, “gelatine dry-plates
were fairly on the market, exposures had been reduced
to fractions of a second, and modern photography had
‘ arrived.’”
The change was to make photography over, to trans-
form it from a pursuit possible only to a few devoted
professionals and amateur chemists to a universal
helper in the affairs of mankind. The wet-collodion
process, though producing exquisite results, required
for outdoor work a cumbersome equipment including
“a tent, a nitrate bath, a good supply of water.” The
longer exposures caused the plate to dry, and spoil the
picture, or, in cold weather, to freeze. Thus though
there were many amateurs in the years from 1853 to
1858, they found their path a rocky one, and Harrison
tells how “stains of inky blackness [from the nitrate
solution] on the hands and clothes soon earned for the
FROM DAGUERREOTYPE TO DFY PLATE 2.47
infant science the appellation of ‘the black art,’” and
caused the disfavour into which photography as an
amusement soon fell. In 1857 the Duke of Parma
used visiting cards on which a little photographic por-
trait took the place of his name, and Disderi, the pho-
tographer to Napoleon the Third brought out soon
after the little card pictures known as “Cartes-de-
visite,” a name very familiar to a past generation.
The wet-collodion process was “smelly,” dirty, troub-
lesome, and required the most elaborate care. The pic-
tures were excellent, but could be made only by ex-
perts. Whereas by the dry-plate process, while the
expert can still produce the finest results, every person
can make good pictures, with little time and little
labour, and without elaborate apparatus or a great
battery of chemicals in a specially prepared dark
I’OOII] .
Besides all this, the bringing in of the dry-plate en-
abled photography to become automatic, so to speak.
It was no longer necessary for the photographer to re-
main with his camera. The exposure could be made
mechanically, and thus the camera could be left in
position for the shutter to be operated by a wild ani-
mal touching a cord, a thermometer or barometer
that made an electric contact, a clock that at a certain
hour released the shutter and so on.
One of the men who contributed greatly to the ad-
Vancement of photography was Professor Petzval, of
Vienna. He saw that the daguerreotype and the wet-
plate processes would be greatly aided by lenses bet-
ter than those in use, and in 1841 worked out the
problem set him, inventing a sort of lens known by
his name. The Petzval lens gave good central defini-
248 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
tion, and could be used at a very wide aperture
(f/3 or f/4), being consequently exceedingly rapid.
It was an excellent portrait lens, and its faults were
such only as made it unsuitable for landscape photog-
raphy, for it lacked mainly in even lighting, depth of
focus, and astigmatism.
Another photographer, whose work is of increasing
importance, is Dr. Hermann Vogel, of Berlin, the dis-
coverer of means for making plates sensitive to the
red and yellow rays. His method was to stain the
film which made it respond to the rays that otherwise
would not affect it or would affect it very slightly.
This was in 1873, but the full importance of his work
was not appreciated for many years, though it was to
become the foundation for the photography of colours,
both in their true values when rendered by white,
black, or gray, and also in their true tints — as is to-
day done by several different processes, and as will be
increasingly done in the future. All these process im-
provements led also to improved apparatus.
CHAPTER XXII
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY
Dry-plate photography slowly developed — The first ‘‘ detective ’’
cameras — The earliest “Kodak” — The roll film —The daylight
film — Improvements in printing — Combination prints–Wignet-
ting — Enlarging — Chromophotography — The cinematograph —
Uses of the ‘’ moving pictures” — The coming of new developers
— The photographing of colours — Orthochromatic photography
— Dyeing the plates — The colour-screen — Importance of Ortho-
chromatic photography in making prints in colour.
WITH the coming of the dry-plate, that was ob-
tainable every where, would keep indefinitely, was
easy to use, and rapid enough for taking objects in
motion, modern photography began.
Yet the very rapidity of these new plates was at
first a cause of their unpopularity. The older pho-
tographers simply could not believe in the short ex-
posures. They were used to the wet-plate process,
had learned to time their exposures accordingly, and
for a long time would greatly overtime the new dry-
plates and thus either fog them or get very thin im-
ages by failing to give long development. Besides,
they would develop by a yellow light that was not
safe enough for the new and more sensitive plates.
Consequently, during the years from 1874 to 1880,
photographers were learning the use of the dry-plates,
and changing from the collodion to the gelatine plates,
while the experimenters were constantly improving
the new methods. But by 1880 the new dry-plates
249
250 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
were ready for general use, and had in most cases
taken the place of the wet-collodion plates. In the
next ten years, a number of manufacturers had put
excellent dry-plates upon the market. In our own
country Cramer and Norden of St. Louis, and John
Carbutt of Philadelphia, were pioneers, and both the
Cramer and the Carbutt plates have been well known
ever since. When ready prepared plates were thus
available, many were induced to take up photography,
and there was a demand for small, portable cameras.
From the amusing notion that these would be especially
valuable to detectives in securing portraits of criminals,
or at least that they might be so used, the earliest
hand-cameras were designed to be unobtrusive black
boxes, or were even made to look like books, luncheon
cases, or other harmless objects that (it was believed)
would deceive the unwary law-breaker. The first
practical camera of this sort was invented (according
to the Americana Cyclopedia) by a German named
Schmid, and introduced by the E. & II. T. Anthony
Company of New York, and their example was soon
followed by many others as the number of amateurs
increased. About the same time with the portable
box-camera, John Carbutt brought out plates which
were upon cut pieces of celluloid instead of glass, and,
being unbreakable and light, were especially adapted
for the hand-camera.
The next marked improvement was the introduction
by George Eastman, in 1888, of the first “Kodak.”
The name was a coined one, without meaning, but has
been accepted by the dictionaries as well expressing
in sound the little “snap-shot ” camera. The earliest
kodak was a narrow, square-fronted, oblong box that
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY 251
contained a long roll of sensitized paper sufficient for
taking one hundred pictures. This idea of taking
negatives on a roll of sensitive material was patented
in England in 1854, but the roll seems to have been
made of cut sheets gummed together. Then in 1871
came an improvement in the roller idea, by a Hungarian
engineer named Warneka, who added several ways of
judging how much of the roll had been wound up each
time. But the Eastman roller device was superior in
all respects to all that had been devised before it, and
so succeeded. Within a year celluloid took, in the
kodak, the place of the paper, the little cameras became
very popular, and were in the hands of tourists every-
where. The main improvements since then have been
the introduction of “ daylight "rolls of film, protected
from the light by ends of black paper which wind
about the rolled celluloid and its coating, the adapting
of the extension camera in the place of the more bulky
box-form ; the various “magazine cameras” holding
glass plates or cut films so they may be brought one
by one into the place for exposing; the introduction,
very recently, of the film-pack, which is a removable
paper-box magazine holding cut films, and the many
methods of developing without need of a dark room.
Of the different devices for regulating length of ex-
bosure – the shutters, diaphragms, and so on, we have
already spoken. But some note must be taken of the
improvements in printing methods, before speaking of
the sorts of work possible to modern photography.
The plain silvered paper as used in the earliest days
was followed by the albumen papers that gave a
surface image, and one of finer detail; then came the
“aristo,” a highly glossy paper with a chloride of
252 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
silver coating; and both of these papers are of course
still in common use. In fact, most of the modern
processes can be traced to earlier forms, of which they
are improvements, and the general nature of them has
already been described. But we may note the be:
ginnings, as given by Harrison’s “History of Pho-
tography,” of certain devices in the making of prints.
He gives the first “combination printing,” as exhibited
in 1855, in Glasgow — a landscape photograph into
which a figure had been printed from another negative.
Three years later Otto Sarony patented a combination
process by which parts of negative films were to be
united to make a new negative — a thing afterward
done by cutting up paper-negatives. Tejlander, in 1857,
printed portions of many negatives on a single photo-
graph by masking parts of the paper with black velvet,
and work printed from five, nine, and various num-
bers of negatives masked, was shown in England by
H. P. Robinson. The addition of clouds in landscape
photography began in the fifties, and is much prac-
ticed, the clouds being added by a second printing
(the sky being masked during the first), or being
painted in some light resisting tint (such as India ink)
on the landscape negative.
“Wignetting ” is a means of causing a print or nega-
tive to be softened, shaded, or lost around the edges.
It was described as far back as 1853. It can be done
in the camera or in the printing frame. In the camera
vignetting is caused by interposing between the object
photographed and the plate a screen or mask which is
cut to allow part of the object to be plainly and clearly
focussed, and to interrupt the light rays beyond the
clear portions of the picture. The screen or mask is
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY 253
out of focus, and has a saw-tooth or fringed edge. It
may be put in front of the lens, or inside the bellows
of an extension camera.
In making a print, the vignetter is supported a few
inches from the glass side of the negative, and allows
part of the image to print clearly while the rest shades
off to white. Adjustable vignetters, which may be
arranged to make any shape of hole, are sold at photo-
graphic supply stores; but it is quite easy to cut your
own vignetter for any particular
negative from paper — using
light tissue to get grayish ef-
fects ; or to shut out light en-
tirely, the black paper in which
plates and printing paper are
wrapped. When printing with
a vignetter, it is sometimes well
to keep the frame in motion, so
as to avoid all possibility of the
vignette edges showing clearly. AN EASILY MADE
A vignette on a black back- VIG NETTER
ground may be made by first printing the picture, and
then masking the central portion while allowing the
rest to be fully printed out.
Enlargements were made in 1875 by Valentine
Blanchard, who threw an enlarged image through a
negative upon sensitive paper, thus making a trans-
parency, or positive. This was used to print a
negative which was made transparent by waxing,
and from the second negative were made enlarged
prints.
With the ability to obtain instantaneous photo-
graphs came devices for taking a great number of pic-

254 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
tures in quick succession, so as to give the history of
an action or movement. Then followed other devices
for Showing such photographs in rapid motion, so as to
reproduce the action. In the Smithsonian Institution
Report for 1901 is a history of these arts — “chrono-
photography ’’ being the name given them. The
earliest mentioned is an invention of an astronomer
named Jansen who in 1873 made a camera in which a
circular plate turned so as to take successive pictures
of the planet Venus while crossing the sun. Other
inventors had seen the possibility of taking such pic-
tures of objects in motion as far back as 1857, 1861,
and 1864; but photography was not able to do the
work at so early a date.
In 1878, Muybridge, of San Francisco, took by
means of a row of cameras (12 or 24) a set of views
showing the gaits of the horse in motion, and also of
other animals. Anshūtz, of Vienna, followed the same
method with the quicker gelatine plates, soon after-
ward. In 1882, Dr. J. Marey, a French scientific
worker, arranged a revolving shutter that made ex-
posures at measured times, each.on a different part of
a sensitive plate. Next came the “photographic gun"
which took the pictures on a revolving plate, and a
camera which turned on a pivot so as to follow a mov-
ing object, and then of one into which a moving mir-
ror reflected the images. But in 1887, Marey, owing
to the invention of kodak paper film, was able to use
a moving strip for taking the pictures; and when
transparent films were made, these pictures could be
both taken and exhibited by means of the lantern
when changed to positives. Many imperfect forms of
apparatus were devised, but none was satisfactory un-
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY 255
til Thomas A. Edison found a way of causing the mov-
ing film to be viewed at just the right intervals, and
brought out his “Kinetoscope ’’ in 1894, enabling one
spectator to see the motion pictures—as in the “slot
machines' now so well known. But a French in-
ventor, Lumière, brought out the next year his “Cine-
matograph,” which was a clever machine for catching,
moving and releasing the film at the right rate and
without injuring it.
Marey tells also of later improvements upon the
motion picture machines adapting them to various
purposes. But he points out that when run at the
natural rate of speed, the motion-picture does no more
than repeat what the eye has seen. By running the
films more slowly, quick motions (as, trotting of a
horse or flying of a bird) may be understood and
studied ; by running them more quickly (as, repeating
in a short time a series of pictures taken at long inter-
vals) we may get a clear idea of processes usually slow
— as the changes of an insect in its metamorphosis, the
growth of a plant, or even the putting together of a
great piece of mechanism or the erection of a building.
Thus slow motions may be hastened, quick ones
made slow. In this way all motion may be studied,
and its laws understood.
The article from which we quote gives many useful
applications of chronophotography. Though they
may not seem now to be within reach of the amateur,
yet they are more nearly within his power than even
the simplest processes were only a few years ago.
What would Wedgwood, Herschel or Daguerre have
thought of a modern “watch camera,” fitting the vest-
pocket and capable of making a dozen or two perfect
Q.
256 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
negatives, each in an instant, and each capable of
enlargement P
Of course we need not explain all the tricks and
dodges used in making “motion pictures,” since they
depend mainly on the fact that the instrument can be
stopped, and any desired change made in the scene
photographed. But we may make the suggestion that
motion-photographs ought to be largely used in
educating the young, since by means of the cinemato-
graph almost any phenomenon or happening or proc-
ess may be exhibited in the class-room. The move-
ments of the planets of our solar system might readily
be thus exhibited.
The chemical side of photography has kept place
with the improvement in the making of plates and the
devising of cameras that will take advantage of the
quickness of plates. Niépce, it will be remembered,
developed by dissolving bitumen by oil of lavender;
Daguerre used the vapour of mercury; pyrogallic acid
brought out the images in the calotype process and on
the collodion wet-plate. Ferrous sulphate was also
used in the collodion process. Then came “alkaline”
development, in which ammonia aided the action of
the pyro ; and this in turn has been often replaced
by carbonates of potash and of soda — which have a
similar effect. Ferrous oxalate was suggested as a
developer in 1877, and in 1882 it was found that
sodium sulphite tended to prevent pyro from becom-
ing brown and staining the plates. In 1889 came
what are known as the “coal-tar developers ”— such
as eikonogen, metol, Ortol, and so on, of which more
has been said in speaking of the chemistry of pho-
tography.
ºth
- *-
-
Courtesy of American Photography
A Night Scene
Such a picture can easily be made, giving an exposure of twenty to thirty minutes, using
the snap-shot stop. The long shadows give a good appearance of depth and reality to the
picture, an effect always obtained when the light is low. High-noon sunlight causes
“flat" or shadowless lighting.

