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THE EDEMENTS OF THE E N G L T S H L A N G U A. G. E. /43 a J- -------->=z^*=ewwºreº" THE EIEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BY ERNEST ADAMS, PH.D., F.L.S., F.C.P. AUTHOR OF “THE RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.” FIFTEENTH EDITION, LONDON : GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORKSTREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1878, LONDON : R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, P. R. E. F. A. C. E. To THE SECOND EDITION. THE first edition of a book is of necessity somewhat tentative. More extended experience, and the sug- gestions of judicious critics, render certain changes inevitable. But the alterations in this revised edition are so numerous, that Some explanation is due to those who have introduced the book into their schools. It was urged by certain remonstrants that the infor- mation imparted was too meagre and elementary in its character; by others, that it was more adapted for the use of teachers than of pupils. Both objections were well grounded, for these outlines were originally pre- pared for an intermediate class of students. In the present edition, the author has endeavoured to reconcile these contending views. He has supplied fuller details for the advanced student, and, at the same time, has given greater expansion to the elementary prin- ciples. The simple expedient of a variation in the type has rendered this possible. The young pupil should confine his attention to the paragraphs in large type; . those in smaller type are intended for more advanced Vi PREFACE. classes. A judicious teacher may select from these whatever facts he considers likely to prove of interest or advantage to his younger pupils. In consequence of this compression of the type, the bulk of the volume has been but slightly affected, while the subject-matter has been increased nearly two-fold. Among the many changes introduced into this edition, the most conspicuous are the following:— 1. It has been thought desirable, at the risk of some repetition, to break up the lists of Prefixes and Suffixes, Compounds, and Diminutives, and to distribute them under their respective heads. Those peculiar to Nouns, Adjectives, Werbs, &c., may thus be studied in connexion with the class of words to which they belong, 2. A list of the principal parts of the so-called Irregular Verbs has been introduced. --- 3. A fuller list of the English Prepositions has been given, and an attempt made to trace their formation, and exhibit it to the eye in the arrangement of the list. 4. In compliance with the wishes of many experienced teachers, the leading principles of Grammatical Analysis, and the technical terms employed in explaining them, have been embodied in the Syntax; while the Syntax itself has been enlarged and, it is hoped, improved. 5. A set of Examination Questions has been appended, which, by presenting the facts contained in the text in a concise form, may assist the Solitary student in his unaided study. + The alterations thus effected are, no doubt, consider- able; but it was thought better to introduce them at PREFACE. Wii once, and so obviate the necessity for any material changes hereafter. It is scarcely necessary to remind the practical teacher that the numerous Old English forms scattered through these pages should not be intruded upon the attention of the young student : they are given solely for the information and guidance of the teacher. It is impos- sible fully to appreciate the traces of inflection still lingering in the language, without Some knowledge of these archaic forms. The author begs to acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Marsh's very valuable and interesting Lectures on the English Language; to the careful Manual of Dr. Angus, which has furnished him with numerous hints and illustrations; and to Mr. Mason's excellent Com- pendium of Analysis. His incidental obligations to other writers are too numerous to admit of distinct specification. But his thanks are especially due to Professor Key, whose valuable suggestions are embodied in nearly every page, and to whose philological writings modern grammarians are so deeply indebted. UNIVERSITY CoILEGE, May, i862. TLEMENTS O}} THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. P A R T I. HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 1. THE languages of the civilised world are divided into two great families; the Semitic, and the Indo-European. As the Semitic words in the English language are very few, it will be sufficient to observe that the Hebrew, Phoenician, Syriac, Chaldee, Arabic, Ethiopic and Coptic, are included in this family. 2. The subdivisions of a family are called stocks; and the subdivisions of a stock, branches. The Indo-European family is divided into the following stocks: Sanscrit, Persian, Slavonic or Windic, Keltic, Clas, sical, and Teutonic. - 3. The Sanscrit and Persian are Asiatic stocks, and include the ancient languages and most of the modern dialects of India, Persia, and the adjacent tribes. The languages of the remaining stocks are, or were, spoken by the inhabitants of Europe. Hence the name Indo-European has been applied to this family, which has also been called the Indo-Germanic, the Caucasian, and the Japhetic. It is now more commonly known as the Aryan family. Arya is a Sanscrit word, meaning “noble.” Its original signification was “tiller of the soil” or “plougher,” but it § 2 IIISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. became a national name, distinguishing the people that adopted it from the Turanian, or nomad, tribes. The Turkish, the Magyar of Hungary, the Lapp, the Finnic, the Esthonian and the Basque, are not included in the Indo-European ot Aryan family. 4. The dialects of the Slavonic, or Windic, stock are spoken through. out Eastern Europe, in Russia, Poland, Gallicia, Slavonia, Illyria, Servia, Croatia, Bulgaria, and parts of Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, Tran- sylvania, and Hungary. The Lettic, or Lithuanic, is a subdivision of this stock: Lettish is spoken in Kurland and Livonia; Lithuanian, in the province of Lithuania. As the three other stocks are, more or less, closely connected with the history of the English language, it is necessary to consider them more in detail. 5. The Keltic stock is divided into two branches, the Kymric or Cambrian, and the Gadhelic or Gaelic. To the former belong the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Preton of Brittany in France. To the latter belong the Irish Gaelic, or Erse ; the Scotch Gaelic ; and the Manx, or Gaelic of the Isle of Man. Dialects of this stock were spoken at a very early period throughout Great Britain and Ireland. They have been gradually displaced by immigrants of another race, and at present exist side by side with modern English in certain parts of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, aid the Isle of Man. - 6. The Classical stock is divided into two branches, the Hellenic and the Italian. It includes what are commonly called the Classical languages, Greek and Latin, and hence the name by which the stock is usually known. CLASSICAL. HELLENIC. -— * *Greek. *Latin. Romaic, - Italian. OT - Spallish. . Modern Greek. Portuguese. French. * The italicised names are those of languages no longer spoken : the names that follow them are those of their modern representatives. HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE, 3. The Italian branch also includes the following dialects:—ancient Umbrian and Oscan; the Rouman, spoken in Wallachia, Moldavia, and parts of Hungary, Transylvania and Bessarabia; the Walloon, in the Belgian province of Liege; the Catalonian and Gallician, in Spain; the Chur-Wälsch, in the Swiss canton of Grisons; the Provençat, Limousin, or Langue d'Oc, in the south of France; and the old northern French or Langue d’Oyl. Albanian is the modern form of an old Hellenic dialect. 7. The Teutonic stock is divided into two branches : (1) the Scandinavian, including the languages spoken in the district anciently called Scandinavia; and (2) the Gothic. This latter branch is subdivided into High and Low German; i.e. the dialects spoken in the upland districts of the south. and in the lowlands of the north of Germany. TEUTONIC, SCANDINAVIAN. ſº T GOTHIC. | Old Worse. HIGH GERMAN. Low GERMAN. Pictish. | H Icelandic. Old High German. Mooso- Old Friesian. Swedish. Modern German. Gothic. Anglian. Norwegian. Modern Friesian. Danish, English. Faroic. - Batavian. Dutch. Menapian, Flemish. Francic. Platt-deutsch. 8. The people commonly known as Saxons, who formed so large a proportion” of the German invaders of Britain, were so named by their neighbours and enemies the Franks, the Britons, and the Romans. They were probably Angles, and they certainly called their new country Angle-land (England) and their language English. The namo Saxon was subse- quently adopted by the Southern Angles of Britain. The * The early settlers in Kent were probably Friesians. B 2 4 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. language spoken by these Anglian settlers is the mother- tongue of the present English : it is commonly known as Anglo-Saxon. The term Old Saxon has been applied to a dialect formerly spoken in Westphalia, and closely allied to the ancient English. The old Friesians occupied the districts extending from the mouth of the Rhine to the frontier of Jutland. They were the ancient inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower Hanover, and part of Holstein. The Angles and their kinsmen the so-called Saxons, pro- bably inhabited the territory now known as Hanover and Westphalia. 9. Ancient Teutonic tribes were settled in the south-east of Britain, before the Christian era. Fresh settlements were effected in the middle of the third century, and towards the end of the fourth century we find a large population of Saxons, or Angles, combined with Friesians, extending from Portsmouth to the Wash. This district was officially termed by the Roman government the “Saxon shore.” The southern invaders having adopted the name of Saxons, extended their settle- ments to Devonshire, and thus occupied Essex, Middlesex, Sussex, and Wessex. 10. The Scandinavians, who are often called Worsemen and Danes, had, under the name of Picts, early occupied the coast of Scotland and the adjacent islands. They gradually extended their settlements into England; and, at the close of the ninth century, the easterm coast as far South as the Wash was held by a population of Scandinavian conquerors. 11. As the Anglian invaders were at various times in contact with Keltic, Scandinavian and Romanised inhabitants of Britain, their language admitted and retained many words of Keltic, Scandinavian, and Classical origin. 12. The Keltic element in the English language embraces four classes of words: (1) geographical names; (2) Words retained in old English literature; (3) words existing in the HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. - 5 dialects of counties bordering on the Keltic districts; (4) words surviving in the current language ; with a few of recent introduction. . ' 13. (J) Geographical names: Rivers: Don, Dee, Thames, Avon, Stour, Severn, Trent, Ouse. Hills : Malvern, Mendip, Cheviot, Chiltern, Grampian, &c. Islands: Wight, Man, Arran, Bute, Mull, &c. Counties: Kent, Devon, Glamorgan, Dor-set, Dur-ham, Wilt-s, &c. Towns: Liver-pool, Carlisle, Penzance, Pen-rith, Cardiff, Llandaff. (2) Words existing in old English literature: cam, crooked; pele, a castle; capull, a horse ; grise, a step; imp, engraft ; kern, a Gaelic soldier; crowd, a fiddle; crowder, a fiddler; braket, spiced ale; kecks, a reedy plant; bug, a ghost; Cuts, lots; &c. (3) Provincial words: kephyll, a horse (Crav.); berr, force (Lanc.); bree, to fear (Lanc.); bºat, an apron (Lanc.); crap, money (Lanc.); brause, brambles (Lanc.); cob, beat (North.); cocker, fondle (Lanc.); croo, a cattle-crib (Lanc.); flasget, a basket (Lanc.), &c.” (4) Words surviving in the current language : basket clout gown mattock size boggle Coat grid-iron mesh solder bogie crag grill mop spree bother crib gruel pike tackle brake crockery gusset prance trap bran crook gyve pranks welt burr dainty happy rail whip button darn huff rasher wicket cart flaw kiln rug wire (5) Words of recent introduction: clan, flannel, kilt, pibroch, plaid, reel, tartan, whisky, fillibeg, dudheen, Shillelagh, shamrock. 14. Scandinavian words are found chiefly—(1) in the names of places in the counties north of the Wash and the Mersey; (2) in the provincial dialects of those counties; (3) sparingly in old English literature; (4) in the current language. * Trans. Phil Soc. 1855, p. 210. {} HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. (1) Geographical terms. ark ] temple or Ark-holm. holm, island. . . Lang-holm. qrgh altar Grims-argh. . kell, spring . . . Kel-by. beck, brook . . . . Cald-beck kirk, church. . . Orms-kirk. * ! a stee | Nor-brek. ness, headland , . Skip-ness, bººk, P Kell-briks. o 5 . . {º bol, dwelling . . Thor-bol. C!, }river “ U Skeb-a. by, town . . . . Grims-by, Orm,” . . . . Ormes-gill. Carl,” . . . . Carl-by. Scar, steep rock . Scar-borough dal ]] Dal-by. Scaw, wood . . . Scaw-by. dale | * ' ' | Scarsdale, skip, ship . . . Skip-with, dam. D Dan-by. ster, place . . . Ulb-ster. dane ( * Danes-dale, Suther Suther-land € Orkn-ey. Sºlité?' outh. Sutter-by, ay island . * {; souther ( * Southr-ey. C. Grims-a. . 80dor Sodor. fell, rocky hill . . Scaw-fell. tarm, mountain lake Tarn-Syke fisker, fish . Fisker-ton, thing) pl f Thing-wall. ford Sea-ford. ting º º: {; forth $ inlet tº {; dºg \meeting Ding-wall. firth Holm-firth. Thor \ , Thores-by. force, waterfall. Mickle-force. #.} e Thur-low. garth. enclosure {#. thorpe Grims-thorpe #.) Il CIOSUl]"6 , Fish-guard. throp village. . ſº gate, way . . . Sand-gate. drop Stain-drop. gill, ravine . . . Ormes-gill... toft, small field . Lowes-toft. Grim,” . . . . Grims-dale, vat, lake . . . . Tan-vats. hag high Hag-gate. wig ) creek Wig-toft. haigh | pasture {# wick or §: haugh) land Kirk-haugh. wich ) bay ºf Sand-wich. hoe. hili . . . . Langen-hoe, with, wood . . . Lang-with (2) Provincial words. Öarkle, adhere. dateless, foolish. gawm, attention, braid, resemble. eldin, firing. - gawster, boast (W). brangle, quarrel (v). fey, sweep. greet, weep. bown, ready. jlit, change house. late, seek. clatch, brood of chickens for-elders, seniors. lurgy, idle. cleg, clever person. gar, make. 80Wl, a relish. (3) Words found in Old English literature. beryng, bosom. boun, ready. fenge, girl. bi, town. busk, prepare. jlosche, chasm. bike, pitch. erre, wound. fraisie, try. * Names of ancient Scandinavian heroes. f These must not be confounded with the Anglian words of similar form—(0.N. vic, creek or bay, A.S. wic, village.) HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 7 fric, blame. lowe, flame. rippe, basket. gmaist, rage. imark, a coin. sket, quickly. hething, scorn. neif, fist. Snepe, foolish. kaske, bold. okir, usury. tiſſen, adorn. lith, liston. rake, drive. wandreth, sorrow. * (4) Words in the current language, bag bray doze husting rap (T. bait (v.) bunker (coal) drub kid shrug bloated Bustle dwell kindle sky blunt Cà l’OURS6 earl ling slant boil cast (v.) flatten lubber slush box (blow) chime flimsy lurk sly bracken dash gust pudding whim ºf 15. The Classical words in the English language have been introduced at various periods. (1) Sparingly during the Roman occupation of the island, between A.D. 43 and A.D. 418. (2) At the introduction of Christianity by the Roman missionaries, A.D. 596. (3) With the Norman French, A.D. 1042. (4) At the revival of classical learning in the sixteenth century. (5) By modern writers on Science, art, social and political economy, &c. 16. (1) The Latin of the first period is found chiefly in local names connected with the great military works exe. cuted by the Roman legionaries. (a) CASTRA, a camp. caster, Dom-caster, Lan-caster, Tad-caster, Caster-ton. castor, Castor, Thong Castor. caistor, Caistor (Norf. Linc.) . cester, Bi-cester, Glou-cester, Wor-cegter, Lei-cester. chester, Chester, Port-chester, Win-choster, Col-chester. cister, Bed-cister. - ster, Glo-ster. eter, Ex-eter (Ex-etre, Ex-cestre, O.E.). * For other examples see Morris (Story of Genesis, pref. p. xxi). + For further details of the Scandinavian element see Worsaae's Danes, and Trans. Phil. Soc. 1855, p. 210; 1859, pp. 18–30. 8 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. (b) STRATA, paved roads. strad, Strad-sett, Strad-broke, Strad-brooke, Y-strad (in Wales) strat, Strat-ford, Strat-ton, Strat-field. 8tret, Stret-ton, Stret-ham, Stretford, streat, Streat-ham, Streat-ſey. street, Street, Street-ly, Street-thorpe. (c) COLONIA, a Roman settlement. coln, Lin-coln. (d) PORTUS, a harbour. - port, Port-chester, Port-s-ea, Port-s-mouth, Port-gate.” (e) WALLUM, a palisaded rampart. In Old English, ballum and ballium, bayle and bailey. It is still retained in “Old Bailey” and “bailiff.” It is seen again in the names of places connected with Roman forts: e.g. Wall-bury (Essex), Wal-bury Hill (Hants), Wall Hill (Heref.), old Roman forts. (f) FOSSA, a trench, Foss-way, Foss-dyke, Stratton on Foss, Fosse-cot, Foss-bury, Fos-brook, Fos-bridge, Fos-ton. 17. (2) Classical words of the second period were imported principally by the Roman ecclesiastics during the four centuries following the introduction of Christianity, A.D. 596. They include many words of a religious character, and others connected with social institutions and natural productions previously unknown to the Angles. Many of these terms are Greek transmitted through a Latin medium. Ecclesiastical, Greek, alms, eleem.0Syma. clerk, clericus. monk, monachus. Angel, angelus. deacon, diacomw8. priest, presbyterw8. apostle, apostolus, heretic, haereticus. psalm, psalma, bishop, episcopus. hymn, hymnw8. psalter, psalter. canon, Canon. martyr, martyr. stole, Stola. church, cyrtaca. minster, monasterium. Synod, Symódw8. Latin. altºr, altar. disciple, discipulus. pall, pallium. chalice, calia. feast, festw8. porch, porticus, cloister, clawstrum. font, for 8. preach, praedico. cowl, cucullw8. mass, missa. Saint, Sanctus. creed, credo. offer, offero. shrine, scrimiwm. cross, cruſt. pagan, pagan w8. sacrament, Sacrameſt- tºv, * At the spot where Watling Street passed through Hadrian's Wall HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. Greek cymbal, cymbalum. epistle, epistola. giant, gigas. Latin. acid, acidus. anchor, ancora. axle, aa'is. ark, arca. belt, balteus. bench, banca. bile, bilis. candle, candela. capital, capitalis. castle, castellum. chest, cista. circle, circulw8. city, civitas. crown, corona. crest, crista. ^ Greek, agate, gagates. anise, ani8wm. camel, camelus. Latin. beet, beta. box, bºta:us. cedar, cedrus. chalk, cala. cherry, cerasus. cucumber, cucumis. elm, wºma. fig, jicus. laurel, lawrus. Miscellaneous. metre, metrum. plaster, plastrum. philosopher, philosophus. chancellor, cancellarius. cook, cocus. coulter, culter. crisp, crispus. ell, w/na. g empire, Mmperºvſm. fever, febris. fork, furca. gem, gemma. grade, gradw8. mile, mille. mortar, mortarium. muscle, musculus. nurse, nºwtria. ounce, wheia. Natural objects. crystal, crystallum. hellebore, Elleborus. myrrh, myrrha. lettuce, lactuca. lily, lilium. lion, leo. mallow, malva. marble, marmor. millet, milium. mule, mulus. oyster, ostrea. palm, palma. rheum, rheuma. school, Schola. theatre, theatrwn, palace, palativm. plant, planta. plume, pluma. pound, pondws. prove, probo. provost, praepositus purple, purpur. rule, regula. sack, Saccus. Senate, Senatus. Spade, spatha. table, tabula. temple, templwm. title, titulus. verse, versw8. phoenix, phoenia. sponge, spongia. Sycamore, Sycamorus pard, pardus. pea-cock, pavo. pearl, perla. pine, pinus. pumice, puméa. rue, ruta. tiger, tigris. turtle, turtur. vulture, vultur. 18. Towards the close of the ninth century (A.D. 876), a band of marauding Norsemen, under Rolf or Rollo, attacked and ravaged the north of France, and ultimately (A.D. 912) succeeded in extorting from the French King, Charles the Simple, a grant of the dukedom of Normandy, to be held as a fief under the French crown. The language of Normandy at that time was debased Latin, and the efforts of these Scan- linavians to speak the language of the country produced a dialect commonly known as Norman-French. The original language of the Norse conquerors rapidly disappeared. 1() FíISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE, 19. On the accession of Edward the Confessor, who had been brought up in Normandy, Norman-French became the language of the English court. After the battle of Hastings, it was the language of the Norman nobles and their retainers throughout the kingdom. All religious and Secular instruc- tion, and all judicial proceedings, were conducted in French : but the uneducated, who comprised the mass of the popula- tion, adhered to their native Anglian. In the year 1362, the English language was formally recognised, by a special enact- ment, as the language of the English people. But a living language cannot be abruptly suppressed by an Act of Parlia- ment. From the Norman conquest to A.D. 1297, all parlia- mentary enactments are in Latin : from 1297 to 1487 they are almost wholly in French ; after that date, in English. 20. (3) Terms employed in feudalism, war, law, and the chase, are principally Norman-French : Fewdalism, and War. aid buckler guardian mail trumpet 3.TIQOl]]." captain hauberk peer truncheon array champion harness relief vassal assault chivalry herald Scutage WIZOr banner dower homage scutcheon war baron esquire joust tallage ward battle fealty lance tenant warden Law. advocate C3, Sé felony paramount statute approver contract judge plaint Slle arrest estate justice plea suit assize fee larceny Sentence surety 77te Chase. bay couple (v.) forest quarry tiercel brace covert leash reclaim venison chase - falconer Iſle W sport verderer Many words of a general character were also introduced: as, abash, adventure, annoy, bachelor, benign, cavil, chamber, comfort, company, contrary, corps, counterfeit, courage, curious, debonair, defame, fancy, folly, frailtv, fruit &c HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 1 21, (4) Down to the year 1523 it is difficult to find a Latin word in the general vocabulary of the language which cannot be traced to Norman-French. During the next hundred years, classical words were so profusely introduced as almost to change the châracter of the language. This was caused by the enthusiastic study of Greek and Latin literature. acclamation controversy figurative judicious portentous ambitious convenient generosity Imalicious restitution artificial despicable Impression mutual scientific celebrate dimension impotent numerous singularity cogitation fanatic indignity participate visitation conjectural fastidious inventory particular volubility Many words introduced by the writers of this age have been rejected by the better judgment or the caprice of modern critics: e.g. expulsed, neglection, immanity, mansuetude, consociate, disserve, incuriously, nocive, cecity, torve, tetric, lepid, pauciloquy, Stultiloquy, eluctate, arride. 22. (5) Words introduced by modern writers: Greek. Telegraph, telegram, photograph, telescope, panorama, asthetic, lithograph, crisis, diagnosis, basis, criterion, stereo- scope, geology, biology, &c. Latin. Terminus, oculist, dentist, caloric, locomotive, detective, platitude, emigrant, prospectus, &c. 23. In addition to the above, the English language includes various words derived from miscellaneous sources: Hebrew. Abbey, abbot, amen, behemoth, cabal, cherub, ephod, gehenna, hallelujah, hosanna, jubilee, leviathan, manna, Sab. baoth, sabbath, seraph, shibboleth, pharisaic, Rabbi, - Arabic. Admiral, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, amber, ambergris, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, assassin, attar, azimuth, cadi, caliph, camphor, carat, caravan, caravanserai, chemistry, cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, crimson, damask, damson, divan, dragoman, elixir, emir, fakir, firman, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hazard, jar, lake, lemon, lime, lute, magazine, mameluke, mattress, minaret, mohair, monsoon, moslem, mosque, mufti, mummy, nabob, nadir, naphtha, nard, opium, ottoman, saffron, salaam, Scullion, shrub, sirocco, sofa, sultan, syrup, tabor, talisman, tamarind, tambourine, tariff, vizir, Zenith, Zero. 12 IIISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. Persian. Azure, balcony, barbican, bashaw, bazaar, cneck-mats, chess, dervise, emerald, hookah, howdah, indigo, jackall, jasmin, kaffir, lilac, musk, orange, pasha, pawn (in chess), Saraband, Scimitar, sepoy, shawl, sherbet, simoom, taffeta, tiffin, turban, paradise. Hindustani. Banian, batta, betel, buggy, bungalow, calico, coolie, cowrie, dimity, jungle, lac, loot, mullagatawny, muslin, pagoda, palanquin, pariah, punch, pundit, rajah, rupee, Sandal (wood), sugar, Suttee, toddy, shampoo. Malay. A-muck, bamboo, bantam, caddy, caoutchouc, chintz, cockatoo, creese, curry, gamboge, godown, gong, gutta-percha, junk, mango, orang-outang, rattan, Sago. Chinese, Bohea, congou, hysOn, nankeen, pekoe, Satin, Soy, tea. Turkish. Bey, chibouk, chouse, janisary, kiosk, sash, tulip, Seraglio. American. Cacique, calumet, condor, lama, maize, moccasin, pampas, permmican, potato, Squaw, wigwam, tobacco, toma- hawk, tomata. Polynesian, Tattoo, taboo, kangaroo. Italian. Balustrade, bravado, bravo, bust, canto, caricature, car- mival, charletan, cupola, ditto, dilettanti, farrago, folio, gazette, gondola, grotto, harlequin, improvisatore, influenza, lava, manifesto, motto, opera, pantaloon, piazza, portico, regatta, scaramouch, sketch, soprano, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, terra-cotta, torso, umbrella, Virtuoso, vista, volcano, Zany. Spanish. Alligator, armada, armadillo, barricade, cambist, car- bonado, cargo, chocolate, cigar, creole, desperado, don, duenna, embargo, flotilla, gala, grandee, grenade, jennet, mosquito, mulatto, negro, olio, paroquet, platina, poncho, punctilio, savannah, sherry, tornado, Verandah. Portuguese. Ayah, cash, caste, cocoa, commodore, compound, fetish, mandarin, palaver. French. Beau, belle, belles-lettres, billet-doux, bon-mot, bouquet, déjeúner, dépôt, Éclat, ennui, penchant, Soirée, trousseau. Dutch. Block, boom, boor, bow-sprit, reef (v.), Schooner, skates, sloop, smuggle, spoor, stiver, tafferel, veer, wear (ship), yacht. 24. Words introduced in the earlier stages of the language are usually much altered in form, as bishop, from episcopus. At a later period, the terminations only are modified, as episcopal, from episcopalis. Compare sure and secure, fealty and fidelity, hotel and hospital, pursue and persecute, blame and blaspheme. The earlier and more corrupt forms have usually been transmitted through the Norman-French. In HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 13 modern times, the ending of a new word is sometimes changed to adapt it to the current forms, as telegram, bivalve, detective; and sometimes the word retains its original form, as terminus, basis, diorama. 25. The meaning of a word frequently differs at different periods in the history of the language. The following words have the Old Eng lish meaning subjoined — animosity, courage. franchise, frankness, miscreant, unbeliever. caitiff, captive. frightful, timid. nice, foolish. climate, region. generosity, high birth. novelist, innovator. danger, damage. glorious, boasting. plantation, colony. defend, forbid. insolent, unusual. reward, regard. depart, divide. knave, boy. talent, desire. fond, foolish. maker, poet. volatile, flying. 26. The pronouns, numerals, prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary vérbs—“the names of the elements and their changes, of the seasons, the heavenly bodies, the divisions of time, the features of natural Scenery, the organs of the body, the modes of bodily action and posture, the com- monest animals—the words used in earliest childhood— the ordinary terms of traffic—the constituent words in proverbs—the designations of kindred—the simpler emotions of the mind—terms of pleasantry, Satire, contempt, indig- nation, invective and anger, are for the most part Anglo- Saxon.” Words indicating a more advanced civilisation and complex feelings, and most of the terms employed in art, science, mental and moral philosophy, are Classical. 27. The number of words in the English language is probably about 30,000. By actual enumeration of those contained in the best dic- tionaries it has been ascertained that 13,330 Saxon words and 29,354 of Classical origin are now registered. In consequence, however, of the popular nature of the Teutonic words in the language, the Saxon element largely preponderates in the works of our greatest writers.; * Edinb. Review, April, 1859. + Max Müller's Lectures, 1st series, p. 73. † For some careful and instructive details on this subject, gee Marsh's Lectures (Lec. WI.) | 4 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. 28. English is now spoken by about seventy millions of people. It is the general language of Great Britain and Ireland, the United States and British America, Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand and South Africa. It is spoken in certain portions of the West Indies, and partially in India. 29. As the changes by which modern English has grown out of the old Anglian tongue were gradual in their development, it is impossible accurately to define the successive stages of the language. For con- venience in treating the history of English literature the following artificial arrangement has been proposed :- 1. A.D. 550—1150 Anglian or Anglo-Saxon. 2, 1150–1250 Semi-Anglian or Semi-Saxon, 3. 1250–1550 Old English. 4. 1550–1650 Middle English. º 1650–1850 Modern English. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there were three principal Dialects : 1. The Northern, spoken throughout the Lowlands of Scotland, Northumberland, Durham, and nearly the whole of Yorkshire. The Humber and the Ouse formed the southern boundary of this area; the Penine Chain determined its limits to the west. 2. The Midland, spoken in the counties to the west of the Penine Chain, in the East-Anglian counties, and in the whole of the Midland district. The Thames formed its southern boundary. 3. The Southern, spoken in all the counties south of the Thames, in Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, and portions of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. These Dialects, sometimes called the Northwmbrian, Mercian, and West-Saacon, are distinguished from one another by the uniform em- ployment of certain grammatical inflexions, *}. P A R T II IETTERS, 30. LETTERs were once pictures of various objects, but are now used as symbols to represent Sounds. A collection of the symbols employed in any language is called an Alphabet. The word is derived from alpha, beta, the Greek names for the first two letters. 31. These sounds are produced by air issuing from the lungs, and modified in its passage through the throat and mouth by the Organs of speech. The Organs of speech are, (1) the throat (guttur), (2) the palate (palatum), (3) the tongue (lingua), (4) the teeth (dentes), (5) the lips (labia), (6) the nose (nasus). Hence letters have been classed as gutturals, palatals, linguals, dentals, labials, and nasals. 32. The modifications of sound are infinite, and no language, therefore, can possess a separate symbol to represent each separate sound. * In the English language there are twenty-six letters, viz, d, b, c, d, é, f, 9, h, i. j, k, l, 72, 7, 0, p, q, r, 8, t, w, v, 20, q, y, z. * These letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 33. Vowels.-A vowel is the continuous sound produced When the organs of speech are retained in such a position as not to interrupt the air issuing from the lungs, as a, e, o. It is capable of forming a syllable or a word without the assistance of other letters: a man, amend, 16 LETTERS. 34. The vowels, as arranged in the English alphabet, are a, e, i, o, w; but the natural order in which they are produced is i, e, a, o, u, pronounced ee, ay, ah, oh, 00, - Of these vowels, i and e are frequently called weak ; a, o, u strong. 35. Owing to the imperfect nature of the English alphabet, several vowel-Sounds frequently occurring in the language are not represented by separate symbols. & . : : : 36. Simple vowel 80wnds and their equivalents. sit—Cyril, busy, women, cabbage, pretty, Surfeit, guilt, Steve, breeches, carriage, valley, yonder. . set—any, bury, bread, guest, leopard, connoisseur, friend, heifer, said, says, michaelmas, threepence. mete—marine, meet, meat, brief, people, ceiling, ather, phoenix, key, quay. . male—maid, may, weigh, great, guage, gaol, they, demesne. marry—guarantee, plaid. Mary—pair, heir, bear, there. ... mar—aunt, guard, heart, ah, clerk. , not—what, laurel, knowledge, Gloucester. note—boat, toe, yeoman, Soul, Sow, Sew, hautboy, beau, owe . north–call, fraud, broad, fought, awe, bawl, George, floor. ... bud—love, berth, birth, does, rough, flood, myrrh, Surgeon, earth, fashion, porpoise, waistcoat, huntsman. . bull—wolf, good, could, construe. . rude—move, rood, blew, true, fruit, through, shoe, galleon, two manºwvre, win. From this table we may appreciate the imperfection of our alphabet and of our system of orthography. Thirteen vowel sounds are represented by five symbols, and the same thirteen sounds are expressed by one hundred expedients in the written language. The letters y and w, which have been called Semi- vowels, are simply superfluous letters in the alphabet—ex- pedients in the written language for expressing the sounds of i in sit and w in bull: e.g. yon = ion, million = mill-yon, span-iel = spam-yel; and win = win, suasive = swasive. LETTERS. 17 37. The sounds represented by the combination of the letters e and 0 with i and u, viz, ei, oi, eu, ou, are called diph thongs. These are the only true diphthongs in English.” They are variously represented in the written language. Compound vowel 80 unds, or diphthongs, and their equivalents. 1. 2. 3. 4. ei—thy, thine, flie, dye, aisle, buy, guide, height, eye, aye, oi—boy, boisterous, buoy. ew—mute, feud, few, Swit, hue, yule, purliew, beauty, view, ewe, y04. ow—now, noun. Four diphthongal sounds are thus represented by twenty-six : 38. : 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. expedients, and none of these expedients expresses the true character of the sounds it represents. . ei is a combination of a in car and i in sit (aisle). . Oi is the a in all and i in Sit. . eu is the i in sit and the w in rude. , ou is the a in car and the w in rude. Other so-called diphthongs are simple vowel-sounds: False diphthongs and their simple equivalents, . ae—aether (ěther), michaelmas (michèlmas). . ai—maid (made), plaid (plad), pair (pare), said (sed). , a.0—gaol (jale). - $ . au—caul (call), aunt (a in mar), gauge (gage), hautboy (hoboy), lawrel (lorel). . ea—serjeant (Serjant), bear (bare), heart (hart), bread (bred), yea (ya). . ei–ceiling (cãling), weighed (wade), heifer (heffer), their (thare) surfeit (surfit). , eo—people (pêple), yeoman (yoman), leopard (lepard), surgeon (Serjun), galleon (M in rude). ta-carriage (carrige). te—field (föld,) friend (frend), sieve (sive). 70—fashion (fashun). oa—broad (a in all), road (rode). 06—phoenix (phénix), hoe (ho), does (dus), shoe (shu), 07–connoisseur (connesseur), porpoise (porpus). Ou-four (for), though (tho), rough (ruff), could (win bull), through (thru). * If, however, y and w are vowels, we have twenty-eight true diph- ‘hongs and three triphthongs. Arº * 3 18 LETTERS. 15, wa-guarantee (garantee), guard (gard). 16, we–guest (e in set), construe (constriţ), true (trii). 17, wi-guilt (gilt), fruit (frute). 18, ay—say (sa), quay (ke), says (ses). 19, aw—bawl (ball). 20, ey—key (ke), prey (pra), Valley (valle). 21, ew—crew (cru), shew (sho). 22, ow—knowledge (0 in not), 23. awe-a in all. 24. Owe—0. 25, eaw”—beau (bo). 39. Consonants.-A consonant is the sound produced by the partial or the total closing of the air-tube; el, es, ef (partial), et, ed (total). 40. Consonants are divided into liquids, mutes, and sibilants, 41. Liquids.-A liquid is the continuous Sound produced when some organ of speech has so far changed its position as not to stop the current of air issuing from the lungs: e.g. m, produced by the com- pression of the lips; l, by the application of the tongue to the palate. These letters are called liquids, because the sound flows on, i.e. is continuous. The name is objectionable, as it is equally applicable to vowels, sibilants, and asperated mutes. 42. The liquids, as arranged in the English alphabet, are l, m, n, r ; but the natural order, commencing with the throat and ending with the lips, is r, l, n, m. To these must be added the sound of ng in sing. 43. Mutes.—A mute is the interrupted sound produced when the tube, through which air passes from the lungs, is entirely closed. Thus, after sounding the t in at, the tongue is pressed against the teeth and palate, the voice is checked, and all articulation interrupted. 44. The mutes are classed according to the organs by which they are expressed. Thus, p, f, b, v, are called labials, or lip- letterB, because the lips are employed in producing the sounds they represent. Similarly t, th (in thin), d, th (in thine), are * The last three are often, but incorrectly, called triphthongs. we have two real triphthongs; viz, w ł a + i (00, ah, ee) in why and wine, and w 4 a + w(00, ah, 00) in wound (past indef, of wind) and ‘bow-wow. LETTERS, 19 called dentals, or tooth-letters; k, ch (in the Scotch loch), g, gh (in the Irish lough), are gutturals, or throat-letters. 45. On comparing the sounds of p and b in pat and bat, of t and d in tin and din, of k and g in Kate and gate, it will be found that p, t, k, are pronounced with a sharper and more delicate articulation than b, d and g. + Hence p, f, t, th (in thin), k, have been called sharp, thin, and surd mutes; and b, v, d, th (in thine), g, flat, medial, and 80nant mutes. 46. On comparing ap, ab, at, ad with af, av, ath, athe, it will be found that in sounding the final letters of the first series the air-tube is entirely closed, while in sounding those of the second series it is only partially closed. - This organic difference between the perfect and imperfect mutes was recognised by the Latin grammarians, who distinguished the latter by the term asperatae, Hence letters of this nature are called asperates. The asperated mutes in English are f v, th (thin), th (thine), ch and gh occur only in local names in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. - 47. The distribution of the mutes may be thus repre- sented : Mutes. SHARP. - FLAT. Unasperated. Asperated. º Asperated. i. p pat | f fat b bat V : Vat *... t | tin || th thin || d dine || th thine Guttu. k lock | ch”| loch || g log || ghºl lough rals. 48. A sibilant is the continuous hissing sound produced when the air-tube is imperfectly closed. They are: s, sh, a, zh; and the two compound sounds tsh (chest), dzh (jest) .. * Not found in English words. C 2 20 * LETTERS. Sibilants. SHARP. FLAT. | Unasperated. || Asperated. || Unasperated. || Asperated. S sin || sh shin Z | Zeal || zh azure tsh chest dzh jest 49. In addition to the above sounds, the English language possesses the letter h, which is merely a weakened form of the guttural ch. The Latin grammarians described it as a rough breathing (spiritus asper), and hence it is called the asperate. - - 50. In this arrangement of the consonants four letters are omitted. (1) c. Because its soft sound is represented by 8 (cit, sit); and its hard Sound by k (cat, kat). (2) g soft. This is expressed by j (gem, jem). (3) q. This is merely another way of writing k before the vowel w (quick, kuick). “Q is a letter we might very well spare in our alphabet, if we would but use the serviceable k as he should be, and restore him to the right of reputation he had with our fore-fathers— For the English Saxons knew not this halting Q with her waiting-woman w after her, till custome, under the excuse of expressing enfranchised words with us, intreated her into our language in quality, quantity, &c. and hath now given her the best of k's possessions.”—Ben Jonson. (4) w This is a short way of expressing the combination of a guttural and a sibilant (foa, folks; ewert, eggert). In words beginning with ex followed by an accented vowel, a represents the flat gº, ea'émpt. LETTERS. 21 Tabular Summary. WOWELS. (a) Simple vowel sounds. 1. carry. 5. mit. 9. not. 2. chary, 6. met. 10, note. 3. car. 7. mate. 11. dull. 4. call. 8. mete. 12. full. 13. rude. (b) Compound vowel sounds or Diphthongs. 14, ei, 15, oi, 16. eu. 17, ow. CONSON ANTS, Liquids. - 18. r. 19. 7. 20. m. 21. ng. 22, m. Mutes. - Labial. 23. p. 24. f. 25, b, 26, v. Dental. 27. t. 28, th 29, d. 30, dih. Guttural. 31. k. 32. (ch.) 33. g. 34. (gh.) Sibilants. (a) Simple. 35. 8 36. &h. 37. 2. 38. zh, (b) Compound. . 39. tsh, 40. dzh (j). - Asperate. 41. h. Superfluous letters. c. Q. 90. QU). $/. 22 ORTHOGRAPHY. 51. A perfect alphabet should contain a distinct symbol for each separate sound. * The English alphabet is imperfect. (1) It expresses several distinct sounds by one symbol; e.g. thirteen vowel sounds are represented by five letters. f expresses v in of, and f in fat. g expresses a guttural in gate, and a sibilant in gem. 3 expresses 8 in Swn, sh in Sure, z in dogs, and zh in pleasure. a, expresses 2 in Xenophon, kS in foa, and g2 in eacert. (2) A single sound is frequently represented by two or more symbols. (See § 38.) (3) The same two symbols sometimes represent two or more distinct sounds, e.g. ch = tsh in chest, sh in chaise, k in choral : ph = f in physic, v in nephew; th in thin, and th in thine, (4) It contains superfluous letters; c, q, w, w and y. (5) Many distinct sounds have no separate symbols to represent them; e.g. th (thin), th (thine), Šh (Shine), zh (azure), tsh (chest), ng (singer). - 52. When sharp and flat mutes or sibilants meet in the same word a change usually occurs. The sharp is assimilated to the fiat or the flat to the sharp, e.g. pal becomes either pt or bal. This principle, which is of great importance in grammatical inquiries, has been termed the Law of Accommodation. Nearly all the ordinary inflections of the English language are regulated by this law ; e.g. the formation of the Gen. Sing—of the Plural of nouns—of the 3d Person Sing. (Pres, Imperf.)—of the Past Indefinite—and of the Perf. Participle. 53. Another important principle is the modification of the root vowel when a suffix is added to the root—e.g. cock, chick-en; cat, kitt-en; brother, brethr-en; break, brok-en, &c. r ORTHOGRAPHY. 54. Orthography, derived from the Greek ortho-, “right,” and graph-, “write,” is the correct application of letters to the formation of words; i.e. it teaches us how to spell properly. Orthoºpy, derived from the Greek ortho-, “right,” and ep-, “speak,” is the correct application of Sounds to the formation of words; i.e. it teaches us how to speak properly, ORTHOGRAPHY, 23 55. A perfect system of orthography would represent each Separate Sound by a separate and appropriate symbol. Hence it cannot exist without a perfect alphabet. 56. The Orthography of the English language is im- perfect : (a) because the alphabet is imperfect, and various expe dients are employed to remedy the imperfection; (6) because the language contains words derived from various sources at different periods, and the Ortho- graphy of these languages is frequently retained, though the mode of pronouncing the words is changed; - - - (c) because the pronunciation of many native words has changed, while the original spelling has been pre- served. - 57. The following are examples of the expedients employed to remedy the defects of the alphabet: (1) The vowel-sounds in mate, mete, note, and the diphthongs in bite, acute, are distinguished from the vowel-sounds in mat, met, not, bit, cut, by adding an unsounded e to the word. Many words of this class were originally disyllabic; the pronuncia- tion has been changed and the old spelling retained. Hence a mute e does not always indicate a lengthened vowel, as in live, give, &c. For other modes of representing these variations in sound, see §§ 35, 38. (2) A consonant when not final, is often doubled to show that the preceding vowel is short; as cârry, Nělly, Włlly, filly, sülly. Hence monosyllables ending in a single consonant, or other words accented on the last syllable, in which the vowel is short, double the consonant when a suffix is added—höt, hott-er; bid, bidd-ºn j begin, beginn-er ; allót, allótt-ed. For this reason, doubled consonants do not represent a doubled sound, unless the two letters belong to different parts of a compound or derived word, soul-less, wh-natural, stern-ness, ill-luck, &c. (3) h is often added to mark the asperates of p, t, 8. 24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 58. As examples of the second disturbing principle mentioned in § 56, the word censor still retains the guttural c (k) of the Latin language, though we have changed the sound to 8. Sign retains the Lating, though we have ceased to pronounce it. The asperated k of the Greeks (x) becomes either a k or a tsh in English ; archangel, archbishop. 59. As an illustration of the third disturbing cause, we may note the suffix -ed in the Past Indef, and Perfect Participle, lov-ed, arriv-ed; and the suffix -es in the Plural and Gen. Sing, of certain nouns, wolv-es, kniv-es, wif-es. The vowel was once sounded and is still retained. So with bough, knave, debt, &c. 60. It may be useful to point out a few of the most strik. ing defects of English Orthography: (a) s is frequently written where Z is pronounced; dogs, birds.” This is usually the case when s is suffixed to a flat mute, a vowel, or a liquid. (b) ed is frequently written where t is pronounced; slipped, stopped. This occurs whenever ed is suffixed to a sharp mute. (c) ti, si, and ci, if followed by a vowel, are sounded as sh; nation, fusion, precious, patrician. - (d) es is frequently written where 2 only is sounded; lives, wolves, sides. (e) Letters are occasionally written which are not sounded; tomb, indict, sign, hour, knife, calm, mnemonics, con- demn, receipt, island, bustle, wrong, marriage, engine, fashion, gaol, coquet, dialogue. (f) When a consonant is doubled, one only is sounded; appear, address, immure, full, grass, ruff. * To remedy this defect, Wallis (c. i., S. 1) proposed to employ when s is intended; cat f : and 8 when z is required; dog-8. Ben Jonson justly observes, “2 is a letter often heard among us, but seldome seene.” ACCENT. 25 (g) At the end of words le is written where el is sounded. (h). A single letter often represents different sounds, and a single sound is often represented by different letters. SYLTLABLES, 61. A syllable is a single vowel-sound, with or without one or more consonants; as a, strength, 0-mit, ug-ly, Strong-est. The word is derived from the Greek sul-labe, that which is taken together; i.e. a number of letters taken together. This Greek defini. tion is not very accurate. In the following words syllables are formed of single vowels; a-part, e-mit, hol-i-day, O-mit, twrö-u-lent. 62. Every syllable was once a significant word, i.e. had a distinct and independent meaning in the language to which it originally belonged; but this meaning has very frequently become obsolete. Thus the word en-tire, derived from the Latin in-teger, meant not. touched ; the word bi-Shop, from the Greek epi-skopos, signified over- looker; god-ly was god-like , the er in such words as reap-er, meant man ; a-loft is in-air. 63. When a single syllable, or a combination of two or more syllables, possesses a distinct and independent meaning, it is called a word; as man, Sparrow, industrious. 64. A word consisting of one syllable is called a mono- syllable; of two syllables a disyllable ; of three, a trisyllable; of more than three, a polysyllable : from the Greek words for one, two, three, many. ACCENT. 65. Accent is the stress laid upon a syllable in pronouncing a word ; as By scály Triton’s winding shéll.—Milton, 26 ACCENT, It must not be confounded with Émphasis, which is the stress laid upon a word in pronouncing a sentence: Bear my greeting to the senators, And tell them that I will not come to-day; Cannot is false; and that I dare not, falser : I will not come to-day—tell them so, Decius. Shakspere. When a word is a monosyllable, accent and emphasis may 3oincide: To be, or nôt to be.—Shakspere. 66. A monosyllable can have but one accent ; but the accent does not fall upon every monosyllable. Brightest and bést of the sóns of the mérning.—Heber. Here best and 80ns are accented; and, of the are not. . 67. A disyllable can have but one accent, which may fall on either the first or the second syllable ; living, alóne. The words dimén and firewóll appear to be exceptions. In all disyllabic compound nouns, the accent falls upon the first syllable; stár-light, sºn-beam, rāîn-bow. 68. A trisyllable may have either one or two accents. The single accent may fall upon any syllable; mérrily horizon, pionéer. The last are usually foreign words of com- paratively recent introduction, - If there are two accents, one must fall upon the first, the other upon the third syllable; interrápt, cómprehénd. In compound words the two accents will sometimes fall on the first and Second syllables; heád-măster. 69. A word of four syllables may have either one or two accentS. If it has but one, the accent may fall upon any of the first three syllables; as mércenary, impôssible, cavalierly, If there are two, they must fall upon either the first and third, or the second and fourth ; inconsistent, inaugurăte. ACCENT. 27 70. In words of more than four syllables an accent may fall upon any syllable, provided no two successive syllables aro accented; inévitable, hēterogéneous, incapacitóted, incom- pátibility. 71. Words of classical origin, identical in form, but differing in meaning, are frequently distinguished from each other in the spoken language by the position of the accent. (1) Nou N. WERB. NOUN. VERB. ãccent accént éxport expórt #ffix affi'K éxtract extréct attribute attribute férment fermént aúgment augment import impôrt cólleague colleágue impress impréss cóllect colléct incense incénse cómpress compréss increase increase cóncert concért insult instilt cónduct condict 6bject objéct cóntest contést pérfume perfáme cónfine confi'ne pérmit permit cónflict confiſcº pérvert pervért cónserve consérve préfix prefi'x cónsort consórt prélude preláde cóntrast contrást prémise(s) premise cónverse convérse présage preságe convert convért produce prodice cónvict convict próject projéct décrease decréase prótest protést déscant descánt récord record détail detáil sérvey survéy digest digést torment tormént éssay essay tránsfer transfér éxile exile tránsport transpárt (2) ADJEC. VERB. ADJEO. VERB. àbsent absént fréquent frequént (3) NOUN. ADJI.C. NOUN. ADJEC, cómpact compáct minute minūte éxpert expért précedent precédent instinct instinct Súpine supine invalid invälid (4) NOUN & ADJ. VERB. NOUN & ADJ. WER B, abstract abstróct rébel rebel cómpound compéund réfuse refäse cóntract contráct rétail retáil présent present sábject subjéct 28 ACCIDENTS. (5) NOUN & ADJ. Noun & VERB. VERB, VERB. désert desért cónjure conjūre Sometimes the accent remains unchanged, as in cóncrete (N. and Adj.), patent (N. and Adj.), consént (N. and W.), respéct (N. and W.), con- tént (N. A. and W.), herald (N. A. and W.) 72. When two words containing the same root, with a different prefix, are contrasted, the accent is occasionally shifted from the root to the prefix—“His expenses £ncreased while his means décreased”—“The écterior was tasteful; the $nterior mean.” 73. In old English writers the accent is sometimes found on syllables which are not accented at the present day; aspéct, cément, trium/phing, cónjure (implore), recórd (noun), chástise, incréase (noun), instinct (noun), exile (noun), contráct (noun), natáre, figáre, creatäre, &c. ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY. 74. Words represent ideas of different kinds: thus, horse, river, flower, represent visible objects; run, walk, read, represent actions. These different classes of words are called Parts of Speech. .* The following are the Parts of Speech commonly recognised in Grammars of the English language—Noun or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction Interjection and Article. 