EMANUEL
DIAMONDS
QE
392
£53

{
ARTES
1817
SCIENTIA
VERITAS
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
TUEBOR
QUÆ HIS PENINSULAM AMŒNAM
CIRCUMSPICE
Science Ai
QE
392
E53
b

DIAMONDS
AND PRECIOUS STONES:
THEIR
HISTORY, VALUE, AND DISTINGUISHING
CHARACTERISTICS.
WITH SIMPLE TESTS FOR THEIR IDENTIFICATION.
BY
HARRY EMANUEL, F.R.G.S.
LONDON:
JOHN CAMDEN HOTTEN, PICCADILLY.
1865.
The right of Translation is reserved.
LONDON
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE
NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND
CO.

វ
I
PREFACE.
SU

HE object of the present work may be
stated in a few words.
For many years the author has been a
collector of the various scattered treatises
which exist on the subject of Precious Stones. In
all of these-whether English or French, German or
Halian-he has failed to find that particular informa-
tion, compact within a single volume, which is re-
quired by the inexperienced purchaser as well as the
trader. Hints and rules of considerable value are to
be met with here and there in different works, but
these instructions are so buried in scientific disquisition,
or lost amongst anecdotes and gossip, that for pur-
poses of ready reference the books are almost value-
iv
Preface.
less. By amateurs, as well as traders, he has often
been asked for a manual or handbook upon the sub-
ject of Precious Stones, one giving advice and instruc-
tions for the buyer as well as the seller, but with the
exception of Jeffries-now a century old, and out of
date there exists no such work in the English lan-
guage.
In the following treatise, the author sets up no claim
to literary or scientific skill; what he has done is
merely to record his own experience with Precious.
Stones, adding those facts and instructions given in
preceding works which seemed of special value. The
work has been written in odd portions of time, taken
up when a little leisure afforded opportunity, and laid
aside when business compelled its relinquishment.
The several sheets were printed off as written, and the
author is sorry to find, from an examination just made,
that many colloquialisms and trade technicalities have
thus crept in. However, this much he can say in
its favour, that no one fact or suggestion which he
thought would be of the least value to the amateur
or the trader, and which he was acquainted with, has
been withheld. Compiled in the manner stated, and
notwithstanding the absence of literary elegancies,
the writer cannot but think his book will prove useful
to the merchant, in supplying him without trouble with
the distinguishing characteristics of each gem, and to
Preface.
V
the amateur as affording him simple and easy means
for distinguishing the false from the real, and the
valuable from the worthless.
To many persons, doubtless, a treatise upon the sub-
ject of Precious Stones may appear an unworthy, if
not an idle task; but when the immense amount of
capital, which lies dormant in the Imperial and Royal
Treasuries, and in private hands, is considered, and
when the fact is remembered that there is scarcely a
home where jewels of one sort or another-all repre-
senting a money value-are not to be found, the
subject assumes an importance, which it lacks at first
sight. To the political economist, this hoarded and
time-honoured wealth must possess a singular interest.
Next to gold, any sudden and considerable check-
whether in supply or demand-would be attended
with startling consequences in the case of Precious
Stones. In times of revolution and political trouble,
jewels, from their extreme portability, have always
risen in price: in Paris, during the great Revolution of
1789-96, diamonds doubled their previous value, and
even now, in foreign countries, many personages of
note make a practice of keeping them in their posses-
sion in case of emergency.
The historical outlines, the opinions of the ancients,
together with what may be termed the Geography of
Precious Stones, given under each division, were added
vi
Preface.
more for the benefit of the general reader than for the
amateur or trader. A recital of constituents, methods
of polishing, with the characteristics of each stone,
seemed such dry materials for an entire book, that he
deemed it advisable to add historical and other parti-
culars for the benefit of those who might desire infor-
mation upon these matters. A great deal of curious
as well as important matter regarding gems lies scat-
tered in odd chapters of books of travel and in old
Government Reports. A selection from such out-of-
the-way sources has been included in the present
treatise.
The author has endeavoured to give the approximate
trade value of the various gems, but his readers must
please remember that Precious Stones obey (although
in a somewhat less degree) the same laws that regu-
late the price and value of every other commodity—
those of supply and demand. Of late years, certainly,
the tendency has been towards a rise, and from the in-
flux of gold, and the increasing difficulty of finding
gems, they appear likely to attain a still greater value,
yet it is impossible to predict what changes may occur,
or to fix a standard value to jewels any more than to
any other articles of commerce. The average price of
a carriage horse may, perhaps, be £80, yet one of ex-
treme beauty or faultless action will probably realize
£150, or even £200. So, though a fine diamond
Preface.
vii
of one carat will ordinarily be bought for £18, still
if it be a specimen stone it may realize £20 or £21.
The value of extremely large stones is also, as may
readily be supposed, somewhat arbitrary, for although
Nature seems to produce them in comparatively regular
proportion, i. e. the small ones in profusion, and the
larger sizes in a progressively smaller number; still the
number of persons able and willing to purchase them
becomes extremely limited, and it is impossible at any
time to predict the prices they may realize. For in-
stance, the diamond called the Regent, belonging to the
Crown Jewels of France, would, if estimated according
to the system hitherto practised, be worth £175,000,
yet if compelled to be sold it would be impossible to
say what amount it might realize.
Coloured stones and pearls also, when of extraor-
dinary beauty, size, or brilliancy, are worth, and will
sell for, sums extravagant in proportion to the prices.
named; and the reason is obvious, for so soon as
any stone surpasses in any marked degree the ordinary
quality of that particular gem, it is removed from the
common category, and its price will depend more upon
the fancy of purchasers than on any system of valua-
tion.*
* This remark also holds good with regard to diamonds when of
a rare tint. £300 was lately paid for a diamond of a vivid green
colour, weighing 4 grains, which, if perfectly white, would not,
under any circumstances, have sold for more than £22.
viii
Preface.
The chapter devoted to the various methods and tests
for ascertaining the class to which any special gem be-
longs will, the writer conceives, be of considerable assist-
ance even to persons accustomed to the trade, many of
whom from long habit and experience may be judges of
the value, but are yet wholly unacquainted with the prac-
tical tests required. As stated in the body of the work,
the tourmaline is sometimes mistaken for the ruby, the
pink topaz for the Balas ruby, and occasionally the
white sapphire and topaz pass for the diamond, even
with those who profess to be acquainted with gems.
The tables of hardness, specific gravity, and electrical
properties, however, will prevent any one from falling
into these errors, as nothing can be more easy than, from
the data given, to ascertain to which class any particular
stone belongs.
At first it was the author's intention to publish simply
a Bibliographical Account of Books relating to Precious
Stones, a list of the various works and treatises that
he has met with from time to time,-which would have
formed a pamphlet guide for the student or collector;
but his final determination to gather up in a small
volume the distinguishing characteristics of each gem,
with such advice respecting their identification and treat-
ment as was known to be thoroughly reliable and of
practical use, also led him to place the bibliographical
memoranda as an Appendix to the rest of the work.
Preface.
ix
Of parts of books and scattered chapters relating to
the subject, only the more important have been included
in the list. To have given all would have swollen the
list, without increasing its value, for most of what has
been written upon gems is only simple reprint, or, at
most, compilation from previous writers.
The great authority in this country on the subject of
diamonds and pearls, is David Jeffries; but as his book
was published in 1750-4, and as the values of jewels have
considerably altered since that date, it may readily be
conceived that the work contains many misstatements
respecting the value of both diamonds and pearls, to
which two jewels he confined his attention. As an in-
stance in point, it may be mentioned that his book,
written about the time of the discovery of the Brazil
diamond mines, gravely informs us that the diamonds
brought from thence were simply the refuse of the In-
dian mines, exported from Goa to the Brazils, and, in
due course, transmitted to Europe. To prove his state-
ments he indulges in long arguments, which at the time
probably carried conviction to many readers' minds.
Jeffries also objects to the then "new-fangled" mode
of cutting diamonds in the "brilliant" form, naïvely sug-
gesting that if this innovation should increase,
" rose
diamonds would lose their value, and the heirlooms of
many noble and ancient families thus become depre-
ciated. In spite of this remonstrance, however, “bril-
X
Preface.
Jiants' at present are universally worn, "roses" in ge-
neral being only used where the space in the setting pro-
hibits the introduction of the "brilliant" form. With
regard to his tables of value, as he fixes the price of a
perfectly white and spread brilliant of one carat at £8,
and as now from £17 to £18 may be readily obtained
for that size, no reliance can be placed upon them. The
book was admirable for its day, but, like most other
practical works, became an uncertain guide as values
changed and fashions varied.
One remark the writer must make. When a mer-
chant turns author, it is notunusual for some of his readers
to conclude that business purposes or personal advantage
induced him to take pen in hand; but this, the inquirer
is very plainly assured, was not the reason of the present
publication, or the intent of the compiler. In all pro-
bability there may be found those in his profession who
will unthinkingly blame him for making known what
are usually deemed trade secrets; but he is confident
that on reflection any such censure will be withdrawn,
especially as no names are mentioned which can either
injure or advantage; and in enabling the public to test
by their own knowledge and observation the truth of
the statements made to them, he does not surely ren-
der himself liable to reproof.
In the rendering of the several Eastern terms, and in
the preparation of the Table of Comparative Translation
Preface.
xi
in various Semitic languages of the Precious Stones
mentioned in the Bible, the author has to acknowledge
the valuable assistance he has received from the Rev.
Mr. Loewe, one of our most accomplished Oriental
scholars.
8, Clarence Terrace, Regent's Park,
June, 1865.
H. E.
ERRATA.
Page 91, line 8, for cutting thin read cutting it in.
3 from foot, for Andre-s read Andreas.
""
121, "
""
169, 2
""
""
""
>>
πλάσμα πλάσμα.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION
THE PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE-
CIOUS STONES
Hardness
Lustre .
Colour
Optical Qualities.
Single Refraction.
Double Refraction
Polarization of Light
Specific Gravity.
Electrical Properties
Diaphaneity
Fusibility
IDEAS OF THE ANCIENTS RESPECTING PRECIOUS
GEMS
ON THE PRECIOUS STONES MENTIONED IN THE
BIBLE
PAGE
I
6
6
7
8
ΙΟ
•
IO
I 2
12
•
I+
16
IS
19
Table of Comparative Translations from the
21
33
Original Hebrew of the Twelve Stones men-
tioned in the Bible as worn by the High Priest 36
xiv
Contents.
THE STONES IN THE BREASTPLATE OF THE HIGH
PRIEST
•
I. Odem
2. Pitdah
3. Bareketh.
4. Nophek
5. Sappir
•
6. Jahalom.
7. Leshem
8. Shebo
•
9. Achlamah
10. Tharshish
11. Shoham
II.
12. Jashpeh
THE DIAMOND.
•
Carbonate, or Diamond Carbon
PAGE
38
38
39
•
39
45
40
41
42
43
•
43
•
44
44
45
48
62
Diamond Cutting and Polishing
•
Names of Different Forms into which Diamonds
are cut.
SOME ACCOUNT OF LARGE DIAMONDS
63
72
•
•
78
The Braganza
The Mattam Diamond.
The Koh-i-Noor.
•
78
78
79
The Cumberland Diamond
80
81
The Orloff Diamond
•
SI
'The Polar Star
SI
The Shah
The Regent or Pitt Diamond
82
82
The Eugénie Brilliant .
The Florentine Brilliant
The Sancy
83
83
84
The Pasha of Egypt
The Nassak, or Nassac, Diamond
84
Contents.
The Piggott Diamond .
The Hope Diamond
The Star of the South
Other Large Diamonds
On the Value of Diamonds
XV
PAGE
84
84
85
85
86
Table of Present Value of Brilliants up to Five
Carats
•
•
93
Comparative Values of Diamonds in 1606 and 1750 94
Rose Diamonds
•
The Brilliolette, or Briolet
•
ON THE CUTTING OF COLOURED STONES
THE RUBY, SAPPHIRE, ORIENTAL TOPAZ, ETC.
The Sapphire
Other Varieties of Corundum
The Oriental Amethyst
The Oriental Emerald.
95
96
• 97
ΙΟΙ
•
IIO
•
114
•
114
• 115
The Yellow Sapphire or Oriental Topaz
The Oriental Aquamarine
The Chrysoberyl, Cymophane, and Cat's-eye
The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
The Topaz.
The Emerald
The Zircon, Hyacinth, or Jacinth
The Garnet
The Tourmaline
. 115
115
. 115
•
118
• 123
•
129
• 139
Quartz
Rock Crystal
The Amethyst
•
141
•
147
•
151
• 153
. 156
. 159
. 161
• 162
. 163
The Cairngorm, Cinnamon Stone, False Topaz,
etc.
Avanturine, or Aventurine
Chrysoprase
Onyx and Sardonyx
xvi
Contents.
The Sard and Carnelion
Chalcedony, Mocha-stones, Plasma, and Agate
PAGE
. 168
. 168
Agate.
Cat's-eye
Jasper.
•
170
172
. 173
The Bloodstone or Heliotrope
•
175
The Chrysolite, Peridot, or Olivine
The Turquoise
The Opal
THE PEARL
On the Value and Discrimination of Pearls
SUBSTANCES USED IN JEWELLERY NOT PROPERLY
PRECIOUS STONES
• 176
• 178
182
. 187
196
Moon-stone
Lapis Lazuli
Malachite
Labradorite, or Labrador Felspar
Jet
Jade, or Nephrite.
Amber
Coral.
•
202
202
• 203
•
206
•
•
207
• 208
208
•
210
ON THE MEANS OF ASCERTAINING THE IDENTITY
OF GEMS
213
216
Table of the Distinguishing Characteristics of Gems 220
Names of Stones in Different Languages
Precious Stones arranged according to their Colours 229
226
APPENDIX.
THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRECIOUS STONES
233
INDEX
261

INTRODUCTION.
Y precious gems are meant minerals re-
markable for hardness, lustre, beauty of
colour, transparency, or for the extreme
rarity of their occurrence in nature, and
which are used in personal ornaments, such as jewellery.
This definition excludes many gems so classed by
mineralogists, but which have no commercial value,
and many others that were prized by the ancients
on account of the supernatural properties, and health-
restoring charms they were supposed to possess, and
which, if true, must have rendered them indeed pre-
cious and priceless to the possessor and wearer.
The
estimation in which these flowers of the mineral king-
dom have been held from the very earliest ages, alike
by the most refined and the most barbarous nations,

43
B
2
Introduction.
is extraordinary, so that gems really seem to possess
some occult charm which causes them to be coveted.
The fixed, and, so to say, intrinsic value of jewels
(coupled with their extreme portability), has always
made them a favourite form of investment. In the
French revolution of 1789, diamonds rose enormously
in value, and, perhaps from the same causes, we ob-
serve a large increase in their price in the United States
of America at the present time.
Precious stones are disseminated about the globe
in profusion; they occur alike amid the torrid deserts.
of Africa and the icy steppes of Siberia; under the
burning sun of India and Ceylon, and amidst the
glaciers of Switzerland; in the beds of the mighty
rivers of South America; in Germany, Spain, and
even in our own land; generally in the midst of
some substance or deposit differing entirely from them.
The tropical countries, however, are far more prolific
in this respect than the other parts of the globe:
it would seem as if the countries where the sun
shines with most splendour produce gems in greater
quantities; and perhaps the volcanic changes to which
they are subject may have something to do with the
matter. They are found most generally in the older
formations, such as granite, gneiss, etc., in the beds of
rivers, where they have been brought by torrents,
generally accompanied by the precious metals; and
often various kinds of gems are found together. When
we consider the wonderful combination of seemingly
Introduction.
3
fortuitous circumstances which are required for the
formation of these beautiful crystals, to give them the
required transparency, brilliancy, and lustre, the free-
dom from defects and flaws, and the presence of the
exact quantity of colouring matter to furnish the de-
sired tint, it will be no matter of astonishment that
they occur so seldom; and the idea that one day pre-
cious stones may become as plentiful as marble may be
dismissed as groundless, when the numerous qualifi-
cations which are necessary for a stone to enter into
this aristocratic and exclusive family are considered; for
there must not only exist the crystallization to give the
required form, but the hardness to allow of the proper
polish and lustre, and the colouring matter to produce
the desired hue; and should one of these requisites be
wanting, the gem loses its value in the eye of the con-
noisseur.
1
The minerals which are the component parts of
gems are plentiful throughout the globe; we can ob-
tain magnesia, glucina, alumina, metallic oxides, etc.,
in profusion, and we can separate the gems them-
selves into their component parts; but, not all the
researches of learned chemists, not all the accumulated
science of the nineteenth century, has succeeded in
wresting the secret from nature, or of producing them
of any size or value by artificial means. The material
of the diamond, for instance, "carbon," is found almost
everywhere, in the bread we eat, in the coal and
wood we burn; uncrystallized, it is brittle and opaque,
B 2
4
Introduction.
but when crystallized, is the hardest known substance,
pure as the limpid stream, and shining with the greatest
brilliancy when cut and polished; whilst the amor-
phous variety, carbonate, although of precisely the same.
composition, and of nearly equal specific gravity, is
black and lustreless, and is degraded to the purpose of
cutting and polishing other gems. Again, the emerald
is composed of identically the same substances as the
beryl, minus the required colouring matter; yet the
emerald commands a large price, and the beryl is com-
paratively valueless. The amethyst and rock-crystal
are exactly the same substance, except that one is white
and the other coloured; the amethyst, when of fine
quality, has considerable value, rock-crystal very little.
The oriental topaz and the ruby are the same stones,
but of different colour; yet the value of the ruby sur-
passes that of the topaz a hundredfold.
In fact, precious stones must not only have the de-
sired colour, but the exact hue and shade in demand to
obtain the extreme value. No matter how brilliant the
ruby, or how free from defects and flaws, it must have
the precise pigeon's-blood-red to make it the gem which
surpasses the diamond in value.
Almost all gems conceal their true beauties in a
natural state. The diamond in the rough is most
unattractive, and would be thrown away by a casual
observer as a worthless pebble; its perfections are
hidden under a hard crust, which can only be removed
by its own powder. The deep velvety hue of the sap-
Introduction.
5
phire, the glowing brilliant red of the ruby, the soft clear
green of the emerald, and the delicate strata of the
onyx, alike only display themselves in their true cha-
racter after the lapidary has exhausted his skill in cut-
ting them into facets and polishing them; and on the
perfection of this operation depends in a great measure
the beauty of the gem. It may be here observed, that
many pure and perfect jewels have been irretrievably
spoilt by unskilful hands.


THE PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
B
OF PRECIOUS STONES.
HARDNESS.

Y the term hardness, must not be under-
stood the ordinary acceptation of the
word, "difficulty of breakage," but the
scientific definition, namely, the resist-
ance one body offers to the mechanical pressure of an-
other, or, in other words, liability or non-liability to
scratch. In the Table A. it will be seen that on the
one side is given the mineralogical scale of hardness
of Moh, the German author, who has taken ten different
substances as standards of various degrees, and classed
them in numbers from one to ten; ten being the dia-
On the other side,
mond, as the hardest-known body.
the substances which scratch one another are indi-
cated, and as glass and quartz, or rock-crystal, are
easily procured, and most precious stones are of equal
Properties of Precious Stones.
7
or superior hardness, the gems are described as scratch-
ing, or being scratched by them.
This experiment can be tried upon cut stones, but it
must be remembered that then, the mineral is not in its
normal state, and presents different surfaces to those
offered by nature in the rough crystals, and, in some
instances, one part of a stone, from some extraneous
cause such as flaws or imperfect crystallization-is
softer than the other.
In direct proportion to the hardness of a crystallized
mineral is its susceptibility of receiving and retaining
a good polish, which is the principal cause of the su-
perior brilliancy and beauty of jewels over all other
natural ornainents worn as decorations. It is this hard-
ness, also, that preserves gems from the effects of time
so visible on all other works of nature and art-in an-
cient architectural remains, statuary, and paintings, the
original beauties of which have faded away; whereas
jewels of the same date have been handed down from
generation to generation, forming links in the history
of man which might otherwise have been lost for
ever. The gems found in the catacombs of Egypt, the
buried cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and else-
where, have not been without their uses to the student
of history.
LUSTRE.
By lustre is meant the peculiar kind of brilliancy
which precious stones possess, and which is called by va-
rious names, corresponding to the appearances presented.
8
Properties and Characteristics of
The various kinds of lustre have been classed by
mineralogists under the following heads :-
Adamantine-possessing the brilliancy of the diamond.
Vitreous-resembling the surface of glass.
Resinous-shining as if rubbed with an oily substance.
Pearly-exhibiting the peculiar lustre of a pearl.
Silky-having a fibrous reflection similar to silk.
Other substances have a lustre called metallic, but it
is not named here, as it is not possessed by any precious
stone. It must be remembered that in classifying the
various kinds of lustre by these names, the nomenclature
is only general, and must be taken as describing as ap-
proximately as possible the peculiar appearance of each
kind.
COLOUR.
Although gems differ from each other in colour, still
this forms a very imperfect test of their identity with
any particular class. Gems differing from each other
in hardness, specific gravity, etc., have frequently the
same colour. The ruby, the spinelle, and the garnet,
are often met with of exactly similar tints. On this
qualification, as much as on any other, depends the
commercial value of a precious stone; and none of the
other characteristics, such as form, brilliancy, or purity,
are of any avail if the colour be not of the required
hue.
The colouring matter in gems is generally found to
arise from the presence of various metallic oxides, other-
wise they would be like rock-crystal. Sometimes the
Precious Stones.
9
colour which tinges the whole mass is found to arise
from a small speck of colouring matter, which is only
apparent when held in a particular manner against the
light, and which is turned to account by the lapidary,
who diffuses the colour by means of repeated internal
reflection throughout the whole mass. The colours of
precious stones are the most brilliant with which we are
acquainted in nature, and approach more nearly than
those of any other known bodies to those exhibited by
the solar spectrum.
The colour of a gem frequently changes its commer-
cial name. The red sapphire is a ruby; the yellow a
topaz; the white emerald is a beryl; the green chry-
solite is called a peridot; and quartz changes its name
and value as the colours which tint it differ.
Gems are also found, which not only show gradations
of the same colour, but two or even three different
colours in the same specimen; this is frequently the
case with oriental sapphires, which have been found
coloured red, blue, and yellow in the same crystal, and
in tourmalines, which are also found parti-coloured in
the most eccentric manner.
The asteroids, or star-stones, are gems that emit a
variable lustre, which seems generally to proceed from
some crystallographic imperfection; their reflections
often take the form of a four- or six-pointed star, and
are particularly observable by sun- or gaslight.
In some gems, the colour by reflected or by trans-
mitted light, differs; that is to say, they show a different
A
ΙΟ
Properties and Characteristics of
colour when looked through or looked at.
and tourmaline are instances of this fact.
OPTICAL QUALITIES.
The opal
Precious stones are eminently endowed with several
of those physical properties which belong to that ex-
tensive class denominated optical. Of these, the most
important to the subject, and which at the same
time serve in many cases as tests of individuality, are
single and double refraction and polarization of light,
and a short description of them may prove service-
able. In proof of the importance of this branch of the
subject, it may here be stated, that the high refractive
power of the diamond led the illustrious Newton to
the conclusion of its combustibility, a fact verified by
subsequent experiments.
By refractive power is meant the property inherent
in all transparent substances of altering the direction of
a ray of light, impinging on their surfaces.
SINGLE REFRACTION.
When a ray of light falls obliquely on the surface of
any transparent body, it is bent or refracted from its ori-
ginal course, and proceeds in another direction.
Thus,
suppose a closed box-

Q
A
P
W
Ꮴ
W
B
Precious Stones.
I I
having a small hole at P. Let A be a luminous point,
as a candle. Then the light proceeding from it would, if
the box were empty, go on in a right line to B. But let
the box be filled with water up to the level w w', then
the ray falling on the water at V would not as before
go on to B, but would be bent or refracted, and proceed
to some other point, B'. If we draw a perpendicular to
the surface of the water at V, then the angle A V Q is
called the angle of incidence; the angle B'V Q' is
called the angle of refraction. And between these two
angles, or rather their sines, a certain relation or pro-
portion holds, which relation is different for different
transparent bodies, as water, glass, etc. To explain
this relation, let A B C be any angle-
C

B
M
A
C M a perpendicular on one side of the angle, then
the length of C M divided by C B is called the sine of
the angle.
In the case of refraction this relation is such, that
however the angle of incidence may vary, the sine of
that angle (for the same substance) bears an invariable
proportion to the sine of the angle of refraction, which
is called the refractive index of that substance, and is
usually indicated by the Greek letter
μ; thus—
Sin. angle incidence
Sin. angle of refraction
12
Properties and Characteristics of
It may moreover be remarked, as an almost general
rule, that the value of µ is high in proportion to the
density of the substance.
DOUBLE REFRACTION.
When a ray of light is transmitted through certain
crystalline and other bodies, it becomes divided into
two rays, which proceed in different directions within
the crystal. Of these rays, one (the ordinary ray)
follows the law of refraction given above, the other
(the extraordinary ray) a different law. Such crystal-
line, etc., bodies are called doubly refractive; and it is
found that the amount of double refraction—that is, the
amount of separation of the two refracted rays—is
dependent on the direction in which the light is trans-
mitted through the crystal; and that in all substances
there is at least one line along which the ray of light
suffers no separation, and simply obeys the ordinary
law this line is called the axis of the crystal, or the axis
of double refraction. This property is difficult of inves-
tigation in the ordinary forms in which precious stones
are met with in commerce; a method of ascertaining it,
which in many cases is convenient, is indicated at the
end of the description of Polarization of Light.
:
Gems also possess the power of polarizing light,
which may be thus explained :-
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
When a ray of light falls on a plate of transparent
Precious Stones.
13
glass inclined at an angle of about 56°, and after reflec-
tion therefrom falls on a second plate of glass at an
angle of 56°, it will be found that when the second

plate C is horizontal like A, the ray will be reflected
from C; but when the plate C, still preserving its incli-
nation of 56°, is turned round so as to be vertical, the
ray will no longer be reflected, and will disappear.
The ray after incidence on A is said to be polarized,
the test of its polarization being that it refuses to be
reflected from C when C is at a plane at right angles
to the plane of incidence A.
The angle, 56°, by which light becomes polarized
by incidence on glass is called the polarizing angle.
This angle is different for different bodies. The
diamond is about 68°. Light may also be polarized
by transmission through tourmaline, Iceland spar, or
other double refracting bodies. To determine the
polarizing angle of a body, we have only to reflect a
ray of light from its surface at such an angle that it
shall refuse to be reflected by a plate of glass inclined
at an angle of 56°, and placed in a plane at right
angles to the first plane of reflection, or that it shall
incapable of transmission through a plate of tour-
14
Properties and Characteristics of
maline properly disposed. As alluded to before, double
refraction may sometimes be conveniently determined
from this property of light; for which purpose the sub-
stance to be examined should be interposed between
the two reflecting plates, when so arranged that the
original ray refuses to be reflected, in which case, should
the body be doubly refracting, a position will be found
in which a great portion of the previously intercepted
light will be more or less transmitted. The refractive
index of a body may also be ascertained from the polar-
izing angle by the following relation :-
µ = tan. polarizing angle.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
By specific gravity is meant the proportion the
weight of any body bears to an equal volume of water;
that is to say, supposing four substances whose volume
was so exactly equal as to fill exactly the same mould,
and that each had different weight when weighed in
the balance, then these different weights, considered in
relation to a common term of comparison, would sig-
nify the specific gravity of the various substances. But
as the bodies of which the specific gravity is required
must have different volumes, the way to ascertain the
specific gravity of any body is to weigh first in air and
then in water, and to divide the weight in air by the
difference between the weight in air and the weight
This principle is too well known to require
any further explanation.
in water.
+
Precious Stones.
15
The following is a simple mode of ascertaining the
specific gravity of any gem :-
The stone of which the specific gravity is to be
obtained, is first weighed in the ordinary manner in the
scales, and having noted the exact weight, it is then
fixed by means of a piece of wire bent in the form of a
hook, and a small piece of wax to one side of the
scale, whilst in the other is placed a piece of wire and
a piece of wax of the same weight, or their equivalent
in weights. The scale, with the stone attached, is now
allowed to fall in a cup of distilled or even filtered
water, and weights are put in the opposite scale till the
weight of the stone is counterbalanced, and the scales
exactly even. It is evident that a less weight is required
to counterbalance the stone submerged in water com-
pared with that when it was weighed in the air, as the
water in some measure supports it. The weight in
water is then subtracted from the weight in air, and
the weight in air divided by the difference, viz.-
Weight in air.
Weight in water
17 carats.
12
•
5 ÷ 17 = 3'5'
In order to ascertain the specific gravity of a stone
accurately, the following conditions must be ful-
filled :-The gem must be perfectly clean, and free
from dust, grease, or any adherent substance. It must-
be free from holes or porosities; and, before being
weighed in water, it must be rubbed in it to remove
16
Properties and Characteristics of
the adherent air, and, if the stone be of a porous
description, it must be allowed to absorb as much as it
is capable of, before being weighed.
The ascertainment of the specific gravity is a matter
of great necessity for the proper comprehension of
gems. It affords in many instances a test of the
greatest value, and prevents the possibility (when the
specific gravity differs) of one gem being substituted for
another; such as jargoon and white sapphire for dia-
mond, which occasionally happens by fraud or error;
also, in the case of stones which are cut and polished,
it is a valuable assistance in determining the family
to which they belong, without the possibility of the
slightest injury to the gems.
There are many valuable instruments made for
determining the specific gravity, the hydrometer, etc.,
which may be used where great accuracy is required,
such as in scientific experiments; but, for all ordinary
purposes, the manner I have indicated will suffice.
This test was well known to the ancients, and was
practised in India several centuries ago.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES.
Electricity is the property inherent in some bodies of
attracting and repelling smaller bodies, and it can be
excited in minerals by friction, heat, and pressure.
Some are conductors, some non-conductors of electri-
city. If a conductor, the stone must be isolated by
placing it on some non-conducting body, such as glass
Precious Stones.
17
or sealing-wax. This property is either positive or
negative, or, as formerly expressed, vitreous or resinous.
The faculty of the retention of the electricity produced
is very varied in all minerals; and the time which
elapses before they lose it, forms a valuable distinguish-
ing mark and test of their identity. The Abbé Haüy,
in his valuable work on gems, dedicated to Mr. Hope,
speaks of this property at great length, and used some
valuable instruments for determining it. A very sim-
ple mode, however, is to use an ordinary electrometer,
and to communicate a known electricity to it, by touch-
ing it with a piece of rubbed sealing-wax, until, on ap-
proaching the wax slowly to the needle, it repels it.
The needle has then acquired a negative electricity, and
will be attracted by a positive electric crystal, and re-
pelled by a negative one. This experiment should,
however, be tried on a dry day.
Some crystals become electric by pressure,- Iceland.
spar, for instance, to a very high degree. The topaz,
amethyst, and all the stones which come under the
denomination of quartz, slightly so.
The electricity which is produced in some bodies by
heat is called pyro-electricity. The Indians have long
been acquainted with this property. The tourmaline
derives its name of "aschentrekker," in Dutch, from the
fact of its alternately attracting and repelling hot ashes
if placed amidst them.
The diamond, garnet, topaz, and emerald, possess this
property in a less degree.
2
C
18
Properties and Characteristics of
It is to be observed, that it is not the heat, but the
change of temperature which causes the electricity; so
that if a stone be kept at the same degree of heat, no
effect will be produced. It is only by the increase or
decrease of temperature that it is to be observed. This
experiment is usually tried by a decreasing temperature,
and in certain stones two sorts of electricity are de-
veloped at the opposite ends or poles. By increase of
heat the positive pole becomes negative, the negative
pole positive. To examine the pyro-electric properties
of a gem, it can be held during its heating or cooling
against the needle of a sensitive electrometer, avoid-
ing carefully any friction. The longer the crystal, the
greater the quantity of electricity produced in propor-
tion. In order to ascertain the length of time during
which a stone retains its electricity, it must be left in
contact with some metallic body. The topaz continues
to affect the needle after twenty-four hours. This pro-
perty was well known to the Greeks; their name of
amber, electron," was given to it from its power of
attracting small bodies by friction.
DIAPHANEITY.
•
Most gems are transparent to a greater or less degree ;
that is to say, they possess the power of transmitting
light. The following terms are made use of to distin-
guish the various degrees:--
Transparent, when objects can be seen distinctly
through it.
Precious Stones.
19
Semitransparent, when the outlines of objects seen
through it are indistinct.
Translucent, when only light is transmitted, and ob-
jects are invisible.
Semitranslucent, when translucent at the edges only.
Opaque, where no light is transmitted.
FUSIBILITY.
The ease or difficulty experienced in fusing gems
forms another distinguishing characteristic, and also
affords a mode of ascertaining their composition and
colouring matter. Most precious stones are infusible
or fusible with great difficulty by means of fluxes, such
as borax or soda.
The diamond is infusible although combustible. The
ruby, sapphire, and all corundums are fusible with
borax, but with great difficulty. The emerald, zircon,
spinel, etc., likewise.
The application of heat to the various gems produces
very different results; some change colour, some swell
and decrepitate, some burn; in some, globules are pro-
duced; in some, an enamel; in some, dust; and in some,
phosphorescence may be observed.
The description of all these chemical changes belongs,
however, more properly to a scientific work than to the
province of a simple treatise like this; and the manner of
using the blowpipe, which is the mode usually adopted
for fusing minerals for experimental purposes, is too well
known to require explanation.
C 2
20
Properties of Precious Stones.
One of the most important points to be observed,
however, is the part of the jet of flame to be used.
If the outside flame is used, metallic bodies become
oxidized; if the inner flame, which is of a bluish-red
colour, and which is the hottest portion of it, the mine-
ral becomes fused.
the
Experiments are usually tried on small quantities of
gem, ground to powder, and held in a small pla-
tina cup.
Some gems are affected by acids. The opal is affected
by potash; the turquoise, garnet, chrysolite, and tour-
maline by acids. Some are unassailable by any chemi-
cal substance, particularly the diamond, the corun-
dums, and spinel.


IDEAS OF THE ANCIENTS RESPECTING
PRECIOUS GEMS.