&



A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY 257
Especially modern are the processes that give us
prints or negatives in natural colours, and those that
try to interpret colours in the right relations as felt by
the eye. The reader will see that here, in a sentence,
are a number of subjects. These are the taking of a
negative or positive in natural colours; the making of
prints in colours; and the making of correct colour-
value prints.
We shall speak of each in turn, taking up first the
question of making correct colour-value prints. This,
from two Greek words for “right" do60s (Orthos) and
“colour” zoöua (chroma) is called orthochromatic pho-
tography, or sometimes “isochromatic,” or “equal”
colour photography. We have already spoken of the
weak action of the red and yellow rays on the plo-
tographic plate, and strong action of the violet and
blue rays. From this it results that ordinary photo-
graphs do not show things in the same relation of light
and shade that the eyes see. To correct this to some
extent is the object of Orthochromatic photography.
Dr. Vogel discovered in 1873 that by staining the
plates with various dyes (yellow and red) they became
less sensitive to the stronger rays, and so gave better
representations of the brightness or darkness of things
as the eye sees them. This idea was followed up by
many workers, and various dyes were tried, one of the
most valuable being eosin — a derivative from coal-tar.
This was applied in 1882–3 to the gelatine bromide
plates, and they were made commercially in England,
while in 1886 Carbutt of Philadelphia made such
plates in America, and others soon followed. Many
different dyes were used, either in the emulsion or for
soaking plates afterward. Amateurs will find many
258 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
directions given for making plates orthochromatic,
but it is easy to buy the plates ready made. But no
dye was found that could prevent the violet and blue
rays from doing more than their share in affecting the
plate — that is more than they should do when com-
pared with their effect on the eye. Consequently work-
ers put before the lens a coloured glass or “screen "
which, letting the others pass, held back the too active
rays or obstructed them. The glass or screen is some-
times called a “ray filter.” It stopped the non-lumi-
nous violet rays, and left the eye-affecting rays to af-
fect the plate.
But of course this greatly decreased the light action,
and so made longer exposures necessary when a screen
is used. Without a screen the plates should be ex-
posed according to the general colour of the subject,
remembering that the orthochromatic plates are more
sensitive to red or yellow, and less to violet, blue, and
chemical (ultra-violet) rays. Consequently for yellow
and red subjects or subjects lighted by yellow or red
lights (as at sunset or in the early morning) ortho-
chromatic plates need slightly less exposures. In yel-
low or red lighting the use of the screen is not neces-
sary, as the light has a similar effect. With a screen,
the colour of the screen has to be taken into account.
Follow the maker's directions, and use the screen
recommended for each particular brand of orthochro-
matic plates. A screen may require from twice to
twelve times the usual exposures, or even more ; but
in dully lighted landscape work the greens will be
more effective when the screen is used, and it is valu-
able in taking pictures showing white clouds or distant
mountains against a blue sky. Of course where it i
A GLANCE AT MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY 259
desirable to take pictures in which there is much red
and yellow (as with flowers or fruit, or brilliant cos-
tumes) the screen will help to give right values, and
where the blue light is too strong — as at the sea-
shore — Orthochromatic plates with screens will give
many delicate effects.
In the dark room, remember the sensitiveness of the
plates, and also be more careful to use the developers
as recommended by the maker, who knows what
these special plates require. The worker with ortho-
chromatic plates must, in short, remember that he is
to proceed under entirely new conditions, and should
prepare himself beforehand by careful study. Modern
science has provided the photographer with means of
making plates sensitive to many different colours, and
even, it may be said to all colours with some ap-
proach to correctness, and to use these means careful
study of the manuals on the subject is requisite. It
must be said also that sometimes a yellowish or red-
dish object will seem to affect a plate when the light
is reflected from it, even though the ordinary sort of
plate is used. The question of orthochromatic pho-
tography is most important, however, not to the usual
amateur, but to the professional makers of colour-
plates. Their work opens a new subject and may be
included in another chapter.
CHAPTER XXIII
COLOUR WORK AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Coloured prints from photographs — The three-colour process — True
coloured negative — The Lippmann process — The Joly or Mc-
Donough process — The recent Lumière process — A single-nega-
tive method — What it accomplishes — Photography by ultra-
violet rays — A glance over the field of modern photographic
work — The amateur's recreations — Serious branches of photo-
graphic work.
CLOSELY connected with the question of making
plates equally sensitive to the rays of different colours
is the producing of prints in varied colours. But pho-
tography has to do with the making of the plates from
which the prints are printed rather than with the
coloured pictures themselves. For the ordinary
coloured prints produced by photography owe their
colour entirely to being printed in coloured inks on
the printing press. Photography in this, the ordinary
“three-colour process,” largely due to Ives, of Phila-
delphia, is used only to make three plates each of
which is separately printed in a single coloured ink —
usually a red, a blue, and a yellow. The three plates
are so taken that each takes account of one colour in
the scene photographed. Three photographic nega-
tives are made by using coloured screens. Each screen
shuts off all but one kind of light rays. Thus one ad-
mits only red, shutting off blue and yellow ; another
only yellow ; a third only blue. The negatives are
260
COLOUR WORK 261
the usual sort, but each records only one kind of light.
Then by a process based on the same general principles
as were used by Niépce, these negatives are made to
yield printing-plates. Then by three printings in
three colours one upon the other is produced a coloured
print that may bear a resemblance more or less close
to the natural colouring. Success in this depends on
choosing the right colours for the three inks, printing
them in the right strength, and printing accurately.
Exact reproducing of natural colours is of course in-
possible. Pigments are not lights. No blue tint can
represent the colour of a bright blue sky, no white
paper the brilliance of a white cloud, no black ink the
blackness of darkness.
The younger reader here may ask how it is possi-
ble that with three colours we can reproduce all of the
innumerable other colours seen in nature. This is be-
cause the three colours we choose are what scientists
call the primary ones. They are approximately
red, green, and violet blue. What we know by the
words brown, purple, pink, Orange, and many other
names, are in reality only a combination of the three
primary colours in various proportions. So that what
we call brown or pink in nature, may be photographed
so as to separate it into its three component primary
colours; and when we print, we use inks that repre-
sent the primary colours, and combine them again
into the colours of the scene. Generally, printers use
for their work red, light yellow and sky blue inks,
and with these they get wonderful results; but they
are not, strictly speaking, the true primary colours.
Three transparencies can be made by the same
method of photography, and lights of three colours may
262 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
be sent through them to unite on a screen, making an
image representing all three colourings; or by carbon
printing and other methods the three plates may also
be united. Yet none of these plans will give more
than a suggestion of natural colouring.
Sometimes cameras are so made as to take the three
negatives at once, each through the right sort of colour
filter, the right exposure for each plate being regulated
by diaphragms of different sizes. With three such
negatives on films, the three films might be coloured
and put together to make one lantern slide. But how-
ever it be used, the three-colour process is not “pho-
tography in natural colours,” nor is it an approach
toward the discovery of that long-desired art.
There are certain ways of taking photographs in
colours, but they are all, at least excepting the very
latest, exceedingly difficult and uncertain. The one
that belongs especially to the laboratory is what is
named after its inventor, the “Lippmann Process.” But
first we may briefly repeat what Abney in the Ency-
clopedia Britannica records about early experiments
toward true photography in colours. In 1810 a Dr.
Seebeck of Jena received the image of the spectrum
on moist chloride of silver and succeeded in getting
traces of the natural colours; in 1839 Herschel saw
similar results on the chloride, and both Daguerre and
Fox-Talbot found red was sometimes reproduced on
their plates; in 1840 and 1843 Robert Hunt produced
the spectrum colours to some extent on paper dipped
in nitrate of silver and then in sodium fluoride, and
the print lasted over two months; Hunt also made
other experiments with similar success. Then in 1848
Becquerel, the French chemist, prepared a silver plate
COLOUR WORK 263
with a very pure silver chloride by means of a voltaic
battery, and then gently heated it. Upon such a plate,
the spectrum was photographed in colours, and “col-
oured images of brightly dressed dolls were also ob-
tained.”
These images, however, like the first nitrate of silver
prints, could not be “fixed,” and had to be kept from
the light.
Niépce de St. Victor in 1857 repeated and improved
on Becquerel's method, but could not make the pictures
permanent. In 1868, Poitevin made prints in colours
on paper prepared with silver chloride, and after wash-
ing exposed to sunlight for a moment, and then treated
with bichromate of potash and copper sulphate and
dried. Under a coloured transparency, this gave a
coloured print. Poitevin said it could be fixed by the
use of sulphuric acid. Other investigators secured
similar results, but the authority from whom we quote
states that the resulting tints on the paper prints were
merely records of the different sensitiveness of the
compounds used, not the effect of differently coloured
rays of light — as in the case of the Becquerel daguerre-
otypes, which is a “true colouration by the spectrum.”
The Lippmann process is based upon the wave-theory
of light, and depends upon the principle that the light
waves may be reflected after passing through the sen-
sitive film. When so reflected by means of a mirror
(sometimes a receptacle filled with quicksilver), the re-
turning waves interfere with the coming waves. The
result of this action is to make stationary instead of
travelling waves (as Professor Lippmann declares).
These waves, he tells us, act in the substance of the
film, instead of merely going through it, and “impress
264 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
their structure on the film,” or throw it into such a
condition that when the silver particles are formed
under the action of the developer they lie in a set of
planes that in some way correspond to the waves made
by different coloured rays — that is waves of different
length. , ' ,
Whether or not this is an explanation (and we con-
fess that it conveys no very clear 'ea to ourselves),
the result is to produce a plate that, after it is devel-
oped and viewed by reflected light, reproduces the col-
ours to the eye.
Gabriel Lippmann, the inventor of this process, is a
French professor born in 1845, and distinguished for
his work in science. The method of photographing in
colours was announced in 1891, but has not been
greatly used, although special apparatus for viewing
the plates has been devised, and they may also be
projected on a screen by a rightly arranged lantern.
It is not a process at present that is likely to come into
popular use, though an interesting one as proving the
theories about light rays and their wave-action.
In 1894 Professor Joly of Trinity College, Dublin,
invented a method by which one negative is taken
through a screen ruled with very fine close lines of
orange, yellowish-green and blue. Then a positive is
made from the negative, and viewed, when lighted,
through a similar screen, whereupon the colours of the
original scene are reproduced to the eye, though the
negative is the usual colour of ordinary negatives. The
theory of this process is not unlike that of the usual
three-colour process except that in the Joly plate the
colours are produced by putting the three colours close
together instead of one over the other. Indeed the
COLOUR WORK 265
coloured lines are put so close as to give the eye the
effect of their overlapping. The negative is taken
through these lines, each line shutting off all but its
own colour. Thus, where a red surface comes, the
negative is imprinted strongly or thickly under the
red lines, not und “hº others. Then a positive being
made, becomes thin Just where the negative was thick,
and so this red su -º- portion is thin just opposite the
red lines. Now if the positive be viewed by means of
a similar screen over it, these thin portions over the
red lines show red, while the other colours are blocked
out where the positive is thick. So we see a red light-
ing where the red surface made the positive thin. It
makes no difference whether the positive be viewed by
light on it or through it, as in one case we look through
the screen and see its red, and in the other case we
have light coming through the red to us. The blue
and yellow lines act in the same fashion.
There is in the human eye something like this ar-
rangement. It is believed that the retina upon which
we receive the images that come through the eye-lens
contains a number of the ends of nerves. These
nerves are sensitive to colour waves, each nerve to one
of the three main colour-sensations, red, blue, yellow
(though, strictly speaking, the sensations should be
considered green, red, violet). Thus when we look at
a red rose, the red-sensitive nerves are affected where
the image of the rose rests, the other nerves in that
space being less excited to action.
This Joly process was improved by McDonough, an
American. Credit for the idea underlying the three-
colour, the Lippmann, and Joly processes, is largely
due to a French worker, Louis Ducos du Hauron, who
266. PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
in 1869 outlined the principles governing them. At a
much later date this inventor devised a camera that
took upon three plates the negatives necessary for the
three-colour process, and also contrived that the posi-
tives could be viewed through the same camera so as
to give the effect of a single picture in colour.
There is still another process to be described, which
is the most recent of all and seems to be more likely
to come into general use among skilled amateurs.
This is the “Lumière Process.” In a photographic
journal for August, 1907, it is stated that the “new
Lumière autochrome plate is on the market in Europe,
and will be soon sold in America.” By this method a
single plate is exposed as usual and can then be de-
veloped into a positive in natural colouring, and a
permanent picture, a transparency, thus made of any
scene. This new process depends upon the structure
of the new plate. The plate is prepared first by
spreading upon a sticky surface starch granules of
exactly uniform size and dyed in the three primary
colours, orange, green, and violet. These are so small
that 20,000 will cover an inch of surface, and are put
in a single layer, none overlapping. A black substance
was at first used to fill up all spaces, so every ray of
light must come through the stained granules, but this
is no longer required. Then the film is so flattened
by great pressure that the grains have flat faces, top
and bottom, and will not act as lenses. This, when
varnished, is the foundation for the photographic
emulsion, and the plate so prepared looks nearly
white, like a fine ground glass.
Next an emulsion is put on this foundation — one
that is “panchromatic,” or sensitive to all three colour-
COLOUR WORK 267
rays when used with a special yellow screen that goes
with these plates. This emulsion is very thin and of
bromide-collodion. Exposure is made glass-side fore-
most — so that the light comes through the starch-
granule foundation before reaching the emulsion.
The necessary exposures vary from one-sixth second
in bright sunshine with a quick lens (at f/6) to
twenty or more seconds and upward. After ex-
posure there is a peculiar development. In the Joly
process, it will be remembered, the object is attained
by making a positive so that the light can come
through in the places where the negative was dark.