75. The connexion between two or more ideas is often expressed by a change in the form of the words. Words thus changed are said to be inflected. - The explanation of inflectional changes is called Accidence, 76. The term Etymology has two meanings; (1) the tracing of a word to its original source ; (2) the explanation of in flectional changes. In this latter sense it is employed in Grammar, and is identical with Accidence. NOUNS. 2 9 NOUNS. 77. Moun, from the Latin women, “name,” is the name of any thing we can perceive by means of (1) the senses, or (2) the understanding: (1) Thunder, lightning, heat, perfume, acidity; (2) Justice, virtue, truth, fortitude, despair. 78. Nouns may be arranged in two classes: (1) Simple, when the thing named is represented by a single word, gun, dog, bird : (2) Com- pound, when the thing named is represented by a combination of several words : “To credit ordinary and visible objects is not faith, but persuasion.”—Sir T. Browne. (1) Simple. I. Noun. God is our fortress—Shakspere. 2. Numeral. He stoppeth one of three.—Coleridge. 3. Pronoun. I will cherish thee for this.-Wither. 4. Gerund. (a) You should not reprehend my laughing.—Burton. (b) I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.—Shakspere. 5. Infinitive. Learn to labour and to wait.—Longfellow. (2) Compound. 1. Infinitive clause. I love [to lose myself in a mystery].-Sir T. Browne. 2. Sentence. In my solitary and retired imagination I remember {I am not alonel.—Id. Any combination of words that can form the subject or object of a verb is virtually a noun. 79. The name by which one object is distinguished from all others is called a Proper Noum, from the Latin proprius, ‘peculiar,’ i.e. a name peculiar to an individual—Rome, Ganges, Plato, Milton. 80. The name by which several objects are distinguished from others of a different class is called a Common Wown, i.e. 30 GENDER. a name common to all individuals of the same class–ship, Åook, flower. 81. It is possible for a noun to be both Proper and Common: e.g. Roman is a name peculiar to a single nation; but it is also common to all the citizens of that nation. 82. A Collective Noun is the name of many individuals viewed as a single object : These persons are called, when spoken of in a body, the ministry.— Cobbett. A Wown of Multitude is the name of a class of individuals, each of which is viewed as a separate object. The clergy began to withdraw themselves from the temporal courts —Blackstone. 83. Every object possesses certain qualities. Thus a star may be bright and distant, a horse, Swift and strong ; a man, good and wise, &c. If we separate or draw off these qualities, and consider them apart from the object, the names of the qualities so separated are called Abstract Wowns; e.g. bright- ness, distance, Swiftness, strength, goodness, wisdom. The object itself, in contradistinction to these abstracted qualities, is called a Concrete Woun , e.g. star, horse, man. 84. In connexion with nouns we must consider the gram- matical terms Gender, Number, and Case. Gender. 85. The word Gender, derived from the Latin genus, a kind or class, signifies a class of nouns or adjectives, In Old English the word commonly meant a kind or class, and even in the time of Shakspere we find, “Supply it with one gender of herbs, or distract it with many.” (Othello.) It is important not to con- found Gender, a grammatical term signifying a class of nouns, with sea, the distinction between male and female. In the English language it happens that sex is adopted as the basis of classification; in most other languages this is not the case. In those languages masculine and GENDER. . 31 feminine do not mean male and female. B. Jonson makes six genders of English nouns. There are in English four kinds or genders of nouns: (1) Those indicating the male sex; boy, father. (2) Those indicating the female sex; girl, mother. (3) Those that are neither male nor female; book, house. (4) Those that include both male and female; parent, child. - The first are called masculine; the second feminine, the third newter, and the fourth common. 86. In the ancient, and in most modern languages, nouns with certain terminations are of a definite gender, without reference to the sex of the thing described. Thus in Latin, puella, a girl, and villa, a farm, are both feminine ; in French, fille, a daughter, and ville, a city, are both feminine; in Anglo-Saxon, wyrhta, a workman, and Steorra, a star, are both masculine. In modern English this artificial system does not existt. As a general rule gender is determined by sex alone. The probable cause of this change is shown in the following extract — “The Saxon nouns had three genders, and the masculine and feminine were very often applied to objects incapable of sex. The Norman had but two genders, the neuter not being recognised in its grammar. When the two languages coalesced, a compromise was effected by employing the masculine and feminine as indications, not of grammatical gender or termination, but of sex, and confining the neuter to objects without sex.” (Marsh, Lect. p. 385.) 87. Nouns of the neuter and common gender in English are unaltered; but there are three ways of distinguishing the masculine and the feminine. (1) By employing a different word for each sex: (a) Simply: boar SOW bull COW boy girl cock hen brother sister colt filly buck doe dog bitch Traces of it exist in O. E. See Morris (Allit. P. p. xxxi, and Genesis, p. xxiii.). 32 GENDER, father mother papa. - II].3.I.T.T.A& gentleman lady I’àIſl €We hart I'O6 sir madam stallion YO3."8 sire dam husband wife SOIl daughter king queen - stag hind Iſläll WOIO-3. It Steer heifer monk Ill II). uncle aunt (b) With a suffia: ; bachelor spin-ster earl count-ess tailor 888.In-Sū’–6SS mall-ard wild duck These pairs are often represented by a single word when no distinc- tion of sex is required, thus:– child = son or daughter monarch = king * or queen deer = hart or roe parent = father or mother fowl = cock or hen pig = boar or sow horse = stallion or mare sheep = ram or ewe (2) By prefixing a word indicating the sex : buck-rabbit doe-rabbit he-goat she-goat cock-sparrow hen-sparrow man-servant maid-servant he-bear she-bear man-kind woman-kind In the following compounds a descriptive word is prefixed to limit the meaning of the words indicating sex:- foster-father foster-mother YY16]*-HT) 3.11 mer-maid gaffer (grand- } {* (grand- moor-cock moor-hen père) mère) pea-cock pea-hen gentle-man gentle-woman school-master School-mistress grand-father grand-mother step-father step-mother grand-duke grand-duchess | step-Son step-daughter land-lord land-lady ! turkey-cock turkey-hen (3) By a suffix: (a) When the masculine undergoes no change: author author-ess count count-ess baron baron-ess dauphin dauphia-ess w gºs * In O. E. king is both masculine and feminine: “ Guendolyn was #ing fiftene yer.”—Roh. Glos, GENDER. 33 deacon deacon-ess peer peer-ess giant giant-ess poet poet-ess heir heir-ess priest priest-ess host host-ess prince princ-ess * Jew Jew-ess prior prior-ess lion lion-ess prophet prophet-ess mayor mayor-ess shepherd shepherd-esg patron patron-ess viscount viscount-ess (b) When the ending of the masculine is changed or lost : . abbot abb-ess founder foundress actor actr-eSS hunter huntr-ess ambassador ambassadr-ess idolater idolatr-ess arbiter arbitr-ess lad la-SS benefactor benefactr-ess marquis marchion-ess chanter chantr-ess negro negr-ess conductor conductr-ess Ogre ogr-ess director directr-ess porter portr-ess editor editr—ess tiger tigr-ess elector electr-ess votary Votr-ess enchanter enchantr-ess victor victr-ess (c) When the root vowel and the ending of the masculine are - changed: duke duch-ess lord lad-y fox vix-en master mistr-ess (d) When both masculine and feminine have distinctive suffixes : adulter-er adultr-ess murder-er murder-ess cater-er cater-ess sing-er song-ster emper-or empr-ess spinn-er spin-ster govern-or govern-ess SOI’Cer-ef 3OTCGI’-eSS (e) When the masculine is formed from the feminine: bride bride-groom widow widow-er goose gand-er witch wiz—ard 88. The following words, of foreign origin, retain their original distinctions of gender – administrator administratrix CZa.T czarina beau belle don donna * Observe the accent on the suffix, probably to distinguish it from princes. In O. E. the accent is on the root, princess. D 34 GENDER. executor executrix landgrave landgravine heritor heritrix margrave margravine hero heroine signore signora infante infanta Sultan Sultana 89. The syllable -er (A. S. and O. E. -ere) was originally a masculine suffix. It was once a significant word meaning man, but is now used principally to denote an agent, without reference to sex; singer, reader. In sailor and begg-ar, the vowel is changed; in law-yer, Saw-ſer, and bow-yer, the y is intrusive. Compare the O. E. Saw-er and bow-er. 90. The syllable -rake, -rok, or -rich was a masculine suffix in most of the Gothic dialects, but not in Anglo-Saxon. -rake=er-ake, in which er alone is the masculine suffix, Önd is the Norse for duck, and is itself a corruption of Öndu, and that of an earlier Önduk. This is cut down to duck, just as andrake (a mallard) becomes drake. 91. Another magculine suffix, found only in O. E., is -6 (A. S. -d), hunt-e, a hunter (A. S. hunt-a): “The hunté strangled with the wildé beres.”—Chaucer. - 92. The ordinary feminine suffix is -ess. It is not Anglo- Saxon, but was introduced into the language with the Norman- French, and has displaced the suffix of the mother-tongue. It represents the Latin -ia. 93. The usual feminine suffix in Anglo-Saxon was -estre or -istre; in later English, -ster. - In early times, brewing, baking, weaving, spinning, fulling, &c., were carried on exclusively by women. Hence such names as Malister, Brewster or Browster, Baater or Bagster, Spinster, Kempster, Whitster. That this suffix was commonly employed in the 15th century, is shown by the following extract from an old vocabulary of that date : Nomina artificum mulierum. Pectrix, a kempster. Siccatrix, a dryster. Textrix, a webster, Palmaria, a brawdster. Sutrix, a Sewster. Salinaria, a Saltster. Pistrix, a baacter. ‘. . Auxiatrix, a hukster. The feminine signification is still preserved in spinster: The spinsters and the knitters in the sun Do use to chant.—Shakspere. In old English, tap-ster meant a “bar-maid,” and tap-er, a “barºman.” -8ter is also found in combination with the Norman -ess; Seapº-stress. 50%g-3tº-CŞS. GENDER. 35 It is now used as a suffix of depreciation ; as youngster, pºsſer, gamester, trickster, &c. 94. -en or -in is a feminine suffix in many Indo-European languages: Latin, reg-in-a; Greek, hero-in-a, hero-ine; German, freund-in, female friend. A single example exists in English ; viz-en a female fox (A. S. and O. E. ſix-en), the o of fox, being modified by the suffix •en. In provincial English we find carl, peasant ; fem. Carl-in. The Buffix also appears in a few words of foreign origin; landgrav-ine, margrav-ine, Czar-ina, &c., and is often employed in forming the names ºf women; Joseph-ine, Carol-ine, Paul-ine, &c. 95. As a general rule, the feminine is formed from the masculine; but in the words drake, gand-er, widow-er, bride- groom, the masculine is formed from the feminine. The first two may be thus explained. The flocks are composed chiefly of female birds. Hence a distinguishing name would be first applied to them. Afterwards it became necessary to distinguish the less numerous males, and a masculine suffix was added to the existing word. - Widow and widower in Anglo-Saxon were wisduve (f.) and wuduwa, (m.) The final vowels were gradually lost, and widow in Old English is both masculine and feminine. The word was afterwards limited in its application to women, because the position of a widow is so often of a distressing character; and when it again became necessary to dis- tinguish a man who had lost his wife by a single word, the masculine suffix was added to the recognised feminine widow. In the case of bride-groom, the lady possibly absorbs the interest of the spectators of a marriage ceremony, and hence received a distinctive name ; but as it was sometimes necessary to mention the intended husband, the word goom (A. S. guma, man), afterwards corrupted into groom, was added to the word bride. - 96. Lady is an irregular derivative from lord (A. S. hlaf-ord, loaf- giver; O. E. law-erd and lov-erd). The cook, in Alfric's Saxon Dia- logues, states that, if they drive him away, they will all be thralls, or slaves, because without a loaf there could be no loaf giver or master among them. In lad-y, y is the feminine suffix (A. S. hlāfā-ige, O. E. leved-y and led-y), - “Levedy Mary, full of might !”—Guy of War. º Wiece is Norman French, from the Latin néptis; but it is somewhat doubtful whether nephew is from nepos (A. S. genefa and nefa, Serg. T) 2 - §6 GENDER. S. neva; 0. E. nevent). The Saxon for niece is meſ-ene; O. F. new-en, where -en is the feminine suffix seen in viz-en. 97. Neuter nouns have no generic ending; but the t in certain pro- nouns and their compounds is Said to be a neuter suffix; i-t, tha-t, wha-t, whi-t, augh-t, maugh-t, no-t. This is very doubtful. 98. When an inanimate object is represented as a living person, it is said to be personified. Poets and uneducated porsons are fond of this form of speech. Hence in English, as in other languages, imaginary Sex is often bestowed upon words of the neuter gender : For Winter came : the wind was his whip; One choppy finger was on his lip : He had torn the cataracts from the hills, And they clanked at his girdle like manacles. Shelley. With the uneducated, inanimate objects, to which the speaker is most attached, are usually considered feminine. In this light the sailor regards his ship, the woodman his axe, the ploughman his plough, the gamekeeper his gun, &c. 99. The religions of the ancient world personified visible objects, such as the Sun, the moon, the ocean; and moral qualities, such as truth, mercy, vengeance. The influence of the old writers is felt in later ages. Our Saxon ancestors, taught by their national faith, considered the Sun feminine, and the moon masculine. Our modern poets, influenced by Greek and Roman literature, have made the Sun a god, and the moon a goddess. Truth, Justice, Mercy, Peace, &c. are represented as femi- nine, because these words in the classical languages have a feminine form. Love, Fear, Terror, are represented as mas- culine, because the words in those languages are masculine, [n other instances the fancy of the early poets has guided the writers of a later age. * N UMBER, 3'ſ Number. 100. When a single object is mentioned, the noun is said to be of the singular number. When two or more objects of the same kind are mentioned, the noun is plural. 101. In some languages a separate form is employed when two objects, or objects usually seen in pairs, such as eyes, hands, legs, arms, &c. are mentioned. This is called the Dual number. It is not found in modern English, but existed in Anglo-Saxon in the two personal pronouns. - - 102. The plural is usually distinguished from the singular by the addition of certain suffixes. In Anglo-Saxon the suffix of the nominative plural in a certain class of nouns was -as. In later English this became -es : The smalé bird-es singen clear.—Chaucer. and in modern English the vowel is lost. 103. The following extract contains a probable reason for the selec- tion of -as by the early English writers to express plurality. “This agreed with the Norman grammar, which, like the modern French, used 8 or 2, and, in a few cases, a, as the sign of the plural, and it was natural that this coincidence should have been seized upon and adopted as a general rule for the construction of all plurals. Some plural; formed by letter-change or in n remained, but most Saxon nouns dropped the regular inflection, and from the very commencement of the English language took a plural in S.” (Marsh, Lect. p. 384.) This change is observed in operation in the 13th century. 104. The omission of e, by bringing s in contact with letters of various kinds, rendered changes for facility of pro- nunciation necessary. The following rules represent the usual mode of forming the plural of English nouns: (a) The sharp sibilant s is suffixed when the noun ends in a sharp mute; as drop-s, chiefs, bat-s, wreath-3, oak-8. (5) The flat sibilant z (written s or es) is suffixed when the noun ends in a flat mute, a liquid, Or a vowel, slab-s, groov-es, bed-s, booth-s, frog-s, pen-s, folio s. 38 NUMBER, (c) When the noun ends in a sibilant, the original Suffix -es is retained ; loss-68, fish-es, priz-es, judg-es, church-es, In wolves, calves, wives, &c, it is still written, but the vowel is not sounded. 105. When the letter y represents the diphthong ei, as in fly, or the vowel e, as in glory, it is changed into ie when the plural suffix is added; flie-s, glorie-8. But when y is used in combination with another vowel to form a diphthong, or to express a simple vowel sound, no change occurs; key-s, valley-8, chimney-8, boy-8, play-8, &c. In Old English, nouns like glory, ended in te; glorie, fancie, ladie, &c. In the modern plurals the old spelling is retained. - A few foreign words ending in adopt this form of the plural: alkali, alkalie-8; houri, howrie-8. 106. Certain nouns ending in O, of foreign origin, change the o into 06; cargoe-8, echoe-8, heroe-8, negroe-s, potatoe-s, volcanoe-s, mulattoe-s, calicoe-8, manifestoe-8, dominoe-8. To these may be added the plural of no in the phrase “the Woe-s have it,” and that of 0, meaning a “circlet:” “all yon fiery oe-s and eyes of light.”—Shaks. Others, including all proper names, are unchanged : canto-8, grotto-S, quarto-8, Cato-s, Scipio-8, &c. 107. Nouns of Gothic origin, ending in f (with the exception of fife and strife), form the plural by changing f into t; and then suffixing z (written es); wolf, wolv-es; half, halv-es; wife, wiv-es, &c. This irregularity is probably due to the fact that in Anglo-Saxon a final f had the sound of v. (Rask, Ang-Sax. Gram, p. 12.) Hence, we find in Old English, live, wive, calve, selve, beleve, for life, wife, calf, self, belief. The singulars, not the plurals, of these nouns may be considered irregular. On the same principle may be explained the seemingly irregular plurals of youth, cloth, path, bath, oath, tºwth, mouth, house. The first seven in Anglo-Saxon ended in a flat tº, NUMBER, 39 This form of the plural is limited to words of Gothic origin, with perhaps the single exception of beef, beeves,” and, in Old English, proof, prooves; grief, grieves ; kerchief, kerchyves. Even in Gothic words, those ending in j, and those in which f is preceded by a doubled vowel (roof, reef), retain fin the plural. 108. A few nouns of Gothic origin exhibit both forms of the plura. ; scanſf.8, scarv-es; dwarf-s, dwarv-es; turf-S, twº-v-es; wharf.8, wharºes ; Staff-s, stav-es; but in modern English the form in f is preferred. 109. Many mouns form their plurals by processes which are now obsolete; i.e. by processes which are never employed to form the plurals of words recently introduced into the language. 110. (a) By the suffix -en (A. S. -an). This mode of forming the plural was common in Anglo-Saxon, is frequently found in Old English, and is still retained in many pro- vincial dialects; 02-em, h08-en, how8-en, sho0n (shoe-en), eyne (eye-en), peas-en. Swine, chicken, and welkin are sometimes erroneously included in this class of nouns. They are genuine singulars — O monstrous beast ! how like a Swine he lies.—Shakspere. In peas-en, 8 belongs to the root; pease is singular in Old Eng.: “Pisum, a pease” (Cooper's Thesaur.). The forms ped, pea-s, are therefore irregular. Ped's-e, which is now used with a collective mean- ing, has probably lost a final n. 111. (b) By modifying the root-vowel, man, men. These words had once a plural suffix, which modified the root- vowel ; as brother, brethr-en 02, O. E. eſc-en ; cow, ky-en (kine). This modified vowel was found to be sufficient to distinguish the singular from the plural, and the suffix was omitted: O. E. brether ; kye. Ben Jonson (Eng. Gram.) gives brether-n as a plural of brother. In women (O. E. wymen), the modified a affects the preceding 0. 112. (6) By the suffix -er, or -ry (A. S. -ra, -rw). The suffix -ry has a collective meaning in modern English ; héron-ry, yeoman-ry, jew-ry, rook-c-ry, mumm-6-ry, shrubb-e-ry, &c. Ei-ry, a nest, is a cor. ruption of egg-ry, a set of eggs. * In O. E. beefs is often found. “They have no want of Beefs and 13uffles.”—Ray. * See the list in Mºrris' Introd, to Dan Michel, pp. xi.-xīy. 40 - NUMBER, The suffix -er is found only in old and provincial English: roch-ey (rocks), child-er, (children): “The childer are pretty childer.”—Beaumont and Fletcher This suffix (-ra, -rw) is confined in A. S. to four nouns, child, loanº, calf, and egg. These objects are in their nature diminutive, and it is possible that they received the diminutive -er, and then formed their plurals by the ordinary suffix -a or -u. In that case, the words child-er-cm (children), lamb-er-en (lambren), ey-er-en (eyren), no longer present the anomaly of a double plural. Eiren in O. E. means eggs.” Thus Caxon writes (A.D. 1490), “What sholde a man in theyse days now wryte—eggés or eyren. " Mid [with] a baggeful of eyren a woman ther com. Life of St. Swithin. 113, (d) By retaining the form of the singular; as deer, sheep, growse, teal, Salmon, trout, heathem, &c. A few nouns have both forms, a collective and an ordinary plural: fish, fishes; wild-duck, wild-ducks, mullet, mullets; cannon, cannons; shot, shots. - Of carps and nºwllets why prefer the great, Yet for small turbots such esteem profess?— Pope. 114. Certain nouns have two forms of the plural, one regular, the other irregular. These distinctive forms have usually different meanings. Thus, Sing. Pluſ”. brother brothers (by blood) brethren (of a community, cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments) die dies (impressions) dice (for play) genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (spirits) index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs) pea peas (regular) pease (collective) penny pennies (regular) pence (collective) Observe the unusual sharp sibilant suffixed to a vowel and a liquid in dice and pence. 115, New-8, pain-8, mean-8, amend-8, tiding-8, are true plurals. * The singular eſſ is found occasionally in O. E.: “So greet as a Gos ey.”——(Creed of P. Ploughtºn.) NUMBER, 4l Newſ8, which is commonly plural in O. E., These are news indeed, Shakspere. and occasionally in modern English, Evil were the news he heard, Scott. is now used only as a singular, meaning “intelligence.” It seems, like the French nowvelles, to be a literal translation of the Latin mova, “new things,” and may thus be classed with nouns like politics, ethics ($117) Pains is found occasionally, and means very rarely, with a singular verb : There is means, madam.—Shakspere. The singular of pains (care) is rare : Look down to the ground to it and take some pain.—Gam. Gwr. Need The singular of means is not uncommon : Let a man in the choice of his mean rather chuse the fittest mean than the greatest mean.—Bacon. Tidings, i.e. things that betide or happen, is generally used as a plural: These tidings will well comfort Cassius.-Shakspere. But occasionally it is viewed as a singular : For with her death that tidings came—Id. The singular, tiding, is not found. 116. Alms, riches, and eaves are true singulars. Alms is derived from the Greek eleemosune, “pity.” The Saxons contracted this into aplmesse; Old English, almesse and almé8 : This almes schalt thou doon.—Chaucer. A plural almesses also occurs : These ben general almesses, or werkes of charity.—Chaucer. Rºches is derived from the Norman-French richesse; Old English, 3'ichesse and riches : Richesse that cometh litel and litel.–Id. And for that riches where is my deserving?—Shakspere. 42 NUMBER, A plural richesses is not unfrequently found in O. F. : By concord and pees the smalé riches weaten grete, and by debaat and discord the greté richesses faller, down.—Chaucer. Eaves, from A. S. efése, a brim or edge. 117. Politics, ethic-s, optic-s, physic-8, and similar words, are literal translations of the plural terms that express these sciences in Greek, T'a politika, “things relating to the state,” politics; ta ethika, “things relating to morals,” ethics, They are frequently used as singulars. The words Physic, Music, Logic, &c. are singular both in form and meaning. They are abbreviations of the Greek words for those arts. 118. A few English nouns have no singular: antipodes billiards pincers shears tongs banns draughts . pliers Snuffers trousers bellows drawers scissors spectacles tweezers (These are duals in meaning.) aborigines calends ides nuptials #idings amends credentials lees oats trappings annals dregs " matins obsequics vespers archives entrails measles odds victuals aSSets filings In eVVS premises vitals bowels hustings IlOIlêS thanks wages The singulars of nuptials, thanks, and wages, occur in old and provincial English. Shakspere always writes nuptial. 119. Objects, which from their nature cannot be counted, have no plural: gold, silver, darkness, pride, &c. But when, as in the case of materials, natural or artificial productions, &c., the object may vary in quality, a plural form is SOmetimes used to express these variations; wings, Sugars, wools. “Turf, and peat, and cowshards, are cheap fuels”—(Bacon). I’ven abstract nouns are thus occasionally plural: “Insolent zeals that do decry good works”—(Sir T, Browne), 120. The plurals of a few nouns differ in meaning from . NUMBER. 43 the singulars. Iron, irons; content, contents; domino, domi. *068 ; good, goods ; salt, salts, &c. 121. Some nouns have two meanings in the singular, and Only one in the plural : horse, cavalry, animal. horses, animals. foot, infantry, part of body. feet, parts of body, powder, for gums, mixture. powders, mixtures. light, of a lamp, a lamp ; &c. lights, lamps ; &c. The noun compass has two meanings in the singular, and a third in the plural ; sing, circuit, mariners' compass. Plur, instrument for measuring. - 122. Some nouns have two meanings in the plural, and one in the singular : pain, Suffering. pains, sufferings, trouble. custom, habit. customs, habits, revenue duties. The noun letter has two meanings in the singular and three in the plural; sing, of alphabet, epistle. Plur., of alphabet, literature, epistles. 123. Certain nouns have no plural form, but are usually found with a plural meaning: cattle, artillery, infantry, cavalry, militia, &c. They have also a collective meaning. 124. Proper nouns sometimes have a plural denoting objects of a similar character : “There have been many Diogeneses, and as many Timons, though but few of that name.”—(Sir T. Browne.) 125. The names of towns are Occasionally plural; as Well-s, Sevenoak-s, Athen-S, Thebe-s, &c. The names of moun- tain ranges are frequently plural, because they include many separate elevations: Alp-8, Apennine-8, Pyrénée-8, &c. 126. The inhabitants of a country are commonly described by the definite article and an adjective: the British, the French, the Dutch, &c.; but in O. E. we meet with the Chineses, the Portugueses, &c. National names compounded of maa, make the plural in men : Frenchman, Frenchmen, &c. but Woºmar, and German have the plurals Wormwares and 44 CASE, Germans, possibly because Nor and Ger were obsolete. The names Mussulman, Brahman, Turcoman are not compounds of man, and therefore form their plurals regularly. 127. A few foreign words still retain the plural form of the languages from which they were taken. Hebrew, seraph-im, cherub-im, Saba-0th (hosts); Greek, antipodes, phaenomena ; Latin, tumuli, Strata, genera, indices, formulae, series ; French, beaua, mesdames, messieurs ; Italian, banditt. The present tendency of the English language is to reject these foreign plurals. Hence we find crocus-es, genius-es, terminus-es, vivarium-s, formula-3, bandit-S, cherub-8, Seraph-s, dogma-s, &c. g 128. Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective, such as court-martial, or of a noum and the equivalents of an adjective, such as father-in-law, usually attach the plural suffix to the noun, e.g. courts-martial, fathers-in-law. - Case. 129. A suffix is frequently added to a noun or pronoun to mark the relation in which it stands to other words. Thus, in “the bird-s song,” the letter s shows the relation existing between the bird and the song, viz. that the Song proceeds from the bird. The simple word and the suffix are together called a Case. 130. These suffixes originally marked the relation of place : and from this local meaning relations of a more abstract nature were sub- sequently developed. Thus, if we obtain a thing from a person, we are apt to consider that person as the owner or possessor of the thing in question. Hence the idea of possession became associated with the ease that marked the source from which an object proceeds. If, again, we give or entrust anything to a person, we place the object by him, or deposit it at the place where he is ; hence the idea of giving, &c. became associated with the case that marks at a place. 131. The old grammarians imagined that nouns, which in every sentence express some definite relation between themselves and othe, moung or verbs, figuratively leaned or fell upon those words with which CASE. - 45 they were grammatically connected. Hence they spoke of the “fall. ing” or “inclination” of a noun—in Latin casus, whence the English term cage. Hence also the terms decline and declension applied to nouns. 132. Modern languages frequently drop the case-endings of nouns and substitute prepositions of equivalent meaning. Thus, “the bird's Song” may be expressed by “the Song of the bird,” where of represents the suffix S. Cases expressed by prepositions may be called syntactical, those expressed by suffixes, inflectional. A knowledge of both is required in explaining the structure of a sentence in the English language; but Accidence is concerned only with the latter. The case-endings, with one exception, are usually dropt in English. 133. It is evident that a modern language may have as many cases as there are prepositions employed in that language to mark the rela- tions existing between nouns. It is usual, however, to limit the number to those recognised in the classical languages, and to include the later relations under the primitive local idea whence they sprung. There are six cases commonly recognised: the Nominative, the Accusative or Objective, the Genitive or Possessive, the Dative, the Ablative, and the Vocative. 134. The Nominative denotes the source of an action, as, “the bird sings.” The act of singing proceeds from the bird. It is often called the Subject. The terms subject and nominative are not always identical. The term Nominative can be applied with propriety only to the simple noun or nouns from which the action proceeds. If explanatory phrases or sentences are added to the noun these combined words form the subject of the verb, and the noun remains in the nominative case. The terms can be used indifferently only when the subject of the verb is a simple noun. 135. The Accusative or Objective marks the object to which the action is directed, as, “the boy strikes the ball.” The act of striking is directed to the ball. It is often called the Object and the Objective case. The terms Object and Accusative are not always identical. When a simple noun is the object of a verb it is usually in the Accusative case, but the noun may be accompanied by explanatory phrases or sentences, 3 46 CASE. The accusative and the explanatory adjuncts combined constitute the object of the verb. The terms are identical only when the object of a Verb consists of a simple noun in the accusative case. 136. The Genitive shows the source from which something proceeds; as, “thé Sun's light:” sum’s marks the source of the light, The person from whom anything is obtained is frequently the owner of the thing. Hence this case is often called the Possessive. 137. The Dative originally denoted locality, i.e. the place at, or in, which something rests. “I stand here,” i.e. in this place. The Ablative marks the means, instrument, or manner, and is also used to denote the agent with a passive verb. When we address an object, we sometimes name the object addressed: Enchantress, fare thee well.—Scott. A noun so employed is said to be in the Vocative case. 138. No example of a nominative or accusative suffix occurs in modern English. I, thou, he, she, we, they, are called nominatives, and me, thee, w8, you, accusatives, but they have no case-endings. In A. S. the accu- sative suffix was -n, and a few examples occur in O. Eng.:--hy-ne, ac, of he tha-ne, ac, of the , an-ne, ac, of one ; hºwa-n, ac, of who, 139. The genitive suffix in most of the Indo-European languages is 8 preceded by a vowel. In Anglo-Saxon the form -es was often used, as leaf-es; in Old English, -es or -is, leaf-es, leaf-is.” In modern English the vowel is omitted, and its place indicated by (), leaf’s. 140. The omission of the vowel in the old genitive suffix -es produces changes similar to those required in forming the plural, viz.: (a) 8 is added when the noun ends in a sharp mute; chief's. (b) z (written s) when it ends in a flat mute, a vowel, or a liquid; bird's, fly's, Swn's. (c) es (written -'s) remains unchanged when the noun ends in a sibilant; foa's, church's, fisi's, judge's. * “The Northern dialect during the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies adopted the termination es as the inflexion of the gen, sing for nouns of all genders. The Southern, following the usage of the older stage of the language, formed the gen, of masc. and neut, nouns in es, but of fem, substantives in e.”—Morris (Introd, to Dan Michel, p. xxv.). CASE. * - 47 141. In the genitive plural -es is drop', to avoid the unpleasant sound of so many sibilants: “the dogs' tails,’ “the judges' wigs,” instead of the dogs-es and the judges-es. For the same reason it is usually lost in the singular when a noun of more than two syllables ends in a sibilant : “Euripides' dramas;” and occasionally in disyllables; “for conscience' sake.” The lost suffix is indicated by the apo- strophe. But when the plural is formed by an obsolete pro- cess, and consequently does not end in S, the suffix may be added as usual—“the men's hats,” “the children’s laugh,” “the oxen's horns.” 142. Compounds, such as fathers-in-law, men-of-war, which attach the plural suffix to the first part of the word (§ 128), form the genitive singular by placing the suffix at the end of the word; father-in-law's, man-of-war's. The genitive plural of these compounds is expressed by the preposition of When two or more nouns connected by and are in the genitive case, the suffix is employed only with the last. Thy wife and children's blood.—Shakspere. Nard and cassia's balmy smells.-Milton. And So with many short phrases regarded as compounds: “William the Conqueror's army,” “the Queen of England's palace.” 143. In A. S. -es was the gen, suffix in a certain class of nouns. It is probable that the preference for this form in later English was due to Norman-French influence. About the sixteenth century the recognised form was -is. Palsgrave writes:—“We seem to have a genityve case: for as moche as, by adding of -is to a substantive, we signifye possessyon ;” and Ben Jonson (Eng. Gram. c. xiii.) confirms this statement. This change from -es to -is was the cause of a singular grammatical error, and “brought in first the monstrous syntaxe of the pronoune his joyning with a noune betokening a possessor, as the Prince his house, for, the Princis house.” (B. Jonson.) Addison and his contemporaries frequently employ this form, and the former even defends it. “The same single letter 8 on many occasions does the office of a whole word, and represents the his and her of our forefathers” (Spectator, 207). The form is not recognised in the current tanguage, 48 I}{}RIVATION AND COMFÖ3 (THCN, The use of the preposition qf to express the genitive was unknown in A, S. It was introduced from the O. Norse by the Danes. It is Sometimes found in the corrupted form o, as “four o'clock,” “Jack o' lantern;” and, even when of is written, it is frequently pronounced 0, as in man-of-war. 144. In the plural and in the feminine singular the genitive suffix in A. S. was sometimes -re, O. E. -er ; al-re, all-er, of all; * bey-re, of both, twei-re, of two; it is still retained in the pronouns he-r and thei-r, 145. Another genitive suffix in A. S. was -en, or -n, still preserved in mi-me and thi-ne, and in such adjectives as gold-em, “ of gold.” In the plural (A. S. ena) ene or en, “Kyng-ene kyng,” Rex regum. The suffixes -es, -er, or -re, and -em, were probably identical in origin. 146. In A. S. a suffix of the gen, plural was -a. Traces of this occur in O. E. in the form -e. Thus Chaucer, “Hire greatest oth-6 nas but by Seynt Loy;” i.e. her greatest of oaths. (A. S. ath-a.) “Her hors-á knave” (Gower); i.e. their horses' groom. 147. The usual A. S. suffix for the daft, plur. of nouns, and the dat. sing, and plur, of adjectives, is -um. Traces of this are said to exist in hi-m, the-m, who-m, and whil-om. The last is very doubtful. 148. The suffix of the dative singular feminine in A. S. adjectives is -re. It is said to be preserved in the following words: he-r, the-re, where, he-re. Compare the Latin forms, ibi, wbi, hic, which are old datives. - 149. The usual suffix of the dative singular of A. S. nouns is -6. This is frequently found in O. E. : The drought of March had perced to the rot-é.—-Chaucer. It appears again in the old adverbs, bright-é, brightly first-é, firstly 3 8wift-é, swiftly, &c.: And in a cloth of gold that bright-é shone.--Chaucer. 150. The disuse of the dative suffixes, and the substitution of the preposition to, commenced in the Semi-Saxon period. In Robert of Gloucester (1260) win entirely disappears. 151. The A. S. suffix of the ablative singular is y. It still survives in wh-y and the O. E. forth-y = therefore. How, 80, and the (before comparatives), are ablatives which have lost or absorbed the suffix. DERIVATION AND COMIPOSITION, 152. Words which cannot be referred to any simpler form in a given language, may be called the roots of that language: man, do, bad. * Hence the O. E. words aller-best, aller-mest, or, with an intrusive d, al-d-er-best, al-d-er-mest, best of all, most or J. *~. DERTVATION OF NOUNS. 49 These ultimate forms are frequently capable of further analysis by comparing them with similar forms in the family of languages to which they belong. They are not, therefore, roots or elementary forms in human speech, but only with reference to the special language in which they are found. 153. A word which is formed from a simple root by additions, or internal changes, or both, is said to be derived. man, man-ly ; tell, tale ; break, breach; die, ded-th. 154. When the addition made to any root consists of a significant word, the result is a compound ; star-beam, Swn- light, watch-dog. All derived words were once compounds in which one or more of the elements has gradually lost its significance. Even when the root vowel only is changed, this change is due to a suffix since lost, as cock, chicken, chick. 155. The first term of a compound word usually limits and defines the meaning of the second : thus watch-dog means a dog that watches ; house-dog, a dog for the house; lap-dog, a dog for the lap ; sheep-dog, a dog for sheep, &c. Even those compounds which include three or more significant elements, can be resolved into two distinct terms, the generic and the specific, as, deputy=quarter-master-general. Court-martial appears to be an exception. *-*. DERIVATION OF Nouns. A. TEUTONIC, 1. By Internal Changes. 156. Change of vowel. (Nouns) cat, kit; stake, stick; top, tip. (Verbs) bless, bliss; feed, food; sing, song ; tell, tale. Change of consonant. (Verbs) dig, ditch; Speak, speech; strive strife. Change of vowel and consonant. (Nouns) goat, kid; cock, chick, (Verbs) break, breach; live, life; wake, watch; weave, woof. 2. By a Suffic, with or without root changes. 157, -ock, -ick, ie ; hill-ock, bull-ock, padd-ock, lass-ick, lassie. -ow, -w; shad-ow, minn-ow, glo-W, stra-w, de-w. E T).ERIWATION OF NOUNS, •ck, -k; spe-ck, do-ck, par-k, Spi-ke, brin-k, lin-k. -ch; hut-ch, blot-ch, scrat-ch, win-ch, sten-ch. -g, -gh, -y; fro-g, slu-g, lau-gh, trou-gh, penn-y, poppy, -ng; pro-ng, thro-ng, sti-ng, sli-ng, spri-ng, ri-ng. iſ, ºf; sta-ff, stu-ff, shea-f, lea-f, tur-f, Sur-f. -v, -b, -p; gra-ve, groo-ve, we-b, clu-b, dro-p, ste-p. -et, -ot, -t; lock-et, pock-et, magg-ot, Spig-ot, blo-t, Spo-t, -sh, -88; fla-sh, di-sh, flu-sh, fle-sh, gra-SS, cre-SS. -er, -el, -l; splint-er, whisp-er, show-el, freck-le, stoo-l. -eń, -n ; chick-en, kitt-en, maid-en, bair-n, Scor-n. -cia, -om, -m ; O. E. bloss-em, bloss-om, glea-m, bloo-m, Sea-m. -ing; farth-ing, shill-ing, herr-ing, whit-ing. -ākim, kin (ock + en); mann-ikin, boot-ikin, lamb-kin, bul-chin (calſ; -łkle, -kle (ock + el); knu-ckle, barn-acle, horn-icle, spar-kle. -lock (el + ock); war-lock, char-lock, knub-lock (small lump). -erock, -ºk (er + ock); lav-erock, O. E. lau-erc =la-rk. ling (el + ing); duck-ling, kit-ling, gos-ling, dar-ling. -let (el + et); arm-let, stream-let, brook-let, ham-let. -erel, -rel (er + el); cock-erel, pik-erel, puck-rel (Small fiend). These words either were, or are, diminutives.” lö8. -ard, -art, -heart, augmentative ; drunk-ard, bragg-art, Sweet- heart. - -dom, O. E. -dam (A. S. -dom); state or condition; king-dom, free-dom, O. E. wis-dam. -e (A. S. -a); O. E. male agent; hunt-é (hunt-er). (§ 91.) -en, -in (A. S. -en); feminine suffix; vix-en, carl-in, ($94.) -er (A. S. -ère); agent ; sing-er, Sail-Or, begg-ar, law-yer. -er (A. S. -ere, -ra); masculine suffix; widow-er, gand-er. -er (A. S. -er); verbal noun; fodd-er, lay-er, lai-r, dinn-er. -ery, -ry (A. S. -rw); place: brew-ery, found-ry; collective : heron-ry, yeoman-ry, jewel-ry; abstract: knavery. -eth (A. S. -ath); O. E. verbal noun : hunt-eth (hunt-ing). -head, -hood, O. E. -hede, L. Sc. -heid, -het (A. S.-had); condition : God-head, boy-hood, man-hede, wedo-heid, fals-het. -ing (A. S. -amme); gerund: read-ing, stand-ing. -ing (A, S, -ung); kneel-ing, dawn-ing, morn-ing. -ing (A. S. -ing); patronymic : Brown-ing, Hard-ing. -lock, -ledge, O. E. -lake, -lak, -lech (A. S. -lac); state : wed-lock, wed-lake, Wyf-lak; know-ledge, know-lech. -né83 (A. S. -né8); forms abstract nouns from adjectives: good- * Prof. Key, Trans, Phil. Soc. 1856. DERIVATION OF NOUNS, - 5} ness, weak-ness. Witness, which originally meant knowledge, has been irregularly applied to persons, -rake, masculine suffix; d-rake. -red, O. E. -reden, -rede, -reth (A. S. -roºden); condition: kind-red, felaw-rede, wand-reth (sorrow), hund-red, O. E. a hund-reth, hat-reden (hat-red). -ric (A. S. -rice); jurisdiction: bishop-ric. -Scape, -skip, -ship, O. E. -Shepe (A. S. -Scipe); land-scape, land. skip ; fellow-ship, felaw-shepe. •St (A, S, -st); tru-st, ru-st, re-st, ne-st, twi-st. -ster (A. S. -eStre); feminine suffix; spin-ster. It has since acquired the meanings of (1) an agent : huck-ster, malt-ster, song-ster; (2) a term of contempt : young-ster, game-ster, pun-ster, trick-ster. -ler (A. S. -ter); raf-ter, laugh-ter, slaugh-ter. -y; stith-y, Smith-y. & -t; (nouns) bay, bigh-t: (adjective) dry, drough-t; high, heigh-t: (verbs) give, gif-t; freeze, fros-t; weave, wef-t; draw, draugh-t. -d; do, dee-d; flow, floo-d; mow, mea-d; sow, see-d. -th; (noun) weal, weal-th: (adjective) dear, dear-th; true, tru-th: (verbs) bear, bir-th; die, dea-th; heal, heal-th; ear (till), ear-th. & 159. 3. By Préftales. After- (A. S. after-); after-thought, after-noon, after-crop. be- (A. S. be-); be-half, be-hest, behoof, be-quest. by-(A. S. bi-); by-stander, by-play. by- (O. N. town); by-law, by-path, by-word. down- (A. S. dun-); down-fall, down-stroke. fore-(A, S. fore-); fore-father, fore-head, fore-ground. ill-; ill-will, ill-luck, ill-health. in- (A. S. in-); in-come, in-let, in-sight. 7mid- (A. S. mid-); mid-night, mid-day, mid-summer. mis- (A. S. mis-); mis-take, mis-trust, mis-hap. off. (A. S. of ; off-shoot, off-set, off-spring. on- (A. S. on-); on-set, on-slaught, on-looker. out- (A. S. ut-); out-break, out-burst, out-cry. over- (A. S. ofar-); over-throw, over-sight, over-Seer. 30- (A. S. to-); to-day, to-night, to-morrow. thorough- (A. S. thurh-); thorough-fare, thorough-bass. twi-(A, S, twy-); twi-light, twi-bill. wm- {A. S. um- around), O. E. um-gang (circuit), um-gripe (embrace), um-standing (circumstance). wn- (A. S. un-); un-truth, un-belief, un-rest. wnder- (A. S. under-); under-wood, under-growth. wp- (A, S. up-); up-land, up-roar, up-start. - + ºx 52 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. wpper-; upper-hand. wan- (A. S. waiv-); O. E. wan-hope (despair), wan-trust (misèrust). wel-(A. S. wel-); wel-come, wel-fare, well-wisher. y-, i- (A. S. & O. E. g6-); O. E. y-fere (companions), i-hold (fortress) i-bude (command), ge-Swinc (toil). 160. B. CLASSICAL, 1. By Internal Changes. Change of consonant : (nouns) cattle, chattle; arc, arch; (verbs) descend, descent; relieve, relief; prove, proof; advise, advice; grieve, grief; excuse, excuse ; abuse, abuse. Change of cons, & vow, ; (nouns) critic, critique; bank, bench ; (verbs) choose, choice. Change of accent : projéct, préject ; convért, cónvert. Change of accent & cons. : refáse, réfuse. Change of accent & vow. : inválid, invalid. Change of acc. cons, & vow. : premise, prémiss, 161. -ace, popul-ace. -acy, fall-acy. -ade, ambusc-ade. -age, Cour-age. -al, capit-al. -aim, capt—ain. -am, }º. -ance, convey-ance. -ancy, pli-ancy. ~ar, registr-ar. -ariwm, viv-arium. -wry (place), gran-ary. -ary (person), lapid-ary. -aster, poet-aster. magistr-ate (person). -ale, 3 consul-ate (office). postul-ate (thing), -bule, vesti-bule. -cle, taberna-cle. -cuſe, animal-cule. -če, Committ-ee. -čer, musket-eer. -ier, grenad-ier. 2. By Suffices. (a) Latin. -el, ) mors-el. -il, penc-il. -le, ) cast-le. -ence, cad-ence, -er, pray-er. -eur, grand-eur. -ess, lion-ess. -et, lanc-et. -ic, calor-ic. -ice, serv-ice. -ime, fam-ine. -ion, reg-ion. -let, brace-let. -men, regi-men. -ment, regi-ment. -mony, patri-mony. -nce, dista-nce. -On, pris-On. -0me, | tromb-one. -00m, ball-oon. -01’, lab-or. -0wr, ) col-our, -org, arm-ory. -ped, quadru-ped, -pede, centi-pede. -sion, ten-sion. -sive, mis-sive. -80r, spon-Sor. -8wre, ton-Sure. -t, edic-t. -tic, luna-tic. –tion, na-tion. -tive, cap-tive. -tor, doc-tor. -tria, execu-trix. -try, poul-try. -tude, forti-tude, -ture, na-ture. -ty, hones-ty. -wle, glob-ule, -wlence, vir-ulence. rolence, vi-olence, -y, miser-y, DERIVATION OF Nouns, l62. -ac, Zodi-ac. -ad, mon-ad. -arch, mon-arch, -e, stroph-e. -ene, Nazar-ene. -cracy, demo-cracy. -Crat, demo-crat. -gram, tele-gram. -graph, tele-graph. -ian, physic-ian. -ic, crit-ic. -id, Nere-id. (b) Greek. -ime, morph-ine, -isk, obel-isk. -ism, critic-ism. -igt, Soph-ist. -ite, Abder-ite. -logy, zoo-logy. -ma, ) dra-ma. -mate, { cli-mate. -me, { Sche-me. -???, phleg-m. -meter, thermo-meter. -nomy, astro-nomy. -On, criteri-on. -pathy, hydro-pathy. -pod, tri-pod. -Scope, micro-scope. -sis, l cri-sis. -Sy, a poe–Sy. -Sé, ) pha-S6. -8m, cha-Sm. -č, ) prophe-t. -eté, }. -taph, ceno-taph. -y, philosoph-y. 163. 3. By Prefaces. (a) Latºn. abs- abs-ceSS. €30- ex-cise. ab- } away from | ab-use. cf. : Out of . & ef-fect. a- ) a-version. €- e-dict. ad- Y ſad-vice. eactra, without . extra-vagance. Gå- at-tempt. in- in-sect. C.C- ac-cent. £m- im-pulse. af- af-fix. * lin, into, on il·lusiºn. tºp to – ap-plause. 21"– | 3 +--- w v3 ir-ruption. Cºlº- " " " am-munition. em- em-brace. al- al-lusion. 8%- en-Vy. Clf"— ar-rest. £n- in-action. CLS- as-Sault. Żm- | ſº a- ) Ua-spect. ſil- } not . . * il-legality. am-, round . . am-bition. &r- | i ir-reverence. ante-, before . . ante-chamber. - Ui-gnominy. ar- = ad . . . ar-biter. inter-, between . inter-course, bene-, well . . . bene-fit. £nter- inter-dict. bi-, two . . . . bi-ped. £ntel- up, off . |º bis-, twice . . . bis-cuit. €7%ieſ'- enter-prise. C2.7°CMMY)- circu- } round. } C07?- ſ CO770- col- s C07°- with . . CO- CO2/??- 2 | CO%ird- COmtro- against COWnter- de-, down from . dis- ) difference { dif- OF | di- Separation circum-stance. circu-it. intro-, into jua-ta-, close by , juxta-position intro-duction. go g con-quest. 7male- male-factor. COIſ)—ſſler’C6, mali- (m. . . 3 mali-gnity. col-lege. nval- mal-content. cor-rosion. manº-, hand . . manu-script. co-heir. 7207-, not e . In OIl-SéHSé. coun-cil. ob- | object. cºins. op- against, op-ponent. lOIl. of- toward of-fice. y - OW3TCIS • - contro-versy. OC- OC-CàS1OIl. counter-poise. 08- os-tentation, de-scent. per-, through . . per-fume. dis-cord. pro-mise. dif-fusion. di-vorce. pol. pro- por- } for, before 3 por-tent. Upol-lution 54 IDERIVATION OF NOUNS. pºur-, = pro . post-, after . , pre-, before Ted- pur-pose. post-script. pre-caution. {back, again ſº 4'6– re-Sult. Tetro-, backward . retro-spect. 86-, apart . se-dition. semi-, half. . . semi-circle. gub- Sub-ject. 3?!p- ſ Sup-port. suf- } up, under { suf-fix. §3.4.6- lº 819- Sug-gestion. 164. &mphi-, on both sides . . . . amphi-theatre. hama-, with . . Hama-dryad. $717'- ) ſ sur-rogate, Sw8- } = sub . . . sus-pense. Sw- J su-spicion. subter-, beneath . subter-fuge. Super- | super-structure. OW €ſ . . SQLſ?"— sur-plus. t?’āns- * trans-it. {?"dº- | 3.CFOSS , {#. tri-, three . . . tri-dent. wltra-, beyond ultra-marine. wni- OThe } uni-form, Q(ſ)?- ' ' U un-animity. vice-, instead . . vice-roy. (b) Greek. hemi-, half. hemi-sphere. hept-, seven . ... hept-archy. {{??- an-archy. hea'a-, six . hexa-gon. &m- } without . . am-brosia. hydro- } ater hydro-pathy. Cº- a-pathy. jºd, ; water §º Gºd-, up . . . tº: º OWe]" . . #. anti- ſº anti-pathy. l,7/700- * o-thesis. &/ºff- } against . . { . %. } under . { #. {{\)0- apo-state. 7meta- ) . . . meta-phor. %. }away from §. 'meth- | *. | . arch- arch-angel(gutt.) met- ang lmeronomy. arch- } ruler . . . arch-bishop(sib.) mono- mono-tone. archi- | ...” 4??,0??- } alone, one } mon-arch. Gºło- ſauto-graph. Ortho-, right. . . ortho-graphy. self . . e Qºlī- | laut-opsy. panto- } all { panto-mime. Całº- cata-strophe. pan- ' ' ' ' pan-Orama. : down . . }: P%" beside para-graph. Cat- Cat-egory. par- } * } par-Ody. deca-, ten . deca-logue. penta-, five . penta-meter. dia-, through . . dia-meter. peri-, around . . peri-od. di-, two . . di-phthong. philo- } friend #. dys-, ill . . . dys-entery. phil- ‘l phil-anthropy, 3C- t from {º poly-, many . . poly-theist. €30- }ou * ex-odus, pro-, before pro-gram. €º- en-ergy. proS-, to . pros-Ody. emº X in . . . . | em-blem. pseudo- } false } pseudo-critic, el- el-lipsis. pseud- pseud-Onom. epi- epi-taph. Sym- Syn-onym. ep- } upon e { ep-och. *W* , with Sym-pathy. eaco-, without . exo-tic. syl- * ' ' ) syl-lable. eu-, well . . eu-logy. Sy- sy-stem. tri-, three . . tri-pod. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS, 55 165. Many nouns are derived from verbs apparently with- out changing the form of the Word ; fall, bend, flow, Stand, drive, stride, tread, reprieve, &c. In such cases a distinguish. ing affix has been usually lost. 166. Adjectives are frequently converted into nouns by the omission of the qualified word, good, wrong, black, red, &c. 167. Any word when quoted may be made the subject or object of a verb, and consequently be employed as a noun : “Mark you his absolute shall.” (Shak.) “Talkest thou to me of ifs 2 " (Id.) Even a sentence is sometimes employed as the name of an object : rendez-vous, meer-do-well. 168. A few nouns owe their present form to the loss of a portion of the original word : clump, lump, estate, state ; slime, lime; madder, adder, &c. CoMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 169, (a.) Noun + noun ; rose-tree, moon-light, rail-way, wind-mill. (b.) Noun + gerund; cock-crowing, bull-baiting, fox. hunting, - (c.) Woun + adjective ; court-martial, princess-royal. (d.) Woun + verb; god-send, wind-fall. (e.) Gerund + noun ; walking-stick, carving-knife, drawing-room. t (f) Adjective + noun; good-will, blue-bell, free-man. (g) Pronoun + noun , he-goat, she-bear. th.) Werb + noun; scare-crow, break-fast, spit-fire. (i.) Adverb + noun; in-step, out-law, after-thought. (j) Adverb-i-gerund; up-rising, out-going, in gathering (k) Adverb + verb; out-lay, off-set, wel-come. (..) Adverb – participle ; by-gones. (in.) Verb -- adverb ; cast-away, run-away, draw-back (n.) Werb + verb ; hear-say, make-believe. 