HE origin of the taste for gems is lost in
the most remote ages. The most ancient
records to which we have access bear evi-
dence of its previous existence. In ancient
Egypt jewels were engraved in the form of scarabæi,
and are even now disinterred from the mummy-pits.
The Jews adorned the breastplate of the High-Priest
with precious stones, and the similarity of the names in
both their languages would lead us to suppose that they
derived their knowledge from them. The conquerors
of Mexico and Peru found the Montezumas and the
Incas in possession of gems engraved and cut into the
forms of animals and other objects, to which their tra-
ditions gave a remote antiquity. The Hindu mythology
speaks of gems in a manner which shows that they were
in general estimation. In their songs and ballads, pre-
cious stones are often spoken of. Pliny records that the
22
Ideas of the Ancients
garments and utensils of the Indian nations were orna-
mented with geins, and no doubt this custom was of
the greatest antiquity. With what stones they were
acquainted we do not know, as the names given them
both in Scripture and in other early accounts, do not
correspond with ours. Indeed, the only stone of whose
identity with the one described in the Holy Writ, we are
somewhat certain, is the sapphire, as it bears the same
name in Hebrew, DD, and is described as a trans-
parent blue stone,' like unto the vault of heaven,' which
shows that this could not have been the sapphire of the
Greeks and Romans, which is described as intermixed
with gold.
The twelve stones which were in the breastplate of
the High-Priest were-the sard, the topaz, the carbun-
cle, or ruby, the emerald, the sapphire, the diamond,
the ligure, the agate, the amethyst, the beryl, the onyx,
and the jasper; also the two onyx stones on the
shoulder-knot were engraved with the names of the
twelve tribes, to each of which one of these stones was
consecrated. The translations, however, of the Hebrew
names differ in many Oriental versions from the au-
thorized text; but in the next Chapter will be found
some information upon this interesting subject.
The monarchs of the East, with their fondness for
display and pomp, no doubt then, as now, decorated
their horse-trappings, their thrones, and their persons
with gems, long even before they knew how to cut
them; and they attributed, as they even now attribute,
Respecting Precious Gems.
23
magic and talismanic properties to them. This belief
is shared by almost every nation, and even in this
country, at the present moment, is not yet extinct, as
many persons wear a turquoise in the belief that it
preserves them from contagion.
Precious stones were no doubt brought from the East
to the Egyptians and Greeks by the Phoenicians. In
Egypt there certainly exist mines of emerald, but they
have not been worked for centuries: very recently,
however, they have been visited by travellers. Homer
mentions the earrings of Juno as containing shining
gems, and it is well known that the Greeks used gems
for seals, rings, etc. Ancient Greek intaglei are still ex-
tant of turquoise, onyx, and even ruby. And in a poem
by Orpheus, or, as some suppose, by Onomacriton,
written at least 400 years before the Christian era, the
supernatural powers of gems, in which the Greeks had
implicit belief, are mentioned.
One of their early writers ascribed to rock-crystal the
power of producing the sacred fire used in the Eleu-
sinian mysteries; it was laid upon chips of wood in the
sun, when first smoke and then flame was produced,
and this fire was supposed to be most grateful to the
gods. It is well known that a great part of the Gre-
cian mythology was derived from the Egyptians; and as
the priests were well acquainted with the use of many
scientific instruments, which were carefully concealed
from the vulgar, it seems probable that this tradition
simply arose from the use of glass or crystal lenses
(burning-glasses).
24
Ideas of the Ancients
Plato and Aristotle were both acquainted with the
existence of gems, and Theophrastus, the disciple and
friend of Aristotle, has written a treatise on the subject,
which is extant. Plato supposes the origin of pre-
cious stones to be the vivifying spirit abiding in the
stars, which, longing to form new things, converts the
most vile and putrid matter into the most perfect
objects. He describes the diamond as being found like
a kernel in the gold, and supposed it to be the purest
and noblest part, which had become condensed into a
transparent mass.
Theophrastus, in his work on stones, relates that
water is the basis of all metals, earth of all stones; and
that from the difference of all matter, and from the
manner of their coalescence and concretion, the stones
have assumed their various qualities, such as smooth-
ness, density, transparency, etc. This concretion he
describes as produced in some instances by heat, and
in some by cold. The emerald, he says, has the pro-
perty of causing water to assume its colour. He de-
scribes a common belief extant at the time he wrote,
of the power some stones have of generating others,
although he does not attach belief to this idea. He
also mentions that the carbuncles found in Carthage
and in Massilia, were bright red, and that when held
against the sun, resembled glowing coal, which perfectly
corresponds with the stones we now call by the same
name. Although the ancients classed all stones of simi-
lar colour together as, for instance, by the Greek name
Respecting Precious Gems.
25
'anthrax-in Latin, 'carbunculus'-they included all
gems of a red colour, such as hyacinths, rubies, garnets,
etc.; by 'sapphirus,' all blue stones, etc. : this arose solely
from their want of chemical knowledge, and not from
their want of appreciation of the difference existing be-
tween the various stones of similar colour. The Greeks
considered rock-crystal a congelation like ice, and sup-
posed it to be only found in the coldest regions. Theo-
phrastus, Aristotle, and Pliny, all concur in this belief.
The emerald pillars in the Temple of Hercules, at
Tyre, the emerald sent from Babylon as a present to
a king of Egypt, four cubits in length and three in
breadth, and the emerald obelisk described by Hero-
dotus, were doubtless green jasper; for Theophrastus
mentions having seen an emerald, which was partly
emerald and partly jasper. Pliny* ascribes the non-fusi-
bility of some stones to the idea that they contain no
moisture, and he describes a sapphire as a stone spotted
with gold, which would lead to the belief that what in his
time was called sapphire was a blue stone resembling
lapis lazuli, or aventurine, and totally different from the
blue corundums we call sapphire at the present day.
The 'lapis lyncurius' he describes as produced from
an animal; the gems were of two sorts, that called the
male, dark; that called the female, pale yellow (most
probably this was a species of amber).
As said before, he classified the gems according to
their colour, placing the diamond in the first rank as
* Pliny, book xxxvii. cap. iv.
26
Ideas of the Ancients
the most precious of all telluric productions; and it is
clear that he was acquainted with the true Indian dia-
mond (although he mentions six different sorts), for
he described it as resembling rock-crystal in trans-
parency, and that the crystals terminated at both ends
by a point resembling two pyramids joined together,
which description exactly tallies with the octahedral
form of the diamond; the hardness as very great, so as
to resist fracture on an anvil, and, in fact, breaking both
hammer and anvil before the diamond. He imagines
it, however, to become soft if immersed in goat's blood;
and remarks that small pieces were used by gem en-
gravers, as at the present day. After the diamond he
values the pearl, and it is clear that he must have seen
several gems in their natural state, as he describes some
of the crystals most accurately. He however has clearly
copied much from Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Demo-
critus, and he mentions many stones which are either
unknown to us, or are called by different names.
declaims against the extravagance of the age, and es-
pecially against the fashion of jewelled drinking-cups.
He
In the buried cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum,
rings have been found with devices engraved on green
jasper and chalcedony.
Juba, king of Mauritania, was said to have had a
statue, four cubits long, made of one single piece of
chrysolite, which he presented to Arsinoë, the wife of
Ptolemy.
The Romans, when they conquered Greece and
Respecting Precious Gems.
27
Egypt, took home this taste with them, and carried
it to a stupendous pitch, the patricians vying with each
other in extravagance. Lucan mentions the meeting
of Cæsar and Cleopatra in a hall of tortoise-shell, studded
with emeralds and topaz. Cleopatra is said to have dis-
solved a pearl of the value of 150,000 aureos, or golden
crowns, in vinegar, in the presence of Antony, and to
have drunk it off: this however is untrue, as it would
require a very much stronger acid, and a larger quantity
than any one could take with impunity, to dissolve a
pearl of that magnitude. Cæsar is said to have paid a
sum equal to fifty thousand pounds sterling for a single
pearl. The fellow drop to the pendant destroyed by
Cleopatra, was sawn in two by command of the Em-
peror Augustus, and used to adorn the statue of Venus.
As we approach the later periods of Roman history,
we find numberless instances of the appreciation in
which jewels were held. In the time of the Ptolemies,
they were used in profusion for ornamenting arms,
drinking cups, and even the altars of the gods. A poem
by Dionysius Periegetes contains several allusions to
precious stones,—the asterios, the lustre of which is
like a star, the lychnis, of the colour of fire, the ame-
thyst, with a tint like purple, are all mentioned. Cali-
gula adorned his horse with a collar of pearls, the
shoes of Heliogabalus were studded with gems, and
the statues of the gods had eyes of precious stones,
a custom which was clearly derived from the East
even in later days one of the largest diamonds in the
28
Ideas of the Ancients
Russian treasury is known to have formed the eye of
an idol of an Eastern temple, and was stolen by a
European, who had become a priest of the shrine.
A particular stone was supposed to be sacred to
each month, and they were called zodiac stones; they
were all set together in an ornament called an amulet,
so as to be sure to have the one in connection with,
or corresponding to the particular sign or month of the
year.
The order is as follows::
January
February.
March
April
May
June
•
•
•
Aquarius
Pisces
Aries
•
Taurus
•
Gemini
Cancer
Jacinth, or Garnet.
•
Amethyst.
Bloodstone.
Sapphire.
Agate.
Emerald.
Onyx.
Cornelian.
Chrysolite.
July
Leo
August
Virgo
September
Libra
October
Scorpio
Aquamarine.
¿
November
Sagittarius
Topaz.
December
Capricorn
Ruby.
This superstition is evidently connected with the
twelve stones in the breastplate of the High-Priest, and
even still exists. The Jews had a tradition, that when,
on the day of atonement, the High-Priest asked the
Almighty forgiveness for the sins of the whole nation,
if they were forgiven, the stones in the Urim and
Thummim shone most brightly; if the contrary, they
became black. Gems were also supposed to indicate
Respecting Precious Gems.
the state of health of the donor or possessor.
29
If they
became dull, he was conjectured to be unwell or in
danger; and their becoming opaque or colourless would
give rise to the most dismal forebodings. The turquoise
was conceived to have an affinity with its possessor or
master, and to change in colour as his state of health
altered. The fact that some turquoises do change their
colour may have given rise to this superstition; the
real cause of their variation seems to arise from the dif
ference of temperature and state of the weather. The
knowledge of the properties of gems common to writers
of the Middle Ages, differs but little from that possessed
by Pliny and Aristotle, and they seem to have copied
very generally from each other. Marbodus, Boetius,
Cardanus, and Rhave adopted the statements of Pliny
in many instances; and in a book written by Thomas
Nicolls, published at Cambridge in the year 1652, the
statements of Pliny and Theophrastus about the dia-
mond are quoted as being perfectly true.
Albertus Magnus, Langius, Cardanus, Boetius, and
others have written at length on this subject, and their
speculations as to the origin of gems, and their super-
natural effects, are most amusing. Serapius ascribes to
the diamond the power of driving away lemures, in-
cubes, and succubos, and of making men courageous
and magnanimous; and says that if the gem is placed
with a loadstone, it nullifies its power.
According to Boetius, in his work 'De Natura Gem-
marum,' the ruby is a sovereign remedy against the plague
30
Ideas of the Ancients
and poison; it also drives away evil spirits and bad dreams.
The jacinth, if worn on the finger, procures sleep, and
brings riches, honour, and wisdom. The amethyst dis-
pels drunkenness, and sharpens the wit. He says of
the balas-ruby, that it restrains passion and fiery wrath,
and is a preservative from lightning; of the emerald,
that it discovered false witnesses by suffering alteration
when it met with such persons; of the sapphire, that
it procured favour with princes, and freed from en-
chantments. The chrysolite was said to cool boiling
water and assuage wrath, and if placed in contact with
poison, it lost its brilliancy until removed.
Boetius supposed gems to be generated by the power-
ful working of lapidific spirits, and augmented by the
acquisition of new matter, and the pearl to be formed
of the morning dew drunk in by shell-fish.
Certain stones were also supposed to symbolize the
Twelve Apostles :-
Peter is represented by the Jasper
Andrew
James
John
Philip
•
Bartholomew
Matthew.
Thomas
Thaddeus
·
James the Lesser
Simeon
•
Sapphire.
Chalcedony.
Emerald.
Sardonyx.
Cornelian.
Chrysolite.
Beryl.
Chrysoprase.
Topaz.
•
Jacinth.
Matthias
Amethyst.
Respecting Precious Gems.
3I
If these and similar superstitious notions are to be
found in the works of the most learned of their time,
it is not marvellous that the most extravagant and ab-
surd notions should have prevailed amongst the ig-
norant.
The art of cutting gems was in its infancy until a late
period, and was confined to a very few, and their use
for personal adornment was limited to kings and princes,
who prized them more for the superstitious uses attri-
buted to them than for aught else. The first authentic
account of the jewels existing in India is given by
Tavernier, who made several journeys to the East, and
who, when speaking of what he saw himself, is trust-
worthy; but when he relates what was told him,
falls into numberless exaggerations. His account of the
gems he saw in his travels through Hindostan and the
East affords great insight into the production and esti-
mation of precious stones in his time.
Some gems were also used for medical purposes pow-
dered, and were supposed sovereign in their effects;
even now immense quantities of seed-pearl are used in
China and the East for various purposes. In a curious
medical work by Antonius Musa Brassarobus, lapis
lazuli is prescribed as a laxative. Camillus Leonardus,
of Pisa, prescribes coral in powder for newly-born chil-
dren. Further on, in the notes at foot of the descrip-
tion of lapis, coral, etc., several of these prescriptions
are transcribed.
The natives of India imagine that when diamond-
32
Ideas of the Ancients
powder is taken into the mouth, it causes the teeth to
fall out, and that it acts as a preservative against light-
ning. Some stones are also supposed to give light in
the dark. The Vedas of the Brahmins speak of a
place lighted by rubies and diamonds, which emit light
like that of the planets.
When chemistry however began to be understood, the
ideas which had been handed down by tradition, and by
the works of ancient authors, were proved erroneous,
and the clouds which hung over the subject were dis-
pelled by the analysis and classification of gems, accord-
ing to their composition, hardness, etc. The old system
of classing all stones of similar colour together was
abandoned, and latterly immense light has been cast
on the subject of the formation of precious stones by
the researches of learned chemists and mineralogists.
But although science has advanced with giant strides,
and our means of knowledge are far more extended than
those of our ancestors, we have still much to learn on
this subject, and perhaps may find that future re-
searches may prove our notions as unsound and our
theories as erroneous as those entertained by our fore-
fathers.


ON THE PRECIOUS STONES MENTIONED
IN THE BIBLE.

A
BRIEF sketch of the knowledge which the
Semitic nations possessed of the pre-
cious stones, may not be out of place
in the present volume. A full and
exhaustive treatment is not within the scope of this
work; nor is it possible, as yet, to offer complete infor-
mation, since Oriental scholars have not sufficiently
occupied themselves with this subject, which might
help to throw light on the state of ancient civilization,
on the intercourse between various nations, and on the
mechanical and artistic knowledge cultivated in the
remote regions of the East.
The very names of the precious stones, if studied
by the aid of those languages which were once spoken
in the vast tracts of country situated between the
D
34
The Precious Stones
Ganges and the Nile, would assist in lifting the veil
which now conceals from our view the intercourse and
connection of the bygone Eastern races. Should the
present remarks have the effect of inducing any scholar
to pursue this inquiry, the result of his investigations
might prove interesting, and perhaps useful.
A small treasury of useful information is disclosed
to us in several parts of the Bible. Precious stones, ac-
cording to this ancient record, were not in the posses-
sion of the majority of the opulent classes; amongst
the contributors of the materials towards the erection
of the Tabernacle, the chiefs of the Twelve Tribes.
alone are mentioned as supplying the "shoham stones,
and the stones to be set" (Exodus xxxv. 27). We
find the most important enumeration of the pre-
cious stones known to the ancient Hebrews in Exodus
xxviii., verses 17 to 20; and the same list is repeated
in that book, chapter xxxix., verses 10 to 13. It de-
serves to be noticed that, with the exception of three
precious stones, the gems worn by the High-Priest on
his breastplate were also to be found among the royal
ornaments worn by the king of Tyre. (See Ezekiel
xxviii. 13.) These stones are enumerated in the ac-
companying Table, Nos. 1-12, with their renderings in
several Semitic languages, in Greek, Latin, etc.
It will be observed in this Table that the Hebrew
terms are variously interpreted in the several ancient
versions, and it would appear that the translators had
in many instances lost the chain of trustworthy tradi-
Mentioned in the Bible.
35
The
tion, and were obliged to resort to conjecture.
copyists of these versions have, moreover, added their
share of errors; the differences between them and the
authorized version are suggestive, and merit investiga-
tion.
On the following pages is given the "Table of
Comparative Translations" alluded to:

ראובן שמעון
ייהורה | זכולן / יששכו
רן
הא
נפתלי אתיופיה כמטען
36
The Precious Stones
TABLE OF COMPARATIVE TRANSLATIONS FROM THE
MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE AS
(The words in small letters are the literal translations of the words in their
Nos.
Hebrew.
Authorized
version.
Vulgate.
Greek.
Chaldean.
Targum or
paraphrase of
Onkelos.
1 Odem
Sardius Sardius
Sardion
Samkan
Red
Red.
2 Pitdah Topaz Topazius
Topazion
Jarkan
3
Green.
Bareketh Carbuncle Smaragdus Smaragdos Barkan
Flashing
4 Nopbek Emerald Carbunculus Anthrax
Brilliant.
Ismaragdan
5 Sappir Sapphire Sapphirus Sapphiros
Emerald.
Shabzez
6 Jahalom Diamond Onychius | Onychion
Sibhalom
7 Leshem Ligure Ligurius
Ligyrion
Kankera
8 Shebo Agate Achates
Achates
Tarkja
Turquoise.
9 Achlamah Amethyst Amethistus Amethistos En Egla
Calf's-eye.
10 Tharshish Beryl
Chrysolithus Chrysolithos Krum Yama
Sca colour.
11 Shoham Onyx
Beryllus
Beryllion Burla
Beryl.
12 Jashpeh Jasper
Jaspis
Jaspis
Panthireh
Panther.
Mentioned in the Bible.
ORIGINAL HEBREW OF THE TWELVE STONES
WORN BY THE HIGH-PRIEST.
respective languages, where the names have any peculiar signification.)
37
Chaldean.
Targum or
paraphrase of
Jonathan
ben Uzziel.
Semuktha
Red.
Jarketha
Green.
Barketha
Jarketha
Chaldean.
Targum Jeru-
Samaritano-
shalmi, or Jeru-
Syriac.
Arabic.
Arabic ver-
salem para-
phrase.
sion.
Samketha
Red.
Sumoko
Red.
Jakuth
Achmar
Achmar
Red.
Sorgo
Green.
Red Hyacinth.
Azphar
Yellow.
Azphar
Yellow.
Brilliant.
Barketha
Brilliant.
Borko
Samurod Achzar
Green.
Esmorad
Kadkedana Zadiro
Cochli
Somurod
Carbuncle.
Emerald.
Sapirinon
Simbulina Saphilo
Maha al-Saha
Sapphire.
Sapphire.
Ballur
Kadkodin
En Egla
Neketho
Bahraman Firusg
Carbuncle.
Calf's-eye.
Kankerinon
Zozin
Konkenun Gasa
Gasg
Onyx.
Tarkin
Birulin
Karkedno
Sebh
Saych
Turquoise.
Beryl.
Carbuncle.
En Egla
Samaragdin En Eglo Firusag
Bahraman
Calf's-eye.
Emerald.
Calf's-eye.
Rabba
Krum Yama
Colour of the
Great Sea.
Beruluth-chala Beroltha
Krum Yama Thorshish
Asrak
Sorak
Sea colour.
Berulo
Ballur
Ballur
Sand beryl
Beryl.
Beryl.
Crystal.
Crystal.
Margniath
apanturin.
Marglitha Jashpeh
Jashaph
Jashm
Gem or pearl.
Jasper.
Jasper.
Jasper.
Panther gem.

rry
THE STONES IN THE BREAST-PLATE OF
THE HIGH-PRIEST.
HE following description of the various
gems mentioned in the Bible is extracted
from the Talmud and several Rabbinical
commentators, and may be interesting as
an evidence of the amount of knowledge of this subject
that was then current :-
I. ODEM.
(Authorized Version, SARDIUS.)
The Hebrew word odem, like the Arabic akik, is
capable of denoting the cornelian, the ruby, or any
other precious stone of red hue. Among the Hebrews
and Arabs, the cornelian was considered an important
prophylactic; the former ascribed to it the virtue of pre-
serving life from the dangers of the plague; the latter
1

Breast-Plate of High-Priest.
39
even now, according to Niebuhr, continue to employ it
as an efficient agent in stopping hæmorrhage. Hebrew
legends state that the blushing ruby became the sym-
bolical representative of Reuben, who brought a blush
upon himself by irreverent conduct to his father.
2. PITDAH.
(Authorized Version, TOPAZ.)
This stone derives its name (topaz) from the island
Topazion, which was supposed to be situated in the
Red Sea. There are two kinds of topazes; the su-
perior is gold-coloured, the other inclines to a greenish
yellow. The second species was called chrysoprase, a
name which indicates the blending of gold and leek
colour. In allusion to the latter colour, this stone is
called in the Chaldean dialect jarkan (green), which
is the equivalent of prase.
3. BAREKETH.
(Authorized Version, CARBUNCLE.)
Bareketh, literally "flashing stone;" this name being
apparently derived from "barak," lightning. Eastern
legends assert that a carbuncle was suspended in the
Ark of Noah to diffuse light. The word bareketh
has been translated by the Greek word "keraunos,”
aerolite-literally, thunder-stone. Some authors state
that it resembles the crystal in transparency, and drops.
from the clouds amidst the flashes of lightning. The
same myth is also applied to the origin of the diamond.
40
The Stones in the Breast-Plate
4. NOPHEK.
(Authorized Version, EMERALD.)
The Hebrew name signifies "carbuncle," or the
stone which shines with the brilliancy of a glowing coal.
This stone belongs to a class which is divided into va-
rious species. The most esteemed are the Indian and
Garamantine carbuncles; the latter term has given
rise to the modern name of garnet: the same gem
was also called the Chalcedonian. The Ethiopian car-
buncles rank very high, and are nearly connected
with the almandine and the essonite. Carbuncles of
superior brilliancy are termed males, those of a duller
description are called females,-a distinction which,
among ancient lapidaries, prevailed in reference to the
majority of precious stones. One author observes, that
the carbuncle at first appears as if smoke were rising
from it, and afterwards, as if burning with a bright
flame, and that the Chalcedonian inclines to blackness,
but when held against fire or the light of the sun, it
surpasses in lustre all other carbuncles; when placed
in a dark room, it presents a rose-colour, but when
exposed to the open daylight, it glows like a burning
coal; when held against the sun, it has the lustre of
a flame.
5. SAPPIR.
(Authorized Version, SAPPHIRE.)
This stone is frequently mentioned in the Bible as
being of great value and exquisite beauty. Legendary
of the High-Priest.
4I
traditions assert that the Tables on which the Ten
Commandments were engraved were made of sap-
phire.
The superstitious assigned to this stone the
virtue of preserving the sight, and invigorating the
frame as well as the soul.
6. JAHALOM.
(Authorized Version, DIAMOND.)
The Hebrew term Jahalom is said to be derived from
the verb "halam," to strike, and is applied to the dia-
mond to describe the superior hardness of this gem,
which can be employed in cutting other precious
stones. For a long time the diamond was only known
to some Eastern kings, and an opinion prevailed that
it could only be found in gold-mines. The fact how-
ever is, that it is discovered in many places yielding
the crystal, to which it bears an affinity. There are six
kinds of diamonds, viz. the Ethiopian, the Indian,
the Arabian, the Macedonian, the Cyprian, and the
Siderite, which resembles polished steel. The last two
kinds are brittle, the others are exceedingly hard;
they resist the ordinary blow of the hammer, and the
heat of the fire. One author mentions the following
ludicrous anecdote :-" A noble lady inherited two dia-
monds, which for many years remained hidden among
her treasures; from time to time these stones gave
birth to indisputable facsimiles and likenesses of them-
selves." He accounts for this strange phenomenon
by stating that the peculiarly pure atmosphere which
42
The Stones in the Breast-Plate
must have surrounded the gems facilitated the forma-
tion of the generated crystals!
7. LESHEM.
(Authorized Version, LIGURE.)
Some authors translate this as turquoise, which, in
ancient times, was considered of inestimable value,
and was imported from the East Indies. An inferior
description, of dark green colour, was found in Spain,
and was sold at a very low price. The following
anecdote, quoted from an old treatise on precious
stones, illustrates the peculiar value which this class of
gems derived from superstition
"One of my relatives possessed a turquoise set in
a gold ring, which he used to wear on his finger as a
superior ornament. It happened that the owner of
this ring was seized with a malady of which he died.
During the whole period in which the wearer enjoyed
his full health, the turquoise was distinguished for
unparelleled beauty and clearness; but scarcely was
he dead, when the stone lost its lustre, and assumed
a faded, withered appearance, as if mourning for its
master. This sudden change in the nature of the
stone made me lose the desire I originally entertained
of purchasing it, which I might have done for a trifling
sum; and so the turquoise passed into other hands.
However, no sooner did it obtain a new owner, when
it regained its former exquisite freshness, and lost all
traces of its temporary defects. I felt greatly vexed
of the High-Priest.
43
that I had lost the chance of procuring such a valuable
and sensitive gem."
8. SHEBO.
(Authorized Version, AGATE.)
The Rabbins translated this word by hyacinth.
The hyacinth and the amethyst are somewhat
alike in colour; the latter approaches more the tint
of the violet, the former is of a paler description, and
inclines to sky-blue. There are three kinds of hya-
cinths; one has the glowing hue of a burning coal:
this kind is of the highest value.
9. ACHLAMAH.
(Authorized Version, AMETHYST.)
Rabbinical authors consider Achlamah to signify onyx,
and they state that it is classified either according to
colour, or according to the place whence it is exported.
In regard to colour, the onyx occurs in five varieties:
the first, which is white, resembles the human nail, for
which reason, in fact, it has received the Greek name
onyx (övvέ, nail); this variety is not marked by any
stripes, whilst the second kind is white striped with
red, the third is white striped with black, the fourth
is all black without stripes, and the fifth, the most va-
luable of all, is black with white stripes. Mediæval
writers have sought to find a Scriptural basis for cur-
rent superstitions, by connecting "achlamah" (onyx)
with the verb "chalam," to dream, and assert that this
44
The Stones in the Breast-Plate
precious stone occasioned to the wearer a multiplicity
of bewildering dreams.
IO. THARSHISH.
(Authorized Version, BERYL.)
The commonly received rendering of "Tharshish
is "chrysolite." Four species of this stone are men-
tioned, which respectively came from Arabia, Ger-
many, India, and Ethiopia. The colour of the Ara-
bian species was not clear and transparent. The
German chrysolite was of whitish hue, bordering on
orange colour, and peculiarly brittle. The Indian
chrysolite had a slight cerulean tinge; in some in-
stances it resembled translucent olive oil, in others it
was a kind of sea-green, intermixed with a reddish
shade. The Ethiopian chrysolite was soft green, and
reflected the sunlight, glistening like a golden star. The
latter two species were most esteemed.
II. SHOHAM.
(Authorized Version, ONYX.)
The Rabbins translate this by "emerald," and assign
to it the third rank among precious stones. They
say that the pleasure derived from looking at the
emerald is due to the refreshing influence exercised
by the green colour, this stone bearing the nearest
resemblance to the luxuriant verdure of the fields
and trees. Engravers and workers in precious stones,
according to these writers, place this stone before them
}

THE EUGENIE
Brilliant 6s Ct
AUSTRIAN YELLOW BRILLIANT
THE SHAH
86 barte
THE HOPE BLUE DIAMOND
47je Carto
THE POLAR STAR
THE SANCY
53½ Car
of the High-Priest.
45
to rest their eyesight upon whilst engraving minute ob-
jects. There are twelve kinds of emeralds, if classed
according to the countries where they are found, viz.
the Siberian, Britannic, Egyptian, Cyprian, Ethiopian,
Armenian, Persian, Athenian, Median, Chalcedonian,
Laconian, and Sicilian.
The first-mentioned variety surpasses the rest in
value, is of greater hardness, and not liable to the pecu-
liar defects which are found in the others; moreover,
this kind is found in the rugged, mountainous tracts
amongst the gold mines, and is excavated by dint of
excessive and painful toil. The griffin is said to build
there its nest, and to be zealously watchful in guard-
ing the treasures of gold and emeralds. Others assert
that this gem originates in copper mines, where ver-
digris is formed. Fine emeralds are of a perfect green,
which seems to flash upon the surrounding objects; in
a good gem, the surface must be perfectly straight and
smooth, so as to cast no darkening shade on any of its
particles.
12. JASHPEH.
(Authorized Version, JASPER.)
It is most probable that this stone became known
through the extensive use which was made of it by
artists for ornamental and commemorative works, such
as cameos, etc. The name of "Jashpeh" (in Greek,
jaspis) must have travelled along with the wide distri-
bution of this stone, which so readily yields to the
46
The Stones in the Breast-Plate
engraver's burine. If it could be ascertained whether
"jashpeh" was first so named by the Semitic nations,
or whether the Grecians were the first to adopt the
name of jaspis, we might be able to decide in what
country this stone was first applied to the purposes of
ornamental art.
According to tradition, the "jashpeh" in the
breastplate represents the name of
of "Benjamin."
The following anecdote, extracted from the Tal-
mud, enables us to form some idea of the value in
which this stone was held in the rabbinical period.
It is related that during the existence of the second
temple, the "jashpeh of Benjamin" was lost. Great
exertions were made to replace it, and at last it was
ascertained that Dama ben Nethinah was in possession
of a fine specimen. The price ultimately paid for it
is stated to have been one hundred denarii (100 gold
denars were in value equal to about £60).
In addition to the twelve stones contained in the
breastplate of the High-Priest, the following names.
occur in various parts of the Bible:-
Kadkod and Ekdoch (Isaiah, liv. 12), both of which
signify the glowing of fire, are, not inappropriately,
translated "carbuncle;" the Alexandrian version of the
Bible renders the former word by "jasper."
Ramoth, mentioned in Ezekiel (xxvii. 16) and Job
(xxviii. 18), is of doubtful meaning, and supposed to
signify "coral.’
of the High-Priest.
47
Gabish, or Elgabish, occurring in the just-mentioned
passage of Job, means in its primary signification
"hail-stone," and hence is applied to the crystal; ac-
cording to the Chaldean paraphrase it denotes "beryl.”
Shamir (diamond). The passage in Ezekiel (iii. 9),
“as an adamant, harder than flint,” etc., confirms the
supposition that shamir means diamond. Tradition as-
serts that the stones which were used in the construc-
tion of the temple of Solomon, were hewn by means of
the "
shamir," as the law of Moses prohibited the use
of iron implements. It must, however, be observed
that, in this instance, the word "shamir" has been in-
terpreted by commentators as relating to a miraculous
worm, which, being placed on the stone, performed
the wonder of cleaving it in those parts which had
been previously marked.


THE DIAMOND.






Crystals of Diamond.

HE diamond is the glorious gem which
surpasses all others in hardness and bril-
liancy. Its specific gravity is about 3.5, its
cleavage very perfect, its refraction sim-
ple;
it is transparent and translucent, combustible, infu-
sible, and unassailable by acids, and is composed of pure
crystallized carbon. It frequently becomes phosphores-
cent on exposure to light; the smaller stones by a much
The Diamond.
49
shorter exposure than the larger. It is found both in
regular crystalline forms and in an amorphous state.
The crystals are principally octahedrons or dodecahe-
drons, the planes of which have frequently the pecu-
liarity of being either concave or convex; sometimes
they are worn by attrition or other causes into hetero-
geneous forms, being nearly round balls, occasionally
transparent, or covered with a thick crust.
The diamond is found of all colours-white, yellow,
orange, red, pink, brown, green, blue, black, and
opalescent. There is a slight difference between the
specific gravity of the Indian, or Oriental diamond, and
the Brazilian, as also between the white and coloured.
The result of numerous experiments is as follows :-
The Specific Gravity of Indian or Golconda Diamond.
White.
Yellow.
3'524
3'556
Brazilian.
White.
3'442
Yellow.
3་520
The Indian diamond is generally found in octahe-
dral, the Brazilian in dodecahedral, crystals.
The diamond is one of those bodies which reflect all
the light falling on their posterior surfaces at an angle
of incidence greater than 24° 13'. The diamond does
not appear to possess the power of polarizing light, al-
though Sir David Brewster gives it as his opinion, that
E
50
The Diamond.
in some instances light was slightly changed in passing
through it, and its power of refraction is enormous,
and its dispersion comparatively small, as a comparison
with that of common glass will show:-
Refraction
The Diamond.
Dispersion
Glass.
2.487
•
0.38
Refraction
Dispersion
1'525
0°32
To these qualities are attributable its extraordinary
brilliancy and play, and it was the observation of these
properties which led Newton to the conclusion that
it was a combustible body, and, later, caused several
scientific men to endeavour to apply it to optical and
microscopical purposes. It was, however, found by Sir
David Brewster, that the inequalities of its structure
caused too much aberration of light to make it service-
able for these purposes.
It is a non-conductor of electricity, and becomes
positively electric by friction; but soon loses its power,
namely, at the expiration of half an hour.
These
The diamond cuts glass with great facility, but not
every stone can be used for that purpose. It is required
to find one whose angles are naturally acute.
stones are called "glaziers,” and fetch £10 the carat.
Although most gems will scratch glass, it is only the
diamond which is capable of cutting it.
The Diamond.
51
The diamond is not acted upon by any acid, but is
a combustible body, becoming entirely consumed when
exposed to a very strong degree of heat (14° Wedg-
wood). Although Newton early surmised the fact of
its combustibility, the first record of its having really
been burnt was in 1694, at the Academy of Florence,
under the dukedom of Cosmo III., by means of power-
ful burning-glasses, when it first split, then emitted
sparks, and at last disappeared, leaving no trace behind.
The Emperor Francis I. exposed diamonds and rubies
together in an assayer's furnace for twenty-four hours,
when the diamonds had disappeared, and the rubies
remained in their normal state. Some French chemists
also burnt a fine diamond in the year 1771; but the
point was still mooted among the learned, whether
diamonds were burnt, became vaporized, or split into
impalpable powder. A French jeweller named Mail-
lard, however, declared that he had frequently exposed
diamonds to heat as intense as that which had consumed
the others without injury, and offered to submit some
to the test. He imbedded them in charcoal dust, and
sealed them hermetically in a clay pipe bowl, when,
after leaving them in the furnace for the same time,
brought them forth uninjured; thus solving the pro-
blem, and clearly proving that the diamond, like other
combustible bodies, only really burns when in connec-
tion with the oxygen of the air. Lavoisier burnt a
diamond in oxygen, and obtained the same result as
arises from the combustion of pure carbon-carbonic
E 2
52
The Diamond.
acid. Another chemist, Clouet, made steel by exposing
iron and diamond together, thus proving its identity
with other carboniferous bodies, and showed that the
diamond burns readily when exposed in the open air,
or in gas, to an intense heat, with a bright red flame,
and gives out sparks during combustion.
As yet, no one has proposed a theory which could
account for the formation of the diamond, nor has
succeeded in discovering the matters which lend a
tinge or colour to the gem. Liebig has given it as
his opinion, that it arises from the presence of un-
crystallized vegetable matter. The black specks and
flaws which so frequently present themselves, would
lead to the supposition that they must arise from
carbon imperfectly crystallized, and analogous to the
amorphous and porous variety, called carbonate, to
which I shall allude hereafter; but this point has never
yet been satisfactorily solved. Many chemists and
mineralogists have declared, that by means of heat
they can expel or improve the natural colour of the
diamond; but experience has shown that this idea is
fallacious, for, although the stone when exposed to
strong heat appears whiter, this arises solely from a
crust being formed on the outside, which impairs the
transparency, and when repolished, the original colour
returns. Red flaws however, which are sometimes
apparent in the rough diamond, do occasionally lose
their colour by exposure to great heat; in other in-
stances, the red flaws become black. A gentleman of
The Diamond.
53.
the name of Barbot is said to have employed for the
last ten years a process which he keeps secret, but
which, it is said, enables him to remove the opaque
crust which covers the diamond in its rough stíte, so
as to show the colour it will have when cut;
lif
this might render the work of the lapidary more easy,
but the fact is much to be doubted
true,
At the great fire in Hamburg, many diamonds were
sold for trifling sums which had remained in the burning
buildings, and, to an unexperienced eye, appeared totally
valueless, but when repolished they regained their
pristine brilliancy, though with a slight loss in weight.
The diamond can be cloven with facility in a direc-
tion parallel with the planes of the octahedron or
dodecahedron, or, to use the lapidaries' expression,
"splits easily with the grain." This quality much
assists the otherwise tedious operation of cutting or
grinding the diamond, particularly where it is desirable
to get rid of flaws. In spite of its hardness, it is capable
of being reduced to powder, and the mistaken idea
which used to prevail, and even now exists, that the
best test of the reality was to put it on an anvil and
strike it with a hammer, when, if genuine, it either
broke the hammer or buried itself in the anvil, has
been the cause of the loss of many fine gems, which
were either crushed or thrown away as valueless.
The diamond is found in Hindostan, Brazil, Suma-
tra, Borneo, the Ural Mountains, and occasionally in
North America; in some instances, in Australia; gene-
54
The Diamond.
rally in octahedral crystals, in quartz conglomerates.
Containing oxides of iron, also in alluvium, in loose
and`imbedded crystals, almost always of small size,
and most frequently in company with grains of gold.
and platinum; ordinarily, in strata of plutonic origin.
In India, in the Deccan, in the river Pennair, in the
Lower Kistna, and "llore, and Pannah, and the river
Sonar; and some in the Bundlecund, at Sumbhulpore,
on the Mahanuddy; also in Malacca, in Borneo, Celebes,
and Java. Numbers of places in India which produced
diamonds in large quantities,-according to the account
of Tavernier, a French jeweller and a trustworthy
authority, who travelled in the East,-have latterly
become so unproductive, that not only the places them-
selves, but the very names are unknown to the present
inhabitants; and India, which used to be the great
source of diamonds, seems to have become gradually
exhausted. In Tavernier's time, the mines of Golconda
employed 60,000 persons, and were once so produc-
tive, that it is recorded by the historian Ferichta, that
the Sultan Mahmoud (A.D. 1177-1206) left in his trea-
sures, after a reign of thirty-two years, more than four
hundred pounds weight of this precious gem. The use
of the diamond used to be one of the regal privileges of
the Hindoo rajahs and sultans, but with the overthrow
of Indian kingdoms and dynasties it became more ge-
nerally worn. The finest diamond which remained in
the possession of the Mahratta of Peshawur was that
called by the East India Company the Nassak, which
The Diamond.
55
they valued at the sum of £30,000; it was however
sold by auction at Messrs. Christy and Manson's rooms
to the Marquis of Westminster, for the sum of £7200,
since which time this fine diamond has been re-cut.
(See description of the Nassac or Nassak diamond.)
It is a curious fact, that in Sumbhulpore the diamond-
washing trade is hereditary in two tribes, whose origin is
unknown, but who appear, from the traces of negro
blood, to be descendants of slaves imported by one of the
conquerors of India for that labour; they are called re-
spectively Thara and Tora, and possess sixteen villages
in free Jnageer, or freehold; they now number about
400 to 500 persons, working in the dry season in the
bed of the Mahanuddy, from Kunderpore to Sinepore.
The largest diamond found there, since the transfer of
this country from the Mahratta to British rule, has been
of eighty-four grains. The quality of the diamonds is
here distinguished by the names of the Hindoo castes.
The first quality is called Brahma, the second Kschetri,
the third Bysch, the fourth Sudras. The weights used
are the mascha and the ruttee; the mascha consists
of seven ruttees, and the ruttee is something less than
2 grains carat weight.
In the Bundlecund, the finest diamonds are called
Motigul; the second quality, greenish, Manek; the
third, yellowish, Pannah; the fourth, brownish, Buns-
put. The origin of the carat weight is from an Arabic
word, “kuara," the name of the seed of a pod-bearing
plant growing on the gold-coast of Africa, which
56
The Diamond.
are almost invariably of an equal weight, and were for-
merly used for weighing against the grains or dust of
gold. This weight was adopted in Hindostan, and has
thence spread all over the world. The Indians call the
diamond "pakha," or ripe, and rock-crystal "kacha,”
or unripe.
The Indian diamond is of a different specific gravity
to the Brazilian, and even when only of equal white-
ness, seems to possess more lustre and brilliancy; from
this and other causes, the old diamonds, which all came
from India, are worth rather more than the new, or
Brazilian.
By far the largest quantity are, however, now im-
ported into Europe from the Brazils. They are found
mostly in alluvial soil in the district of Cerro di Fria,
Minas Geraes, and San Paulo; in the beds of the rivers
Jequitinhonha, Matto-Grosso, Diamantina, and Rio dest
Areios, Santa Anna, San Francisco, Paulo Vehas, San
Francisco di Xavier, Rio Sumedouro, Bahia, and other
places.
The Brazilian miners distinguish the various diamond-
producing soils by the following names:
Grupiara is an alluvial deposit, whose surface shows
it to be the unused bed of a stream or river.
Burgalhao are small angular fragments of rock, be-
strewing the surface of the ground.
Cascalho are fragments of rock and sand mixed up
with clay, and forming the bed of a river.
Takoa Carza are the above materials cemented to-
The Diamond.
57
gether into a conglomerate mass. All the above, how-
ever, are known by the generic name of Cascalho. The
masses of stone themselves, which rarely exceed a cubic
foot in size, contain Itacolumite jasper, and often peri-
dots and garnets. The Itambe, the highest mountain
in the diamond-producing district, giving rise to the
rivers Copay and Jequitinhonha, is about 5598 feet
above the level of the sea, and diamonds are sometimes
found on its highest peaks.
Diamonds were found in the Brazils when searching
for gold, but their true nature was unsuspected, and they
were thrown away or used as counters for card-players.
Bernardo Fonseca Lobo, an inhabitant of the Minas
Geraes, who had seen rough diamonds in a previous
visit to the East Indies, first discovered their true nature
and value. He brought some to Lisbon, and esta-
blished their identity with diamonds. The European
traders, who had never seen or dreamt of any other but
the Indian diamond, and who feared that if an in-
finite number were thrown on the market by this dis-
covery of new mines, their stocks would thus be depre-
ciated, and perhaps become valueless, endeavoured by
every means to discourage their sale, and spread a report
that the so-called Brazilian diamonds were only the
refuse of the Indian mines, exported from Goa to
Brazil, and thence to Europe;* and at first succeeded in
preventing the sale. The Portuguese merchants, how-
* In the work published by David Jeffries, A.D. 1750, he in-
dorses this belief, and endeavours to prove it by several arguments.
58
The Diamond.
ever, turned the tables on them by exporting them
from Brazil to Goa, and then offering them for sale as
Indian diamonds.
On the inhabitants of the diamond-producing dis-
tricts this discovery acted as a curse, for as soon as the
government found the valuable nature of the product,
and of the treasures it had in its grasp, it took forcible
possession of the land, expelled the original inhabitants,
and declared the diamond trade a monopoly, and them-
selves the exclusive proprietors. Nature even seemed to
have a spite against the expatriated exiles; the year
of the discovery the whole district was afflicted with
a dreadful drought, and, to add to the distress and
misery of the unfortunate inhabitants, a fearful earth-
quake took place, in which numbers of them perished;
and it was only on the 13th of May, 1803, that the
sad remnant was reinstated in their rightful property.
It seemed as if the genii, guardians of the treasure,
were indignant at the presumption of man, and tried by
every means to prevent the dispersion of their buried
treasures.
The riches of these places are incalculable; the gold
is abandoned to the slaves as unworthy the attention of
their owners. Children, after the rains, collect the
grains of gold, which lie strewn over their path. The
crops of all fowls killed are carefully examined, and
often found to contain diamonds; and it is recorded
that a negro once found a stone of five carats adhering
to the roots of a cabbage he had plucked for his dinner.
The Diamond.
59
In 1754, a slave, who had been working at the Minas
Geraes, was transferred to the district of Bahia. Sus-
pecting, from the similarity of the soil with that of
the place he had been working, that it contained dia-
monds, he searched and found a considerable quantity.
This news soon became public, and the province was
inundated with emigrants trying to make rapid for-
tunes in the same way as the tide of population flowed
to Australia when the news of the gold discoveries
arrived here.
The production of the Brazilian mines has been
enormous, but has decreased, and is decreasing, every
day; in the first fifty years after their discovery, it is cal-
culated that the astonishing amount of twelve millions
in value was exported. The yield from the Bahia
mines was at first so considerable, as to reduce the
value of the diamond one-half; now, however, the
total produce does not exceed 240,000 carats annually,
the value of which is about £1,000,000. The most
productive district is at the present time the province
of Matto-Grosso, in the vicinity of the town of Dia-
mantina.
A short description of the mode of washing for dia-
monds may not prove uninteresting. When the dry sea-
son, which lasts from April to the middle of October,
has diminished the depth of the different rivers, their
waters are diverted in various places into canals dug
for this purpose, so as to leave the bed of the stream
dry. The soil is then dug out to a depth of ten to
60
The Diamond.
twelve feet, and deposited near the washing-huts. As
long as the dry season lasts, the workmen continue to
dig out the soil, called there by the generic name of
cascalho; and it contains diamonds in so regular a pro-
portion, that the miners are enabled to foretell, with
some degree of certainty, what any given quantity of
cascalho will produce. Sometimes they find holes con-
taining quantities of diamonds and nuggets of gold.
The dry season over, the labour of washing com-
mences, and the digging of the soil perforee terminates,
in consequence of the quantities of water brought down
by the rains. The huts, which are constructed near
the heaps of cascalho, are furnished with long troughs,
called canoes, with elevated seats for the overseers, who
are always present.
of "
The labourers, who are all negroes, take each a mass
diamondiferous" soil, sufficient to fill the trough
(about a hundredweight), and then allow a stream of
water to run in; and continue to stir up the mass with
the hands, until the water runs clear, and all the earthy
particles are washed away. They then examine the
pebbles which remain one by one, and when they find
a diamond, give the signal by clapping their hands
to the overseer, who takes it and puts it in a vessel
filled with water, which hangs in the middle of each hut.
The day's labour over, the weight produced is entered in
a book. Large diamonds, as may be supposed, are of
very rare occurrence. When a slave finds a diamond
of eighteen carats he receives his freedom, and is led,
The Diamond.
61
For
crowned with flowers, to the proprietor in a sort of
triumphal procession, who generally gives him a present
and allows him to work on his own account.
smaller stones proportional rewards are given. In
spite of all precaution, numberless thefts take place;
sometimes the slave, under the very eye of the over-
seer, conceals a stone in his hair, mouth, or ears, some-
times between his fingers or toes; and they have even
been known to throw stones away in the hope of find-
ing them again after night-fall.
When the labour and pains bestowed on this search
is considered, the result appears hardly commensurate
with the toil: the product of the yearly labour of
500 men can be readily carried in the hand.
As pre-
viously stated, the discovery of large diamonds is very
rare. On an average of 10,000 stones, there will not
be one of eighteen carats found. The largest which
has ever been found in the Brazils is the Star of the
South, which, when rough, weighed 254 carats.
When a sufficient quantity has been collected, the
diamonds are sent to Rio Janeiro; and as the distance
is great, and the roads lie through endless primeval
forests, the transit occupies a considerable period. In
Rio, the miner sells his gems to the merchant, who
ships them to Europe, or holds them, as the price and
demand may induce him to act.
Diamonds are also found in Borneo, in the mountain-
chain which borders the great river Banger, massing in
the district of Jannah-Laut. Here, as in other places,