In the Lumière process, the negative itself is changed
to a positive. First the darkened portions are developed
as usual. The developing is in darkness. Next the
plate is “reduced ” (by potassium permanganate and
sulphuric acid), which removes the silver that has been
darkened. The plate is now developed once more
(with amidol), which darkens the emulsion that before
was not dark. The plate is then intensified, cleared,
and after being rinsed, fixed, and dried.
The accounts of the process given by experts in
Europe say that the pictures produced are of marvellous
beauty and brilliance, and very true to nature. The
Lumière brothers, the inventors, are said to be per-
fecting means for making prints from the negatives,
but that is not yet done. The plates can be kept some
time before exposure, and the resulting pictures are
said to be permanent. A German authority says that
the process in its results far surpasses all others, and
is confirmed by English and American workers who
have tried the plates. The plates are naturally very
expensive, $2.50 for four plates 5×7 in size — or ten
268 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
dollars a dozen, but no doubt will be made more
cheaply.
It must be said that these are not all the means of
making coloured pictures by photography, but the
principles can be understood from these, the most im-
portant, and the leading processes. The reader will
be ready to admit at least that the progress in colour-
photography since 1873 has been very great, and that
the outlook for the future seems hopeful, even though
the art of taking actual photographs in colours — the
fixing of the actual colour image — has not yet been
achieved.
Another recent photographic triumph is the taking
of photographs by means of the invisible rays, and
thus securing photographs of objects so minute that
the ordinary visible rays will not show them. Visible
rays are of longer wave-length than the ultra-violet
or invisible rays, and so when used in microscopic
work interfere with one another. By using the ultra-
violet rays, the waves are shorter, do not interfere
with one another, and so bring out things the eye
cannot separate. These short waves do not affect the
eye, but they do affect the photographic film. They
will not pass through ordinary glass lenses, and so
Quartz lenses are used ; they are not visible, and so
focusing has to be done by using a fluorescent screen
of uranium glass which makes them visible; the Ob-
jects examined must be mounted on quartz and cov-
ered by the same mineral. But when all this is done,
the ultra-violet microscope will show things of only
half the size of those before considered the smallest
visible, and will also tell us much of structures trans-
parent to ordinary light, but showing differences of
COLOUR WORK 269
constitution in the ultra-violet photographs. To the
microscope also has been applied the Lumière colour
process, so as to take natural colour pictures of the
most minute objects.
Modern photography covers so many branches and
is applied so widely that we cannot expect to do more
than give the reader the merest hints of the many
subjects in which the camera has given mankind new
eyes. By its use the invisible is seen, as in astronomy,
where the plate records more than the eye receives;
in microscopic work, as has been set forth ; in instanta-
neous pictures of objects in rapid motion; in the use
of other rays than those the eye knows; in submarine
and surgical photography, where the camera may be
made to act apart from the operator; in natural his-
tory work, by automatic shutters; in scientific record
instruments actuated by clockwork — and so on end-
lessly. Not only is the record different from that of
our vision, but it is permanent and accurate. Not
only is it complete, but it may be made large or small
at will.
The camera aids every art, science, trade and pro-
fession, and its field extends daily. The amusements
of the amateur at one time, give rise at a later period
to most useful improvements available in practical
life.
There is a little book called “Photographic Amuse-
ments,” written by Walter E. Woodbury, author of
an “Encyclopedic Dictionary of Photography.” This
is a collection of “novel effects obtainable with the
camera,” and serves to show how ingeniously the
powers of photography may be applied. There are
Suggestions in the volume for using in connection with
270 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the camera a number of adjuncts. Thus from the mir-
ror we may get multiple images; by using odd-shaped
reflecting surfaces, distorted views are secured ; by
interposing screens we may produce caricatures, show-
ing a big head on a small body, or a portrait on a bust-
pedestal; by under-exposure of one image, followed
by full exposure of another, are produced “spirit”
pictures; by photographing wall-paper laid on a floor
from a suspended camera, it may be made to repre-
sent a wall, and all sorts of accidents made to take
place, since a figure lying down seems in the plate
falling through space. Other possibilities are silhou-
ettes, taken against stretched tissue-paper, with short
exposures and long development ; distorted photo-
graphs on plates set at various angles in the camera,
or taken through vertical or horizontal slits; “moon-
light ° photographs taken in full sunlight (with the
sun in the picture) by means of a very small stop and
too quick exposure with under-development; the tak-
ing of snow crystals or frost-markings in winter, and
so on through every sort of ingenious modifying of
the usual conditions. -
The means of making these odd pictures will be
very quickly picked up by any amateur who will be-
come familiar with the right methods of picture-mak-
ing. To avoid errors, you must know what causes
them ; and, knowing how they are caused, it is not a
difficult matter to make errors on purpose. For ex-
ample, many so-called “freak pictures” are shown.
In them we may see a man playing checkers with him-
self, or a woman holding a book on which a tiny im-
age of herself is standing. Such effects are produced
either by exposing part of a plate at a time, or by
Copyright, 1996, by A. B. Phelan
A SpecimeN of Photographic IxceNUITY
Courtesy of Photo-Era Magazine
A Duplicate Port RAIt - -
(A description of this process is given in the Appendix)



COLOUR WORK 271
having a black space come in the part of the view
where you want to introduce a second figure. The
second exposure uses either a second part of the plate,
or puts a lighter figure against the black background,
to affect the unaffected portion of the plate.
Pinhole photography, night photography and com-.
posite photography, are matters of another sort, each
a branch well worthy of the most careful and serious
study. But each would require a separate treatise,
and the reader who is interested will find many de-
lightful handbooks available to him. When you begin
to study special subjects like these, you will need to
seek out the works devoted especially to them.
CHAPTER XXIV
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE
Chemistry and its language — Meanings of the symbols and formulae
– Acids and bases — Salts — Other compounds — Important ele-
ments — Light and the silver salts — Chemistry of developing—
Chemistry of fixing – Intensifying and reducing — Warning to
the amateur — Some text-books on chemistry — Photography an
art of expression.
THE language in which chemical facts are recorded
is simpler than it looks. The elements (those sub-
stances which cannot be simplified or changed) are
expressed by their initials, either one or more ; and
these initials are to be learned or known by looking
at the Table of Elements (see last chapter). Opposite
each will be found its “atomic weight' — that is, the
weight in which it combines with other elements. It
always combines at this weight or a multiple of it.
Where the letter alone is written it means just so
many parts of that element as is expressed by the
atomic weight. Thus the atomic weight may be con-
sidered as the smallest possible amount of the substance
that will enter into a chemical compound. The num-
bers represent the weight of each substance as com-
pared with hydrogen — the lightest of all. Thus iron
is 56 times as heavy; gold, 196 times; platinum, 1974
times, oxygen, 16 times. Water is hydrogen and
oxygen, two parts of H, one of O, or “H.O.”— the
one chemical symbol we all remember. But any
quantity of water must then consist of 2 weights of
272
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE 273
hydrogen to 16 of oxygen, 2 volumes of hydrogen to
1 of oxygen. Thus, in 2,000 pounds of water there
would be (in round numbers, and leaving fractions for
school hours) 222 pounds of hydrogen and 1,776 pounds
of oxygen. And this will show how we can always
calculate how much of any chemical by weight is in
any compound, since we know from the formula how
much weight (in atomic weight) goes to one part of
the compound.
Silver nitrate (as used by Wedgwood and the rest
of us photographers) is, for example: AgNO3. If
we put down the atomic weight we shall have :
Silver (argentum, Ag.) = 107.93
Nitrogen (N) = 14.045
Oxygen (O) three parts = 48.
169.975
Say 170 for ease of calculating. Then, in 170
pounds, ounces, grams, or tons, of nitrate of silver there
would be (nearly) 108 parts of silver, 14 of nitrogen
and 48 of oxygen. And, in the same way, you can
take any chemical compound and by translating the
symbols and attaching the atomic weights, you will
have the receipt for the compound. Chloride of sil-
wer is AgCl — or 108 parts silver and 35 of chlorine;
and no matter how much or how little of these com-
pounds you have, they are made up of these relative
quantities and relative weights.
The elements when combined from various com-
pounds, and according to their behaviour the elements
are considered as “acid-formers ”or “base-formers,”
though some form both acids and bases. An acid and
a base are so named because they differ greatly in
274 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
their action ; acids contain hydrogen, bases contain a
metal; and when an acid acts on a base, the hydrogen
and the metal exchange places. The acid then usually
becomes neutral — or neither acid nor alkaline, and
the hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the base
and there is water formed.
The acids therefore contain hydrogen exchangeable
with a metal or the metal from a base. The bases
contain metal combined with hydrogen and oxygen,
and treated with acid exchange the metal for hydro-
gen. The acid acting on a base gives a neutral sub-
stance called a salt, and also causes water to be
formed by the uniting of the Oxygen and hydrogen.
The chemist considers all elements that will replace
hydrogen in an acid to be metals.
As to names, acids end usually in ic, as nitric acid,
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, tartaric acid. But if
there are two acids formed from an element, the One
with less oxygen ends in ous. Thus there is nitrous
acid, and nitric acid – with these formulae HNO, and
HNO, - the nitric having in each molecule (or
smallest possible portion) one more atom of oxygen.
In the same way sulphuric acid is H.SO, ; while sul-
phurous acid is H.S.O. If in an acid there is still less
oxygen, the prefix, hypo (Greek “under’), indicates
this, as in hypochlorous acid ; if there is an acid con-
taining more oxygen than in the best known acid the
one known to have most oxygen has the prefix “per”
(Latin for through or “very ") as in perchloric acid.
Thus (taking our illustration from Remsen's “Intro-
duction to Chemistry ") from chlorine we have
“chloric, chlorous, hypochlorous, and perchloric acid "
— but in each case the acid is merely a compound of
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE 275
chlorine with various atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
— in other words with the elements of water.
With these explanations you will be able to see the
reason for the names of acids.
The bases (among which are the substances called
alkalis) combine with acids and neutralize them, form-
ing what are called salts. Thus bases and acids com-
bine and change into substances unlike either, and we
have already said that this comes about when the hy-
drogen of the acid changes places with the metal of a
base. Thus if nitric acid acts on silver and dissolves
it, the nitric acid exchanges its hydrogen for Silver, and
the IINO,--Ag produces AgNO, or silver nitrate.
The salts have this ending, ate when formed by the
acids ending in ic. When formed by acids ending in
ows, they have the ending ite — as in sodium sulphite
— formed from sodium by sulphurous acid. Thus our
old friend “hypo’’ is “hyposulphite of sodium,” as it
is formed by the action of hyposulphurous acid on
sodium.
The bases, being compounds of metals with hydro-
gen and oxygen are known as hydroxides — as potas-
sium hydrocide (caustic potash), and caustic soda is
sodium hydrowide. Each metal can (theoretically)
yield a base when treated by an acid, and thus we
have nitrates, chlorates, sulphates (instead of sulphur-
ate) according to the acid used. Prefixing the name
of the metal, we have the compound — as silver
nitrate, copper sulphate, and so on.
The elements with which most of us have to deal
are not more than two dozen, and it will not take very
long for the amateur photographer to know something
about their properties, and about the compounds used
276 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
in photography. The ending “ide’” means simply
“compound of ’’; thus compounds of bromine are
known as bromides, of sulphur as “sulphides,” of
oxygen as “oxides.”
With so much of chemical talk to make the “hard
words” more familiar, we express the hope that the
young photographer will soon be driven to regular
works on chemistry — as he will sooner or later be
glad to know fully the chemical facts that explain the
reasons for his work. The more important elements
to the photographer are gold, silver, platinum, iron,
copper, mercury, zinc, lead ; sulphur, phosphorus,
chlorine, bromine, iodine ; boron, calcium, carbon,
hydrogen, magnesium, nitrogen, owygen, potassium,
sodium. Of these, four will form salts directly with
a metal, and so are called “halogens” (from the Greek
hals and gen) or “salt-makers.” Cyanogen (a group of
a carbon and a nitrogen atom — with the symbol CN,
though not a compound, is found in various com-
pounds, and these are called “cyanogens”) is also a
halogen. These halogens are important in photography.
Now when a silver salt (as a bromide or chloride of
silver) is acted on by light, it is believed that the mole-
cule of the salt is separated into its atoms. The light
waves agitate the atoms. Originally composed of two
atoms of silver and two of the halogen (silver bromide
is Ag, Br, and silver chloride is Ag,Cl), the light de-
composes the compound into a sub-bromide by liberat-
ing a bromine atom if the compound be silver bro-
mide, or makes a sub-chloride from silver-chloride by
liberating a chlorine atom. It is just as if the com-
pound were four bathers holding each other's hands –
the two brothers Bromide and the two brothers Silver,
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE 277
and a big wave pulls them a little way apart, so that they
either lose their hand-clasp or loosen it. Now, being
already somewhat separated, the group is composed of
the two brothers Silver, and one brother Bromide—
the other Bromide brother being by himself, thus:
But besides the separation of B, the
waves have greatly weakened the
union of the group, and either of
the S brothers may easily be de-
tached (for being held by chemical
attraction, the one atom B cannot
strongly hold more than one atom S).
Consequently when we put the developer at work,
we have a compound ready to break up, and
form new compounds. Pyrogallic acid mixed with
an alkali, such as sodium carbonate, has a strong
affinity for oxygen. It takes oxygen from water
(II.O), leaving the hydrogen free to take part in the
breaking up of the halogen. Thus the new chemicals
added and produced in the water attract, the bromine
atoms. First they take away the free atom, and then
the other, from each group. This leaves the silver
atoms by themselves — or reduced (or simplified) to
metallic silver. Thus the developer continues the sep-
aration begun by the light waves, and produces in the
film metallic silver.
Pyrogallic acid has the formula: C.H.(OH), and
is chemically called a “tri-hydoxyl-benzene’’— hy-
droxyl meaning the group OH, and the benzene being
the C.H., (in which Ha-HOH, replaces H.). The carbon
compounds, among which pyrogallic acid is classed,
are too complicated for any but technical books.
