ND 467 Y7 By A 58218 6 ARTES LIBRARY 1837. VERITAS SCIENTIA OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN E FLURIBUS INUM TULBUR SQUAERIS PENINSULAM AMOENAMŰ CIRCUMSPICE L 1 1 . 17 # ? пра ND 467 Y7 PRE-RAFFAELLITISM. LONDON: Printed by SPOTTISWOODE & Co., New-street-Square. PRE-RAFFAELLITISM; OR, A Popular Enquiry INTO SOME NEWLY ASSERTED PRINCIPLES CONNECTED WITH THE PHILOSOPHY, POETRY, RELIGION, AND REVOLUTION OF ART. BY THE REV. EDWARD YOUNG, M.A. OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; AUTHOR OF "ART: ITS CONSTITUTION AND CAPACITIES.” "The world being inferior to the soul: by reason whereof, there is agreeable. to the spirit of man a more ample greatness, a more exact goodness, and a more absolute variety than can be found in the nature of things.' " LORD BACON: On the Advancement of Learning Bk. II. LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS. 1857. The right of translation is reserved. : 14.34an PREFACE. I CANNOT launch this little tractate upon the waters without a word of explanation. It fell to my lot, some short time since, to read two popular Lectures on the Use and Abuse of Art; of which the first was imme- diately put into circulation. Treating of" Art, its Nature and Capacities," I found myself under obligation to make em- phatic allusion to Pre-Raffaellitism. I was, per- haps needlessly, startled to observe, in every notice, public or private, of my performance, that what I had advanced on that topic had assumed a prominence I had not intended. In a few weeks I found myself immortalised by a notice I must venture to call infelicitous, in A 4 viii PREFACE. the Addenda to the Edinburgh Lectures of Mr. Ruskin.* Confirmed hereby in my sense of the ge- neral interest of the subject, and made sensible of the inadequate exposition in a few pages of a preliminary pamphlet of my own sen- timents regarding it, I resolved to prepare a more suitable statement, as a sort of preface extraordinary to the Second Lecture; not for explanation merely, but because the question, however at first sight but artistic, is in reality full of the seeds of other things. The sequel might have been anticipated. It is before the Reader. So much for my entry on the Pre-Raffaellite controversy. As regards my prosecution of it, I may be permitted to say that, writing from convictions deep, earnest, and not hastily formed, I have written everywhere fearlessly; never, whether in the graver or lighter por- tions, for a single moment, unfeelingly. As * See a passage at the end of Chapter XIX. PREFACE. ix to the points at issue, I have expressed my- self in accordance with my sense, both of their import, and their contagiousness: as to all that regards the personal endowments of the gifted author from whom I differ, I am only capable of expressing myself with the most cordial admiration. Those who already think his views unwholesome may find, per- haps, in these pages additional reasons for so regarding them: those who love "the mar- tyrdom of fame” shall have, at least, no sym- pathy from me. I have fought: but it is "to conquer a peace." I have laughed: but for something better than a heartless joke. It will be seen that the present Volume, though in itself distinct and independent, has a certain respect to what went before, and to what is yet to follow. On one point I am anxious not to be mis- understood. As regards the positive merits of Turner, the Reader is at liberty to take certain expressions as a per contra, rather X PREFACE. than a formal judgment. Something may be fairly set down to a defensive object; some- thing to a sense of that very peculiar assertion of his supremacy, of which it may be said, as of oppression, that it "maketh wise men mad;" and something to an ever growing jealousy of the materializing tendencies of the day we live in, and that disposition to sink the subjective in the objective- the moral in the physical -the feeling in the knowing, from which I cannot disconnect many things in the Turner Controversy. As to Turner's "re- vealing God's universe" for the special pro- motion of God's glory, it were more easy to ask personal questions than to answer them. This, however, is not our concern: I only regret that any individual name should be identified here, or elsewhere — with what I am earnestly desirous of looking on ast a simple contest of principles. It only remains to say that the substance of the work was prepared some months ago. PREFACE. xi Various causes have concurred to prevent its earlier appearance in print. In the in- terval we have had the simultaneous notice of Mr. Ruskin's more recent work in the Edin- burgh and Quarterly Reviews. Those able articles involved much of the personal cri- ticism I have been anxious to avoid; but they have confirmed, so far as they have gone, my own convictions. In other respects they have no way affected what is now submitted to the Reader's candour. Leny, Clifton Park, November, 1856. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I.-The Case opened.- The Exhibition.- The Books.-Precise Nature of the proposed Inquiry Fage 1 THE PHILOSOPHY OF ART. CHAP. II. - The Turner Controversy.- The " Pharisees" 14 CHAP. III. — Turner Controversy, continued. -"Truth of Tone" 21 - CHAP. IV. -Turner Controversy, continued. Chiaroscuro " "Truth of 30 "Truth CHAP. V. — Turner Controversy, continued. of Space." - Defence of Turner's Foreground Figures, with Casualties. —- Background of ancient Masters CHAP. VI. — Turner Controversy, continued.—“ Truth of Clouds." "Truth of Earth." "Truth of Vegeta- tion."-Turner "the Prophet" CHAP. VII. Turner Controversy, continued. and Art 37 44 Science 50 xiv CONTENTS. Page Solem- 58 CHAP. VIII. — Turner Controversy, continued. nities of ancient Art.-Turner's historical Landscapes CHAP. IX.- Turner Controversy, continued.-Turner's Views. - The Author's View of Turner. How far he has attempted the Philosophy of Art 65 THE POETRY OF ART. CHAP. X.-What is Poetry? CHAP. XI. — What is Imagination? 80 91 CHAP. XII.— The Pre-Raffaellite View of Imagination - 102 CHAP. XIII.-The Human Ideal.- Pre-Raffaellite View 110 CHAP. XIV.-Truth and Beauty. Historical Painting. Giotto and "Plain Facts."-A Cartoon of Raffaelle with modern Paraphrase. "The Grand School.". Appeal to Facts.- History reduced to Portrait.-The Duke at Waterloo - 123 THE RELIGION OF ART. CHAP. XV. — Is "All Mediæval Art a Confession, and all Modern a Denial, of Christ?" CHAP. XVI.-The Religious and the Artistic Elements.- Religious Pictures. Raffaelle and Pre-Raffaelle. The Cartoon of "The Miraculous Draught.”—Raffaelle in the Vatican. The Cartoon of Christ's Charge to Peter."The Scape-goat" - 142 - 159 CONTENTS. XV Page CHAP. XVII.. "Pagan and Christian," Greek and Goth 183 CHAP. XVIII. — The Antique · 195 THE REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XIX. The modern Contrast. Scholasticism of Ancient Art. The Author's Apology A 206 CHAP. XX. The Giotto and Millais. Movement further considered. Critical Questions • 218 CHAP. XXI.-Do we want a Revolution ?-The "effete" Hypothesis. Our real Want with respect to Art CHAP. XXII.-Architectural Radicalism. -Alleged Na- ture of Architecture. Comparative Anatomy CHAP. XXIII.-Architectural Morals.-"An honest Ar- chitecture "—in the light of Consequences CHAP. XXIV - Architectural Morals, continued. honest Architecture "— in the light of Principles CHAP. XXV. — Architectural Polity -"An CHAP. XXVI. Wordsworth 236 248 - 256 - 270 285 Collateral Evidence. Carlyle and 298 CHAP. XXVII.-Conclusion.-Vindication of the Course of Inquiry. Personal Criticism how far unavoidable. Self-contradiction fatal to asserted Authority.-In- stances. The only Consistency.-Consequences of its Success - 300 · ERRATA. The reader will have the goodness to make the following corrections: — Page 32, line 16. for "he " read "be." 60. 6. for "pillar," read “ pillow.” 86. "" "" 9. from bottom, for "There," read "Here." 100. last line, dele the *. 103. line 10. for "pansy frecked," read " >> 104. 2. for "Imaginative," read "Imagination." 112. 21. for "makes," read "make." "" "" pansy freaked." 12. from bottom, for "still more," read "scarce more.” 121. 134. reference, for "103, 104," read "110, 111." 177. line 16. "then first," dele "first." 177. 191. 21. dele" continue to." "" "" " 2. for "at," read "as." 204. 16. "clay, strength," dele the comma. 225. 8. for "verbally," read "virtually." 228. reference, for " Chap. XI." read " Chap. II." 283. line 5. from bottom, for "set," read "sit." 294. 11 14. the should be in line 7. In the advertisement after concluding chapter, dele "just published." PRE-RAFFAELLITISM. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. THE CASE OPENED, THE EXHIBITION. THE BOOKS.-NATURE OF THE PROPOSED INQUIRY. IF, on going to the Exhibition of our Royal Aca- demy-say in the year 1849, or thereabouts-there met the eye a picture entitled, "Isabel, poor simple Isabel," I presume that no intelligent person would turn away because it was not painted on Greek principles, and did not emulate the pure ideal. It was, in truth, a natural story, told in natural language. A young creature, with money-loving relatives, has "fallen," as we say, "in love" with her brother's clerk; and the picture reveals the con- sequences. It is a family feast. honoured parents, the comfortable all-approving guests." And there are the lovers. twain, and the loving hound, that takes its place. beside its mistress. And there are the unmistakable B There are the priest, and "the 2 INTRODUCTION. >> "bitter brothers; one of whom (if I remember right) is giving an ugly kick at the loving dog, that seems to have been really meant for the loving clerk. Such was the scene: and it was given—not in cold portfolio fragments, but fresh and breathing from the very life. With a seeming obtrusion of Plebeianism-an ungovernable love of colour-and an ominous absence of that indispensable shade and shadow which gives to the most magnificent colour- ing more than half its preciousness, and throws an air of quiet respectability over the lowest efforts of the lowest Dutch, there was yet such pervading evidence of the true dramatic instinct- such embo- diment of character- such variety—such genial life, that you may have felt as if making a discovery when you stumbled on it, and been moved to some such remark as I have myself recorded in another place, *- "If that picture is not the most faultless, it is beyond all comparison the most promising, in the Exhibi- tion." One of the vices of Picture Galleries is their juxta- position—sometimes without a decent interval—of heterogeneous, perhaps of the most discordant objects. We must open therefore, incontinent, another chap- ter of casualties, and appeal to feelings of a holier and deeper cast. It shall be taken for granted that you have de- voutly pondered, though you can never fathom, that most mysterious of all mysteries, the incarnation of * Lecture on Art, p. 84. THE EXHIBITION. 3 the Eternal Word. You have observed that it is essentially a double fact: that "Word" and "Flesh" are alike wrapped up in it. You may have noticed that, after the miraculous circumstances of his birth, for no less than thirty years of the mortal life of Jesus of Nazareth, one only incident is recorded by the Sacred Historian, and that issuing in a protest against a seeming momentary forgetfulness of his emphatic parentage; the inspiring Spirit drawing over a thousand other things, "angels" might "de- sire to look into," a veil impenetrable even to the eye of faith. You have not failed of further notice: that throughout the actual records of his after life, there is not one solitary line but bears - I had almost said, sleepless evidence of the double fact. He comes to John for baptism; heaven opens and a voice declares," This is my beloved Son." He is tempted by the evil one; the result is the revealment of a "Second Adam," on whom the tempter's artifices have, for once, no power. He sits weary and asks for water; and opens, ere it is given, the deeper well of human conscience. He sinks to sleep in the night of storms; it is to rise and bid the winds and waters subside to rest. He sheds natural tears at nature's grave; and from out those tears he speaks a word that despoils the grave of its boasted prey. Need we trace the sequel? He goes himself, with the mysterious lambent flame on his forehead, to the bar of judgment; but shame and spitting cannot hide the incommunicable grandeur that is his birth- right. Soldiers come to seize him; and fall lifeless till he bids them rise and do their errand. They B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. make Pilate write his accusation; and it is like Balaam sent to curse, and compelled to bless. Death and Hell are in seeming triumph nature sinks- he cries "I thirst;" he cannot die, till he have pronounced the everlasting sentence “It is finished." And when, at length, "despised, rejected," the Church denouncing, the State surrendering him, hung up a withering outcast between a darkened heaven and blaspheming earth, he was to bow the head, and be borne by dumb-stricken, palsied faith to the narrow dwelling-house, the stones cried out, the sun was troubled, the ground trembled, the graves gaped, heathenism itself found sudden utter- ance, and spoke out with more than sybilline, more than prophetic plainness "This man was the Son of God! "" This is no rhetorical paradox. Let it be granted that you have pondered it. And then let me ask your impression, if, in the time and place referred to, you found another paint- ing cold, hard, dry, repulsive — with a sort of mockery of naturalness presenting, with affected scrupulosity, the minutest particulars of a carpenter's shop-bench, boards, tools, shavings-the carpenter at his work and children not like "Hananias, Mishael, and Azariah," fed with pulse, yet "fairer than those that eat from the king's table" not as if increasing "in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man not common children only, but emphatically common-meagre, hungry-looking, as though they had never seen "the kindly fruits of the earth," or never said a grace before they ate them; together with such august phenomena as a "" THE EXHIBITION. THE BOOKS. 10 5 hand pierced in playing with a brad-awl- a basin of water; and the accident "hushed up" by a little woman, more ill-favoured, if possible, than all the rest of the party? And what if, turning for infor- mation to the Catalogue, you read those tender, mournful, solemn words, "Wounded in the house of my friends?" * And what if, on asking what sinister influence could have originated such a monstrosity, you were told that the picture had issued, like the one you had been admiring, from a new-born school of painting, the principles of which had been systematically de- veloped in a series of publications, whose gifted author was the accredited penman, expositor, and champion of the party'; and, on turning to the most compendious of that author's works, you found your- self confronted by the following account of one of the master spirits ?- "The first sunset which he saw on the Rhine tauglit him that all previous landscape Art was vain and useless: that in comparison with natural colour the things that had been called paintings were mere ink and charcoal, and that all precedent and all authority must be cast away at once, and trodden under foot. He cast them away; the memories of Vandevelde and Claude were at once weeded out of the great mind they had encumbered ; they, and all the rubbish of the schools with them." (Pre- Raphaelitism, by Mr. Ruskin, p. 51.) Now, it may be, you are not altogether unac- quainted with the schools referred to. Such words. as Claude, Gaspar Poussin, and Salvator Rosa are B 3 6 INTRODUCTION. not mere cyphers, standing for landscape painting in general; but names of departed men, who have left their artistic life upon the canvas,- men with whose spirits you have held familiar converse; till that life has become part and parcel of your own. It may be that one of the first remembered occa- sions when painting really entered your soul, was when you stood, sat, or knelt, you scarce knew which, before a certain well-known picture in the Dulwich Gallery; where you looked through a vista of glorious architecture, along a "path of rays," to the charmed ocean- the sun hanging, dreamlike, in the quiet heaven; and yourself, forgetful of sur- rounding objects, almost dreaming along with him. I will not particularise after visits to an "Anger- stein Collection," where you found your impressions. consummated. The same escape from the "peevish April day" of English landscape, and the stingy beauties of English building; the same exuberance of hearty sunshine; the same liquid, lustral ra- diance; the same soft airs, that moved the pennons and awakened fancy; the same "Mildly dimpling ocean's cheek ; " or, in some contiguous picture, congenial amenities of God's beautiful earth trees that looked the nobility of vegetation - boughs golden and gra- cious as those of Paradise, that grew up beneath happy influences, ere skies had frowned, or man had fallen. Nor will I disbelieve that the more sober, but scarce less impressive umbrageousness of another of THE BOOKS. 77 Possibly, some those masters was not lost on you. years later, when his name also had become identi- fied with "populous solitudes" and sylvan thought, you may have found yourself winding beneath ches- nut forests and convent towers, with the reiterated exclamation "This is everywhere old Gaspar Pous- sin!" Of Salvator, too, we may be at least as confident. Who knows but you may have put your own seal to those words of Matthews "Salvator Rosa is to me the most poetical of all painters; by which I mean, not only that he possesses the mens divinior,— that mysterious power over the grand, the sublime, and the terrible, which constitutes the soul of the poet,—but also that he ministers more than any other painter to the imagination of the spectator. There is always a something more than meets the eye in his wild and romantic sketches, which awakens a train of associations. You may look on his pictures for ever, without feeling the least satiety." (Invalid's Tour, p. 55.) It may be you have learned something of the actual life of Salvator Rosa: how his canvas was everywhere flooded with the outpourings of his own experience; how he was no cold statician of the charms of nature, with the "two lips indifferent red;" how he painted the soul rather than the cir- cumstantial features of the landscape that has im- mortalised him,- drew his portraits, for the most part, from what Baldinucci calls his "tenacissima fantasia; " and was ever longing to throw himself on that loftier path, where, though a degenerate age B 2 8 INTRODUCTION. refused its encouragement, he won from worthy lips the title of "Famoso pittore delle cose morali.” * Perhaps, also, you are aware that Salvator was something more than even the painter, with the mens divinior and the wizard wand; that his com- positions are enshrined in the most learned, elegant, and discriminative "History of Music" the world has seen; that the love of nature, of truth, of freedom, and of song, grew up to poetry; and that the poetry of Salvator was what might have been expected from all the rest. ‡ I will not indulge further conjectures. If all this, or any part of it, has been in your experience, we may share, perhaps, something further as we proceed with Pre-Raffaellitism. The passage already cited is further illustrated in the following expres- sions from the same quarter: "The weaknesses and paltrinesses of Claude." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. i. chap. v.) "Perhaps Claude is the best instance of want of imagination nearly total; with no feeling whatsoever for harmony of expression." (Ibid. *Duke di Salviati. † I extract the following from Dr. Burney's fourth volume :- "There is great strength and imagination in his poetry. . . . The music of all the rest is of Salvator's own composition, and is in point of melody superior to that of most of the masters of his time. No. IV. is such a spirited air as the last century seldom produced. We have now reached the golden age of Cantatas." "Tante parti, che in se retiene . . . doni cosi singolari." (Passeri, Vita di Salvator Rosa, p. 416.) THE BOOKS. 9 pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii.) "Claude embodies the foolish pas- toralism, Salvator the ignorant terror, and Gaspar the dull and affected erudition of the times they lived in.” (Edin. Lectures, p. 167.) "After this you have a great gulf of nonentities and abortions; a gulf of foolishness into which you may throw Claude and Salvator, neither of them deserving to give a name to anything." (Ibid. p. 171.) They had neither love of Nature, nor feeling for her beauty; they did it, like the Pharisee of old, to be seen of men." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii.) << The strongest expressions seem reserved for the student of Dante and Michael Angelo. "There is no love of any kind for anything: his choice of landscape features is dictated by no delight in the sub- lime, but by mere animal restlessness or ferocity.” (Ibid. vol. i. p. 88. edit. 1848.) "A man base born, and thief bred." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. i. chap. xiv. § 29.) "Seeking for, and feeding upon horrors, and ugliness, and filthi- ness of sin."† (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. i. chap. xv. § 7.) "The caricatures and brutalities of Salvator" (Ibid. chap. v.); "Il Padre chiamavisi Vite Antonio Rosa mediocre architetto." (Passeri, p. 416.) Perhaps the "thief bred" refers to the story of his detention by the banditti in the Abruzzi Mountains, when he went to woo, in her romantic fastnesses, the "Nature" he had "no feeling for." Its real value may be estimated from the following further passage from the same proverbially truthful Biographer: "Col progresso del tempo trascorse" (in the Collegio Somasco) "tutto lo studio della gram- matica, si avanzo alla rhetorica, e giunse ai principii della logica, ove fermossi." (Ibid.) Why he stopped there, may be put into the same. margin with Milton's quitting Cambridge. t "Quanto alla parte che si conviene ad un Pittore veramente Christiano, che a de sfuggire loscenita, e le apparenti vie, egli ne fu rigorosissimo custode." (Ibid. p. 438.) 10 INTRODUCTION. "the intolerable, inconceivable brutality of Salvator (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iii. § 18.), the delight of vulgar painters in coarse painting, and merely for the sake of its coarseness, as of Spagnoletto, Salvator, or Murillo."* (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. i. chap. x. § 4.) The above catholicities as to landscape are faith- fully carried out in other walks of Art. "I once supposed there was some life in the landscapes of Domenichino, but in this I must have been wrong. The man who painted the Madonna del Rosario, and Martyrdom of St. Agnes, is palpably incapable of doing anything good, great, or right in any field, way, or kind whatsoever." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii.) "The morbid and vulgar sentimentalism of Correggio." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iii. § 16.) "The coarseness, mindlessness, and eclecticism of Guido and the Caracci." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iii. note 1. § 7.) "The simple ugliness of idiotic deformity in the meaningless, terrorless, monsters of Bronzino." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. v. note.) Must we go on? The hapless Hollanders are not forgotten. We are told:- "I conceive the best patronage that any monarch could possibly bestow upon the arts, would be to collect * One of the peculiar obstacles against which Salvator had to struggle in his early life, was his refusal to purvey to what may be properly called the "inconceivable brutality " of his fellow coun- trymen ; I mean their passion for martyrdoms, miscalled "religious pictures." Amongst his most intimate friends were Carlo Rossi (the Cosmo de Medicis of Rome), Count Ugo Maffei, Baptista Ricciardi (one of the most distinguished literati of his time), Fra Reginaldo Sgambista (a celebrated preacher and poet), the historian Baldinucci, and the accomplished Duke de Salviati,- strange com- panionship for "intolerable, inconceivable brutalities." THE BOOKS. 11 the whole body of them into one gallery and burn it to the ground." (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 16.) As the naturalism of the Low Countries is not beneath, so neither are the mild majesty of Raffaelle, nor the sublime purity of the antique above these expressions. We have,- "The vapid fineries of Raffaelle." (Modern Painters, vol. iii. p. 55.) “The kicking gracefulnesses" of his float- ing figures in the Transfiguration. (Ibid. p. 56.) "The clear and tasteless poison of the art of Raffaelle” (Ibid. p. 56.), and "that infinite monstrosity and hypocrisy, his cartoon of Christ's Charge to Peter." (Ibid. p. 54.) So we read, "I know not anything in the whole range of art more unspiritual than the Apollo.” (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. v.) "I suppose no group ever exercised so pernicious an influence on art as the Laocoon (Ibid. chap. vii.); unna- tural butchery, gratuitous foulness, and impossible de- gradation." (Ibid. note.) The last expressions are shared between the Greek Sculptor and the Bard of Mantua. We need not wonder, after this, to read of such things as- "The confectioner's Gothic of York Minster;" and "our detestable perpendicular." (Seven Lamps.) "The feeling of the Renaissance schools is a feeling compounded of indolence, infidelity, sensuality, and shallow pride." (Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 27.) "The audacious obtuseness. of Alison." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. i. chap. iv.) "The marvellous stupidity of this age of Lecturers" (Pre- Raphaelitism, p. 62.); or even men of less accurate 12 INTRODUCTION. thought, Burke for instance." (Modern Painters, pt. i. sec. i. chap. iv.) I will not allow myself further extracts. Nor are they needed. Expressions such as these, if they do not deter from further progress, must excite some curiosity as to their source. Occurring as they do, not in a hasty pamphlet, but in a series of elaborate works, they can scarce be treated as the utterance of intense personal peculiarities. On the other hand, it is scarce easier to accept them as legitimate conclu- sions of a philosophical system. They have met with fierce opponents, and as fierce defence: I am not aware that they have yet been gathered into one focus of examination: or that the public is even yet. advertised as to what is really at stake in their assertion. To essay this duty, is the task proposed in the following chapters.* Be it, however, distinctly observed, that my object is not the formal criticism of a series of writings; much less a methodical treatise on even such por- tions of the arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Archi- tecture, as we are about to open; but to lay an honest and inquiring finger on certain cardinal points here and there, as it may happen — of a system self- styled Revolutionary. It will be seen that I use the word "Pre-Raffael- *This was written as was in fact, substantially speaking, the whole work before the simultaneous appearance of the articles in the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews, to which I have adverted in the Preface. How far those articles affect the above assertion I leave others to determine. NATURE OF THE PROPOSED INQUIRY. 13 litism" in a wider sense than that in which it was first adopted. And it will be no less plain that the terms "Philosophy, Poetry, Religion, Revolution of Art" are not titles of so many treatises; but the simple result of an attempt to gather into a series of homogeneous groupings, particulars, multifarious enough at the best, but, without some such arrange- ment, embarrassing as well as desultory. It may be found that the inquiry touches, even with these limitations, not only the salient points of Pre-Raffaellitism, but some of the great master questions of artistic criticism; -- possibly some of those higher and deeper problems of which Art ever has been, and ever must be, at once a symptom, type, and organ. 14 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. CHAP. II. THE PHILOSOPHY OF ART. THE TURNER CONTROVERSY.- "THE PHARISEES. I CALL the topics we first enter on "the Turner Controversy," because it has become next to impos- sible to avoid the examination of them under that form. Not only has Mr. Ruskin waged war, from first to last, in the name of Joseph Mallord William Turner; but that strange man himself did battle through all the most important part of his profes- sional life, and by his strange bequest of two of his works to the National Gallery, may be said to con- tinue to do battle from his grave. Here is Mr. Ruskin's broad statement of the point at issue : "We find painters ranging themselves into two great classes, one aiming at the developement of the exquisite truths of specific form, refined colour, and ethereal space, and content with the clear and impressive recognition of any of these, by whatever means obtained; and the other casting all these aside to obtain the particular truths of tone and chiaroscuro which may trick the spectator into a belief of reality. . . . They endeavour only to make you think you are looking at wood-in all of them, everything that they can do is done for deception, and nothing for the sake or love of what they are painting." (Modern THE PHARISEES. 15 Painters, pt. i. sec. i. chap. vii.) "They passed their lives. in jugglery." (Ibid.) It will be seen at once that this part of our in- quiry is purely defensive. The question is not whether Joseph Mallord William Turner was a great painter, but whether all preceding landscape painters were, for two centuries or more, bad men whether their art, instead of meriting the renown so long awarded them, does not, in reality, convict them of moral pravity. The issue is of no small moment ourselves alone considered. We have been used to look on landscape painting as, at least, a wholesome refreshment. The works of Claude, especially, have been the constant resort of those "Who do ambition shun, And love to live in the sun.” If the charge before us be substantiated, we must prepare to convert every one of our Picture Galleries into a Hall of Pluto, or a Field of Mars. The other side of the contingency I will not enter on. I said, here is a direct charge of moral pravity: we are told, in so many words, that they were "Pharisees-all they did was to be seen of men; and they had their reward." (Ibid. § 3.) The parties intended are no less distinctly spe- cified : (6 Speaking generally of the old masters, I refer only to Claude, Gaspar Poussin, Salvator Rosa, Cuyp, Berghem, 16 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. Both, Ruysdael, Hobbima, Teniers (in his landscapes), Paul Potter, Canaletto, and the various Van-somethings and Bach-somethings, more especially and malignantly those who have libelled the sea." (Modern Painters, Introd.) Now there can be no doubt that Art is, in many cases, a discriminative developement and test of cha- racter; nor that, in many, it is no such developement or test at all. Whilst the works of Fra Angelico and Carlo Dolci were a sort of embalming of their daily life, the sacred character of those of Giotto were, Mr. Ruskin himself tells us, the result not of per- sonal predilection, but of the requirements of the age he lived in.* The charge, however, stands recorded. It occupies as early a place in the third volume† as in the first; and in the more recent instance, in direct reference to one of the works of the Prince of Painters, of which it may be unhesitatingly affirmed that it is all heart and soul in every stroke of the pencil. We will confine ourselves, at present, to the accused in Landscape. It is startling to learn that, of the five great sources of pleasure or profit derivable from Art, no less than three have respect- not to the thing done, but to the mode of doing it, viz. "Ideas of power," that is, of the power of the artist, of which we have the following elements, "truth, simplicity, mystery, inadequacy of means, decision, velocity;" 2. "Ideas of imitation," of which more anon; and, 3. "Ideas of *Notice of Giotto for the Arundel Society, p. 24. † P. 52. THE PHARISEES. 17 truth," that is to say, "when we perceive the faith- fulness of a statement of any fact in nature." (Ibid. pt. i. sec. i. chap. iii. and sec. ii. chap. i. sec. i. chap. iv. sec. i. chap. v.) Now, having been used, from Aristotle down- wards, to call painting an imitative art, ideas of imi- tation would seem well nigh inseparable from every exercise of it. Call it by its nobler name of language; yet, of that language imitation must be at least the alphabet. Say that imitation may be wasted on things not worth imitating onions, oysters, and cabbages, made all to eat, not copy: say that it may exceed its limits in things ever so worthy; and in exact proportion may become obtrusive; you do not strike out imitation as a legitimate element in artistic practice. If you are not prepared to confine painting to the use of symbols; or to deny to imitation the being true to itself; or, lastly, if you do not mean to proscribe all recognition that it is imitation, and not the thing imitated, how can you stumble on such an aphorism as that "ideas of imitation are inconsistent with ideas of truth," without feeling that the phrase "ideas of imitation," if not employed in a peculiar sense, is paraded for a peculiar object? Here is the expla- nation: "Whenever a thing looks like what it is not, the re- semblance being so great as nearly (sic) to deceive, we feel a kind of pleasurable surprise, exactly the same in its nature as that which we receive from juggling. When we perceive this in something produced by art, we re- ceive what I call an idea of imitation." (Ibid. pt. i. sec. i. chap. iv. § 2.) C 18 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. We are to believe, then, that these old masters, Claude and others, had no intention whatsoever of suggesting the idea of a natural scene, but simply of juggling the spectator into the belief that he was looking at the scene itself: and that, consequently, what in the mouth of Dante * was the highest com- mendation, becomes, in the mouth of Mr. Ruskin, the severest censure; it makes them Pharisees. Now, of Salvator I have said enough already. If there be any Reader capable of entertaining the accusation before a real picture of the real Claude, it may be well to say that the painter has been revealed to us, by his friend Sandrart, as a man of simple manners, and a placid, benevolent, and candid disposition; absorbed in landscape, and living a vir- tuous unmarried life, with a relation to keep his house, that he might give undivided attention to it; wandering whole days among the Apennines, for- getful of distance, time, and food; and descanting, with a mingling of the philosopher and the artist, on each beautiful phenomenon of blushing morn and pensive eve. This is the chief of the Pharisees. It is possible Mr. Ruskin may possess evidence, denied to others, that landscape art, having for two centuries devoted itself to the imitation of natural objects, its all absorbing effort was to produce ideas, not of those objects themselves, but of their imitation only. But then I think we should have the docu- ments. Possibly also Mr. Ruskin may have personal * "Morti li morti, e i vivi parean vívi : Non vide me' di me che vide il vero." Quoted from Il Purgatorio, in vol. iii. of Modern Painters. THE PHARISEES. 19 knowledge that Joseph Mallord William Turner, whether publishing an antagonistic "Liber Stu- diorum," or even making that strange post-mortem bequest to the National Gallery, had no idea of being seen of men." But then, as I say, we should have the documents. 66 But, perhaps, there was something in the manage- ment of the older pictures that betrayed the crime. Here is a passage that may throw some light on the subject. It speaks of >> “particular accuracies or tricks of chiaroscuro, which cause objects to look projecting from the canvas; and tells us that "solidity or projection gives that as food for the eye, which is properly only the object of touch. (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vi. § 3.)- a statement which throws no small confusion on the mission of Art itself. We are further told that out of the picture never Michael Angelo bids you "he who throws one object lets the spectator into it. follow his phantoms into the abyss of heaven, but a modern French painter drops his hero out of the picture frame." (Ibid.) It were unhandsome to anatomise figurative language; though we are settling elementary prin- ciples. Such things as painters throwing objects out of pictures, spectators walking into them, Michael Angelo reproving chiaroscuro, his phantoms going into the abyss on architectural seats, and French frames dropping heroes like the tree Celia spoke of to Rosalind, may perhaps be illustrations of those qualities of executive power, "truth, simpli- city, mystery, inadequacy of means, decision, velo- C 2 20 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. city." As regards the accused, it is some consolation that they did not, by Mr. Ruskin's own account, tell absolute falsehoods, but only portions of truth, "par- ticular truths of tone," and accuracies or tricks of chiaroscuro. How far they carried, or might, or should have carried, the presentation of these or other qualities, belongs to other parts of our inquiry. Nothing easier, of course, than to construct a high- pressure machine, and crush them with inexorable logic. It is only assuming conditions they never accepted, and holding them to professions they never made: only calling a certain amount of imitation the "tricking into a belief of reality," and a certain want of it "the denial of truth," and the thing is done. Whether such triumph is a legitimate one, may appear as we proceed. 21 CHAP. III. THE TURNER CONTROVERSY CONTINUED. sive one. TRUTH OF TONE." OUR course is still, as in the last chapter, a defen- There can be no possible doubt that the name of “ Turner " is one of which English Art may be justly proud. I will not ask if it is really to take place with those of "Shakspeare and Verulam ;"* but only whether we are to level the thrones of Claude, Gaspar Poussin, and Salvator Rosa, to erect its monu- ment from out their ruins? This is the substantial question throughout this part of our inquiry; and our evidence shall, for the most part, be Mr. Ruskin himself. Having recorded sentence on the Pharisees under title of "ideas of imitation," Mr. Ruskin proceeds to a very ingenious demonstration of truth-land- scape truth," truth of tone," "truth of space," "truth of earth," "truth of clouds," and so on. Through the whole of this demonstration I shall not attempt to carry my Reader. Not only is such a course incompatible with my limits, but my dif- ference with Mr. Ruskin does not profess to stand on the absolute denial of his premises. Were I to admit almost all he affirms as to the more circumstantial accuracy of Turner's pictures, it might no more * Edin. Lectures, p. 181. C 3 22 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. follow that he was the greater artist, than it would that he was the better man. I neither deny all, nor admit all; nor am I careful to weigh, in scrupulous balance, either what I deny, or what I admit. We will begin with "truth of tone." By "truth of tone" is intended, not the "toning down" (which is an affair of complexion), nor yet the mere general aspect of a picture as compared with nature (which might be called an affair of pitch); but the due and proper relations between the parts of a picture amongst themselves. "Now," says Mr. Ruskin, "the finely toned pictures of the old masters are some of the notes of nature played two or three octaves below her key: the dark objects in the middle distance having precisely the same relation to the light of the sky which they have in nature, but the light being necessarily infi- nitely" (two or three octaves) "lowered, and the mass of the shadow deepened in the same degree." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. ii. chap. i. § 4.) These are strange measures; but let us notice the result. "I have been often struck, when looking at a camera obscura on a dark day, with the exact resemblance the image bore to one of the finest pictures of the old masters." (Ibid.) We have essayed the vindication of these masters from the charge of jugglery. Have they, after all, jugglerised the camera obscura? "Now, if this could be done consistently, and all the notes of nature given in this way, a note or two down,”- TRUTH OF TONE THE OLD MASTERS. 23 that is to say, if the imitation could be carried through the inimitable diapason-what then? the deception would be complete? the jugglery the more consum- mate?- "it would be right and necessary so to do." (Ibid. § 5.) Now I call this hard judgment. Let imitation be incomplete; and it is Pharisaism. Let the Pharisee play out the play; and his conduct is right and necessary. The Moralist continues : CC They chose those steps of distance which are the most conspicuous and noticeable. They gave these their precise pitch of difference with exquisite accuracy. and they obtained the broadest and most faithful appear- ance of truth of tone which Art can exhibit." (Ibid.) Such a statement might seem conclusive: but here comes in a question of morals. 66 They lavish their whole means to get one truth" (it was just now "those steps"); and is it indeed worthy of being called a truth when we have a vast history given us to relate, to the fulness of which neither our limits nor our language are adequate, instead of giving all its parts abridged in the order of their importance, to omit or deny" (where is the denial?) "the greater part" (i. e. what is not "the most conspicuous and notice- able"), "that we may dwell with verbal fidelity on two or three?" (Ibid. § 6.) This, then, is the case against the jugglers. They have a "history" to relate: "neither limits nor language are adequate to its fulness: " they do not stoop to the "fidelity" of an abridgment: but, C 4 24 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. contenting themselves with "the parts most con- spicuous and noticeable," give them with "exquisite accuracy ;" and obtain in consequence" the broadest and most faithful appearance of truth that Art can exhibit." Unhappy men! But here is another party:- “Turner starts from the beginning with a totally dif- ferent principle. He boldly takes pure white; and justly, for it is the sign" (mark) "of the most intense sunbeams, for his highest light, and lamp-black for his deepest shade; and between these he makes every degree of shade indicative of a separate degree of dis- tance; giving each step of approach, not the exact differ- ence of pitch it would have in nature,” (mark) “but a difference bearing the same proportion to that which his sum of possible shade bears to the sum of nature's shade." (Ibid. § 7.) This, then, was Turner's principle: let us put our finger on one or two of its peculiarities. First, he takes pure white: not because it is like sunshine, but because it is the sign of it. Here is indeed a new principle; we have left "the most faithful appearance of truth," for an arbitrary sign or symbol. What a pity that, after "ideas of imi- tation," we heard nothing of ideas of symbolism! Beginning with "pure white" as a symbol of sun- shine, which is pure yellow. I will not ask what pure yellow is to symbolise, nor how we are to distinguish, on this principle, between fog and sun- shine. Now I make no objection on the score of morality. All I say is, it is not to my taste. I don't like these translations of plain perceptions; they make one feel TRUTH OF TONE TURNER. 25 "black and blue." I prefer the camera obscura ; and could almost find in my heart to cry out " Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee." All this, however, may be matter of taste. One thing is clear: Turner's system is throughout a con- ventional system, not a simple and natural one. This may make, of course, the difference between truth and jugglery: but let us come to the result. "Hence, where the old masters expressed one distance, he expressed a hundred." (Ibid.) These are, of course, moral figures, and measure enormous advantages, provided only the spectator has the key to the secret; and bears in mind, throughout every particular of the history, that pure white means pure yellow; and so on. I will not be sceptical; let me only ask two single questions. First, is not this system, after all, like that of Claude and others, a system of compromise? Second, does the difference, whether in amount or kind of compromise, involve jugglery and truth? As to the first question, I turn to § 22. in this same chapter, and I find the following words: “And if time be taken to dwell upon the individual tones, and to study the laws of their reconcilement, there will be found in the recent Academy pictures of this great artist, a mass of various truths which" (now observe), "when, in carrying out, it may be inferior to some of the picked passages of the old masters, is so through deliberate choice; rather to suggest a multitude of truths than to imitate one." As regards the second question, I might content myself with such admissions as the following:- 26 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. any- "There is no instance in the works of Turner of thing like so faithful an imitation of sunshine as in the best parts of Cuyp.” "It is true that Turner in his fondness" (not, it seems, for truth, but) "for colour, is in the habit of allowing excessively cold fragments in his warmest pictures." (Ibid. § 20.) "" But enough- Mr. Ruskin talks of "a history: it would need few words to show that, in choosing "those steps that are most noticeable," and giving them "with exquisite accuracy," the old masters did just what has been done by all who have the name of historians, from "the Father of History," with his noble compatriots Xenophon and Thucy- dides, down to our own Hallam and Macaulay, who, as good Bishop Hall would say, "want only time to make them classical." Mr. Ruskin is of course entitled to prefer microscopic epitomies, symbolical suggestions, and conventional infinities. To one thing he is not entitled; I mean, the writing a phi- losophical treatise on the broad principle that the selfsame selection of master facts which has im- mortalised Tacitus, and the selfsame graphic render- ing of them that will immortalise Macaulay, is, in the hand of Claude, Gaspar Poussin, and other landscape historians, a "jugglery" as to what is given, and a " denial" of what is not. This, however, is not all, nor even the worst, of the business. If we have a right to ask that such names as Claude, Gaspar Poussin, and Salvator Rosa be not sacrificed to the special assertion of principles, with regard to painting, which in other pursuits are disregarded, departed from, and sys- TRUTH OF TONE CONSISTENCY. 27 tematically thrown aside; much more are we en- titled to expect that no such sacrifice be made by assertions diametrically reversed, by the selfsame writer, in the selfsame treatise. Yet what else can even courtesy discover in the following? "A man accustomed to the broad, wild shore, with its bright breakers, and free winds, and sounding rocks, and eternal sensation of tameless power, can scarcely but be angered when Claude bids him stand still on some paltry, chipped, and chiselled quay" (those magnificent Tyre and Sidon pictures), "to watch a weak, rippling, bound, and barriered water, that has not strength enough in one of its waves to upset the flower-pots on the wall, or even to fling one jet of spray over the conflicting stones." (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. i. ch. vii. § 5.) This is one of what I call Mr. Ruskin's Delilahs: we have but to read on six pages to find the follow- ing account of one of Turner's pictures: "It pauses now (the white forked sail), but the quiv- ering of the bright reflection troubles the shadows of the sea." (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 10. of edit. 1844.) The writer is no longer "angered." We are not yet, however, at the climax: Delilah has but yet her " seven green withs." "A man accustomed to the glory of God moun- tains with their soaring and radiant pinnacles, surging sweeps, and measureless distance; kingdoms in their vallies, and climates upon their crests, can scarcely but be angered when Salvator bids him stand still under some contemptible fragment of splintery crag, which an Alpine snow wreath would smother in its first swell, 28 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. with a stunted beech or two growing out of it." (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 5.) We have but to go to Turner; and every in- stinct is turned clean inside out. "Finally, the bank of earth may be taken as the standard of the representation of soft soil, modelled by descending rain, and may serve to show how exquisite in character are the resulting lines, and how full of every species of attraction and even sublime quality, if we are only wise enough not to scorn the study of them. He who can take no interest in what is small, will feel no interest in what is great." (Ibid. pt. ii. sec. iv. chap. iv. § 28.) We are yet but at the " new ropes that never were occupied." The next page gives us the fatal shaving of the "seven locks;" but then they are Delilah's own, not Samson's. “The Divine mind is as visible in its full energy of operation on every lowly bank and mouldering stone, as in the lifting of the pillars of heaven, and settling the foundations of the earth; and to the rightly perceiving mind" (when only oblivious of Salvator Rosa), "there is the same infinity and the same majesty, the same power, the same beauty, and the same perfection, manifest in the casting of the clay as in the exalting of the cloud, in the mouldering of the dust as in the kindling of the day star." (Ibid. § 30.) This is but one of the inimitable self-immolations that adorn this philosophical treatise. I must allow myself another specimen. In the Preface to the Second Edition, we are told that the cause of the evil in ancient landscape art is man— CONSISTENCY. 29 "taking upon himself to modify God's work, and casting the shadow of himself on all he sees.” (P. xxiv.) We will not talk of Delilahs: this savours more of "the angel of light." Whether the assertion is true, is not now the question: we are told in the same work that "landscape painters must always have two great and distinct ends; first, to induce in the spectator's mind the faithful representation of any natural objects whatsoever: the second, to guide the spectator's mind to those objects most worthy of its contemplation, and to inform him of the thoughts and feelings with which they were re- garded by the artist himself." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. i. § 1.) The immolation is not yet consummate; we are elsewhere told that there are "few natural scenes whose harmonies are not conceiv- ably improvable, either by banishment of some discordant point, or by addition of some sympathetic one. . . . . the Imagination will banish all that is extraneous." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii. § 21.) What has become of the protest against "man taking on himself to modify God's work?" Here is just the twofold "evil of ancient Art." 30 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. CHAP. IV. THE TURNER CONTROVERSY CONTINUED. (( TRUTH OF CHIARO- 7 SCURO." - NATURE AND ART. THE reader will remember a passage in our « Pha- risee "chapter, as to "particular accuracies or tricks of chiaroscuro; " we must give a few moments to this part of the subject. Amongst some interesting remarks, on which we need not enter, and a characteristically beautiful assertion of natural phenomena, called "the con- stant habit of Nature to use her highest lights and deepest shadows in exceedingly small quantity, al- ways in points, never in masses," . and filling up" most of her pictures with middle tints and pale greys" (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. ii. chap. iii. § 8.), Mr. Ruskin quotes a remark of Barry, as to the 66 practice of the great masters, 'who best understood chiaroscuro,' to make, for the most part, the mass of middle tint larger than the light, and the mass of dark larger than the mass of light and middle tint together, i.e. occupying more than one half of the picture." Mr. Ruskin goes on, people talk in that way down in the valley: I never heard one talk so on the Mer de Glace.'” I re- collect how, looking into the "Livre des Etrangers at the Chalet, and reading, with unutterable disgust, that So and So" did a bit of walking," and climbed the mountain "in so many minutes without a guide," I wrote that So and So ascended with a guide; too much absorbed in wonder to think of time; adding the opening line of "Athalie "" Oui; je viens dans son temple, adorer l'Eternal.” But neither there, nor on the sea of ice, did I think a moment of "slate or tufa.” I have but described, of course, substantially, the experience of a thousand travellers. But there is one further fact, if possible yet more pertinent, of which my notice was written before any of us dreamt of Pre-Raffaellitism. I quote from my journal under date "Berne, Friday evening, 10th August, 1834: "I have just returned from one of the public pro- menades. Looking silently, for an hour of sunset and of twilight, upon the Oberland Mountains, I thought of all the poetry I had ever read,—all the moral grandeur which has been thrown on natural scenery, when men have dreamed in their musings, and given a spirit to unconscious matter, there was but one passage that seemed really worthy of what I gazed on, though it sounds strange to asso- ciate it with such a scene. It speaks of "looking forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners.* * Solomon's Song of Songs, chap. vi. ver. 10. E 3 54 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. on. "No one, I think, can see this awful range, giving back to the evening sky its changeful smile, without feeling how these expressions may strangely unite in the same object. And yet, with all their power, they are no description of what I have been gazing There is one single word—and that expressive because indefinite. That word is "glory:" and I thought of that word as I gazed on the glorious ; and lifted my soul, not to giant mountains nor frozen solitudes, but to that Father of all that is magni- ficent or lovely, of whose throne these vast pyramids are but the lower steps and material basements." Thus much at Berne. On the 14th of the same month I wrote thus at Thun, where I need tell no travelled Reader I had the monster mountains for nearer neighbours: - 66 Ascending to a pavilion, we enjoyed a sunset view not to be forgotten, the farewell tints of day upon the Jungfrau, the Blumless Alp, and the Doldenhorn, with the palpable gloom of evening on the lower mountains. The majesty of the Jung- frau, with her two colossal'virgins that keep her company,' and the unbroken masses of snow on the Blumless, are things that enlarge the soul's conceptions, and can never be mistaken for mere objects of sight. I am free, however, to confess that what I felt at Berne was not equalled here at Thun. I felt then as if it were hardly reverend to approach them nearer: and I almost feared that, as I did approach, they might lose a something of their awful power. My fear was not groundless. Those worlds of light I had wondered at, were now monstrous piles LANDSCAPE FEELINGS: APPEAL TO EXPERIENCE. 