62
Car'onate, or Diamond Carbon.
they are accompanied by grains of gold. These mines
employ some 400 persons, and the search is conducted
in much the same manner as in other places.
Diamonds are also found in Sumatra, Java, and in
the Ural Mountains.
Crystals of diamond have been found in Australia,
but as yet of too isolated occurrence to warrant Australia
being classed as a diamond-producing country.
When parcels of rough diamonds arrive here, they
are sorted by an experienced person, and the various qua-
lities separated. The stones that have a natural point,
and which can be used for cutting glass, are first se-
lected, and the badly-shaped and defective pieces are
sent to be manufactured into roses; the worst quality,
called "boart "—granular and imperfectly crystallized,
and not infrequently worn by attrition into spherical
globules, being quite unfit for cutting-is crushed into
powder and used for cutting and polishing other dia-
monds, rubies, etc., and for engraving on hard stones,
or other purposes. The "boart" is worth from 225. to
30s. per carat.
CARBONATE, OR DIAMOND CARBON.
The substance called carbonate is found in the pro-
vince of Bahia, and occurs, according to all accounts,
in sandstone of very old formation, apparently of the
same era as the gneiss and syenite rocks of Norway
and Greenland. Its hardness is identical with the
diamond, and its specific gravity 3'012 to 3'416; some
Diamond Cutting and Polishing.
63
specimens show an imperfect crystalline structure of a
brownish-green opaque colour, others of a granular
structure, porous enough to resemble pumice-stone,
dense, very massive, and found sometimes in lumps as
large as a walnut. It is extremely hard, in some
cases, taking a polish equal to diamond, and appears to
be carbon imperfectly crystallized; when burnt it leaves
a residue of clay and some other substances. It is used
in commerce in the form of powder to cut and polish
diamonds and other gems, and is worth a few shillings
per carat, according to the demand. Large quantities
are exported to Switzerland for polishing rubies used.
in jewelling watches. It is said that specimens of this
substance have lately been discovered in Mexico.
When carbonate was first discovered, it might have
been purchased for a mere trifle; but now, as stated
above, it commands a large price, which continues to
increase with the demand.
This substance would appear to be the connecting
link between uncrystallized carbon and the diamond,
and a scientific examination of it might lead to impor-
tant results.
DIAMOND CUTTING AND POLISHING.
The transcendent brilliancy of the diamond, its trans-
parency and its refraction, are displayed very meagrely
in rough stones. In order to render them susceptible
of employment as personal ornaments, they must un-
dergo the processes of cutting and polishing, which bring
64
Diamond Cutting and Polishing.
out the latent beauty in its true light; and, in fact, on
the regularity of the facets and the perfect polish de-
pends the value of the stone, nearly as much as on the
original material; for, although no art can render a
yellow brilliant white, still the purest stone, cut by un-
skilful hands, remains a dull mass, without life or lustre.
It is generally supposed that Louis van Berghem, or
Berguem, was the first discoverer of the art of cutting
and polishing diamonds by their own powder, in 1456;
but this must be somewhat inaccurate, as already in
1373 the Emperor Charles had the clasp of his cloak
ornamented with diamonds; and in church ornaments
of even earlier date, were set diamonds with a table and
four ground edges, and with the lower part cut as a
four-sided pyramid.
In the inventory of the effects of the Duke of Anjou,
made between the years 1360 and 1368, there is men-
tioned a diamond cut into the form of a shield. As yet,
however, the mode of cutting was rude, and added
scarcely at all to the lustre of the diamond, causing it
to be ranked as less in value than many other gems.
In 1407, the art had made sensible progress under the
direction of a clever artificer named Herman; and al-
though the stones were still imperfectly cut, yet they
must have had some lustre, as we find, that at an enter-
tainment given to the King of France by the Duke of
Burgundy, in 1410, the Duke of Burgundy gave away
ten diamonds, which were valued at four hundred gold
crowns, a considerable sum in those days.

THE PIGOTT DIAMOND
82 Cart
NASSAC DIAMOND
894 Carto
THE CUMBERLAND
DIAMOND
THE MATTAM DIAM
367 Cart
DRESDEN GREEN
BRILLIANT
THE FLORENTINE BRILLIANT SIDE VIEW 139%2CTS
Diamond Cutting and Polishing.
65
In 1456, Louis van Berghem, who had studied in
Paris, discovered the art of cutting the diamond into
regular facets; this discovery made so complete a revo-
lution in the trade, that he was regarded as the parent
of the art of diamond cutting, and he established in
Bruges a guild of diamond cutters. In the year 1475
he made the first trial of his improved mode of cutting
upon three large rough stones which were confided to
his care by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The
largest was the stone known as the Sancy, which was
lost in the disastrous fight of Granson; the second
came into the possession of Pope Sixtus IV.; and the
third, which was cut in the form of a triangle, was set in
a ring, and was given to the faithless Louis XI. Robert
van Berghem relates that his grandfather Louis received
3000 ducats for cutting these three stones. The pupils
of Berghem established themselves in Antwerp and
Amsterdam, leaving Bruges on account of the intole-
rance of the priests. Cardinal Mazarin patronized this
industry greatly; he caused the diamonds in the French
crown to be re-cut, and they obtained thence the name
of the twelve Mazarins.
In the inventory of the French Crown jewels in
1774, the number 349 is described as the tenth Mazarin;
it is not known what has become of the rest.
The powerful protection of the Cardinal, and his
example, caused a taste for these jewels to pervade all
classes; and it is recorded that at this period Paris
possessed seventy-five diamond cutters, who were well
F
66
Diamond Cutting and Polishing.
employed. Later, however, the trade declined, and
from this date it seems gradually to have taken firm root
in Amsterdam, where it still continues one of the prin-
cipal branches of industry, and more than fifteen-six-
teenths of the diamonds found are now cut there.
The so-called double cutting, "Brillants recoupés,"
was introduced by Vincenti Peruggi, or Peruzzi, at
Venice, about the end of the seventeenth century. In
England there used to be several cutters, who were re-
nowned for the excellence and perfection of their work,
and whose diamonds, still called old English, fetch a
much larger price than any others. As in everything
else, however, the reduction of the price of labour pro-
duced a corresponding falling off in the quality of work-
manship. This trade in England is now nearly extinct.
In India, where numbers of diamonds are still cut,
the work is rough and defective, as the natives, with
the mistaken idea of enhancing the value of their
gems, leave them as heavy in weight as possible;
often preserving the natural shape of the stone, and
disregarding one of the first rules of diamond cutting,
that over- as well as under-weight detracts from the
value of the stone; and ignoring the fact, that a dia-
mond weighing, for example, seven carats, with only the
spread of five carats, is worth only the price of a five-
carat stone.
Of late years, the lapidaries have adopted a very in-
judicious method of cutting, leaving the stone, from the
girdle to the culet, round, instead of angular, thus de-
Diamond Cutting.
67
tracting from the play of the diamond; and, although
increasing the weight of the polished stone obtain-
able from a given quantity of rough material, producing
an inferior lustre and brilliancy; added to which, the
edges of the stones, which should be sharp as a knife-
blade, are left blunt and often quite rough, which
causes a greyish appearance and detracts from the so-
called "play" of the stone.
In Amsterdam this branch of industry occupies se-
veral thousand persons, mostly of the Jewish religion.
The largest mills there are those of Mr. Coster, em-
ploying from 500 to 600 workmen. To this firm was
entrusted the cutting of the Koh-i-Noor, after the
Exhibition of 1851, and, later, the stone called the Star
of the South.
Diamond Cutting.
By the operation of cutting, the natural crust of the
diamond is removed, and the stone is formed into the
shape required. In order to cut a diamond, two stones
are employed, which are fastened into two sticks, the
tops being filled with cement, into which each dia-
mond is inserted, leaving exposed the part to be cut.
The workman, who has leathern gloves on his hands,
as well as a leathern stall on the right thumb, takes a
stick in each hand, and leaning them against two up-
right pieces of iron, fastened on the edge of the
cutting-bench, rubs the two diamonds together until
he has produced a flat even surface (which is a facet),
F 2
68
Diamond Polishing
instead of the concave or convex form of the natural
stone. The dust or diamond powder which falls is re-
ceived in a square box, containing oil, and the powder
is burnt before being used, to free it from the particles of
cement that become mixed with it. By this means two
facets are cut on two different stones at the same time.
During the cutting, the workman examines the facets
by means of moistening the stone with the tongue,
first taking care to remove any powder with a camel's-
hair pencil. When the facet is formed, the cement is
heated, and the diamond taken out, and replaced so as
to expose a different surface until the cutting is com-
pleted. It must be understood that by this opera-
tion only the general outline of the form is made. A
stone which would have when quite completed fifty-
eight facets, including the table and culet, receives in
cutting only eighteen, eight of which are the surfaces
of an octahedron or double pyramid, and are formed
by the taking away eight edges or angles of these
eight surfaces, one for the whole table, and one for the
culet.
Diamond Polishing.
By the next process the diamond is not only polished,
This is done
but the remaining facets are formed.
by means of diamond powder, on a steel disk, called
“skaif,” which is made to revolve at a very high degree
of velocity, by means of steam- or horse-power. These
wheels, or "skaifs," are prepared in the following man-
Diamond Polishing.
69
ner: The surface of the metal is rubbed with an ordi-
nary wheṭsione, in such a direction as to form tangents
of a circle, whose diameter is about a third of that of
the "skaif." By this means the whole surface becomes
covered with deep indentations, or scratches. Then a
fine hone or Turkey stone is rubbed over again in the
direction of the diameter, until the former marks are
nearly obliterated; and by the crossing of the scratches
a kind of soft grain is formed, which makes the metal
fit to receive and retain the diamond powder, which is
then spread on the skaif with olive oil, and the flat
surface of a finished diamond held against it whilst
in motion; by these means the powder is forced into
the wheel.
The diamond to be polished is then inserted into a
stick having a handle made of brass, with a hollow
top filled with solder, into which the diamond is
pressed whilst melting, and then allowed to cool; the
diamond is thus fixed in its proper position. Of course,
when one facet of the stone is polished, the solder must
be melted, and the stone removed and replaced in an-
other position.
This process completes at the same time the required
shape of the diamond, and gives the necessary polish
when the stone is ready for use. The work, as may be
supposed, demands the greatest nicety: the least inat-
tention or irregularity may spoil the stone; and when
the minuteness of the facets required on a stone, some
of which are so small that a thousand only weigh one
70
Diamond Crushing.
carat, is considered, it will be readily understood that
this process demands workmen skilled in a high degree.
The stones which, from their formation, are not
adapted for the double cutting, as well as the splinters
from other diamonds, are made into single cut,—a
description of which is given hereafter. The rest are
cut into brilliants or roses, of which the finest are sorted
out for this country, the second quality sent to the Paris
market, and the inferior descriptions to South America,
Poland, Turkey, etc.
The best and most experienced judges are however
unable to determine with certainty what any stone will
be when polished, as, in the process of cutting, flaws
and imperfections are often laid bare, which go much.
deeper than the appearance of the rough diamond
would predict; and, on the other hand, the colour, ap-
parent in the rough stone, is sometimes found to arise
from the presence of flaws or specks, which are re-
moved in cutting, thus leaving the stone white.
Diamond Crushing.
In order to reduce the boart to powder, it is placed
in a steel crushing-mortar, fitted with an air-tight
pestle; this, when struck violently with a hammer,
reduces the stone into splinters; it is then put into a
hardened steel mortar, with a little olive oil, to prevent
the powder from flying about. The pestle, also a
piece of hardened steel, is placed on it, and it is struck
Diamond Splitting.
7 £
by a hammer, at the same time moving the pestle about
until the whole of the fragments are completely crushed
into an impalpable powder, which, as well as the powder
rubbed off in the cutting process previously described, is
(when burnt to remove the oil) of a grey colour, and
is worth from 16s. to 18s. per carat.
Diamond Splitting.
The splitting or cleavage of diamonds has a double
purpose,—namely, the removal of defective parts, fis-
sures, or specks in the stone, and the formation of
facets in the rough. This operation is only applied to
a diamond when its natural form does not admit of its
being cut in the regular way without a great expen-
diture of time and labour. Stones of a rhombic do-
decahedral form are nearly round, and the cutting is
immensely shortened by splitting the facets from the
rough; sometimes "usable" pieces are split off.
The workman must have an exact knowledge of the
structure and cleavage of the diamond, and as the
form of the brilliant corresponds nearly with that of
the octahedron or dodecahedron, the natural direction
of cleavage much assists the lapidary. In order to
split a diamond it is fastened into a stick, the top
of which contains cement, and the part required to
be split off is left uncovered; to avoid missing the
proper plane of cleavage, a line is scratched on the
surface with another diamond, to mark the exact
72
Forms of Diamonds.
place. To make this line, three diamonds are used
successively: the first a complete crystal, which marks
out the direction; then a sharp splinter, to deepen the
impression, and lastly a very fine splinter, to make a
very deep mark. The cement-stick is placed upright
in a piece of lead fastened to the workman's bench,
a very fine knife is then inserted in the mark made, and
the stone is split by a smart blow from the hammer.
There are some stones difficult to be split, and which
are sawn with fine iron-wires fitted in a saw-bow, and
anointed with diamond powder and olive oil. The
same is sometimes done with large stones, on which the
risk of splitting is too great to be incurred, or where
the natural cleavage direction would reduce the size
too much.
NAMES OF DIFFERENT FORMS INTO WHICH
DIAMONDS ARE CUT.


TABLE

BEZIL
Girdle
PAVILION
Side View of
Rough Diamond.
Culet.
Side View of Dia-
mond Partially Cut.
Side View of Double-
Cut Diamond.
The woodcut annexed shows, first, a side view of a
diamond in its natural state; next, when its upper and
lower facets, which are called respectively the table.
and the culet, are made, the broadest part or edge of

DROP SHAP
NINE SOUTH
STAR OF THE SOUT
The Double-Cut Brilliant.
73
the stone being the girdle. The space from the upper
part or table to the girdle is called the bezil or bizil;
that from the girdle to the lower part, the pavilion.
The facets on the bezil touching the table and form-
ing triangles, are called star-facets; those touching the
girdle are called skill-facets; and the lozenge-shaped
facets touching both table and girdle, are formed by the
meeting of the star and skill facets. The triangular
facets touching the girdle of the under part are the
under skill-facets; the culet is square or octagonal.
Front View of Double-Cut Brilliant.
Back View of Double-Cut Brilliant.


9
d
dō
h/b
g
9
h
h g
Ꮒ
h
t. The Table.
g. The Girdle.
b. The Star Facets.
d. The Pavilions.
c. The Skill Facets.
o. The Culet.
Ꮽ
h. The Lower Sides.
f. The Under-Skill Facets.
The double-cut brilliant is the most common form
at the present day. The general form of the rough
diamond is of two pyramids joined at the base: if a
diamond is not naturally of this form, it must be made
so by art and in order to produce the table, there
must be taken away from the upper pyramid five-
eighteenths, and from the lower one-eighteenth of the
total thickness. The upper or flat part is called
the table, and from thence to the girdle or centre
1
74
The Single-Cut Brilliant.
edge, and broadest part of the stone, are facets, called
star-facets; from the girdle to the lower or pointed
part, called the culet, and which is nearly pointed,
are facets, called skill-facets. These facets meet in
the middle of each side of the table and girdle, and
also at the corners, forming regular lozenges on the
four upper sides or corners of the stone. The tri-
angular facets, on the under side from the culet to
the girdle, must be half as deep again as the upper or
star facets. The thickness of the stone should be in
this proportion,—from the table to the girdle one-third,
and from the girdle to the culet two-thirds of the total
thickness; the diameter of the table four-ninths of that
of the girdle, the culet one-fifth of the table. The
girdle of the stone should be of the same dimensions
as the thickness or depth. A stone, if well cut, should
have a very thin edge at the girdle; and any overweight
or substance retained to make a diamond heavier, only
detracts from its play or beauty.

Front View.
Side View.
Single-Cut Diamond.
The Single-Cut Brilliant.
In this form of cutting the table is square and there
are sixteen triangular facets touching it on the girdle;
The Table Diamond.
75
the under part has (touching the girdle) twelve triangular
facets, and underneath them eight long facets, making
altogether thirty-eight facets. This is the old form of
cutting.

Old English Single-Cut.
The old English single-cut, also called star single-cut,
has, however, the table cut in the form of a star, like
the above illustration.

Table Diamond.
Front View.
Table Diamond.
Side View,
The Table Diamond.
This form, which is occasionally seen on diamonds
dismounted from old ornaments and stones coming from
India, consists simply of a table, a culet, and eight or
sometimes sixteen facets.
The Rose Diamond.
This mode of cutting differs from that of the bril-
liant, in that, instead of a pointed culet, the under part
of the rose is quite flat, and the upper terminates in a
76
The Rose Diamond.
point. The work on the stone consists of triangles,
whose apices meet at the point or crown of the rose,
and which are called the star-facets. The bases of these


Rose Diamond.
Front View.
Rose Diamond.
Side View.
touch another row of triangles reversed, so as together
to form lozenges; and the apices of these under tri-
angles touch the girdle of the stone, leaving spaces
which are each cut into two facets. To be well pro-
portioned, the depth of the stone must be half the
diameter of its under side; the diameter of the crown,
three-fifths of the diameter of the base; and the per-
pendicular, from the base to the crown, three-fifths of
the depth of the stone.
The round form is the most adapted for this mode
of cutting, as this shape is much easier to cut well, and
when skilfully treated has a great deal of fire. Roses
are frequently cut drop-shaped, oval, and, indeed, any
form of which the rough piece admits, care always
being taken that the least waste of material is effected.
The rose diamond is frequently cut with many less
facets, particularly those called Antwerp roses; but
The Brilliolette, or Briolet.
77
these are much less brilliant, and are only used for the
commoner kind of work.
Rose diamonds have been unfashionable for a long
time, being superseded by the brilliant form; lately,
however, many persons have been purchasing and wear-
ing rose diamonds, as the same amount of display is
thereby secured at less than half the cost of the brilliant.
The Brilliolette, or Briolet.
In this mode of cutting, the diamond is formed exactly
like two rose diamonds, joined together at the base ; this
is a very beautiful form, particularly for pendeloques;
but these stones are very rarely met with.

друг
SOME ACCOUNT OF LARGE DIAMONDS.
THE BRAGANZA.

HE Braganza forms part of the Portuguese
crown jewels. It was found in 1741, in
Brazil; its weight is 1880 carats, but
great doubts exist of its being a dia-
mond. Indeed, many persons imagine it to be a white
topaz; but, as the Portuguese government will not
suffer it to be examined, it is difficult to ascertain any
facts regarding it.
THE MATTAM DIAMOND.
This diamond belongs to the Rajah of Mattam, in
Borneo. It is of pure water, weighs 367 carats, and
is of a pear-shaped form, indented at the thick end.
It was found about the year 1760 at Landak, in
Borneo, and has been the cause of a sanguinary war.
The Koh-i-Noor.
79
It still, however, remains in the possession of the
Rajah of Mattam. The Dutch governor of Batavia
offered two gunboats, with stores and ammunition com-
plete, and £50,000 for it; but the offer was refused,
the rajah replying, that on its possession depended the
fortunes of his family.
THE KOH-I-NOOR.
The history of this gem has been so often told, that
it would be superfluous to give any lengthened notice
of it. The Hindoo accounts deduce it from the time
of the god Krischna. We know, however, for a cer-
tainty, that it was in the treasury of Delhi, and was
taken at the conquest of that city by Ala-ed-Din.
Thence it came into the possession of the Sultan
Baber, of the Mogul dynasty, in 1526. This prince
esteemed it at the sum of the daily maintenance of the
whole world. The jewel was seen by Tavernier
among the jewels of Aurengzebe; it had however been
reduced by the unskilfulness of Hortensio Borgio from
793 carats to 186 carats, the weight it possessed at the
Exhibition of 1851. The Emperor Aurengzebe was
so incensed, that he refused to pay Borgio the sum
agreed on for the cutting, confiscated the whole of his
possessions, and with great difficulty was persuaded to
leave him his head.
Nadir Shah, the conqueror of India, obtained by
means of an artful trick, possession of this stone, and
from the hands of his descendants it passed into the
80
Account of Large Diamonds.
possession of Achmed Shah. His son, Shah Sujah,
was in turn forced to deliver it into the hands of Run-
jeet Singh. After the capture of Lahore, at the time
of the Sikh mutiny, it fell into the hands of the Bri-
tish troops, who presented it to Her Majesty Queen
Victoria, on the 3rd June, 1850.
This brilliant was shown at the Exhibition of 1851;
it then had an irregular form, with several hollows in
its sides and base, and showed clear traces of natural
cleavage planes. There were also several fissures, or
cavities, in its surface. It was shown to several of the
first scientific men of the day, Sir David Brewster among
the number, who were of opinion that the stone pre-
sented great difficulties in the way of cutting. After
much consideration, it was entrusted to Mr. Coster, of
Amsterdam, who expressed himself confident as to the
result of re-cutting; and the event proved the correct-
ness of his judgment, for the stone, although of less
weight than before, possesses nearly the same size, and,
instead of being a lustreless mass, scarcely better than
rock-crystal, it has become a brilliant, matchless for
purity and fire.
1 6
This diamond now weighs 106 carats, and forms
part of the crown jewels of England.
THE CUMBERLAND DIAMOND.
The sum of £10,000 was paid for this stone by the
City of London, who presented it to the Duke of
Cumberland after the battle of Culloden. It was one

THE KOH-I-NOOR
Lido view
THE KOH-I-NOOR
recut by Coster
1027½ Carto
Front view
THE KOHINOOR
Back view
THE KOH-I-NOOR BEFORE RECUTTING
186 Gar
THE RECENT Side view.
THE REGENT OR PITT DIAMOND 136 CTS
The Regent or Pitt Diamond.
81
of the stones claimed by the crown of Hanover, and
recently has been restored by Her Majesty Queen
Victoria.
THE ORLOFF DIAMOND.
This diamond is set in the sceptre of the Czars of
Russia. It weighs 1944 carats; like the Koh-i-Noor, it
has the underside flat, and is rose-cut.
This diamond is supposed to have formed one of the
eyes of an idol in a Brahmin temple. It is also said to
have been set in the famous peacock-throne of Nadir
Shah. Be its origin what it may, it is certain that it
was stolen by a Frenchman, who sold it in Malabar for
£2800. It was purchased by the Armenian Schaffras,
who sold it to the Empress Catherine II., in the year
1774, for 450,000 roubles, a pension of 20,000 roubles,
and a patent of nobility. It is now placed in the Rus-
sian Imperial sceptre.
THE POLAR STAR.
Remarkable purity and brilliancy are the characteris-
tics of this diamond, preserved among the Russian Crown
jewels. It was purchased by the Emperor Paul I. for
an immense sum.
THE SHAH.
Cosroes, the son of Abbas Mirza, presented this
diamond to the Emperor of Russia. It weighs eighty-
six carats, and is perfectly pure and free from blemish.
G
82
Account of Large Diamonds.
It is engraved with a Persian inscription, and has a
groove cut into its edge.
THE REGENT OR PITT DIAMOND.
This jewel forms part of the French crown jewels.
Its weight is 1363. It was bought by the Duke of
Orleans, then Regent of France, of Pitt, the Governor
of Fort St. George, in the year 1717, for £135,000.
When rough, the stone weighed 410 carats, and the
cutting cost £2000. Pitt had purchased this stone in
Golconda, of Jamelchund, a Hindoo merchant, as he
informs us in a pamphlet published to clear himself
from the reports made about his having stolen it. Pope
mentions it :-
"Asleep and naked as the Indian lay,
An honest factor stole the gem away.”
The Man of Ross.
This diamond was stolen from the Garde Meuble, in
1792, but was restored in a mysterious manner. Its
cutting cost £3500, and occupied two years. The Em-
peror Napoleon I. wore it in the pommel of his sword.
It was shown at the French Exhibition of 1855.
THE EUGÉNIE BRILLIANT.
The Empress Eugénie possesses a perfect brilliant of
fifty-one carats, of an oval shape, blunt at one end, very
beautifully cut. It was purchased some years ago, by
the Emperor Napoleon III.
The Florentine and Sancy Diamonds. 83
THE FLORENTINE BRILLIANT.
This brilliant belongs to the Emperor of Austria. It
weighs 139 carats; it is of a yellowish colour, is rather
thick, and is covered with facets like a rose diamond,
being pointed both at top and bottom. The stone is sup-
posed to be one of those lost at the battle of Granson,
by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. It was found
by a Swiss soldier, who sold it to a priest for one florin.
It was then sold by a Genoese merchant to Ludovic
Sforza, Duke of Milan, and afterwards came into the
possession of Pope Julius II., who gave it to the then
Emperor of Austria.
THE SANCY.
This diamond is of an almond shape, and weighs 53
carats. The stone was found on the body of the Duke
of Burgundy, and was afterwards, in 1479, bought by
the King of Portugal. In 1489, he sold it to Nicolas de
Barly, Baron de Sancy, from whom it derives its name.
Sancy sent it to the King as a present, by the hand of a
servant, who being attacked by robbers, swallowed the
stone, and after his death the stone was found in his
body. It finally came into the hands of James II. of
England, who sold it to Louis XIV., for £25,000. In
the French Revolution it disappeared, along with the
renowned blue diamond-which, strange to say, has
never reappeared. Some years later the Sancy was bought
by Napoleon I., who sold it to Prince Paul Demidoff.
G 2
84
Account of Large Diamonds.
THE PASHA OF EGYPT.
As its name denotes, this brilliant belongs or did be-
long to Ibrahim Pasha. It weighs forty carats; is of octa-
gonal form, and is brilliant cut; it is of very good quality
and lively.
THE NASSAK, OR NASSAC, DIAMOND.
This diamond weighs 78%, and before its recutting by
order of the proprietor, the Marquis of Westminster,
weighed 89 carats. It is of triangular form, with
rounded facets, and was sold to Rundell and Bridge, in
1818, by the East India Company. Originally it was
taken by the Marquis of Hastings at the conquest of the
Deccan. When Messrs. Rundell and Bridge retired
from business it was sold by auction.
THE PIGGOTT DIAMOND.
Late in the last century this diamond was sold by
lottery for the sum of £30,000; it was subsequently
bought by Rundell and Bridge for £6000. The weight
is 82 carats. It was afterwards sold to the Pasha of
Egypt for £30,000. The present possessor is not
known.
THE HOPE DIAMOND.
This brilliant, formerly the property of the late Mr.
Hope, is of a most brilliant sapphire-blue colour, and is
unique of its kind. It weighs 44 carats, is of an oval
Mr. Dresden's Diamond.
85
form, and is a well-cut and good-proportioned stone.
Since the disappearance of the French blue diamond,
it is the most beautiful and important blue diamond in
existence. At the Exhibition of 1851, it was univer-
sally admired.
carats.
THE STAR OF THE SOUTH.
This brilliant was found in 1853 at Bogagem, in the
province of Minas Geraes, by a negro. When rough,
it weighed 254 carats, but since the cutting only 125
It is of an oval form, and was cut by, and is
the property of Mr. Coster, of Amsterdam. The fire
is considerable, and although not perfectly white and
pure, it is one of the finest large diamonds extant.
the Exhibition of 1862, it was exhibited in the Dutch
department.
OTHER LARGE DIAMONDS.
At
One of the finest large diamonds at present in the
market, is a drop-shaped diamond, in the possession of
Mr. Dresden, a City merchant; it is perfectly pure, free
from defects, and has extraordinary play and brilliancy,
indeed the quality of the stone is superior to the Koh-i-
noor; the weight is 76 carats. It was lately found in
the Brazils.
Besides those specified here, there exist several very
large diamonds amongst the treasures of various coun-
tries. In the Russian treasury is a brilliant red diamond
of 10 carats, bought by Paul I. for 100,000 roubles.
86
Value of Diamonds.
In the "Grüne Gewölbe," at Dresden, is a green dia-
mond, of 48 carats, and of the most remarkable
beauty, which belonged to Augustus the Strong.
The crown of Portugal possesses one of 138 carats,
which was found in the river Abaïte, in Brazil, by three
convicts. The Brazilian government also possesses some
very large and curious stones. The Grand Duke of
Tuscany has one of a most beautiful blue, faceted all
over. The Sultan of Turkey has two, one of 84, one
of 147 carats in weight. In the interior of India, Pegu,
and China, there are said to exist some very large dia-
monds, but we have as yet no authentic particulars
of them.
ON THE VALUE OF DIAMONDS.
The diamond occupies the highest rank amongst
precious stones, and possesses an intrinsic value in
almost every part of the globe. The discrimination of
the various qualities, colours, etc., which exercise an
immense influence over its value, is however difficult,
and requires a long experience; but it is easy for the
most inexperienced to ascertain whether a diamond be
perfect or not, so that the undermentioned particulars,
and a comparison with the Table of Value and plate of
Sizes, will enable such persons to arrive at the value of any
particular stone if it be white and free from defect,
although it will not enable them to value inferior or
defective gems.
The value of the rough diamond is calculated at half
Value of Diamonds.
87
its weight, as it is supposed to lose fifty per cent. in
cutting and polishing; and the price of cutting may be
estimated at about 15s. per carat. The value depends
on the colour, size, and form of crystals, and for stones
under two carats in weight ranges from £2 Ios. to
£5 per carat. Great caution must be exercised in pur-
chasing rough diamonds, as parcels frequently contain
colourless spinels, which have a similar form, pieces of
quartz, topaz, etc.
For the valuation of polished diamonds, the only
Tables used in the trade are those made by Jeffries,
1750, which are based on the assumption that a dia-
mond increases in value in proportion to its weight,
in the ratio to the square of its weight, that is to say,
supposing the value of a one-carat stone be £8, one
of two carats will be worth 2 × 2 × 8=£32; and he
continues the same mode of calculation up to stones
of 100 carats. Possibly these Tables may have been
correct in his time, but from various causes the price
of diamonds has enormously increased during the
last twenty years on all stones below five carats in
weight, although not so in the larger sizes, or at all
events in anything like the same proportion. Diamonds
follow the same laws which govern the value of every
other commodity-those of supply and demand-and as
the production of these gems has diminished, and the
number of wearers greatly increased, the price has gone
on augmenting, and no doubt will continue to augment,
unless some unforeseen occurrence, such as the disco-
88
Value of Diamonds.
very of a new diamond mine, or other source of large
production, takes place.
The number of persons able and willing to invest the
sum of money required for the purchase of large stones.
has not increased in anything like the same proportion,
and therefore their value has not advanced in the same
ratio as the smaller sizes. It is impossible to lay down
any rule by which to calculate the value according to any
arbitrary connection with the weight; as any particular
size is in demand or not, so does that size augment in price
or diminish; for instance, at the present moment a per-
fect one-carat stone is worth £18, but a five-carat stone
is not worth £450, which is the value it would have
according to Jeffries, but £320, and so on.
It is, therefore, a matter of infinite difficulty to fix a
price which shall be a reliable one both to buyer and
seller, and the prices given in the Table accompanying
this book are the market prices of the present day, sub-
ject, however, to the same changes as other articles,
although, from the scarcity of the rough material, and
increasing demand, they seem likely still further to rise.
For a diamond to be worth the price fixed against it
in my table, it must possess the following qualifica-
tions:-
1. It must be perfectly free from the faintest tinge of
colour of any sort; from any flaws, specks, marks, or
fissures in any part; must be bright and lively, and free
from what is technically called ' milk' or 'salt,' which are
semi-opaque imperfections in the body of the stone. In
#
Value of Diamonds.
89
order to ascertain this, it is sufficient to breathe on the
stone, when any defect or colour will be apparent. It
is necessary to look at a stone on all sides, as a defect
may exist which is not visible in looking at the table.
2. The stone must be well proportioned and properly
cut, and be of the size shown in the annexed plate.
The culet must be one-sixth of the size of the table,
from the table to the girdle must be one-third, and
from the girdle to the culet two-thirds of the whole
thickness of the stone. The size of the table should be
four-ninths of the extreme size of the stone; any dia-
mond having its substance otherwise divided, is badly
proportioned, and therefore worth less than a properly
proportioned stone.
The value of stones above five carats is not attempted
to be given, as it is impossible to fix it with any accuracy,
this depending entirely on the demand for any particular
size, and the supply in the market. With regard to
very large stones, their price is always a matter of nego-
tiation, independent of any market rates, and in a great
measure depending on the necessity of the seller, and
the desire of the buyer.
When a diamond has a very decided colour, such as
blue, red, green, &c., it is called a fancy stone, and will
bring a most exorbitant price. A stone of five grains,
of a brilliant emerald-green, for which if white not
more than £28 could be obtained, has been known to
sell for £320; and the price could readily be obtained
again, did the possessor wish to part with it.
90
Value of Diamonds.
The terms, FIRST WATER, SECOND WATER, etc., mean
only first and second quality. Diamonds when perfect.
should be clear as a drop of the purest water; and they
are described as second or third water when more or
less clear, until decidedly yellow or brown, when they
are termed coloured. The value of coloured brilliants
under one carat, is from £4 to 7 per carat, depend-
ing on the degree of tinge; but, as it requires the judg-
ment of a practised eye to estimate the difference of the
shade, and consequently of value, it would be useless to
give any closer valuation.
The value of stones of the first quality, of a less
weight than two grains, is £10 to £10. 10s. per carat,
the second quality £8. 15s. per carat, the third £7. 10s.
per carat.
The plates of sizes given in this work are drawn ac-
cording to the rules laid down. Unfortunately; the dia-
mond cutters of the present day turn their attention more
to the production of the greatest weight from a given
quantity of rough diamond, than to the production of per-
fectly-proportioned stones, for which reason we often
meet with stones weighing three carats whose proper
weight should be two, which renders them less valuable
and not nearly so brilliant as one of two carats properly
cut. Any over or under-weight only detracts from its
beauty.
One great reason of the exorbitant prices sometimes
charged to the public, is generally owing to the igno-
rance of the retailers of the real value. Consequently,
Value of Diamonds.
GI
they are at the mercy of the merchant, who makes them
pay far more than the market value; and to the inex-
perienced purchaser, the best security for obtaining a
fair value for his money will be found-in this com-
modity as in any other-in the knowledge and character
of the vendor.
Many fluctuations have taken place in the value of
this gem, since the discovery of the art of cutting thin
1457, which first gave it a value in Europe. At first
the imperfect communication with India, and the small
number of persons sufficiently wealthy to purchase them,
confined their possession to the princes and nobles of
the period. The value of money, also, was so much
greater in proportion to the prices of the staples of life,
that even if the values then obtained were known to us,
it would give but a faint idea of their prices in compari-
son with those of this day. In 1606, at a sale by auction
at Venice, of the effects of a great diamond merchant
named Giovanni Ricardo, the price of a diamond weigh-
ing one carat, as recorded by Portaleone, in his work
called Shilti Hageborim,' was £21. 138. 4d.; in the
year 1750, just before the discovery of the diamond
mines in the Brazils, the price of a stone of the same
weight was £8; and, in 1791, the commission of
French jewellers, appointed by the National Convention
to value the Crown jewels, fixed the price of diamonds
of one carat (which we may infer were of fine quality)
at no more than £6. Before this time, however, the
importation of diamonds from Bahia had lowered the
C
92
Value of Diamonds.
value still more, but the price of diamonds had then
risen in consequence of the uncertainties of life and pro-
perty in this time of trouble. After the fall of Napoleon,
and the peace that ensued, the price rose steadily until
the year 1848, when, on the outbreak of the revolution,
carat stones fell to between £4 and £5 each, in conse-
quence of the large quantities that were suddenly
forced on the market. As in the previous revolution,
however, they quickly began to rise in value, and since
that time a steady rise of about ten per cent. per annum
has taken place, and in consequence of the production
of the diamond mines decreasing, and the desire for
this gem becoming more universal, another augmenta-
tion is expected. Annexed is a Table of the present
values, and following this is a Comparative Table of the
values of diamonds in the year 1606 and 1750, which
may prove of interest to those who desire to study the
history of precious stones, or who care to note the rise
and fall of prices, as fashion on the one hand, and sup-
ply on the other, affect the value of commodities.
Replace with new plaft (ou Note)
THE PROPER SIZES OF WELL PROPORTIONED BRILLIANTS OF THE VARIOUS WEIGHTS.
The Black Lines underneath show the relative thickness cach should have.
and the round dots the size of the Culet.
1 ct
1 C²
3+Ct
6 / Ct
3 1/2 Ct
1호 ​cl
7 Cț
12 Ct
4 Ct
7½ Ct
2 ct
42 Ct
240
2 1/2 ct
2 ct
0
8 Ct
5 C
52 C
9 Ct