We need only remember that they can develop

278 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
plates by taking the halogens away and leaving the
silver. After we have developed the plate, we must
take away the part of the haloid salt, the silver
compound, unchanged by light and developer. This
is done by the hypo bath.
Hyposulphite of sodium is Na2S2O3−5H2O. The
latter part of this formula, 5H2O, means simply that
the crystals contain five parts of water held in them.
Another name given by chemists to hypo is thiosul.
phate of sodium. “Thio’’ is from the Greek 0siov
(theion), sulphur, and the term indicates that the salt
is the result of the action of thiosulphuric acid on
sodium; and thiosulphuric indicates an acid in which
some of the oxygen of sulphuric acid has been replaced
by sulphur atoms. Whatever the theory, our useful
“hypo ’’ has the ability to dissolve the silver salts if
they have not been broken up by light waves, or de-
velopment. But there must be a strong solution of
hypo, or there will be formed in the film an insoluble
chemical instead of a soluble one. This insoluble
double salt is Ag, Na,(S.O.), and it will remain in the
film in spite of Washing, and may afterward discolour
it. So use fresh, strong hypo. Rightly used the hypo
forms the double salt: AgNaS,O, and this will be
washed out by water, leaving the film free from any
compound that will injure it. But before this double
salt is washed out it is invisible, being transparent.
Hence we leave negatives in hypo till the white dis-
appears, when we know that the bromide of silver has
been changed to these double salts, and then as long
again, so that they may be dissolved out and cleared
away. Be careful to fix thoroughly, and then wash
thoroughly, if you want permanent negatives.
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE 279
The chemistry of intensifying consists in either
changing the colour of the silver deposit, so as to
make it more resisting to the rays of light ; in making
the image more visible to the eye by adding to the
deposit something else, or substituting something else
for it. Thus using mercuric chloride (HgCl), it forms
with the silver a double chloride of mercury and sil-
ver, and then this is stained (by ammonium hydrate)
a deep brown — which resists the light rays. There
are also methods of adding more silver to that already
deposited. By means of platinum and gold combina-
tions — gold chloride and platinum tetrachloride, for
example — the silver is made to combine with the
chlorine, is then removed, and leaves the gold or the
platinum in its place. But for these methods, which
are complicated, it is fair to refer the reader to the
text-books.
Before leaving the subject of the negative two
more things must be noted. The first is the tendency
of a chemical action to continue when once started —
as seen in the burning of wood, the rusting of iron,
the crystallizing of a dissolved substance from a solu-
tion. Advantage is taken of this in increasing develop-
ing action when once begun — as in the use of chem-
ical developers after light has acted either on plates
or printing papers. The second is the operation
of reducing a negative. Chemically this is done by
the use of agents that combine with the silver making
new compounds that are soluble, and may be washed
out. Thus ferrocyanide of potassium changes the silver
partly to a mixture of silver and ferrocyanide; the
latter being soluble is washed out leaving the silver
in a state when hypo will wash it out. Other iron
280 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
compounds are used for reducing, as perchloride of
iron with citric acid, and reducing agents also used
are sulphate of copper, and potassium permanganate.
The amateur who means to try any of these intensi-
fying and reducing methods should be sure to know
something of the powerful chemicals used. For it
must be impressed on young photographers that a
great many of the agents used in the various processes
are active and powerful poisons. Photography is no
place for carelessness or bungling.
The making of prints introduces a whole new class
of chemical facts and proceedings. But into these
there is no room to enter. Generally speaking, the
desire to know the details of the processes, and the
reasons why the chemicals act as they do, should send
the amateur to the various text-books on the subject
of photographic chemistry. A very excellent one is
Abney’s “Treatise on Photography,” and another is
Harrison’s “Chemistry of Photography.” On special
subjects, the reader will find the various numbers of
“The Photo-Miniature ?' most helpful; an especially
useful one being “Chemical Notions for Photog-
raphers” which tells about the qualities and uses of
all the most useful compounds.
You will not, of course, expect to know the whole
subject even generally ; but you can easily follow out
the main facts of the processes you choose for most of
your work, and thereby learn what is right and wrong
in them, and wherein to make changes. In this chap-
ter the purpose has been only to give you some little
introduction to the subject in order that you may be
invited to go further by yourself.
The last chapter of this book contains certain tables
SOME HINTS ON THE CHEMICAL SIDE 281
and rules that may be found useful, but the more
serious worker is strongly advised to buy each year
one or more of the Photographic Annuals, which con-
tain excellent helps and discussions and tables upon
every subject the photographer may need.
In closing the author desires to be considered only
as one who has tried to direct amateurs to better knowl-
edge than he ever hopes to possess of the great science
and art of photography. The expert often knows too
much to be the best helper for those who are making
their way among the elementary principles, whereas
the learner who has not long ago travelled the same
path remembers the stumbling blocks and the blind
trails that perplex.
Above all things remember that photography is an
art of ea pression, and like other arts of the kind de-
pends for its final, true value upon what the artist is
trying to express. Much of your earlier work must be
accidental in its results, but the amateur who learns to
know the possibilities of lens, camera, and print, will
have little ambition if he does not desire to become
rather the master than the slave of these wonder-
Working marvels of modern science.
THE END

Appendix
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
UNITED STATES STANDARDS
From the “American Annual of Photography,” 1907
LINEAL
Inches. Feet. Yards. Rods. Fur's. Mile.
12 inches = 1 foot. 12 = 1
3 feet = 1 yard. 36 = 3 = 1
5.5 yards = 1 rod. 198 = 16.5 = 5.5 = 1
40 rods = 1 furlong. 7,920 = 660 = 220 = 40 = 1
8 furlongs = 1 mile. | 63,360 = 5,280 = 1,760 = 320 = 8 = 1
VOLUME–LIQUID
4 gills = 1 pint. Gills. Pints. Gallon. Cub. In.
2 pints = 1 quart. 32 = 8 = 1 = 231
4 quarts = 1 gallon.
FLUID
Gallon. Quarts. Pints. Ounces. Drachms. Minims.
1 = 4 = 8 = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440
1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680
1 = 8 = 480
1 = 60
16 ounces, or a pint, is sometimes called a fluid pound.
TROY WEIGHT
Pound. Ounces. Pennyweights. Grains. Grams.
= 12 = 240 = 5,760 = 373.24
1 - 20 - 480 = 31.10
1 - 24 = 1.56
Precious metals are sold by Troy weight.
283
284 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
APOTHECARIES” WEIGHT
ft)
gr.
Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Scruples. Grains. Grams.
1 = 12 - 96 F: 288 = 5,760 = 373.24
1 - 8 — 24 = 480 = 31.10
1 F 3 = 60 = 3.89
1 = 20 = 1.30
1 = .06
The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in Troy weight.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Grains (Troy). Grams.
1 F 16 - 256 - 7,000 F. 453.60
1 — 16 - 437.5 - 28.35
- 27.34 == 1.77
Chemicals are sold by avoirdupois weight.
1 ounce avoirdupois = 437% grains Troy or Apothecaries'.
METRIC SYSTEM
MEASURES OF WOLUME
Names.
Kiloliter or stere
Hectoliter
Deckaliter
Liter
Deciliter
Centiliter
Milliliter
Names.
Millier or Tonneau
Quintal
Myriagram
Kilogram or Kilo
Hectogram
Dekagram
Gram
Decigram
Centigram
Milligram
No. of Liters.
Wine Measure.
1,000 264.17 gallons.
100 26.417 gallons.
10 2.6417 gallons.
1 1.0567 quarts.
1-10 .845 gill.
1-100 .338 fluid Oz.
1-1000 .27 fl. drn.
WEIGHTS
No. of grams. Avoirdupois Weight.
1,000,000 2204.6 pounds.
100,000 220.46 pounds.
10,000 22.046 pounds.
1,000 2.2046 pounds.
100 3.5274 ounces.
10 .3527 ounce.
1 15.432 grains.
1-10 1.5432 grain.
1-100 .1543 grain.
1-1000 .0154 grain.
º
COINS AS STANDARDS
By the use of coins as weights in a balance (made
APPENDIX 285
ut of a stick and two little disks of cardboard) chem-
ical solutions can be made up accurately enough for
most photographic processes.
WEIGHT OF COINS
(In Apothecaries' System)
Standard dollar 412; grains
Half-dollar 192 '' and a little over.
Quarter-dollar 96 ‘' & & $ & 4 &
Dime 38 { { { { { { { { * {
5-cent (nickel) 77 ( { { { { { { {
1-cent (copper) 48 ‘‘
Five-cent nickel, 2 centimeters diameter, weighs five (5)
grammes. 1 gramme = 15% grains.
MEASUREMENTS
Half-dollar, 1% inches in diameter; Tâ⺠inch in thickness.
Quarter, ! ... “ * { Iłºw º
- 1 4 * { { * { { 3 2 {
Dime, 2 Ö To () ()
For liquids, an ordinary drinking-glass holds about
four ounces when half-full, and about 9% a pint, full.
EXPOSURE
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE LIGHT VALUES
BY REV. DW IG HT W. SMITH.
“American Annual of Photography,” 1907.
While there is a wider range in timing the ex-
posure of a dry plate than is generally supposed, yet
it is well known that there is but one correct interval
for the best results with a normal developer. To best
approximate that interval at all available hours of the
day and year requires some attention and experience.
It will be seen in this table, that in January, the light
value for noon is given as 1.7, while at 4 P. M. the ex-
posure would necessarily be more than five times that

286 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
duration. For July, the most rapid as well as longes
available light of any month, the light at noon is indi
cated by .2 instead of 1.7, and at 3 P. M. more tha
twice the time will be required.
The first column indicates the hour of the day; th
second column the comparative light values in whol
numbers and tenths.
JANU ARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. APRIL.
8 10 8 6 8 3 8 2
9 4 9 4 9 2 9 1.5
10 2.5 10 2 10 1.5 10 1.7
11 2 11 1.7 11 1.2 11 1
12 1.7 12 1.5 12 1 12 1
1 1.7 1 2 1 1 1 1
2 2.5 2 2.7 2 1.7 2 1.2
3 4.5 3 3.5 3 2 3 1.5
4 9 4 5 4 4 4 2
5 60 5 20 5 4
6 20
MA. Y. JUNE. JULY. AUGUST.
8 1.7 8 1.7 8 1.5 8 1.7
9 1.2 9 1.2 9 1.2 9 1.5
10 1 10 1 1() 1 10 1
11 .7 11 .6 11 .5 11 .7
12 .5 12 .3 12 .2 12 .5
1 .7 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5
2 1 2 .7 2 1 2 1
3 1.2 3 1.2 3 1.2 3 1.2
4 1, 5 4 1.5 4 1.5 4 1.7
5 2.7 5 2.2 5 2.2 5 2.5
6 15 6 5 6 4 6 5
7 80 7 20 7 15 7 60
SEPTEMBER. OCTOBER. NOVEMBER. I) ECEMBER.
8 2 3 8 4 8 9
9 1.5 9 1.7 9 3 9 3
1() 1 10 1.5 10 2 1() 2
11 1 11 1.2 11 1.7 11 1.5
12 .5 12 1 12 1.5 12 1.7
1 1 1 1.2 1 1.5 1 2
2 1.2 2 1.5 2 2 2 2.5
3 1.5 3 2 3 2 5 3 3.5
4 2 4 2.7 4 5 4 8
5 3 5 6 5 20 5 80
6 10 6 40 6 70

APPENDIX
287
IR. W. K. BURTON'S TABLE OF COMPARATIVE EXPOSURES."
From the “Photographic Reference Book ''
# = #e a 3, ##= == 3
24 -- : : ſ baQ | W +E P. tſ.< .: Tº 5
rture of lens * ; 2 # = 3 ne ſº #3 & #3: ... : :
# # & 3 £U E & “. .- := 2 - T : T.
(AED E - tſ. nder E. 5 1 D - º + = ºr 3 := -
3. System and 3 3 # 2, 3 trees. Fº teriors. # = 2 * : * ~ :
f System ă T. * : 3 £: |##### 5 §3
3 #. : * = Up to # 7 Up to 5 Ż £3:e * * *
Z_i > - a |*
'sec sec. sec. m. s. m. s. h.m. m.s. see. m. s.
1 = f/4 || | | | | | 0 10 0 10 0 2 | 0 || | | | 0 4
8 = f/11.3 3' | } 1 120 1 20 0 16 || 0 8 1% 0 32
16 = f/16 tº 2 2 40 2 40 0 32 || 0 16 2š 1 4
32 = f^22.6 # 4 520 520 1 4 || 0 32 || 5 || 2 || 8
64 = f 32 3 14 8 10 40 1040; 2 8 1 4 103 || 4 16
13s = i is 2 3; 16 |31 go 31 30 316 3 & 21 $33
256 = f/64 º º * 42 to 4240, 832 |416 42 17 4
| }
alling # 1 6 Up to 480 Up to 48 8 192
480 5,760
OBJECTS
BY W. D. KILBEY
From the “American Annual of Photography,” 1907
A TABLE SHOWING THE CORRECT EXPOSURE THAT
SHOULD BE GIVEN FOR VARIOUS MOVING
The table is made out for a distance from the camera
100 times that of the focus of the lens ; that is, for a
6-inch focus lens at 50 feet, a 7-inch at 58 feet, an 8-inch
at 67 feet, a 9-inch at 75 feet, or 12-inch at 100 feet.
-º-º-º-
32 Wynne.
* These are for bright sunlight in May, June, or July, slow plate = 16
H & D = 32 Watkins
288 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Toward At Right
the Angles to
Camera. the Camera.
Man walking slowly, street Scenes . . . . . . I's sec. 3's Sec.
Cattle grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . T; “ 4's “
Boating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'; “ * “
Man walking, children playing, etc. . . . . . 4's “ T}o “
Pony and trap, trotting . . . e º 'º Tº “ 3 #5 “
Cycling, ordinary * * * * * g e & e Tº “ sº a “
Man running a race and jumping . . T} iſ “ #6 “
Cycle racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 #6 “ who “
Horses galloping . . . . . . . . . . . zło “ sło “
If the object is twice the distance, the length of
allowable exposure is doubled, and vice versa.