56 ADJECTIVES. Compounds belonging to class (c) are French in origin. Thoga in- cluded under class (h) are peculiar. They consist of a transitive verb and its grammatical object; e.g. Spitfire, “one who spits fire; ” break fast, “a meal which breaks our fast.” The verb simply defines the relation in which the object stands to the sup ressed subject. 170. As a general rule, inflexional suffixes are not attached to the qualifying word. Sometimes, however, the genitive case-ending is retained; mark-8-man, Thur-S-day, monk-8-hood. Compare sea-man and land-8-man, bride-groom and brid-es-maid. Even the form with of is occasionally found; Jack-0-lantern, Will-o-the-wisp. Hence such forms as hand-i-craft, night-in-gale (night-singer). -- 171. In certain compounds principally of foreign origin, the com- ponent elements are either corrupted and disguised, or unknown in the English language. Such words are compounds only to those who are acquainted with the languages from which they were introduced; e.g. bis-cuit (twice baked); ver-dict (true saying); win-egar (sour wine); dais-y (day-s-eye); re-public (common-Wealth), &c. 172. Many compound nouns are formed by reduplication ; chit-chat, sing-song, Sée-Saw, knick-knack, tittle-tattle, ding-dong, riff-raff, &c., and others by a species of alliterative rhyme; hurly-burly, pick-nick, hum-drum, &c. 173. When the elements of a compound word are drawn from different languages, the word is called a hybrid, from a Greek word meaning “an outrage upon nature.” Hybrid nouns are not uncommon; e.g. demi-god (Lat. and Angl.); hi-gamy (Lat. and Greek); hero-worship (Greek and Angl.) &c. AT),JECTIVES. 174. An adjective is a word used with a noun to express some peculiarity of time, place, number, quality, or quantity; “The early primrose;” “The distant hills;” “The three swans; ” “The blue sky.” Hence adjectives may be classified as temperal, local, numeral, qualitative, and quantitative. 175. An adjective, by indicating some peculiarity in the noun, limits and at the same time more accurately defines, its meaning. Thus the name, rose, represents any individual of the genus. The addition of the epithet white, limits the application of the name to a certain class AD JECTIVES, * 57 If the local adjective, this, is added, the description becomes still more definitive ; “this white rose.” 176. Adjectives were originally genitive cases of nouns or pronouns “a gold-en ring,”=“a ring of gold.” In some languages the genitives of nouns actually receive suffixes indicating the gender and number of the noun upon which they depend. As a familiar illustration, com. pare the Latin cujus, Guja, cujum. Many adjectives, however, of later formation, are otherwise derived, See § 191, &c. 177. The adjective is attracted into the same gender, number, and case, as the noun it defines, and in most European languages this agreement is marked by suffixes, or by a change in the termination of the word. In modern English, with the exception of a few pronominal adjectives, these suffixes have disappeared ; “a tall boy;” “a fair girl;” “a small book ; ” “tall boys; ” “fair girls;” “ small books.” 178. These suffixes existed in the old Anglian tongue, and traces of them are visible in Old English. (a) When the adjective is used with the definite article, a possessive, or a demonstrative pronoun, it is frequently found with the suffix -e, The sharp-6, gren-6, Sweet-é juniper.—James I. (of Scotland). Upon the smal-é, soft-é, sweet-é gras-Chaucer. Yelde every man hys own-é thing—Robt. of Brunne. Thus sayd this old-é knight.—Chaucer. Myn own-6, deer-é, brother and my lord.—1d. (b) When an adjective was not preceded by a demonstrative or pos- sessive pronoun, the plural in Old English often ended in -e ; but the e was seldom suffixed to the perf. partic. of irregular verbs. And smal-ć fowles maken melodie.—Chaucer. Every god tree maketh god-6 fruytis.-Wyclif. Four-6 tymes in the yere.—Robt. of Brunne. (c) “Es is a mark of the plural very common in Southern writers of the fourteenth century, and employed as a plural inflexion of the adjective until a very late period of our literature.”—Morris (Allit, Poems, pref. p. xxvi.). These adjectives are rarely of Saxon origin. b8 - COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. CoMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 179. The adjective in its simple form is said to be of the Positive degree, as, “a tall boy.” When two objects, or sets of objects, are compared, a suffix is employed to show that one possesses a given quality in a greater degree than the other; as, “the boy is tall-er than the girl.” The adjective is then said to be of the Comparative degree. 180. The earlier form of the comparative suffix was -ter or -ther (Latin and Greek ter-0). It signified one of two, and traces of it are still found in a few words, which in their nature imply duality: whe-ther, ei-ther, nei-ther, far-ther, fa-ther, mo-ther, bro-ther, sis-ter, daugh-ter. The form -ter in sis-ter is owing to the sibilants in sis-, in daugh-ter, to the gh, which was originally an asperated guttural. 181. In Anglo-Saxon the usual suffix of the comparative was -ré (0. E. bett-re=better) or -se for adjectives, and -or or -os for adverbs (Latin -ior, -ios). In Old English the forms -or and -er are used in- differently with adjectives and adverbs. Those ending in lick make the comp. lake, or loker, the Super, lakest or lokest. In modern English the comparative suffix of both adjectives and adverbs is -er: bright-er, 800m-er. When the simple adjective ends in y, it becomes i before a suffix of comparison; as, holy, holº-er, holi-est. A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel is usually doubled: thin, thinn-er, thinn-est. 182. When the adjective consists of more than two syllables, it is usual to express the comparative by placing the adverb “more” before the positive: “more beautiful.”” 183. If, on comparing two objects, it is stated that one possesses less of a certain quality than the other, this form of expression is called a Comparative of Diminution or Negation. Unlike the Comparative of Increase, it takes no suffix, but is expressed in English by the adverb less and the positive form of the adjective : “less graceful.” * “More' and ‘most’ are not used in the comparison of adjectives in A. Sax. The usage is probably due to Norman influence. Under cer. tain conditions the comparative is expressed by ‘more’ in O. Norse. See Marsh, Or. and H. Eng. Lang, pp. 47, 74. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 59 184. A few adjectives of Latin origin retain the Latin comparative suffix -ion": interior, eacterior, superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, prior, wlterior, Senior, junior, major, minor. But, though the form is retained, the comparative character of the suffix is not recognised in English. This is evident from the fact that these words cannot be followed by that. They share this peculiarity with a few adjectives of Anglian origin: former, elder, latter, hinder, upper, under, nether, inner, outer, &c. 185. When more than two objects or sets of objects are compared, the suffix -est is employed to show that one pos. sesses a certain quality in a greater degree than all the rest. The adjective is then said to be of the Superlative degree : The wis-est, bright-est, mean-est, of mankind–Pope. If the word end in -le, the e is lost : idle, idl-er, idl-est. 186. The usual suffix of the superlative is -est. In A. S. there were two: (1)-63t or -ost ; (2)-ema. Compare the Greek meg-ist-o-, “great-est,” and the Latin inf-imo-, “low-est.” A few words retain traces of both suffixes: fore-m-ost (A. S. and 0. E. for-m-68t), in-m-ost, out-m-ost, &c. 187. Another mode of expressing the superlative is by placing the word “most" before the simple adjective : Most musical of mourners.-Milton. 188. If, on comparing more than two objects, it is stated that one possesses less of a certain quality than all the rest, this form of expression is called a Superlative of Diminution or Negation. It is expressed in English by the adverb least and the positive form of the adjective. Adjectives denoting peculiarities that cannot be increased or diminished, are incapable of comparison : “a lunar rain- bow,” “the solar system,” “a monthly holiday.” 190. The following are either irregular or obsolete comparisons:– (a) Good, better, best. The simple word bet, which is another form of good,” is still found in provincial English (Hereford). In A. S. and O. E. it is used as a comparative. Better (A. S. bet-era, ūet-ra) appears in O. E. as bet-er and bet-re. Best is a compres- Sion of the A. S. bet-est, bet–St. * See Professor Key's ingenious paper—Alphabet, p. 153. COMPARſ 30N OF ADJECTIVFS. (b) Bad, worse, worst. In wor-se (O. D. wer-re, wer-8), the Sé is another form of -re (§ 181). It is the A. S. we07'-es, wyr-es, wyr-8, the comparative of Weor, bad. Wor-st (O.E. wer-st) is a com- pression of A. S. weor-est, which also appears as wyr-est and wyr-St. It is probably connected with the root wor in O. E. wor-en, to worr-y. (c) Much, more, most (singular), of quantity; [many], more, most (plural), of number. The root is mag. Mick-le (A. S. mic-el, O. E. mik-el, much-el), is formed from mag by a diminutive suffix -el, just as litt-le (0. E. lit-el) is formed from the root let. Compare Gr. meg-al-o-, Mo-re is the A. S. ma-re (mag-re), and mo-St, the A.S. maest (mag-est). Compare Gr. meg-ist–0. In A. S. and O. E. the shortened forms ma and m0e are often used for the comparative. Man-y (A. S. man-ig) has no connection with the root mag. The -y is a diminutive suffix modifying the root-vowel. (d) Little, less, least. The root is lite (O. E. lite, lute). In the Anglian and Old English lit-el or lut-el, the -el is a diminutive suffix. In the comparative les-8 (A. S. laesse. O. E. lasse), the radical t is assimilated to s, and the root-vowel is modified by the suffix -se. The Superlative least (A. S. laest) is a contraction from let-est. Compare last=lat-est, and best =bet-est. (e) Near, nearer, nearest. The correct forms are nigh, near, meat, In ni-gh (A. S. Re-ah, O. E. he-h, mei-h) the -gh is a diminutive suffix. Nea-r (A. S. nea-r) has lost the guttural. In newt (A. S. mel-st and myh-8t) the guttural and the sibilant form a, just as we find in O. E. high-est written hext : For the first apple and the heav, Which groweth unto you meat.—Chawcer. In later times we find the forms migh, migher, nighest, and near, hearer, nearest. In these last the -ar is possibly a corruption of the Anglian -ah. (f) Old, elder, eldest (A. S. eald, yldra, yldest). The suffix has, as usual, modified the root-vowel. Elder, and eldest, are now . limited in use to animate beings. We can say, “the elder brother,” “the eldest brother,” but not “the elder building,” “the eldest building.” Elder has lost its true comparative character, for it cannot be followed by than. The modern forms older and oldest, are the true comparative and superlative in the current language. The noun elder is a different word it is the A. $, caldor, “a ruler.” COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 6] (g) Rather. The positive is seen in the Old English rathe (A. S. hºrſeth, quick). \ And the rathe primrose which forsaken dies...—Milton. The men of rathe and riper years.-Tennyson. Rath-er meant earlier, sooner: Wolde God this relyke had come rather /—Heywood. And it arose ester and ester, till it arose full este; and Tather and rather.—-Warkworth. Seynt Edward the Martyr was his sone By his rathere wyf—i.e. his former wife. Robt. Gloucest. We still use the word sooner as an equivalent for rather. The superlative rath-est is found in Old English. Accept be now rathest unto grace.—Chaucer. (h) Farther, further. Farther, from far (A. S. feor; 0, E. ferre), is applied to the more distant of two objects: “the sun is farther from the earth than the moon.” Further (O. E. for- ther), from forth (A. S. forth), is applied to movement in advance: “ the ship moves further on.” In the Superlative, far-th-est (O. E. ferr-ost), the th appears to have been introduced from a false analogy with furth-est. {?) From the root for there was a Saxon Superlative for-ima, “fir-st.” So in O. E. we meet with “the forme part” of the head (Pict. Woc. 15 cent.). The ordinary superlative fir-St (A. S. fyr-st) is a contraction of for-est (O. E. for-st), as Lat, primo- from pro-imo-, and Gr, proto- from pro-ato-. In for-m-ost (O. F., for-m-est) we have a double superlative :— He was the fyrstá that hit wan Syn Adam loºt bit, our formest man. Rob. Brumme. In for-in-er a comparative is formed from a superative. In out-er-m-ost, inver-m-ost, utt-er-m-08t, a double superlative is formed from a comparative. The same root is geen in for trard and fro-ward. 62 DERIWATION OF ADJECTIVES, (%) Latter, last, are formed from late (A. S. laei), as better and best from bet, and the root-vowel is modified by the suffix. The regular forms, lat-er, and lat-est, are still used, but with a dif. ferent signification; latter and last refer to order ; later and Čatest, to time. () ºre, early, (O. E. er, ar, or); Comp. erer or erre (A, S, arre)" 191. Sup, erst, arst, or orest (A. S. airest). DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. A. Teutonic. 1. By Internal Change. Change of vowel; (noun) heat, hot; pride, proud; (verb) live, live. Change ºf vowel and cons. ; cool, chill (diminutive). - 192. 2. By a Suffia, with or without root changes. -ow, holl-ow. -y, dr-y. -ish, black-ish. -w, ra–W. ºff, gru-ff. -r, drea-r. - -ck, Sla-ck. -ö, gli-b. -el, lit-el, O. E. -k, dar-k. ~p, shar-p. -le, litt-le. -$7, Snu-g. —t, per-t. -il, ev-il. ~gh, tou-gh. -SS, grO-SS. -m, war-m. -ng, stro-ng. -sh, har-sh. Words of this class either are, or were, diminutives.” 193, -d; probably perf. part, ; har-d, kin-d, col-d, bal-d. -ed; added to nouns; gift-ed, wretch-ed, feather-ed, tuft-ed. -en, -n ; perf. part, ; brok-en, drunk-en, forlor-n, shor-n. -ên, -n ; probably old gen, suffix (of); gold-em, wood-en leather-n. -er, -re; comparative suffix; low-er, upp-er, bright-er, mo-re. -ern ; north-ern, South-ern, east-ern, west-ern. -est, -st; superlative suffix; weak-est, bold-est, mo-st, be-St. ºfold; usually added to numerals; two-fold, three-fold, mani- fold. —ful; added to nouns; scorn-ful, truth-ful, tear-ful. -ish; like; added to nouns; boy-ish, girl-ish, brut-ish. -āsh; gentile suffix; Engl-ish, Span-ish, Ir-ish. -ing; imperf, part. ; sleep-ing, dar-ing, ris-ing. * See note, $ 157 DERIWATION OF ADJECTIVES. 63 -lees; added to nouns; god-less, hope-less, tear-less. -ty, -lic; like ; added to nouns, adj. and verbs; man-ly, Sur ly, fro-lic (A. S. freo-lic, Ger, fröh-lich), like-ly. -most ; Superlative suffix; inner-most, outer-most, utter-most. -Se, -s; comparative suffix; wor-se, les-s. -80me; added to nouns, adj. and verbs; tooth-Some, game-some, glad-Some, win-some. -t; probably perf. part.; shor-t, tigh-t, sligh-t. -teen ; forms cardinal numerals; four-teen, six-teen. -th; forms ordinal numerals; four-th, six-th, seven-th. -ty; forms cardinal numerals; six-ty, seven-ty. -ward; added to nouns and prepositions; out-ward, home-ward. -ºſ, -ey if the word ends in y; wood-y, bush-y, wear-y, clay-ey. 194. 3. By a Préfia. a-, a-weary. ill-, ill-bred. over-, over-weening. be-, be-girt. £n-, in-wrought. thorough-, thorough-bred, by-, by-gone. Imis-, mis-spelt. wn-, un-wise. down-, down-cast. off-, off-hand. wp-, up-right. fore-, fore-named. on-, on-coming. wnder-, under-hand. for-, for-lorn. Out-, out-spread. wan-, O. E. wan-thriyan, D. Classical. 195. 1. By Internal Change, Change of consonant ; diffuse (wb), diffuse (adj). Change of conson, and vowei ; refäse (wb.), refäse (adj.). 2. By a Suffiac. (a) Latin. -al, reg-al. -esque, pictur-esque, -olent, vi-Olent. -an, hum-an. fic, terri-fic. -ose, verb–ose. -ane, hum-ane, -ian, plebe-ian. -ow8, danger-Ous. -aneous, cut-aneous. -ible, tang-ible. -ple, sim-ple. -ar, singul-ar. -ic, publ-ic. -se, inten-se. -ary, station-ary. -id, ferv-id. -sive, persua-sive, -ble, solu-ble. s -il, civ-il. —t, perfec-t. -ble, dou-ble. -ile, frag-ile. -te, fortuna-te. -ceous, farina-ceous, -ine, Sal-ine. -tive, na-tive. -ent, flu-ent. -ious, cur-ious. -wlent, turb—ulent. -eows, vitr-eous, -nt, innoce–nt. -wlows, quer-ulous, (b) Greek. -ad, nom-ad. . -čan, Christ-ian. -id, cono-id. -iac, demon-iºc, -ie, graph-ic. -???e, cedr-ine, 64 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 196. ab3-*) abs-tract. ab- ab-undant. Cº- 3–Wel'Sé. ad-Y ad-ult. ac- ac-curate. af. af-fable. ag- || ag-gressive. al- ) al-luvial. ap- ap-parent. ar- ar-rogant. as- as-siduous. at- Jat-tentive. am, am-bitious. amb- }: ambi- ) ambi-dextrous. ante- ) ante-cedent. (Lºt- } ant-ique. bene- ) bene-volent. beni- } beni-gn. bi-, bi-fid. bin-, bin-ocular. circum-, circum-Spect, cis-, cis-alpine. CO77- ) COll-C8. We. com- ( com-plete. con- (cor-rupt. co- ) co-eval. contra-, contra-band. 197. tºn- ) an-Onymous. Cº- }º: amphi-, amphi-bious. anti-Y anti-septic. &nt- }º archi-, archi-episcopal. 3. By a Prefiac. counter-, counter-feit. extra-, extra-vagant. Tanwº-, manu-Script. non-, non-descript. dia-, dia-phanous. op- \ op-portune. OS- }. per- ) per-fect. pel- } pel-lucid. pár-J par—amount. pro-, pro-found. p08t-, post-humous. pre-, pre-mature. preter-, preter-natural re- ) re-mote. Ted- } red-olent. petro-, retro-grade. 86-, Se-parate. tº Semi-, semi-barbarous, Sub- ) sub-sequent. Suc- | Suc-cinct. suf- | Suf-ficient. 8wp-}. Sup-pliant. Swº- Sur-reptitious. Sw8- sus-ceptible. Sw- J Su-spicious. Super-, super-human. trans- ) trans-ient. ū’d— łº, tri-, tri-ennial, wni-, ) uni-form. ºwn-, $ºw. vice-, vice-regal. e80-, eso-teric, eaco-, exo-tic. homo-, homo-geneous. 07'tho-, ortho-dox. peri-, peri-patetic. sym-, Syn-chronous. 198. Many nouns are used occasionally as adjectives, gold, silver, yew, wy, morning, evening, &c. been lost. In such cases the old adjectival suffix has * These prefixes are explained, § 163. In this list all adjectives formed directly from nouns and all participles are omitted. NUMERALS. 65 199. COMPOUND ADJECTIVEs. 1. Aoun + adjective ; sea-green, sun-bright, sea-sick, purse- proud. 2. Woun + imperf. particip. ; heart-breaking, ear-piercing, spirit-stirring. 3. Moun + peºf, particip. ; moth-eaten, night-foundered, terror-stricken, 4. Adverb + imperf. part, ; high-soaring, Swift-darting, ill-looking. 5. Adverb + peºf. part, ; high-born, home-sprung, well- bred. 6. Woun + noun + ed; hare-lipp-ed, lion-heart-ed, eagle- ey-ed. 7. Adjec. -- noun + ed; fair-hair-ed, long-legg-ed, gray- head-ed. 8. Wumeral + noun + ed; three-corner-ed, ten-string-ed, four-sid-ed. NUMERALS. 200. Cardinal numerals are those which show how many objects are specified, as “two bats,” “three balls.” The cardinal numerals from one to ninety-nine are adjectives denoting number ; but they are occasionally used as nouns: “We are to come to him by ones, by twos, and by threes” (Shaksp.). The higher numbers, hundreds, thousands, millions, &c. are nouns. Ordinal numerals show in what order objects are arranged: “the first prize,” “the second boy,” “the third day.” They are adjectives. 201. One (A. S. am, an, on, O. E. ame, an, a, o]. It may be necessary to remark that there exist in English two words of this form, the numeral one and the noun one. - The latter is commonly said to be a word of classical origin, intro- F 66 NUMERALS, duced from the Norman-French, meaning originally “a person” (homo, homme, om, on). It is, however, probably a corruption of the A. S. man (O. E. mon) = one. “When mon withouten eyr of him to dethe were ybroght” (Rob. Glouc.), i.e. “If any one died without an heir.” It has naturally a plural, ones, and should not be confounded with the numeral. 202. Two in O. E. is thus declined: Nom. and ac. two, twei, twynne, and twain; gen, twei-re (A. S. tweg-ra); dat, twa-m and two-m (A, S, twä-m). In three, originally thir, r has shifted its position. (A. S. threo, O. E. threo, thre, thrinne.) Twin (two) and thrin (three) are Northern forms. The abstract equivalents of one, two, and three, are unity, duality, and trinity. Five and Seven (A. S. ff and Seofon) have assumed a flat v for the Cld f. t Nine is a compression of the A. S. migon, 203, Eleven (A. S. end-lufon, O. E. end-levene, en-leven, en-lene, el-lene) is a compound of en- “one,” and leven =“ten,” and thus corresponds in formation with the Latin wh-decim and the Greek en-deka. Twelve (A. S. twe-lfe) is a compound of twe, “two,” and lufon or leven, “ten,” thus corresponding with the Latin duo-decim, and the Greek do-deka. As in five, the final f of the A. S. is pronounced v. 204. The cardinals from thirteen to nineteen are formed by suffixing -téén (A. S. tyn, “ten,” O. E. tyme, tene) to the first nine numerals. In thir-teen r retains its original position; but in O. E. we find threttene and throttene, and in A. S. threottyne. Fºf-teen contains five in its original form (A. S. ff), and the suffix has modified the root-vowel. Eighteen has a t performing double duty; but in O. E. we meet with eighte-tene, from the A. S. eahta-tyme. 205. The cardinals from twenty to ninety are formed by suffixing -ty (A. S. -tig) to the first nine numerals: -ty or -tig is another form of £67). Twen-ty (A. S. twen-tig) contains the word twain (A. S. twegen, “two"). Thir-ty. The A. S. thri-lig and the O. E. thri-tſy have transposed the r. Fifty (A. S. ff-lig) has the original fif, and has modified the root. vowel. * Me, so common in O. E. with the meaning of the indefinite One, is possibly a truncated form of men. NUMERALS. - 67 ſn Eighty, t performs a double duty. The A, S, form was eahta-tig, and hence the O. E. eighte-ty. Ninety is a compression of A. S. nigontig. 206. The A. S. word for hundred was hund. To this in O. E. was appended the suffix -er, “an hunder fold” (Rob. of Brunne), “an hunder syth.” (Id.) The word then received the suffix of an abstract noun, -ath or -eth. Hence we frequently find hundr-eth—“ane hundreth ladies” (Dunbar), “a hundreth poetical spirits” (Ret. from Parn.). The th was sometimes written t—“thre hondret” (Rob. Glouc.), but more commonly d. The word hundred exists in A. S., but it means a sub- division of a shire. - Thousand (A. S. thusend) in O. E. is often written thousant. Mill-ion, bill-ion, &c. are modern words, of French origin, the Žermination indicating the square of the number (1000 x 1000, &c.). 207. In compounding numerals, from twenty-one to ninety-nine, it is usual to prefix the higher number, twenty-two, thirty-five, &c.; but when they are connected by and, the lower number is placed first—two and twenty, five and thirty, &c. In O. E., however, we read ninety and mine, &c. In compounds from 101 to 999, we write the hundreds first, and connect the lower numbers by and—“nine hundred and ninety-nine.” In expressing numbers above 1000, it is usual to place the higher numbers first, and to write and before the tens; or if there are no tens, before the units—e.g. “one thousand eight hundred,” “two thousand eight hundred and sixty-two,” “three thousand eight hundred and two.” In this form of expression the nouns hundred, thousand, &c. never receive a plural suffix, the plurality being sufficiently marked by the preceding numeral. 208. The ordinal numerals are adjectives, formed, with the exception of the first two, from the cardinals. In fractional numbers they are used as nouns, a third, a fourth, &c. Haif, quarter, and tithe, are the fractional equivalents of two, four, and ten. First, the superlative of for, “the foremost " (see § 190, i.). Second. This word is peculiar, being derived, not from the Saxon twa, but from the Latin Secundo, “following.” This peculiarity may be explained. In Anglo-Saxon there was no single word to express “second; ” the phrase the other being used for that purpose (as in Latin altero-). Hence Robert of Brunne, in an enumeration, writes, “the fyrst, the tother, the thrid,” &c. To remedy this defect, our ancestors adopted the Norman-French term second, and employed the other in a more general sense. 209. The suffix of the ordinal numerals is th (A. S. and F 2 68 NUMERALS. O. E. -the). These words were probably superlatives. Com. pare Latin dec-imo-, Greek dek-ato-. Thir-d (A. S. thri-dde). The original form is retained in Old English, thridde or thrid, and in the word rid-ing, or rather thrid-ing, a division of Yorkshire. As the word commences with an asperate, the unasperated d takes the place of th; two asperates so near being objectionable. The flat d is owing to the liquid r. Fourth (A. S. feorthe), O. E. ferthe and ferth. - Fif-th retains the original fif, with a modified vowel. In the A. S. fifte and O. E. fif-t, the loss of the asperate and the sharp t are due to the sharp asperate f. - Six-th. The A. S. six-te and the O. E. six-t are due to the sharp sibilant ac. In Eigh-th t does double duty; but in A. S. we have eahto-the, and in O. E. eighte-the. . Tenth (A. S. teothe). The old form is still retained in the word tithe, Eleven-th. A. S. endlyf-te, O. E. endlef-te and enleven-th. Twelfth (A. S. twelf-te) retains the original f. In both these the loss of the asperate in -ie is caused by the pre- ceding f. 210. The ordinal numerals above sixth in A. S. have the suffix -othe, with the exception of eleventh and twelfth, and those from 13th to 19th drop the final n of the cardinal. Hence instead of thirteen-th, we find in O. E. thrett-eth (A. S. thrytte-othe). In the Southern dialect these numerals end in -th ; in the Northern, in -end, -and; in the Midland in enth. 211. In compound ordinal numbers the last only assumes the ordinal form; “twenty-third,” “one-hundred-and-twenty-fourth.” The whole is viewed as a single compound word. 212. Distributive numerals signify how many at a time There are no separate forms to express them in English, but the following phrases are employed: “by twos,” “two by two,” “two and two,” “two each,” “two at a time,” “two apiece.” Fading one by one away.—Coleridge. The stars are out by twos and three8.— Wordsworth. These three and three with osier bands we tied.— Pope, Which will be less than a farthing apiece.—Swift. I took four muskets and loaded them with two slugs and five small bullets each.-Defoe. NUMERALS, 69 213. Multipliers are expressed: (1) by Saxon words formed by the suffix -fold (A. S. feald, O. E. felde), as two-fold, three-fold, four-fold; and (2) by Latin words, as sim-ple (or sin-gle, Lat, sin-gul:), dou-ble, tre-ble or tri-ple, quadru-ple, &c. (Lat. simplici-, du-plici-, tri-plici-, quadru-plici-), the suffix -ble or -ple (Lat. -plica) meaning the same as fold. 214. Bo-th (A. S. ba-twa, bu-tu; O. E. bathe, bethe, bothé, bo, beye). Bo is a compression of two; so Latin am-bo and bis of duo and dwis; and A. S. ba of twa. Hence ba-twa and bu-tu, “bo-th,” is twa-iwa, or two- two, i.e. two taken together. In O. E. a genitive bey-re, “of both,” is found, A. S. begra, as twelre from A. S. twegra. 215. The following are nouns employed as collective nume- 1 als: pair, brace, couple, leash, dozen, score, and gross. 216. There are two classes of numeral adverbs: (1) Cardinal; (2) Ordinal. The cardinal adverbs answer to the question “How often ?”—once, twice, thrice, &c. The ordinal adverbs show in what Order certain facts are treated—first, secondly, thirdly, &c. The first three gardinal adverbs are formed by the suffix -ce ; on-ce, twi-ce, thri-ce, formerly written on-es, twi-68, thri-es, and pronounced as a disyllable : “twi-És or thri-6s in the year.’ Hence the O. E. forms of once—an-is, en-es, On-ys. The others are expressed by the cardinal numbers and the word “times: ” Nine times the space that measures day and night.—Milton. In O. E. they were sometimes formed by the suffix -sythe (time); e.g. a hunder-sythe, a hundred times. - In once, twice, thrice, observe the sharp sibilant after a liquid and a vowel; possibly to distinguish these adverbs in later times from ones, twos, threes. In O. E. when the vowel e was dropt, twice and thrice were written twise, thrise, and pronounced twize, thrize. 217. An adverb of a peculiar form is frequently seen in O. E. It is a compound of the old preposition am, and a cardinal numeral: an-two, a-two, a twain, a-three, a-Sevene, i.e. in two, three, seven parts. This lond was deled a-thºre among thre sones.—Rob. Glouc. The modern English form is in two, &c.. 218. Indefinite Article. A modification of the numeral one (O. E. ane, an, a) is used to denote a single object inde- 70 PRONOUNS. finitely : An adder, an hour, a flower, a year.” It is usually called the Indefinite Article. When placed before a word beginning with a consonant, the asperate, w, or y, the n was rejected : a man, a horse, a year, a wall. There is a tendency in modern English to omit it before w when that letter repre- sents the diphthong eu ; a union, - This use of the numeral prevails in most modern languages of the Indo-European family. 219. N-one is a compound of the negative and “one.” It is fre- quently shortened into no, “none other,” “no other.” It is both an adjective and a noun, and, though containing the numeral one, can be used either in the singular or the plural. On-ly (O. E. On-liche), an-y, at-One, and al-One, are also derivatives of this numeral. - PRONOUNS. 220. Pronouns are short words used to represent nouns without naming them. They thus avoid a repetition that Would be always tedious, and often obscure. Gabriel thus bespake the Fiend: Satan, I know thy strength, and thou know'st mine—Milton. If we had no pronouns, the last line must have appeared (hus:— - Satan, Gabriel knows Satan's strength, and Satan knows Gabriel's. 221. A pronoun may represent a noun in any of the forms specified in § 78. (1) Noun. Nathan said unto David, Thou art the man.--Eng. Bib. (2) Numeral. Of them he chose twelve, whom also he named Apostles.—1d. (3) Gerund. As he loved cursing, therefore let it come upon him. —Id. (4) Infinitive. Can it be sin to know - Milton, (5) Infinitive clause The first thought was to confine him to the Tower; but that was contrary to the politesse of modern war.—Horace Walpole. - *-ºsmºs * 4t, hule and one nightingale.—Owl and N. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 71 (6) Sentence. You all did see that on the Lupercal I thrice presented him a kingly crown, Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition –Shakspere, 222. As nouns are often implied in adjectives, so certain pronouns are used as adjectives to represent such nouns, Pronouns so used are called Pronominal Adjectives. 223. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, Possessive, Reflective, Reciprocal, Indefinite, and Distributive. Personals. 224. Personal pronouns are words used to denote the person who speaks and the person addressed: I am thy father's spirit.—Shakspere. King did I call thee ? No, thou art not king.—Id. These two are the only true personal pronouns. To mark the person or thing of which we are speaking, a form of the demonstrative is used. (See § 233.) t They have no distinctions of gender, because, as the persons are in actual communication, such distinctions are unnecessary. The person who speaks is usually called the First person; the person addressed, the Second. 225. The inflection of the personal pronouns is irregular, The cases and numbers are sometimes erroneously considered to be derived from various roots. 226. Inflection of the First Personal Pronoun : Singular. Plºwral, Nom, I. Nom. We, Acc, me. A cc. us. Gen. mi-ne, my. Gem, our-s, our. Dat. me. . Dat, us. 227, 1 (A. S. ic, O. E. ich, ic, ik) has lost the final guttural, and perhaps an initial m (mic). In Old and provincial English we frequently find cham = icham; chill = ich will; chold = ich wolde, &c., in which the vowel is lost and the guttural retained, 72 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The acc. (A.S. mech, mec, meh, me) has lost the final guttural, Compare the German mich. & mine (A. S. mi-n). In O. E. we meet with such phrases as “maugre myne” (Rob. Brunne), i.e. “in spite of me.” In modern English the suffix is rejected when the noun upon which the genitive depends is expressed, and retained when the noun is omitted. - Ye powers of truth, that bid my soul aspire, Far from my bosom drive the low desire.—Goldsmith. Creation's heir, the world, the world is mine.—Id. In old writers mine is commonly used before words beginning with a vowel or h : “mine enemy,” “myn word,” “myn helthe; ” and occasionally before those beginning with a consonant : Lady, thiné Sorrow can I not portray.—Chaucer. me, dat. (A. S. me, Ger, mir). “me-thinks,” i.e. it appears to me. It thinketh me ! sing as wel as thou.--Chaucer. - Woe is me, i.e. to me (vae mihi). Give me the daggers.-Shakspere. 228. we (A.S. we, German wir, O. E. wo) has probably lost a final r or s, w8, acc. (A. S. w8, O. E. Ow8): the initial w is absorbed. our (A. S. wr-e, O. E. M'-é, wr, our-á) has probably lost the suffix -en. Hence in old and provincial English we meet with owr-0. “Nonnulli hern, own, yourn, hism dicunt pro hers, ours, &c., Sed barbaricë, nec quisquam, credo, sic scribere solet.” (Wallis, Gr. Ang, c. 7.) “And some our-en wenten to the grave.” (Wiclif.) The r represents the 8 in “us.” In modern English, when the noun upon which our depends is omitted, the old genitive suffix -e is replaced by the modern form -s. Our spoil is won, our task is done.—Shelley, 'Tis we, ’tis owr-8 are changed.—Id. The Norse form our-s" was unknown in the Old Anglian language, and even in O. E. we find our : Our is the dishonoure.—Kyng Alisand. ws, dat. (A. S. us). “w8-thoughte” (Chaucer), i.e. it appeared to us. “Than needeth us (dat.) no weapon us (ac.) to save.” (Id.) This pronoun in A. S. had a dual number: N. wit, G, wheer, D. and Ac, whe. Traces of this survive in the O. E. whker, “ of us two,” and wnke, “to us two; ” but not later than Henry III. The fuller form ic (I) is supposed by some to be identical with the numeral “one” (Sans, ela). The speaker is occasionally described as “number one.” * Morris, Allit. Poems, pref. p. xxviii. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 73 229. Inflection of the Second Personal Pronoun : . Singulwr. Plural. Nom, thou. - Nom, ye. Acc. thee. • Acc. you. Gen. thi-ne, thy. Gen. you-r, you-r-5. IDat, thee. Dat, you. 230. thou (A. S. and O. E. thu), dat. and acc. thee (A. S. the). In most of the Indo-European languages the second personal pronoun seems to be identical with the numeral two. Thou in Shakspere's time was frequently expressive of familiarity of contempt. “If thou thowest him some thrice, it shall not be amiss” (Twelfth Night). “All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper for I thow thee, thou traitor” (Coke). It was commonly employed in addressing inferiors. (See Jul. Caes. A. 1, S. 1, and Craik's note.) In modern English it is limited to poetry, poetical prose, and addresses to the Supreme Being. You was first used as a sing in the 13th century. In such phrases as “this son of thinue,” “a book of mine,” &c., we seem to have both the genitive suffix and the preposition, as in the Latin ad urb-em, we have both the preposition and the accusative suffix. This form of expression is used generally when the noun is accom- panied by a demonstrative pronoun, or by the indefinite article— although in O. E. we meet with “this thy Son,” &c. It indicates pos- session. See Syntax (§ 485). thi-ne (A. S. and O. E. thi-m). See remarks on mi-me, § 227. Its true genitival character is seen in the old English phrase “maugre thin,” (Havelok the Dame), i.e. “in spite of thee.” gye (A. S. ge). Aſ frequently takes the place of an earlier g. The O. E. writers treated ye as a nom, and you as an accus. “I know you not, whence ye are.” (Eng. Bib.) The later writers confused them, and in modern English ye is found only in poetry; you is the ordinary form in prose. $you, acc. and dat. (A.S. eow, O. E. Vow, ow, ow). This word is now used as a nominative, accusative, and dative. gow-r (A.S. eow-er, O. E. Jow-er, ow-r). e is lost, and, unlike mine and thine, the suffix r is retained when the noun is expressed. When the noun is omitted, in modern English a second genitive suffix 8 is added. In O. E. this s is frequently wanting. Thus Chaucer:- Fro that blisfull hour That I you swore to ben all freely your. This pronoun in O. E. (before A.D. 1300) had a Dual number; N, git, G. gunker D, and Ac. gunk (A. S. git, incer, inc). * 74 IDEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, Demonstratives. 231. Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out the position of the object to which they refer: Can this cockpit hold The vasty fields of France?—Shakspere. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade.—Gray. They are local adjectives; but, by omitting the object defined, they may be used as nouns: “What are these which are arrayed in white robes " " (Eng. Bib.) The following are Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, he, she, it, they, the, such, 80, yon, yonder. 232. The root of the demonstrative appears in the Indo-European lan- guages with the initial letters t, d, th, sh, h, followed by any of the vowels. 233. The following forms of the demonstrative are com- monly, but incorrectly, termed Personal pronouns:-- Singular. Plural, Masc. Fem. Neuter. M. F. N. Nom, he she it. Nom, they Acc. — tºº it. Acc. — Gen, hi-s her her-S it-s Gen. thei-r thei-r-s Dat. hi-m he-r it Lat. the-m 234. She. In A. S. there were two forms of the feminine demon- strative, he-0 and Se-0. Both are found in O. E. : “heo cryede’’= “she cried ” (Rob. Glouc.); and even he (= she) occurs in Robert of Brunne : “Thoghe he to him consente.” In modern provincial English it takes the form hoo (Lanc.). On the other hand, we find in Rob. of Glouc. and Langtoft, sheo, Scho, sho, and se. Of these two forms one naturally yielded to the other; Seo and Sho survive in the modern she. Compare the Latin hic and sic. ât (A.S. hit). The form hit is common in O. E.; t is usually considered a neuter suffix, but there is reason to believe that it is part of the original root. hi-8 masc. (A.S. hi-8, O. E. hy-S, hi-se). Thus Robert of Brunne, “maugre his,” i. e. “in spite of him.” Like the Lat, cujus, his in O. E. received the inflectional endings of an adjective : “And his-à disciples camen and took his body.” (Wiclif.) Hisen in provincial English is formed on the analogy of nine and thine. His in O. E. is occasionally used for her : That ilk yere the quene died in Lyndseie; At Westmynster, I wene, his body did they leie.-Rob. Glouc. *> DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 75 he-7" gen. (A.S. hi-re, O. E. hi-ré, he-ré, and hi-r). { it-8 (A. S. and O. E. hi-s). The neuter his is common in Old English as late as the 17th century: “I will examine all the kinds of love, his nature, beginning, difference, objects; how it is honest or dishonest, a vertue or a vice; hºS powers and effects; how far it extends.”—Burton (1621). The word exhibits three stages of development: (1), when it served for both masculine and neuter; (2), a period of uncertainty, when we find his, her, it, and very rarely, its. “It carryeth a sting in the top of her neck” (Topsell). “It knighthood and it friends” (Ben Jonson); and (3), when it received the ordinary gen, suffix -8. It does not occur in the authorized version of the Bible, its place being supplied by his, her, or thereof. In Shakspere, Bacon, and Milton, it occurs only in a few isolated passages. Dryden, on the other hand, was so familiar with the word, that he charges Ben Jonson with grammatical inaccuracy for employing his. Milton and Dryden seem, then, to mark the period of its general adoption in English literature.” hi-m, he-r, dat. (A.S. hi-m, hi-re). “Him thoughté that his herte wold breke” (Chaucer): i.e. it appeared to him. Him and her are now commonly used as accusatives. Hy-ne accus. masc. (A. S. hi-ne, O. E. hy-me). This form is seen occasionally in O. E. but it is generally displaced by him. The change occurred in the semi-Anglian period. It is somewhat doubtful whether the accusative hºm is the old dative, or an abbreviation of hime: The disciples that were his Anon hy hyme forsoke.—Will. de Shoreham. The old accusative feminine hi is replaced by her. Throughout the plural of this pronoun the initial asperate of the A. S. and O. E. appears as th in modern English — , they (A.S. hi, O. E. hi, h0, heo, hei, and thei). The old accusative hi is lost; its place is supplied by them. - thei-r (A.S. hi-ra, heo-ra, O. E. hire, heore, here, hir, hor, her, hires, heren, ther). See remarks on your (§ 230). The form heren or hern, found in old English, was unknown in A.S.:- That was heren (theirs), now hyt is thyne.—Rob, Glouc. the-m, dat. (A. S. hi-m, he-0m, O. E. he-m, h0-m, he-n, tha-m). “Hern thoght” (Rob. Brunne), i.e. it appeared to them. This dative is now used also as the accusative. Mandeville and Chaucer use they, but not them or their. * See Dr. Craik, Engl. of Shaks. p. 97; Mr. Watts, Trans. Phil, Soc, 1852; and Mr. Morris, Allit. Poems, pref. p. xxviii. 76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 235. In addition to the above, the following forms of the demonstrative are in general use : (1) this (sing.), these (plur.), used to point out objects near the speaker. (Lat. ho-.) This pencil take, she said, whose colours clear Richly paint the vernal year; Thine too these golden keys, immortal boy l—Gray (2) that (sing.), those (plur.), used to indicate objects distant from the speaker. (Lat. illo-.) And first review that long-extended plain, And yon wide groves already passed with pain.—Colling. Long hast thou lingered midst those islands fair, Which lie like jewels on the Indian deep.–Lamb. When two objects are named, this represents the latter ; that, the former. This can unlock the gates of Joy ; Of Horror that and thrilling Fears.--Gray They are also used as logical pronouns, i.e. they represent something of which we have been speaking without indi. cating its locality. I charge thee, fling away ambition: By that sin fell the angels.—Shakspere. 236. In O. E. the following forms of this occur :-Sing. N. this; Ac. thes-me, this, thos; D. thisse, thw88e; Plur. N. this, these, thw8é ; Ac, and D. themme.” - Thi-8, the-se, tho-se are reduplicated forms of the Compare the Germ. die-Se-r, the Greek tow-to, the French ce-ci, ce-la, and Latin hi-c(e). That (A. S. that, O. E. thet, thit) is the simple demonstrative. The final t is generally considered to be the neuter suffix; but see § 234. 237. The, which is commonly called the Definite Article, is in reality the demonstrative pronoun. In modern English it has no distinctions of gender, number, or case. In all the Indo-European languages in which the Definite Article is found, it is a form of the Demonstrative. In A. S. and O. E. it was declined like an adjective. * Coleridge, Gloss. Index. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 77 Inflection of the in O. E. Singular. Masc. - Fem. Neuter. N. the theo or tho thet or that Ac. then, thane thun * thet or that G, this thare or there this. D. thon, than, then thare or there thon, than, then Plural. the, theo or tho.” 238. Such, meaning “like this,” is sometimes a noun, “Mere strength of understanding would perhaps have made him such in any age” (De Quincey); and sometimes an adjec- tive : Such harmony is in immortal souls.-Shakspere. Such (A. S. Swi-lo, O. E. Swi-lk, si-lk 3-lyk, Swi-ch, Su-c) is a compound of the demonstrative 80, this, and lic, like. Com- pare the Latin ta-li-, and the Germ. S0-lch = 19-lich. Thi-lk (A. S. thy-lic, O.E. thi-lk, thu-lk, the lik, thi-ke), still found in provincial English, is a compound of the demonstrative the and lic, and so corresponds in meaning with such. In A. S. there was a form this-lic, and in O. E. we meet with the re- duplicated pronoun this-thulke (Rob. Glouc.). 239. So (A. S. Swa, O. E. sua, Sa), usually found as an adverb, is sometimes a demonstrative pronoun : We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons no doubt will think us so.-Pope. To. The word to in “to-day,” “to-night,” “to-morrow,” O. E “to-year,” “to-morn,” is another form of the Demonstrative. 240. Same (A.S. same, connected with root 8am, one) is frequently a Demonstrative. It is used both as an adjective and a noun, and is usually preceded by the, this, that, or which : Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame, And shines and soars, another and the same.—Darwin. * Coleridge, Gloss. Index. 78 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONoUNs. Republican spirit can only be combated by a spirit of the same nature.— Burke. Ilk and ilka (A. S. $/lc) are found in O. E. and L. Sc. with the meaning “Same.” 241. Another demonstrative pronoun is yon, yond (A. S. geond, O. B. yund), or yonder, meaning “that in the distance:” - Nor yon volcano's flaming fountains.—Shelley. Yond Cassius hath a lean and hungry look.-Shakspere. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled.—Goldsmith. They are also used as adverbs: Him that yon soars on golden wing.—Milton, Yond's that Same knave.-Shakspere, I and the lad will go yonder.—Eng. Bib. The adverb has two distinct meanings: (1) To that place, with verbs of motion, (2) at that place, with verbs of rest (Lat. illo and illic). 242. The following adverbs are formed from the demonstrative pro. noun he or the – 1. Simple. he-re (A. S. he-r), dat, “at this place.” hi-ther (A. S. hi-der, O. E. hi-der, he-ther), “to this place.” He-re with verbs of motion is a compression of he-ther, just as O, is contracted from other, where from whether, &c. ^*. hen-ce (A. S. hen-an, heon-a, O. E. hen-en, henn-á, he-them," henn-es, hen-s), “from this place.” In A. S. -an or -on is an adverbial suffix denoting motion from, as north-an, “from the north.” Compare Norse -than, and Greek -then ; en-then, Lat, in-de. how (A. S. hw, O. E. hoo, ho, howe), ablative, “in this manner.” In O. E. this word is frequently demonstrative, meaning so : More for eye than for love (mony mon serveth howe),—Rob, Gl. the-re (A. S. tha-r), dat, “at that place.” g thi-ther (A.S. thi-der, O. E. the dir, thi-der, thu-der), “to that place.” - The-re with verbs of motion is a contraction of the-der. then-cé (A. S. than-on, than-one, O. E. than-ene, thenºn-e, the-then, thenn-es, then-3), “from that place.” See remarks on “hence." ' * “The Norse forms, hethen, whethen, and thethen, seem to have been known to the West Midland dialect as well as the Saxon forms, hence, whence, thence, &c.”—Morris (Allit. Poems, p. xxxv.). S., INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNs. 79 so )A. S. and O. E. Swa), an ablative, “in this manner.” Lat, st-c. thus (A. S. thus, O. E. this), “ in this manner.” And while I stoode this dark and pale-Chaucer. then (A. S. thann-6, O. E. thann-á, thomn-á, thenn-á, tho, than), Dative, “at that time.” Full litle thought they than That the mighty Pan Was kindly come to live with them below.—Milton. thy (A.S. thy, O.E. thi), ablat. is found only in the O. E. compound for-thy, “for that reason,” therefore. Another form, the, is common in modern English before comparatives, “the more,” “ the less '' &c. 2. Compound. there-from there—at here-after there-fro, O. E. there—to here-by there-fore there-after here-unto there-forn, O. E. there—about(s) here-under there-thro, O. E. here-about(s) here-in-after, O. E. there-till, O. E. ... here-from here-in-before, O.E. there-in here-tofore hither-ward there-on here-in thither-ward there-of here-on hence-forth there—by here-of thence-forth there—with here—at hence-forward there-upon here-upon | thence-forward These compounds consist principally of the old case of the pronoun with the governing preposition suffixed. INTERROGATIVES AND RELATIVES. 243. The Interrogative pronoun is used in asking questions: Who thundering comes on blackest steed, With slackened bit and hoof of speed —Byron. The Relative refers to some person or thing previously mentioned, or to be mentioned: How blest is he, who crowns in shades like these A youth of labour with an age of ease 1-Goldsmith. JWho steals my purse, (he) steals trash-Shakspere. 80 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 244. The person or thing represented by the Relative is called the Antecedent, because it usually precedes the Relative. The Relative is often used to connect sentences; it is then eluivalent in meaning to a conjunction and a noun. , 245. The Interrogative pronouns are who, what, whe-ther, which, who-ever, what-ever, which—ever. The Relative pronouns are who, what, which, who-ever, what-ever, which—ever, who-so, who-SO-ever, what-80-ever, which-80-ever, that, as, and but (negative). 246. In most languages the same root is employed for the interro- gative and the relative. It appears in the Indo-European family with the following initial letters; p, k, qu, t, d, wh, hºw, h. 247. Who (A. S. hwa, O. E. hwo, hoo, ho), nom., sing. and plur., masc. and fem., interrog, and rel. In the Anglian and early English writers this form of the pronoun is used only as an interrogative.” The relative is that, that. Even Ben Jonson does not recognise it as a relative ; “one relative, which " (Eng. Gram.). In the authorized version of the Bible, the relative is occasionally who, but commonly that. In Old English writers it is sometimes incorrectly used as a neuter : “sins who " (Jer. Taylor); “vainglories who" (Sir T. Browne). It is never employed as an adjective. Who-se (A. S. hwæ-8, O. E. wa-3, who-s), gen, sing, and plur., masc. fem. and (sometimes) neuter, interr. and rel. In Anglian and early English writers it is employed only as an interrogative, and is of all genders. In modern English its use as a neuter is properly limited to poetry : With many a shell in whose hollow-wreathed chamber We Peris of ocean by moonlight have slept.—Moore. And even in poetry the inanimate objects are frequently personified, Who-m (A.S. hwá-m, O. E. hwa-m, wha-m, wa-m), dat, and acc., sing. and plur., masc. and fem., interr. and rel. In A. S. this form is only interrogative and dative, of all genders. In O. E. it is very rarely relative, and then usually accompanied by the preposition to. It is generally masculine or feminine, but occasionally neuter: “Good dysportes and honest gamys in whom a man joyeth without any repentence after" (Book of St. Albans). In modern English it is also used as an accusative, * Trans, Phil. Soc. 1860, p. 64. For a modification of this view see Hall, Off, and D. of Kyngis (note to 1. 115), and Furnival, Phil, Soc. Trans. 1865. - INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 81 The old accusative (A. S. hwo-ne, O. E. hwa-n, who-n, wa-n) is found in early English writers. Whom is never employed as an adjective. 248. What (A. S. hwæt, O. E. wat), interr. and relative. In A, S, it is only interrogative and singular, and is never employed as an adjec- tive. In modern English it is (1) Interrogative: if used without a noun, it is singular and neuter; if the noun is expressed, it is of any gender and either number. (2) Relative : it is singular and neuter, and equivalent in meaning to that which: “What he bids be done is finished with the bidding” (Shakspere), i.e. that which he bids, &c. What—what is sometimes used elliptically to connect sentences: “But now in our memorie, what by decay of the haven, and what by overthrow of Religious Houses and losse of Calice, it is brought in manner to miserable nakednesse and decay.”—Lambert. It is frequently used elliptically to express indignation or surprise: What did Cesar swoon ?—Shakspere. Who is also an indefinite pronoun (see $260). 249. Whe-ther (A. S. hwæ-ther, O. E. whe-dyr, wer), interrogative direct and indirect. It is the pronoun who, with the old com- parative suffix -ther, and means “which of the two.” Compare the Latin M-tero- and the Greek po-tero-. “Whether of them twain did the will of his father?” Eng. Bib. “In Moronio Pia or Moronio Felix—I know not whether—a fat prebend fell void.”—Burton. 250. Whi-ch (A. S. hwi-lc, O. E. hwi-lk, whi-lk, whºl-lk, hwu-cche, ww-ch); interrog. and rel, of any gender and either number. It is a compound of hwa and lic, “like what :” compare Latin qua-li. and German we-leh-er. As an interrogative it differs slightly in mean- ing from who, “Who spoke 7" asks the question generally and inde. finitely. “Which spoke 7" inquires for a particular individual among a definite number. As a relative, in modern English, it is limited to inanimate and irrational beings. It has no inflectional cases, and is used both as an adjective and a noun. Which is not used as a rela- tive by Wiclīf (1380), but frequently by Tyndale (1534); which that is a relative in Chaucer. - 251. Who-ever, what-ever, which-ever, interrog, and relat. In the interrogative the suffix -ever marks emphatic surprise; “Who-ever can it be?” In the relative it emphatically includes all, no matter who. Who-So, who-80-ever, what-80-ever, which-S0-ever. These forms are all relative. In who-80-ever, who is declined; whose-80-ever, whom-so-ever in O. E. the latter elements of the compound are frequently separated by intervening words: “ of what kind 80 ever it may be,” Compare G 82 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. the Latin “qui me eunque widit.” Wiclif does not use whosoever, but it frequently occurs in Tyndale. 