55 and horrid crags. Their spectral character was materialised into wastes of snow: and that stupendous range, covering half the sky with dazzling mystery, intruded on by mountains of grosser form and meaner name." These are simple passages: but of real and uncon- troversial experience. They betray, in the most unexceptionable form, the great fundamental fact I am insisting on, that the distinct articulation of par- ticulars, how important soever in certain respects, may, under other conditions, and for other objects, be something worse than worthless. This case of geology may suffice for the general principle. When Mr. Ruskin says "that a cloud may assume almost any form," he declares, in the most emphatic way, the extreme insignificance, even to those who love the architecture of the skies, of the error he is denouncing: and when he further informs us that all the works of those who preceded Turner " never gave, nor can give, an idea of a tree to any one who loves trees,' "* he but throws his researches on an appeal no less fatal. I wonder how many of all the millions to whom the freshness, beauty, or magnificence of foliage has been a luxury, - from "the wife of Lapidoth dwelling beneath the palm tree," or Virgil's Tityrus, "patulæ sub tegmine fagi," down to Milton's "towers and battlements, bosomed high in tufted trees," ever had their pleasures sophisticated by the carefully concealed non-tapering of twigs and boughs, or the stern anatomical law that "trunks fork mostly with two arms at a time?" * Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. ix. § 12. E 4 56 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. I can speak, at all events, with some confidence, of one I ought to know, who wrote the word pódεvdpov beneath some six hundred lines addressed, perhaps somewhat too rapturously, to a single oak. Let all this stand for what it is worth. Landscape painting professes to be a representation of nature; it were absurd if it wilfully neglected any cha- racterising feature of nature. But painting is after all an art and not a science. It professes to give us pictures, and not lectures, sensible images, not argu- mentative or statistic diagrams. Its very teaching is an appeal to sight, feeling, and the imaginative faculty, not the suggestion of occult principles, physical abstrusities, or natural laws. Whatever belongs, properly and influentially, to that appeal, is within its province: very much of what is insisted on in the work before us is beyond its sphere. I do not say such things are contraband. I do not say he were not the greatest painter who, cæteris paribus, could show his familiarity with them. I only affirm that such familiarity is not to be vaunted, obtruded, made to assume the air of a specific object: much less put as the determining point and test of pro- fessional greatness. It may be his crown as a phi- losopher; it is not his crown as an artist. The two crowns hardly hold together. That of science is made up of facts, the more precious, often, as they are less apparent; that of art is composed of gems whose power and value is in their effulgence. Mr. Ruskin defends Turner's foreground figures by an appeal to the laws of vision. The mind has its laws of vision. It may contemplate artistic truths SCIENCE AND ART. 57 and the truths of science: but, in order to see both distinctly, it must shift its focus, and see one at a time. The two classes of truth belong, in fact, no more to the same perception than a moral emotion and a sum in arithmetic. I take my stand on the palpable diversity, to say the least, of the two orders of impressions: and affirm that the nice discriminative articulation of geological facts, however essential to a lecture, is not the essential function, whether of landscape poetry or landscape painting: that to have very much overlooked such things is not the "crimen læsæ majestatis," especially in those who lived before "the marvellous stupidity of this age of lecturers:" that they cannot be what Mr. Ruskin would make them in our landscape criti- cisms, since they are of no such significancy in our landscape feelings: that majesty, mystery, might, sweetness, grace, beauty-the tear and the smile and the frown of mother earth, her rejoicings, her wither- ings, her solitudes, her pensive gloom, all that the indestructible poetic instinct has been used to call ex- pressiveness, are also "truths"-truths immeasurably more precious to all earth's true loving children- truths which, though they co-exist in actual nature with those lower ones we have been speaking of, yet everywhere subordinate, subdue, and keep them virtually out of mind, like the anatomy of a friend's face, or the organisation of a mother's heart. 58 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. CHAP. VIII. TURNER CONTROVERSY CONTINUED. THE ANCIENT ART. (C THE SOLEMNITIES OF TURNER'S HISTORICAL LANDSCAPES. — CLAUDE AND TURNER IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY. IN the concluding chapter of the First Volume of "Modern Painters," we find mention of persons who have "just enough of feeling to enjoy the solemnity of ancient Art." I will not stop to comment on the "just enough." In another part of the same chapter we have the following expressions:- 66 Among our greater artists, the chief want at the pre- sent day is that of solemnity" (sic) "and definite pur- pose. We should like to see our artists working out, with all exaction of their concentrated powers, such marked pieces of landscape element as might bear upon them the impression of solemn, earnest, and pervading thought." (I beg special attention to the following.) "Our landscapes are all descriptive, not reflective; agree- able and conventional; but not impressive nor didactic." I call these just, sober, and excellent words. One might almost think them written beneath the shadow of Salvator's "Soothsayers." But they express one material ground on which I have taken DIDACTIC LANDSCAPE. 59 up this part of our inquiry. I think also, we may take them as about a third answer to the complaint as to "man's shadow on God's work.” But why should we be put to the work of colloca- tion on such a subject? "The earth hath He given to the children of men." Is it strange if the master's shadow be on the walls of his dwelling? Must we be always ignoring the "cœlumque tueri " to soliloquise "the daisy casting its shadow upon the stone" a thing, it seems, we may not do with- out peril of Mr. Ruskin. Is it pride to know our place in creation? Is it Religion to forget that man is not only invested with the lordship of the world of Landscape, but is himself, beyond comparison, the noblest of God's works in it? that there is more in his sense of the sun than in the sun itself? that, as Pascal says, "Man is not only a reed, but the weakest in nature; but then he is a reed that thinks; and were all nature to unite and crush him, he were more majestic in his very fall than the universe that overwhelmed him." When I read page after page, about this, that, and the other micro- scopic "manifestation of spiritual power and vital beauty," I feel as if I were to be compelled to a sort of abnegation of humanity. “Thou puttest my tears," says the Psalmist, "into thy bottle; are they not all written in thy book?" If man's tears are in his Maker's book, who shall wonder if his foot-prints are on ocean sands, his heart's loneliness on desert rocks, or his whispered sighs in rustling leaves? * Psalm lvi. 8. : 60 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. Is it vice, then, or a noble virtue, if those rocks of Salvator speak, not of "hill anatomy," but of still- ness, solitariness, sadness, savageness, or intense thoughtfulness? of the wilderness of John the Baptist? of the Desert of Christ's temptation? of Jacob's dreamy pilla of the Witch's cave at Endor? of the strand where Jonah was disenthralled of his Leviathan jailer? I might ask similar questions as to Claude, though his sympathies are of another cast. He was, perhaps, as poor a hand at foreground figures as Turner, and used to say with characteristic modesty, "I sell you the Landscape, and give you the figures." Yet open his "Liber Veritatis," and you shall find these figures the proper mottos of the scenes they illus- trate scenes at once noble and natural; with heroic persons for heroic places Jacob and Laban; or the finding of Moses; or Tobit and the Angel; or the Flight into Egypt; or the Journey to Emmaus. Why will Mr. Ruskin call all this "foolish pas- toralism," and "nonsense pictures?" To turn now, however, to the "Prophet." Turner has imitated ancient art, and competed with it, step by step. I make bold to say that what he has done in that way does not properly characterise, nor be- long to him. On this point I shall throw the onus probandi, as I have done already, on Mr. Ruskin. Here are some unimpeachable extracts from a very elaborate account of Turner; substituted, in the Second Edition of "Modern Painters," for a rhapsody some took for idolatrous. TURNER'S HISTORICAL LANDSCAPES. • • 61 "Yorkshire scenery traced most definitely throughout Turner's works. Of all countries " (foreign), "he has most entirely entered into the spirit of France; partly because an amount of thought which will miss of Italy or Switzerland, will fathom France. Han- nibal passing the Alps, in its present state, exhibits nothing but a heavy shower, and a number of people getting wet. He seems never to have entered into the spirit of Italy; and the materials he obtained there were afterwards but awkwardly introduced in his large compositions. Of these, there are very few at all worthy of him. Jason" (the Salvator of the series) "has not a bit of Greek in him-nay, I think there is a something of the nineteenth century about his legs. ... Awk- ward resemblances to Claude testify the want of his usual forceful originality. . . . . . In the Plagues of Egypt he makes us think of Belzoni rather than of Moses. The fifth is a total failure; the pyramids look like brick kilns. Of the larger compositions which have most of Italy in them, the greater part are overwhelmed in quan- tity, and deficient in emotion. The two Carthages are mere rationalizations of Claude; one of them exces- sively bad in colour, and the other a grand thought, and yet one of the kind which does no one any good, because everything is mutually sacrificed: the foliage is sacrificed to the architecture, the architecture to the water; the water is neither sea, nor river, nor lake, nor brook, nor canal; and savours of Regent's Park: the foreground is uncomfortable ground, let on building leases." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii.) • I think I need quote no more to prove that Turner was not, on Mr. Ruskin's showing, much at home in the heroic. Where he was at home, we 62 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. shall see in another chapter. It is but justice, how- ever, to add another extract : "The Caligula's Bridge, Temple of Jupiter, Departure of Regulus, Ancient Italy, Cicero's Villa, and such others, come from what hand they may, I class under the general head of nonsense pictures." (Ibid. § 42.) I accept this last as a master stroke in the por- traiture of Pre-Raffaellitism. I am for "the solem- nities of ancient art. * * "" * * * * I must say something about our National Gallery Pictures; though the subject is a very delicate one. If a melancholy Blue Book is to be trusted, Turner hangs between a school copy, and an original whose present state opens insoluble questions. He should hang between the Doria and the "Ursula" Claudes. But we must take the battle as he has given it. I, for one, am too much an Englishman not to feel proud, after all, of the name of Turner. But why is he to be always " Turner Agonistes ?” For the sake therefore of the Turner, not the cleaning controversy, I will venture a suggestion. "If you would view fair" Claude Lorraine "aright," go first to the Ursula picture. Forget, if possible, all controversy of every kind, and just take posses- sion of the picture till the picture takes possession of you. Don't stand too near at first, so as to lose both self and picture in little details; nor yet too far, so as to lose the glow that irradiates and ethe- rialises them; but take a wise man's instinctive distance, and open your heart. After that, but not THE NATIONAL GALLERY. 63 too soon, approach and look more closely: and see how each single object is absorbed, illumined, glorified in the hues of heaven, till all becomes a sort of revelation, not of material facts, but of gracious influences; and rippling waves and airy pennons seem like the pulses of a delicious rapture you feel stirring within yourself. You may now turn to Turner Agonistes, and pronounce accord- ingly. As to the smaller Turner, the question needs no such ordeal. As a proof of imitative skill it has, no doubt, great merit, or it would not be there; beyond that it is not easy to say why it is anywhere. A picture supposes the picturesque: here is a picture without one single object that, for form, colour, or anything else, has any cognisable relationship with such a word: dirty clouds, dirty sun, dirty boats, dirty people, dirty fish, and, if not dirty water, a dirty shore. Mr. Ruskin talks of truth, and of certain" Van somethings libelling the sea; " such a picture would go far towards verifying the legal proverb, "the greater the truth the greater the libel." But, for the larger picture. Alas, that we are doomed never to see Turner but through the smoke and fire of battle! In point of handling we say, of course, dismiss all thought of comparison with the "School Copy;" and, in point of colour, with the tamed original. We want, in fact, the Doria Claude on one side, and the Ursula Claude on the other. 66 I will not ask the Regent's Park report of the Carthage" to pair off with a certain lampoon on the "Mulino." I will content myself with a single 64 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. . question. Is not the "Carthage," properly speaking, a Claude by Turner? Can any one believe, who has compared the "Liber Studiorum" with the "Liber Veritatis,” that, if Claude had not painted his Tyre and Sidon pictures, Turner would ever have painted this? So far as there is ground for comparison, is such comparison to involve the dethronement of Claude Lorraine? Does even Homer's royalty stand on the absolute unapproachableness, say of the part- ing of Hector and Andromache? Can any look at these two rival pictures as they hang together, without feeling one pervading difference — that the Claude looks, in its quiet air, an emanation; the Turner, every inch of it, an artistic effort? - I will not dwell on minor points the primrose sunshine; which may be prophetic, if we had but the "previous knowledge:" or the trees-in them- selves noble enough; when not compared with those in Claude's "Mulino," but which make a sort of blot. in the composition. I cannot even admire the picture but one irrepressible feeling comes over me; Mr. Ruskin is perfectly right: "everything is sacrificed ;" but it is to intense rivalry. I cast a glance at the adjoining Claude, and think of Carthage by the side of Rome. 65 CHAP. IX. THE TURNER CONTROVERSY CONTINUED.-TURNER'S VIEWS. WE have seen that, in the estimation of his pane- gyrist, Turner must not be judged by his efforts in the Epic style. In fact he says, in so many words- “In general, the picture rises in value as it approaches to a view" (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 42.);- that is to say that Turner also succeeded in "the descriptive," rather than " the reflective." The present chapter shall be given to his treatment of this in- ferior order of landscape. It was my happiness, in the autumn of 1853, to go down the Seine, from Rouen to Harfleur. The Seine is not, of course, the Rhine: yet was there no sensible lack of interest to stir unhandsome com- parisons. Scarce adrift from our moorings, the busy quay, the old grey towers, and terraced heights became a landscape which, as it mellowed in aerial perspective, grew each moment into poetry. all vanished like a beautiful dream; and we glided on between alternations of sapphire verdure and dark brown forest, hanging on bold but graceful de- clivities, that came rushing tumultuously down to laugh lovingly upon the river. Every here and there the rapture of nature was rather exhilarated, F Soon 66 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. softened, or solemnised than disturbed by the peace- ful village, the joyous town, the baronial mansion, or the monastic ruin: till, by degrees, the hills re- ceded, the stream expanded, the sun declined, and whispering eve shed her thousand hues upon the waters, on whose distant darkening verge were his- toric castles, and sea-girt crags. We are told that Turner's illustrations of this very voyage are amongst his happiest works: let us take one of the "Landscape Annuals" they were painted for. Honour where honour is due! Some of these are, as views, beyond all praise. Two of Hâvre, two of Tankerville, the front of Rouen Cathedral, above all the glorious prospect from St. Catherine's Hill, are such as few but Turner could have made them. Of the rest, there is not one that does not vindicate all Mr. Ruskin has told us of his power in rendering every possible accident of earth and sky. "One fatal remembrance" will be understood if I transcribe a few memoranda made in turning over the volume No. 1. Hâvre: glorious scene; a vista of mer- chant vessels; and a white column of steam. 2. Light- house of ditto: moonlight equally glorious, with steamboats puffing under cover of the heights. 3. Tower of Francis I.: tearful sky, with a very ugly white sail, and black smoke from a steamboat. 5. Harfleur: white steeple on a black sky; no steamer; but a boat with pitch pot, flames and smoke instead. 10. Caudebec: admirable, save that the white steam of the boat is the central object, and TURNER'S ACCOUNT OF NORMANDY. 67 rivals at once the faint moon and the spire of the church. 11. Jumieges: superb; but consecrated, not to hoary time, the feudal system, the "Dame de Beauté," or the monks of Benedict, but, as Mr. Ruskin shall presently testify, to "the rain cloud," which (despite a foreground boat with figures, and the half of a steamer with a black effu- sion, of which more anon) has entire possession of the picture, and makes the abbey, really standing in a plain, look as if it stood beneath a mountain. 12. La chaise de Gargantue: would puzzle "Gara- gantua's mouth:" white waves in the foreground; black sky overhead; black steamboat smoke on one side, and a flash of lightning on the other. 13. Rouen bridge, quay, and cathedral: all one could wish, but with a fretful sky, and a bit of rainbow looking like a projectile that has struck the cathedral. 14. Rouen again: sky no better; but the inkiest part serves as background for the whizzing steam of the bateau. 16. "La Maillerie " a mockery! the name stands for an old château nestled amongst gardens, groves, and forests, of which the French would say that it domines the river: we have here a large boat, with peasant women, on a black piece of water; overhead the eternal "rain-cloud region," a meteor half of a rainbow, with a white column from the steamboat; and La Maillerie, domined by the boat aforesaid, looking as if it stood on "the lake of the dismal swamp." 17. Between Quillebeuf and Villagaier: the steamboat in its glory; the sullen sky makes a background for all sorts of funnel issues, black, white, and a mixture of both. 18. The same F 2 68 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. unamiable sky. 19. Harfleur: sky alarmingly worse, with a dark something like a portcullis im- pending from mid-air upon the vessels. This completes the series. No doubt Turner was a prophet. None can take up this volume and miss the moral. Wouldst thou commune with the fair spirit of Normandy? Steep thy soul in three ideas -funnel, umbrella, and great coat." "" I said Mr. Ruskin should certify to "Jumieges. Its true historical key-note I need not strike. Mr. Ruskin, writing "of the rain-cloud," observes, (6 Jumieges, in the 'Rivers of France,' ought possibly to be the first object of attention . . . One picture is allotted to one truth." (Pt. ii. sec. iii. chap. iv. § 12.). Then follows a description, eloquent as usual, of "the moment of the Jumieges." 66 This is not all; there is, in fact, just more than the one truth: "Mr. Ruskin adds, "We have on the right of the picture the steam and smoke of a passing steamboat." One might expect some apology, the steamboat itself having half escaped us: the critic proceeds "Now steam is we will not stop to hear what, but there is a careful reference to "" "all the facts in Chap. ii. of this section... smoke, on the contrary is an actual substance existing independently in the air" (Ibid. § 13.), or, as we should say, a filthy intrusion on the breath of nature we hope Lord Palmerston will bring to justice. Mr. Ruskin assures us of "the accuracy of study which has guided Turner to the truth." In HEIDELBERG, ZURICH, AND VENICE. 69 the name of the prophet, smoke! But this is "the Jumieges;" and these are "the Rivers of France." 6 It seems other rivers and abbeys are no less favoured, as Mr. Ruskin's next words are, "But let us pass to his Llanthony,' which is the render- ing of the moment immediately following that of Ju- mieges." It is the same with " Coventry," which we are told "may be particularised for the example of the fine suggestion of irregularity and fitfulness through very constant parallelism of direction both in rain. and cloud." Gosport comes next but we cannot pursue the subject. Who will say it was not a dark day for Coventry, Llanthony, Jumieges, and a hundred other places when the prophet of the um- brella opened his mission? Heidelberg has been to me, for years, a "part of sight." I saw it last on one of those special days of lusty autumn which make one say with the poet, 'Nothing in life became him like the leaving it.” We reached the hotel at the critical moment of sunset. I almost burst through all the ceremonies. of German hostelry to the first vacant apartment that "donnait sur le château;" and stood, regardless of Ober-kelner, Kellerinn, Knecht, baggage, and all besides, whilst the sun took glorious leave of a façade he has basked on from age to age. It was one mass of richest ruby, framed in bossy fretwork of golden foliage, and canopied by a sky, whose unclouded depths looked like an intense memory of the historic past. I have since seen Turner's "Heidelberg"-not F 3 70 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. indeed the painting, but an elaborate, costly, and, I must add, very beautiful print. Roughly speaking, the whole consists, as the old blue-jacket used to say of West's picture at Greenwich Hospital, "of three principal groups;" to wit, a number of detached figures, amongst whom we recognise the washer- woman, a river with a bridge, and -hurly-burly. I name the washerwoman, because this is characteristic, as also certain cart-horses, and another historic figure, a little dog fetching and carrying from the river. The stream itself is very lovely. But, the business beyond! Turner must have carried thunder-storms in his carpet-bag, and broken the rainbow in the act of package. That quaint old town!--that storied château! — that rapturous foliage!—those vine-clad hills!—that conscious, thoughtful, loving sky!— all tumble dup, "promiscuous," in a heap of soap-suds; with the ill-starred rainbow stuck into a dismal mass of what, so far as print can say, may be earth, or sky, or neither. Alas for the Palatinate! We need not multiply instances. Zurich, similarly engraved is, potentially, a flood of washerwomen stretched, despite the problem in Chapter V., in all possible distinctness across the foreground. Venice is sacrificed, not to rain-clouds, steamboats, or washerwomen, but to certain caprices of colour, white, orange, and red, au naturel: which some take for enchantment, and some for truth; but of which, during nine weeks of livelong summer days on the "Canale Grande," I never caught, morning, noon, or night, a single glimpse. That "Canaletto" in the Dudley Gallery, is Venice. I can never see what TURNER'S "GIGANTIC MEMORY." 71 Turner gives us under the name, without thinking of gipsy finery. But let me shelter myself once more behind Mr. Ruskin's strongholds. Here is his rationale of my phenomena. "Then there is the Calais Pier, that is what he saw when he landed, and ran back directly to see what had become of the brig. The weather had got still worse; the fisherwomen were being blown about in a distressful manner on the pier-head. The shrimp girls were all scattered over them too Then there is the Vignette in the illustration to Scott; this is what he saw as he was going home: the revolving lighthouse came blazing out upon him suddenly, and disturbed him. He did not like that so much; made a vignette of it, how- ever, twenty or thirty years after . . . Turner never told me all this; but they are records of successive impres- sions, all of them pure veracities, therefore" (shrimp girls and all)" immortal." (Pre-Raphaelitism, pp. 54, 55.). This marvellous retentiveness of little things was, we are assured, the real secret of all his greatness. Of" his gigantic memory" we have, therefore, proof upon proof. "In the collection of F. H. Ball, Esq., there is a small drawing of Llanthony Abbey, in his boyish manner. It had been a showery day" (hinc illæ lachrymæ); "the young Turner made his sketch, took great pains when he got home to imitate the rain” (no doubt of it), "put in the very bush under which he had taken shelter, and the fisherman, a somewhat ill-jointed and long-legged fisher- man in courtly short breeches." (Now 'mark) thirty years after, he undertook the series of England and Wales,' and in that work introduced Llanthony < "Some F 4 72 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. "" Abbey" (alas for Llanthony !)" and behold he went back to his boy's sketch and boy's thoughts. He kept the very bushes in their places, but brought the fisherman (gigantic effort!) "to the other side in somewhat less courtly dress; and then set all his gained strength and new knowledge at work on " (what, in the name of thirty years? what could it be but) "the well remembered shower of rain.” (Ibid. p. 57.) Poor Turner! he seems to have been so thoroughly wet through, that he never got fairly dry for the rest of his days. But let us not interrupt this most instructive part of his Eulogy. • "Perhaps one of the most curious examples is in the subject from Winchelsea. That in the 'Liber Studiorum' bears date 1812; and its figures consist of a soldier speaking to a woman There is another, with Win- chelsea in the distance, of which the Engraving bears date 1817. It has two women with bundles; and two soldiers and a baggage-waggon in the distance . . At last he did another for the English series, of which the Engraving bears date 1830. There is now a regi- ment on the march; the baggage-waggon is there, having got no further on in the thirteen years; but one of the women is tired; another is supporting her against her bundle; and the two soldiers have stopped, and one is drinking from his canteen." (Ibid.) Who shall say that Turner's greatness came not all of "his gigantic memory?" But here is some- thing of another order. “One of the most characteristic drawings, and bears the inscription unusually conspicuous, heaving itself up and down over the eminences of the foreground-Passage COMPARATIVE VALUE OF QUALITIES. • • 73 of Mount Cenis. J. M. W. Turner, January 15th, 1820.' The near foreground is all worn with half- thawed, half-trampled snow; a diligence in front, its passengers, struggling to escape, jammed in the window: a little further on is another carriage off the road, some figures at its wheels, and its driver at the horses' heads though too far off for the whip to be seen." (Ibid. • p. 48.) What a scene for the " Illustrated London News!” There is indeed the utmost possible consistency throughout this true Pre-Raffaellite development. Mr. Ruskin is very careful to give us such traits as the following: "One moment interested in a gust of wind blowing away an old woman's cap, the next painting" (his Panegyrist has told us how) "the fifth plague of Egypt: one day hard at work at a cock and hen, next day drawing the Dragon of Colchis" (and the hero with the nineteenth century legs) . . . "The spectator stands on the Brignal Banks, looking down into the glen at twilight; the sky still full of soft rays; the Greta singing its even song (Mr. Ruskin loquitur, not Turner): "two white clouds, following each other, move without wind; others lie couched on the far away moorlands CC "" ("All was so soft, so still in earth and air, You scarce would start to meet a spirit there ") a boy's kite, incapable of rising, has been entangled in the branches: he is endeavouring to recover it: and behind it in the picture, almost indicated by it, the lowly churchyard." (Ibid. p. 44.) I hesitate to add a syllable to such a statement ; of which I quote but part, for want of space. It 74 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. reveals all the prophet; and without the aid of sym- bols. I cannot be misunderstood; I speak not of power, but of supremacy. Whatever Turner's power, I affirm that there is no royalty in it. It is nineteenth century power-the power of skill and science-not of feeling, thought, and character. It is not the majesty of Nature he seemed to care about; but inferior facts and vulgar accidents. When she sheds soft tears, it is "the rain cloud." When she laughs out in hearty sunshine, "he boldly takes pure white as the sign of the most intense sunbeams." When she gathers herself into dreamy stillness, he thinks it no profanity to break her broodings with the pranks of a water-dog. Now and then he rises above the journeyman; but it is when he takes the shell from Claude and Salvator, and makes their echo. The moment he puts down Claude, he is Joseph Mallord William Turner, of Maiden Lane. Meet him where you will,—at Winchelsea, Brignal, Heidelberg, Ju- mieges, Lucerne, or Nemi,-you think of the hero who, in the very witching time of an heroic situation, "ate some nuts, and was comforted." It is vain to multiply proofs: the comparison of Turner's "Nemi" with that of Byron were itself enough.* If the reader do not feel the force of the incident I have just notified, "cadit quæstio," discussion is useless. I have no possible objection to his studying geology, meteorology, dendrology, or any other logy in Turner's pictures: I only ask him * Childe Harold, canto iv. stanza clxxiii. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF QUALITIES. 75 not to confound such technicalities with the mild majesty of Claude Lorraine, or the pensive wildness. of Salvator Rosa. Let me not be misunderstood on another point. It is not Turner, as Turner, we are engaged with, but Turner as the type of a system. It is our mis- fortune when names must stand for principles, and a broad question assume the shape of a personal con- flict. Else, what is really at issue may be put in abstract terms. The faculty of perception is incon- ceivably above the natural object it embraces ; thought is immeasurably beyond perception; feeling as far higher and nobler than thought: what shall be said of a system that reduces poetic communing with Nature into "the pathetic fallacy;" would hand over to something like contempt those words of the great poet*, about "an injury and sullenness against Nature not to go forth and see her rejoicings;" and reserves its raptures for "hill anatomy," the non- tapering of boughs and twigs, and the "fine sug- gestion of irregularity in very constant parallelisms of direction both of rain and cloud”? I will not anticipate other parts of the contro- versy. It will be seen, from first to last, that it is not on the score of greater accuracy I demur from Mr. Ruskin. Turner is in all this the faithful type of all Pre-Raffaellitism, I mean a want of selection, a want of discrimination, a want of judgment, a want of special sympathy with the grand, the solemn, the tender, and the beautiful; a want of keeping things in their right places, a want of distinguishing * Milton. 76 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. the master chords from the inconsequential notes of Nature's music. The very inexhaustible variety his Eulogist makes so much of, betrays him. All things are alike to him, if only they be within the reach of his fingers. He never seems to feel that there is not only "a time,” but a place "for all things." Here is, we will say, a noble mansion. Claude would show it in glorious sunshine, or solemn twilight; Turner would contrive to come by at some odd hour, say that awkward time before the world is ready for us; when all is dark, vapourish, unwholesome, and birds of night are yielding up the government. The lamps are half out. It is neither day, nor night, nor morning. Some humble Abigail is on her knees, scrubbing the steps. Turner stops, whips out his paper; mists, lamps, and Abigail, and, ten to one, pail, mops, and scrubbing-brush, all are down in a scrupulous moment. Thirty years after, Mr. Ruskin finds them in a Vignette; pronounces "all pure vera- cities, therefore immortal; perhaps, triumphantly asks, "Has Claude done this?" I will not ask if Abigail desiderated such im- mortality: I am no more in love with aristocratic insolence, than with namby-pamby: I only say this is not poetical justice. But then we differ, as I am about to show, as to what is poetical. Meanwhile I must say one word as to the topic we are about to leave. Some will call this scant measure as to the Philosophy of Art. I must refer them to what I said at the outset.* I may go further * P. 12. THE AUTHOR'S SCOPE AND OBJECT. 77 back. When that great work appeared on which the name of Montesquieu floats down the stream of time, it was not inaptly observed that it might be entitled, not "L'Esprit des Lois," but "L'Esprit sur les Lois." If it be not ridiculous to put very small and very great in the same bracket, I would say I accept the analogy. My "Philosophy of Art" may be called "the Philosophy of Mr. Ruskin's system of Art." Had he not professed to revolutionise, I had not essayed to theorise. When I first put hand to the work, I made use of language I must use again. "We shall take a popular, rather than a scientific, view of art; looking on it, not as it appears to the artist in his workshop, nor to the metaphysician in his study, but as i appears to you and me, who see it, and hear it, and get good or harm from it, and have some right and business, therefore, to speak our minds about it."* Mr. Ruskin has misapprehended this as a confession. of incompetency. I hope I am not presumptuous in refusing the rendering. The whole significancy of the subject is in the end, and not the means. With the one I may be very moderately conversant: of the other it requires no twenty years' specific study to be allowed to speak. If a chemist ends by blow- ing himself into the air, or a navigator by running his vessel on a desert island, I may safely express an opinion, without knowing much of the atomic theory, or losing my wits in a table of logarithms. How far I might have been prepared to go, is of little consequence to my real object. *Lecture on Art, p. 6. My 78 PHILOSOPHY OF ART. 66 6 Philosophy of Art" may be, for aught I care, its moral or its social Philosophy. Even on these points I have not only left much to other parts of this volume, but have passed over many an aphorism, such as, that "power is never wasted" (Modern Painters, pt. i. sec. i. chap. iii.); that there is no generic difference between the sublime and the beautiful (Ibid. pt. i. sec. ii. chap. iii.); that “the words objective and subjective' are two of the most objectionable words ever coined" (Ibid. pt. iv. chap. xii. § 1.); with other things of like novelty. If I have said a word to confirm the Reader's convictions that Art is not Nature that a Landscape is not a Lec- ture nor the Painter a Prophet that imitation is not synonymous with Pharisaism, nor inadvertence with lying, nor accuracy with greatness, nor know- ledge with wisdom, nor letter with spirit, nor mate- rial with moral painting; - if I have shown that Claude was not silly because Turner was scientific,- that we are not quite justified in cashiering three centuries of Art and Artists,- "To be forgotten as fools, or remembered as worse ;”— if I have hinted, rather than uttered, that, in criticism as in morals, there is such a thing as being "right- eous overmuch," and that it has its pains and penalties; -if I have awakened one salutary feeling that, as Lord Bacon says, "discretion in speech is more than eloquence;" and that glittering sentences, and paradoxical subtleties, and the "lamp-black and lightning" of declamatory passion are a poor substitute for purity of taste, solidity of judg- THE AUTHOR'S SCOPE AND OBJECT. 79 ment, and the equanimities, amenities, and catho- licities of, shall I say?" artistic life," -I trust I may have offered, even thus far, some modest contribu- tion—a clergyman's mite-to what may be termed, in no very exaggerated sense, "the Philosophy of Art." We proceed now to matters of graver import. 80 POETRY OF ART. CHAP. X. THE POETRY OF ART. "WHAT IS POETRY? "* WE are as familiar with the expression "Poetry of Art" as with that which declares painting "imita- tive." Strange to say, "Pre-Raffaellitism" has thrown even more confusion about the one than about the other. Here is a true nineteenth century statement that may put the most poetical amongst us on the inquiry what it is we really mean when we speak of poetry: 6 "And in Art, as in Literature, that sentence of Car- lyle is inevitably and inexorably true, that Poetry will more and more come to be understood as nothing more than higher knowledge; and the only genuine Romance for grown persons, Reality." (Edin. Lectures, p. 237.) Now I do not like hard words, even in regard to one who flings them about (I mean Carlyle) by cart- loads. Yet it is impossible not to say that the above aphorism, though assuming a prophetic form, is *The contents of this and the following chapter were written some months ago. In the third volume of "Modern Painters," since published, I find this very question, " What is Poetry?" with the remark that the author does "not recollect hearing the question often asked, and never recollects its being "attempted to be answered." WHAT IS POETRY? — CARLYLE'S DEFINITION. 81 either very shallow or very false. We might as well say that diamond is but a sufficient quantity of charcoal, or flame a due proportion of Greenland oil. But let us try it by a congenial test. If poetry be truth, and it is the degree of truth that makes it poetry, then, either the "Eneid," "Para- dise Lost," and the "Orlando Furioso," are not poetry, or they are true true, not in a loose sense (truth at bottom with a superstructure of fiction), but true in the degree in which they are poetry; poetry no further than they are true; the truth being in fact the poetry. But then, on the other hand, since no one has ever ventured to affirm that the "Tempest," "Taming the Shrew," and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are more true, expressions, that is, of "higher know- ledge," say than "Cicero de Officiis," or Locke's "Es- say on the Human Understanding," we must, on the prophetic assertion, give up at least so much of their claim to a poetic character as we are not prepared to award, in all due proportion, to the two last-named works. And again, if poetry be higher knowledge, then the more knowledge the more poetry. Definitions, therefore, and axioms, and postulates, are, at least, so many germs of poetry; and Euclid's "Elements" and Bacon's "Novum Organum" its more magnificent ef- florescence: What is the precise amount of poetic beauty in that well-known theorem? "If several ratios be the same with several ratios, each to each, the ratio which is compounded of ratios which are the same with the first ratios, each to each, is G 82 POETRY OF ART. the same with the ratio compounded of ratios which are the same with the other ratios, each to each." But, it may be answered, this is scientific, not poetical truth. If we admit the answer, then Mr. Carlyle's account of poetry is not what we took it for. Suppose a distinction of subject, and you have another defini- tion of poetry. But then how are we to state the definition? What subjects belong, what do not belong, to poetry? Not mathematics: What then of metaphysics, morals, natural science? What of all that world of Turner- isms, "truth of space, truth of earth, truth of clouds," and so on? When and where are we within the frontier? Is human nature, with all its feelings, motives, interests, actions, within the field of poetry? But this is the field of history. Is history poetry? or where does one begin and the other end? Not surely in truth and fiction, or, "poetry" being the "truth," history must be the fiction. If, on the other hand, it is in the "higher" truth, what are the relative poetic ranks of Sophocles and Thucy- dides, of Virgil and Tacitus? But how, again, shall we pronounce upon such cases as the following? 66 "Man," says Zophar, "is born like the wild ass's colt." They go astray," says David, "as soon as they are born." "Foolishness," says Solomon, "is bound up in the heart of a child." This is "truth;" can we take what follows as the "higher" degree of it? WHAT IS POETRY? ANALYSIS. 83 "Heaven lies about us in our infancy! Shades of the prison-house begin to close Upon the growing boy : But he beholds the light, and whence it flows; He sees it in his joy. The youth who daily further from the east Must travel, still is Nature's priest." This is pretty well for "truth;" but what of the following? - "Thou whose exterior semblance doth belie Thy soul's immensity, Thou best philosopher; who best dost keep Thy heritage; thou eye among the blind; That deaf and silent, read'st the eternal deep, Haunted for ever by the Eternal Mind” I cannot quote further. If any ask what order of beings such august words are addressed to, here is the answer: "Thou little child, yet glorious in thy might ! I will not ask what Locke would say to all this: one thing at least is certain, either Wordsworth never taught in a Sunday school, or he must have strangely escaped the "docendo disco.”* But is not the passage simply one of a thousand, as to which we must record a verdict of exquisite poetry and exquisite nonsense ? Are we any nearer, then, the answer to our ques- tion? If the distinction be not one of truth, nor of subject, what is it? Certainly not rhyme: or "Hamlet" and "Paradise Lost" are no poems. Is it even metrical structure? It may sound bold *"I learn by teaching." ૧ 84 POETRY OF ART. to ask the question, since we have all been accus- tomed to speak of" prose and verse." No doubt the phrase has its conventional meaning. Metrical structure is the established form; but is it therefore the essential nature of poetry? If so, what mean we by the no less orthodox phrases of "poetical prose," and "prosaic verse"? and who would think of con- verting prose to poetry by simply putting it into metre? Nor can melody be what we ask for. There is very rugged poetry, as well as very melodious prose. You shall find scarce a sentence in Richard Hooker without- "The deep resounding march, and energy divine;' >> but you never heard of his "Ecclesiastical Polity" being called a poem. Nor is passion, any more than "knowledge," what we all mean when we speak of poetry. Men are not accused of being poets when they vent their vehemence in the streets. And we must say, I think, the same even of elevated thought and feeling. Mr. Ruskin's conclusion," after some embarrassment," is that "poetry is the sug- gestion by the imagination of noble grounds for the noble emotions." I doubt if we can even assume "noble grounds" as its essential, still less as its discriminative quality. A writer may rise to the highest range of what is elevated and elevating, with- out the slightest risk of being mistaken for a poet. Nor is the condition of being "suggested by the imagination," though a very important, yet a really WHAT IS POETRY? AN EXAMPLE. 85 conclusive one. Mr. Ruskin gives us two exhibitions of the same image,—the one an invention, the other a narrative, awarding to the first, and refusing to the second, the name of poetry. But is this the solution of our question? We ask not, Who is the Poet? but, What is Poetry? Whe- ther invented or narrated, whether suggested or re- ceived, the essential quality of poetry must surely remain the same. I do not forget that, etymologi- cally, the poet (o TonTs) is one who creates (Tos.) But we are beyond etymology, or we might call tragedy a goat song.* A man may create prose, dog- gerel, or nonsense; the mere art of creating does not make him a poet. I am not without my own share of "embarrass- ment." What with its own complexities and our loose conventionalisms, the subject is confessedly difficult. Our present research has a practical ob- ject; it is only so far that I profess to follow it. Let us give up negations, and take an actual in- stance. And, that it may assist our analysis, let it be distinct from all peculiarities, which constitute but the becoming drapery, though they are often con- founded with the actual figure of poetry. I shall not go back to deep-toned Hooker; nor to Milton, whose so-called "Prose Works" shine with stars that would not pale in "Paradise Lost;" nor to Jeremy Taylor, whose saddest homilies glitter every- where with poetic splendours; nor to Burke, pour- * The word tragedy is compounded of pάyos and won (goat and song) because that which grew in time into what we call tragedy was originally a hymn sung to Bacchus at the sacrifice of a goat. C 3 86 POETRY OF ART. ing forth political and moral truth in strains that might have harmonized Parnassus. I will take a writer of our own prosaic century a writer of whom a very competent critic* has pronounced the judgment, that "He who would see the English language in its perfection, must consult the works of Robert Hall.” And, of Robert Hall, I will not take one of those burning passages that make his sermons a continuous stream of sacred fire. It shall be a little sentence. He is speaking of reviews, as a sort of needless forestalling of the public verdict. "If," he says, "the merit of the performance be very conspicuous, it is the less necessary to multiply words in order to show it; and if it have little or What then? there can be no need of formal proof? That were a prose termination of a prose sentence none "" "it need not be conducted to the land of forgetfulness with the pomp of criticism.” "" I call this essential poetry; a pure gratuitous de- parture from the prosaic account of a book being left to be forgotten. There is something like a parenthetical vision of "gorgeous tragedy the land of oblivion — a funeral procession to its gloomy confines a mournful muse conducting the march. It is but a momentary transition-a graceful, effortless concession to the dignity of criticism he had been disparaging;— and the style resumes its even tenor of masculine sense in manly prose. I need scarce stop to vindicate the selection of * Dugald Stewart. WHAT IS POETRY? THE ANSWER. 87 such a passage. It had been easy to cite such specimens as Byron's "She walks the water like a thing of life," or that magnificent one of Keble, "There are, on this loud stunning tide Of human care and crime, With whom the melodies abide Of the everlasting chime." It is just because the passage makes no profession of poetry, and I may add, because it most assuredly does not involve the "higher knowledge," that I have chosen it. If, then, we have here, divested for recognition's sake of its conventional forms, the essential quality we are in quest of, let us ask whereof that distinctive quality consists! It is easy, of course, to talk of tropes and figures. This is not the analysis I ask for. What gives to tropes and figures, what to this particular figure, the charm and power we feel in poetry? It cannot be, in any case, the more accurate exhi- bition of the "higher knowledge." The whole spirit of Carlyle's principle implies the contrary. That principle would say, Every object must be best seen in its own light: all extraneous presentation of it is more or less a masquerade. What, then, is the occult charm? and how is it that the very gravest amongst us, and the most truthful—yes, and in those very special moments when we are most grave and truthful admit, and G 4 88 POETRY OF ART. court these metamorphoses, and agree in honouring them with the name of poetry? There can be but one reply. Strip such examples, one by one, of those mere extraneous circumstances (rhyme and metre) we have distinguished from the intrinsic nature of poetry; and, again, from all else (truth, passion, and the like) which, though no mere externals, leave yet untouched what we all mean by a poetical development of truth, or a poetical expres- sion of passion: one discriminating quality will be found remaining- they appeal to the imagination. This I take to be the ultimate fact the critical answer, therefore, to the question, What is poetry? I am well aware of certain objections: they are, I think, more obvious than substantial. The To say that things not conventionally called poetry make, as in the case selected, the same appeal, is but another mode of saying that the poetical instinct will not be confined to conventional channels. question is not where? but what is poetry? I keep my finger on the indestructible phrases "poetical prose," and "prosaic verse"-phrases that could have no possible meaning, if the conventionalities of "Prose" and "Verse" were all we asked for. Nor let us be driven from our conclusion by that higher quality of prose called eloquence. No doubt much of eloquent writing and speaking is highly figurative; and when we say that prose is the natural language of matter of fact, and poetry the putting fact or fiction, thought or feeling, in an imaginative form, the undeniable character of eloquence may be objected against us. Yet the distinction may remain. WHAT IS POETRY? — A FURTHER QUESTION. 89 intact. Eloquence is not high-flown, nor even figu- rative language; but the forcible expression of our thoughts and feelings. It is speaking out and speak- ing home. Such speech may need no figure. We have actually stereotyped the phrase "unadorned eloquence." Of poetry it may be said truly, as of Goldsmith it was said epitaphically, " nihil tetigit quod non ornavit" (he touched nothing he did not adorn), it is in its nature. Of eloquence there can be no possible doubt that it no sooner begins to look for ornament, but it is in deadly peril of becoming tinsel. The freest possible indulgence of imagery would but make it the "poetical prose spoken of. we have And, on the other hand, to say that no poem con- sists wholly of what we have taken for the discrimi- nating quality, is but saying that Poetry has her material substance as well as prose. What I assert is, that this material substance takes a poetic form,- that is to say, becomes poetry, as it assumes an imaginative character. We have observed that Carlyle's definition would not square with Hall's example. It would square with few examples that I know of. We have seen also that Pre-Raffaellitism has endorsed that defini- tion. It could do no less: it is monogeneous: "Pre-Raffaellitism has but one principle, that of abso- lute, uncompromising truth, obtained by working every- thing, down to the most minute detail, from nature and from nature only." (Edin. Lectures, p. 227.) Such a principle can have no place for Robert 90 POETRY OF ART. Hall's poetic vision. "Nature and nature only' never saw the funeral procession of a still-born book. Such a principle would be no more tolerant of Wordsworth's haunted childhood, nor of Byron's walking vessel, nor of Keble's “everlasting chime.” You have but to trace the consequences; and you will find that Pre-Raffaellitism is incompatible with all we are used to call the " Poetry of Art.” And yet Pre-Raffaellitism has not formally sued for divorce. On the contrary, we have, in the second volume of " Modern Painters," a very elaborate ac- count of imagination: and we are told in the " Edin- burgh Lectures" that "the Pre-Raffaellites have enormous powers of imagina- tion." (P. 230.) There remains, therefore, the inevitable further question, "What is Imagination?” 91 CHAP. XI. WHAT IS IMAGINATION? PERHAPS the first stroke towards an answer would be to say that imagination is the sight of absent objects, or their qualities; and that, since those objects, however real, are absent, what is seen is but the image only, and the faculty discerning them is therefore called "Imagination." I need tell no one that all the objects of fancy are not real. Yet are not the most unreal of those objects pure creations. It may be questioned whether it be within the powers of humanity to create, properly speaking, one single elementary idea. It is needful, therefore, to distinguish imagi- nation no less from memory than from actual sight. And the distinction is very simple. Memory is the recollection of a thing as once actually existing: Imagination, the conception of it intrinsically; irre- spective, that is to say, of its historical existence: I might almost say (and this touches a vital point in our difference with Pre-Raffaellitism) without the slightest care so far as imagination is concerned-if it ever had an existence. Hence, memory has no power that can in any sense be called creative. It is simply the retention of certain impressions in their proper form as near 92 POETRY OF ART. as may be; and the most perfect act of memory would be the removal (were it possible) of the veil of time. Imagination, on the other hand, is rather the recollection of the qualities of the object; some- times in possible, sometimes in impossible combina- tions: or, if of the object itself, then what I may call the resurrection rather than the recovered sight of it, with a resurrection body and etherialised attributes. It is, then, in the giving to imagination this power of seeing qualities in their abstract nature, of selecting, analysing, combining, refining, ennobling them, which we cannot assign to memory,-that we are all accustomed to distinguish between the two. Hence, whatever the dependence of the imagina- tion on the actual elements of God's creation; and, however possible to conceive an analysis that should dismember, one by one, all the objects of fancy, and show how this came from such a source, and that from such another; and, however all this may seem to involve the exercise of memory, we never speak of the two as identical: and few of us - not being Pre-Raffaellites—would call a man imaginative, though he never forgot a single feature of any object he had once looked on. There are other points to which I need give but few words. Imagination may summon images, even of thought and feeling. Yet imagination can neither think nor feel. I cannot conceive of an unfeeling poet. The very definition of imagination supposes the image to have had its prototype; and I take it for granted that there is at least some exercise of IMAGINATION: DISTINGUISHED FROM MEMORY. 93 actual feeling attending the presentation of objects by his own fancy. Yet the subsequent conception of feeling, and the power of embodying it, may be beyond all proportion to what either is, or has been, actual. And it is still more plain that imagination is essentially distinguishable, as we have hinted, from a sense of truth. Moral truth belongs to conscience; intellectual truth to reason; material truth to sight and touch. Imagination may act in concert with all of these; but her own specific acting must not be confounded with that of any. There is, in point of fact, scarce an extravagance that fancy shrinks from. Whatever there may be of control, it is not fancy by which that control is exercised. Of the so-called creative powers we need take here no special notice. In point of originating endow- ment there may be, of course, enormous difference between the writer and the reader of poetry; between the imaginative faculty exercised, there is, or should be, generally speaking an absolute identity. Poetic sympathy, when perfect, is even more than a response; it is the reproduction of the same thing-the image of an image the sense of a sense: imagination impregnating imagination with the very identical form and substance of its own conceptions. This is something beyond what we commonly mean by cause and effect. But the point on which I would fix attention is its mode of exercise, as distinguished from that of sight or memory. Of both these faculties we affirm defect when they present not their object in strict. 94 POETRY OF ART. accordance with its actual conditions. "" وو Of the one, as Addison beautifuly says, "it is but opening the eye, and the scene enters ; of the other, we may say it is but removing what I called the veil of time, and, in like manner, "the scene enters: a scene existing independently of sight or memory; a scene over which they have no creative nor controlling power; a scene of which they must give strict and scrupulous report, or they are unfaithful to their office. Of imagination we may say the converse. With unlimited scope, with illimitable objects, it has, I had almost said, unlimited discretionary powers. Things substantially the most remote, incongruous, unapproachable, become one in a single glance of the eye of fancy. One solitary resemblance is enough. Nay, it should almost seem as if the greater the number of discords, the greater the beauty of the single concord. Let me take a noble instance from Byron: "The mountains look on Marathon, And Marathon looks on the sea; And, gazing there an hour alone, I dreamt that Greece might yet be free." What images! solid mountains, and liquid waves! a lonely plain, and a social body! a remembered past, and an unseen future! what have they in common? It is all in a single word. Fancy whispers "free" and the indestructible mountain, and the untame- able ocean, the unconquered dead, and their unextin- guishable remnant, give out their echoes; till the Poet's whisper sounds like a prophetic voice the voice of nature, history, and awful fate. IMAGINATION: ITS BOUNDLESS RANGE. 95 But what power of intuition! what sense of ana- logies! what incarnation of moral qualities! what sublimation of material objects, does all this indicate! What expressiveness do these things impart to language! what an electricity to thought and feel- ing! How does Fancy seem to touch, in the same moment, every attribute of soul and body! How does she take her stand at the utmost confines of our actual horizon; yea, how does she— tempt, with wandering feet, The dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss; And through the palpable obscure find out Her uncouth way!" And, when she points her mysterious finger to things unseen, how do we feel as if their shadowy lineaments were sights familiar! Who has looked on an archangel? yet who responds not to the immortal lines? - his form had not lost All its original brightness; nor appeared Less than archangel ruined, or the excess Of Glory obscured.” So plain is it that, beyond the scope of actual ex- perience, there is a world-shall I say of capabilities? or not rather of existing glories?