RELATIVE BRILLIANCY OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS
From the “American Annual of Photography ’’
No. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 Sun at Midday, June
21,–1 1
2 Light of Magnesium Lamp
(burning 1 gram of
powder) 3 1
3 Magnesium Ribbon, 3 mm.
wide 14 5 1
4 Electric Arc Lamp 35 11 2.5 1
5 Oxyhydrogen Light 50 16 3.6 1.4 1
6 Gas, Welsbach System 165 53 11 7 10 1
7 In can descent Electric
Lamp (24 volts) 1,600 533 115 46 32 10 1
8 Oil of Petroleum Lamp 2,300 766 165 66 46 1 4 1.4 1
9 Stearine Candle 18,000 6,000 1,300 515 360 109 11 7 1
l3y means of this table, the nine chief sources of
light above given can be compared with each other as
to their relative brilliancy.
EXAMPLE.—Compared with the sun, the Welsbach
Gas Light is 165 less brilliant, but is 10 times more
brilliant than the electric incandescent lamp, and 109
more brilliant than the light from a stearine candle.
COMPILED BY MIR. J. W. ELSDEN
PO ISONS
1& E M A R KS
CII A RACTERISTIC SY M PTOMS ANT II) OTES
Ox A LIC ACI ſo, including
POTASSI UM OXA LATE
AMMONIA
POTAS LI
SO ) A
MElt CURIC CH LORIDE
ACETATE OF I, EAD
CY ANI DJ. ( , F POT Ass IUM
B1 CIT ROMATH, C, F POTAS-
SJ U M
TNITRATE ( , F SILVER
NIT 1: 1c AC II)
FH Y DROC Fr LC, RI ( ' A CID
SI I I, ſº I I I I It I ( ' A " i I)
LIYDIto FLU Olt I C A CID
ACE
IODIN F.
PYROG A Lilo I,
ty. Applied
1 dram is the smallest fatal
(19se known.
Vapour of am nonia may
cause inflatu Illation of the
Jungs
3 grains the Smallest known
fatal dose.
The sub. acetate is still more
pois0110 uS.
a. Taken internally, 3 grains
fatal.
b. Applied to wounds and
abrasjons of t lie Skin.
(t. Taken internally.
to slight abra-
Sious of the skin.
2 drams have been ſatal.
Inhalation of the funes
has also been fatal.
*4 ounce has caused death.
1 (1 ran ) has been fatal.
!2 ounce has caused death.
tro A CID, concentrated, has
Variable in its action ; 3
grains have been ſatal.
3 grains sufficient to kill a
dog.
Hot, burning sensation in throat and Chalk, whiting, or magnesia sus-
stomach ; vomiting, cralups and pended in water. Plaster or
Liu ſubneS8. mortar can be used in emer-
gency.
Swelling of tongue, mouth and ſauces: Vinegar and water.
often ſollowed by stricture of the
esophagus. .
Acrid, In, etallic taste, constriction and White and yolk of raw eggs with
burning in throat and stomach, tol-, milk. In emergency, flour
lowed by nausea and vomiting. | paste may be used.
Constriction in the throat and at pit of Sulphates of soda or magnesia.
stomach ; Cranlpy pains and stifliness Enuetic Of Sulphate of zinc.
of abdomen ; blue line round the
gll n.) S.
Insensibility, slow, gasping respira. No certain remedy cold effu-
tion, dilated pupils, Spasmodic clo-, sion over the head and neck
sure of the jaws. most eſlicacious.
Sun arting sensation. Sulphate of iron should be ap-
plied immediately.
Irritant pain in stomach and vomiting. Emetics and magnesia, or chalk.
Produces troublesome sores and ulcers. Corin mon salt to be given imme-
diately, followed by emetics.
Powerful irritant. |
Corrosion of windpipe, and violent Bicarbonate of soda, or carbonate
inflammation. of magnesia or chalk, plaster of
the apartinent beaten up 111
Water.
Similar to hydrochloric acid, though
In ore violent.
as powerful an effect as the mineral acids.
Acrid taste, tightness about the throat, Vomiting should be encouraged
v Odin iting. and gruel, arrowroot and
starch glºven freely.
Resembles phosphorus poisoning. No certain remedy.
Speedy
- - - emetic desirable. - - -
−x-Txpre-op-porsors-rrºr-rrrrrºrPºs =
i
3.
290 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
TABLE OF THE SYMBOLS AND ATOMIC. WEIGHTS
OF THE ELEMENTS
- ATOMIC
NAME SYMBOL WEIGHT
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . Al 27.5
Antimony (Stibium) . . . . . . Sb 122.0
Argon . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 39.9
Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . As 75.0
Barium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ba 137.0
Beryllium (Glucinum) . . . . . Be 9.4
Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . Bi 208.0
Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo 11.0
Bromine . . . . . . . . . . . . Br 80.0
Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . Cól 112.0
Caesium . . . . . . . . . . . . Cs 133.0
Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ca 40.0
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . C 12.0
Cerium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ce 138.0
Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . Cl 35.5
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . Cr 52.2
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . Co 58.8
Copper . . . . . . . . . . º Cu 63.4
Didymium . . . . . . . . . . . Di 145.0
Erbium . . . . . . . . . . . . E 166.0
Fluorine . . . . . . . . . . . . F 19.0
Gallium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ga 68.0
Germanium . . . . . . . . . . Ge 72.5
Glucinum . . . . . . . . . . . G 9.4
Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . Au 196.0
Helium . . . . . . . . . . . . He 4.0
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . H 1.0
Indium . . . . . . . . . . . . In 113.4
Iodine . . . . . . . . . w I 127.0
Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ir 193.0
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fe 56.0
Lanthanum . . . . . . . . . . La 139.0
Lead (Plumbum) . . . . . . . . Phy 207.0
Lithium . . . . . . . . . . . . Li 7.0
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . Mg 24.0
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . Mn 55.0
APPENDIX
291
NAME SYMBOL
Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . Hg
Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . MO
Neodymium . . . . . . . . . . Nd
Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ni
Niobium (Columbium) . . . . . Nb
Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . N
Osmium . . . . . . . . . . . . Os
Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . O
Palladium . . . . . . . . . . . Pol
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . P
Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . Pt;
Potassium (Kalium) . . . . . . K
Praseodymium . . . . . . . . . Pr
Rhodium . . . . . . . . . . . Rh
Rubidium . . . . . . . . . . . Rb
Ruthenium . . . . . . . . . . Ru
Samarium . . . . . . . . . . . Sm
Scandium . . . . . . . . . . . Sc
Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . Se
Silicon (Silicium) . . . . . . . Si
Silver (Argentum) . . . . . . . Ag
Sodium (Natrium) . . . . . . . Na
Strontium . . . . . . . . . . . ST
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . S
Tantalum . . . . . . . . . . . Ta
Tellurium . . . . . . . . . - . . Te
Terbium . . . . . . . . . . . Tb
Thallium . . . . . . . . . . . T]
Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . Th
Thulium . . . . . . . . . . . Tul
Tin (Stannum) . . . . . . . . Sn
Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . Ti
Tungsten (Wolfram) . . . . . . W
Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . U
Wanadium . . . . . . . . . . . V
Ytterbium . . . . . . . . . . . Yt.
Yttrium . . . . . . . . . . . . Y
Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zn
Zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . Zr
ATOMIC
WEIGHT
200.0
96.0
144.0
58.8
94.0
14.0
191.0
16.0
106.6
31.0
194.8
39.0
141.0
104.4
85.4
101.7
150.0
43.9
79.4
28.0
108.0
23.0
87.5
32.0
182.0
127.0
128.0
204.0
231.5
171.0
118.0
48.00
184.0
240.0
51.2
172.6
89.0
65.0
90.0
292 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
DEVELOPMENT
The following excellent instructions in development
are reprinted from Cramer's Manual, issued by the
G. Cramer Dry Plate Co., St. Louis:
Into a tray of proper size pour a sufficient quantity
of developing solution to well cover the plate. Slide
in the plate, and by a tilt of the tray cause the solu-
tion to flow evenly over it. Another way is to lay
the plate in the dry dish, face up, and pour the
developer over it in one sweep without stopping. A
tuft of filtering cotton (kept for this purpose in a
saucer of clean water) should be passed gently over
the plate to remove any adhering air bubbles. Rock
the dish occasionally and keep the plate well covered
with the developer, for stain is apt to appear when
the plate is exposed too much to the action of the air.
Continue development until sufficient density is ob-
tained, which can be judged by taking the plate out
of the tray and holding it against the red light for a
short time. However, the less a plate is exposed to
the developing light, the better.
If the plate was correctly eaſyosed the high lights of
the image will soon appear in the developer, then the
half tones and finally the detail in the shadows, and
if sufficiently developed, the resulting negative will
have all the desired printing qualities, viz.: sufficient
density with full detail, and the parts of the plate
where the light has not acted will be perfectly clear.
If the plate was over-exposed the whole image will
appear simultaneously as soon as the action of the de-
veloper takes place, and the negative will be flat and
lacking in contrast.
APPENDIX 293
Lack of contrast may be helped some by carrying
the development as far as possible so as to get the
greatest density, and after fixing, reducing.
The addition of bromide of potassium to the
developer after development has begun has but little
effect on the quality of the negative, and only slows
the development, but its addition to the developer be-
fore it is applied to the plate has a restraining effect
on the shadows and helps to keep down fog.
An under-exposed plate will develop slowly without
detail in the shadows, and will not yield as good a
negative as one that is correctly timed. The ex-
posure should be made over, but if this is not possible,
a passable result may be obtained by transferring the
plate without rinsing to a tray containing pure water
at about 80 degrees Fahrenheit, and after soaking
a while, back to fresh developer. Another method
is to use a diluted developer which works soft and
does not fog the plate. The main object in develop-
ing an under-exposed plate is to obtain detail in the
shadows. During the necessary prolonged develop-
ment the plate must be completely protected against
all traces of light. Should the negative, after fixing,
be found too intense in the high lights, we have in
persulphate of ammonia an effective remedy to reduce
the same without losing the detail in the shadows.
An attempt to force development by an overdose of
alkali will always result in failure.
After developing is completed, rinse the plate well,
and place it in the fixing bath for the purpose of dis.
solving the bromide of silver which has not been acted
upon by the light and the developer. After all the
bromide of silver appears to have been dissolved in
294 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the fixing bath, leave the plate therein at least ten
minutes longer to insure permanency and freedom
from stain. |
Plates that are left in the acid fixing and harden-
ing bath for half an hour, will not soften in the wash
water nor show reticulation (puckering of the film)
even in warm weather; they will dry quickly and
not be so apt to gain undesirable density, provided
the fixing bath is in good condition. If the bath is
too strong, and not stirred before using, it will cause
parallel lines on the negative, due to the differing
densities of the upper and lower portions of the bath.
All tray developers work best at a temperature of
65 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
If the dark room is cold, the developer should be
slightly warmer or more concentrated.
If the dark room is hot, the developer should be
colder or more diluted.
A concentrated developer works fast and with
much density.
A diluted developer works slower but with finer
detail and is best for short exposures.
If the developer is too concentrated or too warm it
will produce fog, unless it is restrained by the addi-
tion of bromide of potassium solution.
If too much diluted, it is prone to produce stain by
the long immersion required ; also peculiar streaks.
Weak negatives with clear shadows are due to un-
der-development or too weak developer.
Weak negatives with plenty of detail in the shadows
are due to over-exposure or too flat lighting of subject
or too weak developer (use less water).
Strong negatives with too much contrast are due to
APPENDIX 295
under-exposure or too strong developer containing too
much alkali. Add more water and use less carbonate
of soda or potassium, as an excess of alkali blocks
the whites.
Too much intensity is the result of the developer
being too warm or too strong, or development carried
too far. Negatives dried in warm, sultry air assume
more intensity than when dried in a cool place with
draft.
Frilling, softening of the film, film leaving the glass,
are caused by too high temperature. When this
occurs cool the developer and use fixing and harden-
ing bath.
For reticulation (puckering of the film) leave the
negative in the acid fixing bath for half an hour to
harden the film way through.
DEVELOPERS
FACTORS FOR DEVELOPERs
From Watkins on Development, in Photo-Miniature, No. 66
5 Adurol. 10 Ortol.
5 Quinol. 12 Diogen.
6 Imogen sulphite. 18 Amidol (2 gr. per oz.)
7 Glycin. 20 Edinol.
9 Eikonogen. 30 Metol.
10 Kachin. 40 Rodinal.
10 Pyrocatechin. 60 Diamidophenol.
PYRO-SODA OR PYRO-POTASH DEVELOPER
Grains of pyro Factor Grains bronide Factor
peº. without bromide. per Oz. with bromide,
2 12 i 5
3 10 - e # 4}
4 8 • * 1 4
5 6} 2 3
For Watkins' System of Development see Photo-Miniature No. 34
296 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Following are two developers for special purposes
given in Cramer's Manual :
DEVELOPER FOR LINE WORK
(Black and White)
Metric.
Pure Water . . . . . . . . . . . 30 OZS. . . . . . . 900 C C m
Cramer's Dry Sulphite of Soda . . . 2 ozs. . . . . . . 60 grams
(Which will test 32° by Hydrometer.)
Edinol . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 grains . . . . . . 10 grams
Bromide of Potassium . . . . . 100 grains . . . . . . 7 grams
Carbonate of Potassium . . . . 23 ozs. . . . . . . . 75 grams
Use full strength.
This developer, with special contrast plates, pro-
duces negatives of great intensity and absolute clear-
ness, desirable for copies of pencil sketches, pen draw-
ings, line work, etc.
TROPICAL DEVELOPER
(For hot climates where mo ice is available)
Metric.