6 ct
10 ct
3 Cz
Value of Brilliants.
93
TABLE OF PRESENT
VALUE OF BRILLIANTS UP TO FIVE CARATS.
The Prices given below are those of perfectly white and pure Bril-
liants, free from defects or flaws, of the proportions shown, and
liable to variation with the changes of the market.
A Brilliant weighing 2 of a carat
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Weight by which Diamonds and precious stones are
calculated.
4 grains
1511 carats
. I carat.
I oz. troy.
94
Value of Diamonds
COMPARATIVE VALUES OF DIAMONDS IN 1606 AND 1750.
The value of Diamonds in the year 1606, as sold in
Fenice by the diamond merchant Giovanni Ricardo.
Copied from a Hebrew work by Portalcone.
The value of Diamonds in the year 1750. Taken from
the tables of David Jeffries.
in 1606 and 1750.
£. S. d.
A brilliant weighing 3 grains.
15
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>>
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3 4 A brilliant weighing 3 grains.
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In this list of values the ducat of 6 liri
4 denari is computed at 4s. 4d. per ducat.
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O
Value of Rose Diamonds.
ROSE DIAMONDS.
95
Rose diamonds are so called on account of the form
in which they are cut, and were until lately but little
used, except in the smaller sizes, to place in settings where
the space or depth was too small to admit of a brilliant
being employed. The rose-cut diamond has however
lately again come into fashion, and the prejudice which
has been entertained against them arises in a great mea-
sure from the ignorance of the purchasers, who, when
told that such a stone is a rose, imagine it to be no dia-
mond, being unaware that roses and brilliants are iden-
tically the same stone cut into different forms.
The rose-cut diamond is very lively, and makes a
great display at a small cost, roses being manufactured
from pieces of "rough" which from their thinness are in-
capable of forming brilliants. They are infinitely more
lustrous than those stones called spread brilliants,
which, from their want of depth, are lustreless and
glassy. The smaller sizes are sold in packets containing
generally 500, and have to be handled with great
care, as the breath suffices to blow them away, and the
delicate edges are very liable to break. They have
sometimes been made so small, as to require 1500 to
weigh one carat; and, when the number of facets on
each is considered, the delicacy and minuteness of the
work may be imagined.
Roses are still sometimes used for watch jewelling,
but rubies are now preferred. Large rose diamonds
96
Value of Rose Diamonds.
fluctuate considerably in value, and their price can never
be depended upon. They are not much used or es-
teemed in Europe, and it would be impossible to give
any precise value, although they are supposed to be
worth as much as brilliants of the same weight.
The small rose diamonds, if under 40 to the carat, are
worth is. 6d. to 5s. each; above that size and up to one
carat, they fetch from £9. 9s. to £11. IIS. the carat.
In the Green Vaults at Dresden, and in the treasure
chamber at Vienna, may be seen some very large and
fine rose diamonds.
THE BRILLIOLETTE, OR BRIOLET.
This is a beautiful form of diamond, but is so rarely
met with that it would be useless to give it any fixed
value. It is generally considered more valuable than a
brilliant of the same weight.
A description of the form has already been given.

ON THE CUTTING OF COLOURED STONES.

A
SHORT description of the mode of cut-
ting and polishing gems, and an explana-
tion of the shapes into which they are
cut, may prove of interest.

A
B
Lapidary's Bench and Wheel.
The accompanying woodcut shows a lapidary's bench
H
98
The Cutting of Coloured Stones.
A is a handle which turns a large wheel on which runs
an endless band moving a smaller wheel, B, which turns
the disk or skaif, C,-made of various metals-at
a high rate of speed. The lapidary turns the handle
with one hand, and with the other, supported by the
rest, D, holds the gem to be cut (firmly inserted on a
cement-stick softened by heat) against the disk, which
is covered with the diamond-powder or emery, accord-
ing to the hardness of the stone. When one or two facets
are made, he again heats the cement, removes the stone,
and refixes it, exposing another part to the action of the
wheel until the stone is completed; for polishing, a
similar wheel of lead, zinc, or wood, is used with tripoli,
rottenstone, vitriol, or rouge.
The names of the various parts and facets of a co-
loured stone are precisely the same as those of the dia-
mond. The forms of the brilliant, rose diamond, single-
cut diamond, etc., have been already described under
the head of “Diamond;" it is therefore only necessary
to describe the following, which are shown in the wood
cuts. The first is the


Front View.
Side View.
The Trap or Step Cut.
This is the most usual, besides being the most advan-
99
The Cutting of Coloured Stones.
tageous form of cutting emeralds and other coloured
stones. In this mode of cutting, the facets run longi-
tudinally round the stone from the table to the girdle,
and from the girdle to the culet. There are generally
only two or three steps from the table to the girdle,
whilst the number of steps from the girdle to the culet
depends on the thickness and depth of colour of the
stone.


The Mixed or Brilliant Top Cut.
The Mixed or Brilliant Top Cut.
In this form the gem preserves the trap-cut up to
the girdle, while the upper part has an elongated bril-
liant cut.

Front View.
Side View.
Cabochon or Tallow-topped.
The Cabochon, or Tallow-Topped.
This form, which derives its name from the resem-
blance it bears to a drop of tallow, consists of two flat
H 2
IOO
The Cutting of Coloured Stones.
arches, the upper one more arched than the under;
sometimes the edge and under side are faceted.


Back View. The Star Cut. Front View.
The Star Cut.
This form of cutting, which is only adapted for very
fine gems, requires the utmost nicety; the table is hexa-
gonal, and exactly a fourth of the whole diameter of the
From this table spring six equilateral triangles,
whose apices touch the girdle, and these triangles, by
a prolongation of their points, form a star.
stone.


Bryz
THE RUBY, SAPPHIRE, ORIENTAL TOPAZ,
ETC.


A
Crystals of Ruby, Sapphire, etc.

LL the above stones are properly corundums,
being identical in every particular but that
of colour, which difference may be said to
be the only cause of a change in the name.
The red sapphire is a ruby, the blue ruby a sapphire, the
yellow a topaz, etc. The name corundum itself is of Indian
origin, derived from the Sanskrit korund, and is applied
only to the opaque massive varieties, which, however, pre-
sent the characteristic hexagonal crystal, and are generally
of a dull colour. The first European to class all the varie-
{
102
The Ruby.
ties of this gem under their proper names was Count
Bournon, in the year 1802. The Eastern nations had,
however, for several centuries adopted this classification.
A coarse variety of corundum is called emery, and is
largely used for polishing metals, gems, marbles, etc.
The principal source of this material is the island of
Naxos, although it is found in Cornwall, Spain, Italy, and
Asia Minor.
In the States of New York and New Jersey, red and
blue corundum is found in crystals, in a matrix of mica-
ceous limestone, accompanied by black spinels and other
gems; these crystals are perfectly opaque, and although
of a fine colour cannot be used for jewellery. They are of
small size, seldom exceeding an inch in length.
The first and more important variety is the Ruby, or
red sapphire, which is the most valuable of all gems
when of large size, good colour, and free from flaws,—
exceeding even the diamond itself in value. The spe-
cific gravity is 3'9 to 4°1; its hardness is superior to any
known substance except the diamond, being numbered
9 in Mohs's scale. It is susceptible of electricity by
friction, and retains it for a considerable time. As will
be seen, it is composed of alumina, and coloured by
traces of metallic oxides, chrome, etc. :—
Alumina
Oxide of Iron
Lime
98.5
ΙΟ
0'5
The various analyses prove that it does not contain silica,
as has sometimes been erroneously stated.
The Ruby.
103
The ruby as well as all other corundums is infusible
alone, but in combination with a flux melts with diffi-
culty into a clear glass. It is possessed of double refrac-
tion, although not to a very high degree.
According to mineralogists, the system of crystalliza-
tion to which all these stones belong is rhombohedral.
The cleavage is basal, or in other words, the crystal
breaks across the prisms with nearly a flat surface.
The lustre is vitreous. Occasionally specimens are
found asteriated, or possessed of a star in the direction of
the axis, the points of which terminate at the flat plane
of the hexagonal prism, in a section across it.
Rubies are found associated with sapphires, zircons,
spinels, oxide of tin, magnetic iron, rutile, topaz, etc.,
sometimes in perfect crystals but slightly abraded,
taper at each end; often the crystal exhibits various co-
lours, in section across the prism, perhaps blue at both
ends, and white and red in the centre, sometimes re-
versed, sometimes with yellow instead of red; fre-
quently the blue passes into black, at the extremities of
the prism. These stones are usually found in hexagonal
rounded prisms, in layers in the earth, or beds of rivers
and streams, in various parts of the globe, never in a trans-
parent crystal in any rock matrix, although the opaque
variety of corundum called emery, is found in rocks in
many countries. Where rubies and sapphires are met
with, gold is almost sure to be present.
The finest rubies occur in the kingdom of Ava, in
Siam, in the Capelan Mountains, ten days' journey from
I04
The Ruby.
Syrian, a city in Pegu. They are also found in Ceylon,
at Hohenstein on the Elbe, in the Rhine and Danube,
in Brazil, Hindustan, Borneo, Sumatra, in Australia, in
France, in the rivers Espailly in Auvergne and Iser in
Bohemia, etc. etc.
The ruby mines of Burmah, whence come the finest
stones, have long been known, and the king is said to
possess the rarest and most wonderful specimens. They
are worked by sinking shafts, until the ruby-producing
soil is met with, which occurs at various depths, some-
times within two feet of the surface, sometimes thirty
feet below it; when this stratum is found it is followed
up until it becomes necessary to sink another shaft, or
until it is exhausted; the stones found are almost always
small, and seldom free from defects; the rhombohedral
crystals are rarely perfect, and usually worn down into
rounded surfaces. These mines are rigorously guarded,
no European being allowed to approach them on any
pretence. They are a royal monopoly, and fine stones
can only be smuggled away, as the order is to retain all
for the king's treasury. When a particularly large and
fine stone is found, it is usual to send out a procession
of grandees with soldiers and elephants to meet it. One
of the titles of the king of Burmah is Lord of the Rubies.
In Ceylon, whence occasionally come some fine rubies,
they are found in the beds of rivers; the blue variety,
the sapphire, is much more frequently met with, and the
crystals are generally found of a much larger size than
those found in Burmah.
The Ruby.
105
Some specimens have lately arrived here from Austra-
lia, but they are not of good quality.
The colour of the ruby varies from the lightest rose-
tint to the deepest carmine. Those too dark or too
light are not esteemed. The most valuable tint is that
particular shade called by jewellers the "pigeon's blood,"
which is a pure deep rich red, without any admixture of
blue or yellow.
The stones called spinel and balas rubies are not ru-
bies at all, but belong to the class of spinels, a stone of
an entirely different nature, and form of crystallization.
Many of these stones are sold by fraud or error for the
true or Oriental ruby, but the difference may be easily
detected, both by the different specific gravity and hard-
ness. Several of the gems sold for Ceylon rubies are
spinels, and even many persons in the trade are not
aware of the difference. In ancient times the words
ruby and carbuncle were applied indiscriminately to all
red stones, and even now the words are frequently ap-
plied to various gems. The tourmaline is called a Bra-
zilian ruby, when of a red colour; the same term is also
occasionally given to the artificially coloured topaz. This
loose nomenclature is very apt to deceive the inex-
perienced, who imagine a ruby only to mean the oriental
corundum. Some very interesting experiments have
lately been made by chemists, who have succeeded in
forming by artificial means, minute crystals of a red
colour, of precisely the same form of crystallization,
and of equal hardness to the natural ones, but as the
106
The Ruby.
crystals produced are invariably minute, and as small
rubies, such as are used for watch jewelling, are plenti-
ful in nature, it is doubtful whether the trouble and ex-
pense of manufacture will ever prove remunerative.
The
These crystals are produced by heating alumina for
a long period with borax in a platinum vessel.
borax first dissolves the alumina, and then the elements
of the borax separate and disappear by volatilization,
leaving the alumina in a crystallized state. Coloured
crystals of alumina have also been made by bringing
the gas, fluoride of silicon, into contact with the vapour
of boracic acid at a high temperature; mutual decom-
position takes place, fluoride of boron escapes, and the
alumina is left distinctly crystallized. It is curious that
the same matter, under identical circumstances, commu-
nicates sometimes a red and sometimes a blue colour,
which fact corresponds with the conditions in which
both rubies and sapphires are found in nature, both blue
(sapphires) and red (rubies) crystals occurring together.
The asteriated corundums, which are called star ruby
and star sapphire (saphir, ou rubis astérié), according to
their colour, have a six-pointed star across the crystal,
similar to the woodcut page 101.
This star appears to
be formed by a "silky" imperfection in the gem, and
when examined by the light of the sun, or of a candle,
shows forth with great distinctness. Large prices have
frequently been obtained for such stones, and when the
gem possesses a fine colour, the asteriation adds greatly
to its beauty. They are cut en cabochon, and care is
:
The Ruby.
107
taken to get the centre of the star as nearly as possible
in the middle of the gem. These stones are never
found of a green colour. This variety has always been
highly esteemed in the East. Brahmin traditions speak
of the abode of the gods lighted by enormous rubies and
emeralds, and one of the names of the kings of Pegu, as
we have seen, was Lord of Rubies." In China, rubies
have been used from the earliest times for ornamenting
the slippers of women, and there, as in India, they are
to be met with incrusted into jade vases, sword handles,
or pipe mounts. In the authorized version of the
Bible they are spoken of in the Proverbs and in the
Book of Job, and there can be no doubt that the ruby
was well known to the ancient Greeks and Romans.
The anthrax of Theophrastus, and the Indian carbuncle
spoken of by Pliny, were no doubt rubies, and both
authors ascribe to it the power of giving light in the
dark. Ancient cameos and intaglios are still in existence,
engraved on this stone, about 500 years B.C., which, as
is well known, was the highest period of Greek art.
According to Pliny, the Ethiopians had a way of in-
creasing the splendour of rubies by laying them for
fourteen days in vinegar, which increased their lustre for
a time, but afterwards made them softer and more
brittle.
In later ages, the magical properties assigned to the
ruby were that it was an amulet against poison, plague,
sadness, evil thoughts, wicked spirits, etc. It also kept
the wearer in health, and cheered his mind; and it was
108
The Ruby.
thought that if he or the donor were in danger, it would
become black or obscure, and would not reassume its
pristine colour until the peril had passed away.
The ruby is cut by means of diamond powder on an
iron wheel or skaif, and polished on a copper one with
tripoli and water. In the East they use corundum
wheels for the cutting, but the work is not flat and
sharp. The best and most usual form of cutting the
ruby is the mixed or half brilliant, although silky and
imperfect stones are frequently cut en cabochon.
The number of large rubies in existence, of fine qua-
lity, is very small; one of the largest in the French crown
jewels adorns the order of the Golden Fleece, and is cut
into the form of a dragon with extended wings.
The two large stones which were shown amongst the
jewels of Her Majesty, at the Exhibition of 1862, as
rubies, are simply spinels; an examination of their spe-
cific gravity and hardness would soon show the truth of
this assertion.
In Tavernier's travels he speaks of a ruby in the pos-
session of the king of Vishapoor, weighing fifty carats
and of fine quality.
The king of Burmah is said to possess a ruby as large
as a pigeon's egg, of extraordinary quality; but no Euro-
pean having seen it, its existence may or may not be a
fact. In the Russian treasury is said to be one of a very
large size, which was presented by Gustavus III., king
of Sweden; and among the crown jewels of Austria are
several of fine quality and considerable size.
The Ruby.
109
The value of the ruby, as before mentioned, exceed»,
when perfect, that of any other gem. The rare occur-
rence of specimens of the desired vivid pigeon's-blood
colour, of any size, causes the value to increase in an
even greater proportion than the diamond, as a glance
at the subjoined scale of prices will at once show, pre-
mising, however, that the prices given are for the finest
and purest rubies, well spread and proportioned :-
A ruby of one-carat weight is worth
Onc-and-a-half carats
Two carats
"
>>
•
£14 to £20
25 to
35
70 to
80
•
200 to 250
Three carats
Four carats
>>
400 to 450
The value of rubies below the weight of one carat
ranges from £2 to £8 per carat, whilst stones of greater
weight than four carats are of such exceptional occur-
rence as to command fancy prices.
Of course, rubies which are flawed, specky, or which
'have any so-called silky or milky appearance, either on
the table or beneath it, or which are of too deep or
too pale a colour, are worth far less. A ruby of four
carats, of a pale colour, might not be worth £12;
violet-coloured and blackish rubies are also of very small
value in comparison with those of the true blood-red tint.
The price of violet and pale-coloured rubies is also
susceptible of great changes: at some times such stones
bring comparatively large prices, at others, very small
ones. Some years ago, the pale rubies were much sought
after for the Paris market; but, latterly, the demand for
ΙΙΟ
The Sapphire.
them has slackened, and rubies of the same deep tint as
are here most esteemed are preferred.
THE SAPPHIRE.
The Sapphire, as already mentioned, is identically the
same stone as the ruby. It has the same composition,
hardness, electrical and other properties. It differs in
name from the ruby on account of the colour, which
varies from white to the deepest blue and black. The
blue of the sapphire is very seldom pure, or spread over
the whole substance of the stone. Sometimes it is mixed
with black, which gives it an inky appearance; some-
times with red, which, although imperceptible by day-
light, yet by candle-light gives an amethystine appear-
ance. Two sapphires, which by daylight may appear of
the same hue, often differ extremely in colour by night.
In many of these stones, where the colour is partially
dark, the lapidary has a method of cutting, by which
he takes away the dark-coloured part, with the excep-
tion of a small spot reserved for the culet, whilst the
upper part of the stone is perfectly white; so that when
such a stone is looked at from the table, it will present
a most vivid blue hue, often superior in appearance to
those stones which are coloured throughout. If the
stone be held in a pair of ordinary forceps-or corn-
tongs," as they are termed in the trade-an inch beneath
the surface of clean water, the parts of the stone co-
loured and uncoloured will be distinctly apparent.
This remark applies to all other gems.
The Sapphire.
III
The asteriated varieties, called star sapphires, are usually
of a greyish-blue tint, and the star is exhibited in its
greatest perfection when looked at by the light of the
sun, or of a candle.
The sapphire is found of all tints and shades of blue,
but the colour which approximates to blue velvet of the
shade formerly called " bleu du roi" is the most valuable ;
a really fine sapphire should appear blue by candle-light
as well as by day. This stone occurs generally in crystals
of much larger size than the ruby. It is found princi-
pally in Ceylon, where the red variety is of unfrequent
occurrence; it seldom occurs in very minute crystals.
In Switzerland, sapphires of inferior quality are used in
large sizes for jewelling clocks.
The name 'sapphire' is perhaps the only one which runs
through all languages, with very slight alteration. The
Hebrew name is 0, sapphir, the Chaldaic sapirinon,
the Greek zaffiros, the Latin sapphirus, etc.
The ancients applied the name of this gem indis-
criminately to all stones of a blue colour. Pliny, Theo-
phrastus, Aristotle, and others, speak of a blue stone,
spotted or veined with gold (which was most probably
lapis-lazuli), which they called Sapphirus, although they
were aware of the existence of the true or Oriental
sapphire. Isidorus remarks, " Sapphirus cæruleus est cum
purpura, habens pulveres aureos sparsos," the particles of
pyrites, which are frequently disseminated through lapis-
lazuli, having the appearance of gold.
[ 12
The Sapphire.
To the sapphire has been ascribed the following
magical properties:-That it prevents evil and impure
thoughts. That it is such an enemy of poison, that if
put into a glass with a spider or venomous reptile, it
will kill it. St. Jerome, in his exposition of the 19th
chapter of Isaiah, says that the sapphire procures fa-
vour with princes, pacifies enemies, frees from enchant-
ment, and obtains freedom from captivity. This gem
was sacred to Apollo, and was worn when inquiring
of the oracle at his shrine. It was esteemed as a re-
medy against fevers, and hence the old distich :-
Corporis ardorem refrigerat interiorem
Sapphirus, et Cypriæ languida vota facit.
""
Galen and Dioscorides also speak of its medicinal pro-
perties. Boetius says that on account of its attachment
to chastity, it was worn by priests.
The ancients called sapphires male and female, ac-
cording to their colours; the deep coloured or indigo
sapphire was the male; the pale blue, approaching the
white, the female.
The value of the sapphire does not, like that of the
ruby, increase so enormously in proportion with its size.
A fine, perfect, evenly coloured, spread sapphire, weigh-
ing one carat, of a deep rich blue colour by night as
well as by day, is worth £20; whilst a sapphire equally
fine, of 100 carats, would not be worth more than £2000
to £3000. A ruby of the same size and perfection
would be the most valuable gem in existence, surpassing
even that of the finest diamond.
The Sapphire, etc.
113
When sapphires are of inferior quality they are worth
much less, but as the value entirely depends on the
degree of colour, which requires an experienced eye to
distinguish, it would be useless to give any valuation;
but it must be remembered, that when a stone is too
thick in proportion to its surface, its value must not be
estimated by the weight it possesses, but by the weight
it should have were it properly proportioned.
The treasuries and regalias of Europe possess sap-
phires of very large size. In the green vaults at Dresden
are, or were, several of remarkable size and beauty. In
the Russian treasury are some of an enormous size,
amongst them one of a light-blue tint, which formerly
was in the possession of the late Mr. Hope.
In the Vienna Kronenschätze, there is one of mar-
vellous beauty and great size.
A noble lady in this country formerly possessed one,
which is perhaps the finest known. This lady, however,
sold it during her lifetime, and replaced it by an imita-
tion so skilfully made, as to deceive even the jeweller
who valued it for probate duty; and it was estimated at
the sum of £10,000, and the legacy duty paid on it
by the legatee, who was doubtless chagrined when he
discovered the deception. At the last Paris exhibition
there might have been seen a collection belonging to
a lady, distinguished alike for her magnificent charity
and her wealth; also an oval sapphire and a drop of
enormous size and great purity, belonging to a Russian
countess.
I
114
Other Varieties of Corundum.
The white sapphire resembles the diamond to such a
degree, that when well cut and polished, it has been sold
to persons conversant with the trade as a diamond.
The difference, however, can be easily ascertained by
taking the specific gravity, or by testing the hardness with
another sapphire or with a diamond.
OTHER VARIETIES OF CORUNDUM.
:
The following varieties of corundum may be some-
times met with, and are distinguished in commerce by
the names which they acquire from their colour.
They are however, with the exception of the yellow
sapphire, of rare occurrence, and generally pass for, or
are confounded with, the gems whose name they bear.
THE ORIENTAL AMETHYST.
The Oriental amethyst is a ruby or sapphire possessing
an amethyst colour; it may be distinguished from the
ordinary amethyst by its superior brilliancy and play, as
well as by its hardness, etc.; it is a gem of rare oc-
currence, and even jewellers frequently confound it
with the ordinary amethyst. There are some fine speci-
mens in the Grüne Gewölbe at Dresden; there are also
in the Vatican one or two engraved intaglios of this
stone of very early date. Many sapphires, however,
have an amethystine tint, which becomes very apparent
by candle-light.
The Chrysoberyl, Cymophane, etc. 115
THE ORIENTAL EMERALD.
The green variety, or Oriental emerald, is the rarest of
all gems, and is scarcely ever seen. In the whole course
of my experience, I have only met with one specimen.
THE YELLOW SAPPHIRE OR ORIENTAL TOPAZ.
This gem is of a yellow tint, seldom deep, but gene-
rally of a light straw-colour shade and is extremely bril-
liant; it is frequently mistaken for a yellow diamond,
and is of very little value in commerce: even jewellers
frequently confound it with the ordinary topaz.
THE ORIENTAL AQUAMARINE.
There exists also a pale greenish variety, called Orien-
tal aquamarine, which is only to be distinguished from
the ordinary stone of that name by its superior brilliancy,
hardness, and specific gravity. When the green is of an-
olive tint, it is termed an oriental peridot.


Crystals of Chrysoberyl.
THE CHRYSOBERYL, CYMOPHANE, AND CAT'S-EYE.
The chrysoberyl, or, as it is sometimes called, Oriental
chrysolite, is a very brilliant gem, of a yellow, greenish-
116
yellow, or brownish-yellow colour, occasionally white;
some varieties showing a reddish tint by transmitted
light. Some specimens possess an opalescence, and these
are generally cut en cabochon, when they are called
chrysolite, or chrysoberyl cat's-eye, or cymophanes.
The Chrysoberyl, Cymophane, etc.
It belongs to the trimetric or rhombic system of crys-
tallization, and possesses a vitreous lustre; it varies from
being perfectly transparent to nearly opaque; its cleavage
is not very perfect, and it breaks with a conchoidal frac-
ture rather uneven; its specific gravity varies from 3.680
to 3*754, and its hardness is numbered in the scale as
8.5, being scratched by the sapphire, ruby, etc., and
scratching quartz easily. It possesses double refraction
to a high degree, and acquires positive electricity by fric-
tion, retaining it for several hours.
It is infusible before the blowpipe alone, but melts
with difficulty to a clear glass with borax or salt of
phosphorus. It is not affected by acids.
Its chemical composition is-
Alumina
Glucina
80.2
•
19'8
with traces of protoxide of iron, oxides of lead and cop-
per, according to colour and locality where found.
This gem is found in rolled pebbles in the alluvial
deposits of rivers in Ceylon, near Saffragang, in the Rio
Americanas and Rio Piantic in Brazil, at Marchenberg
and Petersdorf, near Weisenberg, in Moravia; also im-
bedded in mica slate in the river Tajowaja in the Ural
ΙΙ
The Chrysoberyl, Cymophane, etc. 117
Mountains, fifty-nine miles from Ekatherinenberg, ac-
companied by emerald and phoenicite; this variety is
emerald-green by reflected light, and red by transmitted
light; it is called alexandrite, after the Emperor of Russia,
and its colour is supposed to be caused by the presence
of oxide of chrome. Chrysoberyls have also been found at
Haddam, Connecticut, at Greenfield, near Saratoga, New
York, and in the granite of Orange Summit, Vermont.
The semi-transparent stones are known by the name
of cymophane, and are the "cat's-eyes" of commerce,
having frequently the ray across the stone remarkably
distinct; they are sometimes of a dark colour, bordering
on the black, and occasionally greenish-grey or brown.
{
The transparent yellow chrysoberyl is the variety used
in jewellery. They are cut in brilliant-form, and are ex-
tremely lively and lustrous, almost resembling yellow
diamonds. They are, however, not fashionable, and are
now rarely mounted as ornaments. Although the stones-
are frequently called chrysolites, and are mistaken for
them, nothing can be easier than to detect the differ-
ence, the hardness and specific gravity being so dissi-
milar. They also differ from the yellow topaz in an-
other important particular, that of not becoming electric
by heat. The chrysoberyl is cut on a copper wheel with
emery, and polished with tripoli.
The name chrysoberyl is derived from the two Greek
words, xpvoòs, signifying golden, and ẞýpvλλos, beryl;
and that of cymophane from the words kúpa, wave,
and paívw, appear, in allusion to the variable colour.
118
The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
The chrysoberyl of the ancients appears to have been
a gem of a different description, perhaps the chrysoprase.
They also confounded this gem with the chrysolite.
The value of the transparent chrysoberyl is quite
nominal, and for purposes of personal ornament there
is no demand for it. The cymophane, or chrysoberyl
cat's-eye, however, is worth from £100 to £200, or £300,
depending on the distinctness and brilliancy of the ray
of light. These stones are considered in the East, and
even in Europe, as being lucky, and are becoming much
more valuable than formerly. They appear to the best
advantage when surrounded by brilliants or rubies.
There have been instances known of cat's-eyes of extra-
ordinary size and beauty bringing most extravagant
sums of money; as much as £1000 was lately paid by
an English nobleman for one, but of course such a value
is purely an illusion.



Crystals of Spinel.
THE SPINEL AND BALAS RUBY.
Under this head must be classed the gems called in
the trade spinel ruby, rubicelle, balas or balais ruby, and
almandine ruby, being all varieties of the same gem.
Besides these, there exists a black opaque variety called
The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
119
pleonast, or by some ceylonite, containing oxide of
zinc; the chloro-spinel, of a green colour, as its name
implies; the sapphirine, blue; the dyshnite, the her-
cenite, etc. The spinel ruby is of a fine lively red
colour, but has a cinnamon tint mixed with it, which
renders it far less brilliant than the true ruby or red
sapphire; in fact, the colour of the spinel is very similar
to that of the garnet, although not so deep in tone.
The spinel is found imbedded in granular limestone,
and with calcareous spar.
In Ceylon, Ava, Mysore, Beloochistan, and other East-
ern countries, it is found in rolled pebbles in alluvial de-
posits, and the beds of rivers. Hence come the stones of
the finest quality, which are used and sold by jewellers.
A pale blue spinel (sapphirine) is found at Aker in
Sweden, imbedded in limestone; also in Forland and
Straskau in Moravia. Small black crystals of extraordi-
nary lustre are found in company with mica and garnet,
in old lava, on Mount Somma. The chloro-spinel, or
green spinel, is found in the slate at Slatonht in the
Ural Mountains; it owes its green colour to the pre-
sence of peroxide of iron. The black spinel, or pleonast,
is found in Ceylon, in Bohemia, in the river Iser, in the
Tyrol, at Andernach on the Rhine, and in numerous
localities in the United States, where also the brown
spinels are plentiful.
The automalite, or zinc spinel, is found in Sweden.
A white variety occurs at La Riccia, near Rome.
The spinel belongs to the monometric or cubic system {
5
120 The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
of crystallization, and is almost always found in octa-
hedral crystals; its lustre is vitreous; it is transparent in
various degrees, in some cases nearly opaque. The
spinel is of great hardness, being numbered eight in the
scale, scratching quartz readily, but being scratched by
sapphire. This stone does not acquire electricity, either
by friction or heat; it is possessed of simple refraction,
and is infusible before the blowpipe.
The chemical composition of the red spinel from Cey-
lon is-
Alumina
Magnesia.
Protoxide of Iron
Oxide of Crore .
Silica
• 69°01
26.21
0'71
I'10
2'02
14
The other varieties differ in composition in the propor-
tions of their constituents, and some possess an admix-
ture of other substances. The spinel and balas ruby
are of similar composition. The red spinel on being
heated becomes brown, but more opaque on cooling.
As the heat declines it changes to green, then passes to
an almost colourless state, and finally resumes its pristine
colour. With borax or salt of phosphorus it melts into
a glass, more or less coloured by chrome or iron. It is
soluble in powder when heated in sulphuric acid.
The rubicelle is the variety having an orange colour,
approaching that of the jacinth.
The violet spinel also bears the name of the alman-
dine ruby.
The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
121
The rubis balais, or balas ruby, is a spinel of that rose-
pink colour which often occurs in large crystals.
The original of the term "balas ruby" is the ancient
name of Beloochistan, Badakschan, or Balaschan. The
Persian name is Badakschiani. An ancient author, Se-
baldus Ravius, observes “Nomen ejus balachsch dici-
turque a Teifaschio adduci ex Balachschane, quam re-
gionem Barbari Badachschan vocant, estque secundum
eum pars terræ Turcarum, quæ ad Tartarium vergit.”
(Specimen Arabicum, p. 101.)
Marco Polo in his travels speaks of these stones as
being principally found in the mountains called Sheki-
nim.
The Persians have to this day preserved a tradition
that the mines of these gems were not discovered until
after an earthquake, which rent the mountain in twain ;
and that they were at first mistaken for the true rubies,
but their inferior hardness made known the error. One
of the finest gems of this kind was formerly in the pos-
session of the king of Oude; it was called Lal-i-jaladi
on account of the name Julal-u-din, with which it was
engraved; it was of the size of a pigeon's egg, and of
great lustre.
The ancient Greek version of the origin of the name is
that of Balassus or Palassus, which was supposed to be
the dwelling or palace in which the true ruby resided.
Andres Baccius ascribes the origin of the name
"balas
ruby" to the word palatius (palace), as he supposes it to
be the matrix or palace wherein the true ruby is found.
122 The Spinel and Balas Ruby.
The natives of India call the spinel Lal Rumani, or the
pomegranate ruby, and ascribe to it valuable medici-
nal properties. The spinels and balas rubies, which
are identically the same gems-the term spinel being
applied to those of deeper hue-are frequently sold in
error or by fraud for the true ruby; on the other hand,
instances have occurred where a true ruby of pale colour
has been sold for a spinel or balas ruby.
To any one acquainted with the characteristics of
these jewels, the mistake is impossible; the hardness of
the ruby is far greater, and its specific gravity consider-
ably more, and nothing can be easier than to verify these
facts. An unset stone can be tested by taking its specific
gravity; or if set, by attempting to scratch a sapphire
with it; or by observing the refraction, which also dif
fers, as a glance at Table A will at once show.
The spinel is also occasionally mistaken for the garnet,
on account of the similarity of colour in some of the
specimens; still more frequently for the jacinth, from
a like reason. Both these gems, however, are of in-
ferior hardness; besides which, the jacinth possesses a
strong double refractive power, whilst that of the spinel
is single. The brown topaz, which is somewhat similar,
may readily be distinguished by its property of acquiring
electricity when heated.
During the Middle Ages, the same supernatural
powers were attributed to this stone as to the true ruby.
Elianus, an ancient author who wrote a natural history
of animals, relates that a stork once presented a wo-
The Topaz.
123
man, named Heraclis, with one of these stones, in grati-
tude for her kindness to it in curing a fractured leg.
The spinel is cut on an iron wheel, with emery or
diamond powder, and polished on a copper one; the
form is generally the "mixed cut." The colour of this
gem frequently becomes more deep and intensified by
being carefully heated.
The value of the spinel, or balas rubies, is extremely
uncertain and variable. At times they are much sought
after for the Eastern markets, and then command a con-
siderable price; on other occasions they are worth com-
paratively little. As an instance, a stone weighing 40
carats, of good quality and clear, was sold in 1856 for
£400; in 1862, it realized by public auction £80, and
was lately sold for £240. The present value of spinels
varies from ros. to £8 per carat; but it is impossible
to say what the intrinsic worth of this gem may be, or
what one would fetch, as the value is fictitious, depen-
dent entirely on caprice and fashion.
1
THE TOPAZ.
This gem is not in vogue at the present day for the
purposes of the jeweller, although fifty years ago it
was exceedingly fashionable. The true topaz seldom
124
The Topaz.
occurs of a very large size without defects, and many of
the large stones commonly sold as such are merely
rock-crystal or quartz of a yellow colour, such as cairn-
gorm and others, between which and the true topaz,
however, there are many important differences, as a re-
ference to the chapter on quartz will show.
The topaz belongs to the trimetric system of crystal-
lization. Its cleavage is basal; that is, it breaks with a
flat surface, at right angles, with or across the prism.
Its specific gravity is 3'5 to 3.6; it is numbered eight in
the scale of hardness, scratches quartz easily, and pos-
sesses double refraction in a slight degree.
Its chemical composition is-
The Brazilian Topaz.
Silica
•
34'01
Alumina
58.38
Fluorine
15:06
The Saxon Topaz.
Silica
Alumina
Fluorine
34'24
.
57'45
14'99
Monsieur St. Clair Deville has detected vanadium in
the variety from the first locality, and he states that
topazes may be formed artificially by the wet process.
The crystals are usually hemihedral, which is a term
used in mineralogy to signify (what its name infers) half-
form; that is, its angles are removed from the original
form; for instance, the hemihedral form of the cube is
the tetrahedron.
The Topaz.
125
The cleavage is basal and very perfect, having a
highly polished surface on the cleavage planes; the
lustre is vitreous. This stone is found of many colours :
the fine pink so often observed in topazes in many
articles of jewellery is never natural, but is produced by
exposing a brownish-yellow topaz to a low red-heat in
a sand-bath. The experiment can also be tried by
wrapping the stone up in German tinder, bound with
thin iron wire, and then setting fire to it, or with the
blowpipe. Those only of the peculiar brown colour
described can acquire this pink hue; the pale yellow
stones become perfectly white under the treatment. The
colour thus acquired is permanent. The topaz becomes
strongly electric by heat, friction, and pressure, retain-
ing and continuing in that state for several hours. This
characteristic is so marked as to afford an easy method
of ascertaining its identity; the application of this test
alone would at once prevent the stone being mistaken
for a chrysoberyl or a yellow sapphire. Before the
blowpipe, it is infusible on charcoal, but in a very
strong heat blisters form on the surface, which break as
soon as they rise. It fuses with borax into a clear glass,
and becomes blue with cobalt solution.
If sulphuric acid be applied to this stone it yields
hydrofluoric, but muriatic does not affect it.
The topaz is found in almost every part of the world,
generally in the granite and gneiss rocks which contain
fluor spar, but it varies in colour and aspect in almost
every district. Those from Villa Rica in Brazil have a
126
The Topaz.
deep brownish-yellow hue, and are found in a soft loose
sandy clay, which renders the search for them an easy
task. The crystals are usually not large, seldom ex-
ceeding two or three inches in length; the terminal
pyramids are often beautifully modified, and the crystals
are mostly well defined. They are more or less striated
longitudinally down the prism. Associated with the
topaz in this locality is sometimes found a very rare
mineral called euclase, which is of a pale blue or green
colour, somewhat similar to aquamarine.
CC
Another locality in the Brazils whence they come, is
the district of Minas Geraes; these topazes, found in
rounded pebbles, are perfectly pure and colourless, and
are called "pingas d'agoa" or gouttes d'eau;" they
are also termed Nova Minas; the Portuguese call them
"slave diamonds." These stones bear a much higher
degree of polish than rock-crystal.
A precisely similar topaz has been found in Tasmania,
where some blue and green ones have been discovered,
but more water-worn than those of other localities.
Topazes of a fine pale blue colour are found in Siberia,
at Alabascka, near Murinsk, also at Odentochelong and
Miask, associated with quartz and beryl. They are
found in tolerable plenty at Altenburg, in Saxony, ge-
nerally of a pure yellow colour; also in Ceylon, Con-
necticut, U. S., Peru, Asia Minor, in England, Scot-
land, Ireland, and the Hebrides.
Topazes are cut on a leaden wheel with emery, and
polished with tripoli. The best form of cutting is the
The Topaz.
127
"full brilliant," leaving the table smaller and the bezil
rather deeper than in a diamond. Great care is required
on the part of the lapidary to obtain a good polish on
this stone. The cleavage surface, called by lapidaries
the grain, is extremely difficult, in fact almost impossible
to polish; and it is necessary, instead of cutting them
flat, to take a small angle from the cleavage-plane, to
obtain that high degree of brilliancy of which it is sus-
ceptible. In the present day it is very rare to see a
topaz well cut, and displaying that intense whiteness
and brilliancy which it ought to have, as few lapidaries
bestow the care and attention necessary.
This stone is called by the following names, according
to the colour :-
Nova Mina is colourless.
Brazilian Sapphire is light blue.
Aquamarine is greenish.
Brazilian Chrysolite is greenish yellow.
Brazilian Ruby is the artificially obtained pink or
rose-colour.
The Table C, in which stones are classed according
to their colours, will show in how many instances en-
tirely different stones are liable to be mistaken one for
the other, when colour alone is relied upon; but the
different specific gravity and hardness will at any time
determine to which category a stone belongs. The
yellow quartz is so commonly sold for the topaz, al-
though of less brilliancy, specific gravity, and inferior
hardness, that it would be well for the amateur to put
128
The Topaz.
in practice the simple tests recommended before pur-
chasing, as few persons even in the trade are aware of
the difference.
A large mass of white topaz in one of the cases of
the British Museum was many years ago used as a door-
weight by a marine store-dealer in London; he after-
wards sold the same for three shillings. It weighs
about 12lb. avoirdupois.
It is supposed that the word topaz is derived from
the island Topazion, in the Red Sea, whence the
Greeks obtained a yellow stone; it is, however, doubtful
whether the topazion signified what we call topaz; but
there is no doubt that this stone was known in very
early times.
Formed of this there are still in existence
several intaglios of very early Greek workmanship. It
is also one of the stones mentioned in the Bible; in
the Middle Ages it was considered typical of St. James
the Less, the Apostle. The large so-called diamond in
the Portuguese treasury is supposed to be a white topaz ;
it is rather larger than a hen's egg, and weighs 1680
carats.
The following properties were ascribed to the topaz
by the ancients :-It discovered poison by becoming
obscured when in contact with it; it quenched the
heat of boiling water, and its powers increased and de-
creased with the increase and decrease of the moon;
it calmed the passions, and prevented bad dreams.
The Emperor Hadrian is reputed to have possessed
a topaz seal ring engraved with these lines :-
The Emerald.
129
"Natura deficit,
Fortuna mutatur,
Deus omnia cernit.'
Pliny describes it as being found in the mines of ala-
baster, near the Egyptian city of Thebes.
It is impossible to give any rules by which to fix the
value of this stone, as it is now only used in the cheapest
jewellery, the jewelling of common Swiss clocks, and
for optical purposes. The commercial value of the
topaz, as a jewel, is entirely fictitious; a very fine stone
can at the present moment be bought for a few shil-
lings, which, when in fashion, would have brought
much more; for optical purposes, the rough stones fetch
about 5s. to 10s. per pound avoirdupois. The pink
topazes bring considerably more; from 40s. to £20 per
ounce, the price depending on the depth of the pink
colour.