—of which the one we live in is but the threshold; a world our own by original birthright from whose splendours, till by Redemption recovered, we are sensibly, though perhaps ignorantly, divorced; a world without which our faculties want commensurate objects of which Imagination seems, as it were, the last half- 96 POETRY OF ART. broken link of which she holds, in fact, the golden key. * But there is something further. We have seen Fancy, thus far, in her more positive actings: there is something in what we may call her negative or in- direct ones which has not, I think, been duly noticed. If we interrogate well-known facts, I might almost say any of the thousand phrases of familiar speech, we shall find every where some foreign ele- ment, besides the immediate object they have to deal with; and that it is not always superior beauty, inte- rest, or intelligence, that gives that foreign element its zest and power. I speak not, of course, of utili- tarians they are nondescript, with an imperfect comparative anatomy. Nor would I strain matters, as regards the more happily organised: it is enough to ask a question or two. What then to begin with Art - is that strange shrinking so many of us are conscious of, say from the very obvious symmetries of classic archi- tecture; and our refuge in the disguised proportions, studied involutions, and intricate regularities we find so much of in Gothic styles? Why is it that beautiful things look most beautiful when (say as with a building amongst masses of foliage, or even * Whilst reviewing for publication, the above imperfect remarks, it is my happiness to stumble on those noble words from one of Lord Bacon's most famous treatises, which I have placed, by way of motto, on my title-page: words at once so pertinent to some essential points of my difference with Pre-Raffaellitism, and so expressive of my own sense of what is really at issue, that I must request the Reader to bear them in mind through the whole of the following Chapters. IMAGINATION: ITS INDIRECT ACTINGS. 97 mutilated by decay or violence) the actual lines, colours, and proportions, though not destroyed, are interrupted or half concealed? And why is it that things neither beautiful nor interesting,-things that in their actual existence, we pass unnoticed,—assume a something they are not themselves possessed of, when we see them portrayed? How was it that the so-called "earnest" painters of the earlier periods never admitted the church architecture of their own country? And what made them (some of them realistic enough in many respects) paint trees so as they could never have seen them growing? What made Horace write those seeming childish words, "Romæ, Tiber amo, ventosus; Tibure, Romam ?” Did Horace forget he was a poet when he wrote that word "ventosus" ("shifting with the wind")? Did his brother bard of later times see the truth in all its nakedness when he wrote "And distance lends enchantment to the view?" Does even Mr. Ruskin, being, though on a most unpoetical enterprise, yet himself of most poetical temperament, when he tells us, "I find that by keeping long away from hills, I can in great part still restore the old childish feeling" (an infinite pleasure) “about them: and the more I live and work among them, the more it vanishes?" (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xvii. § 22.) Were all like ancient oracles? pronouncing words. that meant more than they meant themselves? And what taught that graver Tacitus that little sentence H i • 98 POETRY OF ART. that contains a volume" Omne ignotum pro magnifico est?" Why is it that we not only read and philo- sophise historic events for practical wisdom, but love to plunge into the very ignotum of historic distance? What gives the charm, despite—I might rather say because of imperfect knowledge and irremediable chasms, to old events, old language, old names, old houses, old furniture, old portraits, old armour, old costume? What gives the point to those very unscien- tific words of Deborah," that ANCIENT river, the river Kishon?" What makes dream-land, to all who are not too stupid, not too good, to walk there, pleasant land? Yes! and what makes " romance" (despite all the Carlyles in the world, and our own sober senses into the bargain) so often more fascinating in all its emptiness than all the solid "reality" of the world about us? I might almost leave such questions to answer themselves. We don't abjure architectural symmetry when we disguise it. It cannot be the mere fact of its being imitated that gives interest to an object itself uninteresting. Mr. Ruskin peremptorily tells us that in exact proportion to its intrinsic demerits must be the disagreeableness of its representation. The early painters did not think German Gothic more intrinsically beautiful than Lombard or Clas- sical. They did not think stiff impossible trees more graceful than those that waved on every side of them. Horace did not really believe his Tiberine Villa underwent improvement as soon as he got to Rome, and vice versa. Distance does not "lend enchantment" by mere concealment of defects; for it IMAGINATION: PHENOMENA EXPLAINED. 99 must conceal beauties by the same rule. Nor do we seriously think old times were so much wiser, better, or happier, than those we live in. There must in- evitably be to all these questions a deeper answer. Nor is that answer far to seek. Since Eden ceased to be our home we are all more of wanderers than most suspect themselves; no place satisfying us; and none intended to do so. But, since cur sense of earth grows faster than our sense of heaven, we learn the wantings of the one ere we get the supplyings of the other and some never learn the last at all; but shift and turn from home to home, and land to land: that one word "ventosus " a judicial mark they never read, or read amiss. This is, as I suspect, a part, at least, of the rationale. Hence the recurring feeling of the unsatisfactoriness of all the actual,-I had almost said because it is the actual. Hence that half-uttered inarticulate cry for remoteness, vagueness, strangeness, obscurity,- that instinctive escape, by a thousand manœuvres, from the oppressive sense of what is really and plainly around us, that seeming dread of meeting matter of fact face to face. Hence that habit of dissolving almost every reality in its appropriate halo of metaphor,— that graceful indirectness that distinguishes refined from vulgar speech, that aerial perspective of poetical language, - that transfiguration of what we speak of into a something which is still the same, yet not the same. This is, I believe, the occult source of the poet's “enchantment" of "distance." This is also, I sus- pect, one recommendation, at least, of the imitated Uor M H 2 100 POETRY OF ART. object. And this, I doubt not, is the true reason why, in sculpture, we are not startled to see an eye without its pupil. The sightless statue, like the imitated object, has ceased to be a thing, and has become an idea.* When I distinguish between imagination and a sense of truth, I am, I trust, as far as Mr. Ruskin from a desire to dissociate them: still less would I refuse to imagination a worthy mission. Beyond the sphere of actual sight, imagination is the eye of the soul: nor can the soul herself measure the horizon that eye embraces. There are those unseen worlds where she finds her highest exercises and best rela- tionships. Thence she brings images of sublimity and beauty that make the material universe a sort of lunar reflection of the divine attributes. There are the good and great and morally beautiful of every age that have a record, shrined in richer tabernacles than plastic art could ever give them. There are those hallowed scenes she is never weary of revisiting -the manger of Bethlehem—the tomb of Bethany- Old Jacob's well-above all, that Gethsemane Garden now better known to believing millions, than once to the favoured three who saw it with bodily eye. Who shall describe the blessed actings of a sanctified Imagination? Who shall measure its minglings with all we are taught to recognise of the hidden life? Without imagination the prophet had never spoken of "the excellency of Carmel and Sharon." Without imagination the Psalmist had * What an atrocity does this make of the colouring of statues ! Maou IMAGINATION: HOW ALLIED WITH FAITH. 101 never prayed that “ our daughters may be as corner stones, polished after the similitude of a palace." Without imagination, the Book of Job, the Song of Solomon, and the Revelations of Patmos were little else, in point of distinct intelligibleness, than idle words. Without imagination, I might read, "of Gideon and Barak, of Samson and Jephtha, of David. also, and Samuel, and of the prophets:" I might follow the words; I might understand their gram- matical meaning; but where were the gathering their fragmentary experiences into identity? What, and where, without that identity, were "the communion of Saints ?" ! 102 POETRY OF ART. CHAP. XII. PRE- RAFFAELLITE VIEW OF IMAGINATION. MR. RUSKIN assigns to the imagination three distinct functions or modes of exercise, which he calls "combining or associative," "analytical or penetrative," and "regardant or contemplative:" we come at once to a difficulty as regards the first. Here is the simple conception of a natural object, say a leaf, with its component qualities, "accompanied, it may be, with verbal knowledge as to its conditions." Here is, further, the conception employed in compo- sition, "which Dugald Stewart mistook for imagina- tion "-the very brilliant exercise of the associative power called "fancy," yet "all the time the Imagina- tion has not once shown itself." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii. § 6.) It is plain that we have here a new definition of the imaginative faculty. The distinction between fancy and imagination is adopted, Mr. Ruskin tells us, from Leigh Hunt; and is founded on the assertion that the one faculty sees the interior, or, as Mr. Ruskin expresses it, is "penetrative," the other not. Accordingly, we have certain passages from Milton and Shakspeare, with the word "fancy "or"imagination "affixed, as the case may be, together with I know what deductions; such as that FANCY AND IMAGINATION. 103 "Imagination is quiet; Fancy restless" and "never serious, because staying at the outside of things, which, so far as the part she (Fancy) looks at, are true; but would not be true if she could see through to the other side. This, however, she cares not to do." (Ibid. chap. iii. §§ 9. and 11.) The distinction may be ingenious; is it correct? Did Milton, for instance, exercise but Fancy when he wrote "the pansy frecked with jet "? and Imagination, when he wrote "With cowslips wan, that hang the pensive head"? Was it a faculty that saw "the truth on the other side," which indited Shakspeare's "daffodils That come before the swallow does, and take The winds of March with beauty"? If we speak of different exercises of the same faculty,―the one employed on material qualities only, the other associating visual images with moral ones, as "drooping" with "pensive," and "pale" with "sad,"-there need be, of course, no demur. If we go on to assign the words Fancy and Imagination to denote the two respectively, we revolutionise Lan- guage, and bring confusion on all preceding criticism. When we proceed, further, to connect all this with "truth," as though this were within the specific function of the imagination, we are as entirely upon new ground as when we go from poetry to "higher knowledge." H 4 104 POETRY OF ART. But let us look a moment at Mr. Ruskin's defini- tion of" Imaginative associative." "Neither likeness, nor dissimilarity, secure harmony. If the combination is to be harmonious, the artist must induce in each of its component parts such imperfection as that the other puts it right. (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii. § 6.) Hereupon opens a wide field-not of perfections, but imperfections; and it is, it seems, in this special field that Imagination unfolds her powers. "The conceivable imperfections of any single feature are infinite . . . . the two imperfections must be relatively and simultaneously conceived." (Ibid. § 7.) This conception is "Imagination proper." Now I know not how others read this; to me it sounds very like Nineteenth-Century Imagination-scien- tific, mechanical. I am not surprised to find it called "the grandest mechanical power" (Ibid.); and that "there is something like it in chemistry" (Ibid. § 8.). "Sulphuric acid," and "metallic zine" sound too like our judicial friend "crystal of bismuth."* Let us take a more appropriate instance, already cited, "The mountains look on Marathon," &c. Is not this Imagination? But if so, where is the simultaneous conception of mutual imperfection? Was the mountain imperfect without the sea? or the sea without the mountain ? We cannot stop to examine other extraordinary assertions. Mr. Ruskin supposes an unimaginative painter drawing an original tree. All the parts are "either actual re- * Art; its Constitution and Capacities, pp. 27, 28. PRE-RAFFAELLITE IMAGINATION PROPER." 105 collections, or based on secure knowledge; and all the parts are severally faultless." The words severally faultless describe the fault; there is no mutual imper- fection. (Ibid. chap. ii. §§ 11. 12.) In fact, we are directly told that "an unimaginative painter is unable, if the part be ugly, to correct it by the addition of another ugliness." (Ibid. § 14.) 66 We are sent for counter-illustration to the Cephalus and Procris " in the "Liber Studiorum.” "I know," says Mr. Ruskin, "no composition more purely or magnificently imaginative, nor bearing more distinct evidences of the relative and simulta- neous conception of the parts." (Ibid. § 20.) "Let the reader first cover with his hand the two trunks that rise against the sky on the right, and ask himself how any termination of the central mass so ugly” (sic) "as the straight trunks which he will then painfully see, could have been admitted without simultaneous con- ception of the trunks he has taken away on the right." (Ibid.) Let it be granted, that it is very possible for a perfect whole to be made up of imperfect parts; that the principle of subordination is as absolutely needful to harmonious composition as to "every dinner a principal dish ;" and that an artist, having conceived and localized the beautiful parts, may be careless about the rest, or rather wisely careful to keep them down; and this, I think, is all that can be fairly made of the case before us, does all this establish the principle of mutual imperfection? Does it make the distinct conception of it the distinguish- ing act of" Imagination proper?" 106 POETRY OF ART. I suspect we can only get the experimentum crucis by reversing the phenomena. We will take, then, the "Apollo," which I shall still take the liberty to assume as an example of consummate beauty. Treat this case as Mr. Ruskin has treated his. Hide that head with your hands; and how "ugly" do you make the arm! Keep the head and arm from sight, and how ugly do you make the trunk! But what may not be conjectured, on this occult principle, of that nondescript in his frontispiece of the "Edinburgh Lectures"-that monstrous, mournful, irresistibly comic personification of imposture, that answers to the name of "lion;" but looks as if it were on the point of breaking out into 66 Βρεκ κεκ κεκ κεκ, κοαξ, κοαξ. What might not have been the amount of beauty, had Mr. Ruskin but given us the mutual ugliness? I will not call this" carefully concealing the context."† But all this, and whatever of like nature may be found in Mr. Ruskin's metaphysics, is of secondary import to his identification of imagination with the sense of truth. Here is the conclusion of the Third Chapter of the section we are engaged with:- "How different this definition of the Imagination may be from the idea of it commonly entertained among us, I can hardly say, because I have a very indistinct idea of what is usually meant by the term . . . I am still further embarrassed by hearing the portion of those works called specially imaginative, in which there is the most * The croak in "The Frogs" of Aristophanes. † Edin. Lectures, p. 238., quoted at conclusion of Chap. XIX. IMAGINATION AND THE SENSE OF TRUTH. 107 as effort at minute and mechanical statement of contemptible details" (I beg the reader's special note of this), "and in which the artist would have been as actual and absolute an imitation as an echo, if he had known how the life of Imagination is in the discovery of truth, it is clear that it can have no respect for sayings and opinions, knowing in itself when it has invented truly . its sense of success or failure is too acute to be affected by praise or blame finally, the most imaginative men always study the hardest." Now, as this view of imagination is no less sig- nificant than it is extraordinary, it may not be amiss. to ask one or two questions regarding it as, for instance, 1. How does the denial of imagination to those who would be the "absolute echo " bear on a party of whom Mr. Ruskin assures us that "Pre-Ra- phaelitism has but one principle, that of absolute uncompromising truth, in all it does, obtained by working everything, down to the most minute detail, from nature and from nature only"? (Edin. Lect. pp. 227. 230.). 2. If imagination be too acute to be affected by praise or blame, what amount of imagination has been shared amongst that special class of writers. which in all ages has been called the "irritabile genus ? " 3. If questions of "truth" or "falsehood," and even of "exaggeration" are properly referable to imagination, was Johnson praising or blaming Milton when he said, "he had accustomed his imagination to unrestrained indulgence?" and that "nature had IMAGINATION AND THE SENSE OF TRUTH. 107 as effort at minute and mechanical statement of contemptible details" (I beg the reader's special note of this), "and in which the artist would have been as actual and absolute an imitation as an echo, if he had known how the life of Imagination is in the discovery of truth, it is clear that it can have no respect for sayings and opinions, knowing in itself when it has invented truly . its sense of success or failure is too acute to be affected by praise or blame finally, the most imaginative men always study the hardest." Now, as this view of imagination is no less sig- nificant than it is extraordinary, it may not be amiss. to ask one or two questions regarding it as, for instance, 1. How does the denial of imagination to those who would be the "absolute echo " bear on a party of whom Mr. Ruskin assures us that "Pre-Ra- phaelitism has but one principle, that of absolute uncompromising truth, in all it does, obtained by working everything, down to the most minute detail, from nature and from nature only"? (Edin. Lect. pp. 227. 230.). 2. If imagination be too acute to be affected by praise or blame, what amount of imagination has been shared amongst that special class of writers. which in all ages has been called the "irritabile genus ? " 3. If questions of "truth" or "falsehood," and even of "exaggeration" are properly referable to imagination, was Johnson praising or blaming Milton when he said, "he had accustomed his imagination to unrestrained indulgence?" and that "nature had IMAGINATION NOT A MORAL POWER. 109 This made Shakspeare the acknowledged brother of the human family. This places him in that inner sanctuary where cold, majestic, learned, elegant, harmonious, and magnificently imaginative Milton can never get to. Nor let it be replied that romance-readers live in imaginary scenes, look on imaginary sorrows, and shed imaginary tears, yet are ofttimes the most cold-hearted and selfish of beings. There is a mistake here. The sorrows may be imaginary; the tears are not. Imaginary tears are but images of tears; the readers have got beyond that. They shed tears; and their sympathy, to whatever given, is as real as the tears it defrauds them of. It is but too true that imaginary woes may have more power over them than real ones. Why this is, is not our question. It is one of enormous import, and has never yet, perhaps, been really grappled with. But the conditions of feeling are one thing, the seat of feeling another. Tears may be prostituted; and the shame proportionate: but, let fancy bring its image of sorrow within a certain distance, and, though the sorrow be but an image, the fons sacer is a substantial fact. Nor can we admit that all such consequences are a waste of sympathy. Romance-readers, and poetry-readers, and picture- gazers are not, therefore, in point of fact, the mere dreamers some take them for. There is a reality in their very fictions-a reality that has real results, and must one day answer at a real tribunal. 110 POETRY OF ART. CHAP. XIII. THE HUMAN IDEAL.—PRE-RAFFAELLITE VIEW. DEFINITIONS are amongst things not to be gra- tuitously attempted. It may be almost said of them, as Confucius said of the gods, "Respect them: take care not to offend them: have as little to do with them as possible." I will give no hostages to fortune by uncalled-for efforts. For a certain departure from matter of fact, in all we have been used to call historical painting, there is, obviously, a double necessity. Its personages are not common examples of human nature. Cæsar, Epaminondas, and Agesilaus had, of course, a thousand things in common with the boors of Brower; but then it was not those thousand things that made them Cæsar, Epaminondas, or Age- silaus; and it is neither in the interest of art, truth, nor humanity to make it seem as if it were. But again, history, describing such persons, may unite the common and the uncommon, and give to each its proper place. Painting has no such latitude. She must make greatness look greatness, or, in her hands, it is no greatness. She cannot speak the whole truth; so she must speak the noblest part of it; and speak that part in her own way. She were a lie if she were in some respects more true if her THE HUMAN IDEAL. 111 Alexander the Great lolled his head; or her Age- silaus were the little man that limped like Vulcan. We have every one in our own mind an ideal of great men. It is a sacred, holy, indispensable thing to us. It is to all our moral faculties what light and electricity are to the plant. Painting must speak up to this ideal. But how can she do this, save by embodying, in physical terms, all of great and noble physical terms can exemplify? She cannot hang ex- planatory rags and tatters about her heroes, nor put labels in their mouths,- "Myself the man in the moon do seem to be." 6 The man whose pulse has throbbed beneath Raf- faelle's "Paul at Athens" would stand aghast at the question, "Well, but where's the weak bodily presence' St. Paul himself confesses to ?" Such a question would proceed, either on the mistake of a poetic impersonation for an actual portrait, or a hope- less insensibility to the elementary conditions of art. When Paul actually preached, there was that in what he said which annihilated all sense of bodily presence. And when we stand beneath that cartoon we have no more place for bodily infirmities, or we are not the men the painter took us for. It is an embodiment of the word and work of Apostleship. He stands alone, in a crowd of sages: it is like truth breaking upon day dreams. He lifts his arms with a sublime absorption that makes his whole body an emphatic utterance. The fire of heaven is in his eye. Its solemn thunders are on his lips. We for- get personalities. We forget art. All is life- 112 POETRY OF ART. thought-soul-truth-and "the powers of the world to come." But, for the written characters of this poetic lan- guage. There seems strange misapprehension on this point. Men speak of "truth" and "nature,” as if, when we spoke of the ideal, we meant something. that was neither the one nor the other. Yet the matter is plain enough. You talk of "nature". what nature ? human nature: which, then, is human nature? Is it that little stout man pitted with the small-pox? Such a subject must not turn, you reply, on a palpable casualty. Very well: Where, then, is human nature? Is it this European? or that Asiatic? or that North American Indian? or any one of those Patagonians, Esquimaux, Nubians, Chinese, or Hot- tentots? Is it any particular race, family, or indi- vidual? It is clear that all these, however distinguished amongst themselves, have qualities, mental, moral, and physical, in common that makes them men. It is clear that the addition, removal, or modification of whatever is accidental, circumstantial, idiosyncratic, does not affect the question of "truth" and "nature.” It is clear that, if you refuse what is "above par,” you must refuse what is below it. What, then, is "par?" As regards that heroic or historical standard which is generally intended by the term "ideal," there is not perhaps all the discrimination the case demands. Let us look a moment at its proper meaning. There is, first, what we might call the statistic ideal ; IDEAL DOES. NOT DESTROY INDIVIDUALITY. 113 a something you would arrive at by striking a balance between differences a way of getting at the heroic or the beautiful about as rational as get- ting at "truth" by "a show of hands." But there is, secondly, an ideal we may call typical or imaginative, taken, not from the greatest number of cases, but from what in each individual case is most felicitous; and this, not by simple collocation-an eye from one, an ear or foot from another-but by a sort of sub- limating process-gathering, by comparison of all, that common idea of perfection to which, with dispro- portionate attainment, all seem growing up—an image impressed on that finer sense we call Fancy by all that is great or fair throughout the species. All this assumes, of course, the real existence of beauty; which some have doubted,—the existence, that is to say, of certain qualities that are, in their intrinsic nature, and not by virtue of association, con- ventionalism, habit, prejudice, what we mean when we call them beautiful. Some, I say, have doubted this; I never did, and never could. As soon should I doubt that, when Job asked "Is there any taste in the white of an egg?" he spoke the language of human nature, and not a mere conventionalism of the land of Uz. Grant, that association, habit, prejudice, play with qualities of physical nature as they do with those of truth and justice, that alters not the nature. of things; for "Who can make that straight which He hath made crooked ?”* We need not be embarrassed by frivolous objec- tions; as, that we make invidious distinctions, where * Eccles. iii. 11. I 114 POETRY OF ART. all men are born alike; or, that we assert some standard of our own, whilst other nations have adopted theirs. The first objection scarce deserves an answer; all men are notoriously not born alike. The second only looks more respectable. It is amongst the holes and corners of a scepticism whose vacuity betrays itself. Nations are no more alike than individuals, whether in their capacities of judg- ing, or as subjects of judgment. If they have adopted, each a different standard,-call it national prejudice, fashion, or what you will,-they have at least come to one common point, that it is not a local peculiarity, but a human instinct, to look beyond the actual to the ideal. It does not follow that, adopting the principle, or even determining the form of an ideal, all human figures are to be forthwith alike. The very principle involves variety. Qualities are not all alike: their modifications are not all alike. You want typical forms to personify both. You may want the ideal of Judas Iscariot, as well as that of Abdiel. Nor does it follow that Art, availing herself of the ideal, is under necessity of foregoing the individual. We may at least conceive of a wholesome com- promise, where the actual has lost its vulgarities, without losing its identity; the ideal thrown its halo around the personal, without dissolving it in vapidity. This is, no doubt, the triumph of Art,-a walking, I might almost say, between heaven and earth. It is not quite the Mussulman's "road to paradise." Leonardo, Fra Angelico, Raffaelle, have walked it steadily. But on either side is a host of unfor- PRE-RAFFAELLITE NOTION OF IDEAL. 115 tunates, some of them men, otherwise, of no small endowments. I have long thought it a sinister fact that, whilst the great masters painted Portrait one day, and History another, these things have come, now-a-days, to a sort of professional divorce. I dare not say to what extent we get the consequences, history without life, and life without history. I must not pursue the subject further: let us see how Pre-Raffaellitism has treated it. The works we are engaged with are the product of a series of years. It will be seen, however, that between the "Modern Painters" of '42, the "Edinburgh Lectures" of '54, and the "Many Things" of '56, there is, at least, as to the broad principle before us, consistency enough. In the former work, the abstract notion of Ideal- ism is first, apparently, adopted. "The perfect idea of the form and condition in which all the properties of the species are fully developed is called the ideal." (Pt. iii. sec. i. chap. xiii. § 2.) Already, however, there is an ominous question as to. “What kind of ideal may be attributed to a limpet or an oyster that is to say, whether all oysters do not come up to the entire notion or idea of an oyster." (Ibid § 5.) Not to dredge for the answer, we get sensibly nearer the point in the following: "That is always an ideal oak which, however poverty- stricken, or hunger-pinched, or tempest-tossed, is yet seen I 2 116 POETRY OF ART. to have done, under the appointed circumstances, all that could have been expected of oak." (Ibid. § 9.) "" We need not stop to ask whether "poverty- stricken" and hunger-pinched answer Mr. Ruskin's own elementary statement. To speak of "what could be expected under circumstances” is to repudiate idealism altogether. All growth depends on circumstances. The axe or the knife are ap- pointed circumstances. Disease, and blight, and what some call the "fortune of war," are appointed circumstances. As to one illustrious case, there can be no possible doubt, "For when his legs were both cut off He fought upon his stumps." This was doing all that could be expected under appointed circumstances; "Sir Hugh Witherington likewise" was, therefore, to the last, an ideal man. The sequel may be anticipated: "Whatever portions of a picture are taken, without alteration, from nature have, as far as they go, the look of imagination, because all that nature does is imaginative." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii. § 17.) That I may not seem, however, to carry words beyond their intended meaning, let us look at the abnegation of the human ideal as Mr Ruskin him- self has put it. He has been speaking of vital beauty in animals: “But behold now,” he says, a sudden change. No longer among the individuals of the race is there equality or likeness, a distributed fairness and fixed type visible in REAL SIGNIFICANCY OF THE WORD. 117 each; but evil diversity, and terrible stamp of various. degradation features seamed with sickness, dimmed by sensibility, convulsed with passion, pinched with poverty, shadowed by sorrow, branded with remorse; bodies con- sumed with sloth, broken down by labour, tortured by disease, dishonoured in foul uses; intellects without power, hearts without hope, minds earthly and devilish; our bones full of the sin of our youth; evils for us only if, after beholding this our natural face as in a glass, we desire not straightway to forget what manner of men we be." (Pt. iii. sec. i. chap. xiv. § 1.) Not to stumble at an inversion of Apostolic language, words like these sound like a preamble to a treatise on Ideal Art. One might almost expect, after such a passage, the broad advice for artists to look with intelligent reverence in their mother's face, and trace in every line not what is, but what was meant to be;-certainly not such sentences as the following: - "Having the eye even in a measure open to the divinity of the immortal seal on the common features that any man meets with in the highways and hedges, hourly and momentarily, outreaching all efforts of con- ception, or all power of realisation, were it Raffaelle's three times over, even when the glory of the wedding garment is not there." (Ibid. § 15.) If such expressions simply mean that there is a something in the actuality of life no imitative art can embody, as no philosophy can explain, nor revelation itself unfold it, who is not, so far, a Pre-Raffaellite? If they mean anything more, what are they, in the face of the preceding statement, but a "going our I 3 118 POETRY OF ART. way and straightway forgetting what manner of men we are?" I know not how others read about highways and hedges. Surely if Jack Cade had founded a Royal Academy, this hedgerow ideal would have been in- fallibly in the charter. But let us trace the down- ward progress step by step. “There is not,” we are told, “any virtue, the exercise of which, even momentarily, will not impress a new fair- ness upon the features: neither on them only, but on the whole body.... Hence, what we must determinedly banish from the human form or countenance in our seeking of its ideal is, not everything which can be ultimately traced to the Adamite fall for the cause, but only the im- mediate operation and presence of the degrading power of sin." (Ibid. § 11.) This is, indeed, a short cut to the "poetry of Art.” But can it be seriously affirmed, as an elementary fact, that Saul of Tarsus was idealised the moment he ceased to breathe out "threatenings and slaughters"? We believe that the curse of Adam involved some- thing more than a liability to be foully written on by blearing and blasting passions. We believe that, when the ground was cursed, and thorns and thistles came up for flowers of paradise, a change no less significant came on that fairer tablet of the Creator's handwriting. We believe that, as it had been announced, "In the day thou eatest thou shalt die," even so, in that very day, man did really and truly die-judicially, as one sentenced to death is already dead in the eye of the law; spiritually, as, wanting the life of God, he became incapable of CONTRAST OF ACTUALITIES NO IDEAL. 119 spiritual exercises; and physically, as one bitten of a deadly snake begins, from the very moment of the fatal bite, to die. How much of immediate symptom there may have been we cannot predicate. One thing is certain—that same judicial finger that touched the lips of presum- ing architects*, and, in a moment, their speech was foreign that same judicial finger touched man's nature, and, like Jacob's thigh, it "shrank;" and man has halted" to the present day. There is hereditary palsy: "I was shapen in iniquity." Whilst, therefore, it were folly to talk as if we could really measure, much less retrace, the precise amount of our fall from our original, we may say, at least, thus much, that, beyond immediate conse- quences, and scars and blots, there is on the whole countenance of the human family an untold departure from our proper ideal. It is no momentary affair- "A single cloud on a summer's day,"- but a baleful mysterious blight on the whole system, now made mortal. When we talk of ideals we want the removal, in some sort, though, of course, in dif- ferent degrees in diverse cases, of what is universal and permanent; not aberrations, that make a solecism of the individual, but defects that dwarf and disfigure the collective species - the littlenesses, meannesses, commonplaces, insignificances of every-day humanity, It is fine to talk of "angelic seals." Blessed be God, there is a seal; and ministering angels read * Gen. xi. 9. 14 120 POETRY OF ART. and note it. But it is not for every eye. When we read it, it is in the idealising of the character, not the altering of the visage; much less the fashioning of the general frame. If, then, Art, seriously and sacredly acting, is to perform her mission under the conditions I have adverted to if she is to personify noble deeds and noble thoughts, she must have noble lineaments, or she speaks an unknown tongue. As for "man's improvement of God's work in ge- neral," I need say but few words. One undeniable fact underlies and covers the whole matter. God's work is not as God left it. I, for one, can never tole- rate the system that systematically ignores the fact. * * * * * Since the above remarks were penned, we have a further development of Pre-Raffaellitism. "We now enter on the consideration of that central or highest branch of ideal Art which concerns itself simply with things as they ARE" (sic); "and accepts in all of them alike the evil and the good." (Modern Paint- ers, vol. iii, pt. iv. chap. vii. p. 81.) The question, What has this to do with idealism? is of course inevitable. The question is answered. "It meets the requirement pre-eminently by the power of arrangement—that is to say, accepting the weaknesses, faults, and wrongnesses in all things that it sees, it so places and harmonises them, that they form a noble whole; in which the imperfection of each several part is not only harmless but absolutely essential." (Ibid.) * Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 23. IDEAL SACRED AND INDISPENSABLE. 121 Such is the definition: an example is given from Tintoret. "The Madonna is an unaltered portrait of a Venetian girl; the Magi are unaltered Venetian senators ; and the figure with the basket an unaltered woman of Mestre.” This is called "an example of the general ideal treat- ment of the human form." (Ibid.) Now, is this an admissible use of language? If a single unaltered portrait is no example of "ideal treatment of the human form” in particular, are three or more portraits, equally unaltered, an example of ideal treatment of the human form in general? Is it anything better than a contradiction in terms? What if a divine should call it moral teaching to accept "the evil and the good alike"? and talk of presenting "the central and highest branch" of morals, by "concerning himself simply with things as they ARE"?- the unaltered character of girls, senators, and market-women, "giving an example of the general ideal" of human virtue? a living com- pendium of the "whole duty of man ”? It is still more hard to think of so many individual vices making up a composite virtue, than of so many mutual uglinesses making up a common beauty. But it seems that the whole secret of this "true idealism” is in the one word contrast. "The false idealist, or even the purist, depends upon perfecting each separate hue" (I need not repeat that I am no advocate of transcendentalism): "the naturalist takes the coarsest and feeblest colours of the things around him, and so interweaves and opposes them, that they become more lovely than if they had all been bright.” (Ibid.) 122 POETRY OF ART. Forget Turner: apply this rule, and note the con- sequences. That "greasy citizen," reeking with cheese and tallow, becomes a Sir Philip Sydney when but brought in contact with his own melter. That "rogue in grain" is moralised into an ideal of social virtue by simple juxtaposition with Palmer the poisoner. There is no avoiding the issue. We must have an ideal. The artistic impulse demands it. The imaginative faculty demands it. Reason demands. it. Moral sense demands it. Nature demands it. "The whole creation-made subject to vanity-groans and travails, waiting for the manifestation" of which it is a sort of symbol, pledge, and earnest. If this universal instinct is to be mocked and baffled with the unaltered portraiture of "things as they ARE”—if "the central and highest branch of ideal" is to be the accepting "the evil and the good alike;" and contrast of things contentedly imperfect made to stand for their growing up to intrinsic faultlessness, Art has failed of her mission: every noble aspiration may be alike defeated; eternal justice-at least our present sense of it—mocked and baffled by the same process; and Cæsar Borgia, and the Papal Monster who was called his uncle, stand forth as ideals of benevolence, if only placed in dramatic composition with the "spi- ritual wickedness" who was "a murderer from the beginning." 123 TRUTH" AND " 66 CHAP. XIV. BEAUTY."— HISTORICAL PAINTING. GIOTTO AND PLAIN FACTS."-PRE-RAFFAELLITE PARAPHRASE OF HOLY SCRIP- THE GRAND SCHOOL."-HISTORY REDUCED TO PORTRAIT, -APPEAL TO FACTS. THE DUKE AT WATERLOO. TURE. "WHEN," says Mr. Ruskin, "the whole purpose of Art was moral teaching," a state of things we may glance at in another chapter,— "it naturally took truth for its first object, and beauty, and the pleasure resulting from beauty, for its second." (Edin. Lectures, p. 208.) But why, I must ask, this formal divorce between truth and beauty? It is true that those of whose principles Mr. Ruskin is the penman, are, he tells us, "characterised, as a body, by a total want of sensibility to the ordinary and popular forms of artistic gracefulness" (Ibid. p. 228.); but this is not surely to warp our judgment, much less to establish a law. To such a fact it were enough to oppose the single name of Fra Angelico. It has pleased Mr. Ruskin to go further back; and the case is too instructive to be left unnoticed. He tells us that "In Orcagna's great fresco of the Triumph of Death, one of the incidents is that three kings, when out 124 POETRY OF ART. } hunting, are met by a spirit, which leads them to a churchyard, and points out to them, in open coffins, three bodies of kings, such as themselves, in the last stages of corruption. Now a modern artist representing this, would have endeavoured dimly and faintly to suggest the appearance of the dead bodies, and would have made, or attempted to make," (is this "Truth," or its sister, Charity ?) "the countenances of the three kings variously and solemnly expressive of thought. This would be, in his, or our view, a poetical and beautiful treatment of the subject. But Orcagna disdains both poetry and taste: he wants the facts only: he wishes to give the spectator the same lesson the kings had, and therefore, instead of concealing the dead bodies, he paints them with the most fearful detail. And then he does not consider what the three kings might most gracefully do. He considers only what they actually, in all probability, would have done. He makes them looking at the coffins with a startled air, and "- (Reader, keep your countenance) one holding his nose.” (Ibid. pp. 209, 210.) (C I repeat the question. Why this divorce of truth and beauty? Has death no moral power, till it has lost all its solemnity? Has a monarch no mode of expressing his sense of corruption, but by holding his nose? Has Art no means of telling truth, but by an outrage on social decency? Is there not more in stirring imagination than in ex- posing a naked fact? Is disgust enlightenment? Is there not a mode of presenting truth which makes the soul open all her avenues to receive it? and another which makes her, by the very instinct of self-preservation, close them fast, and attempt to escape? Is the Morgue a better teacher than the HISTORICAL PAINTING: WHAT? 125 Twelfth of Ecclesiastes? Is there no frightful signi- ficancy in those words of the scoffing Poet? "For sometimes they contain a deal of fun; Like mourning coaches, when the funeral's done.” It can never be too often remembered that the power of truth hangs on our receiving it, not as a disgusting necessity, but, as the Scripture says, "in the love of it." For this end it must reach us in a way consistent at once with itself, and with our capacities. The "look" of death, mute and mo- tionless,- "Before decay's effacing fingers Have swept the lines where beauty lingers,"- has an eloquence that bows the soul. A few short hours, and the soul revolts. I remember how, after one youthful sight of that "first, last look," I found it difficult to feel that the moving forms around me were not shadows. I suspect that, had Orcagna completed his story, he might have painted the three kings at their evening banquet: one complaining of a "slovenly, unhandsome corse; " another replying, "Had I three ears, I'd hear thee;" and the third lift- ing his goblet to the words, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die.' We are not, it seems, to take the case as singular: "All the men of that time. . . . either painted from nature things as they were, or from imagination things. as they must have been." (Ibid. p. 211.) And this is, it seems, the only legitimate practice. We have the same account of the modern Pre- Raffaellites,- 126 POETRY OF ART. "From nature only; or, when imagination is neces- sarily resorted to, by always endeavouring to conceive a fact as it really was likely to have happened, rather than as it most prettily might have happened." (Ibid. p. 227.) So that the true and proper office of Imagination is just to conceive matter of fact. We arrive, then, at the result of those identifications of "Truth" with Imagination to which I called attention in the pre- ceding chapters. We have done with all we have been used to mean when speaking of poetry and poetic art.* The conclusion is so monstrous as to be well nigh incredible. Those who have not read Mr. Ruskin must think I am dragging some unguarded phrase into a false rhetorical position. His own style is so pa- radoxically poetical, that many, even of his Readers, may be unconscious of all his meaning. At the risk, therefore, of what some may deem superfluous, we must look a little further. Here is first, then, a general question:- "What do you at present mean by historical painting? Now-a-days it means the endeavouring, by the power of Imagination, to pourtray some historical event of past days. But in the middle ages it meant representing the acts of their own days: and that is the only historical painting worth a straw." (Ibid. p. 217.) * Whilst this work is in the printer's hands, an article in Black- wood has come to mine, developing, at no small length, and with con- siderable power, the point I have here, so briefly, insisted on. Want of space alone prevented my entering more largely on it whilst writing, and want of space alone prevents my quoting upon it whilst print- ing. The views of the writer of that excellent article are on this subject, and not on this only, identical with my own. 66 GIOTTO AND PLAIN FACTS." 127 The Reader will be naturally tempted to a ques- tion of fact. An occasional cartoon of Pisa, or a pro- cession in the Bransacci chapel, will not, of course, suffice us. What were, then, the recurring subjects, when the entire purpose of Art was moral teaching? Were the walls of churches and monasteries peopled with contemporaneous history? Did Masolino see "Peter and Paul healing the Cripple," or Masaccio "The Expulsion of Adam and Eve "? I will not ask who saw "The Last Judgment" in the Campo Santo. Did Orcagna see the three kings? and one of them "holding his nose"? The matter is not, however, so soon disposed of. We must make Mr. Ruskin his own interpreter. Since the "Modern Painters" of the "Oxford Gradu- ate"-since his "Pre-Raphaelitism"-since even the "Edinburgh Lectures," we have a notice of Giotto for the Arundel Society. What I am about to quote from it will not, of course, be taken as expressing my personal sense of Giotto, much less of our obli- gations to the Society that would make him better known to us. Mr. Ruskin professes a revolution: we are concerned, not so much with facts, as with his manner of putting them. That we should not all agree as to the precise value of colour, is, I suppose, amicably referable to differences of organisation or temperament. Yet one is hardly prepared to hear of this foremost man amongst the lovers of " truth rather than beauty' the "greatest painter of medieval Italy” (p. 45.)— and "one of the greatest men who ever lived" (p. 24.) -that "" 128 POETRY OF ART. "he had the Venetian fondness for bars and stripes: and this predilection was mingled with the truly medieval love of quartering, the division of the picture into quaint segments of alternating colour more marked than any of the figure outline." (P. 33. and note, ibid.) Nor of the so-called "religious painters," generally, that "all works produced in the thirteenth century" (being professedly representations of sacred history) "were intended, in most instances, to be subservient to archi- tectural effects." (P. 34. and note, ibid.) * But let us keep to Giotto, as to whose seriousness there may be serious doubts. We are told that "he painted sacred subjects, almost exclusively, not from his own peculiar feeling, but from the necessity of the period, considering himself a workman for any work, * Since writing the above, the following quotation from Mr. Hallam has met my eye in a work of Mrs. Jameson's. After saying that "Leonardo da Vinci was the miracle of that age of miracles," she cites a passage from "The Literature of Europe," which contains the following sentences: "These fragments" (his MSS. still existing) "are, according to our estimate of the age in which he lived, more like revelations of physical truths vouchsafed to a single mind than the superstructure of its reasoning upon any established basis. The discoveries which made Galileo, Kepler, Castelli, and other names illustrious - the system of Copernicus -the very theories of recent geologists anticipated by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages." are I allow myself this mutilated extract, not only as a qualification of very extravagant, and as I think unwholesome, praise, but by way of protest against an assertion of Mr. Ruskin's, of which his notice of Giotto compels the remembrance, that the age of Giotto and Orcagna "the age of thought," and that of M. Angelo, Raffaelle, and Leonardo da Vinci," the age of drawing"! (Edin. Lect., p. 152.) was GIOTTO AND "PLAIN FACTS." 129 however humble " (p. 24.),—a strange account of re- ligious art,“ receiving a great deal of daily comfort and encouragement in the simple admiration of the popu- lace." (P. 30.) If all this be not plain enough, it has the most luminous commentary in the account we are about to open of Giotto's works. The point is his alleged love of "plain facts," and it is every- where presented in the strongest possible relief. It is not enough that facts really and necessarily plain are not sophisticated. The plainness is gratuitous, and as gratuitously eliminated. For instance, the legend painted, and quoted from, reports of Joachim, the father of Anna, that " God so multiplied and in- creased his goods that there was no man like him in the land of Israel." (P. 49.) Mr. Ruskin observes that, when the angel is represented as appearing to Anna, "The interest of the composition depends entirely on the broad shadows which give prominence to the curtains and coverlid of that homely bed, and the rude chest and trestles which form the poor furniture of the house." (P. 35.) Whether this be sound in Art or Theology, I shall not stop to ask: we find it yet more emphatic in the treatment of a profounder subject. When we think of "The Nativity," most of us look on it, I suppose, as the fulfilment of those stu- pendous words," Unto us a child is born: and his name shall be called Wonderful." Giotto paints a Nativity. I will say nothing of Punch and Judy angels: they were, of course, the best he could make them; all beyond their symbolical character invokes our pity. There is something else, I know not how K 130 POETRY OF ART. any but a Pre-Raffaellite can look on without ab- horrence. It is not the "blessed among women :” it is not “the mother of my Lord;" but a simple lying-in woman, that the picture presents us with. The great object and we have the critic's assurance for it is the emblazonry of the fact that "she wrapped him in swaddling-clothes, &c. ;" and, accordingly, we have the "Infant of Days" carefully presented in that well-known package of mortality-in a bundle, with its head protruding so many of us have been dis- gusted with in the native country of Giotto. In the "Birth of the Virgin" this august exhibi- tion is twice obtruded in the same picture: once, as the child is received from the nurse, like a little Lazarus in grave-clothes; again (how shall I write it? but it seems to have furnished the prototype for a Pre-Raffaellite picture already noticed) having its nose literally washed over a basin of water ! No doubt this is painting events as "plain facts," not as they may be conceived to have "prettily hap- pened:" and, no doubt, Giotto was a great man: so was St. Francis. It may be at least as much questioned whether Scripture facts are, properly speaking, the "plain facts" he made them, as whether having "no continuing city here" is leading the life of dirty vagrancy that sturdy beggar called "a religion." All this belongs to the human nature; here is something no less significant as regards the angelical. "There is something peculiarly beautiful in the simplicity of Giotto's conception, and in the way in which he shows the angel entering" (we might say climbing) "in at the window, without the least endeavour to impress PARAPHRASE OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 131 our imagination by darkness, or light, or clouds, or any other accessory; as though believing that angels might appear anywhere and any day, and to all men, as a matter of course" (like the workman's inspiration, "without mouthing about it," Ibid. p. 29.), "if we would ask them or were fit company for them." (P. 55.) I shall enter on no theological questions: I quote the passage to show the ubiquitous breaking down of things high and holy. As to "fit company," I know scarce an instance in the Word of God where the best and holiest have not been impressed with awe by the surpassing dignity of angels; nor where "Fear not" does not seem to have been the first sentence of all their messages. "" When we find angels, shorn of their beams, coming in at windows, and supernatural visits, on the most marvellous of errands, transferred into "plain facts" that might happen every day "as a thing of course,' who can wonder if humanity is cut down, in like manner, without any endeavour to impress the ima- gination? that "of majestical women bowing to beau- tiful and meek girls" (in the "Salutation")" we have enough?” (Ibid. p. 76.) or that Dante's homely phrase for angel, "bird of God," should be termed a most exquisite synonym "? (P. 78.) * 66 *I am assuming, not arguing, the poetic instinct. There is, I trust, no presumption in saying that to call "the lark at heaven's gate sing- ing" an angel bird had been in keeping with a faculty that refines its every object; and that the counter expression is but the utterance of that other faculty which degrades it. It is simply condensing a being of light into an animal. That it is a winged animal is nothing to the purpose: the angels are winged angels. That it is a bird of God" is nothing better: the angels are angels of God. That K 2 132 POETRY OF ART. Since even the "notice of Giotto," we have an- other volume of " Modern Painters," where we find a denunciation of a well known cartoon of Raffaelle. For the "infinite monstrosity and hypocrisy" of that glorious picture, Mr. Ruskin gives us a para- phrase of the Scripture account of the event. It is too long for insertion; I extract some of the cha- racterising sentences. 'Peter saith unto them, I go a fishing. They say unto him, 'We also go with thee:' true words enough... When the morning came, in the clear light of it, behold a figure stood on the shore. They had no guess who it • was; and John shades his eyes from the morning sun with his hand, to look who it is, and though the glinting of the sea, too, dazzles him, he makes out who it is at last; and poor Simon, not to be outrun this time, tightens his fisher's coat about him, and dashes in over his nets. One would have liked" (being a Pre-Raffaellite) "to see him swim those hundred yards and stagger to the beach Well, the others get to the beach too, in time . . . seven of them in all first the denier, and then the slowest believer, and then the quickest believer and then Peter all dripping still, shivering and amazed, staring at Christ in the sun, on the other side of the coal fire. Note how Peter, whose chief glory was in his wet coat girt about him, and naked limbs," &c. (Modern Painters, vol. iii. p. 55.) • Had I been challenged to a caricature of Pre- Raffaellitism, I know not if I could have ventured it "makes the manner of flight as naturally apprehended as that of a chough or a starling" (Ibid.), is but a palpable expression of the very debasing process I am complaining of; nor shall the name of Dante seduce or daunt me to conceal my sense of its character. HISTORIC DETAILS IN HISTORIC PICTURES. 133 on such a presentation of such a subject. Of its general tone, theologically considered, I need say nothing. One could almost take it for a passage of Carlyle on the French Revolution. I will only ask what must be the momentum of the Pre-Raffaellite system what, I had almost said, the "facilis de- scensus averni ” — that can have brought the "Oxford Graduate" to such a paraphrase? "" But I shall ask the reader to note its perfect iden- tity with the normal type we had from Giotto; how it is the natural, not the spiritual, that everywhere absorbs attention; how all for which Scripture was written is scrupulously ground down into a "plain fact"the"figure in the clear light of morning -John shading his eyes to look who it is the "glinting of the sea" dazzling him (as blind, it should seem, as the woman of Samaria before she saw with her conscience),—and all because Turner has blinded the Paraphrast; for it is all in spite of that suffi- ciently simple word “therefore” —“therefore that dis- ciple whom Jesus loved saith unto Peter, It is the Lord." Wherefore?