252. That (A. S. that, O. E. thet, thit, thui). This word, originally a demonstrative, is the relative in A. S. and O. E. It is employed for all genders and both numbers. It is often used in O. E. (like what) as an equivalent for that which, “That God loveth, thou shalt love” (Rob. Brunne). The relative and demonstrative forms are frequently interchanged, and were probably identical in origin. 253. As (A. S. al-8wa, O. E. al-8wa, al-8). This word is a contraction of al-80; it is, however, occasionally found as a relative, generally when the antecedent is Same or such : Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valour As thou art in desire?—Shaks. Tears such as angels weep, burst forth, Milton. i.e. tears like those which angels weep. But is frequently equivalent in meaning to a relative and a negative. Compare the Latin quin =qui non. There is no vice so simple, but assumes - Some mark of virtue on its outward parts.-Shakspere, i. e. which does not assume, &c. 254. The Adverbs formed ‘rom the Interrogative and Relative pronoun are the following: (1) Simple. whe-re (A. S. hwæ-r, O.E. wha-re), dat, fem. “at what place.” whi-ther (A. S. hwæ-der, O. E. whi-der, who-der, wo-der, wo-ther, whé-ther), “to what place.” Where, with verbs of motion, is a compression of whe-ther. Cf. there=the-der (§ 242). when-ce (A. S. hwan-on, O. E. whom-ene, whan-ene, whe-then, whann-es, whenn-68), gen, “from what place.” See remarks on hence (§ 242). - - when (A. S. hwænn-e, O. E. hwann-á, hwenn-6, whann-4, whenn-á, hwan, whan, wan, wome), dat, “at what time.” why (A. S. hwi, O. E. hwi, whi, wi, wy, wu), ablat, “for what reason.” ” how (A. S. hwu, hu, O. E. hou, wu), ablat, “in what manner.” whether (A. S. hwæ-ther, O. E. whe-dyr, wer), “which of the two.” * Ye habbeth iherd, as ich ow tolde, Por-wh; God the world maken wolde-Castle of Love, 568. REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. 83 (2) Compound. where-ever how-ever whence-so-ever When-ever where-so-ever how-so-ever why-ever when-so-ever whither-so-ever The following have the governing preposition suffixed: where-at where-in where-unto where-by where-of where-upon where-fore where-on . where-with where-about(s) where-to where-with-al Possessives. 255. Possessive pronouns are the genitive cases of the personal, demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronouns, I, thou, he, who, employed as adjectives. 'Twas mine, ’tis his.-Shakspere. They are—my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, its, their, theirs, whose. Reflective Pronouns, 256. A pronoun which represents the subject of the verb in any case but the nominative, is called Reflective, from the Tatin reflect-, “bend back,” because the agent is supposed to bend the action back upon himself. There is no such pronoun in A. S. or modern English. To express the fact that the agent is acting upon himself, the Personals and the Demonstratives, him, her, it, them, were employed in O. E., and are sometimes so used by modern Writers : - I thought me richer than the Persian king.—Ben Jonson. They were commanded to make them ready.—J. Fox. Right as a serpent hideth him under flowers.—Chaucer, He sat him down at a pillar's base.—Byron. A more emphatic mode of expressing the reflective idea is to subjoin the word self to these pronouns. “Thou hast G 2 84 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. undone thy-self” (Shakspere); “Bid him arm him-self” (id.); “You wronged your-self to write in such a cause” (id.). 257. Self (A. S. Self, sylf, O. E. sylf, sulf, selve, Sull, selm, Sell). This word in A. S. is an adjective, like the Latin ipso- and the Greek auto-, and agrees in gender, number, and case, with the pronoun it emphasises: me sylfºne, acc. (myself); me sylf-wm, dat. (myself); us sylf-e, acc, and dat. (ourselves). These emphatic forms were sometimes viewed as compounds, and employed without altering the pronoun, to strengthen the nominative : Ic me-sylf, “I myself; ” thu thé-sylf, “ thou thyself;” but we also find ic Sylf, thu sylf, we sylfe, &c. In early English me-sylf and the sylf, (“Bread that thou est the-sulf” Rob. Gl.), were often written mi-sylf or my-sylf, and thi-sylf or thy-sylf, and these apparent genitives originated the false plurals our-selves for 0. E. us-Selven, or ug- self, “We sle natus-Self” (Rob. Br.), and your-selves for O. E. yow-selven, or yow-self. “Ye begyle yow-self, and nat me" (id.). In O. E. we find even his-Self and their-selves : “Every of us, each for hisself, laboured how to recover him " (Sidney). “That they would willingly and of theirselves endeavour to keep a perpetual chastity.” In herself, her is the dative; and it-self is no contraction from its-Self. In O. E. the plura. suffix -e was either lost (us-Self), or changed to -en (us-Selv-en). In later times self is sometimes a noun: “Swear by thy gracious self” (Shakspere); and sometimes an adjective : “Being over full of self affairs, my mind did lose it " (id.). “In the sulf yere’’ (Rob. Glouc.). To express the adjectival Reflective (Lat. suo-), we use the word own (A. S. agen, O. E. owé, awen) with the genitive of the pronoun, “Wirtue is its own reward” (Home). Reciprocal Pronouns. 258. Reciprocity of feeling or action is expressed by the combination each other, one another. Did we but love each other as this poor soul loved his ass, it would be something.—Sterne. Little children, love One another.—Eng. Bib. In these phrases each and one are nominatives—subjects of the verb ; other and another are accusatives—objects of the verb : “ love each other” = “each love the other ” INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. - 85 Each other refers to two, one another to any number above $. ...tº O. In such expressions as “after each other,” “to one another,” &c., the place of the preposition has been disturbed. In O. E. we find “one to another,” and “each after other.” A thousand sighes hotter than the glede Out of his breast each after other went—Chaucer. Indefinite Pronouns. 259. An Indefinite Pronoun represents a noun without specifying any individual. Thus any means one of a certain number, but which among the number is not stated. The following are Indefinite pronouns: who, any, whit, aught, naught, other, one, some. 260. Who, in addition to its use as an Interrogative or Relative, is sometimes Indefinite. ““As who seith.” (Chaucer), i.e. “as one may say.” Than preyede the riche man Abraham That he wolde send Lazare or sum other wham.—Rob. Brugºne. Hit oghte be told to every wham.—Id. Similarly we find some—who (Gower) = “some one,” Some—what, O. E. nigh-what, and any-what. The adverbs from the Indefinite who are some-where, some-how, no- where, no-how, any-where, any-how, else—where, O. F. no-whither, some- when. 261. An-y (A. S. aen-ig, O. E. an-ie, en-y, en-i, on-y, on-i). This is the numeral one, and a diminutive suffix -īg or -y, Compare the Latin wllo-, diminutive of Wno-. It is employed both as an adjective and a noun. With singular nouns it often implies quantity; with plural nouns it always refers to number. It has three distinct meanings: (1) with words of negation or limitation it excludes all (Lat. ullus): “It is not alleged that, to gratify any anger or revenge of my own, I have had a share in wronging or oppressing any description of men, or any one man of any description " (Burke). (2) It means any whatever any you please (Lat. gwivis). “Mere strength of understanding would, perhaps, have made him such in any age” (De Quincey). (3) It means any indefinitely (quis). “Who is here so base that would be a bond- man? If any, speak” (Shakspere) 86 DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 262. Aught (A. S. a-wiht, aht, O. E. oght, L. Sc. ocht). The A. S. wiki (Ger. wicht) is the English whit and wight, “thing” or “person,” and q-wiht seems to mean “anything.” Woe, woe for England not a whit for me.—Shakspere. Perhaps a whit in such phrases should be written awhit, although whit is also found without a. Our youth and wildness shall no whit appear.—Id. W-aught (A. S. n-ahi, O. E. navighte, nat, noght) is the negative nº and aught, “not anything.” The adverb not (A. S. nate, 0. E. nat, nought) is a compound of ne and wiht. Compare Germ. n-icht = ne-wicht. 263. 0-ther (A. S. a-ther, O. E. 0-der). This is probably the numeral one and the suffix -ther. See the Germ. an-der and 0-der. It is used both as a noun and an adjective. The noun has a genitive singular, other's (0. E. other-63), and a plural others (0. E. other-es, other-á). In O. E. this plural suffix is often lost. w Other there be whose lives do linger still in pain.—Surrey. With the it was used in A. S. and O. E. for the ordinal numeral “second,” and a contracted form is not uncommon in our earlier writers. pº The tame" couth to the tother complain.--Dunbar. When an precedes, the two are united: another. 264. One (A. S. man, O. E. mon). See § 201. Some (A. S. and O. E. Sum, 80m) is sometimes a noun and sometimes an adjective: “Some fell by the wayside.” “Some natural tears they dropt” (Milton). In the singular, when employed as a noun, it usually implies quantity: “Some of his skill he taught to me.” (Scott); in the plural, number : “Some wish to be rich, for whom it were better a great deal to be poor” (Ascham); but in O. E. the singular not unfre- quently represents a single person : “Some asks mair than he deserves.” (Dunbar). “Some all his days drives o'er in vain.”—Id. Other-some. This compound occurs not unfrequently in O. E. : How happy some o'er other-some can be ſ—Shakspere. Distributive Pronouns. 265. A Distributive pronoun represents a noun, and at the game time specifies more than one individual of the class. * The tane = thet ane, and the tother = thet other a DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, - 87 Thus each means every individual of a certain class viewed separately. - Each circling wheel a wreath of flowers entwines.--Darwin. The Distributive pronouns are each, every, either, neither. 266. Each (A.S. Cº-le, O. E. i-lk, i-lka, y-che, e-ch) is a compound of ae, probably meaning “one,” and lic, “like.” The lik has become ch. Compare whi-lk and whi-ch, swi-lk and su-ch, mikel and much. It is used either as an adjective or a noun: Each had his place appointed, each his course.—Milton. Each ivied arch and pillar lone - Pleads haughtily for glories gone.—Byron. Every (O. E. ever-ilk, ever-ich, ever-ech, ever-ie), a compound of ever and ilk. While each refers to individuals considered separately (quisque), its compound every refers to individuals considered collectively (omnis), “each and all:” “A storm of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, destroyed every temple” (Burke). In modern English it is used only as an adjective, and on that ground has been excluded by some writers from the class of pronouns; but in O. E. it is frequently employed as a noun: And everich had a chaplet on her head.—Chaucer. 267. Either (A. S. Geghway-ther, agg-ther, asy-ther, gº-ther, a-ther, O. E. oft-ther, ei-the, eith, 0-ther). The A. S. aeg-hwa, “whoever,” “everyone,” is compounded of aeg (Germ. evig), “ever,” and hwa, “who,” and the suffix -ther means “of two.” Hence either, a compression of aeg-hwae-ther, means “whichever of the two you please.” It is sometimes a noun, and sometimes an adjective. But never either found another w To free the hollow heart from paining.—Coleridge. Sometimes it has the meaning of “both.” On either side Is level fen, a prospect wild and wide, With dike on either hand.—Crabbe. Wiclif uses the compound ever-either=both. Neither (A. S. náther, O. E. mother) is either with the negative prefix ne. It is sometimes a noun, and sometimes an adjective. 88 WERB3, 268, Table of simple Pronominal Adverbs. Pronouns. Place where. Motion to, Motion from. Time when. Manner. Cause. whi-ther whe- whe-re Or when-ce when how wh-y where thi—ther the the- the-re Ol' then-ce then thus for-thy there O. E. hi-ther so he- he-re Ol" hen-ce * how — here O. E. For the Compound Adverbs see sections 251, 256. VERBS. 269. Verb is the grammatical term for an action, i.e. doing Something; as run, stand, write, see, think. 270. An action does not necessarily imply motion. It may, or may not, be accompanied by movement. Run, Strike, walk, imply change of position, i.e. motion; stand, sit, hear, live, imply no change of position. All of these are actions: i. e. they show that the agent is doing something. 271. The source of an action, w.e. the person or thing from which the action proceeds, is called the subject of the verb: Ax. Indian maid rushed from a thicket behind him.—Steele. The merry lark has poured His early Song against yon breezy sky.—Keats. 272, The actions of animate beings are figuratively ascribed to inanimate objects: VERBS. 89 The smoke goes dancing from the cottage trees.—L. Hunt. The last few leaves came fluttering from the trees.—Id. The wild cataract leaps in glory.—Tennyson. Hence abstract nouns, simple or compound, are employed as the subjects of verbs: Experience and sensation in vain persuade; hope, more powerful than either, dresses out the distant prospect in fancied beauty.—Goldsmith. To fly was impossible.—Prescott. [To astonish as well as to sway by his energies] became the great end of his life, Channing. - 273. The person or thing towards which the action is directed is called the object of the verb : I shot the albatross-Coleridge. I'll Smoothly steer my little boat.—Keats. And his hand forbore [to smite the ore].-Mackay. I thought ſten thousand swords must have leapt from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult].—Burke. 274. When the action is directed towards some specified object, the verb is termed transitive ; when the action affects the agent only, the verb has no object and is called intransi. tive or neuter, or, more correctly, reflective: The sea-bird rises, as the billows rise.—Landor. He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all.—Goldsmith. 275. Intransitive verbs are frequently employed as transi- tives : Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap.–Gray. I cannot heave my heart into my mouth.-Shakspere, Nay, you must not freeze.—Id. Chill penury repressed their noble rage And froze the genial current of the soul-Gray, 90 WERBS, 276. When the source of the action is not known, the verb, if active, is said to be impersonal. There are no such verbs in English.* In me-seems and me-thinks, i.e. “it appears to me,” the subject is expressed in the words that follow or precede the verb: Methinks [the lady doth protest too much]—Shakspere. [There is no place in paradise So good in for to dwell or be As in that garden], thoughté me.—Chaucer. In such phrases as “it rains,” “it snows,” the source of the action was unknown ; but, as the subject in English is usually expressed, the unknown noun was represented by the neuter pronoun it. Werbs So used are frequently called whipersonal, because they are always of the third person singular. 277. When the object of a transitive verb is the same person or thing as the subject, the verb is called reflective: Thou hast undone thyself.-Shakspere. . He threw himself, tired and breathless, on a little hillock.—Steele. Tanguages which possess a reflective pronoun ($ 256) usually have a separate form for the reflective verb. It consists of the active verb with the reflective pronoun suffixed. As there is no such pronoun in English, there is no special form for verbs of this nature. The expe- dients employed to express the action of the agent upon itself are described in § 256. 278. It is sometimes inconvenient, or impossible, to specify the agent or source of the action. For example, a bird is found killed. It is evident that the action (kill) has been performed; but the agent is unknown. In such cases it was usual to ascribe the action to the object itself, and to say, “the bird has killed itself.” Compare the French s'appeller, “to be called.” Languages which possess a reflective form of the verb employ it for this purpose: but, in English, where no such form exists, we express our ignorance of the real agent by employing the verb be and the perfect participle: “the bird is killed;” i.e. “the bird is an object deprived of life.” - * Verba Impersonalia proprie non habemus; sed quae Latini Imper- sonaliter efferunt, nos efferimus personaliter, praefixa voce nominitiva £t.—Wallis, c. xii. M OOD. 91 279. When the subject of the verb is the actual agent, the verb is called active: “I shot the albatross.” When the object of the verb is for convenience assumed to be the agent, the verb is called passive: “the albatross was shot.” …” An active verb is said to be of the active voice ; a passive verb, of the passive voice. - 280. As passive verbs have grown out of reflectives, and reflectives have no special form in English, there can be no Special form for the passive. They are expressed by a com- bination of the verb be and the perfect participle. - The perfect participle formed by inflection is passive, if the verb from which it is formed is transitive; but we sometimes find participles So formed from intransitive verbs, as come, arrived, &c. In such cases the combination with be produces, not a passive, but a reflective verb: “he is come,” “they are arrived.” Some writers would alter these into “he has come,” “they have arrived.” This alteration is both in- accurate and unnecessary. 281. As the subject of the passive was once the object of an active verb, passives can be formed only from transitives. Mood. 282. Mood (from the Latin modus, mode or manner) is a grammatical term, signifying the manner of expressing an aotion, i.e. the way in which we speak of it. 283. In simply stating a fact or asking a question, we employ the Indicative mood, so called from a Latin word meaning to “declare’ or “assert.” Then came wand'ring by A shadow like an angel, with bright hair Dabbled in blood, and he shrieked out aloud— Clarence is come, false, fleeting, perjured Clarence That stabbed me in the field by Tewkesbury. Shakspere. 92 - MOOD. Who bade the sun Clothe you with rainbows? Who with living flowers Of Joveliest hue spread garlands at your feet? Coleridge. 284. When we command or advise an action to be per- formed, we use the Imperative mood, or manner of speaking : Rear up his body; wring him by the nose.—Shakspere. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself—English Bible. 285. When we speak of an action as dependent upon another action, we employ the Subjunctive mood, or subjoined manner of expressing the proposition. Thus, “It was so’ is Indicative—the statement of a fact : If it were so, it is a grievous fault (Shakspere), is Subjunctive—the statement of a possible fact : it implies that the speaker disbelieves the statement, or is uncertain whether it is true or false. - 286. When an action is mentioned without reference to the agent or to the time, we use the Infinitive mood: To die—to sleep—perchance to dream.—Shakspere. The Infinitive mood is properly a verbal noun, and as such can form either the subject or the object of a verb. “To play delights the child;” “the child likes to play.” It differs, however, from an ordinary noun in the following narticulars: (a) It is capable of showing whether the action is complete, incom- plete, intended, &c. (§ 296.) (b) If the verb from which it is derived is active and transitive, it takes an object marking the direction of the action: “I love to hear the honest watch-dog's bark.”—Byron. (c) It is used in the singular number only, as being an abstract in Q titl. MOOD. 93 In some languages thi verbal noun is declined, and even in English we occasionally find it governed by a preposition: And sculptures that can keep them from to die.—B. Jonson. 287. In A. S., and in most inflected languages, the Infinitive is formed by a suffix. Thus, A. S. gang (go); Infin, gang-an (Germ. geh-en). In semi-Saxon and O. E. -an became -en, gang-en; in later English n was lost, gang-á, as in old Fris. help-a (to help), and Old Norse far-a (to fare or go); and in modern English the suffix disappeared. To is not found in A. S. before the Nom. and Acc. of the Infinitive, and even in modern English it is not inserted after the following verbs: may, can, shall, will, dare, let, bid, make, must, see, hear, feel, do, need, and have. The cause of its later appearance may be thus explained. In A. S. the Infinitive was declined as follows: N. and Ac. writ-an, to write. Dat. to writ-ann-e, for writing. This Dative is usually called the Gerund, and the term Infinitive is limited to the Nom. and Accus. When, in later times, the inflectional endings were lost, the origin of the separate forms write and to write was forgotten, and the preposition was inaccurately applied to all cases of the Infinitive. This confusion is first observed in semi-Anglian writers, when the occasional omission of the Dative suffix -e effaced the distinction of case. The Dat. to writ-ann-e, by the omission of the case-ending, appears as to writ–an, and the Nom. and Accus. writ-an, in consequence of this accidental resemblance, improperly received the preposition to. In O. E. we sometimes find at instead of to before the Infinitive ; “That es at say,” i.e. “that is to say.” This is a Norse form, and is due to the Scandinavian conquerors of England. The Nom. and Acc. writ-an afterwards assumed the forms writ-em, writ-in, and finally, writ—ing; * and this form of the Infinitive is alsc known to modern grammarians as the Gerund. Hence the identity of meaning in writing and to write. Declension of the Infinitive Indefinite. N. and Ac. (to) write, writing. JJat. to write. *m-. * The existence of a class of abstract nouns in -ing (A. S. ung) doubtless facilitated the change from -in to -ing. A similar change may be seen in the formation of the Imp. Part. See §322. The term gerund, an unmeaning word borrowed from the classical grammarians, might be advantageously excluded from the grammar of the English language, 94 TENSE. Tense 288. Tense, from the Latin tempus, “time,” means the time when an action is performed. - As every action must take place at one, of the three divi- sions of time, the Present, the Past, or the Future, there are naturally three Tenses—the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and the Future Tense. - 289. It is possible to speak of an action at any time as unfinished. Thus, “I am writing now" (Present); “I was writing at one o'clock yesterday” (Past); “I shall-be writing at one o'clock to-morrow” (Future). An unfinished action is said to be Imperfect, from a Latin word meaning “unfinished.” - 290. It is possible to speak of an action at any time as finished: “I have written my letter now” (Present); “I had written my letter at one o'clock yesterday” (Past); “I shall have written my letter at one o'clock to-morrow” (Future). A finished action is said to be Perfect, from a Latin word meaning “finished.” * 291. An action may be mentioned in an indefinite manner as simply Present, Past, or Future, without specifying any conditions: “I write” (Present); “I wrote” (Past); “I shall write” (Future). 292. We may intimate at any time our intention to perform a certain action: “I am going to write” (Present); “I was going to write” (Past); “I shall be going to write” (Future). 293. The Indefinites (with the exceptions mentioned in §§ 297, 298) strictly refer to a point of time and to a single act; the Imperfects are in their nature continuow8. The Imperfects are relatively present; the Perfects are relatively past; the Intentionals are relatively future. 294, The Perfect and the Intentional have each in the active voice a second form, to show that the action has lasted for a certain time, or been continuous up to the time specified in the tense. Thus, “I have been writing for the last three hours” (Present Perfect Continuous); “I have been going to write to him for the last month” (Present Inten- TENSE. 95 tional Continuous); “I had been writing” (Past Perfect Continuous); “I had been going to write” (Past Intentional Continuous); “I shall have been writing” (Future Perfect Continuous); “I shall have been going to write” (Future Intentional Continuous). 295. To these some writers would add the forms “I do write,” “I did write,” “I shall write.” These, however, seem to be merely expe- dients for emphasizing the Indefinite tenses. 296. An action, then, may be mentioned in six different ways in each of the three divisions of time: Past. Present, Future. 1. Indefinite. Indefinite, Indefinite. 2. Imperfect. Imperfect. Imperfect. 3. Perfect. Perfect. Perfect. 4. Intentional. Intentional. ; Intentional. Continuous Forms, 5. Perfect. Perfect. Perfect. 6. Intentional. Intentional. Intentional. Fa'amples. Past. Present. Future. 1. Ind. I wrote. I write. I shall write. 2. Imp. I was writing. I am writing. I shall be writing. 3. Perf. I had written. I have written. I shall have written, 4. Int, I was going to write. I am going to write, I shall be going to write, Continuous Forms. 5. Perf. I had been writing. I have been writing. I shall have been writing. 6. Int. I had been going to I have been going to J shall have been go- write. write. ing to write. Although, correctly speaking, there are but three tenses, each of the above subdivisions is commonly, but inaccurately, tormed a tense. 297. It should be remarked, that in modern English the Pregent Indefinite has nine distinct significations : 96 TENSE. (1) It expresses a single act at the present time. This, from its nature, is rarely found except in dramatic writing. It is illustrated in the following passage from Ivanhoe, where Rebecca reports to the sick knight what she is witnessing:—* “He blenches not, he blenches not I see him now : he leads a body of men close under the outer barrier of the barbican. They pull down the piles and palisade; they hew down the barrier with axes. His high black plume floats abroad over the throng, like a raven over the field of the slain. They have made a breach in the barriers—. they rush in-they are thrust back. Front de Boeuf heads the defenders, I see his gigantic form above the press, They throng again to the breach, and the pass is disputed hand to hand, and man to man. God of Jacob it is the meeting of two fierce tides—the conflict of two oceans moved by adverse winds.” 2) It is employed by writers of animated narrative to describe past events, and is then called the Historic Present. Soon is the court convened; the jewelled crown Shimes on a menial's head : amid the throng The monarch stands, and anxious for the event His heart beats high.-Southey. 3) It is used as a Future Indefinite : Duncan comes here to-night.-Shakspere, This is a remnant of the old language. In Anglo-Saxon, and in all the languages of the Teutonic stock, there is no separate form for the Future. The Present Indefinite is used with a future signification. (4) It is employed as a Future Perfect: For till thou Speak, thou shalt not pass from hence (Shakspere); i.e. till thou shalt have spoken. Prof. Key. Lat. Gram. § 449, and notc. TENSE, 97 (5) It expresses a wniversal truth : The sports of children Satisfy the child,—Goldsmith. Love is strong as death; jealousy is cruel as the grave, – Eng. Bib, (6) A repeated act : And in this state she gallops night by night Through lovers' brains, and then they dream of love— Shakspere, (7) An habitual state: Let the gods so speed me, as I love The name of honour more than I fear death.--Id. (8) A permanent condition: The mountains look on Marathon, And Marathon looks on the Sea.—Byron. (9) It expresses the possession of some faculty: My wife sings, plays, and dances well.—Shakspere, 298. The Past Indefinite also has five distinct significations: (1) It expresses a single act in past time : I found her in her chamber, reading Plato's “Phaedo” in Greek.-Ascham. (2) A repeated act: And a good South wind sprung up behind; The albatross did follow, And every day, for food or play, Came to the mariner's hollo.—Coleridge. (3) H.abitual state : During his exile he delivered himself so entirely to his plea. Sures, that he became incapable of application.—Burnet, (4) Permanent condition : - A garden Girded it round with a belt of luxuriant blossoms.- Longfellow. (5) Possession of some faculty: He wrote better than any of those whom he employed.--- Mahon, EI 98 TENSE. 299. The tenses given in § 206 represent the Inducative mood of an active verb. - The Imperative mood contains two tenses only, the Present and the Future, Present. Future. Sin. 2d pers. Write. Sin. 2d pers. Thou shalt write. Plu 2d , Write. ,, 3d , He shall write. Plu. 2d pers. Ye or you shall write , 3d , They shall write. 300. From the nature of this mood there can be no past tense, nor can the action be mentioned as finished or perfect. As the speaker does not command himself, there is no first person. In the Present tense there can be no third person, because the order is given only to the person addressed. In the Future tense the time allows the order to be communicated to others. The Present Imperative is, correctly speaking, an immediate Future. It is sometimes indefinite, marking a single act : Strike, as thou didst at Caesar.—Shakspere. And sometimes it indicates a continuous or permanent state : Fret, till your proud heart break.-Shakspere. .* Honour thy father and thy mother.—Eng. Bib. The Future exhibits the same variations of meaning: Single act : Thou shalt make two cherubims of gold.—1d. Continuous: Thou shalt not afflict any widow or fatherless child.—Id. 301. The tenses of the Subjunctive mood are generally expressed either by the same forms as those used in the Indicative, or by means of certain irregular verbs. 302. In the mother tongue a difference of form distinguished the Subjunctive from the Indicative. Traces of this distinction are still wisible in the modern language. As in A. S., the personal suffixes are rejected : I hear, thow hear-est, he hear-s (Indicative); I hear, thou hear, he hear (Subjunctive). The final e in “I wer-e” is a true Subjunctive suffix Be in A. S. is not the Subjunctive of am. 803. The modifications of the Infinitive (active) are: 1, Indefinite [to] write. 2. Imperfect ſtol be writing. TENSE. 99 £RAL I i 3. Perfect. [to] have written. zººs, 4. Intentional. [to] be going to write. Continuous Forms. 5. Perfect. [to] have been writing. 6. Intentional. [to] have been going to write, The Infinitive being a noun (§ 286) is incapable of express. ing the time when the action takes place, and is therefore destitute of tense. The above modifications of this verbal noun are commonly, but incorrectly, termed the Tenses of the Infinitive. Each may be employed in connexion with the Present, Past, or Future, according to the time of the principal verb. - 304. The tenses of the English verb are formed (1) by inflection; (2) by the combination of an auxiliary verb (be have, shall, will, go) with a participle, or with the Infin. Indef, The Past Indefinite (active) is the only tense formed by inflection. In the active voice the Imperfect and Inten- tional tenses are formed by the verb be; the Perfect tenses by the verb have ; and the Future tenses by shall or will. The English verb is destitute of a Perfect Participle Active. Hence the regular formation of the Perfect tenses was impossible. To remedy this defect, we employ the verb have, and the Passive Participle quali- fying the object of the verb; e.g. I have written a letter = I have a letter written (Habeo epistolam scriptam); I have ascertained this = I have this ascertained (Id compertum habeo). 305. Werbs in modern languages are classed according to the formation of their inflected tenses, and each class is called a conjugation. As there are two modes of forming the only inflected tense in English, there are two conjugations of English verbs. The Past Indefinite (active) is formed, (1) by modifying the root-vowel, write, wrote; (2) by the addition of t, d, or -ed, reap-t, 8well-'d, end-ed. Verbs of the first class are said to be of the strong conju- gation ; of the second class, of the weak conjugation. 't - -- .--~ *** # \ ^*iversity, 3/CHIGAA .* H 2 100 TENSE. 306. The modification of the root-vowel is probably due to a redupli- cation which is now lost. The initial consonant was repeated with a connecting vowel, as in Latin can- “sing,” ce-cin- “sang,” and the two syllables were afterwards contracted: fac-, do; fºſſic- or fêo-, di-d. A solitary example of this process exists in modern English in the verb do, di-d. (Compare Latin da- “give,” de-d- “gave.”) 307. Occasionally two forms of the modified vowel co-exist, as sang and Sung. In A. S. the first and third persons singular had a, the rest w, In modern English this distinction is not observed. 308. In the weak conjugation the suffix of the Past Indefinite in A. S. is -066, -de, or-te. In O.E. it is -036, -ude, -ede, -id, -de, -te: asc-ode, ask-ed; clep-ude, called; lok-ede, looked; ask-id, asked; ley-de, laid; bogh-te, bought. This suffix is said to be identical with did, the Past Indefinite of do.” 309. The formation of this tense, in modern English, is guided by the same principles that regulate the formation of the plural of nouns. (§ 104.) - (1) When the verb ends in a sharp mute, t is added: clip, clip-t; reap, reap-t: look, look-t; laugh, laugh-t. This is usually written -ed. (2) When the verb ends in a flat mute, a liquid or a vowel, d is added : rub, rubb-d; fill, fill-d ; flow, flow-d. This is usually written -ed. (3) In verbs ending in t or d, the original vowel is retained : part, part-ed; mend, mend-ed. A few verbs ending in a liquid exhibit the peculiarity of two forms for this tense : one regular and obsolete, by adding d; the other irregular and current, by adding t. dwell, dwel-t, O. E. dwelled. spell, spel-t, O. E. spell-ed. learn, learn-t, O. E. learn-ed. spill, spil-t, O. E. spill-ed. smell, smel-t, O. E. Smell-ed. spoil, spoil-t, O. E. spoil-ed. 310. The following variations occur: (a) Some verbs in t have no suffix: as cut, put, beat, slit, &c. These verbs were originally of the strong conjugation. (b) Some verbs in d have no suffix, and change the d inte tº lend, lent ; Send, Sent, &c. * Max Müll. Lectures, pp. 219, 220, se- NUMBER. 10] (c) It some verbs the root-vowel is modified, and # or d added will, woul-d; shall, shoul-d; Sleep, slep-t; tell, told, &c. (d) In some the root-vowel and the final consonant are modified, and the suffix t is added: seek, sough-t ; beseech, besough-t, teach, taugh-t ; catch, caugh-t; bring, brough-t; buy, bough-t; work, wrough-t ; owe, ough-t; may, migh-t. These verbs originally ended in a guttural, which is repre: sented by the gh. 311. The irregular forms could, made, had, are explained in §§ 368, 371, 360. . Number. 312. In many languages certain suffixes are added to verbs, to distinguish the singular from the plural. In the modern English verb there is generally no distinction of number. In A. S, the plural suffix of the Present Indefinite (Indicative) was -ath. This appears in O. E. as -eth, -uth, -yth, -ieth, -th, and by Substi- tuting a sibilant for the asperate, -es: Stond-eth, clep-wth, need-yth, lov-ieth, do-th, hop-es. The suffix -eth was peculiar to the Southern dialect; -es to the Northern. 313. Writers who used the Midland dialect appear to have rejected both -eth and -es and to have uniformly adopted that employed in A. S. in the Past Indefinite (Indicative), and in the Subjunctive, viz., -on, O. E. -en, -é, tell-en, saw-4. The reason for selecting this suffix for the general plural was, probably, the identity of form in -ath and the third singular person ending. It was commonly in use down to the sixteenth century, when all indication of a plural form disappeared. Ben Jonson, with some reason, regretted the change. “In former times,” he writes, “till aboute the reign of Henry the Eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding -en, but now, whatsoever the cause, it hath quite growne out of use. Albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lacke hereof well considered will be found a great blemish to our tongue.” (Eng. Gram. c. 16.) The final e in ar-e and wer-e (Ind.) is the only remnant of this suffix in the modern language. See § 359. - In Trevisa (1387) all the plurals of the Present Indefinite terminate in-eth; Chaucer and Mandeville, his contemporaries, almost invariably employ -en. This suffix first disappeared in the Past Indefinite, we 102 PERSON. find it occasionally in that tense in Chaucer: “Lette us shewe our fan- tasyes in such wordes as we lerned-en of our dames tonge.” - Person. 314, Person-endings are found only in the singular number of the Present and Past Indefinite. They were probably early forms of the pronouns I, thou, and this. 315. The suffix of the first person singular was once -om. The only example-in English is seen in am (A. S. e-0m, Lat, 8-wm). In the Southern dialect it is -e (A. S. -e) tell-e. The suffix of the second person singular is -est, -st, or -t (A. S. -ast, -st, -t); bring-est, can-st, wil-t. In ar-t, was-t, shal-t, wil-t, the s is lost. In the Present Imperative the suffix disappears: bring. In the Past Indef, of strong verbs the Southern dialect uses -e, spek-e= spak-est. In A. S. and O. E. we find a suffix for the second person singular and plural of the Present Imperative : singular, -e (A. S. -a, or -e); plural eth, -th, -es and -8 (A. S. -ath, -th). Go, thank-6 now my lady here.—Chawcer. Honowr-eth hir and low-eth hir.—Id. Go-th now and do-th my lordes hest.—Id. Spar-es hem nought, and behead-eth these.— Rom. Rich. C. de Lion. The suffix -eth, though treated by some as a personal ending, is more probably the old plural termination. 316. The suffix of the third person singular in A. S. was -ath, or -th ; in O. E. -eth or -th : bring-eth, do-th. In modern English eth becomes es, and the vowel is lost except when the verb ends in a sibilant. In the Northern dialect -es is used for all persons of the singular Pres. Imp. 317. As these suffixes are identical in form with those of the ordi- nary plural and genitive of nouns, the same principles regulate their application (§§ 104, 140). * The Ormulum is the earliest printed English work which has Come downto us that exhibits the uniform employment of en as the in- flexion of the plural number, pres, tense, indic. mood.”—Morris (Story of Genesis, pref. p. xiv.). PARTICIPLES. 103 (1) When the verb ends in a sharp mute, the suffix is -6 : Stop-8, beat-8, seek-S, puff-s. (2) When the verb ends in a flat mute, a liquid, or a vowel, the suffix is -2 (written -s): bid-8, full-s, show-s. 3) When the verb ends in a sibilant, the vowel is retained: toss-is, freez-es, Search-es, crush-es, judg-es, The third person-ending is found only in the Present Inde- finite. It is omitted in the following verbs, can, may, shall, will. 318. A simple y at the end of a word becomes ie: try, trie-s. With the verbs goe-s, doe-s, compare the nouns cargoe-s, •choe-s, &c.; and observe the modified vowel in doe-8. 319. In early English there existed a strong tendency to suffix the pronoun to the verb, not only in interrogative phrases when the subject is placed after the verb, but in affirmations : willi, I will; woldi, J would; cani, I can ; shaltow, thou shalt; woltu, thou wilt; thenkstow, thou thinkest, &c.” Participles. 320. A Participle is a verbal adjective, differing from an 3rdinary adjective in the following particulars: (a) It attributes action to a noun without any indication of time, The student should therefore ba careful" not to speak of a present, a past, or a future Participle. (b) If derived from a transitive verb, it takes an object expressing the quarter to which the action is directed : The very clock in the hall had a dismal sound, gasping and catching its breath at times, and striking the hour with a violeni determined bljw, reminding one of Jael driving the mail into the head of Sisera.-Longfellow. (c) It expresses the same modifications of the action as the Infinitive (§ 303). Active. 1. Indefinite. writing. 2. Imperfect. 3. Perfect. having written. 4. Intentional. going to write. * Marsh, Lectures, p. 886 104 PARTICIPLES. Continuous. 5. Perfect. having been writing. 6. Intentional. having been going to whº, Passive. 1. Indefinite. written. 2. Imperfect, being written. 3. Perfect. having been written. 4, Intentional, going to be written. The Passive voice has no continuous forms, and the Indefinite and Imperfect Participles in that voice are frequently employed as Perfects The Imp. Parº. in O. E. is often expressed by the old preposition an or a, and the Infinitive in -ing ; a-building = being built; “xlvi yeares was this temple abuildinge” (Tyndale). 321. There are two participles formed by inflection, the Indefinite Active, commonly called the Imperfect, and the Indefinite Passive, commonly called the Perfect. 322. The Imperfect Participle in modern English is formed by the suffix -ing: sing-ing, read-ing. . In A. S. the suffix was -ende, in O. E. -ende, -ande, -inde, -and, -an, -ºn, inge : . Giv-and and tak-and woundes wide.—Barbour. Mony a wep-inde eye.—Rob. Glouc. Compare the Latin -ent and the Greek -ont. The d was dropped, and the nasal liquid ng substituted for n: O. E. com-in, M. E. com-ing. The form in -in is still retained in L. Scotch, and in the northern provincial dialects: - The rising sun o'er Galston muirs With glorious light was glintin; The hares were hºplin down the furs, The lavrocks they were chantin.—Burns. This participle must not be confounded with the Infinitive in -ing ,-an), or with nouns formed by the suffix -ing (-wng). The change from -and to -ing is first observed in the thirteenth century. The old form was retained by the Scotch writers down to the sixteenth century, but Chaucer and the Southerns commonly employ. -ing. The suffix -and is Northern, -ind Southern, -end Midland. 323. The Perfect Participle is formed : (i.) By the suffix -en, with or without a modification of the root-vowel ; beat, beat-ex ; speak, spoken. PARTICIPLES. s 105 The following irregularities are found : (a) -en is lost: drink, drunk; sing, Sung ; cut, cut. (b) e is lost : forlor-n, Show-m, grow-n, do-ne, &c. (e) In O. E. n is lost: také = taken. 324. All verbs that form the Perfect Participle in this manner belong to the strong class and to the Teutonic stock, a fact noted by Ben Jonson (Eng. Gram. cxviii.). “It entertaineth none but naturall and home-born words.” 325. (II.) By the suffix -ed, -d, -t, with or without a modi- fication of the root-vowel: spill, spil-t; feel, fel-t; free, free-d; sell, sol-d; mend, mend-ed. 326. As these suffixes are identical in form with those of the Past Indefinite, the same principles regulate the forma. tion of the Perfect Participle. (See § 309.) This identity of form is accidental. In Anglo-Saxon the suffix of the Past Indefinite was -ode, -de; the suffix of the Perfect Participle was -0d, -ed, -d. In modern English each has been reduced to -ed, -d, -t. 327. Some verbs have two forms of this participle ; one with -en, the other with -t or -d clow-em or cleft, grav-en or gray-ed, swoll-en or swell-d, &c. 328. All verbs of the weak class, and verbs of foreign origin (with the exception of prov-en), form the perfect parti- ciple by -t, -d, or -ed, “being indeed the most usual forming of a verbe, and thereby also the common inne to lodge every strange and forraine guest” (Ben Jonson). 329. In A. S. and in other Teutonic languages, this Participle had a prefix ge-, or (rarely), a ge-feall-en, fallen; a-Sung-en, sung. In O. E. this appears as y- or i- and a- ; y-clad, i-Sung, a feared. Hence such forms as a go (O. E. a-gonne), a do (O. E. a-done): All his darknesse is ago.—Chaucer. Ago was every sorrow.—Id. And done all that they han ado.—Id. . Such a phrase as a-weary is peculiar: A gin to be a-weary of the sun.-Shakspere. 106 CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. The adjective weary seems to have taken the place of the paiticiple wearied : or, the prefix a- (ge-) may have been added as in the Germau geSwnd. This prefix is never found when the verb has a-, at-, bi-, be-, for , of , to-, wh-, with-, prefixed. Gerund. 330. Two forms of the Infinitive are known tunder the name of Gerunds: 1. Where the old Infinitive suffix -an becomes -ing, writ—ing (A. S. writ-an, O. E. writ-en, writ in). 2. Where the old Infinitive suffix -an, and the Dative case-ending -e are lost ; to write (A. S. to writ-ann-e, O. E. to writ-en, to writ-é). 331. The form in -ing should be carefully distinguished from the Imperfect Participle, which is an adjective, and from the verbal noun in -ing (A. S. -ung). The peculiarities that distinguish the Infinitive from ordinary nouns have been mentioned in § 286. The Gerund in -ing is frequently found with the old preposition on, an, or a, prefixed; a-writing. * The form to wrile should be carefully distinguished from the ordi- nary Infinitive (to) write. It is a dative case, governed by the prepo- sition to, and means “for writing.” “He came to write” =“he came for writing” (dat). “He learns (to) write”- “he learns writing” (accus.). Hence this form is often employed after intransitive and passive verbs to express the purpose. - CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. Indicative Mood. 332. L. PRESENT. Present Indefinite. Singular. Plural. l, I write. 1. We write. 2. Thou writest. 2. Ye or you write. 3. He writes. 3. They write. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. 107 Present Imperfect. 2. Singular. Plural. 1. I am writing.” 1. We are writing. 2. Thou art writing. 2. Ye or you are writing. 3. He is writing. 3. They are writing. Present Perfect. 1, I have written. 1. We have written. 2, Thou hast written. 2. Ye or you have written. 3 He has written. 4. They have written. Present Intentional. 1 I am going to write. 1. We are going to write. 2. Thou art going to write. 2. You are going to write. 3. He is going to write. 3. They are going to write. CONTINUOUS, Present Perfect. 1. I have been writing. 1. We have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing. 2. You have been writing. 3. He has been writing. 3. They have been writing. - - Present Intentional. 1. I have been going to write. 1. We have been going to write. 2. Thou hast been going to write. 2. You have been going to write. 3. He has been going to write. 3. They have been going to write 333. II. PAST. Past Indefinite. 1. I wrote. 1. We wrote. Thou wrotest. 2. Ye or you wrote. 3. He wrote. 3. They wrote. Past Imperfect. 1. I was writing.” 1. We were writing. 2. Thou wast writing. 2. Ye or you were writing. 3. He was writing. 3. They were writing. * See Note p. 222. 108 CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE WER.B. : : . : Past Perfect. Singular. Plural. I had written. 1. We had written. Thou hadst written. 2. Ye or you had written. He had written. 3. They had written. Past Intentional. I was going to write. 1. We were going to write. Thou wast going to write. 2. You were going to write, He was going to write. 3. They were going to write CONTINUOUS, Past Perfect. I had been writing. 1. We had been writing. Thou hadst been writing. 2. You had been writing. He had been writing. 3. They had been writing. Past Intentional. . I had been going to write. 1. We had been going to write. Thouhadst beengohng to write. 2. You had been going to write. He had been going to write. 3. They had been going to writ., 334. III. FUTURE. Future Indefinite. 1. I shall write. 1. We shall Write, 2. Thou wilt write, 2. You will Write. 3 He will Write. 3. They will write. Future Imperfect. 1. I shall be writing. 1. We shall be writing 2. Thou wilt be writing, 2. You will be writing. 3. He will be writing, 3. They will be writing. Future Perfect. 1. I shall have written. 1. We shall have written. 2, Thou wilt have written, 2. You will have written. . He will have written. 3. They will have written, CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. 109 Future Intentional. Singular. '- Plural. I. I shall be going to write. 1. We shall be going to write. 2. Thou wilt be going to 2. You will be going to Write. write. 3. He will be going to write. 3. They will be going to write. CONTINUOUs. Future Perfect. 1. I shall have been writing. 1. We shall have been writing. 2, Thou wilt have been writing. 2. You will have been writing. 3. He will have been writing. 3. They will have been writing. Future Intentional. 1. I shall have been going to 1. We shall have been going to write. write. 2. Thou wilt have been going to 2. You will have been going to write. write. 3. He will have been going to 3. They will have been going to write. write. 335. Imperative Mood. - Present. 2. Write. 2. Write. Future. 2. Thou shalt write. 2. You shall write 3. He shall write. 3. They shall write. 336. Subjunctive Mood. T. PRESENT. Present Indefinite. l, I write. 1. We write. 2. Thou write, 2. You write, 3. He write, 3. They write, 110 CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB, : . 1. 2 3 : Present Imperfect: Singular. Pleural. . I be writing. 1. We be writing. Thou be writing. 2. You be writing. He be writing. 3. They be writing. Present Perfect. I have written. 1. We have written Thou have written. 2. You have written. He have written. 3. They have written. Present Intentional. Wanting. CONTINUOUS. Present Perfect I have been writing. 1. We have been writing. Thou have been writing. 2. You have been writing. . He have been writing. 3. They have been writing Present Intentional. Wanting. 337. II. PAST. Past Indefinite. , I wrote, 1. We wrote, Thou wrote, 2. You wrote, He wrote. 3. They wrote. Past Imperfect g I were writing. 1. We were writing. , Thou were writing. 2. You were writing He were writing. 3. They were writing. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. 111 Past Perfect. Singular. Plural. 1. I had written. 1. We had written. 2. Thou had written. 2. You had written. 3. He had written. 3. They had written. Past ſntentional. 1 I were going to write. 1. We were going to write. 2. Thou were going to write. 2. You were going to write. 3. He were going to write, 3. They were going to write CONTINUOUS. Past Perfect. 1. I had been writing. 1. We had been writing. 2. Thou had been writing. 2. You had been writing. 3. He had been writing. 3. They had been writing. Past Intentional. Wanting. 338. III. FUTURE. Future Indefinite. 1. I should write. 1. We should write 2. Thou should write. 2. You should write. 3. He should write. 3. They should write. Future Imperfect. 1. I should be writing 1. We should be writing. 2. Thou should be writing. 2. You should be writing, 3. He should be writing. 3. They should be writing. Future Perfect. 1. I should have written. 1. We should have written. 2. Thou should have written. 2. You should have written. 3. He should have written. 3. They should have written. | 12 * CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. Future Intentional, Wanting. CONTINUOUS, Puture Perfect. Singular. e Plural. 1 I should have been writing. 1. We should have been writing, 2. Thou should have been writing. 2. You should have been writing. 8. He should have been writing. 3. They should have been writing Future Intentional. Wanting. 339. Infinitive Mood. 1. Indefinite. to] write, 2. Imperfect. to be writing. 3. Perfect. tol have written. 4. Intentional, [to] be going to write. CONTINUOUS. 5. Perfect, to] have been writing. 6. Intentional. [to] have been going to write. 340. Participles. 1. Indefinite. writing. 2. Imperfect. smºs 3. Perfect. having written. 4. Intentional. going to write. CONTINUOUS. 5. Perfect. having been writing. 6. Intentional. having been going to write. Gerund. (1) Writing. (2) To write. 341. Some of the above forms are either obsolete, or rarely DBed in the current language. The form for the Second CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB. } } 3 person singular is confined to poetry, poetical prose, or to invocations to the Supreme Being. In ordinary prose the second person plural is used for the singular. Many of the forms in the indicative mood are now com. monly employed instead of those in the subjunctive. CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VER}}. 342. Indicative Mood. I. PRESENT. 4 : : . Indefinite. . Imperfect. . Perfect. Intentional. TI. , Indefinite. . Imperfect. Perfect, Intentional. III. , Tndefinite. . Imperfect. Perfect, . Intentional. I am called. I am being called. I have been called. I am going to be called PAST. I was called. I was being called. I had been called. I was going to be called, FUTURE, I shall be called. tº-ºº ºsmº ºmºsº I shall have been called, 343. Imperative Mood. I. PRESENT. Singvlar. 