Crystals of Emeralds.
THE EMERALD.
This stone and the beryl are of the same chemical
composition, differing only in colour. The beautiful
green colour of the emerald is unsurpassed by any other
gem; whilst the beryl, or aquamarine, is of a light blue
or sea-green, as its latter name implies. These stones
K
130
The Emerald.
are found crystallized in regular hexagonal prisms, and
belong to that system of crystallization. The top of
the crystal is flat at right angles to the prism, and
sometimes the angles and edges are beautifully trun-
cated or modified. The crystals of beryl are usually
found striated longitudinally often throughout the stone
as well as on the surface, which is not the case with
the emerald both these gems in the natural state form
most beautiful specimens for the mineralogical student.
The rich green colour of the emerald contrasts with
the limestone matrix in which it is found imbedded.
The beryl is found in crystals, occasionally of immense
size, of many shades of green passing into yellow, and
sometimes perfectly transparent.
:
The physical characteristics of these stones are as
follows:-
The cleavage is imperfectly basal. The hardness
varies from 7.5 to 8 of Mohs's scale. They are scratched
by spinel, but scratch quartz with difficulty (although
specimens vary considerably in this particular). The
specific gravity is 2.67 to 2'75, so that the bulk is
very large in proportion to the weight; an emerald.
being nearly double the size of a sapphire of equal
weight. The lustre is vitreous, rarely resinous. The
usual colour has been stated above, although the beryl
occurs of every shade of greenish-blue to brown, and
sometimes verging on pink.
These stones are extremely brittle,—indeed, the eme-
rald, when first withdrawn from the mine, is so soft
The Emerald and Beryl.
131
as to crumble by friction, but hardens by exposure to
the air.
The chemical composition is as follows:-
The Emerald.
Silica
Alumina
•
Glucina
•
68.50
•
15 75
12'50
Peroxide of Iron
Lime
•
Oxide of Chrome
I'00
O'25
0*30
Magnesia and Lime
Soda
:}:
Traces.
The chemical composition of the beryl is as follows:-
Silica
Alumina
Glucina
Peroxide of Iron.
Lime
•
67.00
16.50
14.50
I'CO
0°50
It will be observed that the emerald has more
glucina than the beryl; and chemists find that the
greater the quantity of glucina there is in a specimen,
the greener is the crystal.
Before the blowpipe, the emerald remains unchanged
-sometimes, however, becoming a little cloudy; with
borax it fuses into a pale green substance not very un-
like glass. It is not affected by acids, but is slowly so-
luble with microsmic salt (or salt of phosphorus).
Formerly it was supposed that the colouring matter
of the emerald was the oxide of chrome, but the
quantity of chromic acid obtained by Mr. Lewy on
K 2
132
The Emerald and Beryl.
analysis was so small as to be inappreciable; he gives
it as his opinion that the beautiful tint of the emerald
is produced by some organic substance, which he
imagines is a carburet of hydrogen, similar to that
termed chlorophylle, which constitutes the colouring
matter in the leaves of plants. The emeralds of the
darkest tint contain the largest amount of organic
matter; and it is remarkable as a test that the emerald
at a low heat loses the colour and becomes white and
opaque, whilst the minerals of which the colouring
matter is chrome (as the chrome garnet, "uwarowite")
remain unaffected by intense heat. It is possible that
the organic colouring-matter of the emerald may be
derived from the decomposition of the animals whose
remains are now fossilized in the rock which forms the
matrix of the gem. This rock, as stated before, is a
limestone slightly bituminous, often black with white
veins, containing ammonites and other shells.
Mr. Lewy has also arrived at the conclusion that
the emerald has been formed in the wet way; that is
to say, it has been deposited from a chemical solution.
The finest emeralds are found at Muzo, in New Granada,
near Santa Fé de Bogotá, 5° 28′ N., in a limestone rock,
not unfrequently black and containing shells; some of
the crystals of carbonate of lime are vitrified and highly
transparent, and the emeralds found imbedded in the
rock are often in crystals of a large size. In the matrix.
minute disseminated crystals of iron pyrites are occa-
sionally found.
The Emerald and Beryl.
133
These mines are let for a term of years by public
tender; they produce to the government about £8000
per annum, but it appears that this price could not have
repaid the speculators, as they declined to continue
their contract at the same rental, and the mines are
now, or were lately, to let. Associated with the eme-
rald in this locality is found that rare mineral “ paris-
ite;" it is a brown hexagonal crystal, quite opaque.
The emerald has also been met with at Henbachthal,
in Salzburg, imbedded in mica slate, at an altitude of
8700 feet above the sea, on a steep precipice, said to be
only accessible by means of ropes. At Odontchelong
in Siberia, and in the Burman Empire, near Ava, it is
found accompanied by spinel, generally of a fine grass-
green colour, rather lighter than the Peruvian emerald.
Monsieur Caillaud, a French traveller, discovered in
the mountain of Zabareh, when on a scientific excursion
for the Pasha of Egypt, an ancient emerald mine, with
large galleries bearing the marks of the miners' tools,
with various ancient appliances, as levers, etc. Pliny
appears to have been well acquainted with the emerald,
speaking of it with admiration, although he confounds
it both with the chrysoprase and jasper. He relates,
that in the island of Cyprus, on the tomb of Hermias
was a sculptured lion, with eyes of emerald, which
shone so brightly that they frightened away the fish,
but the fishermen had these gems replaced by others,
when the fish returned to their accustomed haunts.
Nero, it is well known, observed the feats of the
134
gladiators though an eye-glass of emerald; hence the
name it sometimes bore, Neronianus. Isidorus (Bishop
of Seville, who has previously been referred to) says
of the emerald, that it not only surpasses any green herb
or plant in colour, but that it gives a green colour to
the surrounding air; and that the lapidaries who cut
emeralds have good eyesight, in consequence of the
agreeable reflection they have constantly before them.
This stone was also used in the Middle Ages in church
cups and chalices, and one of the principal ornaments
of the crown of Charlemagne was a lustrous emerald.
The Emerald and Beryl.
After the conquest of Peru, the emerald became
much more common. The Spaniards possessed them-
selves of the hoards which had accumulated for centuries
in the hands of the priests of the goddess Esmeralda,
who was supposed to reside in an enormous emerald,
of the shape and size of an ostrich egg. They per-
suaded the people that the goddess esteemed no offer-
ing so much as one of her own daughters; and on the
holy days, immense numbers were brought as devotional
offerings by the worshippers. It is said that the con-
querors of Peru came into the possession of many hun-
dredweights of this gem; but a priest who accom-
panied the Spanish army persuaded the soldiers that
the test of their being genuine was to smite them with
a hammer on an anvil, which test of course destroyed
a vast number of fine stones. In spite of this, Cortez
presented one hundredweight to the King of Spain;
and on the occasion of his (Cortez's) marriage, he gave
The Emerald and Beryl.
135
his bride several emeralds carved into various forms-
amongst them, an enormous stone shaped like a rose,
a gift which aroused the envy of the Queen, and caused
him to lose his favour at the Court.
There can be no doubt but that this stone was known
in the most remote ages. Necklaces of emeralds have
been found in Etruscan tombs, and at Herculaneum.
It is the fourth of the gems mentioned in the Bible as
worn in the breastplate of the High-Priest; and in
Ezekiel, chap. xxvii., the emerald is mentioned in the
following manner:— “Syria was thy merchant by reason
of the multitude of wares of thy making: they occupied
thy fairs with emerald, purple, and broidered work, fine
linen, agate, and coral." To this day the Orientals
have an immense veneration for the emerald, believing
that it imparts courage to the wearer and averts the
plague. Many fine stones are irretrievably spoilt by
having verses from the Koran engraved upon them, or
by being carved by the Hindoos into figures of idols;
also by having holes drilled through them to permit
their use as nose ornaments.
The following properties were ascribed to the eme-
rald by the ancients, who had dedicated the stone to
Mercury:It was supposed to be good for the eyes,
on which account it was worn as a seal ring; it was
supposed to colour any water green in which it was
placed; to preserve women in childbirth, and to be an
infallible preservative of chastity. When ground down,
it was taken in doses of six grains, as a remedy for vari-
ous diseases.
}
136
The Emerald and Beryl.
Its name appears to be very similar in most lan-
guages, whether Oriental or European; in Arabic it is
called Zamarut; in Chaldean, Ismaragdon; in Greek,
Smaragdos; in Latin, Smaragdus; in Spanish, Esme-
ralda; in French, Emeraude; in Italian, Smeraldo. The
Persians call it Pachee; the Greeks sometimes called it
Prasinus, on account of its colour resembling the
greenness of leeks. The origin of the name is said to
be a Sanskrit word signifying green.
The emerald is so rarely found perfect, that the say-
ing, “an emerald without a flaw," has passed into a
proverb. It is the stone which ranks next in value to
the ruby, and on account of the pleasing effect it has,
both by day and candle-light, is a very favourite gem.
Latterly it has increased enormously in value. The
emeralds which now come into the market seem to be
far inferior to those found in former times. The value,
when of a deep rich grass-green, clear, and free from
flaws, is from £20 to £40 the carat; those of lighter
shade are worth much less, the price ranging from 5s.
to £15 the carat; but experience is the only guide which
can enable any one to form a correct estimate of the ac-
tual worth of any but the very finest quality. The eme-
rald is cut on a copper wheel with emery, and polished
on a tin one with rottenstone; it is most commonly trap
cut, and, when cut like a brilliant, with rounded tables,
it is generally to disguise flaws, which would otherwise
be apparent. In India, advantage is taken of the fa-
cility with which the emerald can be cloven at right
The Beryl or Aquamarine.
137
angles to its axis; so that in Indian ornaments, we often
see very flat emeralds of large size. The one in the
possession of Dhuleep Singh is about three inches long,
two inches wide, and half an inch thick, of a fine colour,
with few imperfections. It is to be remarked, that the
size of the emerald does not increase its value in a cubic
ratio; that is to say, it does not progress in price like
the diamond or ruby.
The treasuries of Europe and Asia are rich in this
gem; the comparatively low price which it formerly
brought, and its pleasing colour, having caused it to be
collected and worn in every country. The Russian,
Saxon, and Papal crowns, contain emeralds of wonder-
ful beauty, and of large size. In the Austrian treasury
there is said to be a crystal of emerald weighing 2000
carats, and the Duke of Devonshire possesses one
weighing nearly 9 ounces.
The mines now seem to
produce crystals very inferior to those formerly coming
thence, and at present it is rare to meet with fine stones.
Few, if any, emeralds possess an historic interest; a de-
scription, therefore, of the large emeralds known would
be useless.
The beryl, or aquamarine, is much more generally dif
fused over the surface of the globe. Some magnificent
specimens are found in Siberia: this stone is also met
with at Invercauld and Kinloch Rannoch, Scotland;
in the Mourne Mountains, county Down; at Dalkey,
and the Three Rock Mountain, county Dublin, and
in Glen Macnap, county Wicklow; at Limoges, in
138
The Beryl or Aquamarine.
France; Bodenmais and Rabenstein, Bavaria; Finbo and
Brodbo, Sweden; in Saxony; Bohemia; in the isle of
Elba; in Norway, Finland; in the Rio San Matheo,
Brazil; in the State of Massachusetts, N. A.; and in
Hindostan. An enormous beryl has been found in
America weighing five tons, but this has not been re-
moved from the spot where it was discovered.
A very large crystal of beryl from America was
shown in 1851; it weighed seventy-eight pounds, but
was unfit for jewellery purposes.
The name, like that of the smaragdus, or emerald,
appears to be the same in most Oriental languages;
in Hebrew, Persian, Chaldee, and Arabic, it is Belur,
which signifies crystal. This will however be seen by
referring to the Comparative Names of Stones men-
tioned in the Bible, page 36.
The commercial value of the beryl, or aquamarine, is
trifling; it is used principally in Birmingham, for imita-
tion jewellery, and as ornaments for metal work. The
yellow variety is called sometimes chrysolite, although
it differs greatly in every other character but colour
from the true chrysolite. The colourless variety is fre-
quently mistaken and sold for white quartz or rock
crystal, although the specific gravity, lustre, and hard-
ness differ materially.
The beryl was well known to the Romans.
mentions it as the gem green as the sea,
(C
Pliny
qui viri-
ditate puri maris imitantur," and hence its name
"aquamarine." Beads of aquamarine have been found
The Zircon, Hyacinth, or Jacinth. 139
in Egyptian mummy-pits, and the Greeks employed the
stone for intaglios more than two thousand years ago.
THE ZIRCON, HYACINTH, OR JACINTH.
This gem belongs to the dimetric system of crystalli-
zation, and is very imperfectly cleavable. Its specific
gravity is 4'07 to 4'75; in lustre it is nearly adamantine,

Crystals of Zircon.
although in the opaque varieties it is vitreous. It varies
in colour from red to yellow, brown, green, grey, and
white. Its fracture is conchoidal and brilliant. When
heated it becomes phosphorescent, and loses its colour,
and at the same time increases in specific gravity. If
allowed to cool, however, when reheated the phos-
phorescence does not reappear. This gem is unaffected by
any acids except sulphuric after long maceration. Before
the blowpipe it is infusible alone, but melts with borax
into a transparent glass. Its chemical composition is—
Zirconia
Silica
•
66.8
33 2
Peroxide of iron
The zircon or hyacinth is found in imbedded and
attached crystals in granite, syenite, and gneiss, and
also in beds of rivers associated with garnets in Ceylon,
140 The Zircon, Hyacinth, or Jacinth.
the East Indies, and New Granada; also in the river
Espailly in France, in the Iser in Bohemia, and in many
places in North America. Specimens of the hyacinth
have been found in the lava of Vesuvius.
This gem is seldom used for the purposes of jewel-
lery, although a solitary specimen, when free from de-
fects, and of a fine colour, may realize a high price. It
is sometimes confounded with the eponite or cinnamon-
stone, but is totally different in the most important
characteristics.
When the hyacinth is of a greyish or smoky-white
colour it is called a jargoon, and is frequently sold for
diamond, which gem it approaches more nearly than
any other in lustre. In the last century the jargoon
was supposed to be an inferior diamond, and was much
used in mourning ornaments.
It is found in great
abundance at Matura, in the island of Ceylon, whence
the natives give it the name of Maturan diamond. It
is rarely found of large size, generally not exceeding
ten to twelve carats in weight.
This gem possesses the characteristic of double re-
fraction to a very high degree, and does not acquire
electricity by heat. The jargoon occurs of several
colours, and is rarely perfectly transparent.
The hyacinth or zircon, and jargoon, are identically
the same stone, differing only in colour. The red varie-
ties are sometimes sold for inferior rubies, although they
almost always have a more yellow tinge than the ruby.
The word "zircon" is supposed to be derived from
The Garnet.
141
the Arabic zerk (a gem); the hyacinth, from the Arabic
yakut (ruby).
Although this gem was well known to the ancients,
it is doubtful whether the stone they called by this
name was the same as the true zircon; by some it is sup-
posed to be the lyncurion of Theophrastus. In Hebrew
it is called techyleth, nhan,
or blue, whilst the hya-
cinth described by Pliny would appear to be the ame-
thyst or sapphire. The magical properties attributed to
it in the Middle Ages were as follows:-it procured
sleep, riches, honour, and wisdom, and it drove away
the plague and evil spirits.
The present value of this gem is purely arbitrary, as
it is but rarely employed in jewellery; formerly it com-
manded a very high price. The jargoon is frequently
cut in the form of a rose-diamond; that is to say, flat at
the bottom, and pointed at the top. The jacinth or
hyacinth is cut like a brilliant, with a rounded table.



Crystals of Garnet.
THE GARNET.
This gem, on account of brilliant colour and hard-
ness, is much used in jewellery, and although an abun-
142
The Garnet.
dant supply renders it of little value, the gem neverthe-
less possesses every quality necessary for ornamental
purposes. There are many varieties of this stone, which
are distinguishable by their colour, and also by the differ-
ence of their chemical composition. The garnet belongs.
to the monometric or cubic system of crystallization,
and is mostly found in rhombic dodecahedral crystals;
when in a matrix its cleavage is dodecahedral; it is
also found massive and in small pebbles in rivers and
alluvial deposits, occasionally (as in the pyrope) in la-
mellar cleavable masses. Its hardness varies from 6.5
to 75; it scratches quartz slightly, and is scratched
readily by ruby or sapphire. Its specific gravity varies
from 3.5 to 4'3; its lustre is vitreous, in some varieties
resinous, as in colophonite-a name applied to a garnet
found in Norway and America. This gem occurs in
many colours, red, brown, yellow, white, green, black;
the streak is white; the diaphaneity varies from trans-
parent to subtranslucent, or nearly opaque, and it has
a subconchoidal or uneven fracture. The garnet is
susceptible of positive electricity by friction, and has a
sensible effect on the magnetic needle. The varieties
used in jewellery are called carbuncle, cinnamon-stone
(or essonite), almandine, and pyrope or Bohemian gar-
net; besides these, there are the leucite, the melanite,
the colophonite, the grossularite, the uwarowite varie-
ties, which are only interesting to the mineralogist.
The chemical composition of the several varieties
differs according to the colours and peculiarities. The
The Garnet.
143
common garnet is essentially a silicate of alumina iron.
The others have various bases, such as lime, magnesia,
oxide of manganese, etc.
Mineralogists have divided them under the following
heads :-
Alumina lime garnet.
Alumina magnesia garnet.
Alumina iron garnet.
Alumina manganese garnet.
Iron lime garnet.
Lime chrome garnet.
It will suffice here to give the analyses of the most
important varieties.
The composition of the almandine is—
Silica
Alumina
Protoxide of iron
Of the essonite, or cinnamon-stone-
Silica
Alumina
Lime
Of the pyrope, or Bohemian garnet—
36°30
20˚50
43°20
38.80
21 20
27.20
Silica
Alumina
•
40'00
28°50
Peroxide of iron
•
16.50
Peroxide of manganese
•
0*25
Oxide of chrome
Magnesia
Lime
མ་
2'00
10'00
3'50
144
The Garnet.
Before the blowpipe the almandine and common
garnet fuse somewhat easily, forming a glass of various
colours. The pyrope, on the other hand, fuses with
difficulty before the blowpipe to a black glass. Both
varieties are imperfectly soluble in hydrochloric acid.
The first and most important variety is the common
iron-garnet, which is precisely the same stone as the
almandine, except that the common garnet is of a blood-
red colour slightly tinged with brown, whilst the al-
mandine has a blue tinge mingled with the red. The
term carbuncle is applied indiscriminately when they
are cut en cabochon-or, to use the old English expres-
sion, tallow-topped-which means cut, not in facets, but
with a flat or hollow base, and a smooth convex top.
The Syrian or Oriental garnet is found in alluvial soil,
in India, Pegu, Ceylon, Brazil, etc. The common garnet
occurs embedded in mica, slate, granite, gneiss, etc.,
sometimes in limestone, chlorite-slate, serpentine, and
lava; generally in dodecahedral crystal, sometimes six
or seven inches in diameter, in the Tyrol, at Fahlun
in Sweden, Arendal, Norway. These, however, are
only a few of the localities, as the garnet is found dis-
tributed in greater or less plenty all over the world; in
America alone, more than a hundred places might be
mentioned where it is found, so that it is unnecessary to
specify other places.
The Syrian garnets are so called, not because they
come from Syria, but after Syrian, the capital of Pegu.
The colour ranges from the deepest crimson to a violet-
The Garnet.
145
purple, resembling the Oriental amethyst. These stones
are found from a quarter of an inch to two and even
three inches in diameter; they are cut with emery or
garnet-powder on a copper wheel, and polished on lead
with tripoli when faceted. It is the rule to keep them
rather thin, on account of the depth of their colour:
they are not infrequently cut into beads and strung as
necklaces. The term almandine is mentioned by Pliny
as derived from Alabanda, where these gems were cut
and polished. Frequently they are set with backs and
foiled to imitate rubies, and indeed, are sometimes sold
as such even to persons in the trade, although to those
acquainted with the physical peculiarities of the gem,
and who do not rely solely on the eye, the difference
is obvious.
Both the garnet and the almandine are frequently
cut in facets and polished, but although at one period
extremely fashionable they have now become obsolete
and possess but little commercial value. When cut en
cabochon, however, they bear the name of carbuncle,
and if of large size, pure and free from black spots,
they are worth as much as twenty pounds each.
The next variety is the pyrope, or Bohemian garnet,
found in Bohemia, Saxony, and other parts of Ger-
many; it has among its constituents a portion of lime
and chrome, and is one of the hardest of the garnet
family. In colour it is a deep-red. This stone is
found in alluvial soil, in a peculiar argillaceous and cal-
careous conglomerate (in Bohemia), often in company.
L
146
The Garnet.
with granite, micaceous slate, and serpentine. It is
obtained by digging, and cleansed from the adherent
earth by repeated washings, and sorted according to size
and quality. These stones are greatly esteemed in
Austria, Transylvania, and Turkey, (but not in other
European countries,) and are sold at very high prices :
for a necklace of beads about the size of peas 600
gulden, or £60, was asked in Vienna.
The next variety is the essonite, better known in
commerce by the name of cinnamon-stone, which
comes under the head of lime garnet; it melts more
easily than the other kinds and is much softer, the
average hardness being only 65 to 7. As its name
implies, it is of a reddish-yellow tint, resembling the
colour of cinnamon. These stones come principally
from Ceylon, and are frequently sold for hyacinths
or jacinths, from which, however, they differ in many
important peculiarities.
The other varieties are not used for purposes of
jewellery; they are interesting only to mineralogists, and
may be briefly described as follows:
The grossularite, which belongs to the alumina-lime
garnet variety, is of a greenish colour, sometimes black.
Found in Siberia.
The succinite, a yellow garnet of the same composi-
tion. Found in Piedmont.
The colophonite and melanite, which are iron-lime
garnets, one brown, the other black.
The leucite, a silicate of alumina and potash, is
Tourmaline.
147
white it is found in the lava of Vesuvius and in Si-
beria.
The brown garnet or Spessartine, a manganese-alu-
mina garnet, found at Spessart in Germany; it is also
met with in Sweden and Finland.
And, lastly, the uwarowite, a lime-chrome garnet of a
bright green, found in Siberia. It is named after Uwarow,
President of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.
The garnet (particularly the pyropean variety) is
sometimes used in powder for the same purposes as
emery, although of inferior hardness. The ancients
were well acquainted with the garnet by the name of
carbuncle, which they applied to all stones of a red
colour. Pliny describes vessels of the capacity of a pint
formed out of carbuncle devoid of all lustre or beauty
of colour, but they were most probably fashioned of
some of the massive varieties of the garnet.
Theophrastus speaks of a Massilian carbuncle, which,
when held against the sun, resembled a glowing coal.
The old writers of the middle ages also ascribe great
value to this gem. The superstitious and magical pro-
perties attributed to it were similar to those ascribed to
the ruby.
THE TOURMALINE.
This gem is very little used for jewellery. Of the
many varieties, the only one occasionally employed is
that of a dark olive-green tint. It is found, however, of
various colours-red and pink, when it takes the name
L 2
148
Tourmaline.
of rubelite-blue, when it is called indicolite,-white,
brown, and black. The tourmaline belongs to the
rhombohedral or hexagonal system of crystallization; the
crystals are usually found in triangular or hexagonal
prisms, generally with a flat three-faced termination at
each end; the cleavage being very difficult to obtain,
the fracture is imperfectly conchoidal; the hardness is
70 to 7.5; the specific gravity 2'99 to 3'33; the lustre,

Crystals of Tourmaline.
vitreous. It is found of all grades of diaphaneity, from
transparent to opaque; unequal in transparency across
the prism, and in the line of the axis it is pyro-electric
in a high degree, the refraction double, and exhibits di-
chroism; its powers of polarizing light are so great, that,
cut into slices, it is used in the polariscope for analysing
the optical properties of other minerals. If two slices
of tourmaline, cut parallel with their axes, be laid one
on the other in one direction, they are both transparent;
if laid in another direction they become opaque; and,
if a doubly refracting crystal be brought between two
plates of tourmaline, the part covered by the crystal is
transparent, whilst the other is opaque. The extremities
of the crystals frequently terminate in a different man-
ner, a circumstance of rare occurrence in other crystals.
Tourmaline.
149
The red tourmaline is found in Ceylon, Ava, and
Siberia, and is known in commerce by the name of
Brazilian ruby, for which stone it is sometimes sold in
mistake. The yellow, grey, and brown varieties are
principally found in Ceylon; and the green and blue
in the Brazils. These latter are sometimes called the
Brazilian emerald and sapphire. The black tourmaline
occurs in granite formations in Bavaria, the United
States, Greenland, and in this country in Devonshire and
Cornwall. The white variety, which is very rare, is
found in the island of Elba, on Mount St. Gothard, and
in Siberia.
The chemical composition of the different varieties is
as follows:-
•
Silica
•
Boracic acid
Alumina
•
Peroxide of iron
Protoxide of iron
Magnesia.
Lime
Soda
Potash
Phosphorus
Fluorine
•
Black variety
from Greenland. Green variety
Analysis by
Rammelsberg.
37.70
7.36
Red variety
from Siberia.
Analysis by
Rammelsberg.
38.38
from Brazil.
•
39'16
4'59
7.41
•
34'53
40'00
43'97
4*63
0*25
5'96
9'51
1'60
I'25
0.62
2'00
1'97
0'43
3'59
O'21
O'II
0.27
2923
2.47
2.14
2.60
I'58
0*48
Peroxide of manganese
Loss by ignition
•
Lithia .
150
The Tourmaline.
The tourmaline is also found in a massive state, some-
times fibrous or radiating. Under the blowpipe it swells
up, and fuses into a sort of slag. The crystals are occa-
sionally found parti-coloured-for instance, red internally
and green externally, others blue and green, and fre-
quently in those found in Elba, red at one end, yellow
in the middle, and black or brown at the other extre-
mity. When heated or rubbed, the tourmaline ac-
quires a different degree of electricity at each extremity.
If broken whilst in that state, the fragments, like artificial
magnets, present opposite poles.
The tourmaline is cut upon a leaden or zinc wheel
with emery, and polished with tripoli. The transparent
varieties are generally trap cut; the opaque are faceted
both above and below the girdle.
The lapidary is obliged to bear in mind that this stone
is only transparent in one direction, and that, unless the
table be parallel with the axis of the crystal, an other-
wise transparent stone will appear opaque on looking
through it. This stone was first brought to Europe by
the Dutch from Ceylon, and they gave it the name of
aschentrekker, from its sometimes attracting and some-
times repelling hot ashes when laid near it for any
length of time. The tourmaline was considered a chry-
solite when yellow, a sapphire when blue, etc.; and
even now it is of no uncommon occurrence to find it
sold under other names, although the quality it possesses
of acquiring magnetic properties by means of heat af-
fords a ready means of distinguishing it from any other
Quartz.
151
gem. The tourmaline has very little commercial value
except for optical purposes. Its name is undoubtedly
of Cingalese origin.
QUARTZ.
Amethyst, Cairngorm, Chrysoprase, Onyx, Sardonyx,
Cornelian, Chalcedony, Mocha-stone, Agate, Cat's-
eye, Jasper, Blood-stone, Aventurine, Rock Crystal.
Under this denomination a large number of gems are
comprised, generally of small value, although a solitary
specimen of fine quality may bring a large price. The
gems named above, notwithstanding they are all of the
same composition, change their appellation as they differ