—not because he shaded his eyes, but because the miracle shone into his soul. Perhaps the most instructive part of the paraphrase is the interpolation about seeing Peter swimming. Who can wonder, after this, at Peter, "dripping and shivering, staring at Christ in the sun on the other side of the coal fire?" or even at his "chief glory being in his wet coat and naked limbs?" though, if imagination is to tell us things as they must have been," his limbs were no longer naked; his clothes must have ceased to drip; and himself 66 K 3 134 POETRY OF ART. become utterly insensible to its being either cold or warm. But this is a self-drawn portrait of Pre- Raffaellitism. It is no reply to say that some of these circum- stances are actually recorded in Scripture. Who sees not an obvious difference between the text and the paraphrase? Of the essential distinction between a written narrative, where details can be kept in their proper place, and a picture, in which, if they be pro- truded, they obscure, degrade, and absolutely pervert the subject, I have said something already *, and must, by and by, say something more. We have yet something, however, to notice here. Upon the great principles of what have hitherto been called historical painting, it is, of course, of secondary import that the painter should busy him- self with curious questions of Antiquarianism. Where poetical, rather than literal, truth, and the great master tones, than the personalities of humanity are all in all, we can sit comparatively loose to all but gross and offensive anachronisms. We smile at scribes reading with spectacles, à la Hemskirk, and are almost insensible to the sitting of those who we know reclined, at the "Last Supper." But, in exact proportion as we recede from the ideal, -in exact proportion as we demand, "not what might, but what must have happened," in exact proportion as we make the picture, not the embodi- ment of a poetical conception, but a transcript of "absolute truth," in that exact proportion do we expect a consistent adherence to all attainable * P. 103-4. NON-CONTEMPORANEOUS HISTORY. 135 We "facts" of time, place, and circumstance. may have been scandalised by its excess in Pre- Raffaellite pictures, and sighed to get out into the clear light and breadth of what is beyond the mys- teries of tailoring and mantua-making; we could never have been prepared, from such a quarter, for the following passage: - . "The best art either represents the facts of its own day, or, if of facts of the past, expresses them with ac- cessories of the time in which the work was done. No painter has any business to be an antiquarian." (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.) Here is, in plain terms, a broad disclaimer of all we have been used to call "historical " painting. Art is positively shut up to Giotto's "incidents of every- day life." It is impossible to escape the con- sequences: a Queen of Sheba must come from the ends of the earth in a black hat and riding habit; and "Solomon, in all his glory," receive her in coat, waistcoat, and small-clothes. This is, in fact, "the only historical painting that is worth a straw." For what, Mr. Ruskin proceeds,- "What do you suppose our descendants will care for our imagination of the events of former days?" (Edin. Lectures, p. 217.) A question it is impossible not to put in another form. What do we care, as regards our forefathers, for their imagination of events, to them, of former days? What for Raffaelle's "Paul preaching at Athens"? or Del Piombo's "Raising of Lazarus"? or Annibal Caracci's "Three Maries"? What, for K 4 136 POETRY OF ART. Homer, Virgil, Milton, Tasso, or Shakspeare? What even for Livy? or Polybius, or Tacitus, or dear old Plutarch? But what a question! "Imagination of former days!" Why, who knows not that it has been ever the remote, and not the present, that has given to imagination its master impulse? as if things could never look great, noble, impressive enough for master minds, till time had melted down their trivialities in his aerial perspective. But we are in the nineteenth century: the Lecture brings us to actual cases. Chronologists tell us that the siege of Troy oc- curred about the year B. C. 1193; and that Homer flourished about the year 907: so that there was much the same interval between Homer and "Achilles' wrath" as between a painter in this current year and Mary Queen of Scots. But Mr. Ruskin says, "Homer sang of what he saw.” (Ibid. p. 220.) I will not ask if Phidias saw the originals of those famous statues, the Jupiter and the Minerva, or of those other personages in the pediment of the Par- thenon, or the Centaurs and Lapithæ that adorn the Metopes: yet Mr. Ruskin says, in like manner, “ Phidias carved what he saw.” (Ibid.) No doubt he did see the Panathenaic procession. Whether those bas-reliefs give us the actual or the idealised portraiture of what he saw, is another matter. I have a high sense of the bearing of that select community, since called a republic, with its 20,000 freemen, 40,000 slaves, and the maxim that the rest of the species were ordained to be their CC THE GRAND SCHOOL.". -APPEAL TO FACTS. 137 tributaries. Were it credible that all was as the chisel gave it, we can scarce have the hardihood to fix the fact on modern sculptors; and bid “ High Art" rob the "Illustrated London News" of its sup- posed copyright in Lord Mayors' Shows. But we have other witnesses: CC Suppose Raffaelle had left us nothing but imaginary portraits of Pericles and Miltiades? . . . . Raffaelle painted the men of his own time in their caps and man- tles." (Ibid.) I will say nothing about such absurdities as "imaginary portraits: " let us put this question also in another form:"Suppose Raffaelle had left us nothing but " the "men of his own time in their caps and mantles?" Every schoolboy may answer he had not been then the "ille hic est Raphael." The other witnesses are more modern : "How did Reynolds rise? How did Hogarth rise? We have but to put these questions also in their proper form: What did Reynolds rise to? What did Hogarth rise to? Who ever takes them but ast the portrait-painter, and the satirist? Yet the former would have spurned the honour here awarded him. When he would paint even a portrait of Mrs. Siddons, he must represent her as the tragic muse, and take for model a sibyl of Michael Angelo. But here is a sad case: "Poor Wilkie must needs travel to see the grand school, and imitate the grand school, and ruin himself. There was Etty, naturally as good a painter as ever 138 POETRY OF ART. lived; but no one told him what to paint, and he studied the antique, and the grand school, and painted dances of nymphs in red and yellow shawls to the end of his days. He is gone to the grave, a lost mind. There was Flaxman, another naturally great man. He stumbles over the blocks of the antique statues-wanders, in the dark valley of their ruins" (ruins described by the "Oxford Graduate as "lines of traceless and refined delicacy"), "to the end of his days. Another lost mind." (Ibid. pp. 219–20.) "" This is an ingenious use of testimony. We won't haggle about Etty, whose works show plainly enough that he studied something besides cold mar- ble. But, to take Wilkie, a man fitted, like Ho- garth, for an inferior walk, and possibly embarrassed in one part of his career by something which lay beyond it, and then to lay the damages-not against his own mistake, but against what he should have never dreamt of imitating, is like saying "the mountain ” was no mountain, because it would "not come to Mahomet." As to Flaxman, he may of course have had, if Mr. Ruskin says so, "as true an eye for nature as Raffaelle." There remains only the curious fact that, whilst both had this "eye for nature," and both wandered alike in "the dark valley," the result in the one case was the sibyls and angels of Sta. Maria della Pace, in the other (so at least says Mr. Ruskin) a few outlines of muscular men," of which he cha- ritably adds, " much good may they do you!" 66 Matters get worse and worse as we proceed: "I saw, not long ago, the portrait of a man whom I knew well, a young man, but a religious man," (!)" and THE DUKE AT WATERLO0. 139 one who had suffered much from sickness. The whole dignity of his features and person depended upon the expression of serene yet solemn purpose sustaining a feeble frame; and the painter, by way of flattering him, strengthened him, and made him athletic in body, gay in countenance, idle in gesture. The whole power and being of the man himself were lost." (Ibid. p. 222.) This is a sad affair. The saddest part is that the religious young man, instead of re-enacting a noble lord under opposite circumstances, seems to have taken the flattery, and paid for it. But this leads. us to another case, to which I must call special at- tention. a It is a portrait of the Duke of Wellington statue so far executed, it seems, on strict Pre-Raf- faellite principles that "the Duke gave Mr. Steele a sitting on horseback in order that his mode of riding might be most accurately represented." Can anything come nearer “ history"? Alas! the action of the Duke in his own garden was not the action of the Duke on the field of battle. So history cannot be history, first, except it be actual portrait; and next, except the historian be by his hero's side in the his- toric moment. There will come, in fact, to be but one historian" our own correspondent." But now follows the instructive part of the busi- ness. The sculptor-with the Duke sitting to him— could not be true because the Duke only sat to him in his own garden; the lecturer - to whom I believe the Duke did not sit, whether in garden, field, or study-seizes the chisel, turns with all the disdain of genius from "horses on their hind legs in the saw- dust; " and here is the result: 140 POETRY OF ART. “Do you suppose that was the way the Duke sat when your destinies depended upon him? when the foam hung from the lips of his tired horse, and its wet limbs were dashed with the bloody slime of the battle-field, and he himself" (not the horse) "sat, anxious in his quietness, grieved in his fearlessness, as he watched, scythe-stroke by scythe-stroke, the gathering in of the harvest of death.” (Ibid. pp. 223–4.) How far such a portrait may be from "the grand school," I will not say; how far it belongs to the school the author is defending, I leave to those (and they are all who have an English heart beneath their waistcoat) to whom the actual Iron Duke at Water- loo is a permanent object of mental vision. Think, a moment, of the man who, so long as any anxiety was to be acted out, took such inimitable pains to hide it from those who watched him. Think of that im- perturbable smile, in which the rawest recruit read the certainty of his own endurance in the hour of trial. Think of the admission that he "might have looked once or twice at his watch," as if just to see whether old "Vorwärts" was keeping his appoint- ment. Think of the ubiquitous promptitude that, instead of sitting to sentimentalise, was everywhere and everybody at the very hitch of the critical mo- ment:- on his horse-off his horse,—now the com- mander-in-chief, "Tell him I've but one order, he must hold his ground to the last man,”—now the captain of infantry in the hollow square, bidding the men lie close and bide their time,—now the brigadier, “Go on, Colbourne, they won't stand, go on,”—now the aide-de-camp, "le Duc lui-même est allé voir." THE DUKE AT WATERLO0. · 141 Think of him amidst the death-bolts, with his pithy colloquial pleasantries,-" nice pounding here, gentle- men, let's see who can pound longest." Think, I say, of all this, and pronounce if Mr. Ruskin's portrait be, in the sense of his system, an historic portrait; if it be really the actual Duke, and not rather that melodramatic emperor on whom he inflicted such “ thrashing." I had almost asked if even the horse could be the actual "Copenhagen" that almost dashed his master's brains out when he dismounted, some hours after, in the dark? a But can anything be finer than Realism turning pure Idealism as it touches history? 142 RELIGION OF ART. CHAP. XV. RELIGION OF ART. IS ALL MEDIÆVAL ART A CONFESSION, AND ALL MODERN ART A DENIAL, OF CHRIST?" THE Fourth of Mr. Ruskin's Edinburgh Lectures contains a statement, of which the following are the master passages : "The world has had essentially a trinity of ages the Classical Age, the Middle Age, the Modern Age. Consider, therefore, first, the essential difference in cha- racter between three of the most devoted military heroes whom the three great epochs of the world have produced. I mean, Leonidas in the classical period, St. Louis in the mediæval period, and Lord Nelson in the modern period. Leonidas had the most rigid sense of duty, and died with the most perfect faith in the gods of his country. St. Louis had the most rigid sense of duty, and the most perfect faith in Christ. Nelson had the most rigid sense of duty, and You must supply my pause with your charity..... I say that Classicalism began, wherever civilisation began, with pagan faith. Medievalism began and continued, wherever civilisation began and continued, to confess Christ. And lastly, Modernism began and continues, wherever civilisation began and continues, to deny Christ. . . . . Hear the direction to an upholsterer of the early 13th century. He is to 'paint on the walls of the king's upper chamber the story of St. Margaret, CONFESSION." PAINTED WINDOWS. 143 Virgin, and the Four Evangelists. Again, the sheriff of Southampton is ordered to paint the tablet beside the king's bed with the figures of the guards of Solomon, and to glaze with white glass the windows of the king's great hall at Northampton, and cause the history of Lazarus and Dives to be painted in the same.'. . . Now, when you go home to your own rooms, supposing them to be really decorated at all, examine what that decora- tion consists of. You will find Cupids, Graces, Floras, Dianas, Jupiters, Junos. . . . . What do you suppose was the substance of good education, the education of a knight, in the Middle Ages? What was taught to a boy as soon as he was able to learn anything? First, to keep under his body, and to bring it into subjection and per- fect strength; then, to take Christ for his captain - to live as always in His presence; and, finally, to do his devoir (mark the words) to all men...... Again; ask yourselves what you expect your own children to be taught at your great schools and universities. Is it Christian History, or the Histories of Pan and Silenus? .. Or, again, what do you suppose was the pro- claimed and understood principle of all Christian govern- ments in the Middle Ages? ..... On what principle were fraud and violence, as far as was possible, restrained? By the confessed fear of God, and confessed authority of His law. Now, what is the custom of your British Par- liament in these days? You know that nothing would excite greater manifestations of contempt and disgust, than the slightest attempt to introduce the authority of Scripture in a political consultation. That is denying Christ. It is intensely and peculiarly Modernism; and therefore I do not say that ancient Art was more reli- gious than modern Art. There is no question of degree in this matter. Ancient Art was religious Art; modern Art is profane Art." (Edin. Lectures, pp. 192. 204.) 144 RELIGION OF ART. Now let me say once for all, that I am no enemy to storied windows, provided they do not make us think of them when we should be thinking of some- thing else. I know no reason why, when God's beautiful light comes to visit us, it should not come prismatised into wholesome visions and articulate messages; and our chamber window have its record of famous dreams of old times of Jacob, with its typical ladder; or of Pharaoh, with its grievous warnings; or of Nebuchadnezzar, with its vindi- cation of God's sovereignty; nor why our refectory should not bear like remembrances of eating and drinking in days gone by,-the Prophet's banquet by the brook; or Abraham receiving the mysterious strangers, with the Apostle's comment;-or those blessed feasts where the Lord of Angels was a gracious guest, with perhaps the legible motto, "Whether ye eat or drink, do all to the glory of God," or, "Blessed is he that shall eat bread in the kingdom of God," not forgetting, perhaps, those mournful but instructive feasts, the fatal eating beneath the forbidden tree, and those kindred feasts of Haman and Belshazzar. Let men multiply, if they find it profitable, words of wisdom and means of grace: only let them take heed there be no delusion—that all is really and truly what it professes to be that they are not making playthings of sacred matters. But now for Mr. Ruskin's case, which, though not novel, is sufficiently striking. Are the facts, then, as he has put them? Is the case anything more than primâ facie? Let us first understand it. Now, I should be MIDDLE AGE CONFESSION, "TRINITY OF AGES.” 145 glad to take it as simply confined to Art, though even then it were an exaggeration. Thus, however, we may not take it; for what, then, were the ac- companying statements about Education, Govern- ments, Parliaments? and that strange account of a "trinity of ages?" and of our being a different kind of people? When, for instance, we are told that we must "separate all the Christian nations and tongues of the early times from the latter times, and speak of them in one group as the kingdoms of the Middle Ages" (Ibid. p. 193.), it is impossible not to ask at once, Where is that religious age we have been all accustomed to call "Primitive,”—when the word "Roman" was not foisted in to make nonsense of the word "Catholic;" and Rome's Episcopate was but a sister authority (yet untainted) with the Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople, — when even that Church was content with the two sacraments of Christ's ap- pointment, and wrote its confession in a creed no Pius IV. had defiled by twelve false articles,-and none ever thought of handing over to Mary Mag- dalene or the Virgin Mother the propitiatory honours of the One All-sufficient Mediator, where, I say, was this primitive age of Christianity, if we are to group all Christian nations and tongues as the kingdoms of the Middle Ages?" I would not multiply subjects of difference, nor will I repeat here at length what I have already remarked on in a printed lecture; yet it is impossible L MIDDLE AGE CONFESSION, "TRINITY OF AGES.” 145 glad to take it as simply confined to Art, though even then it were an exaggeration. Thus, however, we may not take it; for what, then, were the ac- companying statements about Education, Govern- ments, Parliaments? and that strange account of a "trinity of ages?" and of our being a different kind of people? When, for instance, we are told that we must "separate all the Christian nations and tongues of the early times from the latter times, and speak of them in one group as the kingdoms of the Middle Ages" (Ibid. p. 193.), it is impossible not to ask at once, Where is that religious age we have been all accustomed to call "Primitive,”—when the word "Roman" was not foisted in to make nonsense of the word "Catholic;" and Rome's Episcopate was but a sister authority (yet untainted) with the Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople, — when even that Church was content with the two sacraments of Christ's ap- pointment, and wrote its confession in a creed no Pius IV. had defiled by twelve false articles,-and none ever thought of handing over to Mary Mag- dalene or the Virgin Mother the propitiatory honours of the One All-sufficient Mediator, where, I say, was this primitive age of Christianity, if we are to group all Christian nations and tongues as the kingdoms of the Middle Ages?" I would not multiply subjects of difference, nor will I repeat here at length what I have already remarked on in a printed lecture; yet it is impossible L QUESTION OF CONFESSION OR DENIAL. 147 their respective senses, saints, and Lord Nelson was a hero; and saints and heroes are not average examples. But, on the second principle, we can no more admit the modern champion; for who would take Lord Nelson as a proper type of the religion of the last four centuries? We need not ransack history for Sir Philip Sydneys, Du Plessis Mornays, Admiral Colignys, Colonel Gardiners, nor even Electors, Landgraves, and Stadtholders. If we must have a king, and a king who died in battle, there is not a moment's difficulty in pronouncing the name of Gustavus Adolphus. There is something more than common injustice in selecting the name of Nelson for a rhetorical appeal to the charity of a British audience. The question is one, not of consistency or inconsistency, but of confession or non-confession; there are evi- dences, public and private, that Nelson at least professed the religion he sinned against. Of his personal immoralities there can be, of course, no defence: but no more can there be for the selection of such a man as the type of modern times, when there is scarce a warrior, scarce a king, but few ecclesiastics, and still fewer popes, of the contrasted age, who could stand the test of the same ordeal. Let us hope that Edinburgh "charity" did not. exhaust itself, like the grief of the Ephesian matron, on the tomb of the dead. The question is, however, as I said, that of con- fession or denial,-a question that manifestly involves others. We may ask, not only What is the con- fession? but What is the thing confessed? L 3 148 RELIGION OF ART. The latter question is not so superfluous as some may think it. We speak of confession by Art. Is there any demonstrable difference in the religion itself of the two cases that would affect its expression in this particular form? Now, suppose that, in the one case, religion was regarded, for the most part, under a purely spiritual aspect as an object of faith, and not of sight - as a system of heavenly truths, and pure affections - a walking with an unseen God—a drawing spiritual life from a "spiritual Rock;" and an exercise of that life which, save as regards public worship, or the discharge of social duties, rather shunned than courted external manifestations-praying to the Father" in secret," and "not appearing unto men to fast." Suppose, further, an habitual jealousy—well or ill founded as it may be, but a jealousy decided and constant-as to all that is sensuous, carnalizing, or even imaginative, as regards the "things of the Spirit." Suppose, I say, all this; and you have a state of things plainly unfavourable to the expression of religion by means of art. But suppose, on the other hand, all this reversed- imagination everywhere cherished; inward princi- ples industriously symbolized in visible emblems; spiritual objects made everywhere palpable and impressive to the eye of sense; all spiritual life transubstantiated into a system of external develop- ments and bodily acts, to "believe," saying your creed; to "repent," doing Church penance and saying so many prayers by way of punishment; to "worship God," hearing mass, walking in processions, and MIDDLE AGE CONFESSION. 149 carrying candles; to "honour the Son," bowing the head where it is not even bowed to the Father; and "to commit the keeping of one's self to Him,” making the sign of the cross. Suppose things got to such a pass that "the Church" means the Clergy ; and the child of God is " a son of the Church;" and Christ's own blessed body is a piece of bread; and "feeding on Christ" a corporal eating of it. I say suppose all this, and a thousand suchlike things, and Who needs be told that it must affect religious confession by means of art? Look at every one of these things; and you cannot fail to see that what an Apostle calls "the natural man," not having com- mitted suicide on natural conscience, may make confession of such a faith, and be the natural man the while. It may, of course, be something better. It may be a very sincere incarnation of spiritual things. But it may be no such thing at all, and yet the “confession " be as specious as Art can make it. It may be from first to last a mere affair of carnal mummeries. Carnal poets may sing of it; carnal painters steep their senses in it; "Dives ornament his own dining-room with his own portrait and that of his own " Lazarus" in the window pane. I shall not go into the criminal calendar of Middle- Age confession, in order to show which of the two it really was in the days Mr. Ruskin would have us emulate. Nor need those who wish to know more about it ask awkward questions of Luther, Calvin, Bishop Jewel, or Master Foxe. It has been made plain enough by those medieval poets, Dante, Pe- trarch, and, above all, by our own Chaucer; by those " L 3 150 RELIGION OF ART. mediæval ecclesiastics, Matthew Paris and the good St. Bernard; by that graphic Middle-Age chronicler Froissart; yes, and by the Pope's own special Middle- Age historians, Baronius and Platina. Simple En- glish inquirers may get all the essential features from Walter Scott, whose romantic instincts were all historical. But, for thorough, searching, conclu- sive, yet very accessible evidence, there is perhaps nothing like our Middle-Age Geoffery Chaucer, who gravely excuses his account of the unutterably filthy communications of a religious pilgrimage by pleading that he is under obligation to give a faithful report, and keep back nothing. * I cannot bring such evidence into open court. Hypocrites, knaves, "filthy dreamers," there have ever been. What I refer to in this so-called Pil- grimage is below hypocrisy. There is not even the "tax paid by vice to virtue." The garnishing of such tales with holy names and phrases, without the slightest sense of their incongruity, gives the last stroke to this most monstrous picture of Middle- Age confession. Mr. Ruskin attempts to carry us beyond con- siderations of Popery and the Reformation. But this is just what we cannot see him do without emphatic protest. The "confession" he speaks of was essentially Popish confession: and may be seen still, as plain as ever, in Popish countries. I remember lodging some little time back at Munich, with a sculptor who was much occupied in finishing statues of a little angel boy in the posture of prayer. * Prologue, lines 727-744. ENGLISH NATION, HOW FAR ARTISTIC. 151 He said they were for the beau monde of the Bavarian capital. I asked him if Munich ladies were much given to prayers. "Not at all," was his reply; "but that is just the reason why they like to think of some one praying for them." This was his confession of their "confession." It is a But to come back to painted windows. fact no less significant than notorious, that those who put violent hands through "Dives and Lazarus " were just not "the worshippers of Pan and Silenus,” nor the nineteenth-century idolators of self-in- dulgence and filthy lucre. Wise or unwise, good or bad, the violence was itself "a confession;" its motto was "the sword of the Lord and of Gideon.” Perhaps the most noticeable part of the business is that which ecclesiologists will be the last to gainsay. I mean that those who dashed their in- dignant mallet through this upholstery confession were just those who most pertinaciously insisted on the confession of religion in every syllable of social converse. This involves a deep question; on which I have now no time to enter. We confirm here, it may be, one important lesson by another. Nor is it less critical to the one before us, that this English nation has not been, for many ages, broadly speaking, an artistic nation. We have therefore another reason that our religion stands, for the most part, as far almost as possible from an artistic form. Men, grave and thoughtful, and in proportion as they are grave and thoughtful, have long looked on Art rather as a thing of recreation, of aesthetic pleasure, of mere pastime, than as a L 4 152 RELIGION OF ART. vehicle of thought and feeling. It is not so much because they have been irreligious, as because they have thought Art incapable of what they meant by religion, that they have been content to paint Cupids, Graces, Floras, instead of confessedly religious objects. I am neither defending the fact, nor complaining of it, but simply stating it. Even now, when Art begins to re-assert her prerogatives, it is piteous to stand by when the appeal is made to higher things. The essential defect betrays itself at every step. People brand with the name of "sentiment," almost all that High Art appeals to. To talk about a picture, quote its pedigree, describe its qualities, or even purchase it, is easy enough; to feel it is a something nine-tenths even of "picture fanciers would be ashamed of. To call it a "confession they would take as next door to impiety. That there should be, therefore, less artistic confession is natural enough: that there is therefore less religion to confess, is another thing. Mr. Ruskin must not put us for a moment on the level of the middle ages. There would be no difficulty in showing that every one of our new churches, poor and beggarly enough, in too many cases, as to architectural en- dowments, is yet, in point of "confession," worth a hundred of those beautiful structures, wrung, by priestly thumb-screws, as the price of purgatorial relief or eternal happiness, from dying misers or living sensualists. No doubt Mediævalism did mighty things; so did Paganism, Buddhism, Croco- dilism. Perhaps neither Cologne, Rouen, nor Strasburg can show mightier things than the Co- ENGLISH OBSERVANCE OF THE SABBATH. 153 Of our lossus of Rhodes, or the Tower of Babel. own confessions in the artistic line, I will not boast. We can yet point to something here and there which is not without its significancy. We are money- making people: I read on the frontispiece of our Royal Exchange that" The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof." We reared, the other day, a Temple to Commerce, poetically called a "Crystal Palace," but which might have been called with prosaic truth the eighth "wonder of the world." Our monarch inaugurated it with prayer and benison; and whilst the wide world was making pilgrimage to it, its sacred solitude, each returning seventh day, made un- disguisable confession of the "Lord of the Sabbath.” There is another fact I would dare to match with all the upholstery confession of the middle ages. Show me the equivalent to a money-loving people putting its hand into its own pocket, not to build proud towers, but to emancipate degraded savages; giving twenty millions, not at the bidding of an im- perious monarch, or a tyrannical priesthood, but at the spontaneous call of the national conscience, and by the immediate instrumentality of the national will. There is a moral grandeur in this " money grant," that sinks the Pyramids into littleness. As for Christian Heroism, what can history chronicle or poetry invent, of Godfrey, Richard, or St. Louis, that does not pale before the simple details of that poor despised Patagonian mission of the other day? I will not content myself with even the names of Nightingale" and her noble sisters. I believe Vor M J 154 RELIGION OF ART. there will be found thousands of England's daughters, unwritten in priestly saint-rolls, as they were unclad in ecclesiastical livery, who have done, in their day and generation, the work of Christ; and with so pro- found an absence of self-complacency as well as artistic confession, that when the day of reward is come, and all secrets are blazed abroad, the burst of ingenuous astonishment shall realise those wonderful questions, “Lord when saw we thee an hungred, and fed thee? or sick, and ministered to thee?" We need no more lift presumptuous finger to the awful curtain, than sound a trumpet when we do an alms: but we may, at least, distinguish between the religion of the picturesque and the religion of the heart and life. God forbid that, when challenged to let my "light so shine that men may glorify my Heavenly Father," I should hand the challenge to my upholsterer, or point to a "Mary with her Child" upon my window-pane! Thus much for "Confession." I shall not stop to show that much " denial" was concealed, for fear, in middle ages, in painted legends and illuminated prayer-books. Those who have no access to ancient missals, may see some characteristic specimens in Dr. Waagen: such as a Coronation of the Blessed Virgin, and beneath a fox, with mitre and crozier, preaching to a flock of geese: or David playing on the psaltery, and in the border an ass playing the lute, a monkey the violin, and a hare the cymbals. Our modern " Punch" is bad enough: I am not aware that his propensities have gone so far as this. Moreover, people don't take Punch to church to Maou MIDDLE AGE DENIAL. 155 say their prayers from: nor have even the "Pues" our modern medievalists pronounce so monstrous, ever shown anything like those scandalous carvings, still extant, beneath monastic seats in some ca- thedrals. Surely these things are as as much a denial," as Dives and Lazarus a "confession." As for Flora and the Graces, I am content to leave them to Rhadamanthus. 66 I presume Mr. Ruskin may have seen the Church Catechism. But it is difficult to reconcile what I have quoted on the subject of education, with the remotest consciousness that we have here in England a National Church at all; still less a Church in which, not every true knight, but every mother's son, is "taught, so soon as he is able to learn," that he is party to "a solemn vow, promise, and profes- sion,” to “confess the faith of Christ crucified,” not by causing "St. Margaret, Virgin" to be painted on his window-pane, nor by carrying fire and sword into heathen countries, but by manfully fighting "under Christ's banner against sin, the world, and the devil." As to what is taught, now-a-days, "at great schools and universities," who needs be told that the pages of Thucydides and Xenophon, of Plato and Demosthenes, of Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus, are no more "histories of Pan and Silenus " than they are mere depositaries of words and phrases? Nor is the appeal to politics of more validity. Of course nothing is easier than to draw startling contrasts between the theory of absolute governments and certain phenomena of the one we live beneath. I 156 RELIGION OF ART. will only say, that such theory is not compatible with those great religious principles on which Protestant truth and freedom were won and secured for us. A theocracy may adopt such language de jure, as absolute governments have done de facto: in a consti- tutional state, with a representative system, it cannot be carried honestly out, without involving con- sequences anomalous and inapplicable. There is one broad mark of difference between medieval and the best of modern governments,—that whereas the one asserted the Divine law for the worst purposes of human tyranny, and roasted God's creatures on gridirons when they would not break fealty to the King of kings, these modern govern- ments do not usurp the prerogatives, because they do not possess the attributes, of infallibility; nor dare to trample on that sanctuary of conscience where God will reign supreme and immediate. It is not contempt for God, but just the contrary, that has shorn the magistrate of certain functions. I do not say this is the best conceivable state of things. What I do emphatically say, is, that it is no " denial.” No doubt it is a simpler thing for those who hide the Bible, than for those who open it, to put awful words at the beginning of laws framed and fashioned by human wisdom: and an easier thing for mock parliaments, than for real ones, to make particular adaptations of Holy Writ the pivots of political discussion. It requires but little discernment to distinguish between "the things of Cæsar" and "the things of God;" and a very moderate acquaint- ance with the conditions under which we achieved RECOGNITION OF CONSCIENCE. 157 the triumph of religious truth to become convinced that, recognising as we do, profess, at least, to re- cognise, the great cardinal rules of social duty on the Sacred Page, we owe it alike to religion, bro- therly charity, and common sense, to abstain from committing Scripture on questions for the direct solu- tion of which Holy Scripture was never written. No doubt, also, the course I speak of has, like all things human, its own tests, difficulties, and anoma- lies and, no doubt, there is a short cut, at least in theory, to the getting rid of them. You have only to re-establish a theocracy, improvise Moses and Elias, with or without "rod" and "mantle," as you may happen to want them, and the thing is done: people will submit, of course, to omnipotence and infallibility. You may take, then, what course you find convenient; trample on freedom, dethrone conscience; banish truth; and make the re-enactment of the worst papal enormities, as in the times called. mediæval, "a Confessing of Christ." No; truth is a thing so sacred, that it behoves us to take good heed how we even assert and vindicate it. And that tabernacle of conscience where God will have it shrined, is a thing so sacred that it is reverend in its very ruins so sacred, that "the servant of God must not strive," after a carnal sort, so as with unseemly violence to invade its sanctities:so sacred, that an apostle, stumbling on its chaotic fragments, would not behave irre- verently with them; but gathered them up into their proper shape, and translated their vague inscription. into its rightful meaning; preaching "Jesus and the 158 RELIGION OF ART. Resurrection" from "the unknown God" they "igno- rantly worshipped: "so sacred, that he said even of those who were hunting him down, "I bear them re- cord that they have a zeal for God:"-so sacred, that it is emphatically called "the candle of the Lord: so sacred, that the Great Spirit of Life and Light does not quite abandon it in its grossest darkness : but visits it, stoops to it, enters it, dwells in it, shines in it, shines out of it, and with such ineffable condescension, gentleness, and adaptation to the nature He has given it, that His own energies are only distinguishable by the declaration that "every good and perfect gift is from above," whilst in our fallen flesh dwelleth naturally "no good thing." It may be, that some of the very relaxations we are accused of, come of an increasing sense of what I speak of: and that we are beginning to do, on this side our English waters, what we have so long called on powers and potentates to do on the other side. At all events, these are Protestant principles: and I, for one, am not ashamed, nor afraid, to follow them honestly out in their lawful consequences. As for mediæval practice, we know, all of us, what it was. But how monstrous the imposition of falsehood beneath the mask and mummery of main- taining truth! What mockery to call "the fear of God," what was, in plain terms, the fear of the hang- man! 159 CHAP. XVI. THE RELIGIOUS AND THE ARTISTIC ELEMENTS. RELIGIOUS PIC- TURES. RAFFAELLE AND PRE-RAFFAELLE. THE CARTOON OF CC THE MIRACULOUS DRAUGHT.' RAFFAELLE IN THE VATICAN.- THE CARTOON OF CHRIST'S CHARGE TO PETER. GOAT." ،، THE SCAPE- MR. RUSKIN tells us that, "just as classical art was greatest in building to its Gods, so mediaval art was great in building to its God” (this also might have been in the plural number); “and modern art is not great because it builds to no God." (Edin. Lectures, p. 206.) Of so laconic an aphorism there is small difficulty in seeing at once that it is inadmissible. No doubt Art needs impulse as well as subject : whether the religious impulse is, in point of fact, the strongest; whether it has been really dominant, even in what are called religious works, and most domi- nant in the greatest of these works, is another matter. He were a bold man who should pronounce Michael Angelo greater in his "Last Judgment" than in the cartoon of Pisa: and he were a shrewd man who could determine the precise amount of the religious element even in the "Moses." We have had a Fra-Angelico and a Carlo Dolci, as to whose equality of religious feeling it would be hard to 160 RELIGION OF ART. raise a question; but of whose artistic inequalities it were no less difficult to conceive a doubt. Let us claim for religion the right to furnish the noblest impulse; but let us not do it by violating the plainest lessons of experience. Power is power, whether angelic or demoniacal; and there is the power of ambition, of jealousy, of lust, of anger, and of revenge; as well as the happier influences of the heavenly virtues. Of course it is a beautiful thing to say that all powerful Art has been religious Art. If we are really to have "truth first and beauty afterwards,” we may be forgiven for asking, Is it true? Shift the venue to poetry: the principle is all the same. Carry out your aphorism, and see what you come to. Of course Cowper was the first of poets. But where, then, will you place Shakspeare? where Dryden? where Lord Byron? You will find it hard to get men to adopt a rule that denies to "Faust" and "Manfred" the title of poetry. a As to Art being only great when building to God, this identical lecture informs us that in the school which is to bring back the golden age "every single figure is the actual portrait of a living man,”- statement that puts this matter, at least, beyond dis- pute; for surely to believe that a man is painting under a religious impulse when he takes John Smith for John the Baptist, is beyond even Papal credulity. But let us look with becoming seriousness on a very serious subject. It needs no argument to prove that the rendering of sacred subjects should be a sacred work: and PROTRUDED ART. 161 that, in proportion to the dignity of what is portrayed should be the moral character of the Art that portrays it. A repentant Magdalene is no fitting food for gazing pruriency. A painter may flay Marsyas and Apollo too, if he pleases, to show his learning : but who shall make a “lay figure" of the Redeemer of the world? or what Christian will endure a lecture on anatomy at the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea? Short of sins so gross, we may speak of all gra- tuitous display of Art as an offence in a religious picture. All gorgeousness purely aestheticall excessive rendering of unworthy details all chair and table painting all hard-featured realisms of any kind-disturb and mock the feeling they profess to serve. A staring religious picture is a contra- diction in terms. There is no amount of power too great for sacred subjects, whilst the power is sacredly subordinated: there is no amount of sacredness in the subject that can atone for protruded Art. All this will be readily granted in point of prin- ciple, though it has been all but systematically reversed in the practice of every school. There are other things, not less certain, on which I cannot refrain from saying a word. Pre-Raffaellite pictures have touched a peculiar chord, and raised peculiar objections. Mr. Ruskin repudiates all idea of their being a revival of Popish Art, and even denies that they have the slightest resemblance to it.* I am not aware that those whose cause he advocates have countersigned his protest. * Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 27. M 162 RELIGION OF ART. The public at large has certainly a different notion; and Dr. Waagen, no mean authority, has taken historic notice of them to the same effect.* That there is a serious attempt to bring back Popish principles, I, for one, should be slow to believe. If any be really embarked on the enter- prise, they must take the consequences. They may depend upon it, this English nation, however em- barrassed by political paradoxes, or how untrue. soever to its own principles, will not go backwards. There may be eccentricities here and there some stray victim to the charms of credulity, or the power of priestcraft-some hapless member of the human family, to whom the common functions of independent thought and personal responsibility are a burden for whom apostolic "plainness of speech" and the promised grace of an indwelling Spirit are insufficient, without ecclesiastical infal- libility and" an arm of flesh : " but the great commu- nity has walked too long in Bible light and Bible liberty, to surrender both to an imposture, long un- masked, and which now seems doomed and destined to betray itself. To correct artistic vices of long standing-to go honestly back to first principles; and to do this, if need be, in the face of obloquy -- is something more than artistic virtue. To inflict causeless scandal by the affectation of what is not only obsolete, but im- * He even attributes the smallness of the head in Mr. Hunt's "Light of the World” to the ambition to imitate the early masters even in their defects. POPISH REVIVAL IMPOSSIBLE. 163 perfect,― to forego our natural speech, and speak studiously with" stammering lips,”—is to reverse the order of Art and Nature. As to the charm of real pictures of the earlier ages, there can be of course no doubt. Their very crudities have a secret power. But who can say as much for gratuitous archaisms? All this is, of course, infinitely worse, when it in- volves theological truth. Two men may be in the same twilight; but Who shall compare him who is working from darkness to light, with him who is work- ing from light to darkness? Theological errors, however, apart, can we take the characteristics of the earlier schools as presenting a normal style for sacred Art? Is that unbroken glare, the becoming hue? Is Religion never to have in pictures the" dim light" those earlier painters never gave her? Is not sobriety of tone as due an element in religious Art as sobriety of mind in religious character? Is there not a sort of mockery in faces smelling of the charnel-house, wrapped in gorgeous draperies, and looking out from gilded shrines? If it be the essential nature of devotional feel- ing to "submit the senses to the soul," are not figures standing ambitiously forth in all the pomp and parade of glittering circumstances-every detail so emblazoned that it is a miracle for thought and feeling to escape their meshes-a betrayal of what Art, called sacred, should scrupulously profess to nurse? I know it has become a sort of fashion to speak of a certain style as the "earnest style," and of those who practised it as “earnest men." I trust some of them M 2 164 RELIGION OF ART. were really earnest- it were easy to cite the names of some who were not; but, I ask, Was not Michael Angelo an earnest man? Can one conceive a greater contrast with what I speak of, than the pervading tone of all his works? Let us abstain from judging the dead; but let us eschew what is in danger of becoming cant. There is no possible need to swing blindly back after this fashion. Short of Cimabue- short of Giotto- short even of Crevelli and Botticelli, we may find room and verge enough. Nor need we dissociate power from tone, whilst preferring the sober to the ambitious; or "her who is a widow indeed, and desolate," to her who wears the grimace of grief in gorgeous clothing. ´´ I dare scarce say whether Michael Angelo or Raf- faelle were, in point of gifts, the greater man; though I scruple not to prefer the heavenly hierarchy of the Theology" to the prophets and sibyls of the Sistine Chapel. One thing at least is certain, that, whilst Raffaelle hid his art in his subject, Michael Angelo hid far too much of his subject in his art. Of Raffaelle we take, of course, the matured de- velopment. To the exquisite purity of his early manner we are all, I suppose, alive, as to that of the early poems of our own Milton. Nor are we insen- sible to what Mr. Ruskin would call, with too much truth, the "carnal manner" of his later works. When I speak of Raffaelle, I speak of his cartoons and fres- coes; than which there can be nothing at once more profound and simple more grand and modest : RAFFAELLE'S SCRIPTURE SUBJECTS. 165 more replete with what reveals power, with the higher grasp that subordinates it.* And I say this in especial reference to their general aspect and pervading character. This has not, I think, been noticed in the inventories of learned critics. Yet what more certain than that, in all works professing to deal with truth, after the power to speak it plainly, the first condition is that the enunciation should be in keeping that it should never seem spoken for by-ends-that all should be as if truth were speaking itself? If this be not im- plied, Art called religious is a treason: if implied and broken, an hypocrisy. Judge Raffaelle's Scripture subjects by this rule, and you will see why he is "the Prince of Painters." Enough of dramatic power, but not too much—enough of ideal grace, colour, harmony of arrangement, but not too much enough of every technical excellence to subserve the end, and never so much as to usurp its place, or break the ranks. Let me speak freely on what is of more import than all other rules of criticism put together. Mr. Ruskin remarks somewhere on the non-compatibility of "perfect form and perfect colour." I heartily subscribe to the remark: though I could wish it were better observed in his own writings. It is founded on a great essential principle, scarce any- where enough distinguished, which marks the high- * I rejoice to have written this whole chapter some months before we are scandalised by "the poison of the art of Raffaelle." Mr. Ruskin is consistent, however, with his principles, and I with mine, M 3 166 RELIGION OF ART. est style of excellence in everything. I will take this very quality of colour to show my meaning. Let a man give himself to the study of Raffaelle's cartoons; say in Dorigny's or Holloway's engravings. Let him know, literally by heart, every face, every limb, every feature of every figure-know them so that it might seem as if he could know nothing more from the originals save that Raffaelle's hand dropped life where the engraver gave but the copy of it. Then let him go and stand-of course " alone "—before the originals, and see if it be not almost as if he had never known them before. And, when he has recovered the power of analysing his impressions, let him just test the value of colour in these master-pieces; and ask whether he can ever again be satisfied with a cold engraving? When this question is settled, let him go deeper, and ask what this colour really is? and what it does? whether it transgresses its office of giving an air of life, energy, and emphasis? whether any single tint distracts the mind? whether one eloquent line is lost. or neutralised? whether colour be not rather com- plexion, and a part of character, than, as many make it, a something on its own account? whether "form and colour" do not seem one? I speak, of course, but of the pervading tone. Everybody knows that, though the master's soul was everywhere, there were scholars' hands at work as well. There are inequalities, therefore, for critics, as there is carrion for crows. I may say, further, that I have specially in my eye that special picture in the series of which I am about presently to venture "EARNEST [" ART. 167 a description; which has always been, to me, the first in all respects, though professional judgments have not pronounced the same verdict: but which, at all events, was, more than any other, from the im- mediate hand of Raffaelle himself. I mean, of course, what is unhappily called "The Miraculous Draught of Fishes." On the other hand, it will, of course, be said that time has soberised the colours. I care not: this touches not my principle: if it be really thus, without local injury, then even Raffaelle's pencil has caught something from the hand of the destroyer. I think, however, that he who looks, if I may so say, beneath the surface who notes, I mean, the original choice, arrangement, and management of local tints - how few are raw and positive how few in violent con- trast will see the truth of what I say.* Let us now recur, not to Titian or Paul Veronese, who make us think of colour, and fall in love with it; not to Nicholas Poussin, whose blotchy tints make us sometimes regret he did not content himself with chiaroscuro; not to Rembrandt, Caravaggio, or even Guercino, whose first thoughts would almost seem to have been of black and white but to the vaunted works of the so-called "earnest" masters, and ask Where is this noble simplicity and profound subordination to a religious purpose? Mr. Ruskin speaks of "stammering lips:" I complain of lips that drown articulate utterance by noise and clamour, *Since writing the above, I am happy to find the same facts insisted on in Mr. Wornum's "Epochs of Painting," pp. 239, 240. M 4 168 RELIGION OF ART. Talk of "thought" and "drawing!"* Raffaelle draws as if he were thinking of his subject; they, as if they were thinking of themselves. Art fails more by obtrusiveness than imperfection. We stretch through mists of time for an embodied soul, a solemn whisper; we find hard drawn lines, antagonistic tints, the grimace of grief, and bones sticking through the skin. We shall begin to nauseate this word "earnest." The earnest looks too like artificial earnest. No doubt something is to be allowed for immaturity, but what then? if they were really in earnest and could do no better, let us pity, not copy them. Are you in earnest? then do your best, and avoid their faults. Let me not be mistaken. In speaking thus of Raffaelle and Pre-Raffaelle, I must add a brief re- mark or two. First, I do not mean that there were none, before or since, who have exhibited in various degrees the artistic virtue I have been speaking of; though I think that, taken for all in all, he stands alone. Nor, secondly, do I forget the symbolical power which, in medieval times, was attributed to co- lours. This affects not the general principle. We have got beyond symbolism, I devoutly trust for ever. To resume it now-a-days would be like a man's persisting in making his mark when he was able to write his name. For the man who thinks * The age preceding Raffaelle was "the age of thought;" that of Raffaelle "the age of drawing." (Edin. Lect. pp. 151-2.) RAFFAELLE AS AN ARTIST. 169 pure blue, scarlet, and embroidery essential types of the heavenly state, Raffaelle, at all events, has lived in vain. I must say again, what can scarce be said too often, that Raffaelle was the greatest of artists because, in one sense, he was not an artist; because, with the most exquisite artistic perceptions, the profoundest artistic study, the most unwearied artistic effort, and the most amazing artistic powers, he seems no more to have thought of Art when he sat down to a sacred subject than Charles James Fox to have thought of grammar when he rushed into one of his magnificent speeches with " Nonsense and sophistry!" It is piteous to read criticisms, and see Raffaelle's genius packed, piecemeal, in tabular columns, with headings "in- vention," so many; "composition," so many; "de- sign," so many; "expression," so many; "colouring," so many. “Nonsense and sophistry!" Were this all, Raffaelle had never been the Raf faelle we speak of; nor had he not, in one sense, forgotten such things when he set about the gigantic works we know him by. All the perceptions, powers, appliances of every kind, he cast them all into the crucible of his subject, with fervent sympathies and burning thoughts; and from out that crucible came forth, not Art, but poetic truth. This is what Milton meant in those beautiful words, "Then feed on thoughts that voluntary move Harmonious numbers; and this is of course the real secret of all true great- ness of any kind. Let a man set about doing a great 170 RELIGION OF ART. thing, and he has inevitable littleness for its birth- right. On the other hand, it is astonishing how real greatness comes out unconsciously, like that face in Titian's family concert, that haunts, ghost-like, our National Gallery, and looks on you, at quiet times, the very penetrating soul of melody. I wonder how long Raffaelle would have owned for scholar the neophyte that could talk, over a car- toon, of "a bit of colour." There are, in reality, but two kinds of artists, - furniture painters of high and low degree, and men of music, thought, and eloquence. But, to be mu- sical and eloquent, a man must think of something better than parts of speech or progression of con- cords. It is hard, speaking of Raffaelle, to know when and how to stop. I have tried to wrap my sense of his greatness in that one word, subordination. Let me give an actual instance: We will take the first of the cartoons, improperly called, as I have already hinted, "The Miraculous Draught of Fishes." Here is a landscape, Claude might covet; figures, Poussin might have studied, side by side, with antique statues; aquatic birds, that would have made the fortune of a Flemish natu- ralist; marine flowers, of which Mr. Ruskin has counted the stamens; sky, with fowl flying in the open firmament; shores, with groups that open chap- ters of divinity to those who look "before and after; "* water, with fishermen fishing, and real fishes, and boats little critics think too little; objects Luke, v. i. HIGH ART SUBORDINATION. 171 enough to take longer time to study than it cost Raffaelle's scholar-family to paint for ever; all so picturesque that a man, after gazing all day, may dream all night about it; all so real that one seems beyond dreaming; yet all as nothing to the mighty subject. I must dare another personal story. Never shall I forget how I first saw these cartoons, one summer's day, whilst yet a boy. Holloway was then at his work of years; and the one I speak of stood, for his closer inspection, upon the floor. I remember how he responded to my boyish raptures; and amongst other things, opened a portfolio, containing, he said, a copy of every engraving ever made of the head of the principal figure. These prints were arranged, not as gloomy antiquarians would put them, in chro- nological order, but in order of excellence. You went from rough-hewn etchings, or things " polished into inanity," up, through every stage, to what you might take for a congenial transcript; till, from the ultima Thule you looked forth upon the work of Raffaelle—and, it was as if you had been travelling by slow degrees to some snow-clad mountain, and, when you thought you must be near its base, you found yourself on the shore of mighty waters, and saw the object of your travel, calm and radiant, beyond the verge. Even this figure is, if I may so say, subordinated. We have the event, rather than the personage. It is not so much the condescending Saviour, as the Saviour condescending. He is not the central figure nor the most elevated. He is seated. He is seated. Benignity 172 RELIGION OF ART. softens authority. It is he of whom it had been written eight hundred years, "my delights were with the sons of men.” There can be no more mistaking the real character, than wandering from the real occurrence. Every face is turned towards him, but with a climax of interest that has a moral in it. Nearest, he who was always foremost, flung, in all the energy of his nature, at the Master's feet. Next Andrew, though yet a fisher of Galilee, yet fashioned by forerunning Providence, hewing out its chosen vessels, for an Apostle. One can conceive nothing more noble, expressive, yet simply natural, than this figure, as, with more of majesty, but not less of eloquence, it follows the confession already uttered; and seems only not to have fallen prostrate in like manner, because the profoundest reverence arrests further action, and holds it, from head to foot, in a sort of trance. In the adjoining boat, James and John, with their father Zebedee, recede, each in perceptible distance of interest, yet with perceptible connection with the real event, the conversion of simple fishermen into “fishers of men," whose labours were to be "on many waters," and their reward on the eternal shore. Would that persons calling themselves "Pre- Raffaellites" would give, now and then, a summer's day to Hampton Court! They are not unworthy the pilgrimage, for they are men (I bear them cordial record) of real genius; and have a heart for something better than all Mr. Ruskin would im- prison them in. I cannot but think that, after all our controversies, Raffaelle's mastery might do its : RAFFAELLE'S "JOSEPH.” 