2, Pe called. Plural. 2. Be called. II. FUTURE, 2. Thou shalt be called, 3. He shall be called. 2. You shall be called. 3. They shall be called, I 114 CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB. 344. Subjunctive Mood. I. PRESENT, 1. Indefinite, I be called. 2 Imperfect. -sº 3. Perfect. I have been called. 4. Intentional. - II. PAST. 1. Indefinite. I were called. 2. Imperfect. I were being callea, 3. Perfect. I had been called. 4. Intentional. III. FUTURE. 1. Indefinite. I should be called. 2. Imperfect, 3. Perfect. I should have been called. 4. Intentional. 345. Infinitive Mood. 1. Indefinite. [to] be called. 2. Imperfect. *w- 3. Perfect. [to] have been called. 4. Intentional. -e 346. Participles. 1. Indefinite. called. 2. Imperfect. being called. 3. Perfect, having been called. 4. Intentional. going to be called, or being about to be called. 347. On examining the foregoing tenses, it will be ob- served that the passive voice is defective in the Imperfect VERBS. 115 and Intentional, and is destitute of the Continuous forms of the Perfect and Intentional. 348. The verbs be, have, shall, will, do, and go, which are employed to form the tenses of an ordinary verb, are, when so employed, termed auxiliaries. Their inflection is frequently irregular. The various forms in old and modern English are exhibited in the list of irregular verbs. 349. The following is a list of those verbs in modern English which belong either wholly, or in part, to the strong conjugation. The forms in italics are obsolete, or rarely used. I. Verbs which modify the root-vowel, and form the Perfect Participle in -en. * - - II. Verbs which modify the root-vowel, and drop e from the Participial suffix. III. Verbs which modify the root-vowel, and drop the Participial suffix. - IV. Verbs which do not modify the root-vowel, and which drop the suffix. V. Verbs which modify the root-vowel, and form the Past Indefinite and the Perfect Participle by suffixing -t or -d. VI. Verbs ending in d, which simply change d into t. VII. Verbs with weak Past Indefinite, and strong Participle. VIII. Verbs which have passed from the strong to the weak conjugation. - 350. I. Pres. In. Past Im. O. E. Peºf. Part. O. E. arise 3.1°OSé aros, aft'as arisen aris, arist. beget begot begat begotten, begot bygete. bid bade, bad bod, bed bidden, bid à-bede, bode,beden. bite bit bot, bat, bet bitten, bit biten, i-bitem. break broke brake, brak, brek broken, | tºº. chide chid chode chidden, chid choose chose ches, chis chosen i-chosen, i-chose, e drank - • {-dronk, dronken, drink {º } dronk drunk | drunken, i-dronkeø I 2 116 VERBS, Pres. In. drive eat, fall forbid forget forgive forsake freeze get give hide hold ride rise shake shrink shrive sink Smite speak steal stride strike strive take thrive bread Weave write 351. bear (carry) bear(give birth) blow (bloom) blow (of wind) Past Im. O. E. Perf. Part. O. E. * drave, drof, . ‘...da-ia-2 cla- drove | dréf driven i-drive, drowen, ate eté, at eaten $/-eté, éat, eten. fell ful, fill fallen 7-fallen, a-falle, forbade - forbidden forboden, forbid. forgot forgat forgotten, forgot forgetem. forgave forgiven forsook forsaken forsake. froze fres frozen y-frote, froye, from, frese. got gat, gette gotten, got getten, i-gotte. - tº ivy t-geven, i-gine, a WC) (TCI, T, (167, ſ/?, IWeI). g º g § gaf, géf, ſſif g 7-gºvé,967-6,2-géve, hid hwdde hidden, hid ſº *% hedde, y-hed. hald, hºuld, g held | jº” holden, held halden i-holde. rode rid, rod, rad ridden rid, riden, i-rider I’OSé Tas, ros, ris risen risse, y-rise. shook shok shaken Shaked. shrank, shrunken, shrunk shrunk shrove, - & a havia, a 3 of as... º * an ºs tº ºn a º shrive à-shºve. i-shriven shrived shroff, shraf Il 2 º: 80mk sunk Sunken, 80nken. Smote Smot, Smit smitten, Smit i-Śmite, Smoten. Spake, Spak * & : aaa also spoke ; º ’8 spoken, spoke i-Speke, ispoken tale, Sté g stole º Stal, stolen Stole, i-Stole. strode Strid stridden Stride, struck styake, Słrook stricken, struck Strucken, * strookém. strove strof. Strave striven {-Stºve, i-Striven took toke, tak, toſ, taken token,7-take,tane. throwe thrave, thº'eve thriven g-threve, trod th’ad trodden, trod i-trede, WOWe QUCL7'0 woven, wove {-woven Wrote writ, wrot Written, Writ i-write,a-written. à-writer, II. bore bare, bar, ber borne i-bºre, &-borne. bore baſe born i-bore, a-bore Uiew blown ; blew blaw blown blowe, i-blawe, VERBS, 117 Pres, In, draw fly grow know lie §86 slay SWeal" tear throw Wea.I." 352. awake begin behold betide bide bind bleed breed cling COIſle dig - feed fight find fling grind Past In, drew flew grew knew lay S3, W slew SWOI-6 tore threw WOré awoke (awaked) began, begun beheld bideði bound bled bred clung C8, Iſle dug fed fought found flung ground led º lead meet read ring I’tlººl shine shoot met read rang, rung T8..]l shone shot O. E. Perf. Part. droghe, drow drawn fley, fleah flown grown known left lain Segh, Seigh Sé6I1 slogh, slow slain Sware, Swer sworn £dſ'6 torn thryght. thrown QUO,7°6 WOI’ll awok, awahté III. bigonne begun halt betid bode, bood, bade, bede bonde, band bound bled bred clang clung cam, com, kem come digged dug fydde fed jaght, fagh fought fand, fond found jiang, ſong flung grand ground ledde, ladde led met Tedde read Tong rung orn, armde I’ll]] scham shone shct, Schºtte shot O. E. i-drawe, draweſt, a-drowe. a-flagher, §-flowe. growe'v. $/-knowen, j-knowé, 9-leye, lien, layme, i-leien $/-Séné, ly-88). slaven, y-Slawe, Slawe, i-slaven, i-sworem, sworem, i-swore. i-throwe, awoke (awaked) , begonnen, ! begunmen. beholden, Öctid. bud, bidcº. bowmden, buºden, à-bownde. à-bred, a-bred. $/-come. digged. $/-fed. } foughten, i-fogten. {-faght. | fondem, funder, funde, fun, i-fonden | Comen, y-comen, | i-grounde, t-grynde, i-grunden, $/-ladde, lattle. i-mete, 2-met. Ż-rade, rad. rwºmen, i-ºwnsen. à-Schimen. shotten, i-shote. 118 WERBS, Pres. Iº. sing sit slide sling slink spin spring spit stand Stave stick sting stink string swim swing wake win wind wring 353. beat bet bid (offer) burst cast COSt. cut durst hit, hurt let put rid Set shed shred shut slit split spread thrust wed Past 17. O. E. Perf. Part. Sang, Sung song sung sat, 80tte, Set Sat slid slode, slod slid slung Slang, Slong slung slunk Slank slunk spun span spun sprang, . sprung sprong Sprung spat Spit stood stont, stent, Stod stood Stove stove stuck stock stuck stung stang, Stong Stung stank, stunk stunk strung Strang strung Swam, SWURIſl swung Swang swung woke wight, wok woke WOIn QUC(7?, WOIl wound wand wound wrung wrang wrung IV. beat bat, bet, beat beaten, beat. bet, betted bet, betted bid bid burst barst, brast burst cast Cast cost cost cut kitte, kittede cut durst, dorste durst hit, hot, hat hit hurt hurt let let . put pat put rid, rid set - set shed shade shed shred shred shut shet, shytte shut slit slat slit split splitted split. spread sprad, spredde spread thrust thraste thrust wed We die d wed, wedded | | | 0, E. sººngeſt, 80tigetv. sitten, t-sete, slidden, '-slide. slengen. slunken, i-sponne. i-spruny, spronke. Spitten. - a-8tod. -stoſtave i-stekke, !/-stunge, stungen, 9-8tonge. waken. worthen, i-wonne, à-wrºng, wrong, bete, bet, i-beten bursten, borsen, C08tén. y-kitte, kit. hitten. y-hºurt. g-late, i-let. . g-Set. y-schad, Schad, g-shote, Shet. slat, slotten, slitten. y-sprad, Sprad, WER BS. 119 354, Pres, Im. bereave beseech bring buy eatch cleave (split) cleave (cling) creep deal dream feel flee hear keep kneel leap leave lose Iſleáll rea. We Say seek sell shoe sleep sweep teach tell think weep work | | W. Pašč ſit. O. E. Peºf. Part. bereft, be- bereft, | reaved besought besowche besought brought brouh. brought bought boghte bought caught caghte, kyght caught cleft claf, clef, clove cleft cleaved clave cleaved crept crope, crep crept dealt delde, dalt dealt, dreamt, ( dreamt, } dreamed { dreamed felt felide felt fled jlodede, fleede fled heard hurd heard kept kepede, kep kept knelt, knelt, kneeled kneeled 3. lept, leaped lap, lope, lep lept, leaped left laſte, levede left lost las, les. lost meant *. meant reft raf, rof reft, reaved said Seyde Said sought 80ghte Sought sold Salde sold shod shod slept slep slept swept º swept taught taghte, taht taught told talde told thought thouh, thugte, thought | wept wep, wop wept h wrought 4 wrought, woºd’ | wraht worked | | VI. (). E. beseeched. ?-broghte, t-browh. ?-boghte, boughten. kotte, kytted. cloven. cropen, i-cropen. dealed, i-dalt. felde. fleen, Gifted, float i-hºrd, hardon, *-kept. lopen, i-lopen. à-laft, laſte. loren, lorn, i-lore, i-lost. g-ment. rafte, Saied, y-sed. i-80ght. i-solde, i-Sald. g-Schwd. 7-slepen. i-8wept, i-Swopen, t-told, i-tol, teld y-thoght, thoughten. wOpen, wepéº. g-wroght, i-wrokers. gy-wort. 355. bend blend build gild bent bended bent blent blended blent built builded built gilt gilded gilt bended. blended. builded. gilded. 120 WERBS, Pre3. In. gird lend rend send spend Wend 356, lade In OW rive Saw Sew show £OW 8tº'Cº') strew 8th'O?U 2003. 357. abide ache blind CarV6 climb clothe CrOW | delve dread drown fare fill fold fret fetch gnaw grave | Past Im. girt lent rent sent spent Went laded mowed rived sawed sewed showed Sowed strawed strewed strowed waſted abode ached blinded carved climbed clothed crowed, CreW delved dreaded drowned fared filled folded fretted fetched gnawed graved hanged, hung heated O. E. Perf. Part, O. E. girded girt girded. lemde lent à-land, i-le”; Tended rent rended. Sent !-80nd, i-8ent. spende spent $/-Spend. wended i-wend, went, wcmd.ed WII. laden $71,620 In OWI). Toofe riven 7'00/€70, Sã, WIl SeWIl ?-80wed. Shew shown i-Shewed, shewd, S600€ SOWIl ?-80 we. Sú'Cºw), Strawed. strewn strewed. strown Strowed. wóz, wea; 20000673, waſted, i-woºr. VIII. abided, abad ok Ülent carf, kerf clomb, clam clad dalf, dolf drad dreint fore fulle faid frat fet, fate grew grove, grof hong, heng ached blinded carved climbed clothed crowed delved dreaded drowned fared filled folded fretted fetched gnawed graved, graven hanged, hung hang heat het, hat heated abided, anode, abid, abiden. O/C&. $/-blent, a-blind. carven, corven, carve, i-corven clombem, clumben. clambém, clom. !-clad, clad, cled, y-Cléd. *. C7'02U'ſ). dolvem, dolve. a-drad, drad. a-dreml, a-dreinct, i-fare. $/-fuld. folden, {-frette, fretten faught,i-fct, fe gnawn, ſ/nowé *-gravéº $/-hongé, (t-hang. am-honged, i-het. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE WIERBS. 12 | Pres, In, heave, (throw) heave (raise) help hew knit laugh light melt pitch reach Seethe shape shear speed Squeeze stretch sweat swell yield Past In. O. E. Perf. Part. } heaved howc, heft heaved } heaved hafe, hofe hef heaved helped halp, holp helped hewed hue hewed knitted kmat, knet knitted laughed loff, lough, low laughed O. E. hoven, hove. hofen, i-hoven. holper, holp hewn. knit, knet. 3-lowe, laje. lighted, lit lighted, lit 2-liht. melted molt malt melted Tmolten, i-molten pitched pight pitched 9-pight. reached raught reached i-raught. seethed Sod, Seth seethed Sodden, -806, shaped Shope, shop shaped 8hapen. sheared Share, Shore sheared Shorn. speeded Spéd speeded 7-8ped. Squeezed Squoze squeezed 8quozen. stretched straught stretched Streighte. sweated Swat, swot sweated 8wćaten, y-Swat. swelled Swal, Swol Swelled, swollen &-swolgen. yielded galde, yolde yielded golden, i-yoldc. To these may be added dove (dived), flet (floated), glyt or glode (glided), quoke (quaked), yall (yelled), Shºtºgk (shrieked). IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS, 358. Words are called irregular which are inflected irregu. m one root. Words which are either destitute of certain forms, or which supply the deficiencies from another larly fro root, are called defective. In the following list the only tenses given are the Present and Past Indefinite. The other tenses, where they exist, are formed regularly, The forms in Italics and brackets are Anglo-Saxon; the others in Italics are Old English. 359. BE. Indicative. IPRESENT INDEFINIITTE. Singular. Pºwral, 1. (eom), am. (Syndon, Synd), sinden, 8wnden, simd.” 2. (eart), art. (O. N. erum), O. E. €767), «A’em, arm, 3. (is), is, eg. are, 67'é, er, an . * Not used after A.D. 1250 (Morris). 122 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. The plural are is Scandinavian, and was first introduced by the Danes into the northern dialects of England.” * In A.S. there is another form for this tense (be), which was frequently used with a future signification, and is common in old English.” Singular. Plural. 1. (beo), be, bi, bed. (beoth), beath, bueth, both, buth, 2. (byst), bist, best, beest. beth, bedd, bid, bean, buen, beyn, 8. (byth), bith, beth, bes, be. ben, be. PAST INDEFINITE. (watron), weron, weorem, weren, worn, wern, were, wore, were, wer, war. 1. (was), wes, was. 2. (ware), wast. 8 (wſes), wes, was. Imperative. 2. (beo), bed, be. | (beoth), beath, byeth, buth, beth, bes, - by8, be. Subjunctive, PRESENT INDEFINITE. (beo), bed, bo, be. | (beon), ben, bo, be. PAST INDEFINITE. (wºre), were, were. | (watron), weron, weren, were, were. Infinitive. (beon), buen, ben, being, bed, bue, be. GERUND (to beonne), to been, to be, Participles. IMPERFECT (beonde), beand, being, PERFECT, i-beo, i-bo, i-be, been, ben, bin, be. Negative forms: nam (am not), nart (art not), nis (is not), mes, was Swas not), mere (were not), nar (are not). 360. HAVE. * Indicative.—PRESENT INDEFINITE. Singular. Plural. 1. (habbe), habbe, have, haf. (habbath), habbeth, haveth, hath 2. (haefst), habest, havest, hast. haven, han, havé, have. 3. (hafth), haveth, hath, has. * See Trans. Phil. Soc. 1860, p. 63, and Marsh, Orig, and Hist, Eng Lang. p. 179, note. + It is common in provincial Eng. ; and even Pope says, “This is the state in which Shakespeare's writings be at present.” IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 123 PAST INDEFINITR. Singular. Plural, 1. (kafale), haddé, haved, had. (hafdom), haveden, hadden had dé, 2. (hafdest), haddest, hadst. hedden, heddé, had. 3, (afde), haddé, hevede, had. Imperative. 2. (hafa), hab, have, a. | (habbath), haveth, have. Subjunctive. PRESENT INDEFINITE. (halbe), habbé, have, | (habbon), havon, have. PAST INDEFINITE. (h(efde), haddé, had. | (hafdon), hadden, had. Infinitive. (habban), habben, habbé, habbe, haven, having, han, havé, have, haf, ha. - GERUND (to habbenne), to habben, to have. Participles. IMPERFECT (haebbende), havande, having. PERFECT (hafed), i-had, had. Negative forms: nabbé, navé, nave, naf (have not), mast (hast not), neth, math (hath not), nabbeth (have not, plural); mafdh, nevede, madde, nedden, medde (had not), maddest (hadst not). 361. SHALL. - Indicative. PRIESENT INDEFINIT.E. Singular. 1. (sceal), scal, Schal, schol, Schul, shal, shall ; Sal, sall.” 2. (scealt), Schalt, Schal, shalt; salt.” 3. (sceal), Schal, shal, shall, Schul, Schol, shan, sal.” * sal, salt, suld, gulden, are Northern forms. 124 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Plural. (Seeolon, sculon), Sculen, Schulen, Scholen, shoren, Schwin, schººl. schul, Schal, shall, 8chulieth, Sholleth. PAST INDEFINITE, Singular. 1. (sceolde), scholdé, Schuldé, schold, Schuld, should, Sould, Suld. 2. (sceoldest), scholdest, Schuldest, Shuldest, shouldst, Shust, Shost. 3. (sceoldo), Scholdé, schuldé, sholde, Shulde, Schold, Schuld, should, Shulde, Solde. Pluſ!'al. (sceoldon), scholden, Schulden, scholdé, Schuldé, Scolde, Schold, Schuld, should, Solden, Swlden. * 362. Shall is rarely used as a simple auxiliary in A.S. * Its earlier meaning was “to owe,” the origin of which is thus explained by Grimm : “skal, debeo, implies a form skila ; skila must have meant, ‘I kill or wound;’ skal, ‘I have killed or wounded, and I am therefore liable to pay the were-geld.’” (Gesch. der Deut. Spr. B. II. § 902.) Compare the German Schuld, which means both “guilt” and “debt.” Its early meaning is seen occasionally in O. E. : “For by the faithe Ischal to God” (Chauc); i. e. “I owe to God.” “Al that to Rome sholde servise” (Rob. Glouc.); i.e. owed service. From this idea of what is due, what you ought to do, sprung the meaning of necessity, what you must do. Whether he wulde or he me wulde, He toke him up and furthe he shºulde. (Rob. Br.) i.e. out he must or was compelled to go. Hence originated the idea of what is fated or inevitable in the future: But forsothe I can mat telle Whethyr he shºulde to Hevene or Helle.—Rob, Br. i.e. whether it was his fate to go, &c. Wiclif seems to employ it unj. formly as a future auxiliary.f Traces of the primitive meaning of Shall are still seen in the Past Indefinite. Should, when used as an independent verb, means ought. “You should be careful” =“You ought to be careful.” * “Perhaps the Inost important novelty in Layamon's construction of the verb is the regular employment of Shall and will as technical auxiliaries.”—Marsh, Or, and H. p. 164. + For a detailed account of this remarkable verb, see Sir E. Head's Treatise on “Shall and Will,” and Dr Guest, Proc. Phil. Soc. vol. ii. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 125 WILL. § 3 Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. Singular. Plural. (willath), wolleth, wulleth, wolthe, willen, wollen, wiln, woln, willé, wollé, will, wol, ww.l. 1, (ville), wille, will, wil, wol, ww.l. 2. (wilt), wilt, wolt, wole, 3, (wile), wile, wil, will, wol, ww.l. PAST INDEFINITE. 1. (wolde), woldé, wold, would. (woldon), wolden, wulden, woulden, 2. (woldest), woldest, wuldest, woldé, wold, wuld, would, wild. wouldst, wust. 3, (wolde), woldé, ww.ldé, wold, wwld, would, wild, willede, Infinitive. (willan), willen, willing, will. Participle IMPERFECT (willende), willand, willing. Negative forms: mill, ºwl (will not), nitt, mºlt (wilt not), molleth, nulleth, molle (will not, plural); molde, nowld (would not), moldes: (wouldst not). The actions of the will are velle and molle, to will and mill.—Burtoº. Man wills something, because it is pleasing to nature; and he ºst?: something because it is painful to nature.—Wesley. 364. WILNE (DESIRE). Indicative. PRESENT IND};FINITE. 1 wilne. 2. wilnest. 3. wilnet. I wilneth, winé, PAST INDEFINITE. I. wilmede, wilned. 2–3. wilmede, wiłmede 126 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Infinitive. (willvian), wilné, wilm. Participle. PERFECT (wilnod), wilmed, y-wilmed. 865. MAY. Indicative, PRESENT INDEFINITE. Singular. Plural. (maeg), may, move, muhe. (magon), mahen, may. . (niht), mayest, mayst, may in Owen, nvºlvent. . (maeg), may, mowe,'muhe, muſſé : PAST INDEFINITE. 1. (mihte), mighté, might, miht, (mihton), meahton, meahlé mightén, mought. moughten, mighté, moughté, might, 2. (mihtest), mihtest, mightest, mought. mightst, moughtest. 3. (mihté), mighté, might, milit, nought. 366. MUST. Indicative, PRESENT INDEFINITE. 1. (mot), mot, moot, mow. 2. (most), most, must. 3. (mot), mot, moot, mow, mºſt. (moton), motem, mooten, moté, mooté, mot, moot, mowen, mow8, moto. PAST INDEFINITE. 1. (moste), mosté, most, must. 2. (mostest), mostest, most, must. 3. (moste), mosté, most, must. (moston), mosten, mw8ten, mosté, nºwsté, most, must. The Present Indefinite of this verb appears to have been used Indifferently for may, might, and must. 367, MUN. Mun is often found in old and provincial English with the meaning must. It originally signified “to consider.” “In old English muni IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 127 often indicates mere futurity, like the lcelandic ‘mun;' and the peculiar sense now given to it—that of obligation—appears to have been its latest derivative meaning. The phrase “we mun go,' may have taken successively the meanings “we think of going,’ ‘we shall go,' ‘we must go.'" * * e. S. (J37% Wilſº, U. N. 7720,72, U. E. 77.071, 77,07072, 77.0%6, fºl. I’āšū Lil A. S. g , O. N , O. E. 2 3. y Past Ind Hillſvt. 368. CAN (“know,” “be able”). Indicative. PHESENT INDEFINITE, Singular. Plural. (cannon), connen, coſtºvé, conne. 1. (Cam), can, com. 2. (cwmme, canst), cunne, canst, Const, cost. 8. (Can), can, con. C&Il. PAST INDEFINITE. 1. (cwthé), cowthé, couth, cowd, (cwthon), cowthen, cowden, cowthé, could. coudé, Couth, coud, oould. 2. (ºwthest), couthest, cowdest, couldst. 3. (cwthe), cowthé, cowdé, cowth, coºd, could. Imperative. cwtheth. Infinitive. (cunnan), cunnen, commé, con, can. Participle. IMPERFECT. cunning (now used as an adjective). PERFEOT. (cwth), cowth, coud, cud, y-kud, cowthen, cowthé, Cowdé. In could the l has been inserted by late writers from a false idea that the word resembled would and should in its formation. In these latter l is radical. * Dr. Guest, Trans. Phil. Soc. 1854, p. 155. | 28 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE WERBS, 369. DO. Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. Singular. Plural. 1, (d0), do. (d0th), doth, doon, don, done, do. 2. (dest), dest, dost, dust. 3. (deth), deth, doth, does. PAST INDEFINIT.E. 1. (dyde), didé, dudé, did. (dydon), diden, dwden, didé, dudá' , (dydest), didest, dudest, didst, did, dude. 3. (dyde), didé, dudá, dedé, dude, dede, did. 2 Imperative. 2. (do), do. * *. | (doth), doth, do. Infinitive. (don), don, doon, doen, doing, done, do. Participles. IMPERFECT, doand, doing. PERFECT. (gedon), i-dom, i-doon, 8-doen, i-do, a-do, don, done, do. The student should be careful to distinguish this verb from another of similar form, but different origin (A. S. dugan), meaning “thrive,” “avail.” In the phrase “How do you do?” the first do is the verb given above employed as an auxiliary; the second is the verb dugan, “fare,” “prosper.” The same verb is seen in such expressions as “that will do; ” “it did very well.” 370. GO. Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. 1. (ga), ga, go. (gath), goth, goon, gon, go. 2. (gast), gest, gost, goest. - 8. (gath), geth, goch, goth, goes, go 8. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS, *129 PAST INDEFINITſū. Singular. - Plural. 1 (200e), code, yeode, yode, yeda, (eg./on), yeden, geden, yedā, Jede, gedd, gede, gede. . 2 eodest), yedest, gedest. 3 eode), eode, yeode, yode, yedā, $/ede, gode, gede. Another form. 1 gengde, gende, wende), wēndé, (gèngdon, wendon), wennen wondé, wondé, wenté, went. wenten, wenté, went. 2 gendest, wendest), wentest. 3 gende, wende), wēndé, wende, wenté, went. Imperative. ga), go; (gath), goth, go ; wendeth. 2 Infinitive. (a) gan), gon, gone, going, go. (b) (wendan), wenden, wending, wendé, wend. Participles, IIIPERFECT. going, wending. PERFECT. (a) (gegangen, gegan, gan), i-gan, a-gºn, a-gºne, g-go, i-gon, gan, gone, go : (“He is go.”—Chaucer.) (b) (wended), y-went, went : (“We be went.”—R. Br.) 37]. . MAKE. Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. 1. (magige), make. ! (maciath), maketh, maken, maké 2. (macast), makest, maiste. make. 3. (macath), makath, maketh, nakith, makes, mas. PAST INDEFINITE. 1. (macode), makede, made. | (macodon), makeden, maked, 2. (macodest), madest, | mºde. 8, (macode), maked, made. | - JK 130 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Imperative, Singular. Plural. 2. (maca), make, | (maciath), maketh, imakº, Infinitive. (macian), makeſ, making, maké, make, mak. GERUND, (to macigenne), to makön, to make. Participles. IMPERFECT. (macigende), makand, making. PERFECT. (gemacod), i-maked, i-made, maked, made, inad. 372. WITE (know). Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. 1. (wai), wat, wot, wite, weté. (witon, wité), witén, wité, Tote 2, (wast), wost, wist, wust, wotest, wite, wote, wete, witeth. QUOfSt. 3. (wat), wat, wot, witeth, woteth. Imperative. 2. (wite), wite, wete, wit. | 2. (witath), witteth. Infinitive. (witan), witén, wité, weten, weté, wite, wit. GERUND, (to witanne), to witen, to wit. Participles. + IMPERFECT. (witande), wytande, wetyng, (un)-witting. PERFECT, (witen), witten, wetyn, i-wiste, i-wust, wisté, wist, Negative forms, not (wot not), most (wost not), nuteth (woteth not), niste (wiste not), muste (wuste not). - The old verb, wisse (A. S. wisian), “show,” “teach,” is often confused with the verb wité. Present Indefinite, wisse; Imperative, wisse, wis; Infinitive, wissen, wisse; Perfect Participle, y-wisse, “One word which repeatedly occurs in Shakspere, containing the prefix ge, has been #enerally misunderstood by his editors. What they all, I believe, IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE WERBS, 13] without exception, print I wis, or I wiss, as if it were a verb with its nominative, is undoubtedly one word, and that an adverb, signifying ‘ certainly, probably.’ It ought to be written yujis, or ywiss, cor- responding, as it does, exactly to the modern German gewis8.” * Compare the A.S. gewislice, certe. 873. OWE, OUGHT. Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. Singular, Plural, (age), owe, oh, (agon), ogen, ohen, Owen, owé, owe, . (age), owest, ow8t. (ah), oweth, owth, owes, ; PAST INDEFINITE, 1, (ahte), aghté, oghté, awte, (ahton), aghten, oughten, oughté, oughté, ought, ow. ogt, ought. 2. (ahtest), aghtest, Oghtest, oughtest. 3, (ahte), aghté, 0ghté, oughté, ought. The earlier meaning of owe is “own,” “possess.” “Grimm consider. aih is the preterite of eigan, “to labour’ or “make.” The word, therefore, which originally meant, ‘I have made or acquired by my own labour, assumed, like itektnual, the present sense of “I possess,’ or ‘have as my own.” + This meaning of owe is common in O. E. : I am not worthy of the wealth I owe.-Shakspere, If you hold as your own what belongs to another, you owe it in the modern sense of the word. - Ought is the regular Past Indefinite of owe : You ought him a thousand pounds.-Shakspere. What you ought to do, is what is due from you—what you should do. With this variation of meaning the tense has become established in the language as a separate verb, while another form (owed) is employed as the Past Indefinite of Owe. Though appearing as an independent verb, ought has no inflectional variations. * Craik, Eng, of Shaks, p. 225. + Sir E. Head, Shall and Will, p. 103. K 2 132 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 374. WORTH (be, become). Indicative. PRESENT INDEFINITE. Sirgular. Plural, 1. (weorthe), worthe, (weorthath), worthºth. 2. (wyrst), worst. 3. (wyth), worth, worthes. Imperative, (weorth), worth. Infinitive. (wearthan), worthen, worthé, worth. Participle, PERFECT. (ge-worden), i-worthe, worth. This verb, like the German werden, signified “to become.” In O. E. it frequently means “shall be,” and is sometimes used as an auxiliary of futurity: London he is now icleped and worth evermo.—Rob, Gl. i.e. “and shall be evermore.” Soon, within a litel while, Worth i-parceived our guile.—Seven Wise Masters. i.e. “will be perceived.” The Present Indefinite Subjunctive is still occasionally used in modern poetry: Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, That costs thy life, my gallant grey !—Scott. i. e. “woe be to the chase.” The word wert, which is often considered to be the second person singular of were, is said to be a remnant of worthen, used as a passive auxiliary.” 375. QUOTH. Found only in the first and second persons. Present Indefinite-- quetke, quoth, quod. Past Indefinite—quath, quod. Perfect Participle--- i-guethen, i-cvede. Q49te and bequeath, derivatives from this verb, are regular. * Marsh. Lect, p. 317. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 133 376. THINK (seem). This must not be confounded with the regular verb think. In A. S. there are two verbs: thencan, think, and thincan, seem. The latter is found only in the third person. The pronoun usually found before it is in the Dative case, and the subject is the sentence that follows the verb. ($276.) PRESENT INDEFINITE. (thincth), thuncth, thunch, thinketh, thinks. PAST INDEFINITE. (thuhte), thoghté, thoght, thought. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. (gethuht), gethulit. “It thicketh me” (Chaucer); “it thoghte them” (Gower); “ mury and fair it thoght ynow" (Rob. Glouc.); i. e. it seemed merry and fair enough. 377. LIST (please). This verb is also used only in the third person, with a construction similar to that of think (seem). Present Indefinite—list, lest, listeth, Past Indefinite—lust, listed. Rarely, it occurs as a personal verb: he listeth, ye listen. - 378. The present tendency of the English language is to convert strong verbs into weak. Hence many forms are found in old and provincial English which have disappeared from the current language of literature. Sometimes the strong and weak forms coexist, marking a period of transition, No new verb, or verb of classical origin, ever takes the strong form. DERIVATION OF VERBs. A, TEUTONIC, 379, 1. By Internal Changes. Change of Vowel. (Nouns) gold, gild; blood, bleed; food, feed. (Adjective) full, fill. (Vorbs) rise, raise; fall, fell ; s’t, set; roll, reel 134 I).ERIWATION OF VERBS, Change of Consonant. (Nouns) house, house; wreath, wreathe; thief, thieve. (Verbs) wink, wince; pink, pinch; dog, dodge, Change of Vowel and Consonant. (Nouns) bath, bathe; grass, graze; breath, breathe. (Verbs) blink, blench; drag, dredge; wake, watch. 380. 2. By a Suffia. •uck, -ck, -k; pl-uck, sti-ck, lur-k, tal-k, har-k, wal-k. -ag, -ug, -augh, -y; dr-ag, shr-ug, 1-augh, fl-y, worr-y. -ow, -aw, -ew ; hall-ow, swall-ow, bell-ow, dr-aw, str-ew. —p, -b, -v; cree-p, hel-p, sta-b, wa-ve, stri-ve, ro-ve. -er; stagg-er, glimm-er, sputt-er, whisp-er, wand-er. -el, -l; stragg-le, spark-le, ming-le, draw-l, craw-l, knee-l. -ên, -on; gladd-en, light-en, op-en, list-en, reck-on, beck-on, -n, -ng, -m; bur-n, war-n, wri-ng, swi-ng, see-m, dee-m. -ot, -t, -d; bl-ot, tr-ot, sif-t, hur-t, gir-d, gil-d. -atch, -0tch, -utch ; scr-atch, Sn-atch, bl-otch, cl-utch. -bh, -uśh, -a88; wi-sh, br-ush, bl-ush, cr-ush, har-ass. -nk, -nch; dri-nk, bli-nk, sli-nk, dre-nch, ble-nch, Wre-nch. -nt, -nd; gli-nt, sti-nt, pa-nt, sta-nd, re-nd, bi-nd. The above are, or were, diminutives.” -se; clean-se, rin-se, tea-se, ri-se, -ze; free-ze, whee-ze, Snee-Ze. -er; added to adjectives; hind-er, low-er, ling-er. 381. 3. By a Preſia. a- (A.S. a-); a shortened form of the old preposition ant; + a-rise, a-wake, a-rouse. This preposition is seen again in e-lope, * run off.” a- (A. S. a-); a-bide, a-bear, a-light, a-bet. at (A.S. aet-); an old English prefix meaning “away,” “against;" at- t fly, at-go, at-stand, at-hold, at-fall. Öe- {A. S. be-); be-come, be-gin, be-take. This prefix has been identified by Professor Key with the Gothic ge- and the Latin con- * Professor Key, Tr. Phil. Soc. 1856. * Professor Key on ama, Tr. Phil. Soc. 1854. I) ERIVATION OF VERBS. 135 (Alphabet, pp. 18.1–2). It often adds intensity to the meaning of the simple verb. en-, em- ) (A.S. in-); en-dear, en-thral, en-grave, em-body, em-bower, $n-, ...} in-graft, in-fold, in-lay, im-bed. for- (A.S. for-), for-bid, for-give, for-sake, for-swear, for-do. fore- (A.S. fore-); fore-tell, fore-bode, fore-see, fore-warn, Twis- (A.S. mis-); mis-lay, mis-lead, mis-take, mis-spend. ' of (A. S. of ; an O. E. prefix; of seek (seek out), of send (send fork. of-take (overtake). out- (A. S. ut-); out-do, out-sail, out-strip, out-speed. over- (A.S. over-); over-come, over-look, over-take, over-throw. to- (A. S. to-); an O. E. prefix adding the meaning of dis to the simple verb; to-break, to-hew, to-rend, to-tear; Germ. 26r-. - Her hondes she set on her hair, And her faire tresses all to-tare.—Rom, of Merlin. win-, winbi- (A. S. ymb-, “around”); an O. E. prefix: umbi-stand (surround), um-go (go-round), um-clip (embrace). wn- (A. S. un-); another form of ant or wmt = un-do, un-lock, un-fold. wnder- (A. S. under-); a comparative form of the above prefixed to verbs; under-go, under-take, under-stand. wp- (A. S. up-); up-set, up-rear, up-braid, up-hold. ver- (Germ. ver-); another form of for-: ver-clef (cloven), ver-lore (lost). with- (A. S. with-); signifies “opposition,” “back,” “against,” with draw, with-hold, with-stand. B. CLASSICAL, 382. 1. By a Suffº. LATIN. -ate; complic-ate, eradic-ate, anticip-ate. -eer; domin-eer, volunt-eer, car-eer. -esce; coal-esce, effery-esce. ºfy; terri-fy, quali-fy, magni-fy -ish ; per-ish, flour-ish, cher-ish, t; reflec-t, predic-t, conduct. GRERK. -ize ; critic-ize, harmon-ize, theor-ize. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 383. 2. By a Preſia.” LATIN. abs- ) abs-tain. contro-, contro vert, par-, par-boil. ab- } ab-jure. de-, de-part. per-, per-form. Q- a-Vert. dis- ) dis-join. pro- ) pro-mote. ad- Y ad-mire, dif- } dif-fuse. por- (por-tend. CLC— 8,C-Cuse, di- ) di-wide. pur- \ pur-vey. af. af-firm. 690- | ex-tort. pol- ) pol-lute. "ag- || ag-grieve. ef- } ef-face. post-, post-pone, al- al-lude. e- ) e-duce. pre-, pre-vent. Q,70- | an-nul. in- ) in-cite. Ted- | red-eem. ap- ap-prove. en- en-dure. re- \ re-duce. ar- ar-rive. im- U im-prove Tetro-, retro-grade, CMS- || 3.S.-Silliſle, em- ſem-ploy. se-, se-cede. at- at-tend. il- il-lude. Sub- Y sub-tract. Cº- ſ a-Scribe. ir- ir-radiate. $700- | suc-ceed, &m-, am-putate. in-a-rºot, in-jure. suf suf-fer. ante- ) ante-date. inter- ) inter-rupt. Sug- }. Sug-gest. anti- | anti-cipate. €ºvić7’— | enter-tain. 8wp- sup-pose. circum-, circum-vent. intro-, intro-duce. Sw8- sus-pend. con- ) con-tend. nanº-) manu-mit, S?! - Su-spect. col- | col-lect. nain- \ main-tain. Super- ) super-vise. com k com-mend. ob- ) ob-tain. SQLſ?"-- ! Sur-mount. for- cor-rupt. OC- { OC-CUll’. trans- ) trans-late. 60- CO-el’Cé. qf (of-fend. tra- ) tra-duce, contra- ) contra-dict. Op- ) op-pose. tres- ) tres-pass. counter- ) counter-act. Outra=wltra, outr-age. GREEK. en-; en-throne, en-sphere. 384. Mäny nouns in English are converted into verbs without altering the form of the word ; plant, Stone, butter, nail, hammer, pin, thread, chain, fetter, &c. Adjectives frequently become verbs without altoration : idle, better, dry, wet, Smooth, double, &c. Adverbs occasionally become verbs: further, forward, &c. 385. Verbs are sometimes formed from other verbs hy dropping a part of the root : ram, c-ram; rumple, 6 rumple, rumble, g-rumble; melt, 8-melt ; tumble, 8-tumble; mash, 8-mash; welter, s-welter, &c. Verbs are occasionally formed by a species of reduplication : Shilly-shally, fiddle faddle dingle- dangle, tittle-tattle, &c. * These prefixes are explained $163. Verbs formed directly from ºnouns and adjectives are omitted. ADWERBS. 137 COMPOUND VERBS. 386. (1) Wown + noun ; ham-string, hand-cuff. (2) Noun + verb; back-bite, brow-beat, way-lay. (3) Adjective + noun; black-ball, holy-stone, black lead. * (4) Adjective + verb; white-wash, ful-fil, rough-hew, (5) Adverb + verb ; gain-say, fore-tell, cross-question. (6) Verb + adverb ; do-on (don), do-off (doff), do-out (dout, O. E. and Provinc.), do-up (dup, Pr.). ADWERBS. 387. Adverbs are indeclinable words, employed to modify the meaning of adjectives, participles, Verbs, prepositions, nouns, pronouns, other adverbs, and compound phrases. (a) Adjective. “This has rendered them whiversally proud" (Burke). (b) Participle. “A greatly honoured friend and teacher” (Trench). (c) Werb. “The dogs howled fearfully during the night” (Waterton). tr (d) Preposition. “Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife.” (Gray). (c) Noun. “I shall dismiss all attempts to please, while I study only instruction” (Goldsmith). (f) Pronoun. “Yours most affectionately, Oliver Goldsmith ” (Id.) (g) Adverb. “Why was the philosopher more easily satisfied than the mechanic!” (Macawlay). (h) Compound phrase. “The barn-owl sometimes [carries off rats]” (Waterton). 388. Adverbs are, strictly speaking, abbreviated or elliptical expres- sions; e.g. Sometimes = “at some time;” here = “at this (place); ” to-day = “on this day” (hodie); &c. Occasionally the governing preposition is retained, as for-sooth, in- deed, per-chance, &c. * 138 ADWERBS. Hence any plarase or combination of words indicating the time, manner, or locality of an action is virtually an adverb. It was written a thousand years before our Christian era.--Dé Quincey, In the evening, when we went away, the old water-hen came back to the nest.—Waterton. The legions stood to their arms in well-ordered ranks and atiful silence.—Gibbon. In a cowslip bell I lie.—Shakspere. It is usual, however, to limit the term adverb to derived and corn- pound words. 389. Adverbs are frequently classed in accordance with their meaning, (1) Time ; once, always, daily, before, to-morrow. (2) Place ; here, aloft, below, inside, around. (3) Degree ; much, very, greatly, almost, nearly, (4) Manner; well, thus, truly, softly, so. (5) Cause ; therefore, wherefore, hence, why. 390. Adverbs are formed from nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, numerals, and prepositions : bodily, here, sweetly, astray, wooingly, once, before. 391. Most of the English adverbs are formed from adjectives or participles by the Suffix -ly, a shortened form of like: sure-ly, loving-ly, &c.; several by prefixing a- to nouns: a-board, a-head, a-Shore, &c.; and a few by suffixing -ward or wards, -wise or ways : home-ward, back-wards, other-wise, al-ways, &c. * 392. Adverbs derived from adjectives ending in -ly do not add a second -ly; the simple adjective is used as an adverb : hour-ly, might-ly. In holi-ly, from holy, the l is part of the root. When the adjective ends in -ble, a contraction takes place : noble, nobly; sensible, sensibly. In the old Scotch poet Dunbar, we find the form mobil-ly. If the adjective end in -y, the y is written i when the suffix -ly is added: weary, weari-y I) ERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 139 393. Adverbs formed from the Relative pronoun serve at the same time to connect propositions, and may be called Conjunctive Adverbs. • Wherever they marched, their route was marked with blood.— Robertson. Shall I be frighted, when a madman stares?—Shakspere, The world was all before them, where to choose º Their place of rest, and Providence their guide,-Milton. 394. Those derived from the Interrogative are frequently employed to ask a question, and may be termed Interrogative Adverbs. Mother, oh where is that radiant shore ?–Heman3. When shall we three meet again?—Shakspere. Why dimly gleams the visionary sword –Pope. Aſow could I name Love's very name, Nor wake my harp to notes of flame?—Scott. 395. Some adverbs admit of degrees of comparison : soon, 500m-er, 800n-est ; others, from their nature, are incapable of being compared : now, then, there, to-morrow. The rules already given for expressing the comparison of adjectives apply equally to adverbs. In A. S. the adverbial suffixes are -Or, -ost ; those for adjectives, er, -est. In modern English this distinction is lost. Adverbs formed by the suffix -ly, usually express the comparative and Superlative by more and most ; but in the older writers they occasionally receive a suffix: “earthlier happy” (Shakspere). - Destroyers rightlier called the plague of men.—Milton. DERIVATION OF ADVERBs. A, TEUTONIC, 396. 1. By a Suffia. * (A. S. -e); an O. E. suffix; Soft-é, bright-é, Swift-é, “e is the usual termination by which adverbs are formed from adjectives; as, 140 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. wide, widely.” It seems to be the suffix of the dative, that case being employed to express the manner. See § 149. When the suffix is lost, these adverbs assume the appearance of adjectives: “the moon shines bright; ” “the stream runs fast.” -88 Yunawar-es, sometim-es, besid-es. -se ( el-se, O. E. el-es, ell-es, el-s (Lat. al-to-, al-iter). -ce ( on-ce, hen-ce, then-ce, sin–ce (O. E. on-es, henn-es, thenn-es) s ) need-s, outward-s, O. E. eftSoon-s. These forms were probably identical in origin (A. S. -es), and Beem to have been old genitives. -lºng; this suffix is found in the words darkling, growling (0. E.): Oh, wilt thou darkling leave me?—Shakspere. So out went the candle, and we were left darkling.—Id. The derivation is uncertain. It may be merely a participle of the verb darkle, employed as in the phrase, “they went their way rejoicing.” For another explanation, see Dr. Latham's Eng. Lang. (p. 506). -ly (A.S. -lice, O. E. -liche). In the A. S. -lic-e, the final e is the dative suffix: clan-lic, “pure; ” clan-lic-e, “purely,” “in a pure manner.” In later English the case-ending is lost, and the adverb and the adjective assume the same form. -om ; a suffix of this form is seen in the two words whil-ow, and seld-om. They are said to be old datives; and, in the case of whilom, the A. S. hwil-wm renders this explanation probable. But the old forms of seldom (A. S. Seld-an, Seld-on ; O. E. Seld-en; and Dan. Sjeld-en) seem to indicate an adverbial termination of another kind, Compare the Germ. Self-sam. -ther (A.S. -ther); hi-ther, thi-ther, whi-ther, &c. See § 254. -ward ) (A. S. weard); home-ward, heaven-ward, in-ward. -wards ; (A. S. weardes); home-wards, heaven-wards, in-wards, For a possible explanation of this double form, see remarks on -es, (A. S. -wis. This suffix is the A.S. and O. E. wise, “manner,” -wise “fashion,” = “in this wise.” Other-wise means “in another •ways ) way.” The form -ways is not connected with the word way, a road. The Northern dialect has gate; al-gate. 397. 2. By a Preſia. q. (A.S. a .); an old preposition an or on, found prefixed to nourts and adjectives: a-Shore, a-board, a-loft. Compare the equivalent forms * Rask, Ang. Sax. Gram. § 335, COMPOUND ADWERBS, 141 “on shore,” “on board,” O. E. “onlyft” (in air). Adjectives: a-new, a-fresh, a-broad, a-far. The Northern dialect prefers on. al- (A. S. al-); al-most, al-ways, al-one, al-So. be- (A.S. and O. E. bi-); the preposition by ; be-fore (O. E. bi-fore), be-sides (O. E. bi-sides). to- (A. S. to-); the demonstrative “this " - to-day, to-morrow, to night (§ 239). 398. B, CLASSICAL, a-; a-part, a-pace, a-croSS. per-; per-chance, per-force, per-adventure. Per-haps is a hybrid. 399. COMPOUND ADVERBS, (1) Noun + noun ; side-ways, length-wise, guest-wise (Shakspere). (2) Noun + adjective; head-foremost, breast-high, knee- deep. (3) Adjective + noun ; mean-While, al-Ways, mean-time. (4) Pronoun + noun ; to-night, some-times, other-wise. (5) Pronoun + preposition ; here-tofore, here-after, there- upon. - (6) Preposition + noun; in-deed, out-side, above-board. The adverbs derived from numerals have been specified and explained in §§ 216, 217; those derived from pronouns, in §§ 242, 254, 260. 400. Some adverbs are merely elliptical expressions, or truncated propositions, as may-be, may-hap, Compare the Latin forsitan. - 401. Adverbs are occasionally formed by reduplication, as, pit-pat, zig-zag, &c., and sometimes by a species of alliteration: topsy-turvy, pell-mell, helter-Skelter, higgledy-piggledy, &c. Nſost of the prepositions are also used as adverbs. 142 PREPOSITIONS. PREPOSITIONS. 402. Prepositions, being the modern equivalents of case, endings, are employed with nouns to mark the relation in which these nouns stand to other words of the sentence. Thus in “the song of the bird,” the word of, showing that the song proceeds from the bird, is identical in meaning with the suffix s in “the bird's song” (§§ 129, 130, 131). In modern English, prepositions are used more frequently than in the ancient inflected languages, because the case- endings have, with few exceptions, disappeared. 408. Hence prepositions are found before nouns of every kind. (1) Simple nown. The Christmas bells from hill to hill * Answer each other in the mist.—Tennyson. (2) Numeral. And wnto One her note is gay.—Id. (3) Pronoun. I sing to him that rests below.—Id. (4) Infin, in ing. And we with singing cheered the way.—Id. (5) Infin, with to. Could save the son of Thetis from to die. Spenger. (6) Infin, Sentence, In, [honouring God, and doing His work, put forth all thy strength.—Jer. Taylor. (7) Sentence. They made ready the present against [Joseph came home at noon].—English Bible. 404. Prepositions usually stand before the nouns they govern, and hence their name. She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, And lovers are round her sighing; But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, For her heart in his grave is lying.—Moore. & Occasionally they are found suffixed to them : here-with, there-by, where-in, therefore, wherefore. There be two things where-of you must have special caution. - Bacoſt, PREPOSITIONS. * 143 405. Prepositions are frequently placed after verbs. These are, in reality, adverbs employed to form compound verbs. Tie up the knocker; say I'm sick, I'm dead.—Pope. 406. This suffixed preposition, or, more correctly, adverb, often makes an intransitive verb transitive : Full well they laughed, with counterfeited glee, At all his jokes, for many a joke had he-Goldsmith. LIST OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS. 407. All the prepositions contained in this list, with the exception of those marked P. (Provincial), have been taken from old or modern English writers. 1. AN (A. S. am), an O. E. word, meaning on or in. “Children leveth French, and construeth and lerneth an Englisch’’ (Trevisa). a (A. S. a). In modern English the inseparable form of an: In 0. E. it was an independent word: “Women are all day a dressing” (Burton). 2, AT (A. S. at, Get). att-en; “atten ende” (Rob. Gl.)? at-then-end = at-the-end. att-é; “atté last’ (Id.); probably = at-the. et (P.); Old Frisian et. a (O. F. a). “A Bangore” (Rob. Gl.) = “at Bangor.”. 3. BAET (A. S. baeft-am, O. Fr. beft-a). a-baft (O. Fr. a-beft-a) aft (A. S. aft, O. Fr. eſt). The initial b is dropt. aft-er (A. S. aft-er, O. Fr. aft-er) eft-er (O. Fr. and L. Sc. eſt-er) ef; O. E. at-aft-er. “I trust to see you ataſter Easter” (MS, quoted by Hall), 4. BouT (A. S. buff-an, around). a-bout-en (A. S. a-but-an) a-bout-é a-bout 5. Bow E (0. Fr. bov-a, A. S. bufanı). a-bow-en -bou- sº A. S. G-buf-Gºt a-bo-ne 144 PREPOSITIONS, a-bove y a-boffe a-buf a-hew (P.) ov-en (A. S. uſ-an). The initial 5 is dropt. an-ow-en (A. S. on-ufan) ov-er af-our aW-Or (e. S. of-er, O. Fr, Ov-6°) C-61" 6 (a). BUT; without, except, but-en bout-en A. S. but-gºn beout-en but-é (0. Fr. but-a) bote bute but bot bout bo boh (P.) :}(A. s. aluan) a bawt (P.) (b) OUT. ... (A. S. uran). The initial of luan dropt. ut-é out-é {A. S. wi-e ut out A. S. ut for-out-in (Gawaine) = without. forth-out : “Fly forthout my heart.”—Chatseer. through-out thorgh-out thorth-out with-out-en with-out-é with-out; sometimes written in O. E. out—with. from-out ; usually written separately: From out waste places comes a cry.--Teſtity}on. 7. By (A. S. big, Mod. Fr. by). be (A. S. be) bi (A. S. bi) beo, O. E. for-by l = before. “Forbi everilk one’’ (Rob. Br.), i.e. “before GVery for-bi cºnt.” PREPOSITIONS, 145 8. Down (A. S. dun, a slope). a-dun a-doune (A. S. a-dwit. Compare the O. French & mont and a val, a-down for “upwards” and “downwards.” a-dawe 9, ERE (A. S. aer, er) = before. The adverb er-st is the superlative. ** ! O. Fr. dº. 3)" Ol’e Would I had met my dearest foe in Heaven, OT Or ever I had seen that day.—Shakspere. 10. For (A. S. for) = instead of, because of, &c. fore. Found only in compounds therefore, wherefore, &c, 11. FoEE (A. S. fore) = before, of place or time. for-n fºr me A. S. for-an. a-for-en (0. Fr. a-for-en) a-for-n - a-fore (O. F. a fore); still seen in afore-8&ºd. at-fore (A. S. autºfor-an) be-for-en (A. S. be-for-an) be-for-n bi-for-n be-for-6 (A. S. be-for-e) bi-for-6 (0. Fr. bi-far-a) be-fore bi-fore bi-vore (compare the German be-vor) to-for-en (A. S. to for-an) to-for-n to-fore (0. Fr. to far-a); still seen in here tofore. 12. FoETH (A. S. forth): Steal forth thy father's house.—Shakspere. 13. FROM. fram (A. S. fram) fra (A. S. fra), Scotch, “Til and fra.” fro; seen in fro-ward, “to and fro.” i4. GAIN (P.), A. S., gegen, gaºn. gain-st a' : (A. S. On-gean, on-gegen). Compare the Germ, ent-gegen. again a-gen ( (A. S. a-gen) a-yen J (O. Fr. a-ien) o-ge a-ge a-ye 146 PREPOSITIONS. a-gain-is a-gen-es a-galn-g a-gen-S a-yen-S a-yan-ce a-gains-t a-gen-st a-yen-st oven-against Over-against 15. AN-ENT = opposite, concerning; connected with on-geºn, against.” an-Ont a-yont (L. Sc.), “ayont the ingle.” an-ent-is an-empt-es 3.11-61 l-S Orł-61-C6 an-en-st an-emp-st en-ant-y en-unt-y for-enenst 16. HIND (A.S. hind-an); “wind hind waves” (Dunbar). Hind is said to have originally meant “tail.” + a-hint (P.) be-hind (A. S. be-hind-an) bi-hynde be-hint (P.) 17. IN (A. S. in). i (O. N. :): “A worm ; the bud” (Shakspere). an (A. S. am). See 1. a (A. S. a). See 1, on (A.S. on): “Stories said on gud manere” (Barbour). with-inn-6 (A. S. with-inn-an) with-in; in O. E. often written in-with, 18. LONG (P.); A. S. lang, along. ande-long (A. S. and-lang, German ent-lang) end-long : “Endlong the lusty river” (Dunbar). end-lang a-lang a-long alonk a-long-sh * Mr. Wedgwood (Dict, Eng. Etym.) thinks that the ſit is due tº Norse influence, + ld. v. behind. PREPOSITIONS, 147 The word long or along in the phrase “along of,” “long of” (“all this coil is long of you.”—Shakspere), is of different origin. It is the A. S. gelang from gelingan, to happen.” * 19. MID (A. S. mid) = with. O. F. mith, O, N. meth. 20. MID (O. Fr. midd-a) mid-st a-midd-6 (A. S. a-midd-an) a-mid a-mod a-midd-es (A. S. midd-es, to-midd-ed) e-midd-es a-mid-s a-mid-st in-mid (A.S. on-midd-an); “inmid the sea” (Ch.); on-mydde (R. C. de Lion). - 21. Mong (0. Fr. mong); root mog, meg, or mig, in meng-em, O. E. = ming-le. mong-st a-mog (0. Fr. mog.) a-mong a-mang (A. S. a-mang) a-mang-is a-mong-es e-mang-es e-mong-es a-mong-s a-mong-st bi-mong (A. S. ge-mang) 22, NEATH (A. S. neoth-an) a-neath (P.) be-neath (A. S. be-neoth) bi-neth (O. Fr. bi-meth-6) bi-neth-an (A. S. be-mith-ax) bi-mith-er under-neath. 23. NIGH (0. Fr. ni, nei, A. S. neał) nigh-er nigh-est (A. S. meh-st) next (A. S. meat) near (A. S. near) Ilê3.1°-61? near-est a-nigh (P.) a-nighst (P.) a-near (P.) a-neast (P.) * Wedgwood, Dict, En. Etym, v, along. L 2 148 PREPOSITIONS. 24. OF (A. S. of). af. Compare ab and apo. o; “Will-o-the wisp.” out-of. Though written separately, these words form a real compound : “He did it out of kindness.” 25. OFF. A later form of of, with another meaning. 26. ON (A. S. on) an (A. S. am) a (O. N. a.) O oven-on = above anoven-an = above in-an = upon up-on 27. Round. This is the A. S. rand and rond, “border,” or “rim.” It was not employed as a preposition in A. S.; ymbé supplied its place. a-round a-roun (P.) 28. SINCE, (a) sith (A. S. Sith). This word meant “time; ” “a hundred º sith.” ($216). Compare the Germ. Seit and zeit. sith-en (A. S. sith-an) seth-é Suth-6 ! sith-en-ce sith-en-s (b) sin (O. N. sinn); possibly a contraction of Sithen. sin-ce } sin-S 29. TILL (A. S. til); probably a contraction of “to while ” = “to the time.” Robert of Gloucester has “to whille,” = till. In L. Sc. til means simply to : “til and fra,” = “to and fro.” tille. in-til = into : “Intil ane glen.” (Dunbar). on-til up-til = upon. “Leaned her breast uptil a thorn" (Shakspere), un-til; “as far as,” and “as long as.” 30. To (A. S. to). ta (Mod. Fr. ta) te (O. Fr. te) to-ward to-ward-es to-ward-s for-to - until in-to un-to PREPOSITIONS. 149 31. (a) TWEEN (A. S. twegen, two) a—tween be-tween (A. S. be-twin-an) bi-tween bi-ten be-twe (b) TWIXT (0. Fr. twisk) = tweg-st. a-twix-é (O. Fr. a-twia;-a) a-twixt be-twix-en (A. S. be-tour) (A be-twux-en A. S. be-tua ) bi-tux-en be-twix-é be-twix bi-twez be-twesh be-twixt-é be-twixt (A. S. be-twyat) 32. THROUGH (O. Fr. thruch) thrugh thurh (A. S. thurh) thurch thurgh thorgh thurch thorth thurf thurs thorough ; “thoroughfare,” “Thorough flood, thorough ſlre” (Shakspere). thoru 33. UMB-EN = about, O. E. (O. Fr. winb-e, A. S. ymb-e). embe 34, UNDER (A. S. under). onder (0. Fr. Onder) an-under (P.) - an-onder; “Ther nis non betere amonder summe.”—(G, K, Horn.) 85. WITH (A. S. with). wit The following are Compounds of Prepositions and Nouns, or Adjectives. 36. A-BOARD (A. S. and O. Fr. a bord) = on a plank, the deck of a vessel. 37, A-CRoss. From the Lat. crua, through the French. * 37, A-LOPT (A. S. a-lyft)-in the air : 150 PREPOSITIONS. 38. A-scANà" = across. “There is a willow grows ascant the brook.’ (Shakspere). a-Scaumt 39. A-STRIDE (0. Fr. a stride), connected with the root of Straddle. 40. A-THWART (A. S. On thweorh); from thwart, “cross.” O. E. Over- - twert, over-thorte, P. athirt. 41. A-TOUR } = about, around (Halliw). It seems sometimes to mean “above.” “The horse atour the green did glide” (Dunbar), “Atour the flood,” “Atour al thinge,” “Atour measure' (Dunbar). 42. BE-Low (A. S. lak, low), not used as a Preposition in A. S. 43. BE-SIDE be-sid-en be-sid-6 (O. Fr. bi-8id-a) be-side bi-side be-sid-es along-side in-side out-side 44. BE-YoMD (A. S. be-geond); demonstrative pron. Wond ($241). be-yund bi-yonde bi-yende 408. The following words are used apparently as prepo. sitions:— * bating excepting regarding concerning maugre notwithstanding despite opposite Sans, O. E. during pending S8. We except respecting sauf, O. E. | All these, with the exception of notwithstanding, are of classical origin, and all but sans and despite are participles. Their true character is explained in the Syntax (§§ 493–497). 