Crystals of Quartz.
in colour; and, as the chief characteristics of each are
similar, the physical peculiarities of the whole will be
first described, after which all the varieties can be men-
tioned separately.
Quartz belongs to the rhombohedral system of crys-
tallization; many varieties, however, are found massive
and compact.
It occurs in hexagonal prisms, often
having pyramids at each end. Some appear to have
each alternate plane of the prism absorbed in the others,
giving the appearance of three-sided prisms or pyra-
152
Quartz
mids; some are found with only the two pyramids,
having no prism; and others with modifications of the
angles and edges; often in twin or double crystals. As
a rule, all crystals of quartz are more or less striated
across the planes of the prism; sometimes very distinct,
sometimes hardly perceptible; but never striated lon-
gitudinally down the prism, as with the topaz or beryl.
The specific gravity of all the members of this family
varies from 25 to 2.8 in hardness; it is numbered -
in the scale, and scratches glass readily. The lustre is
vitreous when transparent, inclining to resinous when
opaque. The fracture is conchoidal, and the cleavage
very indistinct; the refraction is double, and it be-
comes positively electric by friction. The family of
quartz may be classed under three heads :-
The vitreous—or transparent;
The resinous—or opaque; and
The jaspery--or the varieties having the dull colour
and opacity of the jasper.
All the varieties are found of various colours and
shades; the chemical composition is pure silica, or
Silicon
Oxygen
•
48.04
5196
f
It is insoluble by all acids except hydrofluoric; it does
not melt before the blowpipe, but when exposed to the
flame of the oxyhydrogen jet it melts, so that it can be
drawn into fine threads, and at last becomes volatilized.
When two pieces of quartz are rubbed together they be-
come phosphorescent, and emit an empyreumatic odour.
Rock Crystal.
153
ROCK CRYSTAL.
The first variety of vitreous quartz is the colourless
one called Rock Crystal, which is found in beautifully-
formed crystals-either detached or in groups, and in
rounded water-worn pebbles-in various localities in
almost every part of the globe :-in the Isle of Wight,
at Bristol, on Snowdon, in Derbyshire, Cornwall, Cum-
berland, and on Cairngorm, in Scotland; in the moun-
tains in Wicklow and Donegal, Ireland; in Savoy
and Dauphiné; in the Carrara Mountains, in Hungary,
and on the Alps, etc. It is also met with in the East
Indies, Ceylon, Brazil, Quito, Canada, and Australia.
Crystal sometimes contains admixture of mica, rutile,
tourmaline, topaz, asbestos, bitumen, and other foreign
matters, and is often found with a greenish mineral
called chlorite; occasionally possessing a cavity contain-
ing water, with an air-bubble in it, which moves as the
crystal is turned about; sometimes containing gases and
liquids. Crystals of a very large size are occasionally
met with, but they are rarely perfect. One specimen,
in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, measures three feet in
diameter, and weighs eight hundred pounds. Geodes,
or hollow globular masses of quartz, are found in many
trap rocks; some of them occur of as large a size as
two feet in diameter: small specimens are found at
Clifton, near Bristol, where they are known as potato
stones. This stone, under the name of pebble, is used by
154
Rock Crystal.
opticians for making the lenses of spectacles, on account.
of its superior hardness and durability to glass, and its
coldness,—as it, in common with all precious stones, feels
cool to the touch. The lenses, however, must be cut
at right angles to the axis of the crystal, in order to
avoid the effect of the double refraction of the mineral,
which is not only unpleasant, but prejudicial to the
eyesight; colourless quartz is also used in the polariscope,
in sections cut across the prism. Lately it has been
much used in jewellery, stones and enamel being in-
crusted in it. In India the natives hollow it out into
cups, goblets, and vases of a surprising thinness, and
frequently cover them with the most elaborate orna-
mentation. The Chinese also use this substance largely,
and attach great value to it, although the forms into
which they cut it are less graceful, and the ornamenta-
tion far inferior to that of the Indian workmen. In
Japan it is cut into large round balls, which are said.
to be used for the purpose of cooling the hands. The
Eastern nations frequently make it into beads for neck-
laces. The natives of India believe the crystal to be
the mother, or external husk, of the diamond, and call
the diamond the ripe, and the crystal the unripe,
diamond. The ancient Egyptians used the crystal for
making cylinders, scarabæi, etc., some specimens being
elaborately engraved. The Greeks supposed it to be
water congealed by intense cold, as the name (xρÚσTAλλOS,
ice) signifies; and it was thought to be procurable only
in the frozen regions. In the Middle Ages it was be-
Rock Crystal.
155
lieved to be incapable of containing poisons, and that it
would betray their presence by becoming obscured, or
by breaking; consequently, cups and goblets of it were
highly esteemed, being frequently covered with the most
beautiful ornamentation.
The Emperor Nero is related to have possessed two
magnificent crystal cups, engraved with subjects from
the Iliad, which cost an enormous sum. When his
downfall took place he destroyed them, that no one else
might drink from them. Numerous specimens of the
Cinque Cento period are still extant, both of German
and Italian workmanship, in various museums and in
private hands. The large round balls, under proper ma-
nipulation, were supposed to possess magical powers,
and to disclose events which were to happen, and show
persons who were distant. The famous crystal globe
of Dr. Dee is an illustration of this belief. Crystal
was used medicinally in powder, mixed with wine, and
given in cases of dysentery; pieces, also, were held
against the tongue in fevers to assuage thirst.
The value of the ordinary crystal in the rough, for
such sizes as will cut into lenses, varies from 28. to 158.
per pound avoirdupois, depending on the quality; but
pieces of large size bring very high prices, particularly
when cut, as the operation of cutting so hard a substance
from the solid mass into a hollow vase, cup or dish, is,
of course, attended with danger, and requires a great
expenditure of time and labour. The stone is cut on
a copper wheel by means of emery, and polished with
156
Rock Crystal.
tripoli. If required to be drilled, splinter of diamond
is used; for engraving, diamond-powder is necessary,
and sometimes a pattern or device is etched on it
with fluoric acid. Strass, or paste, is very often sold for
crystal when quite pure and free from air-bubbles, but it
is easily detected by its inferior hardness and greater
weight.
The green, pink, and other coloured beads which are
sold in Switzerland and Germany are made of crystal,
coloured by artificial means. They are heated to red-
ness, and then thrown into various chemical solutions,
according to the colour desired to be produced. The
sudden change of temperature causes the crystal to
fissure or crack all over, and the liquid permeates the
pores of the mineral. These cracks are very minute
and imperceptible to the naked eye, and give the crystal
the effect of being coloured through the mass.
At the time of the French revolution of 1791 the
Crown treasures were valued, and amongst them were
a great number of pieces of crystal, in goblets, vases, urns,
etc.; some merely polished, and some beautifully carved
and engraved. The whole collection was, even then,
estimated at more than 1,000,000 francs.
THE AMETHYST.
The next variety of the vitreous portion of the quartz
family is called amethyst, which is of a fine violet
colour, passing from white to a deep purple, sometimes
Amethyst.
157
in the same specimen. The deep purple-coloured spe-
cimens are frequently called oriental, even by jewellers
and lapidaries, although the oriental amethyst is an en-
tirely different stone, which has already been described
under the head of sapphire. The colour of this gem is by
some supposed to be derived from a trace of the oxide of
manganese. Later analyses, however, have discovered.
also silica, iron, and soda. Heintz obtained, from a
very deep purple Brazilian amethyst,—
Oxide of iron
Lime
Magnesia
Soda
•
0*0187
0'6236
0'0133
00418
The amethyst is found in India, Ceylon, the Brazils,
Persia, Siberia, Hungary, Saxony, Spain, etc. A fine
vein is said to exist near Kerry, in Ireland. In Oberstein
it is found in a trap rock, in geodes of agate. These
geodes are sometimes as much as two feet in diameter,
hollow, and filled with crystalized amethyst of a fine
colour. Similar geodes are also said to exist in India.
This variety of quartz, in common with some other of
the vitreous members of the family, possesses a pecu-
liarly minute, wrinkled, or wavy fracture on the fresh-
broken surface, resembling the impression of the skin
of the thumb on a waxy substance. Sir David Brew-
ster classes all kinds of quartz having this peculiarity as
amethysts, without regard to their colour.
This gem is found in pieces of considerable size, and,
158
Amethyst.
from its beautiful colour and play, is much used in
jewellery. Many years ago, amethysts were of consider-
able value, ranking next to the sapphire, and when fine
selling at 30s. per carat; but immense quantities having
been sent from the Brazils, they became common, gra-
dually went out of fashion, and became nearly value-
less. Latterly, however, the taste for them has revived,
and at the present time they are gaining ground in
public estimation. A fine clear deep-coloured amethyst,
of the size of a two-shilling piece, is worth from £10
to £15; smaller sizes and inferior qualities are sold at
from 28. to 100S.
The amethyst is cut in various ways; but the mode
which best shows the beauty of the stone is the brilliant-
cut with a rounding table,—that is to say, cut like a dia-
mond, but with the table, or flat part of the stone, slightly
domed. Very few amethysts are cut in this country,
as the price of labour is too high great quantities are
sent to Germany, where it is far cheaper. This stone
appears to the greatest advantage when set with diamonds
or pearls. By candlelight it loses a part of its beauty,
being apt to appear of a blackish hue. The amethyst
cut on a copper wheel with emery, and polished on tin
with tripoli. This stone takes a very fine polish.
The name amethyst is from the Greek ȧµévoros, de-
rived from a μedów, "not to inebriate,"—in allusion to
the superstition that this stone had the power of dissi-
pating drunkenness. Pliny says that the gem was so
called from the fact of its approaching near to the colour
Cairngorm, Cinnamon Stone, etc. 159
of wine, but not quite reaching it. In the Middle Ages,
it was believed to dispel sleep, sharpen the intellect, and
to be an antidote against poison. In 1652 an amethyst
was worth as much as a diamond of equal weight.
CAIRNGORM, CINNAMON STONE, FALSE TOPAZ, ETC.
As a variety of quartz, the cairngorm possesses pre-
cisely those physical characteristics mentioned at p. 152,
in treating of the subject generally. This stone takes
its name from the fact of its being found in the Cairn-
gorm mountains, in Scotland. It is commonly supposed
that only the smoky varieties have a right to the name
of" cairngorm"; but it really is very difficult to decide,
as the name appears to run through all shades of colour
from black to yellow. Jewellers and lapidaries call these
stones Brazilian topaz, Mexican topaz, Spanish topaz,
smoke-stone, etc., just as their fancy dictates, and always
appear to have a separate name ready for every tint of
colour. This, however, would not be of so much con-
sequence if they confined this loose nomenclature to the
varieties of quartz; but utterly regardless of chemical
composition, they call all pale green stones aquamarine,
all pale yellow stones topazes, etc. etc.
The lapidaries of Edinburgh cut the cairngorm in a
way which displays the colour of this stone in a most
remarkable manner, causing great brilliancy. They
cover the underside of the stone entirely with oblong
facets arranged in regular rows; while the table is sur-
t
160
Avanturine.
rounded with triangular facets, keeping the stone as
thick as possible, which produces the deep orange-colour
observed in them. Some lapidaries have a mode of
changing the colour of these gems by heat; in thin
stones, used by spectacle-makers for optical purposes,
there is a method employed of taking the colour en-
tirely away.
The cairngorm is found in every part of the world
-in Brazil, Switzerland, Germany, Siberia, the United
States, and in Ireland and Scotland-usually in crystals,
sometimes in water-worn pebbles. In Siberia, crystals
of smoky quartz are occasionally found penetrated by
crystals of beryl, in the same manner as crystals of
white quartz are found with crystals of topaz running
through them.
False topaz is only another name for cairngorm.
Cinnamon is the name applied to those deep-coloured
crystals, mostly found in the Brazils, and which differ
in no other respect from the cairngorm. The French
term this stone pierre de cannelle.
This stone is very little used for articles of jewellery,
except in Scotland, where it adorns the handles of snuff
mulls, dirks, powder-horns, and other articles of High-
land costume. It is also much used in Birmingham for
mounting in brass and gilt work.
AVANTURINE, OR AVENTurine.
This is another vitreous variety of quartz, of a pearly
Avanturine.
161
grey, brown, or reddish-brown colour, and contains mi-
nute spangles of mica, which give it a glistening ap-
pearance. Its lustre is vitreous, inclining to resinous.
The stone is found on the shores of the White Sea,
in Bohemia, Silesia, and in India; but the finest quality
comes from the Cape de Gata, in Spain, and from
Ekatherinenberg, in Siberia. The green variety is appa-
rently coloured by copper, but it has not the peculiar
nickel green of the chrysoprase. There is a kind of
mica schist, of a reddish colour, which is frequently
sold for aventurine. It occurs in many localities, but
both are used for snuff-boxes and cane-handles, although
very rarely for purposes of jewellery.
The artificial aventurine is far more beautiful than the
real. It is made by heating together, for a considerable
time, eight parts of ground glass, one part protoxide of
copper, and two parts of oxide of iron, the mixture
being allowed to cool very slowly. It is said that the
name of aventurine arose from a workman in the glass
factory at Venice letting fall by accident (per aventura)
some brass filings into a pot of melted glass, and the
product thence received the name of " aventurine."
The Emperor of Russia had two large vases cut out
of this material, which he presented to Sir Roderick
Murchison.
CHRYSOPRASE.
This stone belongs to the chalcedonic variety of
quartz, and is found massive in thick layers, which are
M
162
Chrysoprase.
never crystallized. It has an even or fine splintery, or
a flat conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is slightly less
than the other descriptions of quartz. An analysis by
Klaproth obtained the following:-
Silica
•
Oxide of nickel
Lime
96.16
1'00
0.83
It is found at Kosemutz, in Silesia, imbedded in
serpentine, and associated with a metal called pimelite,
also with opal and chalcedony. The kings of Prussia
used only to allow the mines in which this stone was
found to be opened once in three years, and kept the
finest specimens for themselves. It is reported to have
been likewise discovered at the Belmont lead-mine, St.
Laurence, U.S.
The chrysoprase, although formerly valuable in this
country, is now nearly worthless, not being used for
jewellery. On the Continent it is made into snuff-boxes,
stick-tops, and even brooches and pins. It is cut en ca-
bochon, at the bottom, and with small facets round the
edge of the upper side. In the course of time the
chrysoprase loses its fine colour, but much more rapidly
when kept in a dry warm place: this loss is also occa-
sioned by the action of light. It is said that the colour
can be restored by a solution of nitrate of nickel.
The name chrysoprase is derived from two Greek
words, xpvoos and mpáσov, signifying "golden leek," on
account of its colour. It was much used amongst the
ancient Greeks and Romans for rings, and fine intaglios
Onyx and Sardonyx.
163
and cameos are still in existence of the early Greek
period.
ONYX AND SARDONYX.
These, the most important members of all the chalce-
donic family of quartz, are distinguished from the agate
by the position of the stripes or layers. The onyx is
generally of a blackish or brownish colour, striped with
white; occasionally, also, with a greenish layer. The
sardonyx is of a deep rich brown, inclining to orange,
and, when held against the light, exhibits a deep-red hue.
Onyx is found at Yemen in Arabia, at Guzerat, at Ober-
stein in Saxony, in the southern part of Russia, in Perth-
shire, the Isle of Skye, and at various spots in Ireland.
The onyx derives its name from the Greek ovvέ,
signifying "nail," it being supposed to have a resem-
blance to the human nail. The finest onyxes are
brought from India, in pieces of a circular or oval form,
rounded on the top, with the white stripe running
round the brown or black centre near the margin, like
the eye of a lynx, which the natives think it resem-
bles. These stones are also termed by jewellers “eye-
stones." The more concentric rings or layers a stone
possesses, the more valuable does it become. Onyxes
frequently reach this country in the form of beads; in
that case the white stripe runs through them diago-
nally. Sometimes these beads are elaborately carved, but
this destroys their value, instead of enhancing it. The
M 2
164
Onyx, Sardonyx, etc.
Indian or Oriental onyxes realize a much larger price
than the German ones; and many lapidaries in this
country have the erroneous idea that all the translucent.
ones are Oriental, that they are very much harder, and
that it is impossible to stain them artificially, which is
quite fallacious, as Indian or Oriental onyxes are of
precisely the same nature as the German ones, and are
equally susceptible of being coloured.
The trade in German onyxes is extremely large. At
Oberstein and Idar are regular works, established on a
large scale, for cutting, slitting, drilling, and staining
onyxes and agates; the mills are driven by the water-
power of the river Aar, which runs into the Rhine
opposite Bingen. The grinding and cutting wheels are of
very large size, some six or seven feet in diameter; and
labour being exceedingly cheap, these operations are
performed at an incredibly low cost. The labourers lie
on their faces, on a bench constructed for the purpose,
and hold the stones against the wheels, their feet rest-
ing against two supports firmly fixed to the bench, in
order to get greater purchase, and to be enabled to
work more rapidly.

Onyx, Sardonyx, etc.
165
Onyxes, agates, etc., are without difficulty stained
to any colour by artificial means; for black, the stone
is first boiled in honey, oil, or sugared water, and then
in sulphuric acid, which carbonizes the oil or sugar the
stone has absorbed; for red, protosulphate of iron is
added, thereby leaving the iron in the form of an
oxide; for the deep blue colour sometimes seen on
onxyes, yellow prussiate of potash is added to the proto-
sulphate of iron. It must be remarked that it is only
the more porous parts of the stone which absorb the
sugar, and the carbonization heightens greatly the con-
trast between the white and black layers.
- The stones styled nicolo or onicolo are a variety of
onyx, having a deep brown ground, overlaid by a layer
of bluish-white; the white layer being excessively thin,
the dark colour shows through. These stones are prin-
cipally found in Bohemia and the Tyrol. Amongst the
ancients they were much valued for engraving cameos
and intaglios. The name nicolo is derived from the
Greek Νιχόλαος.
The sardonyx is of a reddish-brown colour, consisting
of alternate layers of chalcedony and carnelion. The
name is derived from the union of the sard and the onyx,
which were formerly considered to be different stones.
The sard is supposed to have derived its name from the
ancient Sardis, or from the Greek word σápέ, flesh,
on account of its colour, which somewhat resembles
raw flesh. Both onyx and sardonyx are much used in
jewellery, especially for signet rings; the different layers
166
Onyx, Sardonyx, etc.
of the stone affording good contrasts for the display of
the engraving; they are also cut into cups, vases, knife
and sword handles, and are much used in beads for
necklaces.
The onyx was the eleventh stone on the breastplate
of the high priest, according to the Authorized Version
of the Scriptures, although the almost complete uni-
formity of the other translations, given on page 36,
would lead to a supposition that the eleventh stone was
the beryl, and not the onyx. The precious ring thrown
into the sea by the tyrant of Samos, Polycrates, was a
sardonyx. The chaplets or rosaries worn by the fakirs
of India, from the time of Pliny down to the present
day, were and are usually made of onyx beads.
With regard to the value of these stones, although
an onyx when known to be Oriental is of infinitely
higher commercial value than a German onyx, yet, as
they are identically the same stone, and as there is great
reason to believe that those coming from India are fre-
quently coloured by the process described on page 165,
one is at a loss to understand why there should be any
difference when the quality and translucency are iden-
tical, more particularly as no lapidary or jeweller can
tell one from the other. If a fine stone be shown to
a number of competent judges, it will most likely be
pronounced German by one half, and Oriental by the
other. The writer has seen onyxes sell for as high a
price as £200 each, when of large size, beautiful co-
lour, and with many layers.
Onyx, Sardonyx, etc.
167
The German beads fetch from 6d. to 6s. each, ac-
cording to size and quality, and for those of Indian
origin the most widely divergent prices are asked and
obtained.
The onyx and sardonyx have been used for cameos
from a very early period; the darker shades are usually
left to form the ground, and the lighter shades cut
into figures. In the library of the Vatican at Rome
is the renowned cameo said to have belonged to the
Emperor Augustus; in the Imperial Library in Paris.
are the well-known onyx cameos of Marcus Aurelius
and Faustina, Agrippina and her two children, Venus
rising from the sea surrounded with cupids, and many
others.
A marvellously fine antique sardonyx cameo of five
strata, representing the bust of Faustina, was sold at the
sale of the effects of the Marquis de Dree for 7000
francs.
The art of cutting cameos, which has long been neg-
lected, seems now about to be revived, as some creditable
productions have recently appeared both at Paris and at
Roine; and though still far behind the work of ancient
and mediæval artists, are great improvements on the
wretched productions which were sent forth a few years
ago.
This stone was supposed in ancient times to cause
strife and melancholy, and to be a cure for epileptic
fits. Mithridates, king of Pontus, is reported to have
had two thousand cups made of this material.
168
The Sard and Carnelion.
THE SARD AND CARNELION.
These are two varieties of chalcedony, of bright red
and yellow tints; the liver-coloured or brownish-red
specimens being called sard, and the bright red, white,
and yellow ones carnelions. The best stones of this kind
are found at Cambay and Surat, in India, and in
Arabia; they are also found in Saxony, Scotland, Ire-
land, and New Zealand. They take a most beautiful
polish, and are particularly adapted for seals, as they
"deliver" easily from the heated wax, without destroying
the impression. This quality was remarked by Pliny,
who extolled the stone beyond the sapphire. The name
carnelion is derived from the Latin carnis, flesh, on
account of its colour. The carnelions are very little
used in this country, although popular in Germany and
Poland. The specimens found in Europe are generally
of a muddy or cloudy tint, far inferior to those coming
from India. It is a fact that exposure to the sun for a
considerable period makes the colour of the stone brighter
and deeper; artificial heat fails to produce the same
effect, which would lead to the supposition that light
as well as heat exercises an influence in effecting the
change in colour, which must arise from the oxidation
of the iron contained in the stone.
CHALCEDONY, MOCHA-STONES, PLASMA, AND AGATE.
Chalcedony is a variety of quartz; according to Fuchs,
Chalcedony, Mocha-stones, etc. 169
pure quartz, with opal disseminated through it. This
stone is usually of a greyish colour, but sometimes oc-
curs milky-white, pinkish, or of a smalt-blue: in the
latter case it is called sapphirine. It is never found
crystallized. Some Indian varieties are yellowish, which
is owing to the presence of oxide of iron. It is often
found lining agate geodes, in trap rocks, and sometimes
stratified, various tints alternating; it is semi-transpa-
rent, translucent (to nearly opaque) and as hard as
quartz, but much less fragile, being very tough, and
breaking with an even fracture, exhibiting little or no
lustre. Before the blowpipe it becomes an opaque
white. It is found in flints in most chalk-pits and
in Europe is met with in Cornwall, Transylvania, and
Iceland. From its hardness and toughness, this stone
is well adapted for engraving, and has been used for
this purpose from the most ancient period. White
chalcedony, with minute blood-red spots, is called St.
Stephen's-stone.
The chalcedonyx is a variety of chalcedony, having
alternate stripes of white and grey. Plasma is a faintly-
translucent variety which was much used in ancient
times for engraving. Many fine gems are extant in
this material; it is of a grass- or olive-green colour,
sprinkled with minute yellow and white specks, and
possesses a resinous sort of lustre; it is found among
the ruins of Rome, in the Schwarzwald, in India and
China. The name is derived from the Greek πλάσμα,
"image."
170
Agate.
The mocha- or moko-stone is a variety containing in-
filtrated dendritic oxides of manganese and iron, which
give it the appearance of containing vegetable remains.
It is found in Arabia, and is said to derive its name
from Mocha; others suppose the name mocha-stone to
be a corruption of moschas, or moss-stone.
AGATE.
The agate (another variety of chalcedony) is of dif
ferent colours, arranged in bands of various thicknesses,
often variegated in small masses in a matrix of chal-
cedony. When the lines are thin and zigzag, it is called
fortification agate, from its fancied resemblance to the
outlines of a fortification; when in nearly straight
lines, it is called ribbon agate; when containing appa-
rent marks of vegetation, moss agate.
This stone is manufactured into articles of utility as
well as ornament; it is much used for making bur-
nishers, mortars for chemical purposes, balances of
scales (where great nicety is desired), cups, vases, seal-
handles, etc. It may be coloured artificially, in the
same manner as the onyx.
The principal manufactories are at Oberstein, where,
however, the supply has fallen off. The rough stones
are now brought from the Brazils, India, Australia, etc.,
coming to Hamburg and other ports in ships with light
cargoes as ballast. The numerous specimens termed
Brighton, Isle of Wight, Aberystwith, and Irish pebbles,
;
Agate.
171
as well as those sold at Chamounix, Niagara, etc., are
in reality these Brazilian or Indian agates, and are dis-
tinguishable from the Oberstein agate by being water-
worn whilst the Oberstein agates are generally covered
with a greenish mineral called delessite, a silicate of
iron, and frequently have some of the trap rock adhering
to them. The beach pebbles, found on the south coast
of England, are exported in great quantities to Germany;
they always have the same mixture of colours, clouded
with a fine brown, with black and grey.
In some spe-
cimens fine sections of choanites may be observed, thus
proving them to have been formed in the cretaceous age,
and to be totally different from real agate.
The Scotch pebbles, sold in Edinburgh as Scotch
jewellery, are frequently cut and mounted in Oberstein,
although many are really made from agate quarried
near Perth, and manufactured and mounted in Scotland.
The name agate, according to Theophrastus, is derived
from the river Achates, in Sicily, now called Drillo,
whence they were first brought. The agate was much
esteemed by the Greeks and Romans, more especially
those specimens wherein a fanciful resemblance to natural
objects occurred. Pliny relates that Pyrrhus possessed a
natural agate, in which was depicted Apollo playing on
the lyre, and the Nine Muses with their attributes.
CAT'S-EYE.
This is another chalcedonic variety of quartz, found
172
Cat's-eye.
of a yellowish-green, yellowish-brown, blackish, and
hyacinth-red colour. It derives its name from possessing
a peculiar opalescent lustre, between resinous and vi-
treous, which shows most strongly when cut en cabochon.
When held towards the light, it resembles the contracted
pupil of the eye of a cat; this singular effect being
caused by fibres of amianthoid asbestos running parallel
across the stone. It is usually translucent, sometimes
quite transparent, very easily broken, and the fracture
imperfectly conchoidal. Before the blowpipe it loses its
lustre and transparency, and in powder is fusible, although
with difficulty. It occurs in a massive form in Bavaria,
the Hartz Mountains, and in Bohemia; but the good
quality only comes from Ceylon and the Malabar coast,
where it is found in small rounded pebbles. The cutting
is usually performed in Ceylon, and when exhibiting the
cat's-eye peculiarity in perfection, is much esteemed.
This gem is frequently confounded by jewellers and
lapidaries with the true or chrysoberyl cat's-eye, which
they also persist in calling "chrysolite cat's-eye." The
chrysoberyl (termed "cymophane" when opalescent) is
a much more beautiful gem, and may easily be distin-
guished by its superior hardness and greater specific
gravity.
The cat's-eye is much used in jewellery for rings and
pins, and its value has tripled in the last ten years. It
is impossible to fix any value which would guide a pur-
chaser, the price being a fancy one, dependent on the
size and beauty of the gem.
Jasper.
173
The cat's-eye is usually set with a black or gold foil,
to heighten its play and brilliancy. This stone was de-
dicated to their god Belus by the ancient Assyrians, and
was called by classic authors oculus Beli, and λevкo
oplaλμos (wolf's-eye).
JASPER.
This stone-another of the many varieties of quartz—
is very compact, and is found of various colours-dark
green, red, brown, yellow, greyish, and sometimes bluish
and black. It is very hard, and takes a fine polish. Oc-
casionally it is found banded, or in stripes of different
colours, when it is termed ribbon-jasper; the stripes are
usually red and green alternating. Jasper alone is infu-
sible before the blowpipe, but it will melt with the
addition of carbonate of soda. It is sometimes found
imbedded in trap rock, but more frequently in pebbles
in the beds of rivers.
The yellow jasper is found near the Bay of Smyrna,
in Greece and other places; the red in the plains of
Argos; the variety known as ribbon-jasper comes from
Siberia and Saxony; and another kind, termed Egyptian
jasper, is found on the banks of the Nile. This latter is
of a fine brown on the exterior, and clouded with brown
of various shades, frequently spotted with black; the
markings in this variety occasionally resembling natural
objects. A specimen in the British Museum is thought
to exhibit a likeness of the poet Chaucer. The yellow
174
Jasper.
variety is used in the Florentine mosaic-work called
pietra dura.
The ancients were well acquainted with this stone, and
prized it most highly. Onomakritos, 500 years before the
Christian era, speaks of the "grass-green jasper, which
rejoices the eye of man, and is looked on with pleasure
by the immortals." The emeralds spoken of by Roman
and Greek authors were most probably green jasper, as
we hear of pillars of temples cut out of one piece.
Pliny, who describes no less than ten kinds of jasper,
relates that it was worn by the natives of the East as an
amulet or charm. This stone was much used for cameos;
many specimens are extant, having several layers, and
the objects represented are cut deep or shallow, so as to
bring the colours into contrast: for instance, in some
specimens may be seen the head of a warrior in red
jasper, the helinet green and the breastplate yellow. In
the collection of the Vatican are two marvellous vases of
this substance; one of red jasper with white stripes, the
other of black jasper with yellow stripes.
This stone is cut on copper wheels with fine sand and
emery, and polished on wooden or metal wheels with
pumice and tripoli.
Jasper is highly prized in China, the seal of the Em-
peror being made of it. In Europe its commercial value
in the rough is from Is. to 50s. per lb., depending on the
quality, evenness, and colour.
The jasper, according to the Authorized Version of
the Scriptures, was the twelfth stone in the breast-plate
Bloodstone or Heliotrope.
175
of the High Priest; and as the Hebrew name is "yash-
peh," which is strikingly similar to jasper, and almost all
the translations agree, there can be little doubt as to its
identity.
Galen, among other sage advice, relates that if a jasper
be hung about the neck, it will strengthen the stomach.
THE BLOODSTONE OR HELIOTROPE.
Bloodstone is another jasper-variety of quartz, of a
dark-green colour, and having those minute blood-red
specks disseminated throughout, which give its name.
The word heliotrope, from cos, the sun, and TρоTŃ,
a turning, is derived from the notion that, when immersed
in water, it changed the image of the sun into blood-red.
Pliny relates that the sun could be viewed in it as in a
mirror, and that it made visible its eclipses. Marbodus,
in his poem on precious stones, thus speaks of it under
the name of heliotrope :
"Ex re nomen habens est heliotropia gemma,
Quæ solis radiis in aqua subjecto basillo,
Sanguine reddit mutato lumine solem
Eclipsemque novam terris effundere cogit."
This stone is found in large quantities in India, Bo-
khara, Siberia, and Tartary, and also in the Isle of Rum
in the Hebrides, occurring generally in masses of con-
siderable size. It is translucent, and susceptible of a
beautiful polish; its commercial value, as in the case of
other stones, varies with the quality of the specimen.
176
The Chrysolite, Peridot, etc.
The bloodstone is used for the same purposes as agate
and onyx.
There is a tradition that at the Crucifixion the blood
which followed the spear-thrust fell upon a dark-green
jasper lying at the foot of the cross, and from this cir-
cumstance sprang the variety. In the Middle Ages the
red specks alluded to were supposed to represent the
blood of Christ; and this stone was thought to possess
the same medicinal and magical virtues as the jasper.

Crystal of Peridot.
THE CHRYSOLITE, PERIDOT, OR OLIVINE.
This gem is the true chrysolite, although not ac-
knowledged as such by jewellers and lapidaries, who
invariably confine that name to the chrysoberyl. It
belongs to the monetric system of crystallization, and is
the softest of all the gems (numbering from 6 to 7 in
the scale) and is easily scratched by quartz. Its lustre
is vitreous, and the fracture conchoidal. The specific
gravity varies from 3°33 to 3˚5, and its chemical com-
position is as follows:
Silica
Magnesia.
•
39.73
50'13
Chrysolite, Peridot, etc.
177
Protoxide of iron
9'19
Alumina
0°32
Protoxide of manganese
•
o'09
Oxide of nickel
0'22
Before the blowpipe it becomes darker, but is infusible,
except in the case of the variety called hyalosiderite,
which melts into a black magnetic globule. This stone,
as its name implies, contains a large quantity of iron.
All the varieties give the iron and silica reactions, and
are easily and completely dissolved by sulphuric acid into
a jelly.
This stone is called peridot when of a deep olive-green,
olivine when of a yellowish-green, and chrysolite when
of a lighter, or of a greenish-yellow, colour. Mineralo-
gists enumerate many other varieties, but they are of
little interest, except to the mineralogical student.
Peridots are found in Ceylon, Pegu, Brazil, and also
near Constantinople, in angular or worn pieces, very
rarely crystallized; they are not, however, very plenti-
ful. The olivine and chrysolite occur in Egypt, Mexico,
in Auvergne, the Tyrol, Scotland, etc., usually in sub-
stances of volcanic origin. Specimens have been met
with in the lava of Vesuvius.
None of the varieties of this gem are much used in
jewellery, although some of them possess a very beauti-
ful deep colour: perhaps the fact of its being scratched
very easily may be the cause. They are usually cut in
steps, or en cabochon. On the Continent the chrysolite is
often cut like a rose diamond, and set with a gold foil :
N
178
The Turquoise.
a copper wheel being employed in cutting it, and the
polish obtained by the use of tripoli and oil. The
peridot very closely resembles the green tourmaline,
from which, however, it may be readily distinguished
by its non-electrical properties when heated, and by its
softness. The name chrysolite is derived from xpvoòs,
χρυσός,
gold, and Xɩos, a stone. Peridot in many oriental
languages signifies a gem. The chrysolite is conjectured
to have been the so-called topaz of Pliny, who, how-
ever, confounds it with the chrysoberyl as well as the
topaz.
The value both of the chrysolite and peridot is very
small; fine specimens of good size may be bought at
from Is. to 15s. the carat. A few years ago they were
in tolerable demand for jewellery purposes, when they
commanded a much larger price than at present.
THE TURQUOISE.
This stone, in ancient times called the Turkis or
Turkey stone, is found in reniform or stalactitic masses,
never in crystals; it has a hardness of 6 in the scale
(although specimens vary considerably), and a specific
gravity of 2.6. It possesses a somewhat waxy lustre,
is occasionally translucent, although generally opaque,
and has a smalì conchoidal fracture, with a white
streak.
Its composition is as follows:-
The Turquoise.
From Silesia.
Analysis by Fohn.
From Persia.
179
Analysis by Hermann.
Alumina.
44'50
47.45
Phosphoric acid
•
30°90
Water
19.00
27°34
18.18
Protoxide of copper
3.75
2'02
•
Protoxide of iron
•
1.80
Peroxide of iron
•
Peroxide of manganese
Phosphate of lime .
I'10
0'50
3:41
Before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently, and yields
water; in the reducing flame it becomes brown, and
colours the flame green, but is infusible except with
borax or salt of phosphorus; it dissolves without effer-
vescence in muriatic acid.
The turquoise of commerce comes from Nichabour
in Khorasan in Persia, and is found varying from
white to a fine azure blue, occasionally greenish; but
it is only the fine blue stones that are of any value. The
turquoise is frequently supposed to be found in Russia,
but this is an error, and arises from the fact that great
numbers are sold to Russians at the fair of Nishni Nov-
gorod by Persian, Kirghiz, and Tartar merchants; they
are stuck upon wax-sticks and sold in bundles like quills.
An inferior variety is found in Thibet, China, Silesia,
and at Oelnitz in Saxony. Lately there has been disco-
vered, by Major Macdonald, in Arabia Petræa, near
Mount Sinai, another variety, found in a stratum of
red sandstone. The colour of this turquoise is darker
and of a finer blue than the best Persian stones, but it
N 2
180
The Turquoise.
has the unfortunate peculiarity of changing its hue in
the most rapid and mysterious manner; a fine blue stone
will turn on the lapidary's wheel to a sickly green
or whitish tint; other specimens retain their colour for
some weeks, breaking out afterwards in an eruption of
white specks, which gradually overspread the whole sur-
face, whilst others again begin to whiten or to become
green first round the edge; some specimens regain their
colour by being soaked in water or weak uric acid, but
lose it again as the stone becomes dry. In certain rare
instances, however, the colour has remained unchanged
for many years; but, as a rule, it would be well never
to give a large price for any turquoise from this mine.
They may be readily distinguished from the real tur-
quoise de vieille roche by the stratum (in most cases
apparent at the back) being of a pale yellowish-red
colour, instead of dark brown.
The Persian turquoise is also subject to change of
colour, although in nothing like the proportion of the
variety mentioned above; if not brought into contact
with acids, musk, camphor, or other scents, it retains its
hue for many years, turning at last to a green or a
white,—although ancient cameos and intaglios are extant
which have retained their colour until the present day.
Many persons still hold to the belief that this gem by
its changes indicates the state of health of the wearer,
and perhaps the fact that turquoises do vary their colour
in the most unaccountable manner, may have something
to do with this old superstition.
The Turquoise.
181
This stone is cut en cabochon on a leaden wheel, with
emery, and is polished on a wooden one, with rotten-
stone, and finished with rouge.
The bone or fossil turquoise (or odontolite) found in
Languedoc is composed of nothing but bones fossilized
and coloured by phosphate of iron; it is sometimes
called turquoise Bricard, from the name of the ori-
ginal owner of the mine. This so much resembles
the real stone as to deceive many persons; the colour
is generally fine, but of an inky blue, which is never
seen on the Persian turquoise, and its texture, which is
very compact, shows in its fibrous lines, sometimes
straight and sometimes across each other, traces of
animal structure. This turquoise is sometimes called
turquoise de nouvelle roche, but its value is very trifling;
a fine ring-stone may be purchased for 20s., and smaller
stones at proportionately smaller prices.
The Persian turquoise is much used in jewellery, and
a great number are sold here and in Paris; small
clear stones bring from 6d. to 20s. each, whilst a fine
ring-stone will realize from £10 to £40. Large tur-
quoises of good quality and fine colour are extremely
rare, and realize most extravagant prices; a perfect stone
of the size of a shilling, and of good depth, was sold not
long ago for £400. The turquoise is much used in ori-
ental countries for ornamenting harness, girdles, swords,
daggers, and pipes, also for amulets and charms. It is
also frequently engraved with the name of Allah, a
verse of the Koran, or some device, and then filled in
182
The Opal.
with gold; faulty specimens are generally chosen, as the
defects can thus be concealed. The Shah of Persia is
supposed to have in his possession all the finest gems,
allowing those only of inferior quality to leave the coun-
try.
The turquoise, in ancient times called the callaite,
was well known to the Greeks and Romans. Pliny
notices its changing colour from gradual decomposition,
and also shares in the oriental belief that this gem was
lucky, and brought health and fortune to the wearer.
Several antique cameos and intaglios cut in this material
are extant in the Vatican, some of which still retain
their colour. Fragments of turquoise, which appear to
have been parts of amulets, are frequently met with in
the ruins of ancient towns in Egypt.
THE OPAL.
This magnificent gem is composed of silica in an
amorphous state, mixed with water, and is in reality the
same mineral as quartz, with the addition of 6 or 7 per
cent. of water: it never occurs in a crystallized form, it
has a vitreous lustre inclining to resinous, is numbered
in the table of hardness from 5·5 to 6˚5, is scratched by
quartz, and has a specific gravity varying from 19 to 2*3.
There are many varieties,—the "noble," or precious
opal used by jewellers; the "fire," or reddish opal,
which has also occasionally a fine play of colours; the so-
called common opal; the semi- or half-opal; the hydro-
The Opal.
183
phane (known in commerce as the Mexican opal);
another variety of hydrophane called cacholong,—of a
milk-white colour, nearly opaque, and containing a small
percentage of alumina, and about 3.5 per cent. of water;
the opal jasper, which contains oxide of iron, and is
found in the neighbourhood of the Geysers of Iceland;
finally, the wood opal, or opalized wood, of which huge
masses are met with in Hungary, Tasmania, and other
parts, whole trees occasionally being found converted
into the ligneous structure called wood opal.
are other varieties, but of such small importance that
they need not be enumerated here. The following are
the analyses of the varieties of opal :-
Fire Opal Fire Opal
of Mexico. of Georgia.
Analysis by Analysis by
Klaproth. Bruch.
There
| Fire Opal
of Faroe.
Analysis by
Analysis by Forcham-
Stücker.
mer.
Precious
Opal of
Hungary.
Analysis by
Semi-Opal
of Hanau.

Damour.
Silica
92'00
9189
93'90
82 75
88.73
Water.
7'75
5.8+
6'10
10'00
7'97
Peroxide of
iron.
0*25
3'00
Alumina
1*40
3.50
0.49
Magnesia .
0°92
1'48
Lime
•
0*25
0'49
Potash and
Soda.
0'3+
The opal is infusible before the blowpipe, but gives
off water, and becomes opaque; those varieties contain-
ing iron turn red. It is almost entirely soluble in a cold
384
The Opal.
solution of caustic potash; in other respects its chemical
ì characteristics are the same as quartz.
The precious opal is found in claystone porphyry at
Czernowitza; between Kaschau and Eperies, in Hun-
gary; occasionally near Frankfort; and at the mines in
the province of Gracias, Honduras, South America: the
fire" opal at Zimapan and San Nicolas, in Mexico, the
Faroe Islands, etc.: the common opal in Hungary, Faroe
Islands, Iceland, Giant's Causeway, Ireland, Cornwall,
and near Smyrna: cacholong occurs in small masses on
the river Cach, in Bucharia-whence its name-and
also in Iceland.
one.
The precious, or noble opal is one of the most beau-
tiful gems in existence; when held between the eye
and the light it appears of a pale milky-reddish blue, but
when seen by reflected light it displays all the colours of
the rainbow, in flakes, flashes, or specks,-in fact, all the
colours of the most beautiful gems are here united in
When the colours are in small flakes, distributed
over the surface, it is termed by jewellers "harlequin"
opal, on account of its resemblance to the motley tints.
of the harlequin's dress. When fine, these are much
prized; but most persons prefer stones having the
variously-coloured fire in large flashes. This marvellous
play of colour is thought to be occasioned by nearly in-
visible fissures; the Abbé Haüy, however, ascribes it to
thin films of air filling cavities in the interior. Opals
are always cut en cabochon on both sides, and the true
beauties of the gem only display themselves when the
The Opal.
185
stone is moved about, as then a fine opal really appears
to have an actual life within itself.
They are very brittle, and are always much more brii-
liant on a warm day. A dealer in precious stones,
aware of this peculiarity, invariably holds an opal in his
hand before showing it, in order to impart warmth to
the gem.
Fine stones of large size are rarely found;
they seldom exceed an inch in diameter. At the
mines in the locality of Gracias á Dios, in Honduras,
specimens have been found equally as fine as the Hun-
garian stones, and certainly not to be distinguished from
specimens coming thence.
The hydrophane, or Mexican opal, loses its beauty when
exposed to water, and Sir Walter Scott has alluded to
this fact in ‘Anne of Geierstein,' although in that romance
he ascribes it to supernatural agency. Strange to say,
after the publication of the brilliant novelist's fiction,
the belief that opals were unlucky obtained such cur-
rency that they quickly went out of fashion. Of late years
they have again come into vogue, and now promise to
become, as they have always deserved to be esteemed,
universal favourites; the more especially as they are the
only precious stones which defy imitation. In Eastern
nations they have always been highly prized. The
Mexican opal can be restored to its original colour by a
moderate application of heat.
The common opal is used in Germany for cheap jew-
ellery-cane-tops, snuff-boxes, etc.; the other varieties
are not used. The value of the precious opal depends
186
The Opal.
entirely on the brilliancy and play of its colours, and any
attempt at pricing it would be an idle task; for large.
fine gems of extraordinary beauty as much as £1000
has been paid; fine ring or brooch stones bring from
£40 to £100, and smaller ones from 5s. to £20 per
piece; they are very rarely sold per carat.
The opal is cut on a leaden wheel with emery, and
polished on a wooden one with tripoli and water. Great
care must be taken not to heat the stone too much by
friction, and, from its fragility, very delicate handling
will be requisite.
The opal was known to the most ancient authors, and
was esteemed beyond any other precious stone. Pliny
describes it as uniting the colours of the ruby, the ame-
thyst, the topaz, and the emerald, in the most marvel-
lous mixture, and says that its fire is like the flame of
burning sulphur. He relates that a Roman senator,
Nonnius, was outlawed and sent into exile by Marcus
Antonius, because he refused to give up an opal. The
stone-valued at 20,000 sesterces, about £170,000-
was of the size of a filbert, and set in a ring, but rather
than part with it Nonnius submitted to exile, carrying
his stone with him.
Amongst the French crown jewels are two wonderful
opals; one is set in the clasp of the imperial cloak. The
finest known is in the museum at Vienna; itwas found
at Czernowitza,—where mines have been worked since
A.D. 1400,--and is of immense size and extraordinary
beauty. It is said that £50,000 has been refused for it.