173 work; that they would catch the impulse, and forego their system; and that, in due time, we should see no more of that cold, dry, hard, encaustic style of paint- ing some sinister influence has beguiled them into, strange, but not original; elaborate, but not refined; fantastic, but not poetical; and realistic, but not real.* I have been content to embody my sense of Raf- faelle in the description of a single picture; and that accessible enough, for to get to Hampton Court is not quite the " adire Corinthum." Even this, how- ever, is not indispensable. The hall of the Vernon Gallery contains copies from some of Raffaelle's scripture subjects in the Vatican: I am content to rest all I have said on one of these copies. I mean the "Joseph interpreting Pharaoh's dreams." It reveals, in a small compass, all I insist on as charac- teristic of religious painting. In all this, as in so much else, it is my misfortune to differ from Mr. Ruskin. What to me is religious Art, is to him "the tasteless poison of infidelity.” There is a special passage in the Edinburgh Lectures I may not pass without distinct notice. "Having until that time worked exclusively in the ancient and stern medieval manner, he (Raffaelle) in the first chamber which he decorated in that palace (the Vatican) wrote upon its walls the 'Mene, Tekel, Uphar- sin' of the Arts of Christianity. *It is but justice to add that the above expressions were penned before the exhibition of 1856. I find a marked difference in this respect between the earlier and the later specimens. I retain my words, with this exception,-not to exaggerate defects of persons, but to preserve historic notice of a defective style. 174 RELIGION OF ART. · "And he wrote it thus:-on one wall of that chamber he placed a picture of the world or kingdom of Theo- logy, presided over by Christ; and on the side wall of that same chamber he placed the world or kingdom of Poetry, presided over by Apollo; and from that spot, and that hour, the intellect and the art of Italy date their de- gradation .. Raffaelle had neither religion nor origi- nality enough to trace the spirit of poetry and the spirit of philosophy" (alluding to the "School of Athens" on another wall of these glorious stanzas) "to the inspira- tion of the true God, as well as that of theology; but, on the contrary, as in deliberate balanced opposition to the Rock of the mount Zion, he reared the rock of Parnassus, and the rock of the Acropolis. Among the masters of poetry we find him enthroning Petrarch and Pindar, but not Isaiah nor David; and for lords over the domain of philosophy, we find the masters of the school of Athens, but neither of those greater masters by the last of whom that school was rebuked,-those who received their wisdom from heaven itself, in the vision of Gibeon, and the lightning of Damascus." (Edin. Lectures, pp. 213, 214.) How many of these eloquent sentences will bear the test of examination? How far it might have been expected of this young painter, with the general arrangements of his work assigned, no doubt, more or less, by his ghostly employer, and throwing out, in marvellously brief space, creations that have been the wonder of three centuries, to develop the idea Mr. Ruskin has had leisure to demand of him, I will not say. It cannot be held that his not doing so is proof that he had neither religion nor originality to do it; much less ! ACCUSATION OF RAFFAELLE, TESTED. 175 that it is a theological crime which invokes the thunder. There was nothing new, even on Mr. Ruskin's admission, in treating poetry and theology as distinct subjects; nor in "the mere use of the figure of the heathen god to indicate the domain of poetry."* Their being on contiguous walls involved no necessary antagonism. The "deliberate balanced opposition" is, in fact, a pure rhetorical fiction: and Raffelle is entitled to his "Honi soit qui mal Y pense." As to such poetic phrases as the "vision of Gibeon, and the lightning of Damascus," a moment's reflec- tion will suggest that both involve circumstances purely miraculous. The avowed object of the painter was to represent, in one case indeed, the "wisdom that cometh from above;" but in the other (the "School of Athens "), that natural wisdom, of which the very Apostle appealed to takes such care to tell the Corinthians, "I came not unto you with excellency of speech, nor of wisdom." What a blunder to have confounded the two together! How unworthy the mind of Raffaelle, to have placed St. Paul side by side with those "disputers of this world," of whom he declares that in the eye of God their boasted wisdom was emphatic "foolishness!" With them he has indeed placed him, as all know: and it is not far to seek. But then the subject is not "Philosophy;" nor the Apostle a philosopher. I might say the same of poetry. Isaiah" were both masters of song. "David and But they were * Ibid. 176 RELIGION OF ART. something better. It is no more consistent with the laws of thought than with the claims of religion, to class things or persons by their subordinate qualities. One has but to turn to the neighbouring fresco, to see David and Isaiah, as well as Paul and Solomon, where they would be-not only above dreaming poets and wrangling sophists, but above the most famous saints of the Church militant. There they sit, with Moses and Elias, in the abiding tabernacles of the heavenly places; and thence they may look down with becoming majesty on those mighty molehills of earthly glory, the hill of Mars, and the mount of Apollo. Whether painting really suffered, then and there, a judicial blight, we may have further means of judging. < * * There is another sentence of Mr. Ruskin, as to which it would look like compromise were I to pass on in simple silence. He speaks, in a recent volume of "Modern Painters," of that "infinite monstrosity and hypocrisy, Christ's Charge to Peter;"" and I regret to find something very like an echo to the sentiment in "Household Words." There are two counts in the indictment, one religious, the other artistic. It is the first, only, I shall notice here: the other belongs to another chapter. And of this first I must speak distinctly, as becomes a subject of no mere incidental or subordinate import. Let me say, then, in all simplicity, that I maintain the propriety of the representation as a theological fact, whilst I deny the assumption Rome would DEFENCE OF RAFFAELle. 177 found on it as a theological inference. Why should Raffaelle be forbid to paint Peter receiving "the Key?” when it is so distinctly written (Matt. xvi. 10.), “I will give unto thee the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven ?” On the other hand, why should we be misled by such expressions into any fantastic notions of a supremacy, a supremacy, when there is not a Scripture word, nor a Scripture fact, that does not give such a notion, more or less directly, the con- clusive lie? That Peter had "the Key," as James and John the "thunder," what faithful reader of the Bible can a moment doubt, when he finds Peter actually opening that kingdom of Heaven (the Gospel dispensation under which we live) by the very first Gospel announcement-first to Jews on the day of Pentecost, then first to Gentiles in the house of Cornelius* of that covenant of mercy to a world of rebels, of which it is all our hope and confidence that those blessed words of Peter's Master hold good to the end of time, that what was then "loosed and bound on earth" shall continue to be "loosed and bound in heaven?" And as to the other part of the portraiture-I mean the charge "feed my sheep feed my lambs"- who can have a pretext or a wish to suggest a difficulty? What honest Protestant can think to rob a blessed Apostle, when he has read so often those touching words. "Lovest thou me? feed my sheep;" "Lovest thou me? feed my lambs?" For the anachronism of putting together events separated by a considerable interval * * Acts, ii. 38-40. Ibid. x. 42, 43. N 178 RELIGION OF ART. of time and place the artistic question reserved to its own chapter-I say boldly that Popery, not Art or Artist, is amenable. And sure, a more ill-starred assertion of supremacy could scarce be chosen. Peter's distinction on this memorable occasion was just what Rome should con- trive, in wretched consistency, to lose sight of. There can be no possible question that the three-fold question "Lovest thou ?" had poignant reference to a three-fold denial; and that "more than these" did not point to greater love, much less greater power; but to greater guilt—to a more presumptuous pro- fession," though all should deny thee"-to a more scandalous downfal—a denial instead of desertion and a denial with oaths and curses, to add mon- strosity to a monstrous and murderous lie. This is the unextinguishable meaning of the whole transac- tion, and of every word. Thus we have long learned to read and feel it. Thus Peter felt it-thus his so-called "successor " refuses to feel it; for he feels elation where Peter "was grieved. "" No doubt the painter of the cartoon had, thus far, his vision blinded-like millions more. That he is, therefore, to be charged, personally, with "an infinite monstrosity and hypocrisy," will not, I trust, be admitted by the candid reader. To ourselves, at least, as regards his painting (happily ours), the case is not critical. We see Christ in his benign majesty, reproving, yet forgiving; Peter, penitent and lowly on his knees before him, re-admitted, as we rejoice to think of him, after all his oaths and curses, to his THE SCAPEGOAT." 179 common share in the Apostolic mission; the rest startled, as well they might be, by a question that almost seemed to charge them all with lukewarmness; and the self-interpreting finger, pointing to the flock, which may have been actually present, and suggested, as many other objects had done before in Christ's teaching, the appropriate metaphor. * * * * And here I must add a word, in simple sorrow, as to another of those annual abuses of genius which has burst upon us whilst this volume was tran- scribing. I know that in this iron age men are grow- ing up day by day into the worship of power-power without reference either to its control or its em- ployment-power à tout prix. It seems as if such things as wisdom, discretion, judgment, a pure taste, the finer perception and more accurate appre- ciation all that really belongs to "progress" in its proper sense—were not only the product of inferior faculties, but had become insipid. How far all this is to go-whether Victor Hugo is to displace Homer, and Mr. Carlyle, Thucydides-I know not. As to Art, one thing is clear,—if the public judgment does not put down the abuse, the abuse will put down the public judgment. I refer, of course, to the Pre-Raffaellite picture of the current year,-than which, with all possible sense of its technical merits, I can scarce conceive a more signal instance of misguided talent. Here is, indeed, the "parturiunt montes," and the birth, not the "ridiculus mus," but a wretched goat. Had you actually worried the creature from Smithfield to Trafalgar Square, and N 2 180 RELIGION OF ART. dragged him in, head and shoulders, into the Gallery, you could scarce have anything more incompatible with all we look for in a religious picture. It is the office of poetry to convert a simple fact into a sig- nificant metaphor: here Art has converted a signi- ficant metaphor into a vulgar fact. It is the office of Prophecy to prefigure, in present objects, events otherwise unknown or unappreciated: here Art has reduced a well-known event into a present object; inverting the prophetic process, making the anti- type explain the type. It is the office of Faith to look from things visible to things invisible: here the pencil bids us look from things invisible to what, in the grossest sense, is "seen and temporal; " to forego spiritual perceptions, and habitual converse with what has become the great absorbing object of existence, to gaze on a something which, in exact proportion to the power employed on it, is an offence. The accessories of this picture present none of the studied vulgarities of one of its predecessors. Yet the very details evince and betray an error. Those glorious mountains have no other keeping with the objects that strew the foreground, than that all is alike incompatible with the solemnities of such a subject. The error goes deeper, and comes alike from what is meant to be an excel- lence. The artist has made conscience of localising what had nothing to do with locality; and, doing so, has just obliterated where he thought he was illus- trating. The scapegoat was to be driven into the wilderness (Lev. xvi. 22.); not this wilderness, or that, but into the wilderness, or, as the context ex- ESSENTIAL FAULT OF "PRE-RAFFAELLITISM." 181 presses it, "a place not inhabited." Wherefore? There is a deep truth here. The goat was typical; the acts of confessing and ejecting typical; the very character of the place he was driven to, typical. The land uninhabited was a significant type. But a type of what? Not of punishment, as the picture makes it; but of oblivion. The other goat bore the guilt, and was sacrificed. This bore the sin, and And so the two made a two-fold was seen no more. 66 [ This sacrament, and testified to a two-fold promise. will be merciful to their unrighteousness"-this was the one half; "and their sins and iniquities will I remember no more "this was the other half. made up the blessedness the Psalmist speaks of: "Blessed is the man whose unrighteousness is forgiven, and whose sin is covered." We want both parts. God revealed both.* But the Talmud disfigured all; and the painter, quoting that, instead of the Bible, has fallen into the blunder. But this is—I must say it frankly — the very essential vice of Pre-Raffaellitism - the vice of quenching thought in imitation-poetic feeling in material “truth”—and the subject itself in its beg- garly circumstances. And I must take leave to ex- press my conviction that, whether it be mountains, goats, carpenters' shops, or haberdashery, realistic painting is not religious painting; and that the people of England will never call it so. Had the whole principles of the school been re- versed—had all ambitious circumstantiality been * There is a beautiful echo in Jeremiah, 1. 20. N 3 182 RELIGION OF ART. flung away as husks for swine-had even the ca- lumniated Salvator been instead of the Pre-Raf- faellite; and over rock and mountain, earth and sky, been thrown the pensive shadows of his suggestive pencil, revealing darkly and mournfully the vicarious victim-then, though even this were a reversing of type and antitype, devout feeling would have re- sponded: not only would it have felt the intoning power and persuasive thought, but imagination would not have been quenched-the "reality" would not have been "too real.” As it is, "faith" is lost in "sight," and devout musing in pictorial scrutiny,—a very animal is put for the very Saviour; and I have seen men turn away from this so-called religious picture with the unmis- takeable expression I remember seeing, some years. since, in a man in a blouse coming out of the "Morgue" at Paris. These are not words of unfeeling controversy, much less of personal unkindness. I know the Painter is in earnest: but so am I. 183 CHAP. XVII. "PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN," GREEK AND GOTH. THE terms "Pagan and Christian were not first applied to classic and Gothic architecture by Mr. Ruskin, but he has emphatically adopted them, ap- plied them to Art in general, and enforced them by anathemas that go far beyond the artistic conscience. Let us endeavour to ascertain their value. The matter is not determined by saying that Greeks were Pagans, and that Goths were Chris- tians. Were that all, the practical issue were sim- ple enough. If Greeks were Pagans, Goths were Papists. But the appeal to history has another aspect. For some centuries before Gothic had an existence, and for some centuries since the Middle Ages, Christians have built their churches of classic architecture. Have all such churches been Pagan churches? Is St. Peter's at Rome a Pagan church? Is our own St. Paul's a Pagan church? If it be said that these fabrics, by whomsoever built, were built on principles essentially Pagan, and that the principles of Gothic architecture are essen- tially Christian, let us endeavour to ascertain what is meant by architectural principles essentially Chris- tian and Pagan. N 4 184 RELIGION OF ART. And here we may dismiss all reference to parties building; all mere association of ideas; and all mere adventitious adjuncts- bulls' heads of Classic, and Bishops' and angels' heads of Gothic architecture. Such things may serve to mark appropriation, but can have nothing to do with essential principles. And we may dismiss, also, all notice of such general form and arrangement of parts, as had, notoriously, no Christian origin. The normal churches were, in fact, Roman Basilica, or Halls of Justice, whence both the ground-plan and the name. The very chancel was but the Bμx, or place of the magisterial judgment-seat. Nor is even the cruciform plan of any force in the present inquiry. It was neither essential to Gothic churches, nor peculiar to them. Nor are towers and spires any more discriminative. Mr. Ruskin has himself taken great pains to remind us that the tower had an essentially secular origin, and that the spire was characterised by "a complete domesticity." (Edin. Lect., pp. 48, 49.) Nor need any one be told who has seen the Coli- seum, that the piling of story upon story, however characteristic of Gothic architecture, had neither ob- ject nor origin we can pretend to call Christian. Such things as ornamented seats in the wall, called Sedilia," or a hole in the wall called a "Credence table," can scarcely be quoted as inspirations essen- tially Christian. The very stoop for holy water was but the adoption of the Pagan περιρραντήριον. The principle of orientation also was copied (as the En- glish reader may find in Potter's Grecian Anti- WHAT ARE, WHAT NOT, ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES. 185 quities) from the Pagan practice of looking eastward on entering the temple. If, from such seeming results of Christian usage, we turn to what may be more properly called archi- tectural features, we are equally far from any war- rant for the terms in question. The real pedigree of architecture is, in point of fact, as clear as it is concise. Wide as are the differ- ences between the distant links, it is but a continuous chain from first to last. How far there was a con- scious compromise between invention and precedent; how far a blind, imbecile, or stupid servility; how far an intelligent consciousness that the early builders had struck out the master lines, I am not careful to determine. It is enough to say (not entangling ourselves, of course, in collateral influences), that Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Saxon, Norman, Tran- sitional, Early English, Decorated, Perpendicular, are so many successive stages of development, of whose genealogical connection there can be no de- fensible doubt. The origin of the arch does not affect even the question of hereditary descent, much less that of Pagan and Christian." With that of the pointed arch we may trouble ourselves when it has been proved that "Norman " and "Lombard" are Pagan architecture. One really distinguishing feature has been ob- served by Rickman, that in Classic architecture the column is for use and beauty; in Gothic for beauty only. I presume none will say it was Christianity which dictated the conversion of use to ornament. 186 RELIGION OF ART. I suppose nothing more decisive can be affirmed of another Gothic feature, "the high embowed roof.” We need not speak of Druid or Pagan groves: the thing has obviously no more to do with anything properly called Christian, than the Satellites of Jupiter, or the Zodiac of Denderah. Foliage is an unmistakeable creature of ancient art. Rudely natural in Egypt, elegantly conven- tionalised in Greece, debased in Rome, barbarised in darkened Europe, we find it, like a flower "whose seed is in itself upon the earth," still betraying its origin, beneath the culture of those exquisitely art- ful and æsthetic monks who interwove all the worship of God with the worship of beauty, - abjured the world, and brought it into the church, made long prayers, and set them to ravishing music,- professed asceticism, and painted their oratories with gorgeous legends, and overlaid the Word of God itself, when they chanced to get it, with all sorts of amusing, sometimes not over delicate, things they called " Il- luminations." Nor can we make much of the greater appropriate- ness of Gothic architecture to religious purposes. Not only do men differ as to what is, or what is not appropriate, but the question before us is not one of ¿" or more or less appropriate, but of "Christian" "Pagan." When we speak of "sacred architecture," we have no right to mean a building appropriated de facto to a sacred purpose; nor a building with certain doc- trinal truths superficially symbolised or written upon its walls. We should mean a style which is itself,— SENSUOUS IMPRESSIONS. 187 in its essential principles, or pervading aspect, the direct and peculiar expression of religious feelings. But all this has to do with sensuous impressions, not particular doctrines. Till it can be shewn that faith has originated a distinct order of emotions ex- pressible by architectural language, or a distinct order of sensuous impressions that may serve as the elements of that language, it may be soberly asked, What is there in the Christian religion that should make one particular style Pagan, and another Chris- tian? In other words, what element of religious feeling, presentable by an architectural medium, is so peculiar to Christian worship as to have no place in a Grecian temple? Is it fixedness? gravity? solemnity? majesty? stability? eternity? Is it verend gladness or awful fear? re- I have said, we have nothing to do here with more or less. I should never think of comparing the Parthenon, in point of solemnity, with our West- minster Abbey. But then I should no more think of comparing York Minster, save the " Early English part of it, with the artistic purity, the simple grandeur, the chaste magnificence of the Acropolis. All this, however, is short of the mark. We speak not of more or less, but of Christian and Pagan. Of pure adjuncts, also, I have said enough, the Ilissus and the Theseus are not the Grecian Doric. Take them away; make your building like those at Postum, or fill metope and tympanum with Chris- tian figures: you have not touched a feature of all we mean by "Greek and Gothic." As to essential character, who ever read a line or letter of Minerva LIS "" 188 RELIGION OF ART. worship, in that oblong range? that massive column, channelled with light and shade? that bold, grace- ful echinus? that ponderous entablature? or that congenial pediment? On the other hand, who ever read in the architectural delirium of Cologne or Strasburg that fundamental principle of Christian worship, "God is a spirit: and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth ? "" But, if the question have nothing to do with "more or less," so has it nothing to do with false or true. The religion of the Greek was, at all events, his religion; or an Apostle, standing beneath the shade of the Parthenon, had never said, "Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.” "The world by wisdom knew not God." But the elementary principles to which Revelation addresses. itself, and the particular expression of which makes up what we mean by the language of sacred archi- tecture, were not therefore wanting. There was that material universe, where God never "left Himself without witness." There was the natural conscience, with its mysterious forebodings. There was even propitiatory sacrifice. There were the essential instincts of our moral nature, baffled, betrayed, degraded, yet "not extinct, "feeling after, if haply they might find,” their One Great Object. There were the stupendous realities of life and death; and that dark, inscrutable, irresistible destiny they called "Fate." And amidst all this, there was the actual food and gladness." All these things made a real religion, though the religion was a false reality. Scof- fers laughed in secret at it, as baptized scoffers do at GREEK LOVE OF RULE. 189 theirs. Poets played with it, as Papists do with theirs. Philosophers, falsely so called, hinted esoteric doubts, like would-be sages amongst ourselves. It was the national faith notwithstanding; or,—who will explain to us the death of Socrates? That there is a characteristic difference between all Antique and all Gothic Art is on the surface. Mr. Ruskin says, it is a religious difference. I must make bold to avow my conviction that it is not, that it has nothing intrinsically to do with " Pagan and Christian,” but simply with Greek and Goth. We need not go back to Shem, Ham, and Japheth for the settlement of such a question, nor start an expedition in search of Pelasgic and Teutonic cradles. There are broad, palpable, and ruling lines of dis- tinction between the two. With the most marvellous natural organization, the Greek was in the last stage of national refine- ment; the Goth, whatever his native endowments, was in the emergent one from personal and social barbarism. One at least of the attendant pheno- mena might be anticipated. Greek imagination was everywhere subordinated to thought: Gothic thought everywhere subordinated to imagination. The Greek philosophised where the Goth dreamed. Let us trace this in a few particulars. Poetry precedes all art. Men talk and sing ere they attempt to paint. Can any look at Greek Poetry, and not be struck with the evidences of what I speak of? Rule-rule-rule, the three re- quisites, and the three dominants; modes of poetic action (so to speak), however originated, stereo- 190 RELIGION OF ART. typed, and made unalterable; canons of criticism, from which was no appeal; articulation measured; heroes agonising in masks; choral verses in the very tragic climax; ejaculations of woe! woe! woe! chanted (not as Mr. Ruskin has misinterpreted mine)* by men pacing with marked decorum, in strophe and antistrophe; the whole business (and the national soul was in it) strapped down on a sort of surgical operation-board, called "the three unities,” of which the great common principle was that the Greek Eschylus and Sophocles might never do what Gothic Shakspeare is always doing, give ima- gination such an impulse that no one cares to ask pedantic questions about the when, the where, or the how. I pretend not, of course, to measure original capacities. I only say that, whilst the one could mingle, as he listed, like his own Ariel, with the elements, those I speak of seemed to keep the essence of the universe in a poetic phial, from which a profound national fastidiousness would only allow them to mete it out, drop by drop, "secundum artem." It was the same in everything. As their poetry was artistic, so their language was artistic, their music artistic (I mean studiously, scrupulously, affectedly), so much so, that it has puzzled antiquarians to discover any thing we mean by Music in it,— their oratory artistic, their philosophy artistic. Where else could such a thing have been dreamt of as one man speaking the speech, and another going through * See conclusion of chap. xix. GREEK LOVE OF RULE. 191 the attitudes? Where else would musical ratios be taken at something more than a sort of symbolism; so that virtue, friendship, government, celestial motions, the human soul, God Himself, were affirmed to be "Harmony?" Where else would such mathe- maticians as Euclid and Ptolemy, and such sages as Plato and Pythagoras, write, one might almost say, religious treatises on musical numbers? Where else can you find the philosopher, that professed artist, musician, actor, in some cases wrestler, as well as dialectician, that made an Apostle (himself develop- ing great natural and acquired endowments) draw an impassable gulf, not only between what he taught and what was taught at Athens and Corinth, but be- tween himself, speaking truth in the spirit of truth, and those who treated what they called truth as though the thing propounded were beneath the "excellency of speech and wisdom " propounding it? I will not stop to speak of canons of beauty mathematical laws for corporal symmetry-analo- gies between chords of music, relations of geometric figures or algebraic numbers, and man's bodily frame. Perhaps the most striking case is that of architec- ture. Positive, strict, coldly and calmly elegant or majestical; everywhere imperturbably self-possessed: so much of the serviceable, so much of the orna- mental, so much of the natural, so much of the con- ventional: everywhere the impress of a scrupulosity made up of exquisite taste, profound judgment, and an incorruptible love of rule, — nothing left to fancy, nothing to feeling, nothing to infirmity, I had almost said nothing to love. 192 RELIGION OF ART. It were easy to draw the Gothic contrast, in romantic poetry, romantic art, romantic music, ro- mantic social polity, solving in chivalric institutions. (the work of imagination, not jurisprudence) those most difficult problems of rule and liberty, and ro- mantic religion, playing with truth till it made revela- tion itself a sort of kaleidescope. On Gothic architec- ture alone I dare scarcely trust myself. Let me take a single instance, which is critical. The Greek planted his majestic columns, as I have already observed, so as to bear the unmistakeable stamp of service; the Goth placed his so as only the most licentious fancy could have dreamt of placing them, scooped out the wall to make room for them, and gave them, in most cases, the fantastic semblance of supporting masses, of which the slightest actual pressure would have crushed them to atoms. What shall we say of other braveries? No doubt there was the pro- foundest science, architectural contrivances the Greek never allowed himself, but, the scope for fancy, and the indulgence of it! the bold, unfettered, ever inventive discursiveness! the play of architec- tural revelry! the flinging to the winds of rule and precedent, save only as they gave occasion for further flight, each successive age, each successive building, shewing some wilder master stroke of these true "freemasons!" above all, that most remarkable abhorrence of the "two and two make four" principle that makes the classic style so impracticable, save when Italianized and melted down! the committing everything to that curious, fitful, wonder-loving faculty, that hates utilitarianism, eschews numbers, shrinks from vulgar symmetry; and, whilst it has GOTHIC LOVE OF IMAGINATION. 193 its own sense of proportion, delights everywhere in disguising it! This then, as I take it, is the essential distinction between the styles. Will any be bold enough to call all this "Pagan and Christian?" Is it not, on the face of it, a pure psychological affair from first to last? I suppose "Dionysius the Areopagite" was as good a Christian as any of us. I am quite sure he would have built a church, if he built one at all, on the very strictest anti-Gothic principles: and so would " a woman named Damaris, and others with them." It were the easiest thing to show how psychologi- cal differences follow, now-a-days, the same identical course, how the preponderance of the poetical or the mathematical, the love of sentiment, or the love of order, determine, if but undisturbed, the love of Gothic or of Classic architecture. I had selected two very graphic passages, the one from a pro- fessional writer, who built reading-rooms and coffee- houses on inflexible Doric principles; the other from the eloquent Goth, whose works compel the present comparison: but we have no space for supererogatory proof.* If there can remain a doubt, the following piece of evidence must dispose of it. Here is Mr. Ruskin's own account of Gothic architecture, taken from his elaborate work, the "Stones of Venice." * The very characteristic and very beautiful passage I refer to, is in the Preface to the Second Edition of "Modern Painters," pp. xxxii. xxxiii. : 194 RELIGION OF ART. After telling us that "its elements are certain mental tendencies of the builders legibly expressed in it," he gives us the following inventory of those elements, viz. :- 1st. Savageness. 2nd. Cheerfulness. 3rd. Naturalism. 4th. "Grotesqueness" (afterwards called "dis- turbed imagination ”). 5th. Rigidity (afterwards called "Obstinacy"). 6th. Redundance. 1 will not speak of this inventory as its author has spoken of Dugald Stewart's account of Imagination: though I look in vain for those undeniable qualities, vastness, vagueness, vistaness, maziness; and even for the chaste solemnities of my own "Early English." This, however, is not the point. I con- tent myself with asking, Where in this account of Gothic architecture could the subtlest casuist in the “ Lettres Provinciales " detect a solitary principle that claims the special title of "Christian ?" 195 CHAP. XVIII. THE STUDY OF THE ANTIQUE. THE whole subject of this chapter is in two short questions, What was Greek sculpture in itself? and What is it to be to us? Strange to say, the questions have not been kept distinct. Let us see, first, what Mr. Ruskin admits of the excellence, and then what he asserts of the disquali- fications of the antique. "We see," he says, "by this light (repose) three co- lossal images standing side by side, looming in their great rest of spirituality, above the whole world's horizon, Phidias, Michael Angelo, and Dante; and then, separated from their great religious thrones only by less fulness and earnestness of faith, Homer and Shakspeare."- (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 5.) Again, "One or two fragments of Greek sculpture, the works of Michael Angelo, considered with reference to their general conception and power, and the Madonna di St Sisto, are all I should myself put into such a category: not that even these are without defect; but their defects are such as mortality could never hope to rectify."—(Pre- face to Second Edition of Modern Painters, note to p. xvi.) Again, "The difference in the accuracy of the lines of the 0 2 196 RELIGION OF ART. Torso of the Vatican, from one of Michael Angelo's finest works rests on points of such traceless and refined delicacy, that though we feel them in the result, we can- not follow them in the details. Yet they are such, and so great, as to place the Torso alone in Art, solitary and supreme, whilst the finest of Michael Angelo's works, con- sidered with respect to truth alone, are said to be only on a level with antiques of the second class, under the Apollo and the Venus; that is, two classes or grades be- neath the Torso."-(Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. vi. chap. ii. § 2.) "" So much for the power, "truth," and "spirituality of Greek Art. What is to be thought, after this, of the following expressions? "The divine form of the Greek god, except as it is the incarnation and expression of the divine mind, is degraded beside the passions and prophecy of the vaults of the Sistine.”— (Ibid., pt. i. sec. i. chap. vii.) The question is not one of degree: there is one fact, Mr. Ruskin says, which must make "all Greek conception full of danger to the student." It is this, "The Greek could not conceive a spirit: he could do nothing without limbs. . . . his god is a finite god, talking, pursuing, going on journeys. . . . What were the Greek's thoughts of his god of battles? No spirit's power was in the vision. It was a being of clay strength, and human passions."-(Ibid., pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. v. § 20.) We need not follow the sequel: I will only ask, has not Mr. Ruskin's zeal outstripped his scholar- ship, his metaphysics, and his knowledge of Scrip- ture? It is easy to quote Greek expressions; but what has become of others we are all familiar with, from THE ANTIQUE.-GREEK PHILOSOPHY. 197 66 the lips of Moses and Miriam, of Deborah, David, and Habakkuk ?_" The Lord is a Man of war "Thy right hand is become glorious "" "There went up a smoke out of His nostrils"... "He had horns coming out of His hand"... "Thy bow was made quite naked: thou didst march through the land in indig- nation"...? Or, not to multiply quotations that could be multiplied a hundred-fold, that evangelical pro- mise, "God shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly?" Every child knows that such words are figurative. But who shall say there was nothing figurative in the parallelisms of classic Art? Who can forget those magnificent reachings forth after a great Supreme that are on the pages of Greek philosophy?— how Thales said that "God is without beginning?" and Anaxagoras, that "He is a pure mind?" and Pytha- goras, that" He is a monad, and the principle of good?" and Archilaus, that "He is mind and air?” and Heracleitus, that "He is an eternal circular fire?" and Zeno, that "He is the only eternal and infinite?" Is it just, in the presence of such con- ceptions, to interpret all classic imagery in the letter, and only Scripture in the spirit? But let us come lower down, and speak, not of philosophical speculations, but of popular instincts. I said Mr. Ruskin's zeal had outstripped his meta- physics. "The Greek could not conceive a spirit: " Was Fate, then, a material being? Were the Greeks all materialists? Had they no idea of a human soul? What did they mean by the Metempsychosis? Did they take thought, fear, hatred, jealousy, duty, patriotism, for physical exercises? 03 198 RELIGION OF ART. But we are speaking of Art: the objection is that the Greek artist could do nothing without limbs : Has any Medieval artist carved a spirit? The question is still more limited. It is one, in fact, not of power, but of subject. No one Mr. Ruskin writes for dreams of representations of the Divine Nature. Of those heavenly existences, be- yond which Art should have no ambition of climb- ing, every recorded appearance involves the very "limbs " he would make it a crime to think about. Of that one Being, of whose earthly sojourn Art reverendly attempts the suggestion, we must re- member that He was at once above and “ a little lower than the angels." Of actual sculpture among the Greeks I need attempt no description. It has been sung by poets, as well as anatomized by critics. When Byron speaks of "The sun in human limbs arrayed," or of "Laocoon's torture dignifying pain," or of the figure in the Capitol, "whose manly brow Consents to death, but conquers agony," he but expresses ideas the several statues were meant to prompt. The chiselled marble is itself the echo of poetic thought. Of some of these utter- ances, these bodiless emanations, that hang, rain- bow-like, about the marble, or breathe, like Memnon's voice, at solemn minglings of light and darkness, to ears that listen, these xapdipwvai, heart-speakings, THE ANTIQUE.- GREEK SENSE OF BEAUTY. 199 that make us feel, through the waste of years, how God has indeed "made of one blood all nations of the earth,"-I could have adventured a few words. But it is needless. It is the grossest possible mistake to call these things mere exhibitions of material beauty. The Greek had, indeed, a transcendental sense of corporeal beauty, regarding it, not as an object of sense only, but a type of excellence. The word Kaλos," beautiful," was not only habitually associated with ayatos, "good," but was itself, like the word harmony with us, a sort of generic term for perfec- tion of every kind. They carried out this sense to the almost total exclusion, in works of Art, even of expression; looking on passion as a disturbance of moral symmetry, and beauty "moved" (as Shak- speare would say), " a fountain troubled." How far this sense was intrinsically noble, how far exces- sive, I am not to settle. I am not writing a treatise. Mr. Ruskin says, "all Greek conception is dangerous in proportion to the student's admira- ration of it." Nor will I meet one hyperbole by another. I ask not that Painting shall be always dreaming; yet, inasmuch as all true greatness and goodness is, in its degree, a glimpse of heaven, and all material, as well as moral, beauty a witness of what once was, and what again shall be, I thank all Art or Poetry that brings that witness. I can translate it where it needs translation; though it be the fabled flame on the head of Iulus, or the unreal beauty of the antique Apollo. On the other hand, I cannot but 04 200 RELIGION OF ART. be very jealous of any system which makes us systematically contented with things as they ARE." One might suppose it was intended that an artist, once studying the antique, was to become, ipso facto, one of Niobe's children: at the very least, that he was to treat antique statues as the pope has treated that of Brutus in St. Peter's: that Melpomene was to be baptized a Virgin Mary - Antinous, the beloved disciple—perhaps the " Gladiator," an Apos- tle fighting “after the manner of men with beasts at Ephesus. These are gratuitous apprehensions. Yet, a Westminster Reviewer, honouring my First Lec- ture with unsolicited notice*, expresses his wonder that, after speaking out about Popish Art, I should betray the hopelessness of " talk about Art being even expected to be serious," by going into traditional raptures before a heathen Apollo. I will not weary my reader with a defence of the Apollo; nor repeat all I have elsewhere observed as to the unfortunate point of view in which so many contrive to see it: I mean at right angles with the outstretched arm, instead of in the direct aspect of the salient figure,-converting a beam of light into a form of clay. Mr. Ruskin has discovered that the slight raising of the hand is a betrayal of wonder- a wonderful notion - though the bowman were but flesh and blood! as also that the beautiful disdain that curls the lip is a further indication of the pre- * Jan. 1855, pp. 295–6. MORTAL AND IMMORTAL TRUTH. "" 201 eminently "unspiritual: as if he had never read, “He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh.” 66 Leaving individual cases, let us never forget "that between beauty, truth, and goodness, there is an intrinsical relationship," that the one is the proper concomitant and expression of the other two, - that it is an implanted instinct with us to respond to this, -that, as our great English philosopher has written, "A fair face is a silent commendation," so - till experience has taught unhappy wisdom-the little child, whose only philosophy is the native impulse God inspired it with, believes and reads it so naturally, implicitly, universally. I call this the immortal truth. All that in real life belies it is but mortal truth-exceptional, abnormal, unnatural, beneath which "creation groans." The nurse who tells the child of a "beautiful good angel," and an "ugly wicked one," speaks the dialect of eternity: all Pre-Raffaellitism speaks that of time; and I am prepared to stand by the nurse. Who This, however, is not the matter at issue. argues for transcendentalism? Who asks that ex- pression should be sacrificed to symmetrical decorum? Who would see all figures exhibiting the same pro- portions of limb or feature, when none but simpletons would have them all the shrines and mirrors of the same moral proportions? That great philosopher just quoted, speaking of books, observes that "some are to be but tasted; others swallowed; some few chewed and digested." May I venture to add what I remember from the accomplished Dean of Ely, in a Trinity College 202 RELIGION OF ART. Lecture Room?" I advise you all to read this par- ticular book (of Euclid). You will forget much of the precise matter: you will never lose the benefit of the process." : The application is obvious. Study those master- pieces, never since approached to. Copy into your artistic heart, not this posture, nor that limb, but the tranquil majesty, the unconscious grace, the unaffected refinement, the pervading soul of love- liness, the sublime brooding of thought you will find about them and then, if you can forget them, do so, and "go to Nature: " you may not be always soaring in mid-air; you may not disdain the actual; you may not refuse, like Praxiteles, the clouds and storms of mortal passion; but the spirit of Niobe will at least preserve you from Orcagna's kings holding their noses, or Crevelli's spindle-shanked men and blubbering Magdalenes. As to Greek conception being "full of danger to the student in proportion to his administration of it,” I might content myself with the mere pronunciation of a single name. If there be in all the rolls of art one master, whom, after Turner, Mr. Ruskin himself delights in praising, it is Michael Angelo. He has even turned his statues of "Day and Night" into types of "Death and Immortality." I believe Michael Angelo the greatest, beyond compare, of Christian sculptors. Did he, then, know nothing of " Greek conception?" Did he not catch the first genial im- pulse (and I might ask similar questions about those other giants, Nicola Pisani, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Della Robbia) amongst the antiques of the PROPER USE OF THE ANTIQUE. 203 59 Medici Gardens? Did he not retain that impulse, as a sort of artistic religion, through all his course? Did he not call the Torso by the name of “ Master ? and when he was grown blind, and could no more feast his instinct with the sight of it, was he not led where he could devoutly handle it? I have an unutterable loathing for all statistical measuring and all mechanical manufacturing of genius by recipe; else I could almost say, Take the pupil of Perugino, with a threefold proportion of Perugino's sensibility; add a threefold amount of his love of Nature, and a like amount of "Greek conception," and the result will be Raffaelle. thing of the like process with the disciple of Veroc- chio, but exchanging half the sensibility for the same quantity of additional learning, and you have the painter of the Cenacolo. Some- Short of such experiments, let us remember one general fact. Wherever Art has really climbed, the antique has been, more or less, the ladder. When great men have attempted to embody all that Art can embody of Him who was at once one with God and one with us, they never seem to have so much as thought of taking for model, like our modern Pre-Raffaellites, a living form, but to have at least remembered the antique; softening, with the tender- ness of the "Man of sorrows," that lofty ideal-im- press of inscrutable thought, paternal benignity, undisturbable majesty, and passionless power. I suppose no intelligent eye can look on Raffaelle's "Lo Spasimo," Da Vinci's "Last Supper," or I might even say, Michael Angelo's "Raising of Lazarus,' 204 RELIGION OF ART. painted by Del Piombo, without recognising, more or less, the “Greek conception.” I could content myself with lower proof. Nicolo Poussin is another name for the study of the an- tique; I would match his " Adoration of the Kings," in the Dulwich Gallery,—not of course in regard to technical beauties, but for, what is infinitely better, the profoundly impressive telling of a sacred story, with the rendering of any single subject by any master whatsoever. We closed a former chapter with a portrait from Mr. Ruskin's own pencil: we must close this in a similar way. We have had Greek conception de- nounced, because "the Greek could do nothing without limbs," because, "his god was a being of clay, strength, and penetrable arms.' Here is his account of "Michael the Archangel, the orderer of Christian warfare." It is to be "Not Milton's "" With hostile brow and visage all inflamed; ' not even Milton's 'In kingly treading of the hills of paradise;' not Raffaelle's, with the expanded wings and brandished spear, but Perugino's, with his triple crest and traceless plume unshaken in heaven, his hand fallen on his cross- letted sword, the truth-girdle binding his undented ar- mour. ..., ., incapable, save of the repose of eternal con- quest." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. v.) It was curious to see Mr. Ruskin first reducing history to actual portrait, and then rhapsodising PERUGINO'S ANGEL. 205 a portrait till all actual identity has evaporated. What shall we say to this indignant rejection of the vulnerable and then clothing an archangel with a coat of mail, and sending him forth for "the repose of eternal conquest" over spiritual wickednesses, with a naked sword? It is too true that the Greek knew nothing of our Christian heaven, nor of the narrow way of self- renouncing faith that leads to it: Does it follow that we are to renounce, for the above incongruities, his marvellous grasp of all that Art can give us of grandeur, grace, power, and energy?-of serene en- joyment, silent grief, lightning vigour, or majestic thought? 206 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XIX. REVOLUTION OF ART. ANCIENT SCHOLASTICISM. A MODERN CONTRAST. ONE of the most obvious facts in the history of ancient Art is that there is scarce such a being to be heard of as a self-educated artist. You have but to take up any Biography of Painters, and you find, beneath every illustrious name, the word "discepolo.' Go which way you will, you are in a line of heraldry, the genealogical order as strict and uniform as in Burke's "Peerage," or a German Stambaum. "" Take a few well-known names by way of speci- men: ; Leonardo da Vinci was (with Pietro Perugino) the scholar of Andrea del Verrocchio; who was the scholar of Donatello; who was the scholar of Lorenzo Bicci who was the scholar of Spinello Arretino; who was the scholar of Jacobo di Casentino; who (with Agnolo Gaddi) was the scholar of Taddeo Gaddi; who, with Simon Memmi and Andrea Pisano (the master of Orcagna), was the scholar of Giotto; who (with Ugolino, Gaddo Gaddi, Arnulf di Lapo, and Andrea Tafi) was the scholar of Cimabue. Again, Michael Angelo was the scholar of Dominico Ghirlandajo; and he (with Cosimo Roselli), of Alessandro Baldivinetto; and he, of Paulo Ucelli; and he, of Antonio ANCIENT SCHOLASTICISM. 207 Veneziano; and he (with Gherardo Starnina), of Agnolo Gaddi, aforesaid; who, with Jacobo di Casentino, afore- said, &c., &c., &c. Again, The Prince of Painters was the scholar of Pietro Perugino, aforesaid, whose scholastic descent from Cimabue we need not trace again through all the afore- saids. Again, Fra Bartolommeo was (with Mariotto Alberti- nelli) the scholar of Cosimo Roselli, aforesaid, whose antecedents we have already traced. We will take just one more case; both because it is of special consideration with Mr. Ruskin, and because it threads a line it were unhandsome to leave unnoticed: Tintoretto was the scholar of Titian; who (with Giorgione and Sebastian del Piombo) was the scholar of Giovanni Bellini; and he, of Jacobo Bellini; and he, of Gentile de Fabriano; and he (with Benozzo Gozzoli), of Fra Angelico; and he (with Fra Filippo Lippi, the master of Sandro Botticelli), of Masaccio; and he of Masolino; and he, of Gherardo Starnina, aforesaid, whose descent from Cimabue has been traced already. These few Such are some of the tabular facts. lists embrace almost every star of the first magnitude in the firmament of ancient Art. But we must look a little closer into the meaning of this word "scholar." Those whose notion of education is that of classes in an academy, have not the most distant glimpse of the scholasticism of ancient Art. The great scholars of the great masters not only worked beneath the instruction of one pledged to aid their progress,—not only worked where he worked, so as to get an in- 208 REVOLUTION OF ART. sight into his practice,-but worked with him-saw and shared his resources saw his first sketches from the life-models-helped to transfer them to the canvas, walked hand-in-hand with him as their powers per- mitted-and then stood by and traced his progress to the dizzy heights they were to emulate. Such was ancient scholarship. To what precise limits it was carried in individual cases, it were vain, of course, to conjecture. Here are one or two facts that occur to memory. * C All who know-as all should know-the works of Raffaelle, are no less familiar with the names of disciples who shared his labours in producing them, —Julio Romano, Perin del Vaga, Polidoro da Cara- vaggio, Primaticcio, Giovanni Penni, domestically called "Il Fattore." Mr. Ruskin thanks" Raffaelle for the flowers on the sacred beach of his Miraculous Draught of Fishes;"" he needs no one to tell him the actual hand to which we owe them : nor how, to this very day, purchasers are puzzled by what their possessors call "Replicas" of Raffaelle, of which candour whispers that they are copies; but copies made by men who drank of his spirit ere they sat down to trace his living lines, and whose labours were not only moulded beneath his eye, but received, here and there, the Promethean fire from his actual touch. So, I remember, that, of the two disciples of Cosimo Roselli, Vasari says that they worked to- gether on the same pictures; the closest observer * Giovanni da Udine. ANCIENT SCHOLARSHIP. 209 being unable to say which part was by Fra Barto- lommeo and which by "il altro Bartolommeo," Mariotto Albertinelli. But there is a story of Rubens that goes beyond all this. One day, during his absence, his scholars pranking about his studio, one of them tumbled against his easel, and effaced the head and arm of a Madonna. The consternation may be imagined. A council of war was held: John van Hock instantly exclaimed, “It's no use lamenting; some one must paint in the head and arm, and I give my vote for Vandyke." The thing was done: the master re- turned; resumed his place; looked over his morning's work; stopped some awful moments at the special spot; and observed quietly to his breathless pupils, "That head and arm are among the best things I ever did.” I am not bound to authenticate the story; though I never heard it questioned. I care not if it be called a "myth." myth." Its existence as a fable is quite enough. Such a story could not be even invented in times like these. Let me make here one general remark. This scholasticism of ancient art, whilst it placed the scholar in his master's track, and gave him, not cold rules and apothegms, but the very momentum of his master's spirit, seems never to have enslaved the genius, nor obliterated the individuality of any pupil who had genius or individuality about him. No one need be told that Vandyke became as much Vandyke as the above story would make him Rubens. Raf- faelle walked in the very footsteps of Perugino, till P 210 REVOLUTION OF ART. he grew by natural growth into what the world has learned to know by the name of Raffaelle. Fra An- gelico and Michael Angelo came forth idealists from the realistic schools of Masaccio and Ghirlandajo. Let us turn now to a modern contrast. It shall be given, word for word, from Mr. Ruskin. He speaks of "Pictures painted, in a temper of resistance, by ex- ceedingly young men, of stubborn instincts and positive self-trust, and with little natural perception of beauty.” (Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 24.) I suppose few persons, standing at a distance from the scene, and alive to certain characteristics of the day we live in, could see such words made the pivot of a revolution, without a painful sense of the por- tent. Mr. Ruskin himself begins the last paragraph in the addenda to his "Edinburgh Lectures" with the admission that Among the many dark signs of these times, the dis- obedience and insolence of youth are among the darkest.” My own moral was rather hinted than uttered. I cannot, however, regret that, reading in a "Young Men's Society" a preliminary Lecture on "The Use and Abuse of Art," I should have twice laid my finger on words so ominous. I had, of course, no personal feeling. I knew that the "youths" referred to were youths no longer; and I took the facts, for warning's sake, to the very letter as they were gievn me. The words above cited bear date 1851. In the spring of 1854 appeared the following: - "USE AND ABUSE OF ART. "" 211 "This schism, or rather the heresy which led to it, was introduced by a small number of very young men, and consists mainly in the assertion that the principles on which Art has been taught for these three hundred years back, are essentially wrong." (Edin. Lectures, p. 189.) At pp. 224-5. of the same work we have a yet more graphic account: "These boys agree in disliking to copy the antique statues set before them. They copy them as they are bid, and they copy them better than any one else; they carry off prize after prize, and yet they hate their work. At last they are admitted to study from the life; they find the life very different from the antique, and say so. Their teachers tell them the antique is best, and they must not copy the life. They agree among themselves that they like the life, and that copy it they will. They do copy it faithfully, and their masters forthwith declare them to be lost men. Their fellow-students hiss them whenever they enter the room. They can't help it, they join hands, and tacitly resist both the hissing and the in- struction." We have in view, of course, the principles and not the parties. Of the main fact there can be no pos- sible doubt; it was an academical rebellion. As to "must not copy the life" there need be no mistake, for they were already in "the life aca- demy." As to their "copying the antique better than any one else," there need be no more error: they can "copy" anything; they could copy an Apollo that "walks the air," they preferred copying an Apollo that walks the streets. "They find the life very different from the an- P 2 212 REVOLUTION OF ART. tique." Who ever doubted it? What were poetry if it were not very different from prose? What is involved in all this is, under every aspect Mr. Ruskin says that he has of it, momentous. "always spoken of imagination and invention as di- vine gifts, not to be imparted, improved, or anywise modified, but only injured by teaching." (Pre-Raphael- itism, p. 21.) I rank these gifts, perhaps, as highly as he does, and have, I trust, no less a sense that they are gifts. I hold it, notwithstanding, for as gross and deplorable an error to suppose the inventive faculty absolutely inde- pendent as to take originality, absolute and undisci- plined, as the noblest benefit Art or Poetry can pre- sent us with. Invention is no more self-sufficing than Adam was in Paradise. We were made for one another. We get life in our very original movements, as we gaze on life in our brother's movements. Leave to justice, contempt, or charity, the herd of plagiarists who live by putting their hand in their neighbour's pocket; but hunt down as a monster the would-be autocrat, even of his own endowments. Nor is there question here, whether of natural predilection or of ultimate choice. I have no more desire that, because the antique is above the life, there should be no such beings as realistic painters than that, because Homer and Milton are in the first order of poets, there should be no such persons as Crabbe and Wordsworth. All I ask is that heaven- born Realists would at least abstain from Scripture subjetcs. DISCIPLINE OF DIVINE GIFTS. 