409. Many of the prepositions in the list given above have a suffix -st. The true nature of this suffix has yet to be determined. It may possibly be superlative, intensifying the * Of doubtful derivation. See Mr. Wedgwood, Dict. Eng. Etym. + “Atour = at over, i.e. across”--Skeat, Gloss. Index to Lanc. of the Laik. CONJUNCTIONS, 151 meaning of the simple word: a-mid, “in the middle of;” a-mid-st, “in the very middle of.” 410. Some of the English prepositions are employed occa. sionally as adverbs and conjunctions : e. g.— * Before their eyes the wizard lay.—Scott. (Prep, ante.) A likeness hardly seen before...—Tennyson. (Adv. anted.) Before the garrison had recovered from their surprise, the governor was master of the outworks,—Macaulay. (Conj. antequam.)* The young student should be trained to distinguish these, as a knowledge of the distinction is essential, not only in translating into other languages, but in explaining the struc- ture of English sentences. - CONJUNCTIONS. 411. Conjunctions are words used to connect propositions: Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved.—Crabbe. He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain.—Goldsmith. The word and, though commonly employed to connect propositions, Sometimes has a different meaning (with, together with). It then has a prepositional character, and should not be treated as an ordinary conjunction. Many grammarians, overlooking this double property of the word and, asset that conjunctions connect words as well as propositions. 412. Conjunctions sometimes couple independent proposi- tions, and are then called co-ordinate. * Though usually termed a conjunction, before, in such constructions, is in reality a preposition governing a sentence: “I left before [he came].” Hence in O. E. the demonstrative that is frequently found preceding the sentence, to direct emphatic attention to it: “I left before that ſhe came].” This remark applies equally to after, while, and since. Compare the Latin antequam, postguam. I52 CONJUNCTIONS. His words were few, and special was his care In simplest terms his purpose to declare.—Craſsbe. A wise man's circumstances may vary and fluctuate like the floods about a rock; but he persists unmovably the same and his reputation unshaken.—Barrow. - Sometimes they subjoin a dependent to a principal sentence, and are then called sub-ordinate : Ere the high lawns appeared Under the opening eyelids of the morn, We drove afield,—Milton. If Homer had not led the way, it was not in Virgil to have begun Heroic poetry.—Dryden. - 413. Dependent propositions are frequently subjoined by relative and interrogative pronouns, and by the adverbs derived from them. These words may then be viewed as true conjunctions, or subjunctive particles. They differ, however, from ordinary conjunctions in the fact that, while connecting propositions, they still retain their pro- nominal or adverbial character. See $393. 414. Conjunctions are frequently used in pairs, one being placed before each of the connected words or sentences: as-So; both-and; either-or ; neither-nor; whether-or ; Or-Or; though-yet ; &c. Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane, Yet will I try the last.—Shakspere. Neither history nor biography is able to move a step without infrac. tijns of this rule.—De Quincey. “These words are often called adverbs, but, as they too serve to connect sentences, they deserve like the rest the name of conjunctions. They bear, in fact, the same relation to the other conjunctions that the so-called antecedent does to the relative.”—(Prof. Key, Alphabet, p. 136.) 415. The demonstrative pronoun that is often used in apposition to a sentence forming the subject or object of a INTERJECTIONS. 153 verb, to fix the attention more strongly upon the collective idea contained in the sentence: Experience tells me that [my past enjoyments have brought no real felicity].—Goldsmith. That [a human being cannot be justly held and used as property] is apparent from the very nature of property.—Channing. This pronoun is usually termed a conjunction.” INTERJECTIONS. 416. Interjections are words expressing sudden or deep feeling, which have no grammatical connexion with the sentences in which they occur. O blest retirement, friend to life's deeline l—Goldsmith. Where, then, ah where shall Poverty reside?—Id. “The Interjection has one important peculiarity, which not only vindicates its claim to be regarded as a constituent of language, but entitles it unequivocally to a high rank among the elements of dis- course. It is in itself expressive and significant, though indeed in a low degree, whereas, at least in uninflected languages like the English, other words, detached from their grammatical connexions, are mean- ingless and become intelligible only as members of a period.” + 417. There are two classes of Interjections: (1) Simple sounds elicited by some excitement of the mind: 0, ah, jie, pshaw, pish, ugh. * For a detailed explanation of the true character of this word, ses Prof. Key's article on conjunctions (Alphabet, p. 133). + Marsh, Lecture XIII. - 154 DIMINUTIVES —AUGMENTATIVES, (2) Fragments of entire sentences consisting sometimes of two or more words; Byrlakim 1 Odsbodikins / &c.; and sometimes of single words; (a) nouns, Peace/ Silence/ Marry / &c. (b) verbs, Hark! Hush / Lo / (c) adjectives, Strange/ Shocking / Dread- ful/ (d) adverbs, Soft / Away / DIMINUTIVES. 418. Diminutives are words with the original meaning of the root modified by various suffixes signifying “little ;” as, hill-ock, “little hill;” duck-ling, “little duck; ” shall-ow, “little shoal; ” glimm-er, “little gleam ;” black-ish, “rather black; ” maid-en, “little maid,” &c. They denote smallness, “tenderness or affection, pity and contempt. Many words with a diminutival suffix have lost their diminutive meaning, and in many instances the primitive word has become obsolete. The various diminutival suffixes have been given under the derivation of the different parts of speech. AUGMENTATIVES. 419. Augmentatives are words formed by the addition of a suffix which strengthens the meaning of the simple word, as dull; dull-ard, “a very dull person.” In modern English the primitive word is often obsolete. 420. Augmentatives are of two kinds: (1) Teutonic ; (II) Classical. (I.) TEUTONIG : -heart, -art, -ard, -rol. This suffix appears to have been introduced by the Franks, Wandals, and other German tribes, into the languages of France, Spain, and PATRONYMICS. 155 Italy, and hence is often found affixed to words of classical origin. It is used with various significations: t (a) Endearment : Sweet-heart. (b) Praise: Leon-ard, Rich-ard. (c) Blame: drunk-ard, cow-ard, slugg-ard, bragg-art, dast-gró (daze), dot-ard, nigg-Cºrd. (d) Malesex: wizard, mall-ard, lenn-ard (male linnet). (e) State or condition : bay-ard (a bay horse), li-ard (a gray horse), stand-ard, cust-ard, poll-ard. (f) Intensity : poin-ard, tank-ard, gris-ard (very gray), hagg-ard. The words Steward, lizard, orchard, leopard, are not augmentatives (Stow-ward, lacerto-, ort-gard, leopardo-). 421. (II) CLASSICAL : -on, -one, -oon (Ital, -one): galle-on, ſpoltr-on, or poltr-00m, tromb-One, ball-oon, cart-00m, pont-oon, drag-00m, buff-00m, barrac-00m, harp-00m, bab-00m, &c. This suffix, on, is thought by some to have originally signified man, and to have had no intensive force. Hence the Roman names Cicer-on-, ſ"uber-on-, Was-On-, &c. PATRONYMICS. 422. Patronymics are names formed by adding a suffix or prefix to the name of the father to indicate the son. As Englishmen bear names derived from various stocks, it may be useful to exhibit such of the forms employed in the Indo-European languages as are not unfrequently found among English surnames. 423. One mode of expressing the patronymic was to employ the genitive case : *e (1) English : Richard-s, Wilkin-8, Roger-8. (2) Greek: Ho Platon-os (the [son] of Plato). 3) Latin: Tull-ius (son of Tullus), Mar-cius (son of Miarcüş), 156 PATRONYMICS. In A. S. the suffix -ing was employed for this purpose: Brown-ing, Hard-ing, Bald-ing. In Greek the suffix -ida was also commonly used: Leon-ida-8 (Leon's son). 424. A second mode was to suffix the word son, or its equivalent : (1) English : Dick-son, John-son, Robin-80m. (2) Slavonic : -vitch, -ski, Petro-vitch, Petrow-ski, (3) Spanish: €2 : Fernand-ez, 425. A third mode was to préfia, a word meaning son : (1) Norman French : Fitz- (filius); Fitz-Osborne, Fitz-william, Fitz-roy, Fitz-herbert. (2) Irish Gaelic: 0. y O’Conner, O'Connel, O'Niel. (3) Scotch Gaelic: Mac-, Mac-Ivor, Mac-Intosh. (%) Welsh : ap-; ap-Evan (Bevan), ap-Howel (Powel), ap-Hugh (Pugh), ap-Richard (Pritchard), ap-Adam (Badham), &c. (5) Hebrew: Bar; Bar-tholomew, Barjonas, Ben: Benjamin, Ben-hadad, Ben-oná. PART III, SYNTAX. 426. Syntax, derived from two Greek words signifying “arranging together,” is that part of grammar which describes the arrangement of words in Sentences. Propositions, 427. The simple statement of a fact is called a proposition, When a fact is affirmed, the statement is an affirmative proposition : Thou art a witch.-Shakspere. When a fact is denied, the statement is a negative pro. position : - My hour is not yet come.—Id. 428. In a proposition, that of which we speak is called the subject : Thou art a witch. What we say of the subject is the predicate : Thou art a witch. 429. Writers on logic divide the proposition into three parts: (1) the subject—that respecting which the assertion is made; (2) the copula— the verb be expressed or implied in the statement; and (3) the predicate —what is stated of the subject. In grammatical analysis this division is both unnecessary and in- accurate. 430. The subject of a proposition must be either a noun, with or without qualifying words, or one of its equivalents, viz. a pronoun, ar, infinitive phrase, or a sentence : 158 SYNTAX. (a) Wown: God is our fortress.-Shakspere. (b) Noun with qualifying words: Sºrong constitutions, whether politic or natural, do not feel light diº orders.-Butler. - - The most laborious and successful student is confined in his researches to a very few of God's works,—Channing. (c) Pronoun: He comes, the herald of a noisy world,—Cowper. (d) Infinitive in -ing: Trembling came upon me and a feeling which I would not have had.—Coleridge. (e) Infinitive with to : - To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, …' And to be grave exceeds all power of face–Pope. (f) Infinitive sentence : [To punish a man because he has committed a crime, or because he is believed, though unjustly, to have committed a crime], is not per- secution,-Macawlay. - (g) Sentence : Whatever is, is right.—Pope. - What one man owns cannot belong to another.—Channing. 431. When a sentence consists of a single proposition, it is Said to be simple. When it consists of two or more principal clauses, it is compound. When it consists of one principal clause and one or more Subordinate, it is called complea. When the subject noun is accompanied by qualifying or explanatory words, it is said to be enlarged: The lioness robbed of her whelps causes the wilderness to ring aloud with the proclamation of her wrongs.-Chalmers. The words “robbed of her whelps” indicate the enlargement of the subject. SYNTAX. 159 432. The predicate must be a verb, with or without quali fying words or phrases: The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew.—Coleridge. Whang, the miller, was naturally avaricious.-Goldsmith. These tidings were daggers to the heart of poor Whang.—Hd. To exclude the great is to magnify the little.—Coleridge. He [concluded by thanking those ladies who had presented him with a black silk gown, and had been kind to his wife during her long illness; by apologising for having neglected his own business, which was to study and preach, in order to attend to that of the parish, which was to support its minister].-Longfellow, 433. When the predicate consists of a single verb, it is in its simplest form : “trees grow,” “day breaks.” When the predicate verb is transitive, it requires additional words to complete the sense: these additional words are called the extension of the predicate: Bed Battle stamps his foot, and nations feel the Shock-Byron. When the predicate verb is accompanied by an adverb, or an adverbial phrase, it is said to be enlarged: *** The ice was here, the ice was there, The ice was all around.—Coleridge. I stood [upon a shore, a pleasant shore, Where a sweet clime was breathed from a land Of fragrance, quietness, and trees, and flowers]-Keats. 434. A sentence is one or more propositions expressing a complete thought. A simple sentence states a single fact, as, I hear thee speak of the better land.—Hemans. When a secondary or dependent sentence is subjoined to a principal sentence, it is called subordinate : We should hold day with the Antipodes, If we should walk in absence of the sun.-Shakſpere, l60 SYNTAX. When two or more independent or subordinate sentences are connected by conjunctions, they are called co-ordinates: I went up to the picture, kissed it, then gently walked out, and closed the door for ever.—De Quincey. As men abound in copiousness of language, so they become more wise or more mad than ordinary.—Hobbes. R in appeared impending and inevitable, though no one could tell in what precise form it would come.—Grote. 435. The following grammatical terms are frequently em- ployed in explaining the structure of sentences: Apposition, Pleonasm, Ellipsis, 436. Apposition. When one noun is used to explain another, it is attracted into the Same case as the noun it explains, and is said to be in apposition to it: So work the honey bees, Creatures that by a rule in nature teach. The art of order to a peopled kingdom.—Shakspere. The noun creatures is in the same case as bees. It is not necessary that the explanatory word or words should be of the same number as the noun they explain : That best portion of a good man's life— His little, nameless, unremembered acts Of kindness and of love.—Wordsworth. 437. An infinitive phrase, or a sentence, may be in ap- position to a noun: O let us still the Secret joy partake, To follow virtue e'en for virtue's sake /–Pope. In the serene expression of her face he read the divine beatitude, “Blessed are the pure in heart.”—Longfellow, 438. A noun with or without qualifying words may be in apposition to a sentence: [By folly ye be not content with your estate], a fancie to be plucked out ºf you.--Sir J. Cheeke. SYNTAX. 16] 439. When a sentence is in apposition to a roun, the demonstrative that is placed before the sentence: He had not learned the Superficial doctrine of a later age—that [poetry flourishes most in an uncultivated soil], and that [imagińation shapes its brightest visions from the mists of a superstitious age.—Channing. It seems hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that [the Phoenicians must have been the people from whom Homer drew his information respecting the outer circle of the geography of the Odyssey].—Glad- Sł07té. 440. When the predicate consists of an intransitive verb and a noun, these words simply describe the subject, and the noun is therefore in apposition to it : The long-remembered beggar was his guest.—Goldsmith. And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love.—Shelley. 441. Pleonasm. Superfluous words are sometimes found. This redundancy of expression is called Pleonasm : The net was never spread for the hawke or buzzard that hurt us. but the harmlesse birds they are good meat.—Ben Jonson. I know thee, stranger, who thou art.—Milton. The world it is empty, the heart will die.—Coleridge. 442. This frequently occurs when a writer converts an assertion into a question: Yon silver beams, Sleep they less Sweetly on the cottage-thatch Than on the dome of kings?—Shelley. The care of our children, is it below the state 2–Goldsmith, My lord constable, the armour that I saw in your tent to-night, are those Suns or stars upon it 2—Shakspere. - This change of construction sometimes occurs when the sentence is not interrogative : The man that is once hated, both his good and his evil deeds oppress him.— Ben Jonson. M 162 SYNTAX. The former agents, if they did complain, What could the belly answer ?–Shakspere. The soul that sinneth, it shall die.—English Bible, 443. Ellipsis. Words necessary to complete the gram. matical structure of the sentence are often omitted. This omission is termed Ellipsis: I was yesterday to dine at the Duchess of Piccadilly's [house]. Goldsmith. Whose is this image and superscription ? They say unto Him, Caesar's [image and superscription].-English Bible. Hadst thou the same free will and power to stand? Thou hadst [the same free will and power to stand].-Milton. The W.ominative 444. The young student should not overlook the distinction between the Subject and the Wominative. In the logical analysis of a sentence, that of which we speak is termed the subject, and this may consist of one or more nouns, clauses, or sentences. In grammatical analysis, if a simple noun or pronoun is the subject of a proposition, it is said to be in the nominative case. Hence the nominative always marks the subject of the verb; but the subject often includes other explanatory words and phrases. 445. The subject is sometimes repeated in the form of a pronoun: The count he was left to the vulture and hound.—Scott. His breath it was lightning, his voice it was storm.-Id. * The green boughs they wither, the thunderbolt falls—Id. JHis chance to-night, it may be thine to-morrow.—Dunbar. 446. When explanatory words or additional facts have been added to the Nominative, this repetition is of frequent OCCUITTen Ce : - And the wave at the foot of the rifted rock It murmured pleasantly.—Kirke White. SYNTAX. 163 Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lapidoth, she judged Israel at that time.—Eng. Bible. To assert that such a passage argues equal impudence and ignorance in its author at the time of writing and publishing it, this is not arrogance,—Coleridge. Hunger, and thirst, and fatigue, the cold of mountain snows, and the Scorching sun of the tropics, these were the lot of every cavalier who came to seek his fortune in the New World,—Prescott, 447. The subject is sometimes repeated for the sake of emphasis or explanation : * Hell at last Yawning received them whole and on them closed— Hell their fit habitation, fraught with fire Unquenchable, the house of woe and pain.—Milton. ſhe spirit of Francis Bacoy, was abroad—a spirit admirably com- pounded of audacity and sobriety.—Macaulay. Thoughts delightful still—thoughts of the faces and voices of the dead, perish not, lying sometimes in slumber, sometimes in sleep.–Wilson. 448. The only instances in which the subject is omitted in English are : (a) In the Present Imperative : Awake, arise, or be for ever fallen —Milton, Bring thy children up in learning and obedience, yet without Austerity.—Sir P. Sidney. (b) In the expression of a wish with would : [I] would he were fatter l—Shakspere. (c) In the elliptical expressions, “Thank you,” “Pray, be careful" Compare prithee = “I pray thee.” (d) In O. E. and in poetry, when the verb is in the second person singular, and the sentence is interrogative. The suffix deter. mines the person : Wolt weep wolt fight wolt fast wolt tear thyself : Wolt drink up esil? eat a crocodile !—Shakspere. , Art in prison 3 Make right use of it, and mortify thyself–Burtor. M 2 164 SYNTAX. 449. In the so-called impersonal verbs methinks, meseems the subject is the sentence which follows the verb : Methinks [some of our modern Argonautes should prosecute the rest]-Burton. -- Methinketh [I fele yet in my nose The Sweté savour of the rose].-Chaucer. But soft methinks [I scent the morning air]—Shakspere. The true construction is, “I Scent the morning air appears to me” (mîhi videtur). 450. When a simple subject, or a subjective sentence, is placed after the verb, the neuter pronoun it, in apposition to She subject, stands before the verb : It was an English ladye bright.—Scott, It is the hardest thing in the world [to shake off superstitious prejudices].-Gilbert White. 451. When a subjective sentence begins with a con- junction, it often represents the fact stated in the sentence : [When a vertuous man is raised], it brings gladnesse to his friends griefe to his enemies, and glory to his posterity.—Ben Jonson. In O. E. it is sometimes onlitted : And so befell II rested me Beside a well under a tree}-Chaucer. Seemed [in her heart some hidden care she had].-Spens. 452. A more emphatic mode of expression is to employ the pronoun this or that instead of it : This is servitude, [To serve th' unwise, or him who hath rebelled Against his worthier]-Milton. This is the danger, [when vice becomes a precedent].-Ben Jonson. #at's a man's country [where he is well at ease].—Burton. SYNTAX. 1.65 453. When the verb be is used simply to imply existence, and not as a copula, the pronominal adverb there is substituted for it : There is a world elsewhere.—Shakspere. There was a wycche (witch) and made a bagge.—Rob, of Brunne, This rule applies to many, perhaps all, intransitive verbs. And there came forth two she-bears out of the wood.—Eng. Bib. From yonder wall There flashed no fire, and there hissed no ball.—Byron. In O. E. it is sometimes found in such constructions, instead of there : Hit was onys a riche man,—Rob, of Br. i. e. There was once a rich man. ' Hit was onys a munke and had a celle In a wyldernesse for to dwelle.—Id. 454. When a sentence otands as the subject of a verb, it is usual to direct emphatic attention to it by prefixing the demonstrative pronoun that : That [a historian should not record trifles], that [he should confine himself to what is important], is perfectly true—Macaulay. Better far that [he should be studied among the poets], than that [he should not be studied at all]-Gladstone, That [we cannot] is pretended; that [we will not] is the true reason.— Ben Jonson. s 455. When a sentence in the predicate is in apposition to the subject, that frequently directs emphatic attention to the sentence : My advice is that [you endeavour to be honestly rich, or contentedly poor].-I. Walton. - 456. When a subjective sentence is placed after the verb, the demonstrative that is usually retained, although it stands in apposition to the sentence : It occasionally happened that ſhis wit obtained the mastery over his 166 SYNTAX. other faculties, and led him into absurdities into which no dull man could possibly have fallen].-Macaulay. Both it and that are occasionally employed when the subjective sentence stands before the verb: “That [we are the breath and simili- tude of God], it is indisputable" (Sir T. Browne). 457. The subject usually stands before the predicate : The sports of children satisfy the child,—Goldsmith. Tº follows the verb in certain constructions. (a) When an adverb or an adverbial phrase begins the sentence: Up rose the victor angels, and to arms The matin-trumpet sung.—Milton. In 8wch misery and shame ended [that long career of worldly wisdom and worldly prosperity].-Macaulay. (b) When the object of the verb is emphatically placed first : Teeth hadst thou in thy head when thou wast born,-Shakspere. (c) When the predicate is placed emphatically first Sad is your tale of the beautiful earth.-Hemans. (d) In quoting the words of another: Is this the region ? this the soil, the clime ! (Said then the lost Archangel) this the seat That we must change for heaven?—Milton. (e) In interrogative sentences: Can I not mountain-maiden spy But she must wear the Douglas eye?—Scott. (f) After neither or nor it often stands between the auxiliary and the infinitive: Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it.—Eng. Bib. (g) In conditional clauses, without if: The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would he skip and play?–Pope. Could a man livº by it, it were not an unpleasant employment to be R poet.—Goldsmith. SYNTAX. 167 ' (ſ) In commands, when the subject is expressed : Go, and do thow likewise.—Eng. Bib. 458. In poetry the subject occasionally follows the verb without these qualifications, for the purpose of rendering the verb emphatic : Vanished the Saxon's struggling spear; Wanished the mountain-sword.—Scott. The drawbridge falls—they hurry out— Clatters each plank and swinging chain.—Id. The Object. 459. The student should distinguish between the object and the accusative or objective case. The object of a verb may be one or more simple nouns, clauses, or sentences. When a simple noun is the object of a verb, it is said to be in the Accusative or Objective case. In modern English the case-ending is generally lost, but it is convenient to assume that the denuded noun is still an accusative. 460. The object of a transitive verb may be a noun, or any of its equivalents, with or without qualifying words. (a) Noun: In the course of the evening Oliver undertook a hornpipe.—Wash- ington Irving. Superstition neither knoweth the right kind, nor observeth the due "measure, of actions belonging to the service of God.—Hooker. (b) Pronoun: Where the enamoured sunny light Brightens her that was so bright.—Wordsworth. Herostratus lives that burnt the temple of Diana; he is almost lost that built it.—Sir T. Browne, (c) Infinitive in -ing : Now leave complaining, and begin your tea.—Pope. He loved planting and building, and brought in a politer way of living—Evelyn. 168 SYNTAx. (d) Infinitive with to : Learn to labour and to wait.— Longfellow. So I saw in my dream that just as Christian came up with the Cross his burden loosed from off his shoulders, and fell from off his back, and began to twmble.—Bunyan. (e) Infinitive phrase: Ladies, you deserve [To have a temple built you].-Shakspere. A prince that would command the affections and purses of this nation must not study [to stretch his prerogative], or be uneasy under the restraints of law.—Burnet. - (f) Sentence: As we made our way through the crowd, I perceived [we brought - good humour with us]—Goldsmith. They knew [this lord had money to distribute among them]; they believed [he intended to keep the best part of it to himself].-Burnet. 461. When a sentence stands as the object of a verb, the demonstrative pronoun that, in apposition to the sentence, usually precedes it : The good woman saw at once that [her son was a genius and a poet]. —Washington Irving. For my part I have ever believed, and do now know, that [there are witches].-Sir T. Browne. - I have heard a grave divine say that [God has two dwellings, one in heaven, the other in a meek and thankful heart].-I. Walton. Teach him that [states of native strength possest, Though very poor, may still be very blest].-Goldsmith, 462. Sometimes the pronoun it is found in apposition to the objective sentence : Thou dost; and think'st it much [to tread the ooze Of the salt deep; To run upon the sharp wind of the north ; To do me business in the veins o' the earth When it is baked with frost].-Shakspere. SYNTAX, 169 463. Occasionally the objective sentence precedes the verb, and it remains in its usual position: [To call ourselves a microcosm or little world] I thought it only a pleasant trope of rhetorick-Sir T. Browne. [Whatsoever of our age is past, Death holds it; [what is to come, deceitful Hope hath it.—Sir W. Raleigh. 464. When an infinitive clause is the object of a verb, and the subject of that clause is expressed, it is in the accusative case : His lordship soon perceived [me to be very unfit for his service].— Goldsmith. In this construction to is often omitted : For I in spirit saw [thee move Thro' circles of the bounding sky].-Tennyson. 465. An intransitive verb is sometimes found with an accusative of the same nature as the verb : Let me die the death of the righteous.-English Bible, I have fought a good fight.—Id. Dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before.—Poe. This is usually called the Cognate Accusative. 466. Certain transitive verbs, signifying making, appoint- ing, creating, &c., occasionally take two accusatives; one representing the person, the other the office. The latter is often called a factitive accusative : Nature had made Mr. Churchill a poet; but destiny had made him a schoolmaster.—Longfellow. Credulity in respect of certain authors, and making them dictators instead of consuls, is a principal cause that the sciences are no farther advanced.—Bacoſt. The verb teach has also two objects: one, of the thing taught ; the other, of the person : 170 SYNTAX. Teach me, O Lord, the way of thy statutes.—English Bible. Teach me [to watch over all my ways].—Jeremy Taylor. He was gathered under the wings of one of those good old motherly dames, found in every village, who cluck together the whole callow brood of the neighbourhood, to teach them their letters and keep them out of harm's way.—W. Irving. 467. The verbs promise, teach, give, and some others, take a dative of the person and an accusative of the thing. “I promised him every indulgence.” In the passive con- struction the dative becomes the subject of the verb, and the accusative remains unaltered: “ He was promised every indulgence.” We were perfectly instructed in the art of giving away thousands, before we were taught the necessary qualification of getting a farthing, -—Goldsmith. - We were taught [to consider all the wants of mankind as our own].-Id. Sometimes the accusative or direct object becomes the sub- ject of the passive verb, and the dative or indirect object re- mains unchanged: “Every indulgence was promised him.” 468. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative : All night the dreadless angel unpursued Through heaven's wide champaign held his way.—Milton. Near this place was a stone pyramid one hundred feet in breadth and two hundred feet high.—Grote. 469. The accusative is (rarely) employed with an adjective, and without a preposition, to indicate the particular part affected by tha adjective : - He layde him, bare the visage, on the bier.—Chaucer. The usual construction requires a preposition. 470. Prepositions in Anglo-Saxon are found with the SYNTAX. 171 accusative, genitive, and dative cases; but in modern English all prepositions are said to govern the accusative or objective only. This is simply a convenient means of disguising our ignorance. The case-endings being lost, it is difficult for modern grammarians to state precisely the case each preposition governed. 471. The object is usually placed after the verb: Learning, by its own force alone, will never remove a prejudice of establish a truth.-Landor. And each separate dying ember Wrought its ghost upon the floor.—Edgar Poe. 472. The object precedes the verb: (a) When emphasis is required : Honey from out the gnarlèd hive I'll bring, And apples wan with sweetness gather thee.—Keats. A midnight vigil holds the Swarthy bat.—Poe, [That part of the blame which rests upon myself] I am exerting my best faculties to remove.-Coleridge. [The ties which bind man to man] he broke asunder; [the proper happiness of a man, which consists in the victory of moral energy and social affection over the selfish passions], he cast away for the lonely joy of the despot.—Channing. (b) When the object is a Relative or Interrogative pronoun : Ashtoreth, whom the Phoenicians called Astartó, queen of heaven, with crescent horns.— Milton. Whom hast thou, then, or what, to accuse But Heaven's free love dealt equally to all!—Id. 473. In poetry, and occasionally in prose, part of the object sometimes stands emphatically first, while the quali- fying phrases remain after the verb : 172 SYNTAX. Our harps we left by Babel's stream, The tyrant's jest, the Gentile's scorn.-Scott. [To be obliged to wear a long wig, when I liked a short one, or a black coat when I dressed in brown], I thought such a restraint upon my liberty that I absolutely rejected the proposal,—Goldsmith. Genitive or Possessive, 474. The genitive case denotes the source from which some object proceeds: “The hum of the bee,” i.e. “the hum which proceeds from the bee.” These genitives are said to be de- pendent upon the nouns with which they are thus connected, and are usually called Dependent Genitives. 475. We are apt to consider the person from whom anything is obtained to be the owner of that thing. Hence the genitive often marks possession: Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, Weighs the men's wits against the lady's hair.—Pope. 476. The genitive case is expressed sometimes by the suffix -es or 's, and sometimes by substituting the preposition of for the case-ending: The hero's harp, the lover's lute.—Byron. It is the harp of Allan-bane,—Scott. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power.—Gray. The former mode of expression is usually limited to animate and personified objects; the latter may be employed with either animate or inanimate objects; but frequent violations of this rule occur in the figurative language of poetry. 477. Adjectives employed as nouns, though representing persons (few, many,” Several, &c.), never take the inflectional ending in modern * Many, though now treated as an adjective, was originally &n old French noun mesnie, “a household.” See Dean Trench, Elg. Past and Pres. pp. 156—8. SYNTAX. 1' 3 English; but in O. E. we occasionally find them with the genitive suffix: In many's books the false heart's history Is writ.--Shakspere. Was made another statute, that non erle no baroun Tille holy kirke Salle give tenement, rent, no lond Fro tho that now lyve into the dedis hond.—Rob, of Br. i.e. in manum mortuorum. 478. If the possessive is the antecedent to a relative sentence, the form in of is always employed. Thus We say, “the man's hat; ” but, “the hat of the man who was drowned.” This was the face of a man whose life was spent rather in a career of thought and literary effort than in a career of active and laborious strife.-Masson. 479. When two or more genitives are in apposition, or connected by the conjunction and, the case-ending is suf- fixed only to the last, the whole being viewed as a compound phrase. My royal mistress, Artemesia’s, fate And all her son, young Artaban's, high hope Hang on this lucky crisis.-Rowe. - Henry the Sixth, the king of England's, wife.—Drayton. King Henry the Eight married with the Lady Katherine, his rother Prince Arthur's wife.—Foace. 480. The entire number or quantity from which a part is taken is in the genitive case. It is commonly called a Partitive Genitive. In modern prose it requires the form with of - One of its provisions deserves special notice.—Creasy. In the greenest of owr valleys.-Poe. 481. In old English of is sometimes omitted before partitive genitives: 174 SYNTAX, A botel hay.—Chaucer. A galoun wyn.—ld, Compare the German, ein Glas Weir, “a glass of wine.” In genitives denoting possession, the suffix is often omitted : A mason ax; a Smyth wife; a hors mane; a hart horn.—Nom. xv, cent. ..To worschyp Hevene King.—Rob. Br. 482. The genitive, expressed by of is frequently employed like an adjective to indicate some quality in the noun upon which it is dependent, and is then called a genitive of quality e.g. “a man of courage” = a courageous man. Both were men of Splendid wit and polished taste. . Macaulay. A frame of adamant, a soul of fire.—Johnson. It is also employed to express the material of which any. thing is made—a garland of flowers, a ring of gold. 483. The genitive is frequently found with an ellipsis of the noun upon which it is dependent : The first day he repaired to Paul's (i.e. St. Paul's church), and had the hymn of “Te Deum” sung.—Bacon. I was the other day at Will's-Prior. 484. This form of the genitive is often employed with adjectives to indicate the part defined by the adjective: This awful beast full terrible was of cheer, Piercing of look, and Stout of countenance, Richt strong of corps, of fashion fair, but feir,” Lusty of shape, licht of deliverance, Red of his colour as is the ruby glance.—Dunbar. 485. A bust of Cicero—a bust of Cicero's—The former means “a representation of Cicero; ” the latter, “a bust * But feir, without equal. SYNTAX. - 175 belonging to Cicero.” This is sometimes explained as an elliptical expression, “a bust of Cicero's busts,” i.e. one of the busts belonging to Cicero. It usually implies possession, when the unexpressed noun upon which it is dependent is a partitive genitive (§ 480). Hence we can say “your father,’ but not “a father of yours.” On the other hand we can say “your son’ and “a son of yours,” if there are, more sons than one. But in such phrases as “that son of yours,” “that book of mine,” when there is but One son or one book, it seems to be simply a pleonastic expression. 486. A genitive singular is occasionally used in colloquial English to describe the class to which an individual belongs: “a brute of a dog,” “a monster of a man.” Compare “monstrum mulieris” (Plaut.), and beatárov gºtá yos (AEsch,). 487. The substitution of the pronoun his for the suffix -s is of frequent occurrence in writers from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. “Have we not God hys wrath for Goddes wrath, and a thousand of the same stamp, wherein the corrupte Orthography in the moste, hath been the sole or principal cause of corrupt prosody in over-many ?”--. (Gab. Harvey, 1580.) See § 143. “This s sum haldes to be a segment of his, and therefoer now almost al wryte his for it, as if it wer a corruption. But it is not a segment of his.”—Hume, Orthog. They overlooked not Pyrrhus his toe which could not be burnt.—Sir T. Browne, They might perhaps have been persuaded to laugh in Phalaris hio bull.—Id. Copernicus, Atlas his successor, is of opinion the earth is a planet.— Burton. There being not a sword drawn in King Henry his quarrel,--Bacon. By young Telemachus his blooming years, Pope. } 76 SYNTAX. Dative. 488. The dative is usually found in connexion with verbs denoting “giving,” “pleasing,” “thanking,” “owing,” “show- ing,” “telling,” and “resembling:” And I will tell thee stories of the sky, And breathe thee whispers of its minstrelsy.—Keats, Thou wouldst give me Water with berries in't. . . . . . © tº º a tº e And then I loved thee, And showed thee all the qualities o' the isle.—Shakspere, Him thanken alle—Chaucer. 489. The pronouns found with the verbs list, seem, think (appear) and sometimes Ought and like, are datives: When in Salamanca's cave Him listed his magic wand to wave, The bells would ring in Notre Dame-Scott. Servants in old Rome had liberty to say and do what them list.— Burton. Methinks you are sadder.—Shakspere. Him, thought he sat in gold all cled.—Itom. Merlin. Me seemeth, then, it is no policy That he should come about your royal person.—Shakspere. And, as his nece, obeyed as her ought.—Chaucer. We did not as us ought.—Id. Much better would it like him, doubtless, to be the messenger of gladness and contentment.—Bacon. His countenance likes me not.—Shakspere. 490. In such phrases as “woe is me,” the pronoun is the dative : Me is woe now for your sake —R. of Merlin. An thou might live, well were me.—Id. Woe ys him.—Chaucer. And well was him * that thereto chosen was.-Id. * In later times this construction was misunderstood : For well is he that may the money get.—S. Hawes, SYNTAX. - I 7 7 Sometimes the verb is omitted : Woe him that is alone.—Chaucer. O woe the day /–Shakspere. And sometimes both verb and subject are omitted : Me, poor man my library Was dukedom large enough.-Shakspere. Me miserable ! which way shall I fly Infinite wrath and infinite despair —Milton. 491. The adjective like governs a noun in the dative Sunbeam of summer, O what is like thee?—Hemans. This adjective is sometimes used improperly for as : Victory must end in possession, like toil in sleep.–Gladstone. 492. The dative of the personal pronouns is sometimes used to show that an action is performed for the person represented by the pronoun : Convey me Salisbury into his tent.-Shakspere. He plucked me ope his doublet.—Id. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, and rap me well.—Id. And by the bark a canker creeps me up.–Marlow. This use of the dative grammarians are pleased to call the Dativus Ethicus. 493. A noun or pronoun and a participle are frequently found in the dative case to mark the time when an action is performed : This said, they both betook them several ways.-Milton. And, him destroyed For whom all this was made, all this will soon Follow.—Id. With that she fell distract, And, her attendants absent, swallowed fire.— Shakspére. TN 178 SYNTAX. These words have no grammatical connexion with the rest of the sentence; i.e. are not governed by any word or words in the sentence to which they are attached, and are therefore called Datives Absolute, or Detached Datives. In Latin the ablative is employed in these detached or absolute phrases; in Greek, the genitive; and in Anglo-Saxon, the dative, This A. S. dative was the origin of the absolute construction in English. Most grammarians, since the case-endings are lost, prefer to call these words nominatives, But the loss of a suffix cannot convert one case into another. The meaning conveyed by these absolute words cannot be expressed by a true nominative. 494. Sometimes an entire participial sentence is thus placed absolutely : For Nature then, [The coarser pleasures of my boyish days, And their glad animal movements, all gone by, Tó me was all in all.—Wordsworth. And on he moves to meet his latter end, [Angels around befriending Virtue's friend]. - Goldsmith Others [their blue eyes with tears o'erflowing] Stand, like Ruth, amid the golden corn,-Longfellow. In O. E. the word being or considered often introduces these absolute sentences : Being these two notions of the word were different, it came to pass that, for distinction's sake, at first, they called the Church the Catholic Church.-Pearson. Nathelesse, considered his distresse, And that Love is in cause of such folie, Thus to him spake she of his jelousie.—Chaucer. Considered this, that ye these moneths twain Have tarried.—1d. In modern English the true construction of considered has been everlooked, and the active Participle supplies its place : Considering my former circumstances, when the Portuguese captain took me up, I immediately ordered five guns to be fired,—Defoe, SYNTAX. 179 495. In A, S, these absolute words are always in the dative Gåse, but in later English, having lost their case-endings, they are often incorrectly regarded as nominatives. Hence we frequently find he and they in such phrases, instead of him and them : Thy spirit is all afraid to govern thee near him; But, he away, 'tis nobler.—Shakspere. And, thow away, the very birds are mute.—Id. 496. Notwithstanding, pending, during, are participles in a dative absolute sentence: Notwithstanding these drawbacks, Charles' army, within six weeks after his victory, mustered six thousand men.— Stanhope. i.e. these drawbacks not withstanding or preventing it. Their gratitude made them, notwithstanding his prohibition, proclaim the wonders he had done for them,-Hooker. Hence we sometimes find this word placed last in the absolute sentence : Nestor, his age notwithstanding, appeared in the field. A person, pending Suit with the diocesan, shall be defended in the possession.—Ayliffe. i.e. the suit pending or hanging over him. During this anxious night, Charles slept only two hours.-Stanhope The verb dure means last: Thou canst not dure with Sorrow thus attaint.—Sackville, A bond perpetually during.—Chaucer. Hence “during this anxious night” – “This anxious night during " or lasting: And during thus this knightes woe.—Chaucer. 497. The so-called prepositions save and eaccept, borrowed from the Norman-French, are remnants of the Latin ablative absolute — “ Ea excepta, nihil amicitia praestabilius;” “except this nothing Surpasses friendship” (Cicero). The old English writers appear to have regarded N 2 180 - SYNTAX. it as an imperative. In imitating the French idiom, they render it owt take : - For all was golde men might see, Out take the feathers and the tree.—Chaucer. Save (O. E. sauvé, Sauf) was also an ablative absolute None save thee and thine, I’ve sworn Shall be left upon that morn.—Byron. Save thee is “ salvo te” = Sauvé toi = Sauf thee: All armed, sauf here heddes.—Chaucer. As the case-endings are lost, these absolute words are often regarded as nominatives: There was no stranger with us in the house save we two.—Eng. Bib. When all slept sound save she who bore them both.-Rogers. Vocative. 498. In addressing a person we frequently name the person addressed. The noun is then said to be in the Vocative Case : Uriel, no wonder if thy perfect sight, Amid the sun's bright circlet where thou sitt'st, See far and wide.—Milton. 499. Adjectives and qualifying phrases often accompany the person or thing addressed : Rise, crowned with light, imperial Salem, rise !—Popc, ADJECTIVES. 500. Adjectives are attracted into the same gender, number, and case as the nouns they qualify. But since in modein English these words have lost all suffixes but those of com. parison, they appear unchanged in form: “a good boy,” “a SYNTAX. 1S [. }} {{ ood girl,” “a good book,” “good boys,” “good girls,” “good 9000 g 9 9. ys, “good g books.” 501. An adjective is sometimes used as an abstract noun: This age still retains enough of beautiful, and Splendid, and bold, to captivate an ardent, but untutored, imagination.—Coleridge. - So much of death her thoughts Had entertained as dyed her cheeks with pale.—Milton. Dark with excessive bright thy skirts appear—Id. Those antique Caesars sleeping long in dark.—Spenser. Fair becomes foul; the Graces are turned into Harpyes.—Burton. Call you me fair : That fair again unsay, Demetrius loves your fair.—Shakspere. 502. In old English, and occasionally in modern English poetry, an adjective is employed as a concrete noun: Thou rewest on every sinful in distress.-Chaucer. Such place eternal Justice had prepared For those rebellious.—Milton. A band Of Stern in heart and strong in hand.—Longfellow. 503. An adjective is sometimes used, especially in poetry, instead of an adverb : *- Trip it deft and merrily.—Scott. The green trees whispered low and mild,—Longfellow. Soft, no haste.—Shakspere. From out the trees the sabbath-bell Rings cheerful far and wide.—Dana. Lucian hath excellent well deciphered such men's proceedings ºn hi, picture of Opulentia.-Burton. The origin of this usage is explained in § 396. I82 SYNTAX. 504. As adjectives have no suffixes to mark gender, number or case, it is important to observe their position in a sentence. They usually stand before the nouns they qualify: There eternal summer dwells, And west winds with musky wing About the cedar'd alleys fling Nard and cassia's balmy Smells.--Milton. Such passages as the following are not to be imitated: They have, in spite of two hundred years of persecutions whgaralleled, adhered to the religion of their fathers.--Cobbett. I will trace it downward through all its stages, until I show you its natural result in the present misery indescribable of the labouring classes in England and Ireland.—Id. Participles, however, are occasionally found after the noun: “the objects specifted,” “the persons named,” &c. 505. In poetry the adjective frequently follows the noun And the Spring arose on the garden fair.—Shelley. With a slow and noiseless footstep Comes that messenger divine.—Longfellow. Once upon a midnight dreary.—Poe. In certain titles of French origin, this position is usual: Princess Royal, Heir Apparent, Prince Regent, Poet Laureate, &c. 506. When two or more adjectives connected by the con- junction and qualify a noun, it is not unusual in poetry and old English prose for one to precede the noun, the others to follow it : Titles are marks of honest men and wise.—Young. They the holy ones and weakly Who the cross of suffering bore.—Longfellow. A dark prince and infinitely suspicious-Bacon. 507. When several adjectives qualify one noun, they are often placed after it : - His mind, ardent, susceptible naturally disposed to admiration of all SYNTAX, 183 that is great and beautiful, was fascinated by the genius and accom, plishments of Bacon.—Macaulay. A stillness deep, Insensible, whheeding, folds you round.—Dana. 508. When qualifying words or phrases are dependent upon an adjective, the latter always follows the noun it qualifies : He had to calm the rage of a young hero incensed by multiplied wrongs and humiliations.—Macaulay. Out flew Millions of flaming Swords, drawn from the thighs Of mighty cherubim.—Milton. A fit of the toothache, proceeding from the irritation of a nerve as big as a cambric thread, is enough to drive an understanding capable of instructing the world, to the verge of insanity.—Everett. Hence such adjectives as averse, afraid, conformable, coeval, coequal, &c. are never found before the nouns they qualify. 509. When qualifying words are prefixed to an adjective, it is usually placed after the noun: A sovereign whose temper, never very gentle, had been rendered morbidly irritable by age.—Macaulay. There is no stronger sign of a mind truly poetical than a disposition to make individuals out of generalities.—Id. A land more bright Never did mortal eye behold.—Moore. 510. An adjective forming part of a predicate is often placed emphatically first : - Silent they lie with the deserts round.—Hemans. Richer by far is the heart's adoration, Dearer to God are the prayers of the poor.—Heber. Proud and vain-glorious, swelled with lofty anticipations of his destiny, no danger could appal, and no toil could tire him.–Prescots, 184 SYNTAX. Comparison of Adjectives, 511. Comparative. The comparative implies that one of two objects, or sets of objects, possesses a certain quality in a greater degree than the other: An acre in Middlesex is better than a principality in Utopia.— Macaulay. It is better to write one word upon the rock, than a thousand on the water or the sand.—Gladstone. Better fifty years in Europe than a cycle in Cathay.-Tennyson. Hence we must be careful not to employ the comparative when more than two objects are compared. 512. Other, rather, else, otherwise, and all forms of speech implying comparison, require than to introduce the latter term of the comparison: Ye watch, like God, the rolling hours With larger other eyes than ours To make allowance for us all.—Tennyson. His own tastes would have led him rather to political than to com mercial pursuits.-Macawlay. Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume.—Blair. 513. The word than in comparative sentences is a later form of the adverb then. Hence, “This is better than that ” means, “First this is better; then that is better.” Hence we sometimes find the Supellative with than : For par amow,' I loved her first then thou.-Chaucer. Shakspere and other writers of the Elizabethan age always wrote then in such sentences, but modern editors introduce the more recent form, 514. As than, though an adverb in origin, is now usually considered a conjunction, the noun that follows it is the subject of the Second proposition, and should therefore be a SYNTAX. 185 nominative, Hence such expressions as the following are inaccurate : - No mightier then thyself or me.—Shakspere. She suffers hourly more than me.—Swift. 515. “The Rhine is more beautiful than the Thames;” “the Rhine is purer than the Thames.” z The latter mode of expression is usually employed with words of one syllable, and with disyllabic words ending in -y or -ly. 516. In old English writers a double comparative is not unfrequently found : He shall find Th’ unkindest beast more kinder then mankind.—Shakspere. Our worser thoughts Heaven mend l—Id. In the exaggerated style of some of our older writers we find a comparative adverb qualifying even a superlative : An host of furies Could not have baited me more torturingly, More rudely, or more most unnaturally. Beaumont and Fletcher’s “Laws of Candy.” 517. The object with which the comparison is made is often omitted in the comparative sentence : Wainly we offer each ample oblation, Vainly with gifts would His favour secure ; Richer by far is the heart's adoration, Dearer to God are the prayers of the poor.— Heber. i.e. richer than the ample oblation, and dearer than the gifts. 518. Superlative. The Superlative implies that one of more than two objects, or sets of objects, possesses a certain quality in a greater degree than all the rest : The most eminent of orir recent geologists and mineralogists have acknowledged with respect, and even with expressions of wonder, the performances of Aristotle as the first clearer and breaker-up of the ground in natural history.