THE PEARL.

America.
HIS beautiful gem, formed by nature in
the shells of oysters and of mussels, is
found in the beds of rivers and in the
sea, in various places in Europe, Asia, and
Its chemical composition is entirely carbonate of lime
and organic matter. It possesses a lustre peculiar to
itself, which is called pearly it is easily affected by
acids and fetid gases, and calcines on exposure to heat.
The specific gravity is 2'5 to 2'7; those found on the
coast of South America, termed Panama pearls, are
somewhat heavier than the oriental ones.
Naturalists account for the formation of these gems
in the endeavours of the animal to rid itself of some
foreign body which has intruded into its shell, by cover-
ing it with a deposit similar to the interior of the oyster-
188
The Pearl.
shell,-commonly known by the name of mother-of-
pearl; others ascribe it to a disease of the oyster. In
some instances, on bisecting a pearl it is found to be
composed of a series of layers or skins round a speck of
some darker substance; in others the middle of the
pearl is hollow and of a globular or spherical form;
and in others again the pearl appears perfectly solid,
and of the same texture, colour, and formation through-
out. The Chinese, from a very remote period, have
been in the habit of inserting small beads, images, etc.,
in the shells of oysters and mussels, and these have cer-
tainly become coated with a pearly substance, but they
are generally of a blackish tint, with very little lustre,
and far inferior in appearance to the pearls formed in
the laboratory of nature.
The wonderful polish and consequent lustre of a fine
pearl,—which in a great measure constitutes its value,
and has never yet been even passably imitated-would
appear to be caused by the friction of the soft body of
the oyster for a considerable length of time; and this
polish in most cases exists only on the outer skin, as on
removing the exterior surface the next layers are usually
dull in colour and dead in lustre, resembling a fish's
eye. In some cases, however, a pearl of very bad ex-
terior contains a fine and "lively " kernel.
Pearls are found of almost every imaginable colour,
and of the most fantastic shapes; in some instances of
considerable size, but those of both fine quality and
large dimensions are very rare. Sometimes a shell will
The Pearl.
189
be opened containing several pearls detached, sometimes.
with one or more adhering closely to the shell, and
occasionally with pearls conglomerated together in a
shapeless mass. The oriental pearls are seldom found of
any colour but yellow and white, and are usually of a
round or button form; whilst the American or Panama
are generally blackish or brownish, and mostly long and
drop-shaped.
The number of fine and large pearls is, however, as
may be supposed, very small.
The sea pearl-oyster, Meleagrina margaritifera, is a
large oyster of seven or eight inches in diameter, with
very thick shells, rather flat, and of a greenish-black ex-
terior; whilst the interior is of a silver-white hue re-
flecting various colours, being, in fact, the ordinary
mother-of-pearl of commerce, too well known to require
further description here. Some idea of the quantity of
this material produced may be gathered from the fact
that there are imported into Europe annually some
15,000 tons; and, calculating the average weight of a
pearl shell, we have the astonishing number of from five
10 six million oysters which have been fished from the
ocean.
The principal pearl-fisheries are in the East,-on the
west coast of Ceylon, in the Bay of Manaar, in the Per-
sian Gulf, and in the Sooloo Islands (which lie between
Borneo and Mindanao). Pearl-fishing is also carried on
in the Aroo Islands; near the island of Papua, or New
Guinea; in the Red Sea; in America, on both the
190
The Pearl.
Pacific and Atlantic coasts (in California, and latterly on
the coast of New Jersey); and in several other localities.
The
A short account of the pearl-fishery in Ceylon, which
is the property of and is conducted by the Colonial
Government, may interest the reader. When the sea-
son for the pearl-fishery arrives, a fleet of boats, some-
times as many as 150, put out, but not before they have
gone through numberless ceremonies, which the natives
will on no account forego. Under the command of
the adanapar, or head pilot, each boat is manned with
twenty men and a steersman, ten being rowers and ten
divers, besides a 'pillal karras,' or shark charmer.
government keep these men in regular pay, as no diver
would descend without their presence. Other conjurors
remain on the seashore, mumbling incantations until
the boats return. At each side of the boat is a stage,
from which the divers descend. The men go down.
into the sea five at a time; when the first five come up,
the other five go down; and by this method of alter-
nately diving, they give each other time to recruit them-
selves for a fresh plunge.
In order to accelerate the descent of the divers, large
stones are employed: five of these are taken in each
boat for the purpose; they are of a reddish granite
common in this country, and of a pyramidal shape,
round at top and bottom, with a hole in the smaller
end sufficient to admit a rope. Some of the divers use
a stone shaped like a half-moon, which they fasten
around their middle when they wish to descend, and thus
The Pearl.
191
keep their feet free. The stones generally weigh from
twenty to twenty-five pounds each.
The diver, when he is about to plunge, seizes the rope
to which one of the stones previously described is at-
tached with the toes of his right foot, while he takes
hold of a bag of network with those of his left-it
being customary among all the Indians to use their toes
in working or holding as well as their fingers; and such
is the power of habit, that they pick up even the smallest
thing from the ground with their toes almost as nimbly
as a European could with his fingers. The diver, thus pre-
pared, seizes another rope with his right hand, and hold-
ing his nostrils shut with the left, plunges into the water,
and by the assistance of the stone speedily reaches the
bottom. He then with much dexterity and all possible
dispatch collects as many oysters as he can while he is
able to remain under water, which is usually about two
minutes. This done he resumes his former position,
makes a signal to those above by pulling the rope in his
right hand, and is immediately drawn up into the boat.
The serious effects of this continual submersion are
shown in the discharge of water, and occasionally blood,
which takes place from the diver's mouth, ears, and
nostrils. But this does not hinder the men from going
down again in their turn. They will often make from
forty to fifty descents in one day, and at each plunge
bring up about a hundred oysters.
Some rub their bodies over with oil, and stuff cotton
into their ears and noses to prevent the water from en-
192
The Pearl
tering, while others use no precautions whatever. Al-
though from one to two minutes is the time generally
passed under water, yet instances are known of four,
five, and even six minutes' stay beneath the surface.
The great dread of the divers is the ground-shark, a
common inhabitant of the seas in those latitudes.
During the time of the fishery conjurors stand on the
shore till the boats return in the afternoon, muttering
prayers, twisting their bodies into strange attitudes, and
performing ceremonies. All this time they ought to
abstain from food or drink; but they occasionally regale
themselves with toddy, till they are no longer able to
stand at their devotions. If an alarm be given by one
diver, none of the others will descend that day.
Latterly, the diving bell has been adopted, which,
when it is brought into general use, will of course much
diminish the danger. On the return of the boats, they
are unloaded and the oysters left to putrify in pits or
closed vessels. When these are opened the pearls
are washed from the decayed oysters, in troughs, with
sea-water. On other occasions the shells are opened
immediately, and the pearls extracted. The oysters,
however, are generally sold unopened, and as their con-
tents are alike unknown to both buyer and seller, the
transaction takes more the form of a lottery than a com-
mercial exchange,-in fact, the trade has in it much
of the spirit of gambling. Many oysters contain no
pearl, whilst others may produce a pearl worth £200 or
£300.
The Pearl.
193
The government derive a large income from this
fishery, and protect it by the strictest regulations.
Those places to be fished are buoyed out carefully be-
fore the boats leave the land, and are examined from
time to time by experienced divers. Latterly, the sup-
ply has fallen off so greatly that a recent regulation has
directed the fishery to be discontinued for some years,
a precaution which is very necessary, as the beds are
becoming exhausted.
The fisheries in the Persian Gulf are carried on in
exactly the same manner as those of Ceylon. In ancient
times they were known to the Macedonians, and Seleu-
cus, king of the Syrians, gave the revenues derived
therefrom to one of his satraps. Here, besides the
sharks, the divers have to contend with the sword-fishes,
which are even more dangerous. Formerly the Portu-
guese had possession of the Persian Gulf fisheries, but
they are now in the hands of the native rulers; and it is
said that as many as 30,000 persons are employed on
them. The Persian Gulf pearls are inferior in colour to
those found at Ceylon; in commerce they are termed
Bombay pearls," as they are mostly sold there.
The produce of the fisheries on the coast of the Sulu
Islands principally goes to China. The Red Sea fisheries,
which in the time of the Ptolemies were immensely pro-
ductive, now produce very few pearls.
Great quantities of pearls come from Panama and
California, and there is good reason to believe that the
fisheries in these parts were well known to the ancient
194
The Pearl.
Mexicans, for we learn from the old Spanish histories.
that the Aztec kings had in their possession immense
numbers of fine pearls, and appeared to be well ac-
quainted with the sources from whence they were de-
rived.* Pearls are also found in mussel-shells in the rivers
of Scotland, Germany, France, Sweden, and Russia.
These are generally of a dull and leaden hue, without
lustre even when white, and are known in commerce
by the name of Scotch pearls.
Many experiments have been made with the view of
ascertaining the length of time required to produce large
pearls, and the results would lead to the belief that
many years are necessary to develope them.
From the most remote ages the pearl has been con-
sidered one of the richest gifts of nature. It is spoken
of in the Book of Job, ch. xxviii., and in the Proverbs
of Solomon, ch. iii. Hindu mythology ascribes to the
god Vishnu the discovery or creation of pearls, and the
numerous idols or gods and goddesses connected with
this ancient faith were formerly adorned with them.
The ancient Persians, Egyptians, Babylonians, and other
oriental nations, held the pearl in great esteem. From
these the Romans became acquainted with them, and the
mania for their possession grew so great that they were
sold for the most fabulous prices: when Pompey con-
quered Mithridates, he found in his treasury, besides
:
*The Spaniards, by the conquest of Peru and Mexico, came
into possession of immense quantities and the palace of Monte-
zuma is reported to have been studded with emeralds and pearls.
The Pearl.
195
several crowns of this material, a portrait of that king,
consisting of pearls in mosaic. Seneca exclaims against
the shameful extravagance of Roman ladies in this parti-
cular. They termed a drop pearl " unio," and wore a
pair in the ear just as ladies do at the present day. The
story of Cleopatra's pearls is too well known to require
repetition here. The two halves of the second gem, by
order of the Emperor Severus, went to adorn the statue
of Venus in the Pantheon. Pliny places the pearl next
to the diamond in value, and supposes the former to
proceed from drops of dew swallowed by the oyster.
In China, pearls are used as medicine; a belief exist-
ing among orientals that they possess great virtues in
syncopes, fluxes of blood, etc.
The pearl in Hindo-
stanee is called "moti." In Bengal, at one time, virgins
wore them on their arms as a preservative of virtue.
One of the finest pearls at present in existence is called
La Peregrina. It was sold to Philip IV. of Spain, in
1625, and is said now to be in the possession of a Rus-
sian princess. The Shah of Persia has a pearl valued at
£60,000, and the Imaum of Muscat one for which he
refused £30,000. The pearl necklace of the Empress
of the French is one of the finest known,—a remark
equally applicable to that presented to Her Majesty by
the East India Company. A very large necklace was
presented to the Princess of Prussia on her marriage,
but the pearls are misshapen, and of inferior quality.
The Marquis of Abercorn, it may be stated, possesses a
matchless drop-pearl of great size.
0 2
196
The Pearl.
ON THE VALUE AND DISCRIMINATION OF PEARLS.
The beauty and value of pearls depend on their form,
colour, texture (technically called " skin'), transparency
(or water), and lustre. A pearl, to be perfect, must pos-
sess the following qualifications:-
1. It must be perfectly round or drop-shaped, seeming
as if fashioned, or turned, into shape.
2. It must have a perfectly pure white colour.
3. It must be slightly transparent.
4. It must be free from specks, spots, or blemish.
5. It must possess the peculiar lustre characteristic of
the gem.
These rules, however, only hold good in Europe, as
in India and China the bright yellow colour is preferred.
When a single round or drop-shaped pearl is examined,
it is easy, by means of comparison, for even an inexpe-
rienced buyer to judge for himself. Not so when, how-
ever, as is frequently the case, they are strung in a row
or as a necklace; in this case the pearl-stringer arranges
the pearls in such a gradation of colour that the tints
imperceptibly blending they appear of one hue, when
perhaps, if isolated, they would show several tints.
The American pearls, called in commerce "Panama
pearls," although appearing at first sight very white,
have almost invariably a sort of blackness under the
skin, which renders their colour far inferior to the pure
white hue of the oriental pearl. In fact, the Panama
pearls have often a sort of quicksilvery appearance.
The Pearl.
197
In the annexed Tables it has been endeavoured to give
an approximate value of the different sizes; but it must
be remembered that the pearl, more than any other
gem, is liable to fluctuation in price. For the last six-
teen years the tendency has been towards a rise; and,
in consequence of the Ceylon fishery being for a time
interdicted, the price of pearls seems likely still further
to increase.
I
It would be almost useless to give any value for drop
pearls, as when of large size and fine quality they are of
so rare occurrence as to command fancy prices; still, as a
slight guide, it may be mentioned that perfect white drop
pearls, of 80 to 100 grains, may be estimated at from £7
to £11 per grain; those of 50 to 80 grains, at from £4
to £7 per grain; and those of 30 to 50 grains, at from
£3 to £5 per grain; smaller sizes bring from 20s. to
60s. per grain. Misshapen pieces are called "barrok
pearl” (perles baroques), and are sold at per ounce; the
price varying from £10 to £200 per ounce, depending
on quality, colour, and size. Pearls of the commonest
description are exported in great numbers to China,
where they are used medicinally; the next quality are
sold in Poland, the south of Germany, Russia, and the
Danubian Principalities, where they are worn by the
peasantry. It may be mentioned that pearls are much
more generally worn on the Continent than in this
country.
The pink pearls, which are found principally in
North America and the West India Islands, bring from
>
198
The Pearl.
3s. to 40s. per grain. They seldom occur of regular
shape, or even form, and when bad are not very unlike
decayed teeth. Although termed "pink," they are of
all colours, from red to pale yellow, and not unfre-
quently of a dead white, like a polished fish's eye.
Black and lead-coloured pearls bring a large price
when fine in shape, and of even colour; some persons
prefer the leaden or plumbago tint, others, the shining
greenish-black; they bring from 3s. to 60s. per grain.
Grey pearls are worth very little, being nearly useless
for mounting in jewellery.
Pearls deteriorate by age, contact with acids, gas, and
noxious vapours of all sorts. Various means for restor-
ing them to their pristine beauty have been suggested
and tried, but experience shows these to be useless,
and only more likely still further to injure than to re-
store. The best way to preserve pearls is to wipe them
with a clean linen cloth after being worn, depositing
them carefully wrapped in linen in a closed box.
Unbored pearls are termed "virgin," and those which
have suffered from wear receive the name of "widows."
The operation of boring requires great care, and is far
better done in India than here; the holes there being
drilled much smaller and more straight. In drilling, a
bow and string is used with a very fine drill, the pearl
being held between two pieces of wood. This operation
must be performed slowly and with great caution, so as
not to run the risk of breaking the pearl in halves.
Occasionally a pearl adheres to the shell; in this case
་
Prices of the Pearl.
199
it is cut out, and the shell part polished off; this,
however, notwithstanding the care that may have been
employed, leaves a certain portion of mother-of-pearl
adherent, which reduces its value immensely. Occa-
sionally the pearl is a sort of wart, hollow inside; in this
case it is called coq de perle, and is of very little value.
The curious articles of jewellery by Dinglinger, in the
Green Vaults of Dresden, mounted in gold and enamel,
to carry out the fanciful resemblance of the pearl to
some object, are made of this substance.
A pearl of
this description, of the form of a strawberry, was shown
at the Exhibition of 1862, and was subsequently sold to
an English merchant for a ridiculously exorbitant price,
its intrinsic value being very trifling.
When round pearls are used for setting in articles of
jewellery, they are split in halves. Those flat on one
side, and convex on the other, are much used; they are
called button pearls (perles boutons), and are worth
about 25 per cent. less than round pearls of the same
size and quality.
Jeffries adopted the same mode of valuation for pearls
as for diamonds, namely, multiplying the square of the
weight by Ss., at which he values a 4-grain pearl. His
method of estimation may have been a correct one at
that time; but as it would not be so now, I have sim-
ply given the market price of the day, which, it must
be noted, may rise or fall according to circumstances.
Annexed is a list of the valuation of the pearls taken
possession of by the Directory of France in 1791, made,
200
Prices of the Pearl.
at their order, by the most celebrated jewellers of the
time, which may prove interesting.
Valuation of Pearls in the Crown Treasury of France,
1791.
A perfect white round virgin pearl of 388 grains . . £ 8000
2 pear-shaped pearls each
4
>>
6 round pearls
•
214
>>
together
•
·
•
399
•
77233
وو
12,000
2560
2400
3
นว
5
78
3
>>
33
•
232
4081"
46410
"">
628"
6
""
""
·
392
I I
دو
""
712
880
I 200
1320
960
728
448
At the present day, these pearls,-which doubtless
were of the purest and finest description,—would be
worth a far larger sum than the amounts named.
The prices given in the following Table are approxi-
mate ones for perfectly white pure round pearls, of a
smooth and lustrous skin, perfectly free from specks or
discoloration of any sort.
A pearl of 1 grain is worth from
""
>>
32
رو
2
3
4
5
6
8
"
""
>>
وو
. 25.
•
•
•
6s. 6d.
•
125.
225.
35s.
55s.
· 90s.
to 2s. 6d.
» 78. 6d.
"
163.
» 285.
» 45s.
», 655.
وو
I IOS.
Prices of the Pearl.
A pearl of 10 grains is worth from
رو
12
14
16
>>
>>
>>
18
""
""
20
""
""
24
""
33
30
""
201
£8 to £9
12,, 15
15 "
18
20,, 30
30, 40
40, 50
60
», 72
80
100
Round pearls above this weight are of such rare occur-
rence, and command such exceptional prices, that it
would be useless to attempt any scale of valuation.

SUBSTANCES USED IN JEWELLERY NOT
PROPERLY PRECIOUS STONES.

A
LTHOUGH such substances as jet, coral,
moon-stone, lapis lazuli, malachite, etc.,
do not properly belong to the family of
gems; yet, as they are used for personal
adornment, and possess some value, a short description
of them may not be out of place in this treatise.
MOON-STONE.
Formerly the moon-stone was in fashion in this coun-
try, although it is now seldom seen. This variety of
felspar or orthoclase has a chatoyant reflection, resem-
bling that of the cat's-eye, and is of a pearly-white
colour. A description called "adularia," from the
name of one of the peaks of the St. Gothard, where
Lapis Lazuli.
203
it is found, is of inferior colour to the best moon-stones,.
which come principally from Ceylon.
In hardness it is 6 in Mohs's scale; the specific gra-
vity, 24 to 26; the lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly.
Crystals of large size are seldom found.
The chemical composition is :-
Silica.
Alumina
Lime
•
Potash.
•
Magnesia.
Water.
64.00
19'43
0'42
•
14.81
O'20
I'14
The stones are cut en cabochon, and at present are of
very trifling value. An opaque and green variety of
the orthoclase, deriving its tint from an admixture of
copper, comes from Siberia, where it is called amazon-
stone;" but it is very little known in England. The
moon-stone is also known by the name of water or
Ceylon opal. At one period considerable value was at-
tached to this stone, the ancients employing it frequently
in their works of art.
LAPIS LAZULI.
This beautifully-coloured stone has been employed
from the earliest times for various ornamental purposes.
It is rarely found in crystals, and when it does so occur
the specimens are small, and of the rhombic dodecahe-
dron form. It has an imperfect dodecahedral cleavage,
204
Lapis Lazuli.
and is found in masses; it has a hardness of 55, a
specific gravity of 2·38 to 2'45, a subvitreous lustre of
a rich blue colour, and is opaque.
The composition of the Persian variety is, according
to Klaproth :-
Silica
Sulphuric acid
Alumina .
Peroxide of iron
Lime.
Water
Carbonic acid
46'0
4'0
•
14'5
3°0
•
17°5
2'0
ΙΟΟ
It fuses to a white glass, and, if calcined and reduced
to powder, loses its colour, and gelatinizes in muriatic
acid; with borax it effervesces, and forms a colourless
glass.
Lapis lazuli is usually found in granite or calcareous
limestone, with iron pyrites, often disseminated through
the mass, which, when polished, gives it the gold-
spotted appearance it often exhibits: the finest quality
comes from Persia and Beloochistan; it is also found in
China, Bucharia, and in Siberia. Latterly large quan-
tities of very inferior quality and colour have been
brought from Chili. The deep-coloured pieces are the
most esteemed, being extensively used for studs,
brooches, and other articles of jewellery, as well as for
vases, ornamental furniture, mosaic work, etc.; when
ground to powder, they form the valuable pigment
called ultramarine. Latterly, however, chemists have
Lapis Lazuli.
205
discovered an artificial substitute, possessing exactly
the same constituents and almost the same colour,
which can be sold for a three-hundredth part of the
price of the genuine ultramarine. This stone was well
known in ancient times, and was, doubtless, the sap-
phire of the Greeks and Romans.
Pliny says:-'In sapphiris aurum punctis collucet
cœrulis; similis est cœlo sereno, propter aurea puncta
stellis ornato: '—which may be translated ‘In the blue
sapphire shine golden specks; it is like a serene sky
adorned with stars, on account of the golden points.'
In China and India this stone is carved into cups, vases,
dagger-handles, etc. Many fine specimens still exist in
the old Italian and Spanish churches, in slabs, pillars,
and various adornments to the altars and shrines; also
as panels, on which the pictures of saints, etc., have
been painted. In the Russian palace of Zarskoe-Selo
there is a room, made by order of Catherine II., the
walls of which are entirely covered with slabs of lapis
and amber. At the present day it is much used in de-
corative furniture and mosaic work.
In ancient times lapis was used in medicine as a purge.
The Arabic name is Azul, meaning blue, whence pro-
bably is derived the name lazuli.
The value of the finest lapis-of a deep blue, not
too dark, without any admixture of white or golden
specks-varies from 10s. to 50s. per ounce, according
to the size of the piece. Formerly, when used for the
manufacture of ultramarine, it was worth much more.
206
Malachite.
MALACHITE.
This beautiful copper ore, in such great demand for
ornamental purposes, is a hydrous carbonate of copper,
and, apart from its value as a stone, yields so large an
amount of metal that it is extensively used for smelting.
According to Klaproth, its analysis is—
Carbonic acid
Protoxide of copper.
Water
18.0
70'5
11'5
In a glass tube before the blowpipe it blackens, and
yields a globule of copper; in acids and ammonia it
dissolves with effervescence. Its hardness is 35; spe-
cific gravity 3'7; lustre vitreous, sometimes nearly ada-
mantine, occasionally silky, and often dull; colour green,
spotted and banded with other shades of the same co-
lour; it takes a very high polish. Out of the thousands
of tons annually found, a very small proportion is ad-
apted for ornamental purposes, the compact variety sus-
ceptible of a high polish being very rare. The finest
quality comes from the mines of Prince Demidoff, in
Siberia. The doors and vases of malachite exhibited by
the Prince in the Exhibition of 1851 created a great
sensation, and first drew public attention to the sub-
stance. It is also found in the Burra-Burra mines in
Australia, in Africa, Cornwall, Hungary, and the Tyrol ;
but all these varieties are far inferior in solidity and beauty
of marking to Siberian malachite. This stone is some-
Labradorite, or Labrador Felspar. 207
times used in jewellery and in cabinet work, but is not
any great value.
of
LABRADORITE, OR LABRADOR FELSPAR.
Although not commonly used in jewellery, this
stone is well known, and possesses in some degree
the brilliant multicoloured light-flashes of the opal.
It belongs to the triclinic system of crystallization, and
is found massive. Its hardness is 6; specific gravity,
2.67; lustre vitreous (in one direction pearly); easily
cleavable, and is usually greyish in colour, sometimes.
nearly white. The chemical composition of the variety
from Labrador is, according to Klaproth-
Silica.
Alumina
55'75
26.50
Peroxide of iron
I'25
Lime
I 1'00
•
Soda
4'00
Water
0°50
Before the blowpipe on charcoal it acts like felspar,
but fuses rather more easily to a colourless glass. When
pulverized, it is easily dissolved by heated muriatic acid
—which does not attack felspar. It is found variously
transparent, from translucent to semi-opaque.
This stone is met with on the coast of Labrador; also
in Canada, Norway, and Sweden; occasionally in the
lava of Etna and Vesuvius. It is susceptible of a fine
polish, and some specimens, owing to their chatoyant
reflection, are very beautiful.
208
Jade, or Nephrite.
JET.
This substance is a variety of coal much used in
England for mourning jewellery: it is much blacker,
tougher, and harder than the ordinary Cannel coal, and
has a considerable lustre when polished. Its hardness
is 15, and specific gravity 13, and it has a conchoidal
fracture. Jet is found in detached pieces in clay on
the coast of Yorkshire, near Whitby, on the Baltic
coast (where it is called black amber), in the forest of
Ardennes, and in the Pyrenees. Great quantities of the
manufactured jet are sold in Spain and Turkey. This
substance is the gagates known to Pliny, Theophrastus,
and other ancient authors, and took its name from the
river Gagus, in Syria, where in ancient times it was
found. Boetius says of this stone, that it secures men
from nocturnal fears, spectres, and ghosts; and Cardanus
relates that the saints wore bracelets and rosaries of this
substance to number their prayers. In manufacturing
this material it requires to be frequently moistened with
water, for if it be allowed to get hot by the friction of
the cutting or polishing-wheel, it flies into pieces. It is
polished with tripoli and oil; the final polish being given
by the hand, with dry tripoli powder.
JADE, OR NEPHRITE.
Although seldom used for purposes of jewellery in
this country, throughout the whole of Asia this stone
Jade, or Nephrite.
209
It is a hard, compact,
is an extremely favourite one.
translucent, and very tough stone, breaking with a
splintery fracture and glistening surface. The colour
varies from a creamy white to a dark green; the hard-
ness is 6'0 to 70; specific gravity, 2'9 to 3*1; it is
slightly unctuous to the touch, and fuses with difficulty
before the blowpipe at the thinnest edges.
Its composition is variable; as it is not a distinct
mineral, two analyses are given here :-
Analysis by
Kattner.
Analysis by
Schafhäutl.
58.91
22.42
Silica.
50:50
Magnesia
31.00
Lime.
12 28
Alumina.
10'00
1°32
Peroxide of iron
5'50
2.70
Oxide of chrome
0'05
Water
2'75
0'25
O'91
Potash
•
o'So
Peroxide of manganese
Jade is found in Egypt, New Zealand, Corsica, in
North America, and in China. The name nephrite
is derived from the Greek veppòs, a kidney, from the
power it was reputed to possess of curing diseases of
that organ. In India, China, and Turkey it is carved
into dagger- and sword-handles, cups, ornamental vases,
etc., and frequently inlaid with precious stones. The
most favourite colour is the pale greenish-grey, good spe-
cimens realizing a large price. Some fine examples of
jade are exhibited in the South Kensington Museum,
and large quantities of ornamental objects in this sub-
P
210
Amber.
stance have lately come to Europe from Japan. In New
Zealand it is carved into axe- and spear-heads, which are
ground to a very fine edge. The variety called soft jade,
which is frequently sold for the real, is a kind of stearite,
or soapstone; its inferior hardness will, however, show
the difference to the most inexperienced observer.
AMBER.
This fossilized gum or resin is found in irregular
masses without cleavage, having a very low degree of
hardness-2 to 2'5, and a specific gravity of only 1081;
its lustre is resinous or waxy, and varies from trans-
parent to opaque. Its composition is-
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Calcium.
Alumina.
Silica.
•
80°99
7°31
6.73
1'54
I'IO
0'63
It burns readily with a bright yellow flame and gives
an agreeable odour, leaving a black carbonaceous residue.
At 287° it fuses and is decomposed, yielding water, an
empyreumatic oil, and succinic acid. It acquires nega-
tive electricity by friction, and is soluble in alcohol.
Amber is found in abundance on the Prussian coast of
the Baltic, from Dantzig to Memel; also on the coast of
Denmark, in Sweden, Norway, Moravia, Poland, Swit-
zerland, and in France; it also occurs embedded in clay,
'
Amber.
2II
on the coast of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk; in various
parts of Asia, and many other places. In the United
States it has also been found in the Greensand, both
imbedded in the soil and in lignite. The colour varies
from white and pale yellow to a deep brownish-orange..
It is very brittle, and yields to the knife.
The experiments made by Sir David Brewster, Goe-
pert, and others, have established the fact of its vegetable
origin, which was surmised by Pliny. Goepert calls
the trees which produced it Pinites succinifer, and he
supposes amber to have been derived from at least eight
other kinds of plants, and enumerates not less than 163
species of insects, most of which are unknown to us,
except by what we can learn from their remains encased
in amber.
Yellow amber beads used formerly to be in fashion
in this country, and in Turkey and other Asiatic coun-
tries the material is still prized, saddles, bridles, and
arms being adorned with it. In Oriental countries it may
frequently be seen inlaid with gold and precious stones.
It is also much used for the mouthpieces of pipes, it
being the custom in the East to have the pipe lighted by
a servant, the amber being thought incapable of trans-
mitting infection. The most valuable variety is nearly
opaque, and resembling fresh butter in colour.
Amber is also employed in chemistry; the oil of
amber and succinic acid being obtained from it by dis-
tillation, the residue serving for the manufacture of
black varnish. The name amber is probably derived
P 2
212
Amber.
from the Arabic word 'anabaron,' which designates this
substance.
Amber was well known to the ancients; its name in
Greek was λEKTрov, from its power of attracting small
substances when rubbed; in Latin succinum, from a
supposition that it was the gum of a tree; also lyncurion,
because some supposed that it was a deposit of the urine
of the lynx—that of the males giving a deep, and that
of the females a pale tint. Pliny records its medicinal
use, and relates that necklaces used to be hung about
the necks of young children, to preserve them against
the powers of witchcraft and sorcery. The Greeks
had a tradition concerning the origin of amber, that
it arose from the tears of the sisters of Phaeton, who,
lamenting his death, were turned into poplar-trees, and
poured forth perpetual tears into the river Eridanus o
Padus, which were congealed into the succinum or
amber. Hence the lines in Ovid's fable of the Heliades,
as given in the second book of his Metamorphoses :
'Inde fluunt lachrymæ; stillataque sole rigescunt
De ramis electra novis, quæ lividus amnis
Excipit et muribus mittit gestanda Latinis.'
Amber is sometimes found in large masses: a piece
weighing fourteen pounds is, with other fine specimens,
in the Royal Museum at Berlin: the Prussian govern-
ment reserves the sole right of searching for amber
within its dominions, guarding the monopoly with very
stringent regulations. It produces, however, not more
than 10,000 dollars, about £1500, yearly.
Coral.
213
CORAL.
Coral is the production of gelatinous mollusks belong-
ing to the family of 'polypi.' They form submarine
forests of leafless branches in many parts of the globe,
and in the Southern hemisphere increase occasionally to
such an extent as to form islands, and to seriously ob-
struct navigation. Coral is found of several colours-
all shades of red and pink, green, brown, and yellow,
as well as white and black. Its peculiar plant-like form
formerly caused the belief that it was of vegetable origin,
-a belief which is even now current amongst some,
although the researches of distinguished naturalists have
identified the form of the insects which produce this
wonderful phenomenon of nature. These 'polypi' re-
semble an eight-pointed star, notched on each point,
with the mouth in the centre, and appear to have a
marvellous organization common to all the others on the
same branch; if one of them be disturbed, the others
instantly draw back along with the one touched, so that
the separate mollusks on the branch seem to form one
body. In certain respects these insects vary in different
localities. The coral islands and enormous reefs, which
are growing every day with wonderful rapidity, are the
work of these minute objects. Although, as said above,
coral is found in the seas of many parts of the globe, yet
the coral adapted for purposes of ornament comes almost
entirely from the Mediterranean, and is found principally
on the African coasts. The beds lie at a considerable
214
Coral.
depth, sometimes 700 or 800 feet beneath the surface of
the sea, which depth causes the operation of fishing
for it to be a difficult and tedious operation; it is ob-
tained by means of nets and iron drags. Although at
present the coral fishing is carried on principally by the
Italians and Maltese, the industry is of French origin.
As early as the year 1450 there existed at Calle a French
establishment for the fishery of coral, and this company
had a monopoly, on the condition of only employing
Provençal sailors. In 1791 the trade was thrown open;
in 1794, however, the French ships were protected by a
duty laid on those of all other nations. At the present
time, more than 150 barques from various ports are
employed every season in this fishery. The amount of
business carried on in this substance is surprising.
mense quantities are yearly exported to China, India,
and Persia, where coral is ranked as one of the most
precious productions of nature. In some parts of India
worm-eaten coral is in great demand, and thousands of
pounds worth of this commodity, which in European
estimation would be worthless, is yearly sent there.
One house in Naples alone exports £80co worth to
Calcutta, and the total value yearly imported by India
is said to amount to £200,000.
Im-
Coral is principally cut into beads, and boutons or
pieces cut en cabochon; drops for earrings; also in leaves,
flowers, and various other shapes, for making the carved
ornaments seen in Naples and Genoa; into charms, worn
in bunches, which are supposed to avert the influence
Coral.
215
of the evil eye, occasionally into cameos, although not
so frequently as was the case fifty years ago; and into
stick and whip mounts and handles. The cutting and
working of coral occupies a considerable number of per-
sons; the three most important factories being at Ge-
noa, Leghorn, and Marseilles. The branches of coral are
cut in the most advantageous manner, according to their
shape and freedom from fissures and defects, and after-
wards ground into beads, etc., and polished with oil.
The red coral, once the most valuable, is now worth
far less than the colour which formerly was nearly worth-
less-the pale delicate pink, similar to that of the inside
of a pale rose-leaf. Coral of this tint is very valuable;
a large bead or drop will realize £30 to £40, and
smaller pieces are worth from £120 to £150 the ounce.
This stone or substance is not nearly so much sought
after in Europe as formerly; and, as mentioned before,
the great bulk goes to the East, where coral is much
worn in turbans, and on the handles of daggers and swords.
The beads are used by the Brahmins and Fakirs for ro-
saries, and the dead are frequently adorned with coral
ornaments, to prevent evil spirits from taking possession
of the corpse. The deep red colour, which harmonizes
well with the olive skin of the Indian, is preferred; and
few of the richer sort of Indian girls are without one
or two coral ornaments. Coral is also worn in Spain,
and in the West India Islands by the negroes. The
white, yellow, and black varieties are of very little value.
Coral is affected by heat and acids, and is frequently
216
Means of Ascertaining
imitated by bone, horn, and ivory, stained with cinnabar,
-also by a composition of gypsum, gum, and cinnabar.
One of the Greek names of coral was yópyeia, from
the tradition that the blood dropping from the head of
Medusa, which Perseus had deposited on some branches
near the sea-shore, becoming hard, was taken by the
sea-nymphs and planted in the sea. Pliny calls it
' dendrites' and 'corallum,' and it was dedicated by the
Romans to Jupiter and Apollo. In the Middle Ages
it was used in medicine as an astringent, and given to
newly-born infants; it was also thought to deepen in
colour when worn by a man, and to become paler when
worn by a woman. Both Boetius and Dioscorides sagely
report it as efficacious against the delusions of the devil
when worn in the form of an amulet.
wor
ON THE MEANS OF ASCERTAINING THE
IDENTITY OF GEMS.
The details given under the head of each stone
afford ready and simple means for determining, un-
aided, the identity of any particular stone; and a com-
parison of the results of the experiment, with the dif
ferent headings in Table A, will show at a glance in
which division the crystal or cut-stone experimented on
should be classed.
the Identity of Gems.
217
The pink topaz is frequently confounded with the
balas ruby, the tourmaline with the emerald, the ja-
cinth with the cinnamon stone, and the jargoon and
white sapphire with the diamond; not only by ama-
teurs, but even by persons supposed to be acquainted
with precious stones. A very little attention to the
facts noted under each head, both in the Table A
and in the description of each stone, will prevent the
errors into which many persons fall, and the possibility
of the frauds to which they are occasionally liable.
In the first place, it may be taken as a general rule
that stones, either rough or cut, which are affected by
the file, are not precious stones; and to persons who
are accustomed to its use, the difference of the resist-
ance, and of the grating sound occasioned, affords a
fair criterion of hardness. In the use of this tool,
however, care must be taken not to file the delicate
edges; as even the diamond, the hardest of bodies,
might chip, if subjected to the tool on the girdle, which,
as has before been said, is as thin as the edge of a knife.
For example, supposing it were wished to ascertain
what gem a white stone was :—if it were scratched by
a sapphire, it would at once be seen, on reference to
the Table A, that it could not be a diamond; if its
specific gravity were less than 3'9, it could not be a
ruby or sapphire; if it did not acquire electricity by
heat, it could be neither a topaz nor a jargoon; and
if it scratched glass, it would be seen that it must be
either a beryl, or quartz, or rock-crystal. For the pur-
9
218
Means of Ascertaining
pose of ascertaining these facts, a crystal of sapphire
(which may be obtained easily and without expense),
a piece of quartz or rock crystal, a piece of hard flint-
glass, and a pair of scales for the purpose of taking
the specific gravity, are all that is necessary. Those
persons who are in possession of an electrometer or
a polarizing apparatus, have valuable adjuncts to the
simple tests here indicated.
A very common mode of fraud, practised on inex-
perienced persons in cut stones, is the "doublet,” or
"semi-stone." In this case the top of the stone is ge-
nuine and the under-part glass, joined together artisti-
cally with cement; sometimes, for instance, the top is
sapphire, and the under-part a gem of less value, such
as garnet. When set, these stones are very difficult to
detect, and frequently deceive the most experienced.
When the under-part is of glass, however, the applica-
tion of the file to the under as well as upper surface
will, of course, at once show the imposition. Set stones
which are set with a back are generally of pale colour or
small lustre, painted or set with coloured foil, to enhance
their beauty. Sometimes, however, stones which are set
open, or, to use the technical term, 'azur,' have the in-
terior of the setting enamelled or painted, to throw a
tint of colour into the gem; or, in the case of the dia-
mond, have the inside of the setting of polished silver,
to correct a yellowish tinge. In all these cases, to be
forewarned is to be forearmed, and a careful examination
will prevent any one being deceived by these means.
the Identity of Gems.
219
"Doublets" are frequently sold by the Cingalese at
Colombo to Europeans, and to the passengers by the
Peninsular and Oriental steamers; sometimes blue glass,
cut into facets, and sent there from Birmingham and
Paris, are palmed off for the real stones.
Persons residing in countries producing precious
stones may find these hints of service, and, if attended
to, prevent their incurring expense in sending home
worthless pebbles, with the mistaken idea that they are
valuable gems. In one instance, a man actually left his
business, and, at a very considerable expense, came to
this country to sell a quantity of stones, which he was
assured were diamonds; but which, on examination,
proved to be 'nova minas,' or nodules of rock-crystal.
In the case of pearls, which are frequently imitated
with marvellous skill, it will be seen that false pearls are
much lighter than real ones; that generally the former
are brittle (although some are made solid, of fish-scales,
and do not break so easily); and the holes, which in
the real peal are drilled very small, and have a sharp
edge, in the false are larger, and have a blunt edge.
In concluding these hints on the identity of gems,
the author would remark that to no honest and respect-
able jewel merchant can the publication of such facis
prove prejudicial; on the contrary, he is convinced that
the more the public are enabled to test by their senses,
or such simple means as may be readily available, the
truth of statements made to them, the more will their
appreciation of jewels increase.
220
TABLE
DIAMOND.
White, pink, yellow,
red, blue, green, black,
orange, brown, opales-
cent.
BOART.
CARBONATE (compact None.
massive variety).
SAPPHIRE.
Sometimes Asteroid.
RUBY, pink, red,
violet-red.
TOPAZ,
yellow.
Oriental,
AMETHYST, Orien-
tal, purple, violet.
EMERALD, Oriental,
green, generally
pale.
CHRYSOBERYL, or
ORIENTAL CHRYSO-
Name and Colour.
Lustre.
Specific
Gravity.
Hardness.
No. in
Scale of
Hard-
TABLE OF THE DISTINGUISHING



System of
Crystalliza-
tion.
Composition.
ness.
Adamantine: 3-4 to 3-6 Scratches all
10
Pure Carbon.
Monometric
reflects
other pre-
or cubical.
prismatic
cious stones,
colours.
Vitreous:
3.9 to 4.2 Scratched by
9
White, blue, violet. very lively.
diamond;
Alumina
Oxide of
scratches
all others.
Iron
Lime.
•
•
10
0.5
98.5 Hexagonal
or rhom-
bohedral.
•
Vitreous;
LITE.
Bright pale
J
green,
sometimes
pearly.
3 to 38 Scratched by
sapphire,
etc.;
scratches
Alumina
8.5
Glucina.
•
. 80-2 Trimetric or
198
rhombic,
prismatic.
quartz
readily.
(Trace of Per-
oxide of Iron.
of Oxide
of
greenish-yellow, red-
dish-brown.
ALEXANDRITE, when
exhibiting
a
reddish,
transmittent light.
CYMOPHANE, or
CHRYSOBERYL CAT'S
EYE, when showing an
opalescence like a cat's
eye.
SPINEL.
Dark-red, white, bluc,
green.
PLEONASTE or CEY-|
LANITE, black.
RUBICELLE, orange.
BALAS RUBY, rose-red.
TOPAZ.
White, greenish, yel-
low, orange, cinnamon,
bluish, pink.
Vitreous.
3.8
Scratched by
sapphire;
scratches
quartz
readily.
8
00
Lead and Cop-
per, depending
on colour and
locality.)
Alumina
Magnesia
Protoxide
69.01 Monometric
·
26-21
or cubical.
•
0.71
•
2.02
of Iron
Silica
Oxide of
Chrome. 1·10
Fluorine
34-01 Trimetric or
.58.38
. 15:06
Traces of metallic
oxides.
rhombic.
Vitreous.
3.5 to 36 Scratched by
sapphire;
8
Silica
Alumina
scratches
quartz
easily.
A.
221
CHARACTERISTICS OF GEMS.