213 As to the possession of "divine gifts" being in- compatible with the study of what those same gifts have left on record, it is enough to point to Michael Angelo and his "Maestro ;" to Raffaelle and his (I am afraid stolen) glimpse at the Sistine Chapel; or to any one of the stories that may be found by hundreds in Vasari or Baldinucci; such, for in- stance, as Michael Angelo shutting himself up a whole day before a single work of Masaccio, or that long list of worthies Baldinucci gives us*, beginning with Fra Angelico, and including some of the noblest idealists modern Art can boast, who gave many a day to his still more famous frescoes in the Bransacci Chapel. But I am pleading for truisms. Were it other- wise, we must assume that the art of painting must begin, over and over again with every successive Neophyte, ab ovo. We can no more tolerate this than those eternal "reactions" of which some theorists are so fond of speaking. To be swinging backwards and forwards in ever recurring cycles can be no original law or inevitable necessity of human existence. To be eternally beginning at the same point,-producing the same crudities, calling the same perversities "fruits of genius," is a sort of exhibiting "divine gifts," for which I must take leave to be somewhat unthankful. Even originality may be less precious than excellence; and to be originally wrong, with the means of being modestly right, may deserve a sound whipping where it looks to snatch the laurel. * Tom. v. p 303. P 3 214 REVOLUTION OF ART. There was an expression quoted in our introduc- tory chapter, on which I must make here a brief remark,— I mean "the Eclecticism of Guido and the Caracci:" a very painful expression, whether as regards the parties accused, or the crime they are accused of. Of the parties, let it be granted that they belong to the "silver," not the golden age; that Annibal Caracci was not Michael Angelo; nor Ludivico, Correggio; nor Dominichino, Raffaelle; nor Guido, Fra Angelico: I envy not the man who owes them not a debt of honour, notwithstanding. But the ques- tion is not one of power; they were, it seems, on a wrong track. Their practice was intrinsically un- sound, illegitimate, they were Eclectics. ask a simple question. Let me What is the meaning of this word "Eclecticism?” One would think that the accused were plagiarists, pilferers of other men's thoughts, what I call port- folio-artists. Let us know, then, where Guido found his "Aurora;" and Annibal Caracci his "Three Maries; " and Dominichino his frescoes of St. Andrea della Valle. Show me a figure any of them took from their predecessors, as Michael Angelo did from Orcagna, and Raffaelle from Masolino. The charge is utterly untenable. The bees of Hybla were not more guiltless. Was not What then was this "Eclecticism?" this its virtual language? All former Art has been the Art of schools. But each school has had its master genius, its special excellence and special fault. Study all, without enslaving yourself to any. Observe the good, avoid the bad, and this as stand- ECLECTICISM OF THE BOLOGNESE. 215 ing on the vantage-ground of their collective ex- perience. Painting is not copying figures, but thinking thoughts, feeling feelings, and then giving thought and feeling its plastic utterance. Learn thoughts and feelings from your own hearts; learn the language for their expression from those who thought and painted before you. Such, I take it, was substantially "the Eclecticism of Guido and the Caracci." It was essentially the eclecticism, not of ma- terials, but of a mode of utterance, the manly eclec- ticism of independent action and native genius. How long has such eclecticism been deemed a crime? Or what is to be henceforth the course of the “ingenuas didiscisse fideliter artes?"-to have studied no school? to have studied one school? or to have studied every school? Mr. Ruskin is, in this case at least, consistent: he talks of "Scott having had the blessing of a totally neglected education," and says that "Turner, having suffered under the instructions of the Royal Academy, had to pass nearly thirty years of his life in recovering from the consequences." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xviii. § 3.) I will not attempt to compute the number of those who think Turner a great man whilst painting his older pictures, and a man "crazed beyond all hope" as he got towards the end of the undoing process; I content myself with certain lines of Goëthe, not yet, I believe, quite obsolete : "Vergebens werden ungebundene Geister Nach der Vollendung reiner Höhe streben. In der Beschränkung zeigt sich erst der Meister: Und das Gefeß nur kann uns Freiheit geben." P 4 216 REVOLUTION OF ART. > NOTE. are * There is yet one part of this subject in which I may be allowed to take some personal interest. To the "Edinburgh Lectures attached addenda; amongst which, at p. 238., are the following words: 'As I was copying this sentence, a pamphlet was put into my hand, written by a clergyman, denouncing 'Woe, woe, woe! to "exceed- ingly young men of stubborn instincts, calling themselves 'Pre- Raphaelites; "" and at the foot of the page is a note, giving the title of my First Lecture, with the further words: - 'The phrase, ceedingly young men of stubborn instincts being twice quoted (carefully concealing the context) from my "Pre-Raphaelitism." 66 ex- The charge is two-fold,—denouncing woe, and concealing a context; with a further implication, of forgetting the precept, "See that ye despise not one of these little ones a tolerable affair for "a clergyman." >> For the first count, I shall content myself with three lines Mr. Kuskin might almost have remembered, coming from Edinburgh: "Woe to the youth whom Fancy gains; Winning from Reason's hand the reins, Pity and Woe!" &c. (Rokeby, Canto i.) To the second my reply cannot be quite so brief. I will not retort it, though it is plain I might. When I is plain I might. When I say that not only was the whole matter incidental, but that the Lecture itself contained, in a pamphlet of 106 pages, four such subjects, as the "technical, aesthetic, expressive, and ideal elements" of Painting, Sculpture, Music, and Architecture, with some two or three and thirty musical illustrations to boot, it will be scarce a wonder if, as far as possible, I avoided contexts. But what, after all, was the context? If the reader will consult the passage in situ, he will find that Mr. Ruskin, giving the facts as I have quoted them, accounts for them by intimating that "it was to be expected that persons intended to resist the influence of such a system" (of 300 years) "should be endowed with little natural sense of beauty." God himself, that is to say, having designed the institu- tion of Pre-Raffaellitism, had rendered its apostles dead to what they were to revolutionise! If, under circunstances, I was really guilty AN APOLOGETIC. 217 in giving Mr. Ruskin's facts without such a rationale, I am ready to express my sorrow. I re- For the third charge. Sorry indeed should I be to "despise" any "little ones." It may perhaps, be allowable to ask, if" these little ones in the precept be precisely Mr. Ruskin's little ones. member reading of a German bishop, taken prisoner in battle; and the Pope writing to his captor for the release of his "beloved son;" and the emperor sending the coat of mail in which the bishop was taken, with the words, "Lo this have we found, know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." Those who know the identity between the "little child" once emblematised and the "stubborn instincts" of the case before us, may be disposed to leave the Pope and Mr. Ruskin to reply together. 218 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XX. THE MOVEMENT FURTHER EXAMINED. GIOTTO AND MILLAIS. CRITICAL QUESTIONS. LET us look, now, a little closer at the revolutionary Mr. Ruskin tells us that movement. "It was not by greater learning, not by the discovery of new theories of Art, not by greater taste, not by the ideal principles of selection, that he (Giotto) became the head of the progressive schools of Italy. It was simply by being interested in what was going on around him, by substituting the gestures of living men for conventional attitudes, and portraits of living men for conventional faces, and incidents of every day life for conventional circumstances, that he became great, and the master of the great." (Notice for the Arundel Society, p. 23.) Some of the results of such a mode of treating Scripture history we have seen in a former chapter. Mr. Ruskin tells us further that "Giotto was to his contemporaries precisely what Millais is to his contemporaries, both movements being the protests of vitality against mortality, of spirit against letter, and of truth against tradition." (Ibid.) We might almost accept this as the practical issue of no small part of our controversy. The subject condenses itself, in fact, into certain questions, sug- gested, more or less directly, by this passage and its context. Let us ask, for instance, 66 TRUTH AGAINST TRADITION." 219 1. What is meant by "truth against tradition?” Now, I am no great friend of tradition. I believe few things have done more harm. Only let us take care, that in roasting tradition we do not burn our own fingers. There are two very obvious fallacies; the one, of those who lose all personal perception in a blind dependence on tradition; the other, that of those who, in mistrust of tradition, shut themselves up within their own perceptions. The first is the fallacy of the slave, the second, of the fool. What is the case before us? If tradition be opposed to "truth," it must be, not tradition simply, but false tradition. Was the one referred to false? Mr. Ruskin says of it "Generally speaking, the Byzantine Art, though manifesting itself only in perpetual repetitions, yet preserved reminiscences of design originally noble, and tradi- tion of execution originally perfect." (P. 18.) Such traditions, then, of form and practice were not, at all events, false traditions. Again,- "The great system of perfect colour was then in use, solemn and deep (we are engaged with religious art), "composed strictly, in all its leading masses, of the colours re vealed by God from Sinai as the noblest." (P. 21.) This tradition, then, of colour was not, I presume, any more, false tradition. وو A preceding sentence speaks of "substituting gestures and portraits of living men for conventional attitudes and faces." Were these attitudes and faces false as well as conventional? Let us look to the other arm of the antithesis. Nothing easier, of course, than to talk of "truth" 220 REVOLUTION OF ART. and "nature." But, as I have asked already, and can scarce ask too often, What truth? Is it abstract, general, comprehensive? or personal, local, circum- stantial, idiosyncratic truth? Is it typical to So again of“ nature." What nature? Is it human nature? or an individual piece of it? or actual? noble or ignoble nature? Do you see it in the Apollo? or in the filthy Ganymede of Rembrandt? Both are nature: which do you mean, when you oppose the words "truth and nature "tradition?" A man may prefer the cabbage- stump to the lily, but is the lily, therefore, not nature? There is, if I may be allowed the ex- pression, a lily-humanity and a cabbage-stump humanity. Which of these presents itself when we read those beautiful words Mother of Him who is Brother to all?” But, if all of us, not being Pre-Raffaellites, think, and cannot but think, of that higher humanity,-if we meet not this humanity in every day life if the nearest actual approaches to it are yet sensibly but approaches, each falling short, yet all concurring in the assertion of an ultimate fact — and if tradition be the record of happy glimpses of that ultimate fact, then, so far as the record is not a falsehood, it is a truth; and a truth in that higher sense of truth, in which what it testifies to is, in the higher sense, humanity. The matter is so plain, I almost hesitate to argue it. Mr. Ruskin forgets his own antithesis in the NATURE AND TRADITION. 221 very act of asserting it. He supposes one asking, “But what is the use of the works of Giotto to us ?” (P. 23.) Now this was a critical two ways of answering it. question. There were One would be saying, They are useful as a simple protest; sending us at once to actual nature. This would square with the antithesis; What is the reply? “I answer, first, it is a great thing to have hold of the root." What root? Nature? or Giotto's rendering of it? The answer proceeds: “In nine cases out of ten, the first expression of an idea is the most valuable; the works of such a man should assuredly be studied with the greatest care." And What is Giotto, then, to us but tradition? what becomes of the antithesis? But now as to another contrast. 2. What is the meaning of spirit against letter? I should have thought it very near a truism to say that ideal nature is the spirit, of which actual nature is but the letter. Let us go on, then, to the next point. 3. What are we to understand by "vitality against mortality?" Vitality must be either in the student, or in what he studies. If the former, it is but say- ing that Giotto was a better artist than his prede- cessors. If the latter, then Mr. Ruskin has himself told us that "if any superior mind arose among them, it had before it models which suggested or recorded a perfection they did not themselves possess." (P. 19.) 222 REVOLUTION OF ART. I take for granted that suggestive power is not 66 mortality." This, however, is below the mark. If so much could be said of Byzantine models, What shall we say of those which give the interest to the present question? Is Raffaelle's Madonna de San Sisto mortality? Is the un-dying gladiator mortality? What would Michael Angelo have replied, had one accused his Maestro of mortality? One would think it was not the qualities of a thing, but its simply being a thing, that make it interesting. And so the representation of it was measurable, not by the qualities, but by the sense of reality that representation suggested. Were it thus, Morland's pigs were better than Michael Angelo's prophets and to speak of the horse's head, snorting fire and wrath among the Elgin marbles, in comparison with some wretched beast within three hobbling steps of the nacker's, were to put "mortality " and "vitality" on the same illicit level. Had we been told that Art had fallen into a mere heartless reiteration of the model, that all reference. to actual life had ceased, and that Giotto brought men back to the consciousness, and love, and study of it, there had been no dispute. As it is, these eloquent contrasts sound like a protest against all but life in the vulgar sense. It were easy to construct, by simple counter-quo- tation, a protest, from Mr. Ruskin himself, against almost all the important errors I call Pre-Raffael- QUESTIONABLE CONTRASTS. 223 litism. What more distinct recognition, for instance, of intrinsic qualities in their pure intrinsicalness than the following passage? - "As soon as a great sculptor begins to shape his work out of the block, we shall see that its lines are nobly arranged, and of noble character. We may not have the slightest idea for what the forms are intended, whether they are of man or beast, of vegetation or drapery. Their likeness to anything does not affect their nobleness. They are magnificent forms, and that is all we need care to know of them in order to say whether the workman is a good or a bad sculptor." (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.) There is here, of course, no theological difficulty. We put not man's work before God's work. In the sense in which I speak it is not man's work. Those marvellous endowments that have given immortality to blocks of marble, are records, not of man's creation, but of his research. Not one single so-called triumph, but I ask, "Whose is this image and superscription? Not an element wrought into life and beauty, not a faculty or feeling employed on it, but bears the stamp, and the more wondrous the development, the more impressive the handwriting. Who reads that sounding nonsense of Dryden, "The wise for cure on exercise depend: God never made His work for man to mend," without remembering how a better poet has told us "He giveth medicine to cure our sickness?" But we must pursue our questions. > L 224 REVOLUTION OF ART. 4. What are the precise functions of the artistic conscience? 66 Mr. Hunt undertakes to paint the "Scape Goat," and must go to the Dead Sea ere he dares represent a wilderness." A French Pre-Raffaellite cannot paint a piece of pewter in one cottage, because he really found it in another.* Mr. Ruskin tell us we "mistake the conscientiousness of the early painters for servility," † and assures us that "every figure in Pre-Raffaellite History is an individual portrait." Do these things reveal the true conditions of artistic practice? Does conscientiousness oblige the artist to "give us the idea of his having seen the fact," when he never saw, and never could have seen it? When Giotto sat down to paint wonderful things of won- derful persons, was it "earnestness of faith” that made him stick to "the incidents of every day life?" If I go to a Pre-Raffaellite for an apostle, is he bound to give me a portrait of Mr. Tomkins? 5. Are historical facts really and truly "plain facts?" Here is a stormy sea, with two men in a boat. One is terrified, the other tranquil. Suppose sea, boats, men, all painted from the life: this is, I suppose, a plain fact. Is it the historical one? Where is the "Cæsarem vehis?" Here is a country wench with a child on a donkey. This also is a plain fact. Will you call it "the flight into Egypt?' * Notice on pictures of 1856, p. 48. † Notice of Giotto, p. 27. "" I suppose I need not tell the story of Cæsar. Would that every Christian could translate "you carry Cæsar" into a nobler rendering! He has the right, if he have the faith. TRUTH IN HISTORICAL PAINTING. 6. What do we mean by "facts? "" 225 A physical action is a fact. Is not a moral one a fact also? Is not man's mind a fact? and his heart, his character, his very imagination? Are not all these so many facts? Why this reiteration of plain facts?" Is it not in experience that plain facts may be ab- sorbed, swallowed up, verbally annihilated by facts that are not plain? An Apostle calls himself "chief of sinners." Will any deny that that Apostle was not, in point of plain fact, the chief of sinners; when we find him declaring that he had lived from "youth up in all good conscience?" So David cries, " Against thee, thee only have I sinned and done this wickedness." Needs any to be informed about a wife dishonoured, and a husband murdered? We say, at least every Sunday," There is none other that fighteth for us, but only Thou, O Lord." Did any of us intend to abrogate or ignore so plain a fact as the French alliance? Short, however, of such cases, let us ask another question. 7. Is there not a broad, intelligible, indispensable distinction between historical painting and all the realism some would give us for it? If the artist were actually present, he might fall miserably, even then, below the virtual, by his very fidelity to the material truth. Still we should accept this as we accept a portrait; and fall back on Lord Bacon's maxim, that "the best part of beauty is what a picture cannot express." But suppose the artist was Q. 226 REVOLUTION OF ART. not present, that he could not possibly be present, Is it "truth," or the grossest of farces, to give us Realism and call it History? Give us the real Julius Cæsar, and we know where we are. Give us the real John Smith, and we know where we are. But to give us the real Smith for the real Cæsar, and call it "truth,” what is this but an abuse of language? Sure, the plainest of all plain facts is that history has to do with what we think of a man's mind, character, and immortal actions,-portrait with what we see of the corruptible accidents of that outer person, which, in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, is little else than a mortal husk. And the plainest inference is, that realistic painting is not, in the strict sense of the word, true historical painting. I scruple not to call it an act of felony on the historic instinct. There is a little passage in that dark" Autobio- graphy of Haydon," which illustrates, though un- consciously enough, the essential principle I am contending for. The artist was exhibiting his great picture of "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem." Going one day into the room (it was in Glasgow), an old man came up and said, “I think you should tak your hat off in sic an awfu' presence." I dare say the old man was no more a picture-worshipper than the best of us; but then he was no more a "Dilettanti." What if the artist had proceeded to show him that the picture contained portraits of living notables, Words- worth, Keats, Hazzlitt, and others, and that great people found in these portraits a great additional source of interest? There can be no possible doubt TRUTH IN HISTORICAL PAINTING. 227 as to the reply: "I'm sorry to hear it; sic people have no business here. If what I took' for Jews be sic gents as you speak of, then the picture may be very fine, but it's just nae' Entry into Jerusalem.'" 6 But we are not at the end of our questions. 8. What is the real object for which we look at an historical picture? Mr. Ruskin tells us : "The longer I think over the subject, the more I perceive that the pleasure we take in such unnatural landscapes" (those of the early religious painters) "is intimately connected with our habit of regarding the New Testament as a beautiful poem, instead of a state- ment of plain facts. He who believes thoroughly that the events are true will expect, and ought to expect, real olive-copse behind real Madonnas, and no sentimental absurdities in either." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xviii. p. 320.) May I venture to write a counter-statement? The longer I think on the subject, the more I perceive that the pleasure we take in such scrupulously natural landscapes is intimately connected with our habit of re- garding the New Testament as a history of certain material facts: instead of a revelation of a spiritual world, spiritual principles, and a spiritual agency. He who believes that the events belong to an unseen (but empha- tically real) order of things, will expect, and ought to expect, to find Art representing such events as Art can only duly and intelligibly represent them in phraseology becoming that essential majesty which is beneath the natural surface: and put all scientific, local, and other accuracies in their proper place. Had we a real portrait of the actual Madonna, we might expect real olive trees in the background. As it would be - Q 2 228 REVOLUTION OF ART. palpably false to give that name to a modern picture; it were absurd to demand realistic accessories of what should be confessedly and sensibly ideal from first to last. This I take to be the common sense view of the subject: pushed, perhaps some will say, to its extreme by Mr. Ruskin's antagonisms. That he should speak of "sentimental absurdities" on such a subject, gives me more sorrow than surprise. And yet the "facilis descensus" looks strange in immediate juxtaposition with the following sentence from the same volume:- "The frankness of these unlikelihoods proceeds mainly from the endeavour on the part of the painter to express, not the actual fact, but the enthusiastic state of his own feelings about the fact." (Pt. iv. chap. iv. § 10.) This is a beautiful sentence, and goes, of course, inexorably farther than it was meant to do. But I must make even another complaint. I have shown that Mr. Ruskin assumed, with Raffaelle as with Claude, the licence of imputing motives *; I must now show that in doing so, he has been guilty with Raffaelle as with Claude of the most un- disguised self-contradiction. He says that "The pictures of Francia and Bellini had been received as pleasant visions. But the cartoons of Raf- faelle were received as representations of historical fact.” (Ibid. § 14.) I will not stop to ask who gave the writer this extraordinary intelligence. Himself tells us, in the very next paragraph, that * Chap. xi. "EPIC UNITY." 229 "Neither these, nor any other work of the period, were representations either of historical or of possible fact but cold arrangements, according to academical formulas, with such commonplace ideas as might obtain for the whole an epic unity, or some such other form of scholastic perfectness." (Ibid. § 15.) Nay, he had just told us that the painter "proceeded to manufacture certain arrange- ments of apostolic sublimity, virginal mildness, and in- fantine innocence," &c. (Ibid. § 14.) 66 On the "epic unity" of the above I will not com- ment. I should have thought that such things as Apostolic sublimity, virginal mildness, and in- fantine innocence," might have at least been left to stand or fall with "pleasant visions," and the expres- sion of the painter's "own feelings about the facts." But there is, it seems, a distinction. The very unlikelihoods of the earlier painters made it impos- sible to receive them save as pleasant visions; the greater amount of nature in Raffaelle made his cartoons a virtual representation of historic facts. So we are only to tolerate "pleasant visions" when clothed in absolute fantasticalness; or real- istic representations of facts which are really representations of other facts. The vision is "plea- sant" enough, if only its absurdities are gross and palpable; let the painter clothe it in becoming language, and faith is gone, "to this day the clear and tasteless poison of the Art of Raphael infects with sleep of infidelity the hearts of millions of Christians." (Ibid. § 18.) I remember a libel on a certain monarch which denounced him as "the Mecenas of the age." The Q 3 230 REVOLUTION OF ART. writer, on being charged with it, proposed to assert, in terms equally positive, that the said monarch was not a Mecænas. Must we put Art to the same defence? Is she to protest that Apostles had no sublimity, Virgins no mildness, and children no innocence? And are we to call this the "truth" of Art? As for the cartoons being taken for simple pre- sentation of historical facts,-that those Apostles were the very Apostles, and those little boats the very boats,―might we not say, with at least as much plausibility, that the realistic style of Giotto must have led to the belief that the Virgin Mary was a Tuscan girl? Two things are on the surface:- First, it was the great delusion of the Jews themselves, to sink supernatural events into "plain facts," and to ask, "Is not this the carpenter's son? and his brethren and sisters, are they not all with us? And it is our wisdom to forget the plainness of the facts, and see them only in their proper character. Secondly, the sense of such things as moral "sub- limity," "mildness," and "innocence" is amongst the most sacred elements of our own nature. I know not, indeed, how much even of our ap- prehension of that Great, Ineffable, Unsearchable Supreme, in whom "we live, and move, and have our being," is dependant on the strength and clearness of our perception of abstract qualities, hallowed, ele- vated, expanded into infinity, yet gathered into per- sonality (if I may so express it) in "Him with whom we have to do." Nor how much of our sense of those SENSE OF ABSTRACT QUALITIES BY ART. 231 qualities is continually growing and strengthening by our daily communings even with earthly things. This is no pantheism. It is one thing to say that certain created qualities are reflections of the Creator, witnesses of His perfection, steps by which to climb to adoring thoughts and filial feelings, another to say that they are God himself. Milton was no pantheist when he wrote, "These are thy glorious works, thyself how glorious then? The beloved Apostle was no pantheist when he told us that "God is light." Now, if all this be true, we see at once the real character and proper mission of the order of Art we are engaged with. I cannot allow myself the ex- pression here of all I feel on this subject; I hope to say something more when I come to speak of the "Use and Abuse of Art." At present I will only observe, that even music is properly interpretable on the same principle. The mere physical enjoyments of harmony, however innocent, are but a lower ex- ercise for human faculties. Music, at its best estate, may be inadequate to suggest, save by capricious, I might say childish analogies, a single image. People may ask us what we have seen, or even thought, whilst enjoying a sonata of Beethoven, a melody of Mozart, or a chorus of Handel. There may be a something, and in all true melody there is a something, that mocks analysis and defies translation; and those who never look beneath the surface may say that music without words can have no meaning. The sense of certain qualities—of power, gracefulness, sweetness, beauty, Q 4 232 REVOLUTION OF ART. majesty, in all their infinite range and diversified development-the sense, I say, of these and other qualities in what I may call their disembodied state, without a word to interpret, misinterpret, or obscure. them, may afford occasion of training to feelings and faculties that have to do with other things than musical sounds; feelings and faculties which go to make up our highest existence as immortal beings; feelings and faculties which measure our capacity for converse with those stupendous spiritual objects, of which power, sweetness, majesty, gentleness, are so many essential attributes. And the same, of course, of painting. Those very qualities of "sublimity, mildness, innocence," Mr. Ruskin talks of "manufacturing," are, in point of fact, unspeakably precious, one and all, to my moral nature so precious that Art becomes itself pre- cious, as it can help me to a recurring sense of them so precious, so essential to my conception, shall I say of" Apostles, Virgins, and Children?" that the art which wilfully dissociates and disjoins them breaks down embodied mysteries into "plain facts" and robs those facts of their essential attributes; be- comes itself degraded; and calls for impeachment. I hope these questions will not be deemed “fri- volous and vexatious." They are not even gratuitous. They are forced on us. Nor are we yet at the end of them: there is another from which I know no reason- able escape. 9. Do not Pre-Raffaellite principles, fairly followed, involve the formal renunciation of all historical paint- ing, save of contemporaneous events ? Giotto's converting of Scripture facts into "every TENDENCY OF PRE-RAFFAELLITE PRINCIPLES. 233 day incidents," Mr. Ruskin's authoritative disclaimer of antiquarianism, and his disciple's presentation of a scrupulous portrait for John the Baptist or the Apostle Paul, are simple departures from our sense of what we have been commonly used to call historical painting; when we find it stated as a proof of ho- nesty that "the artist, not having seen a Madonna, did not paint one, "" * we come, as it seems to me, to the point I venture to put in the form of a question. I must ask yet a further question. 10. Are plain facts, save as artistically conducive to something nobler, what any of us care to look on, except in what we are used to call "furniture pictures? Here is a shower of rain that makes you feel for your umbrella. The critic observes, with an air of triumph, "I do not say that this is beautiful; I do not say it is ideal nor refined; I only ask you to watch for the first opening of the clouds after the next south rain, and tell us if it be not true."† Sup- pose it is. Am I to place the painter "beside Shakspeare and Verulam" for simply giving me what I can see, without any artistic effort, ten times oftener than is agreeable? We appreciate the science that explains the very commonest pheno- menon. We thank the man who opens the caverns of physical nature, and reveals mysterious agencies working out the Divine Benevolence. We thank and venerate the man who opens the unspeakably richer caverns of humanity, and reveals moral ele- ments that make man the very image of Him who made him. It is impossible to tell the preciousness * "Stones of Venice," bk. ii. chap. vi. "Modern Painters," pt. ii. sec. iii. chap. iv. § 24. 234 REVOLUTION OF ART. of those glimpses of the inner world that shine out from the canvass that has been touched by the hand of Raffaelle. But how are we to understand such language as the following? - "None before Turner had lifted the veil from the face of nature: the majesty of the hills and forests had received no interpretation." (Edin. Lectures, p. 181.) One would like to know what was the veil alluded to, and how Turner lifted it, and what was then seen and interpreted that was not seen and understood before. Perhaps some courteous "Westminster" will call on "manliness, veracity, and morality" to con- vert this occult performance into a "plain fact." We are told somewhere from the same quarter, that "man has become on the whole an ugly animal;" and that "High Art consists neither in altering, nor in improving Nature." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. iii. § 19.) Is this, then, among the plain facts, Art is to be employed in making history? Or are we to forget so elementary a fact as that many an ornament to society would make but sorry ornament to a picture; and vice versâ ? There is not the remotest need of abjuring "truth" and "nature," whilst avoiding the bluntness, rude- ness, and essential commonness I have been depre- cating. We perfectly understand the old patriarchal royalty, that could unite, almost in the same day, the tending of sheep, the command of troops, and the ministering of justice in the gate. There was no loss of dignity in this total absence of effeminacy. Abraham's running to "fetch a calf, tender and good," when he "entertained the strangers," stands • BEAUTY IN SCRIPTURE FACTS. 235 side by side with his majestic bowing himself, in that beautiful conference in the field of Machpelah. So of Sarah, who "made them cakes upon the hearth," we are told that she was so "fair to look on, that princes commended her before the king of Egypt." (Gen. xii. 15.) The same of Rebekah (Gen. xxiv. 15.), and of Job's daughters (Job xlii. 15.). So," Joseph was a goodly person." And it was when the mother of Moses saw "he was a goodly child" (compare Acts vii. 20.) that she did what issued in wondrous things. All this is "nature.” Of such noble simplicity, such marriage of truth and beauty, we have examples enough in the highest Art. I need but name Raffaelle's Loggie, and Michael Angelo's Lunettes in the Sistine Chapel. Pre-Raffaellitism is affectedly after an- other fashion. Mr. Ruskin tells us that "of ma- jestic women bowing themselves to beautiful girls we have had enough." (Notice of Giotto, p. 76.) His Giottesque "plain facts" are, for the most part, ugly facts. His modern Revolutionists are "characterised by a total insensibility to the ordinary and popular forms of artistic gracefulness." (Edin. Lectures, p. 228.) He has not told us if that lover of plain facts who, as High Sheriff, met the judges the other day in a common cab, and paid the penalty, was, as I presume he must have been, a Pre-Raffaellite; but he is very careful to tell us and to reiterate and enforce it, that the Homeric ideal presents " Achilles cutting pork chops for Ulysses." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. vii. §§ 4. 10.) We have yet another question; but we must propose it in another chapter. 236 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XXI. CRITICAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. DO WE WANT A REVOLUTION? -THE "EFFETE HYPOTHESIS. "" WE asked some critical questions in the preceding chapter. We must ask another here. Do we want this Revolution ? Do we want any Revolution ? There are, broadly speaking, three kinds of artistic practice. There is, first, the loose, careless, unintelligent, inaccurate, which, whether in History, Portrait, or Landscape, we may denominate without irreverence, the school of slip-slop. There is, secondly, the careful and scrupulous, but prosaic, servile, undiscriminating copyism of actual nature, which we may call the school of matter of fact. And there is, thirdly, the no less careful and conscientious, but discriminating and poetical rendering, whether of Landscape or History, which we have been long used to denominate the school of "High Art.” For the first, who will stand up and plead? Were only our National Galleries what the name implies, a means of instruction, not to Artists only, but to the nation at large, we should infallibly stop its supplies, and starve it out. Had Mr. Ruskin contented himself with the mission (of which no one living is more capable) of exposing the errors, slovenlinesses, and unworthi- REFORM AND REVOLUTION. 237 nesses of that mockery of the nobler style, had he told empirics that poetic art is not flimsy art, that poetry is not going into infinite space, that a man must know what an object is before he can pretend to poetise it, had he even claimed honourable stand- ing for downright Realism, and asserted not only its own right to its own ground, but its wholesome bearing, even on the higher styles, as a salutary protest against dissolving elemental existence in mists and vapours, had, I say, Mr. Ruskin done this, all but the delinquents, and their jobbing partizans, would have thanked him, and stood by him. What has he done? I will not refer to what we have been reviewing; but will just add a characteristic passage from his last performance. "I thought, some time ago, that this painter was likely to be headed by others of the school: but Titian himself could hardly head him now. This picture ('Peace Con- cluded') is as brilliant in invention as consummate in executive power. Both this, and 'Autumn Leaves,' will rank in future among the world's best master-pieces; and I see no limit to what the painter may hope in future to achieve." (Notes on Pictures in the Royal Academy, 1856, p. 22.) Now I have almost as much repugnance to a de- scription of this particular picture as to a depre- ciation of the particular talent evinced in the paint- ing of it; but I must say that, had Mr. Ruskin meant to throw an impassable gulf in the way of further progress, he could scarce have done anything more 238 REVOLUTION OF ART. effectual than pronouncing such an eulogy on such a work. It consists, simply speaking, of a Gentleman re- clining upon a sofa; a Lady, of whom, as it is of course a portrait, I will only say that the painter has scrupulously avoided giving her the most distant approach to expression; two children, one of whom, with ineffable hardness, is staring straight out of the canvass; and the other, a fine, fresh, purely natural profile, looking up, with great animation, into the gentleman's face; a rough greyhound, whose eye is worth all the rest of the picture; and a Noah's Ark, from which the child in profile has taken out a bear, a lion, and, if I recollect right, a dove and a turkey- cock. This is called " Peace Concluded:" and if you are tempted to think it is only husband and wife who have been at war, there is a newspaper, painted with painful accuracy, announcing the na- tional fact. This is really the whole. Of the skill of the pencil I say nothing. I will not stop at the words "con- summate in executive power." At the other terms of the eulogy, I stand aghast. The work may have many a technical beauty, of course, for certain persons. For myself, I scruple not to call it a hard-featured, I had almost said hard- hearted picture. Its power is starched muslin, stiff- combed hair, and children's toys. I have ever believed that Art is admirable as it involves the exercise of the higher faculties. I have never a moment doubted that Art is in the converse category as it contents itself with mere imitative and ; REVOLUTIONARY CRITICISM. 239 technical qualities. I suppose that, as the higher faculties are the rarer, so their exercise is the more difficult. Your lady's maid shall tell a gossiping story,-describing with all possible fidelity how Mr. So-and-so dressed, and how Mrs. So-and-so looked, and how he said this, and the other that; and her gossiping hearers shall stand and listen, with their mouths open, as before an oracle: yet there shall be some difference between the lady's maid and Gold- smith; something further between Goldsmith and Macaulay; and something further yet between Ma- caulay and Shakspeare. All this is vastly simple: I feel I am asserting the most obvious of truisms. But then, Why will Pre- Raffaellitism assume that it is nothing better than an empty sophism? And why are we doomed to autho- ritative sentences like the following? "No one could sympathise more than I with the general feeling displayed in the 'Light of the World:' but unless it had been accompanied with perfectly good nettle- painting, and ivy-painting, and jewel-painting, I should never have praised it. And though I acknowledge the good purposes of this picture," (the Scape Goat) "yet, inasmuch as there is no good hair-painting nor hoof- painting in it,” (a curious objection, since the hair is in- tentionally clotted, and the hoof buried in the salt crust of the Dead Sea,) I hold it to be good only as an omen, not as an achievement." (Notes of Pictures, for '56, p. 31.) It will be replied that the artist should know how to paint with fidelity all that belongs to his subject. No doubt, whatever efficiently belongs to it should be 240 REVOLUTION OF ART. ! efficiently represented in it. Whether subjects should be chosen for the seeming purpose of displaying in- significant details is another thing. I should have thought no intelligent person could look at our Pre- Raffaellite pictures without a painful sense of dispro- portion. With one only exception, they are truly wonderful. Everything lives and moves-I had al- most said thinks and feel: coats, bonnets, hats, trowsers, instinct with sensibility-all but the faces. Could some tenant of a higher sphere, lighting on the floor of our Royal Academy, be kept from seeing any but Pre-Raffaellite pictures, he would infallibly add to the ages of "gold, silver, and iron," the age of tailoring. *** I wonder not that Mr. Ruskin has been charged with giving "no rules for composition. I only wonder what is to come upon us if we lose, thus, all sense of relative values-if "all pure veracities ” are to be "therefore immortal." It is no reply to say that Pre-Raffaellitism pro- fesses to copy Nature. Art is not Nature, and should preserve the conditions consequent. When we hold actual converse with a fellow being we can- not make him a mere object amongst a thousand. Our attention is not drawn, in actual nature, as it is apt to be in a picture, to subordinate details by the very fact of their being imitated. Had one of us climbed the silent garret, and found poor Chatterton a ghastly corpse, I suppose we should never have thought a moment of puce-coloured breeches, or * Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 61. SURRENDER OF SUBORDINATION. 241 dainty stockings. Go to that very wonderful paint- ing of Mr. Wallis; and you have an image -- not of a dead man in silk breeches, but of silk breeches with a dead man in them. This characteristic sur- render of subordination-this swamping a man in his small-clothes, is no mere offence against Art; it strikes deeper.* There are few things, perhaps, more ominous in the present day than that of which Pre-Raffaellitism is an expression, and of which the gratulant phrase "all pure veracities, therefore immortal," might be taken as the text and motto. I am not going to run a muck against physical science; much less make *I must do here an act of justice a very willing one to Mr. Millais; a very needful one as regards myself. That little gem, the "L'Enfant du Regiment," has subordination amongst its other excellences. The "Autumn Leaves" has something better than leaves. Despite true Pre-Raffaellite ugliness in two of the figures, and all Pre-Raffaellite particularity among the leaves, it has broader, bolder, and deeper work intoning it, and is a really noble and poetical picture. The man who painted this should be saved at any cost from "Peace Concluded." One word more. The Lecture, more than once alluded to, con- tained some very decided expression of my sense of Pre-Raffaellitism. For those expressions generally, I can neither make apology, nor feel regret. What I there said of "the eloquence of the haberdash- ery line " - the "mute pathos of doublet and hose" -the " deep nature of periwig and hatband " and "the inexpressible expres▾ sion of yellow taffety," I should feel it my duty to say again. For something I said of " the Huguenot " I must offer explanation. That picture does not mark the "total oblivion of expression" of which I was complaining. Nor was I consciously oblivious of its real merits. All my allusions were from memory; and, though I ought to have re- collected one of the faces, I must yet confess, even now, that it was "doublet and hose," and not dramatic expression, that caught my eye in the Exhibition and intoned my memory a fact that must be judged in the light of the picture, and not of the print. R 242 REVOLUTION OF ART. senseless plea for the impoverishment of the human faculties. One thing should be simple enough: you may multiply the objects of vision; but unless you can multiply in an equivalent degree, not the capa- cities of the organ to perceive, but of the mind to apprehend and master them, you may find your riches become your poverty, and your breadth of pasturage a cause of leanness. There never was, perhaps, a time when there co-existed so much know- ledge and so little proportionate wisdom; or when all that did not admit, like mechanics or the fixed sciences, of being tested by palpable experiment, was being disintegrated by the discovered wonders of its own component particles. That was a bold speech of the Iron Duke: "If you'd 50,000 men in Hyde Park, you have 'nt three men who could get them out." He might have added, but you've plenty who shall go from rank to rank and take down the names, and all about them. So you shall have commentators who wring the life-blood out of a metaphor, and pull to pieces the "Rose of Sharon," till you for- get, like the cobbler with the shoe in the statue of Alexander, that matter is not mind, nor the symbol what it stands for. I suppose that the day we live in is just the day- not for avoiding, but for reiterating those great all- subordinating facts and principles some seem so carelessly to take for granted. For surely, in pro- portion as we fix attention on circumferential facts, and in proportion as we enlarge and amplify that circumference, in exact proportion ought we, in the true spirit of philosophy, to multiply our recognition IS ACADEMICAL TEACHING "EFFETE"? 243 of the central ones. A man may be wrecked at home whilst he dreams of argosies on the world's horizon. So I for one am not ashamed of maintaining truisms, platitudes, and common-places. They are just the expression of those master, central facts, of which I speak; by which we live; but to which we may grow fatally insensible whilst busied here and there in quest of curiosities. I could say a word about reviewers; but I will not attempt "private whipping" in foro Ecclesiæ. Let me only say, in all reverential soberness, that "One thing is needful” is but a special utterance of a great, all-pervading, solemn principle. If we would not be "cumbered"— if we would not make a Balaklava of human life as well as Art, we must be prepared to say in plain language, “all pure veracities" are not “immortal,” nor all "half-ripe cherries, most divine."* My belief is that we are at once too great and too small for Pre-Raffaellitism. * * I have met somewhere with a rationale of Pre- Raffaellitism, to the effect that the academical system has grown effete; and that the present movement is a necessary appeal to nature. I I must again refer to that first visit to Hampton Court, when I shed the first, but not the last, tear of awe and rapture at the bidding of Raffaelle. was not much given to analyse, perhaps, at that time my own impressions. I suspect, however, that had any one whispered beneath those cartoons, Raffaelle * Reiterated in vol. iii. of "Modern Painters," p. 134., from pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 9. R 2 244 REVOLUTION OF ART. was once a master, but that was long ago, he is now effete,I cannot, I say, but suspect I must have asked how much smaller are the pyramids since they flung their shadows on Herodotus? how much darker is the moon since she "walked in brightness' in the days of Job? "" This part, at least, of the question one would have thought sufficiently obvious. We grow old as indi- viduals, but human nature does not grow old with us. The father sits no more in that little chair, but here is one that finds it just as comfortable. Crawl- ing, tottering, and stammering are not effete, save to those who have got beyond them; and there is no transmission, even of tiresomeness, from the outgoing generation. To the child nothing is old. The very dog's ears on his father's Euclid are as fresh as the pages they disfigure; and he claps his hands as he clears the "ass's bridge," as though the trial of man- hood or donkeyhood had never been so much as thought of before him. If a course of study be erroneous, or we have got beyond it, then away with it. If academical models be, in their academical sense, untrue to nature, let them go to the limbo of ghost stories and popish le- gends. But if they be what I affirm they are- if they enshrine the finer, loftier, nobler attributes of humanity, they can never become effete till humanity itself, in its present state, shall have become so. But there are so-called divines in Modern Germany who would write this same word on the title-page the Bible. of OUR REAL WANTS. 245 I We want, no doubt, a fresh appeal to nature. profoundly subscribe to that expression of my West- minster critic "the domain of Dilettantism." Art has been a plaything, a subject of affected phrases and cold sentiment; plenty of talk - plenty of information -enough sometimes of intelligence but no heart. Even artists have studied the model, discussed, as- serted, but never fallen in love with it. I blame them not; it was not virtue to be enthusiasts in the world they were content to live in. One thing is indisputable: if we are to have anything better than "market carts," and "fishermen in courtly breeches," —if the words " High Art" are to be anything better than the sheerest nonsense, we must be as much in earnest with the higher subjects as some have begun to be with the lower ones. I have spoken freely of the Pre-Raffaellites. Of their devotedness to their work I can only speak with admiration. Mr. Hunt's journey to the Dead Sea, and his undisturbed absorption in what he had made his duty, reveals at least a singleness of heart I greatly honour. We may regret that the result was a wretched goat. None can say but that he put his heart into his profession; and I, for one, do not despair of his pursuing a noble career in it. Meanwhile, whatever our faults, Pre-Raffaellitism is not the step in the way to mend them. I augur better of my fellow-countrymen. There is a well- known story of Garrick's objecting to Raffaelle's figure of Elymas; and good Sir Joshua letting criti- cism cry itself to sleep, and then quietly asking the R 3 246 REVOLUTION OF ART. actor, by-and-by, to give them an idea of Elymas; and the actor personating; and the artist bidding him stand still, and sketching him; and the hearty laugh when Garrick opened his eyes and saw that he had been Raffaelle malgré lui. I have that sense of the marvellous truth of Raffaelle, the amazing combination of the natural with the artistic, the intrinsical with the beautiful, the intelligent with the imaginative in the great works of that great man, that I am persuaded, if ever the nation arrives at years of artistic discretion, it will infallibly make the same discovery that Garrick made. But, if we are to be in earnest with Art, Art must be in earnest with us. English people think before they feel. That can never take real hold of us which is below the level of our moral stature. We have got beyond mistaking mediævalism for Chris- tianity: we shall not go on for ever mistaking rus- ticity for nature. On the other hand, it is no less clear that if refine- ment, purity, elevation, and the "selection" they all involve are to be systematically abjured, one of two things must follow, either Art, or national taste and feeling will suffer collapse. I have adverted to a paper in "Household Words," which shows the pervading leaven of Pre-Raffael- litism. One might almost take it for a popular con- tinuation of Mr. Ruskin.* I have neither space nor inclination for its scrutiny. It were going twice over the same ground. Could my words reach the *It is in the Number for Sept. 13. 1856. APPEAL FROM ART TO POETRY. 247 writer, I would say, You assert what you take for common sense. Be bold. Be consistent. Let us have no respect of persons. You scoff at Raffaelle and Michael Angelo. Go on to Milton; you will leave little of "Paradise Lost," save the great theological fact that it was "lost": and humanity with it. R 4 248 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XXII. ARCHITECTURAL RADICALISM. TRUE NATURE OF ARCHITECTURE.- COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.* I MUST now call special attention to Architecture, where the same revolutionary process is going on. We read in the "Edinburgh Lectures" that- ' "it is difficult to overstate the enormity of the igno- rance which the popular notion implies, that the nobility of architecture is in the disposition of masses; that architecture is, in fact, the art of proportion.' . . . Pro- portion is a principle, not of architecture, but of existence: it is by the laws of proportion that stars shine, mountains stand, and rivers flow. . A Gothic Cathedral is pro- perly to be defined as a piece of the most magnificent associative sculpture. . . . Architecture, as distinguished from sculpture, is merely the art of designing sculpture for a particular place, and putting it there on the best principles." (Pp. 113-115.) Not to waste curiosity on stars shining by rules of proportion, we see now why St. Paul's, Greenwich Hospital, the interior of St. Stephen's Walbrook, the façade of Whitehall, and we might go through a large circuit of other structures, including the Pantheon, the dome of Florence, the temples at * The substance of this and the three following chapters has already appeared in a series of papers in "The Builder." NEW DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE. 249 Pæstum, and our own Salisbury Cathedral, are not striking, noble, or legitimate architecture. We see also something of the "enormity of ignorance" that indited the well known lines- "And on thy happy shore a temple still, Of small and delicate proportion, keeps, Upon a mild declivity of hill, Its memory of thee.” Childe Harold, cant. iv. And still more of that monstrous account, by the acute Forsyth, of Palladio's palaces:- "Their beauty originates in the design, and is never superinduced by ornament. Their elevations enchant you, not by length and altitude, nor by the materials and sculpture, but by the consummate felicity of their proportions." (Italy, p. 351.) The enormous ignorance is plain enough. For- syth and Byron have taken proportion, like all be- fore them, for a sensible quality that charms the eye, and delights the mind, irrespective of any other consideration. Mr. Ruskin has, I was going to say, Cobdenised it: made it nothing else than a mere adaptation of the law of gravity. It certainly may be, that universal instinct has been in" enormous ignorance" since the Tower of Babel; or I may have, myself, mistaken certain expressions of it that have moved my sympathy; that when, for instance, Mrs. Stowe told us, in her " Sunny Me- mories,”—“Cathedrals appear to be the most sublime efforts of human genius," and Robert Hall replied to one who asked him what he thought of York Minster," York Minster, sir? why it's enough to 250 REVOLUTION OF ART. soberise a Bacchanalian,"-both one and other spoke "merely" of associative sculpture; and if asked to explain themselves, would have pointed to a paren- thetical mitre, or sundry bunches of trefoil or parsley about the walls. I may have mistaken others; I think I have not mistaken myself. To my own feelings, the roof of Westminster Hall is one of the most impressive objects the world of architecture can show us. When I walk beneath it—and I take all possible opportunities of doing so I can - I can scarce believe that the power of architecture is even in those efforts of associative sculpture, the angel heads that form the hammer-beams. To my perception, sculpture has little to do with that quaint intricacy of con- structive strength, those bold but graceful arches, that majestic series, those mysterious recesses, that alternate light and darkness, above all the stupend- ous firmament of brooding twilight, of whose solem- nities the very angels seem but interpreters. But what need of personal experience? So far there is no enigma: the one all-subordinating prin- ciple of Pre-Raffaellitism stands out distinct. Actual things in their actuality, rather than in the qualities they suggest or develope, are everywhere to be taken for the commanding object, and the imitation of them, religiously scrupulous, as the highest attain- ment of human art. What wonder if architecture is no longer the disposition of masses, dreamy vistas, majestical pillars, or awful space-but the faithful designing of sculptured objects, and the putting them NEW LAWS OF ARCHITECTURAL SYMMETRY. 