Pure Water . . . . . . . 50 ounces . . . . . . . . 1200 C C m
Cramer's Dry Sulphite of Soda. 1 ounce . . . . . . . . 24 grams
Bromide of Potassium . . . . 20 grains . . . . . . . . 1 gram
Citric Acid . . . . . . . . . 20 grains . . . . . . . . 1 gram
For use : To 4 ozs. of the above solution add ten grains dry
Amidol; or to 200 cc m of above solution add 1 gram dry Amidol.
Before developing place the plate in
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 parts
Formalin . . . . . . . . . . . 1 part
for about three minutes, then rinse well and place in
the developer.
Fix in the acid fixing and hardening bath.
The following analysis of the elements of a de-
veloper, from Cramer's Manual, is also of interest:
The carbonates of soda or potassium are added to
give the developing agent the alkalinity required for
APPENDIX 297
ction, whereas the sulphite is added to prevent
apid decomposition and discolouration.
Carbonate of potassium is of the same strength as
ure dry carbonate of soda.
These alkalis may be substituted for one another in
ny formula. Two ounces of dry carbonate of soda
equal five ounces of crystal carbonate of soda, provided
the dry carbonate of soda is really chemically pure.
For many years it has been generally believed that
an excess of alkali gave softness and detail, and for
this reason a largely increased quantity of alkali was
used for short exposures, though it was generally
known that beyond a certain quantity it caused chem-
ical fog. Experiments conclusively prove that when
the plate is developed the same length of time, the
greater the quantity of alkali used, the more rapid the
reduction, and the greater the contrast. Therefore if
a negative which is properly lighted and timed, shows
too much contrast, reduce the quantity of alkali, or
increase the quantity of water until the image shows
proper balance. If a properly timed negative lacks
contrast, increase the quantity of the alkali, or use
less water until sufficient contrast is obtained.
Doubling the quantity of water in normal pyro
developer reduces contrast because the deposit of
silver in the strongly lighted portions of the plate
proceeds slower, giving more time for the half tones
and shadows to gain their maximum strength.
For the same reason, reducing the alkali reduces
the contrast between the high lights and lower tones
of the negatives.
Bromide of potassium is added to the developer to
counteract the effect of over-exposure, its action being


298 PEIOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
to produce contrast and clearness by restraining the
development of the shadows. For this reason the
contrast developer to be used for this purpose, con-
tains a large dose of it. A very small quantity of
bromide of potassium or of contrast developer is of
benefit as an addition to fresh developer, if it does not
work perfectly clear. One drop of a solution (1 part
bromide of potassium in 10 of water) usually being
sufficient for two ounces of developer.
The following is from the American Annual of
Photography: -
The tendency of a greater or less quantity of any
factor in the developer is as follows:
Developer itself (Pyro, Ekonogen, etc.):
More—clogs up whites; too much contrast.
Less—slow development; lack of brilliancy.
Alkali :
More—quick development; dense, flat negatives;
fog and granulation.
Less—slow development; contrast.
Sulphite :
More—colder tone. e
Less—warmer tone; Stain.
Water :
More—thin in high lights; detail.
Less—contrast.
Temperature :
Should be about 70 deg. F.
Higher—intensity; fog.
Lower—flatness.
APPENDIX 299
The warmer and closer the atmosphere in which
the negative is dried, the more intense it becomes.
Mr. Alfred Watkins is quoted as saying:
“In a paper read before the Royal Photographic So-
ciety, I described a comparison of seven developers,
namely: pyro, metol, ortol, adurol, hydroquinone,
kachin and glycin. All were made up with the same
formula (no bromide) and compared under the same
circumstances. The result may be summed up :
“Effect on speed of plate, very slight and doubtful
difference.
“Searching out detail, no difference.
“Ultimate density power, no difference.
“Appearance of image, wide difference.
“Speed of working, no difference.
“There is one respect in which developers differ.
One class of developers (represented by metol, rodinal
and weak pyro) causes all the tones to appear very
early in the course of development, and density seems
to follow with comparative slowness. This class has
the reputation of giving thin negatives because users
are deceived by the rapid appearance of image and
take the plate out too soon. In the second class of
developers (represented by hydroquinone, (quinol),
strong pyro and adurol) the lowest tones or detail ap-
pear slowly, and by the time they are out the high
lights have attained quite a respectable amount of
density, and density is afterward attained quite
rapidly. The usual tendency with these developers is
to over-develop and thus get too much contrast.
“It really does not matter which developer you use
300 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
if you take the plate out of it at the right stage of
contrast ; for all (variations in bromide excepted) give
identical negatives if their action is stopped at the
right moment. For general purposes it is more con-
venient to use a developer which is neither in the first
class mor the second, but intermediate, density follow-
ing the appearance of the image at a comfortable rate.
It is a peculiarity of pyro that it belongs to the first
or the second class according to the grains of pyro to
the ounce of developer.”
TANK DEVELOPMENT
HURTER AND DRIFFIELD'S STANDARD DEVELOPER,
FOR TANK USE
Pyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 parts.
Sodium Carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 “
Sodium Sulphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 “
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 “
1,000
No bromide of potassium. Use at 65°.
RODAK TANK DEVELOPMENT
From Kodak Advertisement
Standard. 1 Powder. Temp. 65° Fahr. Time of
Development, 20 Minutes.
Time of
Temperature. Development.
70 degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 minutes.
68 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
65 “ . . . . . normal . . . . . . 20 “
60 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 “
55 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 “
50 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . , 35 “
45 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 “
APPENDIX 301
Standard. 2 Powders. Temp. 6.5° Fahr. Time of
Development, 10 Minutes.
Time of
Temperature. Development.
70 degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 minutes.
68 ‘‘ e e s tº e º e e s a º 9 “
65 “ . . . . . . . normal . . . . . 10 “
56 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 “
50 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 “
44 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 “
Developer must never be warmer than 70° Fahr.
It will be noted that it requires just double the time
or development between 65 degrees, the normal tem-
Yerature, and 45 degrees when using one powder, and
learly double the time when employing double strength
eveloper.
The variation in the temperature of the atmosphere
will make some difference in the results, but not suffi-
ciently so to be taken into serious account. At low
temperature some difficulty may be experienced in dis-
solving the developing powders; crushing the powders
very fine and adding slowly to the water while stirring
will lessen this difficulty.
From a Kodak Pamphlet.
It has been fully demonstrated that sea water may
safely be used in compounding the developer and for
all the processes of Tank or Machine Development,
provided only that the final rinsing is in clean fresh
Water.
TANK DEVELOPER FORMULE
From Burke and James's (Chicago) Pamphlet on the Ingento Tank.
GLY CIN-STOCK SOLUTION
(This developer is especially recommended.)
Glycin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 grains.
Sulphite of soda dried (Anhydrous) . . . . 360 “
Carbonate of soda dried (Anhydrous) . . . 360 “
Water e - - º - e - e o - º º - º o - e - 35 OUln CeS.






302 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
For 20 minute developer, temperature between 6:
and 70 degrees: To each part of stock solution, ad
3 parts water.
For one hour developer, temperature between 6
and 70 degrees: To each part of stock solution, add
9 parts water.
HYDROCHIN ON -STOCK SOLUTION
Hydrochimon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 grains.
Sodium Sulphite dried (Anhydrous) . . . 400 “
Sodium Carbonate dried (Anhydrous) . . . .390 “
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 ounces.
For 20 minute developer, temperature between 65
and 70 degrees: To each part of stock solution, add
3 parts water.
INTENSIFIERS AND REDUCERS
The following formula is given in Cramer's Manual,
for reducing negatives which are too dense all over,
and lack contrast, owing to over-exposure and over-
development:
A
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ounces.
Hyposulphite of Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ounce.
(Which will test about 15° by Hydrometer.)
B
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ounces.
Red Prussiate of Potassium . . . . . . . . 1 ounce.
As this solution is affected by light, the bottle con-
taining it, should be of amber colour or wrapped in
opaque paper and kept in the dark when not in use,
Mix for immediate use :-
APPENDIX 303
Use in subdued daylight.
The negative can be placed in this solution directly
fter fixing. If a dry negative is to be reduced, it
must be soaked in water for at least half an hour
efore applying the solution. To avoid streaks, al-
ways rinse the negative before holding it up for ex-
mination. As soon as sufficiently reduced wash
horoughly.
For intensifying negatives, Cramer's Manual gives
the following:
No. 1.
This solution will keep and work well until exhausted.
Metric.
16 ounces of Water . . . . . . . . . . . 500 c c m.
120 grains of Bichloride of Mercury . . . . 8 grams.
120 grains of Bromide of Potassium . . . . 8 grams.
No. 2.
Number 2 should be mixed fresh.
8 ounces of Water . . . . . . . . . . . 250 C C m.
1 ounce of Cramer's Dry Sulphite of Soda 30 grams.
(Which will test 60° by Hydrometer.)
After the negative is well fixed and washed, immerse
in No. 1 until it has become thoroughly whitened, and
after rinsing carefully place it in No. 2, leaving it there
until entirely cleared. In case sufficient intensification
has not been gained, wash for ten minutes, repeat the
operation and finally wash well. If after intensifica-
tion the negative is too dense it may be reduced by
placing it for a few seconds in water 16 ozs., Hypo. 1 oz.
| If the negative has not been thoroughly fixed and
washed before intensification, stains will ensue.
304 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
The following are taken from the American An
nual of Photography, 1907:
INTENSIFIER (MERCURIC) WITH sodium sulPHITE,
FOIR GELATINE DRY - PLATES
Whiten the negative in the saturated solution o
mercuric chloride, wash and blacken with a solution
of sulphite of sodium 1 in 5. Wash well.
The reduction is perfect, with a positive black ton
REDUCER FOR GELATINE DRY-PLATES
Perchloride of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 gr
Citric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 gr.
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 pint
PRINTING PROCESSES
THE PLATINUM PROCESS
The following brief summary of the platinum proc.
ess is taken from A. Horsley Hinton’s “Platinotype
Printing ” (A mateur Photographer Library). This
book contains, besides very full descriptions of methods,
instructions for colour-toning of platinum and for
glycerine development.
The negative and printing-frame having been thor-
oughly dried, the paper is exposed in the printing-
frame in the ordinary manner until the image is seen
mapped out in grey or orange grey tint. It is then
placed upon the oxalate bath with a pushing, sliding
movement, the bath being about 70° for cold-bath
paper, or about 170° for hot bath, the solution being
roughly one part of oxalate to four or six of water for



APPENDIX 305
old bath, or in the proportion of one pound of oxalate
o fifty-two ounces of water (or a slightly super-satur-
ted solution) for hot bath. Development occupies but
few seconds—more does no harm—when the print is
transferred to a solution of hydrochloric acid and water
f the strength of one in seventy. After this the prints
are leisurely subjected to one or two successive acid
baths of the same strength, and then finally washed
in water for about fifteen minutes.
SPECIAL TONES ON PLATINUM
SEPIA TONES
From Wilson's Photographic Magazine
The use of zinc oxalate for obtaining warm brown
tones with ordinary black platinum paper was first
suggested by Dr. R. Jacoby. He now states that rich
warm sepia tones can be produced by using the fol-
lowing developer:
Potassium oxalate . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 parts.
Ammonium phosphate . . . . . . . . . . 50 parts.
Copper Sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 parts.
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 parts.
The prints should be left for at least five minutes in
this, otherwise they lose a lot in the fixing bath.
For brown tones, A. Horsley Hinton, in “Platino-
type Printing ” suggests a dram weight of mercury
bichloride added to three or four ounces of the oxalate
developer. Prints are developed and cleared similarly
to black prints.
306 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
THE GLY CERINE PROCESS
From the “American Annual of Photography”
The “Glycerine Process,” or the process of develop-
ing platinotype prints by application of the develop-
ing agent with the brush, is perhaps one of the most
interesting and fascinating of photographic processes,
owing to its far-reaching possibilities.
By this method of developing platinotype paper,
many negatives, which have been discarded on account
of the dim, flat, non-contrasty results which they yield,
may be made to give fair results, carefully printed,
and, in the hands of one possessing a little artistic
skill, snappy, animated pictures may be obtained. On
the other hand, from the sharp and hard negative,
soft, sketchy effects may be obtained.
There are required for this process: some glass jars;
some soft brushes, varying from the fine spotter and
the Japanese brush to the 1% inch duster, and several
pieces of special blotting paper.
Print the paper a trifle deeper than for the ordinary
method of developing. Place the print face up on a
piece of clean glass (should the print curl so that it is
unmanageable, moisten the glass with glycerine), and,
with the broad camel's hair brush, thinly coat the en-
tire print with pure glycerine, blotting same off in
three or four seconds; then re-coat more thickly such
portions as are desired especially restrained, or the de-
tails partly or entirely eliminated. Now brush or
paint such portion of the print as is first desired with
solution of one part glycerine and four parts normal
developer, blotting the portion being developed from
time to time to avoid developing too far. Full strength
APPENDIX 307
developer (without glycerine) is employed where a
yronounced or deep shade is wanted. [If desired,
nother solution, equal parts glycerine and water, may
be kept at hand and used where caution is advisable.]
When any part of the print has reached the full de-
velopment desired, blot that portion carefully with
the blotter and coat with pure glycerine.
THE KALLITYPE
Photographic Times Formula
Coat stout but fine grained paper with a solution of
Sodium ferric-oxalate . . . . . . . . . . . 6 drachms
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 ounces
Dry quickly without the application of heat, and
print till the deeper shadow portions of the picture
become visible. On removal of the print from the
frame, immerse into a 1% per cent. solution of nitrate
of silver acidified slightly with citric acid, when the
picture will develop brilliantly and with all detail.
Finally wash in pure water. A yellow tinge may be
Washed away with a 5 per cent. solution of oxalic acid.