—Coleridge. 186 SYNTAX. Hence the Superlative should not be employed, as in the following passage, when two objects only are specified: The question is not whether a good Indian or bad Englishman be most happy, but which state is most desirable, supposing virtue and reason to be the same in both.—Johnson. 519. In old English we frequently meet with a double superlative : This was the most whkindest cut of all.—Shakspere, It is not improbable that such expressions were often intentionally employed for the purpose of increasing the natural emphasis of the superlative: And this [i. e. a double Superlative] is a certaine kind of English Atticisme, or eloquent phrase of speech, imitating the manner of the most ancientest and finest Grecians, who for more emphasis and vehe- mencies sake used to speake thus.—Ben Jonson. 520. The superlative is often used when no comparison is intended, to express pre-eminence in Some quality : Most seemeth to have his proper place in those that are spoken in a certaine kind of excellence, but yet without comparison : Hector was a most valiant man—that is, inter fortissimos.”—Ben Jonson. Yet in these ears till hearing dies, One set slow bell will seem to toll The passing of the Sweetest soul That ever looked with human eyes—Tennyson. Numerals. 521. When numeral adjectives qualify a noun, the suffix of plurality may be omitted as unnecessary : - Of five and twenty yere his age I cast.—Chaucer. I'll give a thousand pound to look on him.—Shakspere. A thousand horse, and none to ride.—Byron. Or in pure equity, the case not clear, The Chancery takes your rents for twenty year.—Pope SYNTAX. 187 Has Lico learning, humour, thought profound? Neither. Why write, then He wants twenty pound.--Young. 522. “The first two,” “the two first.” In speaking of two sets of objects, “the two first" means the first of each series. In speaking of one set of objects, “the first two " denotes the first and second of the series. Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : We are now arrived at the conclusion of the three first chapters.-- Richardson. PRONOUNS. 523. Pronouns should be of the same gender, number, and person as the nouns they represent. Sometimes, however, it represents a masculine or feminine noun, when the sex is unknown. This is especially the case when speaking of children or animals: The real friend of the child is not the person who gives it what it cries for, but the person who, considering its health, resists its impor- tunities.—Opie. In the phrase “Who is it !” the neuter pronoun is used for the same reason. 524. Personal. When two sentences are connected by a conjunction, and the verb is the same in both, it is often omitted in the Second sentence. From this ellipsis, errors in the case of the personal pronoun frequently arise : Is she as tall as me [as I am]—Shakspere. She suffers hourly more than me [than I suffer]-. Swift. The nations not so blessed as thee [as thou artl—Thomson. Let you and I endeavour to improve the enclosure of the Carr (le? ºnej.—Southey. 188 SYNTAX. It is not for such as us [as we are] to sit with the rulers of the land.— Scott. 525. The nouns governed by the prepositions between and but, are not in the nominative case. Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : All debts are cleared between you and 1.-Shakspere, Which none but Heaven and you and I shall hear.—Id. Which none may hear but she and thow.—Coleridge. The construction of the last two sentences may, perhaps, be defended, by considering but as a conjunction. 526. The nominative ye is often used inaccurately for the accusative you. See § 230. O flowers, which I bred up with tender hand From the first opening bud, and gave ye names, Who now shall rear ye 3–Milton. The older English writers carefully observed the distinction : Wel Ise to Brigges wol ye go, God and Seint Austyn spedé you and gyde –Chaucer. I know you not whence ye are.—English Bible. In Shakspere's time it began to bé disregarded : I do beseech ye, if you bear me hard.—Shakspere. Compare the use of thee as a nominative by the Society of Friends. 527. A pronoun is sometimes converted into a noun, and is then indeclinable : And hang more praise upon deceased I, Than niggard Truth would willingly impart.—Shakspere. It makes dear self on well-bred tongues prevail, And I the little hero of each tale—Young. 528. Demonstrative. The cases of the demonstrative pro- noun he, she, it, are frequently misapplied in the same manner, and for the same reasons, as those of the personal pronouns : No one but he [him] should be about the king. —Shakspere. No one should sway but he [him]. --Id, SYNTAX. JS9 Let he [him] that looks after them look on his hand.—Scott. He suffers as them [they] that have no hope.--Maturin. If there is one character more base than another, it is him [he] who, &3.—Sidney Smith. - There were a thousand in the French army who could have done as well as him [he]—Napier. 529. The personal and demonstrative pronouns, when unemphatic, are mere enclitics, and bear no accent: Give-me thy hand (unemphatic).-Shakspere. Infirm of purpose, give mé the daggers (emphatic).-Id. He that filches from-me my good name, Robs-me of that which naught enriches him, And makes mé poor indeed,—Id. 530. The singular this is sometimes used with a plural noun and adjective when they mark a period of time : In darknesse and horrible and strong prisoun This Seven year hath seten Palamon.—Chūwcer. This seven years did not Talbot see his son.—Shakspere. I have ventured, Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers on a sea of glory.—Id. 531. It is not unusual, especially in old English, to find a demon- strative emphatically employed to introduce relative and dependent clauses: Wot ye not where there stont a litel toun, Which that icleped is Bop-up-and-down —Chaucer. Envye, which that is sorwe of other mennes prosperité.-Id. While that the armed hand doth fight abroad, Th’ advised head defends itself at home.—Shakspere. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept.--Id. Their zeal is warmer than that it will be allayed by temptation. Jeremy Taylor. So that I myght discerne What that it is and why that it was made.--& Hawea. 190 SYNTAX. If there be nothing else in the disgrace but that it makes us to walk warily.—Id. r Things are preached, not in that they are taught, but win that they are published.—Hooker. t So that I know no great difference between these great philosophers, —Bacon. - Why do I enter into these great matters, in sort that pretending to know much, I should forget what is seasonable 2–Id. In respect that the French king's designs were wholly bent upon Italy.—Id. t Save that they sayden a few wordes more.—Chaucer. Who that doth to the outher good or harm, haste the nought to quyten him.—Id. Though that Salamon say, he fond never good woman, it folwith nought therfore that alle women ben wikké—Id. Sith (since) that I have told you.-Id. After that dame Prudens hadde spoke in this maner, Melibé answered.—Id. Before that, how that, if that, &c. In all such cases the neuter pronoun that stands in apposition to the subjoined sentence. 532. In old English, the, a shortened form of the demonstrative, is frequently found before the relative. Compare the French le-quel. Without the which this story Were most impertinent.—Shakspere, The which I keep to this day in my storehouse of insects by the name , of a young grashopper.—Mouffet. The whom God chese.-Chaucer. The arms the which that Cupid bare (1559). This usage is recognised by Ben Jonson, who writes: “Pronouns have not the articles a and the going before, which the relative, Self and game only excepted.” 533. The ablative of the demonstrative is frequently used with a comparative : * * Mr. Craik (English of Shakspere) supposes the to be a mere error in transcribing the MS, conti action of an imaginary word ye, and refers to SYNTAX. * 191 The lower he sank in fortune, the higher he thought himself bound to rise in spirit.—Stanhope. In his corruptible there dwelt an incorruptible, all the more im- pressive and indubitable for the strange lodging it had taken.— Carlyle. q The more that a man con, the more worth he is.-Rob. Glouc. 534. Relative and Interrogative. The relative is attracted into the same gender and number as the antecedent, or object which it represents: This petulance ruined Essex, who had to deal with a spirit naturally as proud as his own.—Macaulay. Who is masculine and singular, because Essex, is masculine and singular. 535. A relative pronoun connects the relative clause with the antecedent, and thus partakes of the nature of a con- junction. It represents a conjunction and a noun. For this reason it is usually placed fºrst in the relative sentence. Dut when the relative is a dependent or partitive genitive, the word upon which it is dependent often stands first : And certainly that must needs have been very glorious, the decays of which are so admirable.—South. We have taken about three hundred of them, many of which are poor silly creatures.—Cromwell. 536. As the representative of a noun, a relative may be: (a) The subject of a verb: I see the golden helmet that shines far off like flame.—Macauley, (b) The object of a verb: Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleased with nothing, if not blessed with all?—Pope, the German je mehr. Has Mr. Craik overlooked the Anglo-Saxon forms thi betera, thi ma, the mara (AElfred), and the Early English te bettre {Orm.); * 102 SYNTAX. (c) Dependent upon a noun : And many more, whose names on earth are dark. —Shelley (d) Governed by a preposition: And Rome may bear the pride of him, Of whom herself is proud.—Macaulay. 537. Custom limits the use of who, whom, and whose to rational beings; which (relative) to irrational beings and inanimate objects. That may represent nouns of any kind : O thou, Who chariotest to the dark wintry bed The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low.—Shelley. [Adam came into the world a philosopher], which sufficiently appeared by his writing the nature of things upon their names.—South. Milton had that universality which marks the highest order of genius.-Chanming. There is a sort of instinct of rectitude, which warns a pure mind against hypocrisy.—Coleridge. He knows not his own strength, that hath not met adversity.—Ben Jonson. The accusing spirit, that flew to Heaven's chancery with the oath, blushed as he gave it in.--Sterne. The talent that is allowed to show itself is that which can repay admiration by furnishing entertainment.—Wilson. 538. The relative that is never governed by a preposition, and is often used alone where a preposition would be other- wise required : On the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.—Eng. Bible. 539. When inanimate objects are personified, or repre- sented as living beings, who, whom, and whose may be employed : And the naiad-like lily of the vale, Whom youth makes so fair and passion so pale.—Shelley. SYNTAX. 193 Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : 'Twas Love's mistake, who fancied what it feared.--Crabbe. 540. The use of whose is strictly limited to rational beings; but it is Lot unfrequently employed in speaking of irrational beings and inanimate objects, especially in poetry: The poor banished insects, whose intent, Although they did ill, was innocent.—Shelley. All loathliest weeds began to grow, Whose leaves were splashed with many a speck. —Id. He spoke of love, such love as spirits feel, In worlds whose course is equable and pure.—Wordsworth. That undiscovered country from whose bourne No traveller returns.—Shakspere. 541. When the antecedent is he, they, or those, it is often omitted : Who steals my purse, steals trash.-Shakspere. Who stuck and spangled you with flatteries, Washes it off-Id. Who will may pant for glory.—Cowper. Nor does it follow that who fights must fall.—Crabbe. 542. When the antecedent that is omitted, the interro- gative form what is used for the relative which : It desires, what it has not, the beautiful.-Shelley. The world which credits what is done, Is cold to all that might have been.-Tennyson. On the other hand which is sometimes omitted in O. E. and that retained : I cannot persuade myself to honour that the world adores.—Sir T. Browne. We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen.—English Bible. Ef thou have founde honey, ete of it that sufficeth.-. Chaucer. O 194 SYNTAX, £h. It is possible, however, that in this construction that is a true relative : Trust not another will do thee to At that thyself would never do.—Dunbar. 543. The antecedent is very seldom omitted when governed by a preposition : How wearisome Eternity so spent in worship paid To whom we hate—Milton. w, e. to him whom, 544. The relative is frequently omitted: Men must reap the things they sow.—Shelčcy. It is not that offends.--Shakspere. There is a willow grows ascant the brook—Id. Was ever father so bemoaned a son –Id. He is a good huntsman can catch some, not all.—Burton. 545. When the relative is omitted, the antecedent is (rarely) attracted into the case of the relative: Płim I accuse, The city ports by this hath entered.—Shakspere. |Better than him. I am before.-Id. Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire Too high a fame, when him we serve's away.—Id. 546. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun : Can I believe his love will lasting prove, Who has no reverence for the God I love —Crgööe. And do you now strew flowers in his way, That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood?—Shakspere. Neither can his mind be thought to be in tune, whose words doe jarre; nor his reason in frame, whose sentence is preposterous; nor his elocution cleare and perfect, whose utterance breaks itself into frag. ments and uncertainties.—AEcº Jonson, SYNTAX. . 195 547. The word but is often used for a relative and a negative : No scene of life but has contributed Much to remember.—Rogers. There breathes not clansman of thy line But would have given his life for thine.--Scott. 548. The word as is employed as a relative when the antecedent is such, Same, so much, and in O. E. that : Our soldiers are men of strong heads for action, and perform such feats as they are not able to express.-Addison. I wish all men in the world did heartily believe so much of this as is true.—Jeremy Taylor. - Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valour As thou art in desire ?—Shakspere, Your highness is not entertained with that ceremonious affection as you were wont-Id. The savage people in many places of America, except the govern- ment of small families, have no government at all, and live at this day in that brutish manner as I said before.—Hobbes. 549. In old English which and that are frequently found after such : $ Avoid such games which require much time or long attendance.— Jeremy Taylor. When God made instances of man's obedience, he either commanded such things to be done which man did naturally desire, or such things which did contradict his natural desires, or such which were indifferent. —Id. Than love I most these floures white and rede Such that men callen daisies in our tour.—Cha...cer I shall loven such that I will.–Id. But with such words that are but rooted in Your tongue.—Shakspere. No, not with such friends That thought them sure of you.-Id. O 2 I96 SYNTAx. 550. In old English the forms of the demonstrative are sometimes found instead of the relative : - He pricketh through a forest fair, Therein is many a wildé beast.—Chaucer. Unto the listes there her temple was.-Id. But there I love, there I hold.—Gower. 551. When the antecedent is a noun of multitude, the relative is who : A human law is only the expression of the desire of a multitude who have power to punish-Brown. - The poor, who had nothing to offer but their lives, seemed ready to devote them to his service.—Scott. When the antecedent is a collective noun, the relative is which : º One sect there was which, from unfortunate temporary causes, it was thought necessary to keep under close restraint.—Macaulay. 552. The relative usually stands immediately after the antecedent : - There is a reaper whose name is Death, Longfellow. But when the sense of the passage clearly indicates the antecedent, other words of qualification are sometimes interposed : There is a poor blind Samson in this land, Shorn of his strength and bound in bonds of steel, Who may in some grim revel raise his hand, And shake the pillars of the commonweal.—Id. 553. Possessive. Possessive pronouns are the genitive cases of the personal and demonstrative pronouns employed as adjectives (§ 255). Of the double forms, my, mine ; thy, thine ; our, ours ; your, yours ; her, hers ; their, theirs, the shorter is used SYNTAX. 197 when the noun is expressed, and before the word own; the longer, when the noun is omitted: The hollow oak our palace is, Our heritage the sea.—Cunningham. Presently my soul grew stronger.—Poe. While ever to her young Eulalie upturns her violet eye.-Id, Yet there was one true heart; that heart was thine.—Dana, A land of slaves shall ne'er be mine.—Byron. Glad hope is theirs by fancy fed.—Gray. ‘Twas mine, ’tis his.--Shakspere. 554. In old English, and in modern poetry, mine and thine are frequently found even when a noun is expressed, especially before vowels and asperates: Thy cheek is sudden pale, thine eye is dim.—Dana. Save the Son of thine handmaid.—English Bible, Min word.—Orm. Mine wordes.—Id. My spyryt hath gladid in God myn helthe.— Wycliffe. Who but thine self ; –Chaucer. Lady, thine Sorrow can I not portray.—Id. Mine noble knyghtes.—Rob. Gloucester. 555. Either and neither refer strictly to one of two objects: But never either found another To free the hollow heart from paining.—Coleridge. Both may excite our wonder, but neither is entitled to our respect.— Bacon. Experience makes us sensible of both, though our narrow under standings can comprehend neither.—Locke, Hence such sentences as the following are inaccurate : Injustice springs only from three causes. . . . Neither of these causes for injustice can be found in a being wise, powerful, benevolent. 198 SYNTAX. 556. The other means the second of two another, one of any number above two : Two women shall be grinding together; one shall be taken, and the other left-English Bible. - One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth for ever—Id. Such expressions as the following are inaccurate : And the house of Baal was full from one end to another.—Id. 557. Each and every refer to one of many. Each is used with reference to the individual viewed singly and separately; every with reference to the whole viewed collectively : Each had his place appointed, each his course.-Milton. Each one thought in his heart that he would go and do likewise.-- Longfellow. Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.–Gray. England expects every man to do his duty.—Nelson. Mix with each thought, in every action share, Darken each dream, and blend with every prayer.—Crabbe. Such sentences as the following are incorrect : Now either spoke, as hope or fear impressed Each their alternate triumph in the breast.—Crabbe. And they were judged every man according to their works,— English Bible. - - Each other, one another. Of these reciprocal phrases, the former is used when we are speaking of two persons; the latter, when we speak of more than two: Righteousness and Peace have kissed each other.—English Bible. If God so loved us, we ought also to love one another.—Id. The following sentences are faulty : The children of Time seem to imitate their father; for, as he devours his children, so they endeavour to devour each other- H600?). SYNTAX. - 199 Did we (mankind) but love each other, as this poor soul loved his ass, it would be something.—Sterne, - 558. Some may be used with or without a noun: Some natural tears they dropped, but wiped them soon.—Milton. ~~~ The work some praise, And some the architect.—Id. The plural men, or people, is often omitted; but in modern English the singular man, person, one, must always be expressed. In old Fnglish it is occasionally wanting (§ 264): Som in his bed, som in the deepé see, Som in the largé field.—Chaucer. Some speeds, for he in Court has means.—Dunbar, Some on his substance does abide.—Id. ARTICLES. 559. Indefinite. The indefinite article an, a, is a weakened form of the numeral one (§ 218): A thousand liveried angels lacquey her.—Milton. This mode of expression is less emphatic than “one thousand.” 560. An or a is used in speaking indefinitely of one individual of an entire class : He left the name at which the world grew pale, To point a moral, or adorn a tale.—Johnson. - 561. An loses the final n when the next word begins with a consonant, an asperate, or the Sound of y or w. Occasionally it is retained before asperated words, and in 0. E. before words beginning with a consonant: And after these came armed with spear and shield An host.---Dryden. As if an hundred anvils rang.—Scott. An historical account.—-Hallaº. 200 SYNTAX. 562. When several objects are separately specified, the indefinite article should be placed before each : Leave not a foot of verse, a foot of stone, A page, a grave, that they can call their own, Pope, The time may come in which we may be compelled to look for a loftier spirit, a firmer energy, and a more enthusiastic attachment to the frame and form of our constitution, than ever yet has been de- anded by our government from the people governed.—Sheridan. To a strong spirit, difficulty is a stimulus and a triumph.-Foster. 563. When the indefinite article is expressed only before the first of two or more nouns, these nouns are to be viewed collectively. Thus “a priest and king" implies that both offices are vested in one individual; “a priest and a king” implies that each office is held by a separate person. The infant man born at Woolsthorpe grows up, not to be a hairy Savage and Chewer of Acorns, but an Isaac Newton and discoverer of Solar Systems.--Carlyle. 564. When the indefinite article is used with a noun qualified by several adjectives, it is usually expressed oncé before the first adjective : There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying manner.—Macawlay. But sometimes it is emphatically repeated before each adjective : A sadder and a wiser man,—Coleridge. 565. When a noun is contrasted with itself under different circumstances, it is often omitted in One of the propositions. In such cases the article should be retained before each adjective : - There is a difference between a liberal and a prodigal hand.--Ben Jonson. No figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting.— Blair SYNTAX. 201 566. In O. E. and in imitations of the antique style, when one of two adjectives is placed before, and the other after, the noun they qualify, the indefinite article often stands before each adjective : A very good piece of work, I assure you, and a merry.—Shakspere. He told him that he saw a vast multitude, and a promiscuous.-- Burton. - My uncle, the sub-prior, died—some say of austerities, others of ale—that matters not; he was a learned man, and a cunning, — Bulwer. Though I have my jest, as a rich man and a corpulent, a lad who has his way to make good should be silent.-Id. 567. The indefinite article is sometimes used with the name of a well-known person to indicate one of similar character : Frenchmen, I’ll be a Salisbury to you.--Shakspere. He may be a Newton or a Herschell in affairs of astronomy, but of the knowledge of affairs of the world he is quite ignorant.—Burke. His family pride was beyond that of a Talbot or a Howard.— Macaulay. 568. It is often used with nouns to form distributives: And passing rich with forty pounds a year.—Goldsmith. - 569. In O. E. the indefinite article is frequently found before numerals, marking a period of time, or extent of space : And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings.- English Bible. There is a vale between the mountains that dureth nere a four mile. —Mandeville. And after a seven or eight dayes it arose north-est, and so endured a thirteen nightes.—Warkworth. About a four hundred year after him ther com A king that was Ludycleped.—Rob, of Głowc. 570. A being a modification of one, should properly be used only with singular nouns. There appear to be exceptions in such phrases as “a thousand men,” “a few horses,” “a great many years.” Cobbett (Eng. Gram.) suggests that in all such expressions there is an ellipsis 202 SYNTAX. of the word of: “a thousand of horses.” In that case the nouns would be disguised partitive genitives, as in the following : A legion of foul fiends—Shakspéré. A wilderness of monkeys.—Id. 571. When the noun is qualified by an adjective, the in- definite article usually stands before the adjective : A wild weird clime-Poe. But when the adjective is many,” what, or such, or when it is preceded by the words too, so, how, as, the article stands between it and the noun : For many a year withouten blame We have been, and many a day; For many an April and many a May, We han passed, not ashamed.—Chaucer. What a piece of work is man,—Shakspere. I'd rather be a dog and bay the moon Than such a Roman,—Id. You hold:too heinous a respect of grief—Id. 'Tis a very hard calumny upon our soil to affirm that 80 excellent a fruit will not grow there.—Temple, Ye see how large a letter I have written unto you.-English Bible. We were introduced to as queer an exhibition as the eye has often looked on-Thackeray. If, however, many is qualified by great, the article resumes its usual position : * Dean Trench (Eng. Past, and Pres, p. 147) suggests that a, when used with many, is not the article, but a remnant of the preposition of, and that the singular noun (many a day) has been changed from the plural in consequence of the preposition assuming the form of the article. His derivation of many is mentioned above (p. 172, note); but it is very doubtful. Many is of A.S. origin (manig, maºnig, monig) There were in fact two words of the same form, (1) menie, or meny, from the O. Fr. mesnie, a household, or train; (2) many, from A.S. manig. These two words seem to have been confused. SYNTAX. - 203 He is liable to a great many inconveniences every moment of his life, Tillotson, - 572. In early English writers this arrangement of the words is not always observed : A such will brought this lond to gronde.—Rob, of Glouc. Mony blessyng He hadde, for he delivered men of an 80 foul thyng.—Id. We also find the following variations: Hearken which a reason I shall forth bring.—Chaucer. A 80 greie beast.—Fvery a stewarde-Id. * Before him went minstrels many one.—Id. And eke great diamonds many one. —Id. 573. Definite. The Definite Article the, originally a demonstrative pronoun, is used to point out a particular object, or class of objects: The man that hath no music in himself Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils, Shakspere. Every man is to give sentence concerning the state of his own soul by the precepts and rules of our Lawgiver.—Jeremy Taylor. Sometimes it is used emphatically, to mark the pre- eminence of one individual over others of the same class : “He is the poet of the age.” 574. The definite article is used before the names of rivers, mountains, and Seas: the Thames, the Danube, the Alps, the Apennines, the Baltic, the Adriatic. In poetry it is sometimes omitted: The springs Of Ganges or Hydaspes, Indian streams.-Milton. 575. It is employed with national names when the people are described collectively : the French, the Dutch, the English; and is often found with singular nouns to indicate a genus or class : the eagle, the sparrow, the Briton, the rose. 204 SYNTAX. 576. When two or more objects are separately specified, the definite article should be used before each : The flower-like woods most lovely in decay, The many clouds, the seas, the rocks, the Sands, Lie in the silent moonshine.—Coleridge. The numbers, the intelligence, the wealth of the citizens, the demo. cratical form of their government, and their vicinity to the court and to the parliament, made them one of the most formidable bodies in the kingdom.–Macaulay. 577. When several nouns describe the functions of one individual, the article is placed only before the first : He sends a letter to Mr. Larkins, the bribe-agent and broker on this occasion.— Burke. The mathematician and astronomer, Bolingbroke, is hanged and quartered as a wizard.—Bulwer. 578. When several adjectives qualify a noun, the definite article is usually employed only before the first : The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind.—Pope. But when the adjectives are intended to be unusually em. phatic, the article is repeated before each : A name at the sound of which all India turns pale—the most wicked, the most atrocious, the boldest and most dextrous villain that that country ever produced.— Burke. 579. When an adjective is placed after the noun, the accompanies the adjective : Alonzo the brave and the fair Imogene.—Lewis 580. The definite article and a plural adjective together form a noun signifying a class of individuals : Where the good and the bad, and the worst and the best, Have gone to their eternal rest,-Poc. SYNTAX. 205 The proud, to gain it, toils on toils endure; The modest shun it but to make it sure.—Young. 581. The definite article and a singular adjective together form an abstract noun : Not so in deserts where the grand, The wild, the terrible, conspire With their own breath to fan his fire.--Poe, All the motions of Goldsmith's nature moved in the direction of the true, the natural, the Sweet, the gentle.—De Quincey. 582. The definite article and a noun are used to denote a calling or profession: the bar, the church, the law, the army, the navy, &c. Love rules the camp, the court, the grove.--Scott. When so combined, the two words often form a proper noun: the Park, the Hall, the City, the Funds, &c. 583. It is sometimes used with proper names to form a descriptive phrase, or to indicate a noted character: He had more of the Mazarin than of the Richelieu.- Chesterfield. The taxidermist—the Selkirk of the sunny island—was not there— Longfellow. Is this the Talbot so much feared abroad, That with his name the mothers still their babes?—Shakspere. Shakspere was the Homer, or father, of our dramatists; Jonson was the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing.—Dryden. The Niobe of nations, there she stands, Childless and crownless in her voiceless woe —Byron. 584. The is often used with the force of a possessive pronoun: Her corpse was the object of unmanly and dastardly vengeance; the bead was severed from the body, and set upon a pole.—W. Irving. The heart was affected in his case.—Pe Quincey. 206 SYNTAX. 585. When all or both qualifies a noun, the is placed between the adjective and the noun : All the contrivances which we are acquainted with are directed to beneficent purposes.—Paley. He had disobliged both the parties whom he wished to reconcile.— Macaulay. In this construction, all and both are probably nouns, with an ellipsis of the preposition of "WERBS. ...” 586. The verb is attracted into the same number and person as the subject : Singular. 1. I am that merry wanderer of the night.—Shakspere. 2. And thou art long and lank and brown.—Coleridge, 3. And he is gathered to the kings of thought.—Shelley, Plural. 1. We are free to dive, or soar, or run.—Id. 2. Then ye are only five.—Wordsworth. 3. Lo, these are they.-Heber. 587. When there are more subjects than one, whether connected by conjunctions or not, the verb must be plurai, although each subject is singular: Horror and doubt distract His troubled thoughts.--Milton. Talking and eloquence are not the same; to speak and to speak well are two things.-Ben Jonson. Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed.—Beaſtie. The cultivation of the soil, the breeding of sheep and cattle, and the hunting of Wild animals, were dependent on the season.-Sir G. C. Lewis, SYNTAX. 207 * The impetuous chivalry of France, the serried phalanx of Switzer- land, were alike found wanting when brought face to face with the Spanish infantry.-Macawlay. 588. When two subjects are connected by and, one affirmative, the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative: Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, JForms our true honour.—Coleridge, 589. If two singular subjects are connected by “as well as,” the verb is singular, as there are, in reality, two propositions: Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule.—Butler. There is a peculiar force, as well as peculiar beauty, in this figure.-- Kames. 590. When two or more singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, every, or no, the verb is singular : Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace.—Steele. No part of their substance, and no one of their properties, is the same.—Butler. 591. Certain nouns, though singular in form, have a plural or a collective meaning ($ 82). When a collective noun is the subject, the verb is singular: The party, which defended his title, was on general grounds disposed to curtail his prerogative.—Butler. The imperial diet, after several prorogations, was opened at Worms, - Robertson. A priesthood such as Baal's was of old; A people such as never was till now.—Cowper. When a noun of multitude is the subject, the verb is . plural : The nobility of Rome are his.-Shakspere. That fame is wealth fantastic poets cry; That wealth is fame, another clan reply.—Young. The great herd, the multitude, that in all other things are divided, 208 SYNTAX. in this alone conspire and agree—to love money; they wish for it, they embrace it, they adore it.—Ben Jonson. 592. If two or more nouns, or sentences, collectively repre- sent one idea, the verb is often singular: Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear Compels me to disturb your season due.—Milton. All torment, trouble, wonder, and amazement Inhabits here.—Shakspere. Reproach and everlasting shame Sits mocking on our plumes.—Id. The mind and spirit remains Invincible.—Milton. To subsist in bones, and be but pyramidally extant, is a fallacy in duration.—Sir T. Browne. To counterfeit and to dissemble is to put on the semblance of some real excellency.—Tillotson. Her heart, her mind, her love, is his alone.- Cowley. 593. When several subjects follow the verb, it usually agrees with that which stands nearest: Therein consists the force, and use, and nature, of language.— Berkeley. Ah then and there was hurrying to and fro, And gathering tears and tremblings of distress, And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness.-Byron. But sometimes the verb is singular, when the adjoining subject is plural, as if the writer were uncertain, when writing, what the precise subject should be: There is tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honour for his valour, and death for his ambition.-Shakspere. 594. In such sentences as “It is I, your friend, who bud you go,” and “It is I, your master, who bids you go,” the verb, as usual, agrees with its proper subject. The first, “It SYNTAX. 209 is [I, your friend], who bid you go,” is an answer to the question, “Who bids me go?” The second, “It is [I, your master, who bids you go,” is an answer to the question, “Who is it?” In the first, “ your friend” is in apposition to I; in the second, “your master, who bids you go,” is in apposition to I. 595. The verb be sometimes appears to agree with the rest of the predicate rather than with the subject : All my strength and all my art Is [to touch the gentle heart].—Scott. To read and write was once an honorary distinction.—Hazlitt. His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky.-English Bible. To love and to admire has been the joy of his existence; love and admiration are the pleasures he will demand of the world.—Coleridge. Public fame, and the sentence of prudent and public persons, is the measure of good and evil in things indifferent.—Jeremy Taylor. To snare the mole, or with ill-fashioned hook To draw.th’ incautious minnow from the brook, Are life's prime pleasures to his simple view.—Cowper. In such sentences the verb usually agrees with the subject : The fat lands of Boeotia were a road onwards for ail who came from Thessaly.—Gladstone. The people are a many-headed beast.— Pope. 596. If a singular subject have qualifying words connected with it, the verb must still be singular: He him8elf, together with his principal officers, was taken prisoners-- Robertson. Hence such sentences as the following are questionable: Pain, mia!ed with pity, in our bosoms rise, And sorrow takes new sadness from surprise.—Crabbe. P 210 SYNTAX. Grief that young Octavius, with Mark Antony, JHave made themselves so strong.—Shakspere. 597. When the pronoun it, in apposition to the true subject, stands hefore the verb, the latter agrees with it in number and person : It is I; it is thou; it is he ; it is we, &c. Be not afraid; it is I.-English Bible. 'Tis we, ’tis ours, are changed, not they.—Shelley. But in old English the verb often agreed with its proper subject: Awake, my knight ! Lo, it am I That to you speake.—Chaucer. I am thy mortal foe, and it an I - That loveth so hot Emilie the bright.—Hd. It are such folke that loved idlenesse.-Id. It ben the sherrefes men.—Id. Persevantes and heraudes It weren.—Id. Hit were tway knightes.—Rob, Brºnne, Such was also the construction in A. S. : Ic sylf hit eom, “It am I myself.” 598. When two or more singular subjects are connected by neither, mor, either, or, the verb is singular: No greatness or goodness is worth much unless tried in this fire— Chamming. TNc voice nor Found but their own echoes was heard in reply.— JW, Irving. When no false lustre, wealth, or power appears.-Pope. Nor eye nor listening ear an object finds.-Young. Hence such constructions as the following should be avoided : I, whom avarice nor pleasure move.--Walsh. Either my brother, or his son, is king ; And neither of them thirst for Edmund's blood.—Marlow. SYNTAX, - 21] 599. If the connected subjects are of different numbers and persons, the verb usually agrees with the nearest : Neither you nor I am right; neither he nor they are satisfied; either you or he is mistaken. I and all mine is at thy will.—Guy of Warwick. Not we, but God, is educating us.-Kingsley. 600. When several nouns connected by a conjunction describe one individual, the verb is singular : Here, I tell you, is the violator and the murderer.—Wilson. For a laggard in love and a dastard in war Was to wed the fair Ellen of young Lochinvar.—Scott. 601. When the truth of one proposition is made con- ditional upon the truth of another, the sentence is said to be hypothetical : If [thou read this], O Caesar, [thou mayest live].-Shakspere, The clause which contains the condition is called the con- ditional clause: If [thou read this]. The clause which contains the consequence of the suppo- sition is called the consequent clause: [thou mayest live]. 602. If the speaker believe that the action expressed in the conditional clause either has occurred or is occurring, the verb should be in the indicative : - If satire charms, strike faults, but spare the man,—Young. If thou beest Prospero, Give us particulars of thy preservation.—Shakspere. i.e. if Satire charms, as we know it does ;-if thou beest Prospero, as we see thou art. If it was the tendency and duty of their age to deliver to us the history that they found, it is the tendency and duty of ours to inquire upon what foundation that history rests.—Kemble. If the method of restoring the meaning of a lost language by etymological guesses from words of similar sound in a known language P 2 212 SYNTAX. is uncertain and deceptive, the method of guessing the signification of a word from the context is equally unsatisfactory.—Sir G. C. Lewis. If in such sentences is equivalent to since. 603. If the fact contained in the conditional clause be an uncertainty in the speaker's mind, the verb should be in the subjunctive : If it were so, it was a grievous fault.—Shakspere. Yet if one heart throb higher at its sway, The wizard note hath not been touched in vain,_Scott. i.e. if it were so, which I doubt;-if one heart throb higher, as I hope it may. 604. The present tendency of the English language is to reject the distinction of the subjunctive mood. Hence in the best modern English works we frequently find the indicative instead of the subjunctive in conditional clauses of uncertainty : If a bird of prey passes over, with a warning voice he bids his family beware.-Gilbert White. If he is troublesome to them, they may root him out, slay, or enslave him; if he thrives and accumulates wealth, they may despoil him.—Kemble. 605. Sometimes the conditional clause is not expressed : Southey. Lay your finger on those places in particular which most displease you. Porson. It would benumb it [i.e. if I were to do so].—Landor Her high spirit would not brook such language [i.e. if it were addressed to her].-Id. This is a vice in them that were a virtue in us [i.e. if we had it].- . Sin" T. Browne. 606. The consequent clause sometimes appears in the interrogative form : If Champollion could read hieroglyphic texts with so much facility SYNTAX. 213 and certainty, how comes it that his method has not been found sufficient by his successors ?—Sir G. C. Lewis. 607. The conjunction is sometimes omitted, and the con- ditional verb placed before its subject : Had this latter part of the charge been true, no merits on the side of the question which I took could possibly excuse me.—Burke. O had his powerful destiny ordained Me some inferior angel, I had stood Then happy.—Milton. 608. To is not inserted before the infinitive after the following verbs: 1. may : His corse may boast its urn and narrow cave.—Byron. 2. can : Far as the breeze can bear the billow's foam.—Hd. 3. shall: He shall live a man forbid.—Shakspere. 4. will : - - What will a child learn sooner than a song?--Pope 5. dare : - I dare do all that may become a man.—Shakspere. 6. let : Let darkness keep her raven gloss.-Tennyson. 7, bºd: Nor bid a warrior smile, nor teach a maid to weep.–Scott. 8, inake : The hope thereof makes Clifford mourn in steel-Shakspere, § ºu8; : Men must work and women must weep.–Kingsley. 2}4. SYNTAX. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17, 609, , 8% I saw him run after a gilded butterfly.—Shakspere, hear: I hear thee speak of the better land,-Heintins. feel : I felt the blackness come and go.—Byron. do: Rnowing that nature never did betray The heart that loved her.—Wordsworth. weed : Her kindness and her worth to spy, You need but gaze on Ellen's eye.—Scott, have : I should be delighted to have you write a preface. Longfellow gin = begin, in poetry and O. E. : Amid the copse gan peep A narrow inlet still and deep.–Scott. durst : . Thou hast dared To tell me what I durst not tell myself-Dryden In Old English to is frequently omitted after verbs which now require it, e.g. intend, endure, forbid, vouchsafe, constrain, ought, &c. : How long within this wood intend you stay!—Shakspere. Your betters have endured me say my mind.—Id. You ought not walk-Id. Ye ought have some compassion.—Chaucer, She seemed be full despitous.-Id. On the other hand it is found occasionally after words which usually, reject it : - I durst, my lord, to wager she is houest.—Shakspere, SYNTAX. 215 Still losing, when I saw myself to win.—Shaftspere. It was the quaintest sadness To see the conqueror upon the hearse To weep a funeral elegy of tears.-Ford. The nightingale breathes such sweet, loud music out of her little instrumental throat, that it might make mankind to think miracles are not ceased.—I. Walton. It makes us to walk warily.—Jeremy Taylor. 610. An ellipsis of the infinitive after the verbs may, can, shall, will, must, do, is usual in replies to questions and in secondary clauses: By the way, Mr. Churchill, do you know Honeywell? No, I do not.—Longfellow. I could not sleep last night; I never can when it rains.—Id. 611. The verb be is frequently omitted in poetry, and occasionally in prose : Pretty in amber to observe the forms Of hairs, or straws, or dirt, or grubs, or worms.-Pope. Sweet the hum Of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds, The lisp of children, and their earliest words,--Byron. Nothing so good, but it may be abused.—Burton. 612. In many exclamatory sentences there is an ellipsis of the main verb : - To think that he should have been so unfortunate : i.e. How sad it is to think, &c. O, woe the day !—Shakspere. 613. Shall, will. In independent sentences shall with the first person, and will with the second and third, imply simple futurity, i.e. state that an actiºn is about to be performed: 216 SYNTAX. will with the first person, and shall with the second and third, express the will or pleasure of the speaker : I shall have a eomedy for you, in a season or two at farthest, that I believe will beworth your acceptance.—Goldsmith. I therefore request you will send my play back by my servant.--Id. I will take a country lodging somewhere near that place.—Id. Macbeth. Your children shall be kings. Banquo. You shall be king.—Shakspere. 614. In asking questions the foregoing rules are re. versed : A very pretty bird (Said the lady); and how shall I train it -- Longfellow. O whither shall we fly from this reproach,--Shakspere. Will you, fair sister, Go with the princes, or stay here with us?—Id. O, when will death This mouldering old partition-wall throw down – Young. For who shall answer for another hour?—Id. Shall pagan pages glow celestial flame, And Christian languish –Id. 615. In secondary sentences shall is employed to express simple futurity, as well as compulsion, with the second and third persons: The candidate who shall distinguish himself the most in English, shall receive an exhibition of thirty pounds per annum.--Rég. Lond, Univ. Licin. It is a mind That shall remain a poison where it is, Nor poison any further. Coriol. Shall remain Hear ye this Triton of the minnows? Mark you His absolute shall ?—Shakspere. SYNTAX, 217 616. In old English the distinction between shall and will was not strictly observed. Shakspere and his contemporaries frequently in- fringe the rule : R. Hen. Commend me to the princes in the camp. Glos. We shall, my liege.—Hen. V. - R. Hen. Good old knight, Collect them all together at my tent. Erpin. I shall do it, my lord.—Id. Dem. I shall come back loaden with fame to honour thee. Cel. I hope you shall.—Beau. and Flet. “ Hum. Lieut.” 617. In modern English do is employed as an auxiliary: (1) For emphasis : I do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am guilty of corruption and do renounce all defence.—Bacon. When they do agree, their unanimity is wonderful,—Sheridan. (2) In negations: Morgiana, when she kills the forty thieves with boiling oil, does not seem to hurt them in the least.—Thackeray. In negations not is usually placed between do and tha infinitive : “I do not think;” but when the conjunctive adverb neither or nor is used, do is placed immediately after it : “nor do I think; ” the conjunctive particle naturally standing between the propositions it connects. Frequently in O. E. and, rarely, in modern poetry, do and the infinitive are not employed in negative propositions: I not repent my courtesies.—Ford. I not dislike the course.—Id. I swear it would not ruffle me so much As you that not obey me.—Tennyson. (3) In questions: Do not the sparrows fly from their bush, and every morning find meal where they laid it not ?—Jeremy Taylor, 14) When an adverb or an adverbial phrase begins the sentence : Once again Do I behold those steep and lofty cliffs, Wordsworth 218 - SYNTAX. (5) In reply to a question, with an ellipsis of the infinitive . Do you confess the bond Ž I do.—Shakspere. 618. These limitations of the use of the auxiliary do began to be generally recognised in the seventeenth century; but the writers of that age frequently disregard them : There is no vice that doth so cover a man with shame as to be found false and perfidious.-Bacon. When the sweet wind did gently kiss the trees, And they did make no noise.—Shakspere. We do too narrowly define the power of God, restraining it to our own capacities.—Sir T. Browne. Participles. 619. In tenses formed by the auxiliary verb be and the perf, parti- ciple the participle agrees with the subject of the verb : They were commanded to rise, and permitted to speak-Gibbon. In tenses of transitive verbs formed by the auxiliary have, the participle agrees with the object of the verb : Nobody could have expected music from that tongue.—Clarendon. He hath fulfillid hungry men with goodis, and he hath lefte riche men voide,-Wycliffe. You might have translated Jack and Gill into Greek iambics, and been a credit to your college.—Thackeray. In intransitive verbs there is possibly an ellipsis of the accusative case of the pronoun that represents the subject of the verb. 620. Imperfect participles derived from transitive verbs may take an object : He was finally sent off to bed blowing little bubbles with his mouth, Longfellow. - Respecting ourselves, we shall be respected by the world,—Burke. He made his final Sally forth upon the World, hoping all things, beiiewing all things, little anticipating the chequered ills in store for him. – W. Irving. SYNTAX. - 219 621. The participle is sometimes omitted : Hast thou not sworn allegiance unto me? I have.—Shakspere. 622. Participles are sometimes employed as simple adjectives: - - The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, For talking age and whispering lovers made—Goldsmith. . His impaired health rendered him less capable than formerly of sedentary application.—W. Irving. 623. When treated as adjectives, participles admit of degrees of comparison : “more loving,” “most devoted.” It is not till our more pressing wants are sufficiently supplied, that we can attend to the calls of curiosity.—Goldsmith. He industriously examines all things, from the minutest insect to the most finished animal.—Id. Gerund. 624. One form of the Infinitive, usually called the Gerund (speak-ing), is commonly confounded with the Imperfect Participle (§ 287). They may be readily distinguished by the fact that the Gerund is a noun, and may therefore be either the subject or the object of a verb ; while the par- ticiple, being an adjective, must refer to Some noun expressed or understood. In the sentence “Fishing is exciting,” the word fishing is a noun, the Subject of the verb ; exciting is an adjective qualifying this verbal noun. In the phrase “Seeing is believing,” both are gerunds, the word believing being in apposition to the word Seeing. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing.—Ben Jonson. 625. The other form of the Gerund (to speak) has been hitherto confounded with the Indefinite Infinitive (§ 287). On comparing “he liked to learn " with “he came to learn,” it will be seen that to learx in the first example is a verbaj 220 SYNTAX. noun, the object of the verb liked; in the second example it is a verbal noun in the dative case, expressing the purpose or intention—“he came for learning.” The first is usually called the Infinitive, the second the Gerund. 626. The Infinitive can be employed only as the subject or object of a verb. The Gerund with to is usually found after intransitive and passive verbs: And fools who came to scoff remained to pray.—Goldsmith. No children run to lisp their sire's return, Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share.—Gray. 627. A common use of the gerund with to is to express the purpose: * Bid Amaranthus all his beauty shed, And daffodillies fill their cups with tears, To strew the laureate hearse where Lycid lies.—Milton. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider.— Bacon. 628. The gerund is frequently found in connexion with adjectives: A wise good man contented to be poor—Crabbe. Deadly to lear and deadly to tell.—Scott. He that loses his conscience has nothing left that is worth keeping.— I. Walton, 629. The gerund with to is often used in connexion with #3 OUllſ S : 'Tis time to sheathe the Sword and 8pare mankind.—Addison. * A knowledge of this fact will greatly assist young students of Greek or Latin. The English gerund implying the purpose is never translated by the infinitive in Latin, and rarely in Greek. In Latin the gerund, or the gerundive, is employed, or ut with the subjunctive. SYNTAX, 221 A kingdom for a stage, princes to act, And monarchs to behold the swelling scene.—Shakspere. The will to do, the soul to dare.--Scott. 630. The gerund with to being a dative case can never form either the subject or the object of a verb. When the nominative or accusative is required, the form in -ing or the indefinite infinitive is always employed : He resolved they should have learning; for learning, he used to observe, was better than silver or gold.