251 in their several places in accordance with the laws of gravity. "" There is enigma; but it is not here. The wonder begins when we turn to other pages of the Institutes. We have proclaimed a revolution. We have cut down symmetry to the gravitating principle; and made indignant declaration of the "enormous ignorance that looked beyond. Have we really done, after all, with symmetry? Go to that no less authoritative work, the "Seven Lamps;" and you shall find a principle, broadly appealed to, as at the very root and base of all architectural practice, which not only assumes "proportion" as a something beyond all mere consideration of stability, but lays down. a law to which, both from its significancy and the confidence with which it is quoted, I must challenge the attention of all lovers of art and architecture. When men take up a "Lamp of Beauty," they have got, I suppose, beyond" the laws of gravity." Now if they will but take the one I refer to, they will find an order to "knock away a couple of pinnacles at either end of King's College Chapel " enforced by reasoning supposed unanswerable: "Beasts have four legs. Yes; but legs of different shapes; and with a head between them. So they have a pair of ears, and perhaps a pair of horns; but not at both ends." (Seven Lamps, p. 115.) And the approval of "fine west fronts" with the same confident appeal: "The centre is always the principal mass, both in bulk and interest" [query ?], "and the towers are subordinated 252 REVOLUTION OF ART. to it, as an animal's horns are to its head.” (Ibid. p. 116.) And, to look beyond proportion, to the great principle, we find the effect no less decisive as to colour. << Single members may sometimes have single colour, as a bird's head is sometimes of one colour and its shoulders of another. An animal is mottled on its breast and back rarely on its paws or about its eyes; so put your variegation boldly on the flat wall and broad shaft, but be shy of it in the capital and moulding.” (Ibid. p. 127.) I will not travel a second time over the sentence I have elsewhere noticed *, on " that Greek fret," its remote resemblance to "crystals of bismuth" not- withstanding; and of a common Tudor ornament, on the simple showing that "there is no family relation- ship between portcullis and beetles' wings; " as also a most eloquent demolition of "Gothic scrolls," on the principle that "there are no ribands in nature,” and that even "grass and sea-weed do not really afford apologetic types." No doubt it is a grand rule, this analogy of animal and vegetable nature: it needs no prophetic eye to see how conventionalism must fall before it. I shall not scruple to try it by an application or two, perhaps not foreseen by its implicit disciples. Mr. Ruskin has struck out a line: I shall scarce go a step be- yond his formulas. * "Lecture on Art," pp. 26-28. The passages referred to are in the "Seven Lamps," pp. 97. 99. 101. ARCHITECTURE AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, 253 Don't "knock away," then, the "pinnacles of King's College Chapel." Put the chapel on the pinnacles, not the pinnacles on the chapel. "Beasts have legs." Yes; but Where do you see beasts with their legs up in the air? Block up the great west window in those "fine fronts." Animals have heads with "horns subordi- nated." Yes; and eyes too; but Where was ever one great eye between the horns? Away, also, with all windows, civil, military, or ecclesiastical, on the ground floor. Where was ever a decent beast with eye in its sides, or its basement story? Put your door also in the upper regions. The door is the mouth: Was it not the very con- demnation of the serpent that it should have its mouth on the ground and lick the dust? But what mean you by that straight roof? Beasts have dorsal ridges. Yes; but What beast did you ever see, horse, ass, ox, camel, dromedary, croco- dile, porpoise, with such a ridge as men called ar- chitects have contrived to hit on? Away also with all those straight columns. Show me a straight leg in comparative anatomy. Stag, stork, dog, hog, dragon-fly, -all have joints more or less visible; even "The elephant hath joints, though not for courtesy." - And, touching columns, remember that all your noblest buildings have but two. Man is the first of animals, and he is biped. The ignoble are centipedes, caterpillars, and such like. Away, therefore, with 254 REVOLUTION OF ART. some nineteen-twentieths of those unseemly columns from the Parthenon. And, not to ride a principle to death, having brought down the columns to nature, take away the whole of the entablature. It is worse than frightful, it is wicked. Nature has horizontal strata, no doubt; but where do you find stratified animals' legs, or stratified trunks of trees? I owe no apology for these instances. They are all, seminally, in the "Novum Organum." The author betrays no scruples. He says, "I know this is heresy; but I never shrink from any conclusion, how- ever contrary to human authority, to which I am led by the observance of natural objects.” (Ibid. p. 127.) And here is a Westminster Reviewer, ready to hail all" special merit of recalling to manliness, veracity, and morality, what has been too long given over to dilettantism and conventionalism." We are very far, even yet, from the proper limits of the principle. If anatomy is to furnish architec- ture with absolute laws, we might fill a chapter with examples of things heretofore condemned for want of grace, of which it were enough to produce the "apologetic type," to convert them at once to posi- tive comeliness. Certain is it that "Nature's sweetest child" must have committed a grave offence, when he dared to call "the toad ugly and venomous. Indeed, I know not how we can limit the ana- logy to mere questions of beauty, or the want of it. If, short of creative arrangement, nothing is symmetrical, nothing legitimate, and all we have ISSUE OF THE ANALOGY. 255 dared to call "architecture" is amongst man's " many inventions," why not fall reverently back on that of animals? Don't palter, then, with great prin- ciples. Make all your practice consistent. Knock away, not a college pinnacle, or a wretched port- cullis, but the whole array of man's presumption, Gothic, Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and what not, -and group your way, in penitential self-denial, amongst beavers' huts, birds' nests, and spiders' webs. This may sound extreme: I find no measures in Pre-Raffaellitism. It is all in one text, " apologetic type." "" 256 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XXIII. ARCHITECTURAL MORALS "" THE LAMP OF TRUTH, 66 AN HONEST ARCHITECTURE," IN THE LIGHT OF CONSEQUENCES. WE are told, that it is the object of one of Mr. Ruskin's most earnest, elaborate, eloquent, and po- pular works, to- "determine" [for every architectural effort] “constant, general, and irrefragable laws of right" - to "command an honest architecture." We are warned, with all possible solemnity, of the criminality of "the suggesting of a mode of structure other than the true one; " that "that style of building is generally the noblest which discovers to the intelligent eye the great secrets of its structure; that one of the immoralities of architecture is "direct falsity of assertion respecting the nature of material;" that “the moment iron, for instance, in the least degree takes the place of stone, or if it be used to do what wooden beams would have done as well, that instant the building ceases to be true architecture;" that "the system of in- tersectional mouldings has been the cause of the downfall of Gothic architecture." The "Lamp" concentrates its rays in the general exhortation, "Do not let us lie at all." (Seven Lamps, Lamp of Truth.) We have here, I presume, a signal specimen of what the Westminster critic calls "restoring to man- liness, veracity, and morality." I trace it beyond critical reviews. It has found its way into profes- DOOM OF THE RENAISSANCE. 257 sional treatises, and even leading articles of "the leading journal." I wonder not: it sounds too straightforward not to produce an effect. I shall be no less straight- forward in asking a question or two concerning it. Will it bear the test? Is it the expression of sound architectural good sense? or must we class it with Puritanism, Fanaticism, Quakerism, Radicalism? I shall not shrink from the question on the ground of principles; but I shall not scruple to put it first on that of consequences. We may begin with another sentence, which, though not from the same "Lamp," is the utterance of the same authority : "The feeling of the Renaissance is a feeling com- pounded of insolence, infidelity, sensuality, and shallow pride." (Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 27.) >> There can be no possible doubt of the result of such a sentence, on all "constant, general, and irrefrag- able laws of right." We find, in fact, that in a later work, this style is "accursed of deliberate purpose: (Edin. Lect. p. 137.) We may say, then, without a moment's hesitation, there go, at one dire sweep, the Brunelleschis, Bramantes, Michael Angelos, San- sovinos, San Micheles, San Gallos, Scamozzis, Fon- tanas, Palladios, of Italy; the Holbeins of Germany; the Perraults of France; the Inigo Joneses, Chris- topher Wrens, Vanbrughs, and Chamberses of Eng- land; in short, all the great and noble architectural names of at least three centuries; together with all artistic impulses, synchronical-to say no more with the Reformation. Ռ 258 REVOLUTION OF ART. we Of what is commonly called "Elizabethan” need take no separate account. It was but a phase (I know not who will call it the purest) of the resur- rection or Reformation impulse. With Mr. Ruskin it is simply hideous. Let us breathe a moment. We have disposed of modern architecture in toto. I say disposed, for none can question as to an "honest" use of "irrefragable laws of right." If any think Mr. Ruskin a cold sen- timentalist, he has but to hear his exhortation to the “gude folk” of our modern Athens: "Intro- duce your Gothic line by line and stone by stone; never mind mixing it with your present architecture [the very concession shows the total absence of tole- rance]; for your existing houses will be none the worse for having little bits of better work in them.” (Edin. Lect. p. 102.) The irrefragable laws do not stop at modern clas- sic. The reader will remember the sentence about knocking down a couple of pinnacles at either end of King's College Chapel." That order takes us back to the "Seven Lamps: " beneath whose mystic light we stumble on another sentence about 66 our detestable Perpendicular.” There can be no more hesitation as to this than the former case. We have seen, in fact, in the pre- ceding chapter, how the characteristic ornaments and pervading features of this style are more or less at variance with the laws of nature. The result is plain: we may take up our estimate, and say, " There go our William of Wykehams, our Waynfletes, and our Wolseys," with all, I think, but a transept of Winchester Cathedral,- some two-thirds, at least, (6 PERPENDICULAR," AND "EARLY ENGLISH.” 259 of Canterbury,-something like the same portion of York, I know not what not of Gloucester, the east chapels, certainly, at Peterborough, to say nothing of such things as King's College Chapel, at Cambridge; St. George's, at Windsor; or Henry the Seventh's, with all its flying buttresses, at West- minster. This looks, indeed, very like "the downfall of Gothic architecture." But this is only the "Per- pendicular; " we are yet but at the middle of the fifteenth century. Let us go farther back, to the very purest specimen of Gothic the world can show us, I mean our own Early English." What I am about to challenge is so critical, that I must 56 present it to actual sight. This is a fact from Carlisle. $ 2 260 REVOLUTION OF ART. No one will deny that these graceful shafts make architectural pretension to the support of the super- incumbent arches, and of the wall above them. I call on all the Pre-Raffaellites in the world to assert, if they can, that, on the irrefragable principle, such pretension is anything better than a downright lie. The mouldings are built into the wall, and form a part of it: the shaft supports nothing, in most cases not even its own capital! Here is another specimen, no less familiar to the simplest lover of Gothic archi- tecture. Those stunted shafts made yet stouter pretensions. Where are they? and why did not the capitals and wall fall with them? Thanks to time and Mr. Britton, all may know the "honest architecture" of the monks of Croyland. It is needless to say that this astounding falsehood is no solitary one. Not an instance of that purest, loveliest I had almost said holiest of styles-not one of all those beautiful arcades that characterise Gothic architecture - not one of those innumerable detached shafts that people our Gothic walls, but makes the same precise pretension, and tells - on ARCHITECTURAL FALSEHOODS PILLARS. 261 the "honest architecture" principle-each its sepa- rate and emphatic lie. You have but to take Brit- ton or Rickman, and look for Durham, Lincoln, Wells, Peterborough, Salisbury, Exeter, or almost any of our cathedrals, to find sumptuous chapter- houses, majestic towers, and reverend façades liter- ally masked in this system of constructive falsehood. What might we not say of Byzantine and Lombard churches? This of detached shafts: what of shafts attached? Look at this section of a cathedral pier. What must NADER IRES IN the architectural moralist pronounce of a pillar which is no pillar, but a mere vertical moulding in the solid pier? What but an architectural sham is a single elongated column, supporting a vaulted roof? Even this, again, as regards the shafts only; but What of the arch? All know the constructive mean- ing of the word "arch." What shall we say of an arch cut out of a single block? Is that an honest, S 3 262 REVOLUTION OF ART. or a lying arch? Every tabernacled niche contains three such arches. I leave those who "love the studious cloister" to compute the damages. But look a moment at any Norman wall that comes first to hand. Here is another fact from Carlisle. Observe those clustered shafts, and the arches that spring from them. Will any one tell us that this placing the main support upon the weaker, this im- plying that the inner arch supports the outer, is not an inversion of constructive logic? an arrangement purely hypocritical?-in fact, a lie? But this is just the pervading arrangement of Norman work. These are But we have not closed the account. lies in stone: what of arches in wood? Look at CONSTRUCTIVE FALSEHOODS ARCHES. 263 Gothic woodwork; I speak not of this style or that, but of all Gothic work in wood without distinction. Think of a professing arch cut out of a simple board! and then go in honest daylight through the first Gothic cathedral within your reach and count the cost. Do not pass unnoticed the baptismal font, though that, of course, is stone, but look to the organ-loft, rood-screen, or prebendal stalls. Perhaps the "communion-table" may be an honest "table," and not an "altar:" if so, it will be also of wood. Go next to the bishop's throne: casting back, per- haps, an oblique glance at the stone or marble that records a prelate who once sat there. You shall observe that one and all these things are positively Gothicised by gratuitous arches; that, in fact, the holy prelate was architecturally ensconced, from holy bap- tism to holy burial, in one continuous system of hy- pocritical arches and lying pillars. Could all these things but find a tongue, and be converted to Pre-Raffaellitism, what strange noises would mingle with the "confession" in our ca- thedral services! Like bishop, like king. If there be one royal name full-grown Gothic should pronounce with re- verence, it were assuredly that of Edward the Third. Here, then, is a transcript-in moiety, for want of space-of what, on the constructive honesty prin- ciple, we must call the twice sevenfold lie she has placed between his "canonised bones" and heaven. The Reader will observe how it is echoed by the tabernacled niches beneath. (See woodcut overleaf.) $ 4 264 REVOLUTION OF ART. ་.、1{ No doubt this is what Barrow would call "a lusty hyperbole." In regard to the principle we are con- cerned with, there is but a numerical difference be- tween the lie above and the tabernacle lies beneath. I have no heart to go into the multitudinous dis- honesties of Mr. Ruskin's special style, the "Flam- boyant." Perhaps some future edition of the "Seven Lamps" will explain the moralities of that twisted column at p. 94. of the first edition. There can, indeed, be few of the "Stones of Venice," but must begin to feel uneasy in their sockets. But we have not done yet with our own Gothic: here is something no less pervasive and inseparable. ORGANIC FALSEHOOD. 265 We read in the sixth chapter of the second volume of the "Stones of Venice" that the fifth great Gothic element is "Rigidity:" and of this element we have the following explanation: "I mean not merely stable, but active rigidity, which gives stiffness to resistance. Egyptian and Greek buildings stand, for the most part, by their own weight and mass; but in the Gothic vaults and traceries there is a stiffness analogous to that of the bones of a limb, or the fibres of a tree, an elastic tension, writhed into every form of nervous entanglement.” • No one will dispute this account of Gothic archi- tecture; and few, perhaps, but will wonder, after learning that "repose" is so indispensable a quality, that "there is no art, no pursuit whatever, but its results may be classed by this one test alone,” "* to find the stones of a building complacently described as "jutting," "starting," "knitting themselves," and "writhed into every form of nervous entanglement." (Ibid.) This, however, is not the point. I suppose it will be granted that stones in a building can only stand (save by virtue of iron cramping, or such like dis- ingenuous contrivance) "by their own weight and mass:” and that all such words as starting, knitting, writhing, and elastic tension describe just so many qualities as, by their nature, stones cannot have. Shall we, in pity, put out the "Lamp? Shall we forget the irrefragable precept? If not, we must resume our formula, and say, "There go,” &c. * Modern Painters, part iii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 5. 266 REVOLUTION OF ART. But, what are we to say of Grecian building? Here are no Dædalean artifices, labyrinthine mys- teries, or feats of bravery. The parts, few and simple, invite inquiry. All looks like a mathematical problem, whose very essence is the intrinsic. Yet, beneath that fair exterior, what a mockery of archi- tectural truth! That oblong building is not the petrified wooden hut every one of all its members would say it is. The column is not a tree, but a succession of marble strata. The echinus is not the stump of the branches. The abacus is not a tile nor does it keep the column from rotting. The architrave is not an architrave (principal beam), for it is no beam at all; nor are the triglyphs the rafter ends; nor the guttæ, wooden pegs that help to keep them upright. We know, of course, that they are not; just as we know that "intersectional mould- ings" do not intersect. All this alters not the irrefragable principle." The Parthenon is one conglomerate of false construction from top to bottom. 66 Now all this is the more remarkable, since it not only includes the principal features in a building, the name of which has been long synonymous with per- fection, but characterises a style out of which all sub- sequent architecture has been developed. There are few things more demonstrable than the genealogy of architecture; and-the use of the arch alone ex- cepted the precise points of departure, even of the Gothic style. We may add, therefore, to our account of damages, and say, "There go the Par- thenon, the Propylæum, the Temple of Theseus, ALL ARCHITECTURE INVOLVED. 267 those of Sunium, Pæstum, and every other fragment we honour with the name of Doric." "And there go all that it inherit ""-seeing that all other Classic styles are but modifications, more or less, of the same falsehood. "Quod non fecerunt Barbari," as the Italians say, has been done by a single "Lamp." There remain the Egyptian, Assyrian, Chinese, and the wig-wam; but these are out of our category. Mr. Ruskin has no more affection for these than for the Renaissance, "accursed of deliberate purpose." The consequences, therefore, are complete. Some may believe him teeming with another architectural universe. For myself, all I can discover at present is a heap of ruins covering the body of Samson, and a Westminster Reviewer scratching on a broken tablet-"To Mr. Ruskin belongs the merit of re- calling to manliness, veracity, and morality, pursuits too long given over to Dilettantism and Conven- tionalism." We will not end with personal pleasantries: the true conclusion is plain enough. Architecture ap- peals to æsthetic feelings, and must be understood on æsthetic principles. To bring it to the bar of con- structive logic, and catechise it with questions of truth and falsehood, is beside the mark. This is just the "summum jus, summa injuria." Your ver- dict will but bring you, as I have said before, as to another point, within the prohibition, "Be not righteous overmuch." You may not, perhaps, "de- stroy yourself: " you will most infallibly destroy architecture. 268 REVOLUTION OF ART. As to "the noblest building" being "that which discovers the secrets of its structure," it may be permitted the most scrupulous amongst us to re- member that that noblest of all material fabrics, the human body, does not discover, but, on the contrary, conceals its structural peculiarities. As regards other fabrics, we may just reverse the aphorism, and say, as a general rule, that, in exact proportion as you approach the aesthetic and the expressive-in proportion, that is, as you have not to do with a piece of machinery-in the same precise proportion should you rather conceal, disguise, lose sight of, than suggest, the mere necessaries of construction, and leave your building to tell of better things. But we touch here one of the many points at which what I mean by " Pre-Raffaellitism," goes to the extinguishment of what we all mean by a "fine art." I need inform no reader of the "Seven Lamps" that their ingenious author does not intend the con- sequences. This does not affect the issue. "Irre- fragable rules of right" cannot bend and twist at the beck of convenience or personal humour. For instance, we read- "I see not how we can help allowing Brunelleschi his iron chain round the dome of Florence; but we must find a rule that will enable us to stop somewhere. This rule is, I think, that metals may be used as a cement, but not as a support." (Lamp of Truth, p. 37. of second edition.) Now is this a rightful treatment of rules of right? What mean we by "structural deceit," but "the "RULES OF RIGHT INFLEXIBLE. 269 suggesting a mode of stability" other than the true one? What is the suggested construction of this far-famed dome, but its being supported in mid-air by the scientific employment of solid masonry? Whisper that the whole would tumble to pieces if you did but cut an invisible girdle; and what would be the reply of Mr. Ruskin's irrefragable right? But we cannot help allowing" it. Why not? Because the dome would not stand without it. What need, then, for the dome to stand at all, if it can only stand on a structural lie? This is just the sum of the whole matter. "Do not let us lie at all." " As for the intelligent eye," we cannot adjust rules of architectural truthfulness by the supposed intelligence or simplicity of the bystanders. Archi- tecture does not profess to speak to architects. You must have one broad rule for gentle and simple, or you are not "commanding an honest architecture." Either give structural carte blanche, "asking no question for conscience sake," or allow no such thing as suggesting, concealing, or otherwise playing with stern realities. Of the duty of observing architectural morality, I have, of course, no more doubt than as regards morality of any other kind. The question is, what is architectural morality?-a question I must reserve to another Chapter. 270 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XXIV. ARCHITECTURAL MORALS, IN THE LIGHT OF PRINCIPLES. It is some relief, whilst continuing our colloquy with Pre-Raffaellitism, to escape, though but for a moment, a direct personal conflict. I said that the "leading journal" had begun to swell the chorus: here is the passage referred to; it relates immediately to Regent and Oxford Streets: "But a worse fault is the falsehood of all the decora- tion. It is all paint and plaster; below are good bricks. Compare the fronts of these houses with the backs: the front is all smiles and hypocrisy - the back tells the ugly truth that the greatness is got up for show.” (Times for Dec. 26. 1855.) There is no mistaking the relationship, though there may be the authorship of this passage; nor can I hesitate to join issue with the principle it pro- ceeds on. That consistency is an architectural virtue, and that there is a positive beauty in intrinsicalness, is not disputed. Whether the streets, here referred to, are, in these respects, in good taste, is not my question. It may be simply preposterous to build rows of shops like rows of palaces: or it may LEGITIMATE ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE. 271 be that such building is but an exhibition of our national character—a telling all whom it concerns that we have brought society to a state of fusion ; that we make a glory of our trade and commerce. On these matters I make no assertion: still less shall I attempt to extenuate such enormities as pon- derous columns reared on panes of glass. I address myself exclusively to the principle of the passage. Now every one knows that truth and falsehood are not in verbal expressions, but in what is intended to be understood by them. Micaiah said to Ahab, "Go, and prosper;" yet Ahab was not deceived, nor was Micaiah a lying prophet. Is there deception in the case before us? Did the builder employ brick and charge for stone? Does the spectator believe in stone? was it meant that he should do so when he looks on brick? If neither, where is the false- hood? But let us go a little further. Irrespective of deceptive falsehood, is there immorality of any kind in concealing" the ugly truth?" in covering the in- ferior with a more agreeable or becoming material? If so, then, how did Solomon overlay with gold “ the altar, which was of cedar," and " the cherubim,” which were of "olive-tree;" and even "the floor," which was, as we should say, of deal? There is a further word about "front and back." Is this also a criminal question? Is there to be no longer distinction between "comely and uncomely parts?" It needs no words to show how much of the interests of architecture is in the answer. But what a requirement! How would either of 272 REVOLUTION OF ART. the inmates of those houses be astonished were he denied the liberty of distinguishing between the every-day "parlour" and the more sumptuous "draw- ing-room;" or his blushing partner challenged, on her way to an evening party, with having beneath that specious velvet, some such ugly fact as a flannel petticoat? I am not trifling with serious questions. Go again to that stateliest fabric before referred to. "Your bodies are the temples of the Holy Ghost." By what economy are their vital processes concealed even from our own observance? Shall we call that fair skin a deceitful mask? And I am not quite sure that it is art alone that is in jeopardy. I will not go into homilies: we have proof enough in human experience that scrupulosity may damage conscience, as superstition may destroy true godliness. There is something more than acci- dental acquaintanceship between the straining at the "gnat," and the swallowing the "camel." We have, in sooth, battles enough to fight without invoking thunderbolts on moles and cobwebs. Still less need we call on architecture to assume the name of "Christian," and then turn false witness against its neighbour. Poor Pugin allowed himself a seem- ing triumph I hope he lived to repent of. There is an exhibition of the dome of St. Paul's that disgraces his "True Principles of Christian Architecture," of which I trace the influence in the article before us; and which, as a sample of other things, it is time to strip of authority it is not entitled to. That there may be no misconception, I give here, as in A CASE FROM PUGIN. 273 a former case, ocular demonstration. Here is the section. ar, all o The case is very simple: the external dome is not the only one; nor the one that supports the lantern. It were almost enough to add,- Who ever said it was? Yet this is written down a case of false con- struction," a fictitious dome, not the dome of the cathedral, but a mere construction for effect, - a mere imposing show, constructed at vast expense, with- out any legitimate reason." (P. 9.) On Now, it may be slowness of apprehension; it is not, I trust, moral obliquity, if I express a serious doubt as to the grounds of this judicial verdict. what principle is the giving to a metropolitan church an amount of external dignity beyond internal re- quirements to be put without the pale of all legiti- mate reasons? How long have Englishmen been, -or when and why should they begin to be,- ashamed, that the most conspicuous object that (hitherto, at least) has given notice of their metro- T 274 REVOLUTION OF ART. polis, should be that unrivalled dome which connects the name of London with that of the Apostle of us Gentiles? How long has architecture been under vow of turning ascetic and abjuring "effect?" I might ask, who but a Puritan, a Papist, or an archi- tectural fanatic, can look up at that glorious dome, lifting above the smoke and din of our monstrous capital the golden emblem of man's salvation, and pronounce the words, "fictitious,"-" mere imposing show," and "without a legitimate reason?" Let us take bigotry in its own trap. If this dome is fictitious, and "not the dome of the cathedral," because there is another dome (seen, though not ex- clusively, from within) the crime must, of course, be incomparably more flagrant in all the thousand mediæval spires, for whose imitation, as Christian, we are to abjure these "pagan " domes. That magnifi- cent lantern does actually glorify the interior dome: What must be said of gigantic pyramids raised "at vast expense," on lofty towers for no such pur- pose,constructions so far from being the spires of their respective churches, that they are inaccessible, internally, to the solitary scrutiny of a jackdaw? But our answer is not complete. Here is another section, (see next page) faithfully reduced, from Britton's "Salisbury." I wonder who ever thought, before the days of Pugin, of charging Gothic architecture with double dealing, because it gave to Salisbury a double roof? and who would have expected to find Pugin's charge adopted ("Seven Lamps," note 8.), by one who, treating of "Christian architecture," complacently A CASE FROM SALISBURY. 275 calls the inner roof the "roof proper," and the outer one the "roof mask? " * But here is something else. The leading article speaks of "front and back"-fronts "for show," open to ugly betrayal behind. Well; but look again at that Salisbury section, and you will find there also some "truth," we must call "ugly "on the same principle. The different tints distinguish between the front as it would present itself on the stranger's approach, and the actual building "behind," that front professes to represent. I leave the reader to say how much of this "greatness is got up for show." Salisbury front may be defective as compared with others, wanting in majesty, grace, or the impress of a pervading thought, it is a fair front notwith- standing; and, what is to our point, a virtuous front, for it is really and truly a frontispiece: it does not * Stones of Venice, vol. i. chap. xiii.; vol. ii. chap. vi. T 2 276 REVOLUTION OF ART. content itself with a mere utilitarian terminating of the premises. The pure legitimacy of all this I will not stop to argue. It is enough that these cases pair off together. Let us have no more sweeping questions of "Chris- tian and Pagan" turning on palpable violations of common justice and common sense. I cannot leave the leading article without a word of further notice. There is something about columns — "uselessness of Corinthian columns stuck on fronts -on which, though far from dissenting from much that is sound and valuable in the article, I must offer a remark or two. It brings us, in fact, face to face with a true counting-house maxim we are being threatened with. I mean that all employment of columns, save for what on the very straightest prin- ciples are for actual use, is wasteful, vicious, and inadmissible. I remember an encomium on a certain work of Sir Charles Barry, that it presented a palatian front without the employment of a single column.* Now I hesitate not to call this a revolutionary and destructive principle, subversive of everything that makes architecture a fine art; and no less at variance with those great beneficent laws on which the Almighty architect has built the universe. I will not stop to utilitarianise the column itself. * The critic might have found a more striking case, and without going far to look for it. We have similarly democratised the me- tropolitan palace of the Queen of England. I suppose the builder of Buckingham House remembered certain words of Mr. Cobden, as to the "barbaric splendour of royalty." ARCHITECTURAL UTILITARIANISM. 277 It is true that it can scarcely ever be utterly useless. At the lowest calculation it is a virtual buttress, and adds stability: perhaps our modern walls are not too strong. All this, however, I disdain to argue. Once admit the dictatorship of utilitarianism, and you have got to engineering, carpentering, bricklaying: you have done with art. There is, I know, the implicit phrase of "useful and ornamental." To that phrase, in its common usage, I cannot implicitly subscribe. Between what is simply necessary to human existence, and what is but desirable for its accommodation, there is, of course, an absolute distinction. Between things that, short of being thus necessary, are desirable, there are, of course, distinctions also; but of degree only, and not absolute. If the word "useful" stand for anything short of what is necessary, then its dis- tinction from "the ornamental" is but one of degree also. The absolute contrast is a false contrast. "Useful" means, I suppose, conducive to a proper purpose. If, then, comeliness, befittingness, accord- ance with the great instinctive sympathies God has made us of — accordance with the great master out- lines and indelible emblazonry of his own workman- ship, be, as I suppose they are, conducive to a proper purpose (and this is what I mean by ornament · all beside or beyond is but disfigurement), Where can you draw an absolute line between the useful and the ornamental? Who will say that ugliness is not an inconvenience? Or what would be thought of him who, reading "Truly the light is good, and a pleasant thing it is to behold the sun," should straight T 3 278 REVOLUTION OF ART. say "Amen; for light and heat give us corn and cabbage?" "" I dare not trust myself on this topic. Let me add one word of caution against "sophists, economists, and calculators." Look well before you, ere you admit general principles. "No columns save for actual use: carry out the rule, and put down the consequences. Not a Norman tower or wall can, of course, abide it; nor an Early English arcade; nor anything Byzantine or Romanesque; nor, I had almost said, a single façade of all that architecture we shall ask leave of no man living to call Classical, and rejoice in. But this is nothing. If no pillars, then no pilasters. If none to support a needless cornice, then none to stand dummy beside a window. If no pilasters to windows, then none, of course, of those purely gratuitous pediments above them. What will you make of your façade? or of your principle? Take, if you please, the park front of Barry's, just referred to: there is not a single member that makes it palatian, which is not, in all other respects, as pure a gratuity as the columns you have repudiated. Let us understand where we are, and what we are doing. If architecture is to con- tinue its place and standing as a fine art,-if Apollo himself is not to be put on " prisoner's fare" of bread and water,—it is high time for the " principiis obsta.” * * * * * This notice of columns is, in some respects, a digression. I return to architectural morals: here is another statement we must not receive save under protest: QUESTIONABLE STATEMENTS. 279 "The Gothic builder added a love of fact, which is never found in the south. Both Greek and Roman used conventional foliage. The Gothic sculptor received these types. • • he saw there was no veracity in them cautiously he put more nature into his work, until • it was extreme love of truth at last it was all true prevailing over his sense of beauty. the intense love of veracity which influenced the Gothic design." (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.) I take this as but another phase of what we have. been looking at. To my own sense the matter is simply this:- The Greek, running ever into abstract principles, takes certain natural objects, and con- ventionalises them: the Goth, ruder and more imaginative, falls in love of the actual leaf, and works it into his building, as though it grew there- which it did not: anon comes one with seven won- derful lamps, and pronounces the word "veracity." Is this a "plain fact" or a poetic licence? Pre-Raffaellitism has made, it seems, other dis- coveries-some of them undreamt of in theology:- દ "As the Book of Job was inspired chiefly for the pur- pose of teaching us the value of natural history" (Edin. Lect. p. 145.), so "all the Book of Genesis has a pro- found symbolical as well as literal meaning. When it is said, 'I have given thee every green herb for meat,' it is not merely the nourishment of the body, but the food of the soul that is intended" (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.); and this, it seems, "the great Gothic spirit revealed by the workman's chisel.” (Ibid.) Wonderful! Those bits of trefoil and parsley ! Not, as we ignorantly thought, for ornament only, but a sort of sacramental food for spirits. How sad, T 4 280 REVOLUTION OF ART. that the Greek, so near the truth, should have lost. it by the vain deceit of conventionalising instead of copying them! For my own part, when I look on the various objects of "associative sculpture," I cannot restrain an involuntary shock at the thought of their assum- ing a realistic character. What! those bunches of leaves, called corbels, for support of groined arches. and pendant roofs? those beasts, couchant with twisted columns in their backs, supporting pulpits? those bishops' heads for dripstone terminations? those canonised saints, wedged and jammed by dozens round the vaulting of a doorway? Are not all such things pure conventionalities? At the best, they are licentious enough. I should have thought it impossible for the fondest lover of Gothic, though it were myself, who love it with all my heart, to avoid a latent feeling that they are licentious. Confession might, I fear, go further. Taking them, however, with all their faults, I should have just come to this conclusion:- Keep them as enrichments, lying lovingly about a building-sug- gesting poetic ideas congenial (would it were always thus) with its object—but only suggesting them,- and they do their work. Carry them further, they are monstrous: you have arrived at a point at which Realism outwits itself; for surely, in proportion as figures look like real figures, your building must look unlike a real building. and The Parthenon sculpture is in a different category. The bas-reliefs were an historic picture that was no structural member of the building. The metopes REALISM IN ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT. 281 were alike pictures let in to fill what, structurally speaking, were hollow spaces: not, like corbels, gargoyles, and dripstone terminations, organic part and parcel of the substantial fabric. Of the frontal figures that filled the pediments I need of course say nothing; yet even these were idealised. Our author would reverse all this. He takes that gutter ornament - the lion's head, which so amus- ingly inaugurates his "Edinburgh Lectures," and pronounces it nondescript : substituting the vera icon, the very absolute personification, of an actual lion (I beg his pardon, he could not get a lion, so he got a tiger). As if, when Architecture availed herself of such accessories, she was under law to realise what could never be real. Why, if it comes to this, we must have all the abominations of painted sculpture. Or why not actual heads, pickled after the fashion of New Zealanders? Mr. Ruskin has let loose his indignant adjectives against the arabesque of the Villa Madama; let us try the case on the morality principle. Those grotesques say, each, "I am no reality, but an artistic phantasy:" here we have a bit of cornice that says, as plain as stone or marble can say any- thing, "I am a real tiger." Which has the "intense love of veracity?" So much for truthfulness. I am not pleading for that amazingly mournful absurdity in the Edinburgh frontispiece; nor for coarse, crude, slovenly, unin- telligent ornamentation of any kind. I state a broad principle we are not to convert a religious building into a hortus siccus, a gallery of portraits, or a 282 REVOLUTION OF ART. museum of comparative anatomy. "The right thing in the right place: " What place can a bull's head have in a marble building, save as symbolised and symbolical? If you use natural objects for orna- ment, let them be congenial, cognate, and illustrative: but, whatever of truth you give them, let it be es- sentially abstract, not individual truth-ideal, not actual truth. Throw what you please, or can, of thought, feeling, skill, knowledge into the work; but let it be seen, from first to last, that these things are architectural symbols, not a mockery of what they come from. This is art in its highest sense; all below it is the art of savages. I will not follow out my painful protest into all the asserted principles of architectural morals. But what are we to say of such passages as the follow- ing : "The Greek sculptor could neither bear to confess his own feebleness, nor to tell the faults of the forms that he portrayed. But the Christian workman, believing that all is finally to work together for good, freely confesses both." (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.) Surely, if the love of ideal beauty is to be iden- tical with pride, and the semi-barbarous primâ-facie copying of nature, with humility, we must have a new vocabulary of morals as well as art. No wonder, if it be thus, that the "elastic tension" and "rigidity" of Gothic stones, and " the pleasure in dwelling upon the crabbed, perverse, and morose animation of plants," should form so distinct a feature in "Christian archi- tecture;” nor that it should come from "that general "" FANCY AND TRUTH. 283 tendency to set the individual reason against authority, which, in the northern tribes, has opposed itself throughout all ages to the languid submission in the southern, of thought to tradition.” (Ibid.) the The only difficulty is the rigidity of fact "crabbed" consciousness that those Gothic stones were shaped by hands never a cubit's length from the priestly thumb-screw; and that the resurrection of "thought" and the dethronement of "tradition," were just synchronical with the adoption of that special style we must now attribute to "a feeling compounded of indolence, infidelity, sensuality, and hollow pride." But a truce: I have no taste for blowing up sheds and sentry-boxes when the fortress is fairly gone. Nor would I touch, for wanton "practice," a single fibre of that architecture as to whose alleged mo- ralities I have been compelled to appeal to truth and fact. I love it: I love those who reared it; and those who write and labour to perpetuate it. I have no sort of sympathy for architectural Quakerism. I have an indestructible reverence for artistic fancy; and can say, in soberest truthfulness, with gentle Irmingard :- "For every soul is akin to me That dwells in the land of mystery." But, when I set down to a philosophical treatise a treatise that is to revolutionise the art of cen- turies, and "establish irrefragable laws of right," though I would never pluck the wings of fancy, nor set a seal on eloquent lips, I cannot forget that truth 284 REVOLUTION OF ART. one and indivisible-is, then, the very object we have before us: it is neither in my temper, my power, nor my duty, to take some lamp of Aladdin for a star of the firmament. If the author I am speaking of would but give his pure Gothic nature, like the architects we both so highly estimate, fair play; -if, discarding theory, rule, consistency, as they did, he would just revel in one beautiful image after another, at the simple bidding of artistic impulse, there is no man living would more heartily rejoice in his "florid Gothic" than myself. It is my misfortune that he must be ever going on to theorise, systematise, revolutionise, anathematise. I open my heart to diverse sym- pathies; and a voice cries, "Under which king, Bezonian? Speak or die." Now, I cannot surrender half my being to a simple order to do so. By some inexorable law, whether of self-preservation or a sense of justice, I am thrown back on the authority of simple facts: but with the aggravation that the spell is in almost every instance the most infallibly broken beneath some such words as "Christian humility," "honest architecture," or "intense love of veracity." 285 י CHAP. XXV. ARCHITECTURAL POLITY. WE have glanced at the nature, the moralities, and the economics we are now to look a moment at what I may call the polity of architecture. — Mr. Ruskin appears, indeed, to regard the whole subject at least as much in a social as an artistic light. Thus he does not scruple to tell us that- "Much of the delight with which we look on the fretted front of Rouen Cathedral, is the simple perception of time employed, and labour expended in its production." (Modern Painters, pt. i. sec. i. chap. iii.) We might take this startling aphorism as one of the practical results of the artistic polity we are to look into; but let us proceed with all due method : we are told that "The systems of architectural ornament may be divided into three:-1. Servile ornament, in which the execution or power of the inferior workmen is entirely subjected to the intellect of the higher. 2. Constitutional ornament, in which the executive inferior power is, to a certain point, emancipated and independent, having a will of its own, yet confessing the inferiority, and rendering obe- dience to higher power; and 3. Revolutionary ornament, in which no executive inferiority is admitted at all." (Stones of Venice, vol. ii. chap. vi.) 286 REVOLUTION OF ART. The systems are thus apportioned- "The Greek gave the lower workman no subject he could not perfectly execute. The Assyrian and Egyp- tian gave him subjects which he could only execute im- perfectly, but fixed a legal standard for his imperfection The workman was, in both systems, a slave. . . But, in the Medieval, or especially Christian, system of ornament, this slavery is done away with altogether." (Ibid.) The reason is no less remarkable than the fact "Christianity having recognised, in small things as well as great, the individual value of every soul. And it is, perhaps, the principal admirableness of the Gothic schools of architecture, that they receive the results of the labours of inferior minds; and, out of fragments full of imperfection, and betraying that im- perfection in every touch, indulgently raise up a stately and unaccusable whole." (Ibid.) .. We have long cherished the maxim that the summa ars” was the "celare artem,” — the bathing performance and performer in the light of the sub- ject. Tempora mutantur: we have been told that the special function of "imagination proper" is the simultaneous perception of mutual imperfections; we now learn that the "principle admirableness” of Gothic architecture consists not in beauty, solem- nity, impressiveness, the power of embodying hal- lowed feeling, and inspiring it,—but in giving the inferior workman the right of compelling you to think of him,—the right of scribbling his inferiority on gorgeous palace and solemn temple,—of con- verting cathedral fronts into a sort of monument to ARE CATHEDRALS A GYMNASIUM. 287 the perpetual memory, shall we say, with his ingenious Advocate,-of his "humility," and "the pride of an effective satire?"-or, of his self-suffi- ciency, rudeness, irreverence, and low buffoonery ? But let us hear something more of the principle. As they say in Italy, “Si non e vero, e ben trovato." >> Therefore, while "The finer the nature, the more flaws it will show through the clearness of it. we are to desire perfection and strive for it, we are not to set the meaner thing in its narrow accomplishment above the nobler thing in its mighty progress not to prefer smooth minuteness above shattered majesty." (Stones of Venice. ibid.) What is this but revolutionising the "ne sutor ultra crepidam?" Is it not clear that we have mistaken the character and functions, as well as "principal admirableness " of Gothic architecture? I will not say we have gone the length of Robert Hall as to "soberising the Bacchanalian," nor that we are now to go the reverse length of bacchanalianising the Minster; yet is the actual contrast scarce less marvellous. We have looked hitherto on our cathedrals as sublime ex- pressions of religious feeling: they are really, it seems, a sort of gymnasium, where Masters John and Thomas wrote down and stereotyped their "shattered majesty !" In the light of Pre-Raf- faellitism the true sermon in stones is "chipstone." And what a conclusion!- "Out of all his dulness, all his incapacity, shame upon shame, failure upon failure, pause upon pause, but out 288 REVOLUTION OF ART. comes the whole majesty of him also" [no longer shat- tered], "and we know the height of it only when we see the clouds settling upon him. And whether the clouds be bright or dark, there will be transfiguration behind them and within them." (Ibid.) Who can wonder at the sacramental nature of trefoil and parsley? And who can complain if, whilst other children forget their copy-books, these masonic royalties hang up theirs for the wonderment of succeeding ages? Strange or not, there they are, and you are commanded to look on them: "Go forth again to gaze upon the old cathedral front, where you have smiled so often" [not, of course, as the preparation for religious worship], "at the fantastic ignorance of the old sculptors: examine once more those ugly goblins, and formless monsters, and stone statues anatomiless and rigid; but do not mock at them, for they are signs of the life and liberty of every workman who struck the stone.” (Ibid.) or Such then is the artistic result of the gymnasium, transfiguration" process. We have all read of "the right divine of kings to govern wrong: " here is the correlative right of " dulness" to disfigure ca- thedral fronts,— the ultima ratio, in fact, of shattered majesty, "ugly goblins, and formless monsters, and stone statues, anatomiless and rigid.” We may not swell these pages with self-evident deductions: yet it is impossible to withhold a further word as to the social part of the subject. In all Greek, Assyrian, Egyptian, and Renaissance work, the inferior workman was, it seems, a "slave. Not to lose ourselves in expressions that measure OPERATIVE LIBERTY AND SLAVERY. 289 the slavery a thousand times more bitter and more degrading than that of scourged African or Helot Greek,"-"prisons of the body,"-" graves of the soul," and so on: let us attempt to fathom the proximate cause of a state so direful. It is in a simple compass :- "Square stones" (Edin. Lect. p. 76.), "accurate mould- ings" (Stones of Venice, chap. before quoted), and the reproduction of the same ornament, in violation of the great social law, that "as men do not commonly think the same thought twice, you are not to require of them that they shall do the same thing twice." (Edin. Lect. p. 132.) These are serious words, very seriously uttered, and demanding, if only in courtesy, to be as seriously dealt with. No less certain is it that they cannot be taken in a restricted sense. Sound or unsound, they involve broad principles. If square stones are graves to masons, so must square walls be to bricklayers, and square boards to carpenters. If to require the inferior workman to do the same thing twice is the bitter bondage, you are bound to carry out the prac- tical inference. The inferior mason belongs to the common lump, and can plead no speciality, whether of mind, body, or estate. Carry out, then, the great principle. Write your Magna Charta in becoming language, no two columns alike, no two hats, no two shoes, no two shirts, no two stockings, no two buttons, no two button-holes. Don't say stockings and shoes must match; that touches at best but a single pair. But all distinctions are beside the mark : enough, it is doing the same thing twice; and that is U 290 REVOLUTION OF ART. bondage, incarceration, intellectual, moral, and social death. And what a prospect in the emancipation! If "there would be a resurrection" of masons, cr as of renewed souls" (Edin. Lect. p. 77.), so, of course, of shoe-makers, stocking-weavers, hat-makers, tailors, carpenters, bricklayers, plasterers, painters, brick- makers, pin-makers, stay-makers, cotton-spinners- where shall we stop? Why, you have but to establish the law, and you will have a general resur- rection. "" I will not attempt the chapter of consequences. We may certainly see much we are not prepared for, when all these renewed souls go to work each after "the will of his own on our houses, our furniture, our personal gear, and all the necessary machinery of our daily and hourly life. Some of us may be destined to a perpetual apprenticeship to the putting on and off of our own apparel. As regards Art, the result requires no prophet. If there be one fact in universal experience, it is that inferior minds are content with inferior things, and inferior work- men with inferior work. It is easy to talk of trans- figurations: the conditions of the hypothesis are opposed, I had almost said, to improvement. The standard of a majority will be ever a standard of mediocrity. Let power and inferiority go together, and not only will ordinary faculties, common-place objects, and vulgar taste fix "the legal standard of imperfection," but self-sufficiency, shallow pride, ignoble selfishness, demand that every path shall be easy to all alike. LIBERTY AND EQUALITY. 