“SALTED,” OR PLAIN SILVER PAPER
From the “American Annual of Photography,” 1902
Sensitizing Plain and Albumen Paper.—The usual
method of rendering paper of any kind sensitive to
light is to float it for a varying length of time on a
solution of silver nitrate, having previously salted it,
if it be plain paper, with some chloride, usually chlo-
ride of ammonium. In practice it has been found
that the strength of the silver bath should not fall be.
low thirty grains of silver to the ounce of water, lest
308 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
the albumen be dissolved; and that, save in exce
tional cases, there is no need of a greater strength tha
sixty to sixty-five grains to the ounce. The precis
strength necessary to produce the best results with
any given brand of albumen paper depends upon th
amount of chloride used in salting; a paper weak in
chloride requiring a weak bath, while one rich i
chloride demands a strong one.
Formulae for Sensitizing Bath.-For very stron
negatives :
No. 1.
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 gr.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
Print in full sunlight.
For thin negatives:
No. 2.
Silver nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 gr.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
Print in the shade.
Floating the Paper.—There should be enough of
the bath poured in to cover the bottom of the pan to
a depth of at least half an inch, and it should have
been most carefully freed from all impurities before
the sensitizing is begun. Impurities and air-bubbles
are the two great enemies of the sensitizing room.
Grasp the paper by the two opposite corners, albumen
side down, bring the hands together, and lower the
convex side to the surface of the bath; separate the
hands, and the paper will float on the surface. If it
shows an obstinate tendency to curl up, gently breathe
upon it. This difficulty may be overcome by placing
the paper, the night before sensitizing, in a damp
place. Now raise one corner and look for air-bubbles.
APPENDIX 309
f any are found, break them with the point of a glass
od, and again lower the paper. When it has floated
he proper length of time, from one to three minutes
eing the usual time, raise it by one corner very
lowly, until another corner is free, which is then
rasped by the other hand and the paper slowly with-
rawn, allowed to drain a minute into a dish, and
ung up by one corner to dry in the dark, or yellow
ight.
Points in Sensitizing.—1. Have the paper damp
efore silvering.
2. Before floating ascertain the condition of the
ath as to strength and alkalinity.
3. Do not allow the paper to become bone-dry
efore printing if you wish to have rich prints. Of
ourse, it must be dry enough not to adhere to the
egative; anything more than this is not only useless,
ut fatal to securing the best results. -
Toning Solution.
A.
Chloride of gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gr.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Oz.
B.
Acetate of Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 gr
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
Saturated solution of sulphate of copper.
When solution is complete, add B to A, and add
10-15 drops of C, allow to stand at least twenty-four
ours before using. Tone only until the half-tones
re somewhat bluish by reflected light.
This bath will keep.
Fixing Bath.
Hyposulphite of soda . . . . . . . . . . . 4 oz.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 oz.
310 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
REDUCTION OF BLUE PRINTS
BY SAMUEL PURNELL
From Camera Craft
To secure the best results from a blue-print, a
manipulated in the usual way, is more difficult than i:
generally supposed. The chief difficulty is to print i
to just the proper depth. If under-printed it is of no
value ; if over-printed it has heretofore been consid
ered also valueless. I have discovered that an over
printed blue-print may be cheaply, quickly, evenly
and successfully reduced to just the density desired
and without any damage to the print. The method
employed is so practical that it is advisable to inten
tionally over-print all blue-prints, so as to be sure they
are printed deeply enough, and afterward reduc
them by this process.
When the finished and dried blue-print is seen to b
too dense, soak it in water for a few minutes. In
tray put a pint of water and dissolve in it about a
heaping teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda ; the exac
quantity is not material. Immerse the blue-print i
this and rock the tray. Do this by daylight. Re
duction proceeds at once and rapidly, the speed de
pending on the alkalinity of the bath. Just before
the print is reduced to your liking, transfer it to an
other tray in which fresh water is running. Wash it
for about five minutes and then lay the print out t
dry.
PRINTING ON SILK
From the “American Annual of Photography,” 1899
Boiling water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 ounces
Chloride of ammonium . . . . . . . . . . 100 gr.
Iceland moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 gr.











APPENDIX 311
When nearly cold, filter and immerse the silk for
fifteen minutes. Sensitize for fifteen minutes in an
acid 20-grain silver bath, and when dry stretch the
fabric over cardboard. Print deeper than usual and
tone in
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Ounces
Acetate of Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 drachms
Chloride of gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 gr.
Common whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . a few gr.
“ FAKE '' PHOTOGRAPHY AND SPECIAL
EFFECTS
FIRELIGHT EFFECTS BY DAYLIGHT
(SEE ILLUSTRATION FACING PAGE 202)
From an article by Henry Essen.high Corke, reprinted in The Camera
The sitter posed on a raised platform, so as to be on a
level with the bottom of the window, in this case of
ground-glass and about two feet from the floor. The sit-
ter should be as near the source of light as possible, so
that the lighting may be rather concentrated. All the
dark blinds are then drawn, leaving only a patch open
about two feet square, just in front of the sitter, where
the fire is supposed to be. A fender and hearth-rug
are then placed in front of the light on the floor. In
some cases it may be found convenient to place a mir-
ror, in the “fireplace,” so as to give an extra amount
of reflected light upward onto the face of the sitter.
A small strip of white paper may be placed inside the
fender to look like the white hearth. -
It is desirable to use a dark background, composed
of dark curtains; these should not be allowed to hang
in folds, but should be stretched tightly, or awkward
streaks of high light will possibly show on the folds
312 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
Exactly the same effect can be obtained in the same
Way in an ordinary room and at an ordinary window.
All that is necessary is to block up the window with
brown paper, from the top downward, as may be re-
quired, so as to give an opening of suitable size as low
as can conveniently be managed. The sitter is then
raised to a level with the opening, using a large din-
ing table or boards supported on trestles for the pur-
pose. The other arrangements are the same as just
described.
Alternatively, if French windows are available,
they may be used, and there is then no need for a
platform. The sitter is posed on the floor, and a large
white sheet thrown down outside the windows will be
found to throw a bright reflected light into the room.
If by any chance the ground outside should be cow-
ered with snow, the same effect is secured without the
sheet.
The exposure should err on the underside, as a
rather hard negative is best suited for this class of
subject. Of course, the actual exposure will vary
according to many prevailing circumstances, but it
may be some guide to say that with about two feet
of ground-glass, with the sitter about two or three
feet from it, using a lens working at f/4.5, about two
and a half seconds will be about right with a fast
plate.
In development the high lights should be allowed to
attain sufficient density, and no thought need be taken
of the shadows. I should also advise a pyro-soda
developer, as with it the high lights are not so likely
to clog up as when hydrokinone or such developers
are used.
APPENDIX 313
DUPLICATE PHOTOGRAPHY
(SEE ILLUSTRATION FACING PAGE 270)
SEGMENT DUPLICATOR. (Cut reproduced from
Photographie Amusements.) This consists of a disk
of pasteboard or black material fitting the lens front
exactly, with a slice taken off on one side. The proper
size of the opening should be determined by experi-
ment; it should be just large enough to expose half of
the plate. After a photograph has been made on one
half of the plate, the disk is turned around so as to
expose the other half. Devices of this sort may be
bought.
LZ
ANOTHER DUPLICATOR. (Cut reproduced from the
Photo Era.) This is made from heavy cardboard,
and the hole should fit over the lens front snugly.
It should not be forgotten that the duplicator always


314 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
cuts off a good deal of light, necessitating a longer
exposure.
The following extract is from an article in the
Photo Era of September, 1907.
The secret of success . . . is to blend or vig.
nette the two exposures into each other in such a way
as to conceal the place where they come together.
This the segment article will not always do, as it is
purchased ; but it is easily made right, if large enough
to permit of adjustment.
The first thing to do is to divide the ground-
glass of the camera into four equal parts by drawing
a line across its centre when placed horizontally, and
another intersecting this, when set up for perpen-
dicular views. This will give a dividing-line to work
by — a guide for future operations.
Next put the duplicator over the front of the lens,
und note how much image shows on the ground-glass.
[f it gives more than what covers half of the plate it
is useless, and should be returned, if possible, to the
maker or dealer. If this cannot be done, cement or
glue a piece of stiff, black cardboard or heavy paper
over the disk, allowing it to extend over the segment
one-eighth of an inch. Now see how it works. Sup-
pose it does not permit the image to come up to the
centre line. Then it will have to be pared down
gradually, until the dark side of the ground-glass ex-
tends up to within a quarter of an inch of the line.
Now turn it around, so that the image is shown on
the opposite side of the focusing-screen, being careful
to see that both sides bring the two images together
in the same way at the centre line. One will likely
have now noticed the necessity for care in making
APPENDIX 315
this preliminary test. One will have seen the gradual
blending of the fully-lighted view, which first began
about three-eighths of an inch from the centre line,
and gradually lessened until the image disappeared
altogether about the same distance beyond the centre.
This blending is the crucial point; it either makes or
mars the resulting negative.
It is absolutely necessary when adjusting the du-
plicator on the front of the lens to get the straight
edge of the segment perfectly perpendicular or hori-
zontal, according to the way one is composing the
shape of the picture. Failing in this, one will have
a portion of the negative unexposed. This is one of
the things that this simple device leaves to the care
of the operator, and on his skill in setting it depends
the future of his composition.
SNOW-STORMS
MAXIMILIAN TOCH
In the “American Annual of Photography,” 1899
To photograph the snow falling is by no means easy,
unless certain conditions are obtained, and even then,
it is to be remembered that carelessness in develop.
ment will obliterate the flakes.
To begin with, it is impossible to photograph the
snowflakes against a sky background. . . . Bear-
ing this in mind I selected a spot where the back-
ground was a row of brick houses, and against which
the white flakes stood out. . . . The picture was
taken in one-fiftieth of a second, and it came up in the
developer as easily as if it had had a second or two.
I took five more the same day, but with the exception
of one other they were monstrosities. There was one,
316 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
of a man struggling against the storm, with a big um-
brella, and the flakes were coming down furiously,
but, alas! when I developed it his black figure was
streaked and spotted with monstrous flakes which
were falling between him and the camera, and they
were so horribly amplified, that I discarded the nega-
tive after the first print. I could have corrected the
negative by retouching or by the old-time “fake” of
spattering water colour with a tooth-brush, but had I
done that, this article would never have been written.
I advise every camerist to try snow-storm pictures
next winter, but be sure and photograph the scene
against a dark background, and get under a shed or
an awning, if possible, so that no flakes will fall near
the lens and spoil the effect of the picture.
SHORT HINTS
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAE, FROM CRAMER'S
MANUAL
NEGATIVE WARNISH
Best grain alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 OzS.
Crushed dark shellac . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 oz.
Shake occasionally for several days until dissolved
(without heat). Allow it to settle, then decant care-
fully from the settlings, and add two drachms of oil of
lavender. The negative should be slightly warmed
before warnishing.
DEAD-BLACK WARNISH
Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 OzS.
Lamp black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 oz.
Liquid shellao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 OZ.
APPENDIX 317
FOR RETOUCHING
Powdered rosin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 grains.
Oil of turpentine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 OzS.
Moisten a clean cotton rag, and rub over the parts
of the negative to be retouched.
HARDENING SOLUTION
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Ounces.
Formalin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ounce,
Immersing the negative a few minutes in this solu-
tion will render the gelatine perfectly insoluble, so
that the negative can be dried by artificial heat.
HOW TO PRINT SUCCESSFULLY FROM A CRACKED
NEGATIVE
Every one knows that a crack prints a black line
bordered by a white line. This crack ran through
the centre of the plate, so I made an exposure with
the crack horizontal, the heads of the group point-
ing upward, and when half printed I reversed the
frame, making the heads point downward, thus com-
pleting the exposure. In this way I made perfect
prints. If what was the white line in the first half
of the printing should begin to show darker than
the original dark line before the exposure is com-
plete, reverse the frame again until this disappears.
If the crack shows in the least, it is the fault of the
printer.
I have not tried this plan with artificial light
printing, but should think it will be even simpler by
that process, as the time can be divided to a second.
318 PEIOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
I consider, however, that the crack should be kept
at the same relation to the light in every respect, in
the second as in the first half of the exposure.
If the crack runs diagonally, I think it will not
matter, provided the condition is entirely reversed.—
The Amateur Photographer.
HOW TO PRINT FROM A WET NEGATIVE
Oftentimes a print is wanted in a great hurry ; this
happens frequently in newspaper work.
Prints can be obtained from wet negatives on
gaslight paper by wetting the paper for a few seconds
and then placing it carefully on the film side of the
wet negative, smoothing it down with the hand to in-
sure perfect contact.
Make the exposure without the use of the printing
frame.
After exposure, the negative with the paper still on
it should be placed in water, when the two will sepa-
rate without harm.
The negative should of course have been carefully
washed to remove all hypo remaining from the fixing
bath.-The Cyko Manual.
TEST FOR HYPO IN WASH WATER
Permanganate of Potash . . . . . . . . . . 3 grains.
Caustic Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 grains.
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ounces.
|
A few drops of the water to be tested are mixed
with an equal quantity of this solution. If hypo is
present, the red colour will change to green.—The
Cyko Manual.
APPENDIX 319
PASTE FOR MOUNTING
Dissolve a handful of ordinary gloss starch in just
enough cold water to make a thick solution. Pour
boiling water into this until it thickens. Set aside to
cool before using.—The Cyko Manual.
A GUIDE TO FOCAL LENGTH
If a print be moved backward and forward be-
fore the eyes it will be found that there is a point
at which it becomes more stereoscopic than at any
other, and the distance of the print from the eye at
that point is exactly the same as the original focal
length of the lens which took the photograph.-
American Photography.
TO FIND THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A LENS
Make two images of any object of convenient length,
so that the difference between the images will be equal
to some part of the object, making the position of the
ground-glass on the base of the camera where each
image is in focus. The distance between the two posi-
tions of the ground-glass thus found will be the same
part of the focal length that the difference of the two
images is of the object.
Examples: With two images of a foot rule, let one
image be eight inches long and the other four inches.
The difference being one-third the length of the ob-
ject, the distance between the two positions of the
ground-glass will be one-third of the focal length of
the lens.—American Annual of Photography, 1899.