--Goldsmith. 631. The gerund in -ing is frequently governed by a preposition : He tasked his slender means to the utmost in educating him for a learmed and distinguished career.—W. Jrving. These travellers' tales awakened an unconquerable passion for wandering and seeking adventure.—Id. Nature pays no heed to birth or condition in bestowing her favours.- Channing. Even the dative with to is found in old English with a second preposition, for : So faine they were the helplesse for to ease.-Chaucer. But what went ye out for to See ?—English Bible. 632. The preposition in, or its older forms on and am, was frequently employed with the gerund in ing: The king was slaine, and ye did assent, In a forest an hunting when that he went.—Lydgate. Speech is indeed the rudder that steereth human affairs, the spring that setteth the wheels of action on going.—Barrow. And thou, Nymphidia, gentle Fay, Which, meeting me upon the way, These secrets didst to me bewray, Which now I am in telling.—Drayton. 222 :SYNTAX. 633. This preposition was afterwards shortened into a . Heraclitus, the philosopher, out of a serious meditation of men's lives, fell a weeping, and with continual tears bewailed their misery, madness, and folly. Democritus, on the other side, burst out a laughing : their whole life seemed to him so ridiculous.-Burton. My Lord of Cornwall is a coming over.—Marlow Sometimes a is omitted : I hope your new book is printing.”—Johnson. 634. The gerund represents an action, without reference to the agent or the time of the act ; but if derived from a transitive verb, it may take an object : - Goldsmith had the advantage of a better temper for bearing them, though certainly Diogenes had the better climate for 800thing his temper.—De Quincey. I hoped to see the surest of all reforms—perhaps the only sure reform—the ceasing to do evil.-Burke, These distinctions were calculated to wound and irritate the noble mind, and to reader the base mind baser.—W. Irving. ADWERBS, 635. Adverbs are of two kinds, simple and compound The simple adverb consists of a single word: Merrily, merrily shall I live now Under the blossom that hangs on the bough.-Shakspere. The compound adverb includes any combination of words indicating time, manner, locality, &c. : In this manner the greatest works upon government, the most excellent books of science, the sacred Scriptures themselves, might be distorted into libels, by forsaking the general context, and hanging a imeaning upon Selected parts.-Erskine, * This is probably the origin of the forms employed in the imperfect tenses; ‘I am writing,’ ‘I was writing,’ &c. The word writing is not tho participle, but the gerund. SYNTAX. - 223 The words in italics are adverbial phrases, or compound adverbs. 636. An adjective is occasionally employed as an adverb : And as an aungel heavenly sche song—Chaucer. Alas, said I, he has paid dear, very dear, for his whistle—Franklin. In many languages the neuter of the adjective is used adverbially; but the probable origin of these apparent adjectives in modern English is explained in § 396. 637. Certain adverbs stand invariably before the word or words they qualify. Others may be placed indiffenently before or after the modified words, their position in the sentence being determined by the emphasis required. In- terrogative and relative adverbs stand naturally first in the clauses they subjoin. 638. Simple assent is usually signified by an adverb with an ellipsis of the qualified words: “Will you go? Certainly ;” i.e. I will certainly go. 639. Although various adverbs may be thus employed, in most languages a special word is selected. In those of the Classical stock, preference is given to an adverb formed from the demonstrative pro- noun. Thus, in old French oyl and oc (illud and hoc); in Italian, Spanish, and frequently in modern French, si (sic). In modern English we occasionally meet with the demonstrative 80, and in old English that : “Crown him That ” (Shakspere). The Anglo-Saxon gese, “visibly,” “clearly,” which supplies the word yes, appears to have been the perfect participle of the verb see, just as the German gewiss is formed from the verb wissen, “know.”” 640. Another affirmative word in A. S. is gea, “yea,” which, by prefixing the negative, becomes may. In early English, from the time of Chaucer to that of Tyndale, yea and may are used in answering affirmative questions; yes and no, in the answers to negative questions. Sir Thomas More (1557), censures Tyndale for neglecting this dis- tinction in his translation of the Bible : “He which in two so plaine *- *-mº * Sir E. Head (Shall and Will, p. 138) supposes gese to be a com- pound of gea, “ yea,” and Si (sit). 224 SYNTAX. Englishe wordes, and so commen, as is naye and no, can not tell when he should take the tone and when the tother, is not for translating into Englishe a man very meete.” After the time of Sir Thomas More the distinction ceased to be observed.* 641. The simple negative is possibly a shortened form of the adverb not, with an ellipsis of the qualified words: “Have you seen him? No; ” i.e. I have [not] seen him. The German nein, however, renders this doubtful. It may be the adjective no used adverbially. 642. It is not unusual in the older English writers to find the negative doubled, or even trebled, for the purpose of adding emphasis to the negation : * Nor I mill make mention IVor of robe, nor of treasour.—Chaucer. Tharefore Seyth the king Salamon, Beth natydel nevere none.—Rob, of Br. Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong.—Shakspere. Nor never seek prevention of thy foes.—Id. This construction is common in Greek and Anglo-Saxon; but in modern English a second negative neutralises the first. 643. In O. E. a second negative is generally employed with the negative verbs nam, nis, mill, &c., unless but follows the verb : There mis no more to say.-Chaucer. To rede I mill not spare.—Id. This world mis but a thurghfare ful of wo, And we ben pilgrims passing to and fro.—Id. 644. In compound tenses the negative stands between the auxiliary and the participle or infinitive : “I do not write,” “I have not written.” When in O. E. and in modern poetry these compound forms are not employed, the negative follows the verb : “I saw not,” “he wrote not,” “they come not.” Sometimes, however, the adverb is placed before the verb : Gif thou mayst give him and mat wilt.—Rob, of Br. * See Marsh, Lect. xxvi, Note A, and Sir E. Head, Shall and Will, p. 126. - SYNTAX. - 22 5 God him deme, for I he can.—Rob, of Br. They mette togedyr, I me wot how.—Id. PREPOSITIONS. 645. It has been shown (§ 402) that prepositions are Smployed to mark the relation existing between nouns: as, “the bee is nestling in the flower;” “I went from London to Paris.” Hence the preposition stands naturally between the objects specified, and should therefore never occupy the last place in a sentence. 646. In poetry the natural order of words is often in- verted for the sake of emphasis, and hence the second of the two objects is frequently placed first. In such cases the preposition will be found at the beginning of a sentence : In adamantine chains shall Death be bound.—Pope. 647. Since the relative and interrogative pronouns, what- ever their case, usually stand first in their respective clauses, the preposition will frequently be found before such clauses: They came to a land in which they could recognise nothing.— Macaulay. In here marks the relation between which and they. In sentences of this nature many writers place the prepo. sition last : Which, traitor, thou wouldst have me answer to.—Shakspere. Why, then, thou knowest what colour jet is of.-Id. 648. When the relative is omitted, or when that is used as a relative, the preposition occupies the last place : To have no screen between the part he played And him he played it for.—Shakspere. Q 926 - SYNTAX. We feel obliged to the editor, both for making Lord Collingwood known to us, and for the very pleasing, modest way he has taken to do it in.—Jeffrey. Lords and Commons of England I consider what nation it is whereof ye are, and whereof ye are the governors; a nation not slow and dull, but of a quick, ingenious, and piercing spirit; acute to invent, subtile and sinewy to discourse, not beneath the reach of any point that human capacity can Soar to.—Milton. - - 649. The preposition of expressing the partitive genitive, is sometimes, inelegantly, thrown to the end of the sen- tence : These more sterling qualities of strict moral conduct, regular religious habits, temperate and prudent behaviour, sober and indus- trious life, he had nothing of-Brougham. 650. A sentence being a compound noun, prepositions may govern sentences as well as single words: Those few good people, who have no other plot in their religion but to serve God and save their souls], do want such assistance of ghostly sounsel as may serve their emergent needs.--Jeremy Taylor. These are the fruits of [misspending our prime youth at schools and universities, as we do, either in learning mere words or such things shiefly as were better unlearned].-Milton. 651. Adverbs frequently qualify prepositions, as, out from, away fºom, tlown from, &c., and usually stand before the words they qualify. The two words may be considered as a compound preposition. Sometimes, however, the preposition is placed first : Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off my door.—Poe. As out and off are prepositions as well as adverbs, from out and from off may be viewed as compounds: When that the summe out the south gan west.—Chaucer. 652. Pronominal adverbs are sometimes used instead of the pronouns from which they are derived. The preposition implied in the case-ending is then repeated. Hence such SYNTAx. 227 expressions as from thence, “from that place.” As a general rule the preposition is suffixed to these words: It then draws near the season Wherein the spirit held his wont to walk—Shakspere. Whereon do you look.-Id. He spoils not a good school, to make thereof a bad college, therein to teach his scholars logic.—Fuller. - 653. In poetry the preposition is sometimes placed after the noun it governs: Thy deep ravines and dells among.—Scott, Thee, chauntress, oft the woods among I Woo, to hear thy even-song.—Milton. 654. In O. E. the two elements of the compound preposition toward at , frequently separated by the governed noun : Then there is the obedience of the hypocrite, to manward, somewhat exact and formal, but to Godward, rudely carelesse and negligent.— S. Purchas. The bias of their soule is set to Godward and to heavenward.—Id. This is the dormitive I take to bedward.-Sir T. Browne. " CONJUNCTIONs. 655. Conjunctions are employed to connect propositions : [Lithe squirrels darted here and there], And [wild birds filled the echoing air With songs or liberty].—Longfellow. [While an author is yet living, we estimate his powers by his worst performances}, and [when he is dead we rate them by his best].-- .iciºndon. Q 2 928 SYNTAX. A solitary exception is found in certain constructions with the word and, which occasionally has the force of the preposition with ; e.g. “two and two are four,” i.e. two with two are four. See § 411. 656. Those words which are identical in each proposition are usually omitted in one. Thus, The dawn on the mountain was misty, and The dawn on the mountain was gray, in written by Scott, The dawn on the mountain was misty and gray. Sometimes these words are retained in the first proposition : Woe came with v rar, and want with woe.—Scott, Sometimes in the second : The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.—Gray. And sometimes in both : Up rose the sonne, and up rose Emelie.—Chaucer. 657. When the verb is expressed in the last of several propositions connected by the conjunction and, it becomes plural, though the subject of each proposition is singular: Cold diffidence and age's frost In the full tide of song were lost.—Scott. 658. But when the propositions are connected by the conjunctions either, or, neither, mor, the number of the verb remains unaltered : And not an insect's small shrill horn, Normatin bird's new voice, was borne From herb nor thicket.—Byron. Hence such sentences as the following are faulty: Nor light nor darkness bring his pains relief-Johnson, He comes; nor want nor cold his course delay.—Id. SYNTAX. 229 Nor lute, nor lyre, his feeble powers attend, Nor sweeter music of a virtuous friend.—Id. No grove, nor brook, lend their music to cheer the stranger, or make the inhabitants forget their poverty.—Goldsmith. 659. The conjunction but must not be confounded with the adverb, the preposition, or the relative, of the same form : (a) But = only (adverb): So the loud whirlwind and the torrent's roar But bind him to his native mountains more.—Goldsmith. All those arts, varieties, and inventions, which vulgar minds gaze at, the ingenious pursue, and all admire, are but the relics of an intellect defaced with sin and time.—South. (b) But = eaccept, without (preposition): O, who shall say what heroes feel When all but life and honour's lost 7–Moore. Can I not view a highland brand But [it must match the Douglas hand]?–Scott. i.e. without its matching, except it match. Abstinence is litel worth, but [it be enforced by patience and by charité].-Chaucer. - - (c) But = who + not, (negative relative): There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st, But in his motion like an angel sings.-Shakspere. i. e. which does not sing. No man is so foolish but may give another good counsell sometimes; and no man is so wise but may easily erre, if he will take no other's counsell but (prep ) his own.—Ben Jonson. (d) But (conjunction): In taking revenge, a man is but (adv.) even with his cnemy; but (conj.) in passing it over, he is superior.—Bacon. An inadvertent step may crush the snail That crawls at evening in the public path ; 230 SYNTAX. But he that hath humanity, forwarned, Will tread aside, and let the reptile live. —Cowper. A difference of form existed in old English between the conjunction bitt and the preposition biſt : Bot shy werke schal endure in laude and glorie, but spot or falt (i.e. without spot).-G. Douglas. 660. The Omission of the conjunction frequently imparts energy and animation to the narrative : Through many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous; O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death, A universe of death.--Milton. On the other hand, the repetition of the conjunction Arrests the attention, and rivets it on the details : Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine.—Milton. INTERJECTIONS. 661. Interjections, being mere involuntary expressions of feeling, have no grammatical connexion with the Sentences in which they occur: 0 then began the tempest to my soul!—Shakspere. 662. The words to which they are apparently attached are elliptical expressions or parts of sentences: Ah me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain l—Milton. Me is here a dative. The full form is “ah, woe is me !” or some such phrase: Me is woe that I live houres twelve.—Chaucer. SYNTAX 231 A. Hem. Ah, woe is me for Gloster, wretched man Q. M.Grg. Be woe for me, more wretched than he is ſ—Shakspere. 663. In expressing a wish, the verb is frequently omitted after an interjection : 0 for a muse of fire, that would ascend The brightest heaven of invention 1—Shakspere. The full expression would be, “O, how I wish ' " or some such words: O, how I wished for spear or sword, At least to die amidst the horde —Byron. 664. With a similar ellipsis, that is frequently found after interjections: 0 that the desert were my dwelling-place —-Byron. 665. Sometimes the interjection is omitted in such con structions : Me miſerable — ſºfto:l. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 1, NAME the Families which comprise the languages of the civilized world, and the Stocks of that Family which includes modern English. By what other names is the Family known (1, 2, 3.) 2. Give the subdivisions of the Keltic, Classical, and Tetºonic Stocks. (5, 6, 7.) 3. Who were the Saxons, Friesians, Angles, and Norsemen (8, 10.) 4. Classify the Keltic and Scandinavian words found in English. (12, 13, 14.) 5. State the periods when Classical words were introduced. What class of words characterized each period 2 (16, 17, 20–22.) 6. Who were the Normans ? To what extent and how long was Norman-French spoken and officially recognised in England? (18, 19.) 7. From what foreign sources has the English language been enriched ? (22.) 8. If a long and a short form of a Latin word exist in English, which is usually the older, and why (24.) 9. Mention any English words which have changed their meaning during the last three centuries. (25.) 10. What classes of words in English are of Saxon origin (26.) 11. What proportion do the Saxon words bear to the Norman Is this proportion observed in the writings of our standard authors (27.) 12. Where is English now spoken 3 (28.) 13. How may the changes from Anglian to modern English be roughly marked ? (29.) 14. What were Letters originally What are they now ; (30.) 15. Name the Organs of Speech. How are Letters organically classed ? (31.) Af 16. What are Vowels What is the natural sequence ºf those in the English Alphabet # (33, 34.) 234 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 17. Write down the ordinary vowel sounds in English. By how many expedients are they represented in the written language 3 18. What are y and w 2 (36.) 19. Name the true Diphthongs. Of what vowel sounds are they compounded ? What are false Diphthongs? Give examples of false Diphthongs and their simple equivalents. (37, 38.) 20. How are Consonants divided ? Define each class. (40, 41, 48 48.) 21. Write down the Liquids in their natural order. (42.) 22. Arrange the Mutes and Sibilants in a tabular form. (47, 48.) 23. What is H Which letters in the Alphabet are superfluous ! (49, 50.) 24. What is meant by the Law of Accommodation ? What inflections in English Grammar are regulated by this law (52.) 25. Show by examples that the addition of a suffix frequently modi- fies the root-vowel. (53.) 26. Define Orthography and Orthoëpy. (54.) 27. What is essential for a perfect system of Orthography : Why is the orthography of the English language imperfect 7 (55, 56.) 28. Mention any orthographical expedients for remedying the defects of the English Alphabet. (57.) - 29. Point out some of the more striking defects of English or- thography. (60.) - - 30. Define a Syllable and a Word. What were syllables originally (61–63.) 31. Distinguish between Accent and Emphasis. (65.) 32. What are the general rules for Accent in English words? (66. —70.) 33. What class of words vary their nature and meaning according to the position of the accent 2 Give examples. (71.) 34. Give examples of words in which the position of the accent has been changed, (73.) 35. What is meant by Parts of Speech Name them. (74) 36. What is understood by Accidence, Etymology, and Inflection : (75, 76.) '87. Define a Nown. What are Sºmple and compound nouns (77, 73 ExAMINATION QUESTIONS. 235 38. What are Proper nouns, Common nouns, Collective nouns, and nouns of Multitude 7 (79–82.) 39. Distinguish between Abstract and Concrete nouns. (83.) 40. What is Gender How does it differ from Sea. How many genders are recognised in English 7 (85.) 41. How is gender usually determined in Latin, French, and Anglo- 3axon! How in modern English Can you account for the differenceſ (86.) 42. How may the Masculine be distinguished from the Feminine in English (87.) º, - 43. Mention any foreign nouns that retain the generic suffixes of the languages whence they were taken. (88.) 44. What was the usual Masculine suffix in A. S. ? Is it still found in modern English (89.) 45. What is there peculiar in the words drake, gander, via:en, widower, lady, niece, nephew! (90, 94, 95.) 46. What was the usual Feminine suffix in A. S. Is it still found What is the usual suffix in modern English : Whence was it derived (92, 93.) 47. What is Personification ? Why are some abstract qualities per- sonified as females, others as males? (98, 99.) 48. What is the Dual number 2 (101.) 49. What is the origin of the common plural suffix 8; Can you account for its selection as a suffix of plurality ? (102, 103.) 50. State the ordinary rules for forming the plural of English nouns. (104.) 51. Write the plurals of lady, hero, valley, alkali, wolf, dwarf, and staff. (105–108.) . 52. Mention any obsolete plural forms found occasionally in modern English. (109—113.) + 53. Swine, kine, brethren, chicken, welkin, women: some of these are singular, others plural; separate them. (110.) 54. Mention any nouns that have two plural forms with differen: meanings. (114.) 55. News, pains, alms, means, amends, tidings, riches, politics : are these singular or plural in origin' (115–117.) 56. Mention any nouns (1) that have mo singular; (2) that have two meanings in the singular and one in the plural ; (3) that have two meanings in the plural, and one in the singular. (118–122.) 57. Write the plurals of Ottoman, Dutchman, Norman, Frenchman, Brahman, Turcoman, and German. (126.) - 58. Mention any nouns of foreign origin that retain their original plural suffixes. What change are they now undergoing? (127.) 236 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 59. How do you form the plurals of son-in-law, step-son, court-martial, lord-mayor? (128.) - 60. What is Case ? What relation did it originally indicate? Explain the derivation of the words Case and Declension. (129–131.) 61. What are meant by Inflectional and Syntactical cases 3 (132.) 62. Name the Cases, and state the primary idea expressed by each. (133–137.) 63. Distinguish between Subject and Nominative, Object and Accus sative. (134, 135, 444, 459.) 64. Is there any instance of a Nominative suffix in English : What were the old Accusative and Genitive suffixes 2 (138, 139.) 65. State the rules for forming the Genitive Singular in modern English. (140.) 66. How do you express the Genitive Plural (141.) 67. How do you express the Genitive of Nouns in apposition (142.) 68. What later corrupt form of the Genitive can be traced to the old suffix -is? (143.) 69. The Genitive with of was unknown to the Anglo-Saxons: whence did we obtain it ! (143.) - 70. Mention any obsolete suffixes of the Genitive, Dative, and Ablative. (144—151.) - - 71. What is meant by a Root ? Explain Dérivation and Composition. In a compound which term limits and defines the other ? (152– 155.) { 72. Give examples of Teutonic and Classical suffixes and prefixes forming nouns. (157–164.) i g 73. Give examples of noun suffixes, simple and compound, forming Diminutives. (157.) - - 74. Give examples of Teutonic and Classical derivatives formed by internal changes. (156, 160.) 75. Mention any derived nouns which retain the form of the primi- tive word wºnchanged, and any that have lost part of the primitive word. (165—168.) 76. Whał parts of speech may be combined to form a compound noun? (169.) What is a Hybrid? Why so called ! (173.) 77. What is there peculiar in breakfast, lands-man, ver-dict, chit-chat, demi-god? (169—173.) EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 237 78. What is an Adjective? What was it in origin (174, 176.) 79. How do adjectives in modern English differ from those in more highly inflected languages } (177.) 80. What traces of Inflection exist in O. E. adjectives 2 (178.) 81. Define the terms Comparative and Superlative. (179, 185.) 82. What are comparatives and superlatives of diminution ? What adjectives have no comparative and superlative' (183, 187.) 83. How are comparatives and superlatives formed ? (180–182, 186, 187.) 84. Mention any naturalized foreign adjectives which are com- paratives in form. How do they differ from ordinary English com- paratives (184.) 85. Explain the forms best, worst, most, least, meat, first, last. (190.) 86. Explain the forms better, worse, more, less, rather. (190.) 87. Distinguish between further and farther, elder and older, latter and later. (190.) 88. Give examples of Teutonic and Classical prefixes and suffixes forming adjectives. (191—197.) 89. What parts of speech may combine to form compound Adjectives (199.) - 90. Define Cardinal, Ordinal, and Distributive numerals. (200; 212.) 91. Give the derivation of eleven and twelve. (203.) 92. Explain the suffixes -teen, -ty, -th. (204, 205, 209.) 93. What numerals are not of Saxon origin 7 (206, 208, 213.) 94. What was the Saxon equivalent for second Why was it set aside 2 (208.) 95. How are Distributives and Multipliers expressed in English (212, 213.) 96. Give the derivation of both. How does both differ from two (214.) 97. Mention any nouns employed as collective numerals. (215.) 98. How are the Cardinal and Ordinal adverbs formed ! (216.) 99. What is the Indefinite Articie? (218, 559.) 100. Mention any compounds or derivatives of one. (219.) 101. What are Pronouns : How are they classed (223.) 102. Which are the true Personal Pronouns? Decline them. (224, 226, 229.) 103. Of the forms mine, my, thiné, thy, &c., which is the olderſ When are they respectively used ? Account for the -ne, (227, 230.) 104. Can you justify the provincial forms ourn, yourn, &c. (228.) 238 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 105. What peculiar force was attached to thow in Shakspere's time ! (230.) - 106. Decline he, she, it, and show that they are from the same root. (233, 234.) - 107. When was its introduced : What form did it supplant } (234.) 108. State the various usages of this and that. What is the probable derivation of this? (235, 236.) p 109. What was the originally Show that a similar origin can be assigned to the Definite Article in other languages, (237, 573.) 110. What is the derivation of such, which, and each 7 (238, 250, 266.) 111. Explain to in to-day. (239.) 112. State the different meanings and forms of yonder, (241.) 113. Name and explain the adverbs formed from the Demonstrative. (242.) 114. Define Interrogative, Relative, and Antecedent. (243, 244.) 115. Name the Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. (245.) 116. When was who first employed as a Relative? What was its substif ite in O. E. (247.) - - 117. Give the various usages of what and which. (248, 250.) 118. When is but used as a Relative 2 (253.) 119. Name and explain the Adverbs formed from the Relative. (254.) 120. What are Possessive Pronouns? (255.) 121. What is a Reflective Pronoun ? How is it expressed in English 7 (256.) 122. Explain the anomalies in the use of self. (257.) 123. What are Reciprocal, Indefinite, and Distributive Pronouns | Name them. (258, 259, 265.) 124. How does the phrase each other differ from one another? (258, 557.) - 125. Name the Adverbs from the Indefinite who. (260.) 26. Give the derivation and different meanings of any, (261.) 127. What is the probable origin of the Indefinite one 7 (201.) 128. Give the different usages of some. (264, 558.) 129. Distinguish between each and every. (266, 557.) * As-m-m-mºs -º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: 130. Define the terms Werb, Action, Subject, and Olſect. (269–273.) 131. Distinguish between Transitive and Intransitive verbs. Is the 3. the verb ever Transitive and Intransitive 2 (274, 275.) 132. What is meant by on Impersonal verb º Are there any in EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 239 English Explain the construction of meseems, methinks. (448, 449.) Explain it in it rains. (276.) 133, Explain the terms Active and Passive. How are Passive verbs expressed in English : “He is come,” “He had come : ” which is correct, and why? (278, 279.) 134. From what class of Verbs must Passives be formed ! Why {231.) - #35. What is Mood? How many are there? Define them. (282– 286.) - 136. How does the Infinitive differ from an ordinary noun? (286.) 137, Explain the forms, “he likes writing; ” “he likes to write; ” “he came to write.” (287.) 138. What is Tense ? Write down the Tenses of the Active Indi- cative of run. (288—296.) 139. Give the different usages of 3 he Present and Past Indefinite. (297, 298.) 140. Write in full the Tenses of the Active Imperative of run. Point out the different meanings expressed by these Tenses. (299, 300.) 141. How are the Tenses of the Subjunctive usually expressed? They once differed from the Indicative Tenses in form. Do any traces of this difference still remain (301, 302.) 142. Give the various modifications of the Active Infinitive of rum. Are these modifications correctly termed Tenses (303.) 143. Which of the Tenses is formed by Inflection ? (304.) 144. Why are the Perfect tenses formed by the auxiliary have, and the Imperfect tenses by be (304.) - 145. What is Conjugation ? How many are there in English : How are they commonly distinguished ? (305.) 146. Account for the modification of the root-vowel in the Past Indefinite. (306.) 147. Sung sang co-exist in the Past Indefinite. Explain this. (307.) 148. What was the suffix of the Past Indefinite of weak verbs? What did it originally mean? (308.) 149. State the rules for the regular formation of this Tense in modern English. (309.) What variations are found 7 (310.) 150. What plural suffixes were used in O. E. verbs? When did they disappear ! Are there any traces of them in modern English ; (312, 313.) 151. What are Person-endings? What was their probable origin (314.) - 152. Is there any trace of a First Person suffix? (315.) 153. What was the Second Person ending? Is there any othes ferra 3 (315.) 240 - EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 154. What were the old forms of the Third Person suffix -e? (316.) 155. State the rules for forming the Third Person singular in modern English. (317.) - 156. Explain the O. E. words cham, shallow, thenkstow, cant, woltu (319.) 157. What is a Participle, and how does it differ from an ordinary adjective 7 (320.) 158. Write down the Active and Passive Participles of teach. (320.) 159. What is the suffix of the Imperfect Participle What were its earlier forms ? (322.) - 160. What class of verbs form the Perfect Participle by the suffix -en? What variations are found? (323, 324.) - 161. State the rules for forming this Participle in modern English, (826.) 162. What prefix had this Participle in early times? In what forms is it sometimes seen in the modern language 7 (329.) 163. What are meant by the Gerunds? How may they be dis- tinguished from the Imperfect Participle and the Indefinite Infinitive (330, 331.) - 164. In what Tenses is the Passive verb deficient 7 (347) 165. What are meant by Aua'iliary verbs? Name them. (348.) 166. How may the verbs of the Strong Conjugation be classed ? (349.) 167. What is the difference between Irregular and Defective verbă î (358.) 168. What is there peculiar in are ? (359.) 169. Give the negative forms of be and have. (359, 360) 170. What was the earlier meaning of shall? How did it acquire its present meaning? Was it an auxiliary in Old English 7 (362.) 171. Explain the formation of could, (368.) 172. Distinguish between the two verbs do. (369.) 173. What was the original meaning of owe and ought? Account for their present meaning. (373.) 174. Explain wert, (374.) 175. Distinguish between the two verbs think. (376) 176. What is the present tendency of the language with regard to weak and strong verbs? (378.) e 177. Mention any verbal prefixes and suffixes of Teutonic and Classical origin. (379–383.) EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 24l 178. Mention any classes of words that become verbs without altering their form. (384.) 179. What parts of speech may combine to form compound verbs? (386.) 180. What are Adverbs? How are they classed? (387–389) How are they commonly formed ? (390–392.) 181. What are Conjunctive and Interrogative Adverbs? (393, 394.) 182. How are Comparative and Superlative Adverbs formed ! (395.) 183. Mention and explain the Adverbial suffixes and prefixes. (396 —398.) 184. State the various modes of forming Compound Adverbs. (399.) 185. Explain the use of Prepositions. Why are they more frequently used in modern than in ancient languages? (402.) 186. Where are Prepositions usually placed ? (404.) When suffixed to verbs, what change do they often produce in the verb (405, 406.) 187. What is the derivation of down, behind, along, among, around, till, between. (407.) 188. Mention any words of Classical origin that are used as Prepo- sitions. What is their true character ? (408,494, 496, 497.) 189. Give the various meanings of before. (410.) 190. What is a Conjunction ? How do you explain “two and two are four !” (41.1.) - 191. What are Co-ordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions ? (412.) 192. What Conjunctions are used in pairs? (414.) 193. “I knew that he was gone.” What is that ? (415.) 194. What are Interjections ! How may they be classed ? (416, 417.) 195. Explain the nature of Diminutives. Do they always imply smallness? (418.) 196. Give examples of Augmentative Suffixes. (419–421.) 197. Explain the various modes of forming Patronymics. (422– #24.) - i 242 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 198. Define Syntax, Proposition, Subject, Predicate, and Copula, (428 ––429.) - 199. What is the difference between a Logical and a Grammatical division of a Proposition ? (429.) 200. What must the Subject consist of? (43%) 201. When is the Subject termed Simple, Compound, Complex; } When is it said to be enlarged or eactended ? (431.) 202, What part of speech is essential to the Predicate 7 (432.) 203. What are meant by the complement or completion, and the tnlargement or extension of the Predicate? (433.) 204. What is a Sentence 2 What are Subordinate and Co-ordinate sentences? (434.) - 205. Explain the terms Apposition, Pleonasm, and Ellipsis. (436– 443.) 206, Give examples of a pleonastic Nominative. (445—447.) 207. When may the subject be omitted in English? (448.) 208. Give examples of it and this employed to represent a subjective sentence. (452.) - 209. When the subject follows the verb, it or there usually stands before the verb. When may they respectively be used ? (453.) 210. The subject usually precedes the verb. When does it follow it (457, 458.) 211. Of what may the object of a transitive verb consist (460.) - . 212. Show that that or it may represent an objective sentence. (461, 462.) 213. If the subject of an objective Infinitive is expressed, what case must it be 2 (464.) . 214. Describe a Cognate and a Factitive accusative. (465, 466.) 215. What active verbs may take two accusatives 2 If the active is changed to the passive construction, what change do the two accusa- tives undergo? (466,467.) 216. “He watched all night.” Explain the construction. (468.) 217. English Prepositions are said to -govern the accusative, Was this always so (470.) - 218. When does the object precede the verb (472, 473.) 219, What is a Dependent genitive a Partitive genitive? a genitive of Quality? (474, 480, 482.) - 220. What is the ordinary difference between the genitive with of and the genitive with -8% (476.) Which should be used when the Pos- sessive is the Antecedent to a Relative (478.) 221. Give examples of an ellipsis of the noun upon which the genitive depends. (483.) EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 243 222. “A bust of Cicero,” “a bust of Cicero’s.” Explain the differ. tnce. (485.) 223. With what Werbs is the Dative usually found? (488–490.) 224. What Adjective governs the Dative 7 (491.) 225. What is meant by the Dativus Ethicus? (492.) 226. What is the Dative Absolute 7 “Thow away, the very birds are mute.” Explain this, (493—495.) 227. Explain the construction of notwithstanding, pending, during, gave, eaccept. (496, 497.) - 228. How do Adjectives agree with the nouns they define ! (500.) 229. Give examples of Adjectives used as abstract and concrete nouns, (501—502.) 230. State the various rules for the position of the Adjective. (504 —510.) 231. Explain the true character of than in comparative sentences. (511—513.) 232. “More than me,” “more than I.” Which is correct ' Why 1 (514.) 233. When is the comparative with more used ? (515.) 234. Give examples of double Comparatives and Superlatives. (516 —519.) 235. What is the Superlative of Eminence . (520.) 236. When may the plural suffix of a Noun be omitted 7 (521.) 237. Distinguish between “the first two " and “the two first.” (522.) 238. How should Pronouns agree with the nouns they represent Is there any exception ? (523.) 239. “Is she as tall as me !” “Is she as tall as I ?” Which is correct? Why? (524.) - 240. Can I ever be used as an accusative 7 (527.) 241. “No one should sway but he.” Is this correct? If not, why not ? (528.) 242. When is thºs used with plural Nouns (530.) 243. Give examples of that used after Relatives, &c. and explain the construction. (531.) 244. What is the when used with the Comparative (533.) 245. How does the Relative agree with the Antecedent 3 (534.) 246. When are the Relatives who, which, and that, respectively used? (537, 539, 540.) 244 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 247. How does the Relative thot differ in construction from who and which (538.) 248. When is the antecedent often omitted ? What effect has the Gmission upon the Relative which (541, 542.) 249. Give instances of the omission of the Relative. (544.) 250 And do you now strew flowers in his way, That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood ; What is the antecedent to that? (546.) 251. When are but and as employed as Relatives? (547, 548.) 252. Which form of the Relative must be used when the antecedent is a noun of multitude! Which, when it is a collective noun ? (551.) 253. What is the usual position of the Relative 2 (552.) 254. Distinguish between the other and another. (556.) 255, State the various usages of the Indefinite Article. (562–569.) 256. “A thousand men,” “A few horses.” Explain this construc tion. (570.) 257. “Many a day.” How has this been explained? (571.) 258. State the various usages of the Definite Article. (574–585.) 259. How must a Werb agree with its subject 7 (586–596) 260. When it, in apposition to a plural subject, stands before the verb, what is the number of the verb Was this always so * (597.) 261. What is a Hypothetical sentence? What are Conditional and Consequent clauses? (601.) - 262. In a conditional clause, when should the verb be Indicative, and when Subjunctive (602, 603.) 263. What is the present tendency of the language with regard to the Subjunctive? (604.) 264. Is the Conditional clause ever omitted? (605.) 265. When is to not expressed before the Infinitive (610.) 266. Give examples of an ellipsis of the Infinitive. (610.) 267. Give examples of an ellipsis of the main Verb. (611, 612.) 268. Explain the different usages of shall and will. (613–616.) 269. When is do employed as an auxiliary 7 (617,618.) 270. Explain the construction of the Participles in “I am talking,” *I have seen him.” (619.) 271. Give instances of an ellipsis of a Participle (621.) 272. When does a Participle admit of degrees of comparison? (628.) EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 245 273. Distinguish between the Gerund in -ing and the Imperfect Participle, and between the Gerund with to and the Indefinite In- finitive. (624–626.) 274. After Intransitive and Passive verbs, what does the Gerund with to usually imply (627.) 275. Give examples of the use of the Gerund with nouns and adjectives. (628, 629.) - 276. What form of the Gerund must be employed as the subject or object of a verb 7 (630.) 277. Is the Gerund ever governed by a preposition ? (631.) 278. “He is a coming,” “The book is printing.” Explain the con- struction. (632, 633.) 279. When can the Gerund govern a noun ? (634.) 280. Explain the position of Adverbs. (637.) 281. How are assent and dissent usually expressed ? (637.) 282. Give the derivation of yes and no. (639, 641.) 283. What distinction existed in O. E. between yea and yes, may and no (640.) 284. What was the force of a doubled negative in O. E.' What it. it in modern English 7 (642.) - 285. What position does not occupy in a sentence 7 (617, 644.) 286. When is a Preposition found at the beginning of a sentence (646, 649.) When is it placed last ! 287. When is the Preposition suffixed to the word it governs f When is it placed after it? (652, 653.) - 288. What is there peculiar in O. E. in the compound Preposition toward 7 (654.) 289. “The minstrel was infirm and old.” Supply the words omitted after and. Is the ellipsis confined to the second proposition ? (656.) 290, When two or more propositions with singular subjects are con- nected by and, and the verb is omitted in all but the last, what change does the verb undergo 2 (657.) 291. “Nor want nor cold his course delay.” Is this correct? (658.) 292. Give examples of but as an Adverb, a Preposition, a Relative, and a Conjunction. (659.) 293. What effect has the omission, or the repetition, of the Con- junction in descriptive writing 2 (660.) 294. Explain the phrases ah me / woe is me / 0 for a muse of fire I wne miserable f (662–665.) I N T) Tº X. The numbers refer to sections. ABLATIVE, 137. accent, 65–73. words affected by change of, 71. change in use of, 73. accidence, 75, 76. accusative, 145, 459. suffix lost, 138. cognate, 465. factitive, 466. of duration, 468. active, see verb. adjectives, 174—199, 500–520. origin of, 176. how differing ticiples, 320. suffix lost, 177. suffix retained in O. E. 178, 477. used as noun, 166, 501, 502. used as adverb, 503, 636. used as verb, 384. used with article, 126. used with gerund, 628. comparison of, 179–190, 511 —520. incapable of comparison, '88. derivation of, 191—198. Teutonic, 191—194. Classical, 195—197. compound, 199. irregular, 190. pronominal, 222. place of, 504—510. adverbs, 387–401, 635-–644, 651, $52, from par- adverbs, classification of, 389 formation of, 390–392. elliptical phrases, 388,400. compound, 399, 635. numeral, 216, 217. demonstrative, 42%. interrogative and relative, 254, 394. conjunctive, 393. indefinite, 260. pronominal, table of, 268. used as verbs, 384. -ly, suffix, 391, 392, 396. comparison of, 395. derivation of, 396–398, Teutonic, 396, 397. Classical, 398. position of, 637. affirmative particle, 638. proposition, 427. ago, 329. all, 585. alms, 116. alphabet, 30, 32. imperfections of, 51. expedients for defects of 5%. am, 315, 359. Gmends, 115. &n, a, preposition, 407, 331, 331, 397, 632, 633. Angles, 7, 8. Anglo-Saxon, 8, 26, 27, 29. another, 258, 263, 556. antecedent, 244. omitted, 541, 542, 543. implied in possessive, 546. 248 INDEX. amy, 261. apposition, 436–440, 455, 461, 462, 479. Arabic, 1. words, 23, are, 313, 359. article, indefinite, 218, 559–572. definite, 237, 573–585. inflected in O. E. 237. Aryan, 3. q8, 253. a relative, 253, 548. aScant, preposition, 407 (38). asperate, 49. asperates, 45–48. at, before infinitive, 287. atour, preposition, 407 (41). aught, 262. augmentatives, 419–421. Teutonic, 420. Classical, 421. apparent, 420. auxiliaries, 348. a weary, 329. bad, 190 (b). Basque, 4. be, 359, 595. omitted, 611. not subjunctive, 302, 359. be-, 381. being, in absolute sentences, 494. bet, 190 (a). both, 214, 585. Breton, 5. but, relative, 253, 547, 659. preposition, 407 (659). adverb, 659. conjunction, 659. Cambrian or Kymric, 5. can, 368. case, 129–132. caster, chester, &c., 16 (a). Caucasian, 3. Classical Stock, 2, 6. words in English, 15–22. prefixes, 163, 164, 196, 197, 383, 398. suffixes, 161, 162, 195, 382. * 179–184, 511– 517. comparatives, formed from super. lative, 190 (i). irregular and obsolete, 190. double, 516. composition, 154, 155. disguised, 171. compounds, plural of, 128. conditional clause, 601–603, 635, 607. conjunctions, 411–415, 655. co-ordinate, 412. subordinate, 412. in pairs, 414. consequent clause, 601–606. considered, in absolute sentences, 494. - consonants, 39–50. could, 368. Cornish, 5. Danes, 7, 10. darkling, 396. dative, 137, 146—150, 488–497. absolute, 493--496. dativus ethicus, 492. declension, 131. defective verbs, 358. dentals, 31, 44, 47. derivation, 153. diminutives, 157, 192, 380, 418. do, 369. when auxiliary, 617, 618. “fare,” 369. Dutch, 7. words, 23. each, 266, 557, 590. each other, 258, 557. either, 267, 555, 598. elever, 203. ellipsis, 443, 483, 541, 544, 610– 612. emphasis, 65. English, 8. stages of 29. patronymics, 423, 424. -er, masculine suffix, 89. -er or -ry, plural suffix, 112. Erse, 5. Esthonian, 4. etymology, 76. INDEX. 249 every, 266, 557, 590. go, 370. eaccept, 497. good, 190 (a). Gothic, 7. families of languages, 1. Moeso-, 7. Faroic, 7. Greek, 6. farther and further, 190 (h). Flemish, 7. Finnic, 4. - first, 190 (!), 208, 522. forlorn, 323. forward and froward, 190 (?) foss, 16 (f). French, 6. words, 23. plurals, 127. Norman, 15, 18, 19. words, 20. gender, 86. patronymics, 425. Friesians, 7, 8. Gaelic, 5. patronymics, 425. ge- = be-, 381. participial prefix, 329. gender, 85–99, not Sea, 85, number of, 85. masculine distinguished from feminine, 87. foreign, 88. masculine formed from femi- nine, 97. t not a neuter suffix, 97. neuter, when sex is unknown, 523. genitive, 136, 474—487. suffix, 140, 144–146, 476, 478. suffix dropt, 141. of, sign of, 143. his, false sign of, 143, 487. case-ending in compounds, 170. - dependent, 474. partitive, 480, 649. of quality, 482. colloquial, 486. German, High, 7. Low, 7. modern, 7 varumã,287, $30,381,624–634. words, 17, 22. plurals, 127. patronymics, 423. prefixes, 164, 197, 383. suffixes, 162, 195, 382. gutturals, 31, 44, 47. have, 360. he, 233, 528. Hebrew, 1. words, 23. plurals, 127. patronymics, 425. Hellenic, 6. heat = highest, 190 (e). his, false sign of genitive, 143, 437 neuter gender, 234, hundred, 206. hybrids, 173. hypothetical sentence, 601. impersonal verbs, 276. in, preposition, 407 (17). Latin preposition, prefix, 163, 70t, Latin prefix, 163. participial suffix, 322. feminine suffix, 94. Indo-European, 2, 3. infinitive, a verbal noun, 286. ellipsis of, 610. interjections, 416, 417. intransitives used transitively, 275. irregular verbs, 358–378. adjectives, 190, it, 234, 528, 597. Italian, 6. words, 23. plurals, 127. Japhetic, 3. Reltic, 2, 5. words, 12, 13. Lapp, 4. later, latter, 190 (%) 250 INDEX. Latin, 6, 15. words, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24. plurals, 127. patronymics, 423. prefixes, 163, 196, 383. suffixes, 161, 195, 382. least, 188, 190, d. letters, 30, 32. not sounded, 60 (e), (f). superfluous, 50. like, 491. linguals, 31. liquids, 40–42. verbs ending in, 309. list, 377,489. Aithuanic, 4, little, 190 (d). long, along, 407 (18). Magyar, 4. make, 371. . Manx, 5. many, 190 (c), 477 and note, 570, 571 and note. may, 365. meSeems, methinks, 227, 276, 489. mickle, 190 (c). mºne, 227. mood, 282. indicative, 283, 296. imperative, 284, 299, 300. subjunctive, 285,301,302,604. infinitive, 286, 303. 'most, 186, 187. much, 190 (c). multipliers, 213. must, 366. mutes, 40, 43—47. table of, 47. sharp, flat, 47, 52. nasals, 31. naught, 262. nay, 640. near, 190 (e). negatives, 640—644. double, 642, 643. proposition, 427. neither, 267, 555, 598. news, 115. wiece, 96. nigh, 190 (£). nominative, 134. suffix lost, 138. differing from subject, 134. - 444. 70,641. none, 219. Norse, 7, 10. Norwegian, 7. not, 262. position of, 617, 644. notwithstanding, 408, 496. nouns, 77–83. simple and compound, 78. proper, 79. common, 80. collective, 82, 551, 591. of multitude, 82, 551, 591. abstract, 83, 272. concrete, 83, 502. used only in plural, 118. singular, 119. proper, used as plurals, 123. used as adjectives, 198. used as verbs, 384. with gerund, 629. derivation of, 152–168. Teutonic, 156—159. Classical, 160–164. number, 100–128. dual, 101, 118. numerals, 200–219, 521, 522. cardinal, 200. ordinal, 200. distributive, 212. multipliers, 213. collective, 215. object, 135, 273, 459—473, of gerund, 634. of, preposition, 407 (24). Norse genitive, 143. omitted in O. E. 481. older, elder, 190 (f). one, 201, 264. Only, 219. Orthoëpy, 54. Orthography, 54, 55. p defects of English, 56, 60. other, 263. with the for second, 263, 556. othersome, 264. owe, ought, 373, 489. INDEX. 251 paing, 115. palatals, 31. participles, 320–329, 619–623. syntax of, 494, 496, 619, 620. differing from adjectives, 320. used as adjectives, 622,623. imperfect active, 322. no perfect active, 304. perfect passive, 323—329. double forms, 327. prefix of, 329, 372. ellipsis of, 621. passive verbs, 279. See verb. patronymics, 422—425. person, See verb. personal pronouns, first, 224– 228 second, 229—230. ersonification, 98, 99. hoenician, 1. Picts, 7, 10. & pleonasm, 441, 442. plural, of nouns, 100–128. rules for forming, 104. nouns in y, 105. nouns in 0, 106. nouns in f, 107. double forms of, 108, 114. obsolete, 109—112. same form as singular, 113. of proper nouns, 126. different meaning in singular, 120–122. towns, 125. mountains, 125. of verbs, 312, 313. port, 16 (d). Portuguese, 6. words, 23. possessive, 130, 136, 475. predicate, 429, 432, 433. prepositions, 402–410, 470, 645 654 suffixed, 404, 652. after verbs, 405, 406. with gerund, 631, 632. as adverbs and conjunctions, 401, 410. compound, 407 (36–44). position of, 646–649, 652– 654 promising, verbs of, 467. pronouns, 220–223, 523—558. personal, 22.4—230,524–527. demonstrative, 231—241, 528 —5.33. interrogative and relative, 243 —254, 534–552, 647, 648. possessive, 255, 553, 554. reflective, 256, 257. reciprocal, 258, 557. indefinite, 259—264, 558. distributive, 265—267, 555–. 557. used as indeclinable nouns, 527. propositions, 427—434. dependent, 413. negative and affirmative, 427. proven, 328. purpose, expressed by gerund, 627. quoth, 375. -rake, 87 (1 b, 3 e), 90, 95. pather, 190 (g). reduplication, 172, 236, 306, 385. reflective verbs, 274, 277. relative pronoun, 243—255, 413, 534–552, 647. position of, 552. omitted, 544, 545. Tiches, 116. Romaic, 6. Y root-vowel modified, 53, 111, 156, 160, 190 (f), 191, 195, 305. 306. root-words, 152. 8ame, 240. Save, 497. Saxons, 7, 8. Scandinavian, 7, 10. words, 14. Second, 208. Seldom, 396. - self, 256, 257, 277. Semitic, 1. Sentence, 434, 650. as noun, 78, 167. Subjective, 430. simple, 434. 25? INDEX, sentence, subordinate and co-or- dinate, 434. objective, 460 (f). absolute, 494–497. hypothetical, 601. shall, 361, 362, 613–616. she, 234, 528. Spanish, 6. words, 23. patronymic, 424. sibilants, 40, 48, 52. ' singular, 100. See number. Slavonic, or Windic, 2, 4. patronymics, 424. 30, 239. some, 264, 558. -ster, fem. suffix, 93 (f). stocks, 2–7. street, &c. 16 (5). subject, 134, 271, 428–431, 444 —458. differing from nominative, 133, 144. simple, compound, and com- plex, 431. enlarged or extended, 431. omitted, 448, 490. place of, 457, 458. represented by it, 450, 451. this, 452. there, 353. that, 454–456. subjunctive. See mood. subordinates, 412, 434. such, 238, 549. sun and moon, Saxon genders of,99. superlative, 185–188, 516, 518– - 520. double, 519. of diminution, 188. of eminence, 520. syllable, 61–64. syntax, 426. Syriac, 1. teach, £6,467. tense, 288–31.1. sub-divisions of, 296. imperfect, 289, 293, perfect, 290, 293. indefinite, 291, 293, present, 29'. s tense, indefinite past, 298, 304– 3.11. intentional, 292, 293. continuous, 294, 296, 303. Teutonic, 2, 7, 156, 191, 379. prefixes, 159, 194, 381, 397. suffixes, 157, 158, 192, 193, 380, 396. than, 242, 512–514. that, relative, 247, 537, 538, 648 demonstrative, 235, 236. after relatives, &c. 531. after such, 549. in apposition to sentence, 415, 454, 456, 461. conjunction, 415. the, before comparatives, 151, 533. before relatives, 532. thilk, 238. thine, 230. think (seem), 376, 489. this, 235, 236, 452, 530. thou, 230. tidings, 115. till, 407 (29). to, 407 (30). when omitted with infinitive, 287, 608, 609. O. E. prefix, 381. Turkish, 4. words, 23. twelve, 203. two, 202. vocative, 137, 498,499. verb, 269–386, 586—618. transitive, 274. intransitive or neuter, 274. made transitive, 275, 405, 406. with cognate accusative, 465. reflective, 274, 277. impersonal, 276, 449. irregular and defective, 358– 378. negative forms of 359, 360, 363, 372. active, 279, 332—341. passive, 279, 342–347. number, 312, 313, 586– INDEX. 253 Ferb, person, 314—319, 586, 594, 597, 599. omitted, 490, 612. compound, 386. derivation of, 379–385. Teutonic, 379–381. Classical, 382, 383. wall, 16 (e). Welsh, 5. were, 302. wert, 374. what, 248, 542. which, 250, 251, 549. whilom, 396 who, 247, 534–546. 3 indefinite, 260. will, 363, 613–616. wilne, 364. wite, 372. worse, 190 (b). worth (be), 374. a, 50 (4). 96 and you, 320, 526. gea, 640. ges, 639, 640, 90m, 3/070, yonder, 241. THE ENI) LONDON : R. GLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET. March, 1879. A CIASSIFIED LIST () F. 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