291 Every virtue has its besetting vice, as every real substance has its shadow. Of true liberty, for which we all are jealous, this notion of equality is, I take it, the delusive shadow. If some of us stand in dread of sweeping radical principles, it is not, I trust, from selfish dislike to communised power, simply con- sidered much less of pervasive light- but just of this autocratous mediocrity, this tyrannical dead level. A "commonwealth of kings" sounds fine. enough but defend us from a commonwealth of cobblers! : We all desire excellence for its own sake, and a steady pervasive advance towards it. Were it not a denial of the nature of things to assert that what depends on finer perceptions, loftier feelings, profounder thoughts, a more generous, self-exhaust- ing enthusiasm, will be originated and sustained by that whose instinctive gravitation is towards equality? But we are not yet at the terminus. The great principle of "the division of labour," is, it seems, to be abjured: and an age, boasting of progress, to retrace its steps and return to barbarism. We have, in fact, given a wrong name to the principle. "It is not, truly speaking, the labour that is divided, but the men; so that all the little piece of intelligence left a man is not enough to make a pin or a nail, but exhausts itself in making the point of a pin, or the head of a nail." (Stones of Venice, same chap.) That pin-making, whether in whole or part, should absorb a man's " soul," were indeed a murderous tyranny I would join any honest effort in putting down. But that the man's soul would be re- U 2 292 REVOLUTION OF ART. generated by making the whole pin instead of the point of it; and making it, not according to a fixed pattern, but "after a will of his own," involves a problem in metaphysics I want credulity to enter on. We are not even yet, however, at the goal. "It would be well if all of us were good handicraftsmen in some kind . . and yet more, in each several profes- sion, no master should be too proud to do the hardest work. The painter should grind his own colours; the architect work in his mason's yard with his own men; the master manufacturer be himself a more skilful operative than any man in his mills; and the distinction between one man and another be only in experience and skill" (a hard-won distinction for the master), "and the authority and wealth which these must naturally and justly obtain." (Stones of Venice, same chap.) I am surely not overstating matters when I say that we are now beyond "constitutional ornament.” Of course, the Reformer "recks his own rede.” Of course he takes his post, now and then, with a certain black letter functionary not to be "named to ears polite." Who knows but the said functionary may be allowed the privilege of writing here and there, like medieval masons, his "grotesque" and "effec- tive satire"? Let us love the "inferior workman;" care for him; watch kindly and scrupulously over his proper in- terests and lawful rights: but let us not think of doing all this by becoming inferior workmen ourselves. Let us cherish his nobler nature: but not by turning nails and pins into heroics. Let us recognise his membership in the social body; and give him, in all THE QUESTION A VERY BROAD ONE. 293 due and fitting ways, the hand of brotherhood: but let us solemnly pause ere, by abjuring necessary distinctions, or aggravating them by unseemly lan- guage, we make the amputation we deprecate, and suggest what an apostle took for an absurdity that precluded argument, "Because I am not the eye or head, therefore I am not of the body." They Let these things be weighed and pondered. involve the vital interests of art and architecture. Can it be a moment assumed that they involve no more? With what face can we assert abstract principles in the case of art, while we lack the manliness to carry them out in other things? With what prospect? Do you expect the inferior workman to know no distinction beyond his own sense of it within the workshop, and to be the slave- the worse than Helot-the moment he steps out into social life? These are questions that will have an answer. U 3 294 REVOLUTION OF ART. CHAP. XXVI. A COLLATERAL CHAPTER OF EVIDENCE. WORTH, CARLYLE AND WORDS- It is full time I leave my reader to pronounce the verdict. There is yet, however, a piece of evidence I cannot withhold from him. Pre-Raffaellitism is not quite an original movement. Mr. Ruskin may cer- tainly claim for partisan the author Steele speaks of, who proposed "writing in a perfectly new way, by describing things as they are." Those on the other side might put into the genealogy certain worthies of the school of Rousseau, we read of in De Crecqui, who, for love of "nature," adorned their cheeks with carrots, instead of ringlets. But here is something that deserves grave attention. * Those who agree with what I have ventured to say as to the nature of Poetry, will further agree, that it is entitled to a form no less distinct. Those who agree with Mr. Carlyle must be prepared for a corresponding account of the subject; though it is, we all know, his prerogative to out-Herod all the Herods. He told, for instance, a wondering disciple that "Tennyson wrote in verse because the schoolmaster taught him it was great to do so, and had been thus turned from the true path of a man: that Byron had, in "Modern Painters," pt. iv. ch. x. § 2. LANGUAGE OF POETRY — WORDSWORTH. 295 like manner, been turned from his vocation: that Shak- speare had not the good sense to see it would have been better to write on in prose." (Memoir of Margaret Fuller.) This may have been esoteric teaching: it is the honest consequence of his definition. Let us now look at those "Prefaces" of Wordsworth, to which Mr. Ruskin has made significant reference. I shall make no apology for interpolating a bracketted sentence, or putting certain words in italics for the avoidance of longer comment. poet says,- 66 The "The principal object which I proposed to myself in these poems was to choose incidents and situations from common life, and to relate or describe them throughout as far as possible, in a selection of language really used by men" (the only difference between Giotto and Words- worth is, that whilst the latter gives us Goody Blake" and "Peter Bell," the former presents us with "Saint Anna" and "the Virgin Mary;" but both, with equal scrupulosity," from common life") "Low and rustic life was generally chosen, because, in that condition the essential passions of the heart find a better soil in which they can attain their maturity" (" Achilles' wrath," and "Dido's grief," not being essential or matured passions of humanity), "and speak a plainer language" (than Andromache, Queen Catherine, Margaret of Anjou, or the Prince of Denmark): "because the manners of rural life" (slanderously called boorish) " germinate from those elementary feelings" (exhibiting, of course, their native grace)," and, from the necessary character of rural occupations, are more easily comprehended, and are more durable" (if we can but proscribe Free Trade, and keep to U 4 296 REVOLUTION OF ART. natural products); " and, lastly, because in that condition the passions of men are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms of nature " (a fact ascertainable by any who will look in at an ordinary on market days). "The language too, of these men is adopted-purified, indeed, from what appears to be its defects-because such men hourly converse with the best objects" (horses, pigs, and poultry), "from which the best part of language is originally derived; and because, from their rank in society, and the sameness and narrow circle of their in- tercourse" (Wordsworth's words, not mine) "being less under the influence of social vanity" (village society being notoriously free from gossiping), "they convey their feelings and notions in simple and unelaborated expres- sions. Accordingly such a language" (perfect from its very poverty)" is a more permanent and a more philosophical language than that which is frequently substituted for it by poets, who think they are conferring honour upon themselves and their art in proportion as " (depending wholly on sympathy) "they separate themselves from the sympathies of men." Who can fail to recognise the comparative ana- tomy of Pre-Raffaellitism? What follows is so precisely Mr. Ruskin's account of Giotto nature and his own repudiation of Idealism, that we seem to be reading things over again reason for reason and word for word. “There neither is, nor can be, any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition. They both speak to the same organs" (like Æolian harp and bagpipe). "Though the poet is endued with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm, tenderness, &c., than are supposed to be common among mankind, yet there } SPECIMENS. 297 cannot be a doubt but that the language this faculty will suggest must, in liveliness and truth, fall far short of that which is uttered by men in real life under the actual pressure of their passions." Can there be a doubt of the identity, if not parentage, of the Pre-Raffaellite "hedge-row hu- manity?" Let us pity the poet; let us pity his hearers: he is to speak the language of common men; but he cannot speak it, of course, so well. We have thought sometimes of poetic wings; it seems they are for the rest of the species: the poet's glory must be a pair of legs. . The "Poets do not write for poets, but for men. poet must descend from his supposed height, and, in order to excite rational sympathy, he must express himself as other men express themselves." One would think that the reformer had lighted on some cabalistic language; or that it was the poet's special office, not to lift his reader, but to degrade himself. Who can wonder at the encomiums lavished on those pre-eminently poetic lines,— "My friends, do they now and then send A look or a thought after me? or the appearance, in the most ambitious of the illustrative compositions, of such passages as,- "One night; and now my little Bess ?" or that, instead of, we have, Lawrence, of virtuous Father, virtuous Son," "Spade with which Wilkinson has dug his lands ?" 298 REVOLUTION OF ART. No doubt, when another Byron writes another "Corsair," he will eschew such miscalled poetic terms as, my tablets, Juan, hark!" Men don't talk about tablets in real life, except for tombstones. The rhyme will run "John! d'ye hear? go, fetch my memorandum book!” So, a more consistent Wordsworth will not write "But in her worst pursuits I ween!" People don't "ween" in real life. The present word is "I think: " if certain influences carry it, we shall say "I calculate," “I calculate,” or perhaps, " I guess." “I Language is character whether of pen or pen- cil art and manners are character all the hypo- crisy in the world, notwithstanding. He was no posturemonger who wrote "bad manners are bad morals.”* Sweeping Revolutions in Art and Poetry have a further meaning- "Abeunt studia in mores.” Let me repeat a question already asked, as it is here again suggested by Wordsworth, "What do we mean by Nature?" Will "Peter Bell" retain his title to a share in it, if he grow upwards to Sir Philip Sydney? or is Sir Philip Sydney to vindicate his "nature" by growing downwards to Peter Bell? Are we all to forget Lady Rachael Russell and Margaret Godolphin, and go and learn nature amongst milkmaids, clod-polls, and sturdy beggars? There is one 66 plain fact" some plain-spoken * Paley. THE QUESTION RENEWED-WHAT IS NATURE? 299 theorists have made no count of. Millions of human beings, in every age and country, no sooner emerge from the companionship of cows and donkeys, but they begin to adopt, in various ways, but with uni- formity of instinct, what some are pleased to call artificial manners and modes of speech. Now, either such phenomena are the evolving of certain dispo- sitions we mean, or should mean, by the word "nature:" or they are superinduced, foreign, intruded from some other quarter. If the latter, it were well to give us some insight into the uniformity of the process. If the former, we may dispense with much vapouring about "nature," as but another expression of a certain Chinese practice with children's feet. 300 CONCLUSION. CHAP. XXVII. VINDICATION OF THE COURSE OF INQUIRY. - PERSONAL CRITICISM HOW FAR UNAVOIDABLE. UNAVOIDABLE.-SELF-CONTRADICTION SERTED AUTHORITY. INSTANCES. CONSEQUENCES OF ITS SUCCESS. FATAL TO AS- THE ONLY CONSISTENCY.- Ir will, of course, be said that I have taken an invidious view of the works we have been engaged with; selecting everywhere what I dissented from, and leaving all besides without a word of notice. The reply is very simple. As I said in the very outset, my subject is not Mr. Ruskin, but Pre-Raf- faellitism. Cut out of his eloquent writings all I un- derstand by that term, and few would go beyond myself in admiration of the remainder. It must be distinctly remembered, also, that MY OBJECT IS, IN THE STRICTEST SENSE, A DEFENSIVE ONE. Had Pre-Raffaellitism appeared either as a peculiarity or a preference; had it been simply said that the Old Masters were good and great in their way, but times are changed, and men with not a tythe of Salvator's endowments would blush for in- advertencies everywhere traceable in his finest. works; had, I say, anything like this been the drift of Mr. Ruskin's writings, we had been spared a heap of uncomfortable adjectives: there might have remained occasion of preference; there could have been none for disputing facts. OUR OBJECT DEFENSIVE AUTHORITY. 301 He has adopted a different course, and must take the consequences. By pushing beyond all whole- some or legitimate limits the demands of science, and by converting artistic criticism into a moral im- peachment, he has not only disturbed our enjoyment of ancient Art, but wounded our sense of justice, and compelled, I might say, a fight for decent standing room in the commonwealth of the liberal Arts. It is this, as well as the inconvenience of more extended researches, that has provoked some search- ing questions as to the issue of his own arguments on his own terms. I have never lain at catch; nor strained exuberances of expressions into respon- sible statements. It had been pleasanter to fol- low a writer, at once so ingenious and so eloquent, with the reins on the neck. But that writer is a Revolutionist. When we find, therefore, his prin- ciples expressed in language as paradoxical as it appears uncalled for, we are irresistibly moved to handle it as, perhaps, otherwise we should not have done. + There is another necessity. Mr. Ruskin lays direct claim to prescriptive authority. He tells his Edinburgh hearers, " I did not come here to tell you my belief, or my conjectures : I came to tell you the truth, which I have given fifteen years of my life to ascertain." * In the third volume of "Modern Painters," he asks, "What people would think if Faraday were to talk of his belief that iron had an * Edin. Lect. p. 180. 302 CONCLUSION. affinity for oxygen.* Special claims demand special treatment. I shall not stop to discuss such assertions as that "the words' sublime and beautiful' do not express a generic distinction; " that "the terms objective and subjective' are two of the most objectionable words ever coined; " that "the boughs of every bramble bush are imaginatively arranged-so are those of every oak and cedar, but it does not fol- low that there is imaginative sympathy between oak and cedar; "§ or that "everything that nature does isimaginative." | Nor will I even anatomise such metaphysical statements as the following- "Dante's Centaur Chiron, dividing his beard with his arrow before he can speak, is a thing that no mortal would ever have thought of if he had not actually seen the Centaur do it. They might have composed handsome bodies of men and horses in all possible ways, through a whole life of pseudo-idealism, and yet never dreamed of any such thing. But the real living Centaur actually trotted across Dante's brain, and he saw him do it." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. iv. § 6.) This is given as an instance of "the life of faith." We must suppose, therefore, that Dante believed in the Centaur, that faith became sight, and the impos- sible a real thing. I leave such things to our mutual Readers. There is another order of phenomenon, which I shall not apologize for handling. Were Mr. Ruskin's sentences less sententious, there might be less re- "Modern Painters," vol iii. Preface p. vii. † Ibid. pt. i. sec ii. chap. iii. Ibid. pt. iv. chap. xii. § 1. § Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. ii. § 21. || Ibid. AUTHORITY SELF CONTRADICTED. 303 curring sense of their discrepancies. As it is, the anomalies are so startling, that the most careless reader must be struck with them; and so numerous that I found occasional notes of them growing to the dimensions of a distinct chapter. Some cases have appeared already:* 1. My readers will not have forgotten the revo- lutionary defence of Turner's foreground figures.† We now find that, instead of "all beyond round balls with pink spots for faces" being "a painting of impossibilities," all foregrounds must be "most delicate ;" and that if you would see how to paint them, you are to "lie down on your breast on the next bank you come to, and observe the clusters of leaves and grass close to your face." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. p. 126.) 2. So the reader will remember the conventional pseudo-Greek nondescript lion, with the real tiger by way of contrast, in the frontispiece of the " Edin- burgh Lectures." We are told in the same work that "the glory of all ornamentation consists in the adoption or imitation of natural objects" (p. 130.): and are bid to "consider what a different effect might be produced upon them" (your children) "if every cross on your building were a faithful rendering of the form of some existing animal." (Ibid. p. 83.) But we are now further informed, "my own feeling is that no perfect representation of ani- *See especially conclusion of chap. iii. pp. 27, 28, 29; and chap. iv. pp. 30-34. Here is a further proof that the system has sand at its foundations. ↑ Chap. v. p. 30. 304 CONCLUSION. mal form is right in architectural decoration." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iv. § 14.) This is tolerable self-contradiction: but there is something further it is in the same paragraph. "And also be it noted that in all ornament which takes place in the general effect merely as so much fretted stone, in capitals and other pieces of minute detail, the forms. may be, and perhaps ought to be, elaborately imitative." These last words remind me of a certain counsel opening his speech with "If ever there was a case which, more than any other case, required careful comparison with former cases, this case is that case ; and the judge gravely interrupting him with " Which case, Brother ? › "" 3. Ere we dismiss these animal cases, it is impos- sible to omit the following. Mr. Ruskin remarks on "the Scape Goat" that "inasmuch as there is in it no good hair painting nor hoof painting, I hold it to be good only as an omen, not as an achievement." But we turn to "Modern Painters;" and here we find that "with Veronese there is no curling nor crisping, no glossiness nor sparkle, hardly even hair, a mere type of hide laid on with a few scene-painter's touches. But the essence of dog is there, the entire, the same treatment magnificent, generic animal type . . is found in the works of all the greatest men." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iv. § 11.) As also in the Preface to the Second Edition (p. xxiii.) "They" (the admirers of the Flemish school) "may be left in peace to count the spiculæ of haystacks, and the hairs of donkeys." I need not AUTHORITY SELF CONTRADICTED. 305 say that I am profoundly of the same mind. But then I am no Pre-Raffaellite. 4. My readers will recollect what we reported of Imagination *; and how Mr. Ruskin asserted a dis- tinction between Imagination and Fancy. Amongst illustrations I had no space to insert is Wordsworth's poem, "To a Daisy: "where" Fancy" runs through two stanzas; and in the third, "Imagination returns with its deep feeling to the heart of the flower, and cleaves fast to it": "Do thou, as thou art wont, repair My heart with gladness, and a share Of thy meek nature.” (Ibid. Pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iv. § 6.) "the imagination giving weight, meaning, and strange human sympathies to its sights and sounds." (Ibid.) Nay "there is something in the heart of everything that we shall not be inclined to laugh at." (Ibid. § 8.) The chapters from which I take these instances are amongst the most beautiful portions of the au- thor's writings. We read, mark, and some of us learn them. By and by, comes out a further volume; and there we find that what in Part III. was“ imagination proper," has become in Part IV.“the pathetic fallacy : " that, whereas in Part III. passages of the same poet were assigned to the magnificent faculty, or its humbler sister, as they looked to the supposed soul, or only to the material qualities of objects, in Part IV. poets are themselves assigned to one or other of two general classes, according as they Chap. xii. X 306 CONCLUSION. are "descriptive" or "emotional"- according, that is, as they do or do not indulge in the "pathetic fallacy "do or do not "talk to the wayside flower of their love, or to the fading clouds of their ambi- tion:" and that what in Part III. was the mark and stamp of the greatest, is in Part IV. " the note of the lesser, the mere second-rate order." (Part IV., Chapter on the Pathetic Fallacy.) Of course this last statement is the true Pre-Raf- faellite one. 5. But here also there is, to those who weigh words, the same perplexity. I have said enough of "man's shadow on God's work;" this third volume adds yet another refutation. We find that, amongst other items in the value of landscape art, In these various differences from reality, it is another advantage possessed by the picture, that it becomes the expression of the power and intelligence of a companion- able human soul;" that "we perceive, not merely the landscape as in a mirror, but, besides, the presence of what, after all, may perhaps be the most wonderful piece of work in the whole matter, the great human spirit through which it was manifested to us." (Ibid. pt. iv. p. 145.) This is precisely what I was affirming before the third volume made its appearance. It is just the reason why I prefer the old "didactic " landscape to the modern "descriptive" one. But then, this is just another reason why I am not a Pre-Raffaellite. 6. To keep at present, however, to our parallels, "Between Pre-Raffaellite pictures and the early Italian there is not a shadow of resemblance. The Pre-Raffael- AUTHORITY SELF CONTRADICTED. 307 lites imitate no pictures, but paint from Nature, and from Nature only." (Pre-Raphaelitism, p. 27.) Very well: but then, "the Giottesque movement in the fourteenth and Pre-Raffaellite movement in the nineteenth century are precisely similar in bearing and meaning; "" and " as Nicolo Pisani and Giotto were helped by the classical sculptures discovered in their time, the Pre-Raffaellites have been helped by the works of Nicolo and Giotto at Pisa and Florence." (Giotto and his Works, Arundel Society, p. 23.) 7. The above assertions as to Giotto and classical sculptures notwithstanding- "all Greek conception is full of danger to the student." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. v.) 8. Again, Claude was one of those Pharisee painters who did nothing for love of Nature. (Mo- dern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 3.) yet "he was the first example of the study of Nature for her own sake." (Ibid. 14.) So, also, "he had tenderness of perception and sincerity of purpose" (the Pharisee), and although "not deserving to give a name to anything" (Edin. Lectures, p. 171.), he "effected a revolution in Art." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xviii. § 22.) 9. Again, as to trees, we read, "Well, but do not the trunks of trees fork; and mostly with two arms at a time?" (on which, very perplexing comment may be seen two pages on, in the skeleton of a beautiful tree by Turner, Plate V. figure I., "Yes, but under as stern an anatomical law as the limbs of an animal.” (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. ix. § 12, 13, 14.) X 2 308 CONCLUSION. This is of course to show that Claude's boughs "are not facts." We have then another example from Constable, "worse than Claude's, in being laziest," the lawless artist "first bending it" (the bough) "to the right; then, having gone long enough to the right, turning it to the left; then, having gone long enough to the left, turning it to the right again." We are scarce out of the assertion of the “stern law," but we have the following account of Turner. "Then note the subtle curvatures within the narrowest limits; and, when it branches, the unexpected, out of the way things it does; just what nobody " (thinking of the stern anatomical law)" would have thought of its doing, starting out like a letter Y with a nearly straight branch, and then correcting its stiffness" (Constable-like) "with a zig-zag behind." (Ibid.) 10. My reader will remember the "plain facts" and common masculine people" of Giotto, with sundry authoritative axioms about ideal beauty; and our having "enough of majestic women bowing to beautiful and meek girls." It is one of the accusa- tions in Vol. III., that "In the Middle Ages hardly anything but vice could be caricatured, because virtue was always visibly and personally noble: now virtue itself is apt to inhabit such poor bodies that no part of it is invulnerable to jest " (Ibid. chap. xvi. § 14.); in fact “ man has become on the · whole an ugly animal, and is not ashamed of his ugliness." (Ibid. chap. xi. § 9.) 11. None of Mr. Ruskin's readers can have for- AUTHORITY SELF CONTRADICTED. 309 gotten those chapters in his first volume containing I know not how many margined paragraphs, in sixty- three close pages, on "Truth of Clouds;" with a thou- sand gorgeous expressions about "sky regions," and walking "through passages of mist," that seemed to threaten the conversion of Landscape into Cloud- scape, and claim for Mr. Ruskin the title once sacred to Jupiter.* We have now a third volume, with the following expressions:- "We turn our eyes from these serene fields and skies of Mediævalism, to the most characteristic examples of modern landscape; and I believe the first thing that ought to strike us is their cloudiness. Out of perfect light and motionless air, we find ourselves brought under sombre skies, and into drifting winds, with feeble sunshine flash- ing in our face, or utterly drenched" (simple Turnerism) "with sweeps of rain; so that if a general and charac- teristic name was needed for modern landscape Art, none better could be invented than "the service of Clouds." (Pt. iv. chap. xvi. § 1, 2.) How refreshing the works of him who not only "set the sun in the heavens," but had the grace to leave it there. 12. Again, "To copy the form of the Parthenon without its friezes and frontal statuary, is like copying the figure of a human being without its eyes and mouth." (Edin. Lectures, p. 1. 17.) So, "the Parthenon would be injured by any marking * VEPEλNYEPÉTNs - cloud-compelling. νεφεληγερέτης †This startling anomaly, as well as that of tree anatomy, has been noticed in the "Edinburgh Review.” X 3 310 CONCLUSION. which interfered with the contours of its sculptures." (Modern Painters, pt. ii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 26.) And no wonder, if architecture itself is but "associative sculp- ture." But now we are told: "For my own part I had much rather see the metopes in the Elgin Room, and the Parthenon without them. (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iv. § 14.) 13. Again, the "Laocoon is consigned to repro- bation, because it is wanting in repose." (Modern Painters, pt. iii. sec. i. chap. vii. § 6.) The same volume gives us the following eulogistic account of Tintoret's "Massacre of the Innocents (C "" Fear, rage, and agony sweep away all character. . . . A huge flight of stairs without parapet . . . down this rush a crowd of women . . . all knit together and hurled down in one hopeless, frenzied, furious abandonment of mind and body." (Ibid. pt. iii. sec. ii. chap. iii. § 21.) 14. I will not multiply these parallels. I add the following, both because it touches the whole subject of a former chapter*, and because the contradiction, now just uttered, of what I ventured there to con- tradict is in a volume that makes distinct claim on our implicit submission. The reader will recollect the assertion about the inability of the Greek to conceive a spirit ;" here is Mr. Ruskin's last account of the matter: "But then the Greek reasoned upon this sensation saying to himself, 'I can dry this water up or drink it. * Chap. XVIII. AUTHORITY SELF-CONTRADICTED. 311 It cannot be the water that rages. But it must be some- thing in the water which I cannot destroy there may be a power in the water which is not water, but to which the water is as a body. This something, this great water spirit, must be indivisible-imperishable-a God."' So of fire also. It was easy to conceive, farther, that such spirits should be able to assume at will a human form in order to hold intercourse with men. . . . There is not the smallest inconsistency or unspirituality in this conception. This is precisely, as I understand it, the heathen idea of a God." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xiii. § 6.) So much for what our lively neighbours would call the procès-verbal. Whether the claim to pre- scriptive authority be, or be not, admissible in the abstract whether "the laws of painting" be, or be not, "fixed, universal and demonstrable, like those of harmony in music or affinity in chemistry " and whether it be, or be not, allowable for Mr. Ruskin to cite Mr. Faraday's report of the result of experi- ments within the reach of any of his hearers, as synonymous with his own utterance of his own perceptions, which may chance to be more or less peculiar, I will not dispute. One thing is be- yond a question: when an authority contradicts its own statements, there is an end of implicit faith. The cases I have adduced belong so directly to what Mr. Ruskin calls "truths," that it is impossible to abstain from asking, - Which is precisely the true truth? In fact all is, more or less, so extraordinary, that I could undertake to furnish, at almost any notice, a X 4 312 CONCLUSION. century of paradoxes from these elaborate and beautiful writings. They are not full of paradoxes: they are themselves a paradox,—Poetry passionately insisting on her own destruction. It were impossible to conceive a contrast more complete than the object and the instrumentality. We have heard much of plain facts: "here is a specimen of the contrariety I speak of- r "The scarlet of the blood that has sealed this covenant will be poured along the clouds of a new aurora, glorious in that eastern heaven. For every sob of wreck-fed breaker round those Pontic precipices, the floods shall clap their hands between the guarded mounts of the Prince-Angel; and the spirits of those lost multitudes, crowned with the olive and rose among the laurel, shall haunt, satisfied, the willowy brooks and peaceful vales of England; and glide, triumphant, by the poplar groves and sunned coteaux of Seine." (Modern Painters, pt. iv. chap. xviii. Of the teachers of Turner.) May we not challenge - not Mr. Ruskin, or Mr. Cobden, but the whole Manchester school, of which the former is in some respects a most incon- sistent but most unmistakeable exponent, to reduce the above hyper-poetical expressions to the plain fact he is enamoured of? Or, are all incidental anomalies to be lost in the pervading one, that strips "Art" to the rigid ex- hibition of "plain fact," and decks philosophical treatises in scarce intelligible rhapsody? I said this was no review, properly speaking, whether of a set of writings, or of their author. My one subject has been what, for convenience sake, I PERSONAL FEELINGS. 313 call Pre-Raffaellitism. As regards Mr. Ruskin him- self, I have no critical propensities; still less the right, or wish to offer advice. Yet I find it hard to close without one word beyond a seeming anta- gonism. I have not only the profoundest sense of his genius, but the most cordial conviction that he is devoting it to what he fervently believes a noble work. It was a noble work he sketched out in that beautiful Preface *- a work so noble, and so nobly sketched, that I have been compelled again and again to ask myself, Has Mr. Ruskin failed of his object? or have I failed of his meaning? I must leave the answer to our mutual readers; but with the reite- rated declaration that, in expressing my own views, I have been indulging no unfriendly personal hu- mour. It has been the writing, not the writer, I have had in view from first to last: where I have been compelled to anatomise, I have at least en- deavoured to avoid the smell of the dissecting room. It were easy to compile, from out those beautiful writings, a series of passages that should leave no room for mistake I might almost say nothing more to desire. The task, however, though it were a pleasing one, is for himself, and for no one else. If he would but enact the Sibyl, and bring the result, I, for one, would be most happy to abide the con- sequence. As it is, I must speak, not of what might be, but of what is. If he prefer the course he has hitherto chosen if he will continue to generalise on casual impressions, Preface to Second Edition of "Modern Painters," p. xli. of Edit. of 1848. 314 CONCLUSION. and build up irrefragable systems on partial views and fleeting humours-if, confident of conclusions he has given himself scarce the time to clothe in language, he will rush, comet-like, not only against other people's facts and principles, but against his own- if, whilst he has the right to shine as a star, he will first assume the sun, and then do the office of a satellite- he must not be surprised at the very philosophical consequences: he must not take offence if, whilst the careless are awhile amazed, and the undiscriminating are held in thrall, the prudent pause, the wise lament, and, one after another, admitting the chaotic truths struck out, and the power and beauty of the performance, utter words of caution, point the reluctant moral, and pronounce even that glittering, and seductive eloquence to be but "The gilded halo hovering round decay." I say words of caution. Consistent or inconsistent, there is a very sensible momentum in these fervid writings. Though it were not difficult to contrast almost every emphatic statement with some contra- dictory one no less emphatic, this would not affect the pervading animus. The onward march is not the less a revolutionary one, because, like Time, and the great French Revolution, the system "devours its own children." On the real significancy of what is at issue I will not enter. The Revolution professes a certain form, and under that form I have professed to speak of it. I will only say, therefore, that if poetry should come indeed to be held for "but higher knowledge;" THE REAL CONSISTENCY-ITS ISSUE. 315 verse be voted a school-boy task; diction once called poetical, weeded out from the vulgar tongue; and "reality" made "the only genuine romance for full- grown persons"-if Art shall have undergone a similar process-pictures ceased to be picturesque - galleries hung, like lecture rooms, with diagrams “truth of earth" the only landscape, and "plain facts" the only history-great and solemn events represented, not as didactically they may have, but as materially they must have happened" wings on human or angelic shoulders shown to be " ana- tomically impossible "the Apollo of Parnassus elbowed out by the first authenticated "scot and lot" payer of the Seven Dials and "the Raf- faellesque" pronounced a nonentity beside the hu- manity of "highways and hedges"—no more effort, once reverential, after incarnations of moral beauty- fancy (cured of fetching gems from "unfathomed caves") taught to know that her most august prero- gative is not to dream dreams but conceive matter of fact and if one sit down to a Scripture subject, he shall make conscience of every-day incidents; the critic saying, in honest Saxon, "that fresh-coloured young woman is the Virgin Mary," or, perhaps with yet more felicity, of some wiser artist, "never having seen a Madonna, he does not paint any when realities shall have taken, thus, the place of visions the poetical condensed in the prosaic-common earth no more taken for common; "the oak pinched and poverty-stricken, if it make but the best of it," pro- >> * *Reprint of the sixth chapter of the second vol. of the "Stones of Venice," p. 26. 316 CONCLUSION. nounced "ideal " architecture no more an ema- nation of thought and feeling, but a sort of peg for "associative sculpture" to hang up fac-similes of natural objects — when, I say, all this shall have been accomplished, we shall have indeed effected a Revo- lution. It is not too much to say, that we shall have got, metaphysically, morally, personally and socially, a new creation: no height: no depth: things once lofty, prostrate things once ignoble, on the same broad level. It will be a 66 new earth," but with no 66 new heaven.” Should this Nineteenth Century principle effect its purpose, criticism, blue and brown, must re- verse awards long written in her statute books. Lucretius will take the throne of Homer; and Dr. Darwin make eclipse of Virgil. Burns will snatch the bays of Tasso; and Dibdin (I mean the "Cease rude Boreas" Dibdin), of Petrarch; whilst truthful Crabbe, making a father rejoice that amongst his remaining sons he has "no more geniuses," will be worshipped as a greater bard than he who sang, "Into the heaven of heavens I have presumed- An earthly guest — and breathed empyrean air.” In Painting the results are no less patent. I will say no more of Claude and Turner: it is clear that, on all principles I mean by the word Pre-Raffaellite, Teniers and Ostade were giants to Michael Angelo. There needs, in fact, but the due unfolding of "truth "" and "nature to prompt some future Ruskin to say of all we have been wont to wonder "" THE ISSUE. 317 at in Buonarroti's chapels, and Raffaelle's stanzas, “I call all such pictures nonsense pictures." On whatever else may be involved, I abstain from entering. No intelligent reader can require the proof that Art and Poetry are like "the glass of Agrippa." What precise shadows may cross the speculum, I must leave to those who can handle the instrument. Some have been hinted, not very obscurely, in the foregoing pages. Some may come out in that further question as to the "Use and Abuse of Art," on which I hope, ere long, to offer a word or two in a suitable form. Some point to peculiarities on which I would fain be spared the pain of specific language. I am more careful to detect causes than to follow consequences. To those I write for I have said enough. THE END. י BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Just Published, 8vo., pp. 106., with Musical Illustrations, price 1s. 6d., ART: ITS CONSTITUTION AND CAPACITIES POPULARLY CONSIDERED. A Lecture BY THE REV. EDWARD YOUNG, M.A., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. - as "We feel that, if we were to attempt a critical examination of the views of art set forth in this very able and most interesting pamphlet, we should be unquestionably guilty of going ultra crepidam.' To adopt a sentence of the author's Introduction:- There are, perhaps, few subjects so extensive, so diversified, and so recondite-so depen- dent on general laws, yet so controlled by personal liking, that of art.' In treating his subject, the author takes a popular, rather than a scientific view of art.' By Art,' the author under- stands Music, Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture,' and he looks upon Art in the 'four constituent elements' following, viz. — I. The technical, or operative element. II. The aesthetic, or perceptive element. III. The expressive, or demonstrative element. IV. The ideal, or poetical element.' Although we possess no title to enter into a regular discussion of these subjects and even if we had the title, neither our time nor our space would allow us to indulge in such a disquisition—we may be permitted to say, generally, that the main aim of Mr. Young is to maintain art in its natural elevation, and that it appears to us that he has achieved his task in an original, ingenious, ingenuous, and masterly manner. He writes as one whose heart is thoroughly in the subjects on which he treats, and he propounds his views and opinions in a vigorous, clear and straightforward style which carries the reader forward on a strongly-flowing tide of powerful com- mon sense. Matters which too many writers on art so mystify and darken 2 by elucidation,” as to leave the majority of their readers instructed in nothing, merely shaken in that which they really knew, Mr. Young handles so that he who runs may read.' People may differ from his views, but they cannot possibly fail of understanding them. We cannot doubt that the interest of art must be advanced by honest, earnest, and zealous investigation such as that which we find in the pamphlet before us, and we therefore warmly commend it to the notice of the public as the emanation of a highly-cultivated and energetic mind, thoroughly imbued with the true spirit of art, and anxious that it should be viewed not merely as it appears to the artist in his workship, or to the metaphysician in his study,' but as the means of improving and gratifying the popular mind." - Bath Chronicle. “This sensible and eloquent lecture." Athenæum. "Will give a more correct appreciation of the principles of art than many a bulky volume." — Bristol Mirror. "A large acquaintance with the fine arts, a cultivated taste, and a true judgment." - Bristol Times. "Art in its widest sense.' "A very able lecture. Clifton Chronicle. Much just, eloquent, and feeling criticism on the principles of music, painting, sculpture and architecture.". Leeds Mercury. Many things, rare and racy."— News of the Churches. "An educated taste, a cultivated mind, and a praiseworthy desire of enlightening.". Westminster Review. London HAMILTON, ADAMS, & Co. Bath: JENNINGS, Princess Buildings; & OLIVER, Milson Street. LONDON! Printed by Spottiswoode & Co., New-street-Square. A CATALOGUE OF NEW WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATURE, PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LOndon. CLASSIFIED INDEX. - Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Bayldon on Valuing Rents, etc. Caird's Letters on Agriculture. Cecil's Stud Farm Loudon's Encyclopædia of Agriculture Low's Elements of Agriculture Domesticated Animals Pages 7 • 14 · 14 • 14 • 15 M'Intosh and Kemp's Year Book for the Country Arts, Manufactures, and Architecture. Arnott on Ventilation Bourne on the Screw Propeller Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. Chevreul on Colour Cresy's Eucyclo. of Civil Engineering Eastlake on Oil Painting Gwilt's Encyclopedia of Architecture Herring on Paper Making. Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art Commonplace Book Loudon's Rural Architecture Moseley's Engineering and Architecture Piesse's Art of Perfumery. Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 5669 8 9 10 11 12 " • 14 17 • 18 Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography Taylor's Loyola Wesley Waterton's Autobiography and Essays Wheeler's Life of Herodotus • Pages 21 21 21 • 23 • 24 · Books of General General Utility. Acton's Modern Cookery Book Black's Treatise on Brewing Cabinet Gazetteer Lawyer Cust's Invalid's Own Book Gilbart's Logic for the Million Hints on Etiquette How to Nurse Sick Children Hudson's Executor's Guide On Making Wills Kesteven's Domestic Medicine Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge Biographical Treasury Scientific Treasury Treasury of History Natural History Piscator's Cookery of Fish 5 8 9 10 11 11 11 12 • 13 16 · 16 16 16 • 16 • 18 19 Pocket and the Stud 10 • • Scrivenor on the Iron Trade 19 Pycroft's English Reading 18 • Stark's Printing. 22 Reece's Medical Guide 18 Steam Engine, by the Artisan Club 6 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary 18 * Tate on Strength of Materials Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc. Biography. Arago's Autobiography Lives of Scientific Men Buckingham's (J. S.) Memoirs Bunsen's Hippolytus 21 Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 19 23 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries 19 Roget's English Thesaurus 19 Rowton's Debater 19 • Short Whist 20 Thomson's Interest Tables Bodenstedt and Wagner's Schamyl Clinton's (Fynes) Autobiography Cockayne's Marshal Turenne Webster's Domestic Economy West on Children's Diseases 24 Willich's Popular Tables 24 • Wilmot's Blackstone's Commentaries 24 • Dennistoun's Strange and Lumisden Forster's De Foe and Churchill Haydon's Autobiography, by Tom Taylor 8 22 Hooker's British Flora 10 Hayward's Chesterfield and Selwyn 22 • Holcroft's Memoirs 22 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia 13 • Maunder's Biographical Treasury 16 Loudon's Hortus Britannicus Russell's Memoirs of Moore Memoir of the Duke of Wellington Memoirs of James Moutgomery Merivale's Memoirs of Cicero Life of Lord William Russell St. John's Audubon the Naturalist Southey's Life of Wesley Southey's Life and Correspondence 22 16 99 Botany and Gardening. Guide to Kew Gardens Kew Museum Lindley's Introduction to Botany Theory of Horticulture (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener Encyclopædia of Trees & Shrubs 10 10 10 14 • 14 14 • 14 • 14 16 "} 17 Gardening Plants 14 14 19 • 19 M'Intosh and Kemp's Year Book for the 19 • Country 15 21 Pereira's Materia Mediea. 18 20 Rivers's Rose Amateur's Guide • 19 39 Select Correspondence 20 Wilson's British Mosses • 24 London: Printed by M. MASON, Ivy Lane, Paternoster Row. - 2 CLASSIFIED INDEX Chronology. Blair's Chronological Tables Bunsen's Ancient Egypt Haydn's Beatson's Index Jacquemet's Chronology • • Pages Turner's Anglo-Saxons Pages 23 6 Middle Ages • 23 6 Sacred History of the World 23 10 Vehse's Austrian Court 23 12 Whitelocke's Swedish Embassy 24 Woods' Crimean Campaign 24 • 13 24 Johns and Nicolas's Calendar of Victory 12 Nicolas's Chronology of History Commerce & Mercantile Affairs. 9 Francis on the Stock Exchange Gilbart's Practical Treatise on Banking Lorimer's Letters to a YoungMaster Mariner 14 M'Culloch's Commerce and Navigation. MacLeod's Banking. Scrivenor on the Iron Trade Thomson's Interest Tables Tooke's History of Prices Young's Christ of History Geography and Atlases. Arrowsmith's Geog. Dict. of the Bible Brewer's Historical Atlas Butler's Geography and Atlases Cabinet Gazetteer Cornwall, its Mines, Scenery, etc. 15 15 • 19 Durrieu's Morocco 23 Hughes's Australian Colonies 23 Johnston's General Gazetteer Lewis's English Rivers M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary Russia and Turkey Milner's Baltic Sea Crimea. Murray's Encyclopædia of Geography Sharp's British Gazetteer Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus Juvenile Books. 5675 22 22 12 • 12 • 15 22 16 16 17 20 24 Criticism, History, & Memoirs. Austin's Germany Blair's Chron. and Historical Tables Bunsen's Ancient Egypt Hippolytus Burton's History of Scotland Chapman's Gustavus Adolpbus Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul Erskine's History of India Gleig's Leipsic Campaign 7788 000 Eastlake's History of Oil Painting Gurney's Historical Sketches Hamilton's Discussions in Philosophy, etc. 10 Haydon's Autobiography, by Tom Taylor 10 Jeffrey's (Lord) Coutributions Johns and Nicolas's Calendar of Victory Kemble's Anglo-Saxons in England Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia Le Quesue's History of Jersey Macaulay's Essays History of England Speechies Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works History of England • M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary Manstein's Memoirs of Russia Maunder's Treasury of History Memoir of the Duke of Wellington Merivale's History of Rome Roman Republic Milner's Church History Russia 29 Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, etc. Mure's Greek Literature Raikes's Journal Ranke's Ferdinand and Maximilian Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary Riddle's Latin Dictionaries Gertrude • Mrs. Marcet's Conversations 8 Amy Herbert 19 Cleve Hall 20 22 Earl's Daughter (The) 19 Experience of Life 20 19 12 Gilbart's Logic for the Young Howitt's Boy's Country Book 9 11 12 (Mary) Children's Year 11 • 12 Katharine Ashton 20 13 • 12 Laneton Parsonage 19 15 14 14 Margaret Percival 20 • 14 Pycroft's English Reading 18 14 14 15 • 15 16 "" 22 • 16 • 16 16 " 10 16 How to Nurse Sick Children 11 17 Kesteven's Domestic Medicine 12 · • 17 Latham On Diseases of the Heart 12 • 18 22 Moore On Health, Disease, and Remedy. Pereira On Food and Diet 17 18 18 Materia Medica 18 • 19 Reece's Medical Guide • 18 24 Rogers's Essays from Edinburgh Review 19 Roget's English Thesaurus • Russell's (Lady Rachel) Letters Life of Lord William Russell Medicine and Surgery. Brodie's Psychological Inquiries Bull's Hints to Mothers Management of Children Copland's Dictionary of Medicine Cust's Invalid's Own Book Holland's Medical Notes and Reflections Mental Physiology West on the Diseases of Infancy Miscellaneous and General Literature. 19 • 19 • 19 Schmitz's History of Greece 19 Smith's Sacred Annals 20 Southey's The Doctor, etc. 21 Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21 Lectures on French History 21 Sydney Smith's Works 20 Austin's Sketches of German Life Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses Chalybæus's Speculative Philosophy Greg's Political and Social Essays Gurney's Evening Recreations Hassall ou Adulteration of Food • 22 • 5289 • 10 Select Works 22 "" Haydn's Book of Dignities 10 " •· Lectures on Moral Philosophy 20 Memoirs Holland's Mental Physiology 10 20 Hooker's Kew Guide 10 Taylor's Loyola 21 Howitt's Rural Life of England 11 Wesley 21 Thirlwall's History of Greece "" 21 Visits to Remarkable Places Jameson's Commonplace Book 11 12 Thornbury's Shakspeare's England 23 Townsend's State Trials 23 Jeffrey's (Lord) Essays Last of the Old Squires • 11 • 17 Turkey and Christendom 22 Mackintosh's (SirJ.) Miscellaneous Works 15 TO MESSRS. LONGMAN AND Co.'s CATALOGUE. 3 21 • 21 21 Stow's Training System Strachey's Hebrew Politics Martineau's Miscellanies Memoirs of a Maitre d'Armes Pascal's Works, by Pearce Pycroft's English Reading Rowton's Debater Sir Roger De Coverley Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works. Southey's Common-Place Books Doctor Souvestre's Attic Philosopher Confessions of a Working Man 22 Spencer's Principles of Psychology Railway Morals and Policy Stephen's Essays Harrison's Light of the Forge Hook's (Dr.) Lectures on Passion Week Horne's Introduction to Scriptures Abridgment of ditto Communicant's Companion Pages 16 • 22 18 • Earl's Daughter (The) 18 19 Englishman's Greek Concordance 20 20 Experience of Life (The) • 21 Gertrude 21 22 Pages Desprez's Apocalypse Fulfilled. Discipline Eclipse of Faith 8 8 19 8 Heb. and Chald. Concord. 9 20 • 19 10 10 • 11 11 11 Jameson's Sacred Legends • 11 21 • 23 • • 23 Katharine Ashton Willich's Popular Tables 24 • Yonge's English Greek Lexicon Latin Gradus Laneton Parsonage 24 24 Zumpt's Latin Grammar 24 Natural History in General. Tagart on Locke's Philosophy Thomson's Outline of the Laws of Thought 23 Townsend's State Trials Tuson's British Consul's Manual Legends of the Madonna Sisters of Charity Jeremy Taylor's Works Kalisch's Commentary on Exodus Letters to my Unknown Friends on Happiness Loug's Inquiry concerning Religion" Lyra Germanica. Maitland's Church in the Catacombs " Monastic Legends 11 21 "" 11 21 12 12 12 20 20 J2 12 14 7 15 Margaret Percival 20 Catlow's Popular Conchology Ephemera and Young on the Salmon Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica Kemp's Natural History of Creation Kirby and Spence's Entomology Lee's Elements of Natural History Mann on Reproduction 7 Martineau's Christian Life 16 9 Milner's Church of Christ 16 9 22 12 "" 12 15 Moore On the Use of the Body "" Soul and Body 's Man and his Motives Mormonism Montgomery's Original Hymns 16 17 17 17 • 22 16 23 22 23 24 • 24 • Rural Architecture' Gardening Maunder's Treasury of Natural History Turton's Shells of the British Islands Von Tschudi's Animal Life in the Alps Waterton's Essays on Natural History Youatt's The Dog The Horse. 1-Volume Encyclopædias and Dictionaries. Arrowsmith's Geog. Dict. of the Bible Blaine's Rural Sports Brande's Science, Literature, and Art Copland's Dictionary of Medicine Cresy's Civil Engineering Gwilt's Architecture Johnston's Geographical Dictionary Loudon's Agriculture • • 566 Robinson's Lexicon to Greek Testament Sermon in the Mount Sinclair's Journey of Life Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy (G.) Sacred Annals Southey's Life of Wesley Stephen's (Sir J.) Ecclesiastical Biography 21 Tayler's (J. J.) Discourses Taylor's Loyola Wesley • Theologia Germanica Neale's Closing Scene 17 Newman's (J. H.) Discourses 17 Rauke's Ferdinand and Maximilian Readings for Lent 22 • Confirmation Robins against the Roman Church Saints our Example • 20 20 20 20 21 22222222222 20 20 Calvert's Wife's Manual • Cleve Hall Conybeare's Essays Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul Dale's Domestic Liturgy • Defence of Eclipse of Faith 00 00 21 21 21 12 7 14 Thumb Bible (The) 23 14 Turner's Sacred History 23 14 Twining's Bible Types 23 • Plants Trees and Shrubs M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary Dictionary of Commerce Murray's Encyclopædia of Geography Sharp's British Gazetteer • Ure's Dictionary of Arts, etc. Webster's Domestic Economy Religious and Moral Works. Amy Herbert Arrowsmith's Geog. Dict. of the Bible Bloomfield's Greek Testaments Bode's Bampton Lectures • 14 Wheeler's Popular Bible Harmony 24 14 Young's Christ of History 24 • 15 15 17 20 23 • 23 Mystery of Time. Poetry and the Drama. Arnold's Poems Aikin's (Dr.) British Poets Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works Bode's Ballads from Herodotus Calvert's Wife's Manual " Pneuma Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated 19 5 • 6 6 L.E. L.'s Poetical Works 7 Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis 21 Lyra Germanica. 8 24 12 12 555677292 14 7 15 • 15 • • 17 16 • Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome MacDonald's Within and Without Montgomery's Poetical Works 11 Original Hymns 4 CLASSIFIED INDEX. Moore's Poetical Works • Lalla Rookh Irish Melodies Songs and Ballads Rende's Man in Paradise "" " Shakspeare, by Bowdler 5 Bourne on the Screw Propeller 6 Lectures on Organic Chemistry 6 Southey's Poetical Works British Poets Pages 17 17 17 Practical Horsemanship 17 18 Idle's Hints on Shooting Pocket and the Stud Richardson's Horsemanship Stable Talk and Table Talk • 20 21 Stonehenge on the Greyhound The Stud, for Practical Purposes Pages 11 • 10 • 10 • 19 10 21 • 10 21 23 • Thomson's Seasons, illustrated Veterinary Medicine, etc. Political Economy & Statistics. Cecil's Stable Practice Caird's Letters on Agriculture Census of 1851 Dodd's Food in London Greg's Political and Social Essays Laing's Notes of a Traveller M'Culloch's Geograhpical Dictionary "J Dictionary of Commerce London Marcet's Political Economy Tegoborski's Russian Statistics. Willich's Popular Tables 778 " Stud Farm The Hunting Field Miles's Horse Shoeing on the Horse's Foot Richardson's Horsemanship Stable Talk and Table Talk Pocket and the Stud. 22 Practical Horsemanship 15 15 • 22 15 21 The Horse • " 24 The Sciences in General and Mathematics. Arago's Meteorological Essays Popular Astronomy Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. " Brougham and Routh's Principia The Stud for Practical Purposes Youatt's The Dog Voyages and Travels. Allen's Dead Sea Burton's Medina and Mecca 77 • 10 16 16 10 10 19 • 10 • 10 • 24 24 Baines's Vaudois of Piedmont Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon Barrow's Continental Tour 22 NGNG 5 22 Barth's African Travels Carlisle's Turkey and Greece De Custine's Russia 22 Cresy's Civil Engineering DelaBeche's Geology of Cornwall, etc. De la Rive's Electricity Fairbairn's Information for Engineers Forester's Rambles in Norway Faraday's Non-Metallic Elements 9 Duberly's Journal of the War Eöthen • Ferguson's Swiss Men and Mountains Gironière's Philippines } 22 22 Grove's Correlation of Physical Forces 10 Gregorovius's Corsica 22 Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy 10 Hill's Travels in Siberia 10 Holland's Mental Physiology 10 • Hope's Brittany and the Bible 22 • Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 11 Chase in Brittany. 22 Cosmos Kemp's Phasis of Matter 11 Howitt's Art Student in Munich 11 Hunt's Researches on Light 11 Victoria 11 • 12 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia 13 Huc's Chinese Empire Huc and Gabet's Tartary and Thibet 11 22 Mann on Reproduction 15 Hughes's Australian Colonies 22 Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations. 15 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 11 Moseley's Engineering and Architecture 17 Hutchinson's African Exploration 22 Owen's Lectures on Comparative Anatomy 18 Jameson's Canada 22 Our Coal Fields and our Coal Pits 22 Percira on Polarised Light 18 Jerrmann's Pictures from St. Petersburg Kennard's Eastern Tour 12 Tate on Strength of Materials Telegraph - Peschel's Elements of Physics Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, etc. "" Mineralogy Guide to Geology Portlock's Geology of Londonderry Powell's Unity of Worlds. Smee's Electro-Metallurgy Steam Engine, by the Artisan Club • Wilson's Electricity and the Electric Rural Sports. Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon Berkeley's Reminiscences. Blaine's Dictionary of Sports Cecil's Stable Practice "" Records of the Chase Stud Form The Cricket Field • Davy's Angling Colloquies Ephemera on Angling 's Book of the Salmon Hawker's Young Sportsman The Hunting Field • 18 Laing's Norway. 22 18 Notes of a Traveller 22 • 18 M'Clure's Narrative of Arctic Discovery 15 • 18 Marryat's California . 15 18 Mason's Zulus of Natal 22 18 Mayne's Artic Discoveries 22 20 Miles' Rambles in Iceland 22 6 Monteith's Kars and Erzeroum 16 21 Pfeiffer's Voyage round the World Second ditto 22 18 22 Scott's Danes and Swedes 19 • Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck Weld's United States and Canada 19 23 87777556 Wheeler's Travels of Herodotus Werne's African Wanderings. Whittingham's Pacific Expedition 24 22 24 9 10 10 Wilberforce's Brazil and the Slave Trade Works of Fiction. 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