320 PHOTOGRAPHY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE
TO CALCULATE THE FOCAL FRACTION OF STOPS
FOR LENSES
Divide the focal length obtained by the above
method expressed in inches and hundredths, by the
diameter of stop opening expressed in hundredths of
an inch.-American Annual of Photography, 1899.
TO CLEAN A LENS
First spread upon a table a clean sheet of paper; take
your lens carefully apart; now dust with camel's-hair
brush each lens on both sides; then take a clean gradu-
ate, pour in two ounces of distilled water, one ounce of
alcohol and three drops of nitric acid (C. P.) mix well,
and with a tuft of filtering cotton dipped in this solution,
rub the lens on both sides; polish with a clean chamois
which is kept for this purpose only, which when not
in use, put away in a clean paper bag. After the
lenses are all polished, before putting together, wipe
out carefully the brass tube; then dust each lens with
a camel's-hair brush (never blow on them) and put to-
gether. A lens cleaned in this way will keep clean
much longer than it would, if simply wiped with a
chamois.-‘‘The Art of Megative Making ” (M. A.
Seed Co.'s pamphlet).
PORTRAITS WITH THE NO. 3 KODAK
With a No. 3 Folding Pocket Kodak and Portrait
Attachment you should focus as follows:
To work at 2 ft. 8 in. set focus at 6 ft.
{ { ( & 3 { { { { { 8 { {
{ { $ 4 { { 3 4 4 4 4 { { { { 15 { {
{ { * { { { 4 { * 4 & { { { { 25 { {
{ { § { { { 4} { { { { { { { { 100 { {
In each case the distance is to be measured from
lens to subject.—Aodak Pamphlet.
APPENDIX 321
CONTINENTAL STOPS AND THEIR U. S.
gº EQUIVALENTS
Mr. Edward M. Nelson says: “Photographers are
frequently troubled by the Continental nomenclature
of the stops, and wish to know the U. S. equivalents
for them. The method of finding this out is very
simple. All that is necessary is to divide fº by the
ratio to be converted, and square the result. Ex-
ample: required the U. S. equivalent of f.9 : —
& 9
{{ } = {x} = 2.25;
the square of 2.25 is 5.06, the U. S. number required.
— The British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1907.
RULES FOR CHANGING DEGREES IN ONE THER-
MOMETER SYSTEM TO ANOTHER
C. = Centigrade.
F. = Fahrenheit.
R. = Reaumur.
C. to F. Multiply by 9, divide by 5, add 32.
C. to R. Multiply by 4, divide by 5.
F. to C. Subtract 32, multiply by 5, divide by 9.
F. to R. Subtract 32, divide by 9, multiply by 4.
R. to C. Multiply by 4, divide by 5.
R. to F. Multiply by 9, divide by 4, add 32.
INDEX
Index
ABERRATION, chromatic,
spherical, I40
Achromatic lenses, 229, 242
Acids, in chemistry, 273-275
Albumen papers, 2O I, 243
Alkaline developers, 256
Amateur photography, 4–9
Ambrotype, 244
Amidol, I86
Anastigmatic lenses, 147
Animals, photographs of, I 20
Antidotes to poisons (table), 289
Apparatus, improvements in, 6–8
Aristo, 25 I
Aristo, Jr., 20I
Aristotle, 225
Art, in photography, 96–IO5
Artificial lights, brilliancy (table),
288
Astigmatism, I42
Atomic weights, of elements
(table), 290
Autochrome plates, 266
Autumn photographs, Io9
I4 I ;
BASES, in chemistry, 273–275
Beccari, 229
Becquerel, 262
Bellows, the long, 156
Bennet, Charles, 246
Bi-convex lens, 144
Bitumen, 233
Blanchard, Valentine, 253
Blue-prints, 203, 3 IO
Box camera, 39
Bromide, 186, 190
Bromide papers, 202
Brush development, 94
Burton, 77
CALOTYPE, 242
Camera, attachments, 42, 152–161;
choice of a, 34–42; drill in use
of, 47–53; modern forms of
250 ; primitive forms of, 226–
228; setting up the, 65, I 14,
II 5, 12 I, I53; simplest form of,
I4–16, 23; value of the, vi-viii,
I—
cºa Image.
Cap, the, 158
Carbon papers, 206
Carbutt plates, 250
Chemical action, 218–220, 279
Chemistry, of photography, 29–30,
272-281
Chlorine, 240
Cinematograph, 255
Coal-tar developers, 191, 256
Coins, weights of (tables), 284
Collodion paper, 20I ; process,
243–245
Colour, effect of, 96–98, 99, 169;
photography, 260–268
Contrast, principle of, 97–99
Cramer plates, 250
Cross-swing, 156
Curvature of field, 142
Cyko, 2O2
See IMAGE
DAGUERRE, LOUIS, 225, 235-238,
24I, 256, 262-
Daguerreotype, 235-238, 240–242
Dark-room, the, 54–56
Davy, Sir Humphry, 231, 239
Developers, choice of, 186, 190–
193, 294, 298–300; factors for
(with tables), 295–298, 300–
3O2; quantity used, 298; special
(tables), 296
Developing, apparatus for, 75;
chemistry of, 29, 277–279; in
Lumière process, 267 ; methods
of 184–190, 232–238, 240–247,
256; papers, 92–95, 202; process
of 73, 75–82, 192, 292–295
(with tables), 300–302; temper.
325
326
INDEX
ature for, 78, 183–186; time of,
78, 183–186
Diaphragm, the, 49–53, 69, 166,
I70–172; markings, 170, 320,
32I
Distortion, I4 I
Dollond, John, 229, 242
Draper, J. W., 241-243
Driffield, V. C., 176
Drop-front, 158
Drying plates, 81–82, 193; prints, 89
Dry-plate process, 245–247, 249
Du Hauron, L. D., 265
Duplicate photography, 313–315
ELECTRICITY, 212–215
Elements, chemical, 272-274, 275;
and their symbols (table), 290
Emulsion, for plate, 245
Enlarging, 253
Ether, the, 2 I I ; waves, 212–216
Exposure meters, 66, 7 I, I 24, 129,
169
Exposures, length of, 41–44, 48,
5 I, 66–73, I22–125, 162–168,
I78–183, 194, 292; mechanism
regulating, 159; tables for, 285,
287
FACTORIAL system of developing,
184
Ferrotype plates, 91
Film-pack, 38
Films, kodak, 251 ; or plates, 36–
39; varieties of, 37. See also
PLATES
Finder, the, 42, IOI
Fixed focus, 40
Fizeau, 240
Focal length, 164–167, 319
Focal-plane shutter, 159
Focus, depth of, 50–52; fixed, 40;
for landscapes, 65; principles of,
44–46. See also FOCAL LENGTH
Fog, in negative, I94
Folding camera, 39
Fox–Talbot, 241–243
Freak pictures, 269, 3 II
GASLIGHT, in developing,
papers, 202–2O3
93 ;
Gelatine papers, 201
Gelatino-bromide process, 245
Glycerine process, 306
Goddard, 240
Ground-glass, the, 36, 38, 39
Group portraits, I 17
Gum-bichromate process, 207
HALATION, I 31–132
Halogens, 276
Heat waves, 212
Herschel, Sir John, 239, 240, 243,
262
Herschel, William, 230
Horn-silver. See SILVER COM-
POUNDS
Hunt, Robert, 262
Hurter, 176
Hydrochinon, 191
Hypo, 79, 88, 192, 239, 243, 275,
278; test for, 31
ILES, GEORGE, vii, 3
Image, fixing the, 24, 27
Indelible ink, 22 I
Indoor photography, IO6, IO7, 122–
I 32
Intensifying, 195—197; chemistry
of, 278; tables for, 302–304
Interiors, I 30–132
Iodine, action on silver, 236–238
Iris diaphragm. See DIAPHRAGM
Iron printing papers, 2O3–2O6
Joly process, 264—266
KALLITYPE, 205; table for, 307
Kinetoscope, 255
Kodak, the, 250, 320 ; tank de-
velopment, 300–302
LANDSCAPES, distant, 65, Ioſ, I IO-
I 14; near view, 65, I I4–I I7
Lantern slides, 208
Lens, the, 16-23; early use of the,
226–228; errors of the, 140–143
Lens-mechanism, 48, 154–158 .
Lenses, cleaning, 32O ; different
forms of, 42, I32, 143-I5 I, 165,
229, 247; speed of, 52, 148,
164–167
INDEX
327
Lewis, William, 229, 231
Light, action of, I I-I4, 16–23, 24,
28, 32, 5 I-54, 67–69, 86, I31,
177–183, 217–222, 228—238, 248,
257–259, 263, 276; and shade,
97–99, IOS–I IO, II 3, I 15, 125,
I 28, 162, 168, 169; artificial
(table), 288 ; laws of, 21 1–218;
values, I 28, 163 (tables), 285
Lippman process, 262-264
Lithography, 233
Lumière process, 266–268
MADDOX, R. L., 245
Mansfield, George, 246
Maynard, J. P., 243–245
Measures, weights and (tables),
283
Meniscus lenses, 145
Mercury, 237
Metal quinol (M. Q.), 191
Metol, 191, 256
Microscopic objects, photographing,
268
Monckhoven, Dr., 246
Moonlight pictures, 270
Morse, S. F. B., 24 I, 242
Mountain photographs, I I I
Mounting, 90
Moving objects, exposures for
(table), 288; photographs of,
I 18, 172–174; pictures, 253–256
Multi-speed shutter, 161
NEGATIVE, definition of, 30
Negatives, cracked, 317; destroy-
ing, I98; the first, 243; fog in,
I94; intensifying and reducing,
I95–197, 278–280, (tables) 302–
3O4; preserving, 81, 198, 316;
retouching, I97, 317; wet, 318.
See also DEVELOPING ; PLATES
Newton, Sir Isaac, 216
Niépce, Joseph, 233—236, 256, 261
Niépce de St. Victor, C. M. F.,
243, 263
ORTHOCHROMATIC photography,
Io9 ; plates, 257–259
Outdoor photography, IOG-121
Ozobrome process, 207
PASTES, for mounting, 90, 319
People, photographs of. See POR-
TRAITS
Perspective, in interior, 130; in
landscapes, I I I–II.3, II 7
Petzval lens, 247–249
Photography, definition of, v, Io,
224; history of, 223–248; value
of, vi, I-5
Piazza photographs, 127-129
Pinhole lens, 15–18, 139, 225
Plant-life, I 16, 120
Plate-holders, defects in, 62; load-
ing, 53–58
Plates, developing, See DEVELOP-
ING; drying, 193; essential ele-
ments of, 24; or films, 36–39;
injuries to, 25–27 ; inventions of,
243–247, 249 ; the Lumière,
266; orthochromatic, 257–259;
preserving, 80–82, 198; selec-
tion of, 60–62; sizes of, 36;
speed of, 167–169; washing, 192
Platinotype paper, 203–205
Platinum process, 3O4
Poisons and antidotes (table), 289
Poitevin, 263
Porta, G. B. della, 226
Portrait lenses, 150
Portraits, IO4, 124-127; the first,
242; group, I I7 ; outdoor, I 17–
I2O, with kodak, 32O
Positives, 208
Priestley, Joseph, 229, 231
Principality, I I I
Printing, in colours, 260–262; in-
ventions in, 232–238, 240–247;
methods of, 84–87, 92–95, 199–
2O9, 25 I-253 ; papers, 200–209;
processes, 31, 83, (with tables)
3O4–3 Io, 318
Printing-frame, 85
Printing-out papers, 201
Prism, the, 18–21, 216
Pyro, 186, 190, 277
READE, 243
Rectilinear lenses, 146–148
Reducing, 195–197; chemistry of,
279-28o; tables for, 302–304
Refraction, 216
328
INDEX
Rejlander, 252
Retouching, 197,317
Reversible back, 154–156
Revolving back, 154–156
Rising and falling front, 156
Ritter, J., 230
Rocking, in developing, 189
Roll-films, 38, 25 I ; loading with,
57
SALTS, in chemistry, 275
Sarony, Otto, 252
Scheele, C. W., 229
Schulze, J. H., 228
Science, photography in, 3, 268
Scott-Archer, 244
Seashore photographs, Io9
Seasons, effect of, Io&–1 Io
Seebeck, 262
Sensitizing, 309
Sepia tones, 305
Shade, light and, 97–99, IO3–1 Io,
II.3, I 15, 125, 128, 162, 168, 169
Shutter-mechanism, 48, 158–161
Silk, printing on (table), 3 IO
Silver compounds, action of light
on, 24, 177–183, 220–222, 228–
238, 276; nitrate, chemical com-
position, 273; printing papers,
2OO–2O3, 24 I-243, 307--3O9
Sky-line, the, I 12
Snow-storm pictures, 315
Solio, 20 I
Spectrum, the, 216–218
Spirit pictures, 270
Spring photographs, IO8
Stops. See DIAPHRAGM
Subjects, choice of, 64, 96–105
Summer photographs, IO3
Sun, pointing camera at, I I4
Sunlight, action of, 217–222; com-
position of, 215–218. See also
LIGHT
Swing-back, the, 154
Swing-bed, 155
TALBOTYPE, 242-243
Tank system, developing, 184
(tables), 300–302
Taupenot, 245
Telephoto lenses, 150
Thermometers, different, 321
Three-colour process, 260–262
Toning, 87; solution for, 309
Trimming, 89
Tripod, the, 12 I, I52–154
VARNISH, 316
Velox, 202, 203
View camera, 35
Views. See LANDSCAPES
Vignetting, 252
Vogel, Hermann, 248
WASHING plates, 80, 192
Water, in landscape, I 16
Watkins, Alfred, 223
Wedgwood, Thomas, 231, 239, 242
Weights and measures (tables), 283
Wet-plate process, 243–245
Wide-angle lenses, 132, 149, 165
Winter photographs, Io9, 315
Wortley, Stuart, 246

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