Form of Crystal.
Refraction.
Refractive Dispersive
Index. Power.
Electric
Properties.
Fusibility. Diaphaneity.
Cube,
Single.
Octahedron,
White 2'455)
Brown 2:487
0.38
Acquires
positive
Infusible; Transparent,
volatilized and trans-
Rhombic dodecahedron,
electricity
by long-
lucent;
Tetrahedron,
by friction;
continued Carbonate
Hexa-octahedron.
non-con-
ductor of
electricity.
heat.
opaque.
Hexagonal prism; often Double, in a
pointed at each end.
In flat hexagonal crys-
tals; generally in rolled
pebbles.
small
gree.
de-
1.765
0.026
Acquires
electricity
by friction
and retains
it several
hours.
Transparent.
Double.
1.760
0.033
Acquires
by friction,
Infusible,
electricity alone.
and retains
it several
hours.
Transparent
and semi-
transpa-
rent.
Octahedron,
octahedron,
Single.
Rhombic dodecahedral
1.755 to
1-810
0.040
Infusible,
alone.
Transparent,
translucent.
Tri-octahedron.
Right-rhombic prism,
Double, in a
1.635
0.025
Octahedral rhombic
slight de-
Acquires
electricity
prism.
gree.
by friction
and heat.
Infusible. Transparent,
translucent.
Name and Colour.
Lustre.
Specific
Gravity.
No. in
Scale of
Hardness.
Hard-
222
TABLE OF THE DISTINGUISHING


System of
Crystalliza-
tion.
Composition.
ness.
EMERALD.
Fine green.
RINE, pale sea-green,
Vitreous.
2:67 to 2.75 Scratched by 75 to 8 Silica
•
·
spinel;
•
BERYL or AQUAMA-
blue, white, yellow,
rarely pink.
HYACINTH or
JACINTH, brownish-yel-
low, brownish-red, cin-
namon.
JARGOON, various
scratching
quartz
68.50 Hexagonal
Alumina 15.75
Glucina 12.50
Oxide of
•
or rhom-
bohedral.
(specimens
vary).
Iron
Lime
1:00
0.25
Vitreous
407 to 470 Scratches
7.5
Silica
•
(almost ad.
amantine).
quartz
slightly.
33.0 Dimetric or
Zirconia 66 8
Peroxide of
Iron
•
•
square
prismatic;
0.10 pyramidal.
shades of green, yellow,
white, brown.
GARNET.
ALMANDINE, vio-
let-red.
Vitreous, in- 3.5 to 43 Scratches
clining to
resinous.
6.5 to 7.5 Silica
38.25 Monometric
•
•
quartz
slightly.
Alumina
19 35
or cubical.
Rarely Asteroid.
CARBUNCLE, red,
brownish.
CINNAMON-
STONE, white, yel-
low, orange.
PYROPE, vermilion
or Bohemian gar-
net.
TOURMALINE.
Green, rea, brown, yel-
low, blue, black, some-
times white.
QUARTZ or
ROCK CRYSTAL.
White.
AMETHYST, violet.
CAIRNGORM,
brown.
CHRYSOPRASE,
apple-green.
yellow,
fine
CAT'S-EYE, having cha-
toyant reflection.
PLASMA, deep olive-
green.
JASPER, yellow, red,
green, black, brown.
Vitreous.
2.99 to 3.3 Scratches
quartz
slightly.
Red Oxide
of Iron 7:33
Lime
Magnesia
•
•
31.75
2:40
Protoxide
of Man-
ganese
0.50

7 to 7.5 Fluorine 2.28 Hexagonal
Silica
•
38.85
or rhom-
bohedral,
BoracicAcid 8:25
Alumina 31.32
·
Red Oxide
of Iron
Magnesia
Lime
Soda.
Potash.
1.27
13.89
1.60
•
•
•
128
0-26
Vitreous.
2.65 Scratches
glass.
7 Silica
Alumina
•
Amethyst.
Silica
Alumina
99.37 Hexagonal
or rbom-
bohedral.
97.50
•
•
0.25
Red Oxide
of Iron. 0.50
Oxide of
Man-
ganese 0.25
•
223
CHARACTERISTICS OF GEMS—Continued.

Form of Crystal.
Refraction.
Refractive Dispersive Electric
Index. Power. Properties.
Fusibility. Diaphaneity.

Hexagonal prism.
Double
1.585
0.026
Acquires
(very
feeble).
positive
electricity
by friction.
Slightly Transparent.
fusible be-
fore the
blowpipe.
Long square prism,
Short square prism,
Long square octahedron,
The prisms often doubly
terminated with square
pyramids.
Double, in a 1.990
very high
degree, es-
pecially in
the Jar-
0.044
Do. do.
Infusible
before the
blowpipe.
Transparent
to opaque.
goon of
Ceylon.
Rhombic dodecahedron,
Simple.
1.759
0.033
Do. do.
Fusible
Rhombic dodecahedral
cube,
Trapezohedron,
Hexa-octahedron.
Obtuse rhombohedron,
Double.
1.625
0.028
Hexagonal prisms.
Hexagonal prism,
Bipyramidal, dodecahe-
dral.
Double.
1.549
0.026
Acquires
positive
and nega-
tive elec-
tricity by
friction
and heat.
Transparent,
before the Opaque.
blowpipe.
Fusible.
From trans-
parent
opaque.
to
Acquires
positive
electricity
by friction.
Infusible. Transparent
and trans-
lucent.
(Many varie-
ties nearly
opaque.)
224
TABLE OF THE DISTINGUISHING

Name and Colour.
Lustre.
Specific
Gravity.
No. in
Scale of
Hardness.
Hard-
ness.
Composition.
System of
Crystalliza-
tion.
BLOODSTONE,
dark-
green, with red spots.
CARNELION,red, white,
yellow.
AGATE, various colours.
ONYX, having black,
brown, and white layers.
SARDONYX, having red
or brownish and white
layers.
MOCHA-STONE, having
infiltrated Oxides of
Iron or Manganese,
producing dendritic ap-
pearances.
CHRYSOLITE.
Vitreous.
PERIDOT, olive-green.
33 to 344 Scratched by 6 to 7⋅ Silica
quartz.
Magnesia. 50·13
OLIVINE,
39.73 Trimetric or
rhombic.
Protoxide
of Iron.
9.19
Oxide of
Nickel
0.32
Oxide of
Man-
ganese
0-09
•
Alumina 0.22
·
TURQUOISE.
Blue, green, white.
Vitreous.
2-62 to 3 Scratches
glass
feebly.
6
Phos. Acid 27′34)
Alumina 47:45
Oxide of
None.
•
Copper. 2.05
Oxide of
Iron
1.10
•
•
Oxide of
Man-
ganese
Phosphate
0.50
341
•
•
18-18
of Lime.
Water
OPAL.
Colourless, red. white,
green, grey, black, yel-
Vitreous, in- 2.0 to 2.3 Scratches
clining to
resinons.
5.5 to 6.5 Silica
•
91.32 None.
glass
slightly.
Water
8.68
•
low.
(Iridescent.)
Traces of mineral
colouring-mat-
ter.
PEARL.
White, yellow, pink,
black, violet, brown,
grey.
Pearly.
2-5 to 2.7 Various.
2·5 to 3'5 Carbonate
Lime, organic
matter.
of
None.
225
CHARACTERISTICS OF GEMSContinued.


Form of Crystal
Refraction.
Refractive Dispersive Electric
Index. Power. Properties.
Fusibility. Diaphaneity.
Generally in rolled grains Double.
and pebbles.
1.660
0.033
None.
...
None.
att
Acquires
electricity
by friction.
Infusible. Transparent
and trans-
lucent.
None. Infusible. Opaque.
Translucent
at edges.
Infusible. Semi-trans-
parent.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Calcines by Opaque ;
moderate
sometimes
heat.
ર
semi-
transpa-
rent.
226
TABLE B.
NAMES OF STONES IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES.
English.
Ågate.
French.
Agathe.
German.
Italian.
Achat.
Quarzo Agato.
Almandine Gamet. Grenat, Alman- | Almandin.
Amandina.
dine.
Almandine Ruby. Rubis violet.
Violet Rubin.
Amber.
Succin, Ambre.
Bernstein.
Amethyst.
Amethyste.
Amethyst.
Rubino violetto.
Ambra giallo.
Ametista.
Aquamarine.
Acque-marine.
Aquamarin.
Acquamarina.
Asteria.
Astérie.
Sternstein.
Asteria.
Aventurine.
Aventurine.
Aventurin.
Aventurina.
Balas Ruby.
Rubis Balais.
Balas Rubin.
Rubino Balasso.
Beryl.
Béryl.
Beryll.
Berillo.
Bloodstone.
Jaspe sanguin.
Jaspis.
Elitropia.
Boart.
Boart.
Diamant Boart.
Boart.
Cairngorm.
Topaze Écossaise. Rauchstein.
Topazio fumoso.
Carbonate of Dia- | Carbonat.
Diamant carbonat. Carbonato di Dia-
mond.
mante.
Carbuncle.
Escarboucle, Gre- Karfunkel.
Carbuncolo.
nat cabuchon.
Carnelion.
Sardoine.
Karneol.
Corniola.
Cat's-eye.
Œil de Chat, Katzenauge.
Occhio di Gatto.
Chrysoberyl.
Quarz chatoyant.
Chrysoberyl, ou Chrysoberyll.
Chrysolite ori-
Crisoberillo.
entale.
Names of Stones in Different Languages 227
English.
French.
German.
Italian.
Chalcedony.
Calcédoine.
Chalcedon.
Calcedonio.
Chrysolite.
Chrysolithe.
Chrysolith.
Crisolito.
Chrysoprase.
Chrysoprase.
Chrysopras.
Crisoprasio.
Cinnamon stone.
Topaze fumée,
Kaneelstein,
Pietra cinnamomo.
vermeille.
Coral.
Corail.
Koralle.
Corallo.
Corundum.
Corindon.
Korund,
Korund.
Crystal.
Cristal de Roche.
Bergkrystall.
Cristallo di Rocca.
Diamond.
Diamant.
Diamant
Diamante.
Emerald.
Émeraude.
Smaragd.
Smeraldo.
Essonite.
Vermeille.
Essonit.
Essonite.
Felspar.
Feldspath.
Feldspath.
Feldspato.
Fire Opal.
Opale-Feu.
Feuer Opal.
Opalo.
Garnet.
Grenat.
Granat.
Hyacinth.
Hyacinthe.
Granato.
Hyacinth.
Giacinto.
Indigo Sapphire. Saphir de Brésil. Männlich Sapphir. Zaffiro.
Jacinth or Hyacinth Hyacinthe.
Hyacinth.
Giacente.
Jade.
Jade.
Amazonstein,
Pietra nefritica.
Jargoon.
Jargon.
Zirkon.
Giacinto.
Jasper.
Jaspe.
Jaspis.
Diaspro.
Jet.
Jaïet.
Gagat.
Gagato.
Labrador.
Lapis Lazuli.
Feldspathopalin.
Labrador.
Feldspato opalino.
Lapis Lazuli.
Lazurstein.
Lapis Lazuli.
Q 2
228 Names of Stones in Different Languages.
English.
French.
German.
Italian.
Malachite.
Malachite.
Malachit.
Malacito.
Marcasite.
Marcassite.
Markasit.
Marcassita.
Moon-stone.
Pierre de Lune.
Mondstein.
Pietra lunare.
Moss Agate.
Agate.
Moss Achat.
Agata.
Olivine.
Olivine.
Olivin.
Olivina.
Onyx.
Onyx.
Onyx.
Onice.
Opal.
Opale.
Opal.
Opalo, Girasole,
Scambaia.
Pearl.
Perle.
Perle.
Margarita, Perla.
Peridot.
Péridot.
Peridot.
Peridoto.
Plasma.
Plasme.
Plasma.
Plasma.
Pyrope.
Grenat.
Pyrop.
Granato.
Quartz.
Quartz.
Quarz.
Quarzo.
Ruby.
Rubis.
Rubin.
Rubino.
Sapphire.
Saphir.
Sapphir.
Zaffiro.
Sardonyx.
Sardoine
Sardonyx.
Corniola.
Smokestone.
Spinel.
Topaze enfumée. | Rauch Topaz.
Spinelle, ou Rubis. Spinel.
Pietra di Fuma.
Star Sapphire,
Saphir chatoyant. Stern Sapphir,
Spinello.
Zaffiro-pianeta.
Ruby, etc.
oder Rubin.
Topaz.
Tourmaline.
Topaze.
Tourmaline.
Turquoise.
Turquoise.
Topas.
Turmalin.
Turkis.
Topazio.
Tormalina.
Turchina.
Ditto, Fossil ΟΙ
de la nouvelle
"
""
von neuem Fel-
Do. di
Rocca
Bone.
Roche.
sen, oder Zahn
Turkis.
nuova.
229
TABLE C.
PRECIOUS STONES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO
THEIR COLOURS.
Yellow (continued).
White.
Diamond.
Sapphire.
Beryl.
Chrysoberyl.
Sapphire.
Quartz.
Black.
Diamond.
Sapphire.
Spinel.
Rock-crystal.
Green
Spinel.
Tourmaline.
Diamond.
Garnet.
Tourmaline.
Quartz.
Jargoon.
Emerald.
Violet.
Topaz.
Peridot or Olivine.
Quartz.
Sapphire.
Amethyst.
Chrysoberyl.
Sapphire.
Blue
Spinel.
Ruby.
Diamond.
Aquamarine.
Garnet.
Sapphire.
Tourmaline.
Spinel.
Spinel.
Chrysolite (called
Topaz.
also Olivine).
Opalescent.
Tourmaline.
Topaz.
Diamond.
Beryl.
Garnet.
Sapphire.
Red.
Diamond.
Ruby.
Spinel.
Spinel.
Jacinth.
Ruby.
Garnet.
Chrysoberyl.
Tourmaline.
Beryl.
Topaz.
Yellow.
Brown.
Diamond.
Jargoon.
Pink.
Diamond.
Opal.
Cat's-eye.
Quartz.
Ruby.
Moonstone.
Orange or Reddish-
yellow
Diamond.
Chrysoberyl.
Garnet or Cinnamon-
Topaz.
Diamond.
stone.
Chrysolite or Olivine. Chrysoberyl.
Topaz.
Spinel.
Garnet.
Jacinth.
Beryl.
Jacinth.
Ruby.
Garnet.
Tourmaline.
Tourmaline.
Jacinth.
Quartz.
Rubicelle (or Spinel).
Tourmaline.
APPENDIX.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRECIOUS
STONES ;
OR, A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS THAT HAVE
APPEARED RELATING TO DIAMONDS
AND OTHER GEMS.
Comprising nearly every known treatise upon the subject.
ABEN Ezra (Rabbi), Commentarium in Decalogum.
8vo. Hebr.
Basel, 1527
ABICH (H.), De Spinello, dissert. inaug. chem. 8vo.
Berolini, 1831
AGRICOLA (George), De Ortu et Causis Subterraneo-
rum. De Natura eorum quæ effluunt ex Terra. Fol.
Bas. 1558
ALBERTUS Magnus, De Virtutibus herbarum, lapidum,
Lived about 1230
animalium, etc., var. ed.
ANDRADA (M. d'), An Account of the Diamonds of
Brezil. Nich. Journ. i. 24.
ANNALES des Mines.
1797
Paris
234
Bibliography of Precious Stones.
ARGENVILLE (A. J. D. d'), De l'Histoire Naturelle
éclaircie dans deux de ses parties principales: la
Lithologie et la Conchologie. 4to.
ARGENVILLE, Traité de l'Oryctologie.
Paris, 1742
Paris, 1740
ARISTOTLE, Lapidarius, de novo e Græco translatus.
Lucas Brandis. 4to.
Regia Mersbourg, 1473
ARNOBIO (Cleandre), Il Tesoro delle Gioie, trattato
maraviglioso.
Venet. 1602
ATHENAEUS. Deiphnosophista (Banquet des Philo-
sophes), traduit par Dalechamp.
Paris, 1573
Ven. 1483
AVICENNA (Abou-Ali-Alhussein-Ben-Adloulah), Ca-
nones Medicinæ, Latt. reddit.
BABINGTON (Charles), A Systematic Arrangement of
Minerals, their Chemical, Physical, and External
Characters. 4to.
London, 1795
BACCI (Andrea), De Gemmis ac Lapidibus pretiosis in
S. Scriptura. 4to, Rome, 1577; 8vo, Franc. 1628
BACCI (And.), Le XII Pietre preziose. 4to. Roma, 1587
BACCI (And.), De Gemmis et Lapidibus pretiosis, trac-
tatus ex Ital. Lingua Lat. red. 8vo. Francof. 1605
BARBOT (Ch.), Traité complet des Pierres précieuses.
8vo.
Paris, 1858
BAUMER (John Wilh.), Historia Naturalis Lapidum
Franc. 1771
preciosorum omnium, etc. 8vo.
BAUMER (J. W.), Naturgeschichte aller Edelsteine,
wie auch der Erde und Steine, so bisher zur Artz-
nei sind gebraucht worden. Aus dem Latein. von
Karl, Freih. von Meidinger. Svo.
Wien, 1774
Bibliography of Precious Stones. 235
BECHAI BEN ASCHAR, Biur al Hattorah (Exposition of
the Law of Moses), A Commentary on Exodus
xxviii. 17-20.
A. M. 5207 (A.D. 1447*)
BECHER (John Joachim), Physica Subterranea. 4to.
Lipsiæ, 1739
BEKKERHEIM (Karl), Krystallographie des Mineral-
reichs. 8vo.
BELLEAU (René), Les Amours et nouveaux Échanges
Wien, 1793
Paris, 1576
Berlin, 1824
des Pierres précieuses. 4to.
BELLERMAN (J. J.), Die Urim und Thummim.
BERQUEN (Robert de), Les Merveilles des Indes Orien-
tales et Occidentales, ou nouveau Traité des Pierres
précieuses et des Perles. 4to.
Paris, 1661
Berzelius (J. Jacob, M.D., F.S.A.), On the Compo-
sition of the Topaz, etc. Nich. Journ. ix. 105. 1807
BEUMENBERGER (J. G.), Der Volkommene Juwelier.
Weimar, 1828
BIELHE (Von), Bernstein, ein gewichtiges Naturpro-
duct des Königreichs Dänemark. 8vo.
Hamburg, 1845
Berlin, 1802
BIELHE (Von), Ueber die Bernstein-Gräbereien in Hin-
ter-Pommern. 8vo.
BLINDHEIM (J. J.), Ueber den Sibirischen und Tauri-
schen Kalzedon. Neue Schrift. der Gesellsch. naturf.
Freunde. 4to.
Berlin, 1800
*This work contains an ample account of the properties of pre-
cious stones. The edition of 1447 is the earliest, but it has since
been many times reprinted.
236 Bibliography of Precious Stones.
BLUM (Dr. Reinhart), Die Schmucksteine, Heidelberg,
1828, und Taschenbuch der Edelsteinkunde, 12mo.
Stutgart, 1884
BLUM (J. R.), Lithurgik, oder Mineralien und Felsar-
ten, nach ihrer Anwendung in Oekon., Artist. und
Technischer Hinsicht systematisch abgehandelt.
Stutgart, 1840
BLUM (J. R.), Verzeichniss der geschnittenen Steine
in dem Königl. Museum zu Berlin. 8vo. Berlin, 1827
BLUMENBERG, Dissertatio Medica de Succino. 4to.
BLUMHOF (J. C.), Lehrbuch der Lithurgik.
Jena, 1682
Frankfurt, 1822
Bock (Fr. S.), Versuch einer kurzen Naturgeschichte
des Preussischen Bernsteins, und einer neuen war-
scheinlichen Erklärung seines Ursprunges. 8vo.
Königsberg, 1767
BOETIUS (Anselmus), Tractatus de Lapidibus et Gem-
mis, var. ed.
BONDARY (Jean de la Taille de), Blason des Pierres
précieuses.
BOOT (Anselmus Boëtius de), Gemmarum et Lapidum
Historia. 4to. Hanover, 1690. Recensuit et com-
mentariis illustravit Adr. Toll. 8vo.
Lugd. Batav. 1636
BOOT (Ans. Boëce de), Le Parfaict Joaillier, ou Histoire
des Pierreries, de nouveau enrichi de belles Annota-
tions par André Toll, trad. du Lat. par J. Bachou.
8vo.
Lyon, 1644
Bibliography of Precious Stones. 237
BORN (Baron Inigo), Schneckensteine, oder die Sächsi-
schen Topasfelsen. 4to.
Prag, 1776
BOUILLON (De la Grange), Analysis of the Substance
known by the name of Turquoise. Nich. Journ. xxi.
182.
BOURGET, Lettres sur la Formation des Sels et Cris-
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254 Bibliography of Precious Stones.
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Bibliography of Precious Stones. 255
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258 Bibliography of Precious Stones.
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The following ancient Manuscripts relating to this subject are
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260 Bibliography of Precious Stones.
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Africæ. Harl. MSS. 80.
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bus et de 15 Herbis et de 15 Figuris. Harl. MSS. 80.


INDEX.
A
ACH
CHLAMAH,
or amethyst,
description of, 43.
Agate, in High Priest's breastplate,
36, 43; account of, 170-172.
Alexandrite, 117.
Almandine ruby, 118, 121.
Almandine, variety of garnet, 142–
146.
Amber, account of, where found,
&c. 210-213.
Amethyst, in High Priest's breast-
plate, 36, 43; account of, where
found, &c. 157–159.
Amethyst, oriental, 114.
Amsterdam, diamond cutting there,
67.
Ancient gems, 7.
Ancients, their ideas respecting
gems, 21-32.
Aquamarine, or beryl, 129, 137-
139.
Aquamarine, oriental, 115.
Aristotle, mention of gems, 24, 25,
III.
Aschentrekker, Dutch name for
tourmaline, 150.
Asteroids, their colour, 9.
Australian diamonds, 62.
Automalite, 119.
Avanturine, 161.
BACK
CAB
ACCIUS (Andreas), mention
of balas ruby, 121.
Balas ruby, 118, 121.
Bareketh, or carbuncle, description
of, 39.
Berghem (L. van) discoverer of
art of cutting diamonds, 64,
65
Beryl, in High Priest's breastplate,
36, 44; Scriptural mention, 47;
account of, where found, &c.
129-139.
Bloodstone, or heliotrope, 175.
Boart, worst quality of diamond,
62.
Boetius, mention of gems, 29, 112,
208, 216.
Borneo, diamonds found there, 61.
Bourdon (Count), 102,
Braganza diamond, account of, 78.
Brazil, diamonds found there, 50-
61; diamonds belonging to Bra-
zilian Government, 85.
Brilliants, 70.
Brilliolette, or briolet, form of, 77;
value, 96.
CABO
ABOCHON, or tallow-topped
cut, 99.
262
Index.
CAC
Cacholong, variety of opal, 183,
184.
Caillaud, discovered emerald mine,
133.
Cairngorm, 159–160.
Callaite, ancient name of turquoise,
182.
Cameos, onyx used for, 167; jasper
used for, 174; turquoise, 182.
Carbonate, or diamond carbon, 62.
Carbuncle, in High Priest's breast-
plate, 36, 39, 40; Scriptural
mention, 46; variety of garnet,
142, 144.
Carnelion, 168.
Cat's eye, 115, 117, 172.
Ceylon, account of pearl fishery in,
190-193.
Ceylonite, 119.
Chalcedonyx, variety of chalcedony,
169.
Chalcedony, found with chryso-
prase, 162; account of, 169.
Characteristics of gems, table of,
220.
Chemical properties of gems, 3–20;
analyses of ruby, 102; chryso-
beryl, 116; spinel, 120; topaz,
124; emerald and beryl, 131;
hyacinth, 139; garnet, 143 ;
tourmaline, 149; quartz, 152;
amethyst, 157; chrysoprase,
162; chrysolite, 177; turquoise,
179; opal, 183; moonstone,
203; lapis lazuli, 204; mala-
chite, 206; labradorite, 207;
jade, 200; amber, 210.
Chloro-spinel, 119.
Chrysoberyl, 115-118; confounded
with cat's eye, 172.
Chrysolite, in High Priest's breast-
plate, 44; account of, 176-178.
Chrysolite, oriental, 115.
Chrysoprase, chrysoberyl of the
ancients, 118; account of, 162.
DIA
Cinnamon-stone, variety of garnet,
142, 146, 160.
Classification of gems, 32.
Colophonite, variety of garnet, 142,
146.
Colour of
8; table of stones
gems, 8
arranged according to their
colours, 229.
Combustibility of the diamond, 51.
Coral, Scriptural mention, 46; ac-
count of, where found, &c. 213-
216.
Corundums, 101, 114.
Coster's diamond-cutting mills, 67.
Crushing diamonds, 70.
Cumberland diamond, account of,
80.
Cutting gems, art of, 31; diamond
cutting, 63-68; cutting coloured
stones, 97-100; ruby, 108;
sapphire, 110; chrysoberyl, 117;
spinel, 123; topaz, 126; eme-
rald, 136; garnet, 145; tour-
maline, 150; rock crystal, 156;
amethyst, 158; cairngorm, 160;
chrysoprase, 162; onyx, 164;
jasper, 175; chrysolite, 177;
turquoise, 181; opal, 184, 186;
moonstone, 203; coral, 215.
Cymophane, 115-118.
Deractive power, 10; men-
IAMOND, its material, 3;
tion by Plato, 24; Pliny, 25, 29;
Serapius, 29; in High Priest's
breastplate, 36, 41; Scriptural
mention, 47; account of, its
properties, varieties, &c. 48–96;
cutting, 67; polishing, 68;
crushing, 70; splitting, 71;
names of forms, 72; account of
large diamonds, 78–86; value,
87-96; resemblance of sapphire
to, 114.
Index.
263
DIA
Diaphaneity of gems, 19.
Dioscorides, mention of coral, 216.
Double cutting of brilliant, 66;
form of, 73.
Doublets," false gems, 218, 219.
Dresden (Mr.), account of a large
diamond in his possession, 85.
Dyshnite, 119.
ELE
LECTRICAL properties of
gems, 16-18; of the dia-
mond, 50.
Emerald, in High Priest's breast-
plate, 36, 40, 44; account of,
where found, &c. 129–137.
Emerald, oriental, 115.
Emery, 102.
Essonite, variety of garnet, con-
founded with jacinth, 140; ac-
count of, 142, 143, 146.
Euclase, found with topaz in Brazil,
126.
Eugénie brilliant, account of, 82.
Eyestones, jewellers' name for onyx,
163.
FAC
ACETS in diamond, formation
of, 67, 68, 72.
Florentine brilliant, account of, 82.
Fusibility of gems, 19.
GAGATES, ancient name of
Galen, mention of jasper, 175.
Garnet, spinel mistaken for, 121;
account of, where found, &c.
141-147.
Gems, definition of, 1; where
found, 2; requisites for value,
3; material of, 3; used for
medical purposes, 31.
Goepert, mention of amber, 211.
JAD
Golconda, mines of, 54.
Grossularite, variety of garnet, 142,
146.
H
17.
ARDNESS of gems, 6.
Hauy, Abbé, work on gems,
Hebrew names of gems, 22, 34-
47.
Heliotrope, 175.
Hercenite, 119.
Herman, diamond cutter, A.D.
1407, 64.
Herodotus, mention of gems, 25.
High Priest, stones in his breast-
plate, 21, 22, 38-47.
Homer, mention of gems, 23.
Hope diamond, account of, 84.
Hyacinth, in High Priest's breast-
plate, 43; account of, where
found, &c. 139-141; garnet
sold for, 146.
Hyalosiderite, variety of chrysolite,
177.
Hydrophane, variety of opal, 183,
185.
IDE
DENTITY of gems, means of
ascertaining, 216-219.
Indecolite, variety of tourmaline,
147.
India, diamonds found there, 54;
diamond washing in Sumbal-
phore, 55; diamond cutting, 66.
Isidorus, mention of sapphire, 111;
emerald, 134.
JAC
ACINTH, spinel mistaken for,
122 ; account of, where
found, &c. 139-141; garnet
sold for, 146.
Jade, or nephrite, 209.
264
JAH
Index.
ORP
Jahalom, or diamond, description | Moh, scale of hardness, 6.
of, 41.
Jargoon, 140, 141.
Jashpeh, or jasper, description of,
45.
Jasper, in High Priest's breastplate,
36, 45; account of, 173-175.
Jeffries (David), work on diamonds,
57, 87.
Jet, 208.
Jewish use of gems, 21, 28.
K
OH-I-NOOR diamond, ac-
count of, 79.
L
ABRADORITE, or Labrador
felspar, 207.
Lapis lazuli, 203–205.
Moonstones, 202–203.
Mother-of-pearl, 188, 189.
Mythological allusions to gems, 21,
23.
of
NAMES of gems, table ot
translations from Hebrew,
36; Indian diamonds, 55; Bra-
zilian, 56; forms of cut dia-
monds, 72; varieties of topaz,
127; emerald, 136; beryl, 138;
garnet, 142; cairngorm, 159;
agate, 170; opal, 182; table of
names of stones in different lan-
guages, 226.
Nassack diamond, 54; account of,
84.
Leshem, or ligure, description of, Nephrite, or jade, 209.
42.
Leucite, variety of garnet, 142,
146.
Ligure, in High Priest's breastplate,
36, 42.
Lobo, discovered diamonds in Brazil,
57.
Lucan, mention of gems, 27.
Lustre of gems, 7.
ALACHITE, 206.
MA
Marbodus, mention of
heliotrope, 175.
Mattam diamond, account of, 78.
Maturan diamond, jargoon so called,
140.
Mazarin diamonds, 65.
Melanite, variety of garnet, 142,
146.
Minerals forming gems, 3.
Mixed or brilliant top cut, 99.
Mocha stone, variety of chalcedony,
170.
Nicolo, or onicolo, variety of onyx,
165.
Nophek, or emerald, description of,
40.
Ο
DEM, or sardius, description
of, 38.
Odontolite, fossil turquoise, 181.
Olivine, 176–178.
Onomakritos, mention of jasper,
174.
Onyx, in High Priest's breastpiate,
36, 43, 44; account of, 163-
168.
Opal found with chrysoprase, 162;
account of, where found, &c.
182-186.
Optical qualities of gems, 10.
Oriental knowledge of gems, 33.
Orloff diamond, account of, 81.
Orpheus, or onamacriton, mention
of gems, 23.
PAR
PAR
Index.
ARASITE, found with eme-
rald in New Granada, 133.
Pasha of Egypt diamond, account
of, 83.
Pearl, swallowed by Cleopatra, 27;
account of, 187-195; value and
discrimination of, 196-201; false
pearls, 219.
Pebble, 154-
Peridot, 176-178.
Peridot, oriental, 115.
SAR
265
Portuguese diamond, 85; supposed
to be a white topaz, 128.
Pyrope, or Bohemian garnet, 142,
143, 145.
UARTZ, varieties of, 141-
176.
QUA
Peruggi, or Peruzzi, introducer of REFRACTION of light in
double cutting, 66.
Pierre de cannelle, French name
for cinnamon, 160.
Pietra dura, jasper used in, 174.
Piggott diamond, account of, 84.
Pimelite found with chrysoprase,
162.
Pitdah, or topaz, description of, 39.
Pitt diamond, account of, 81.
Plasma, variety of chalcedony, 169.
Plato, mention of gems, 24.
Pleonast, 119.
Pliny, mention of gems, 25; ruby,
107; sapphire, 111; topaz, 129;
emerald, 133; beryl, 138; al-
mandine, 145; carbuncle, 147;
amethyst, 159; carnelion, 168;
agate, 172; jasper, 174; helio-
trope, 175; turquoise, 182;
opal, 186; pearl, 195; lapis,
205; amber, 211, 212; coral,
216.
Polarization of light in gems, 10-
12.
Polar Star diamond, account of,
81.
Polishing, diamond, 68; coloured
stones, 97.
Polo (Marco), mention of balas
ruby, 121.
Portaleone, his work "Shilto Hage-
borem," on value of diamonds,
91.
gems, 10-12; in the dia-
mond, 49.
Regent or Pitt diamond, account
of, 81.
Rock crystal, sold for topaz, 124;
account of, where found, &c.
153-156.
Roman, ancient, taste for gems, 26.
Rose diamond, 70; form of, 76;
value, 95.
Rubelite, variety of tourmaline, 147.
Rubicelle, 118, 120.
Ruby, account of, where found, &c.
102, 110; garnet made to imi-
tate, 145.
Russian treasury, diamond in, 85.
STEPHEN'S
STONE,
ST.
S variety of chalcedony, 169.
Sancy diamond, cut by Van Ber-
ghem, 65; account of, 83.
Sapphire, its colour, 9; mentioned
in Scripture, 22; in High Priest's
breastplate, 36, 40; account of,
where found, &c. 110-114.
Sapphire, yellow, 115.
Sapphirine, 119, 169.
Sappir, or sapphire, description of,
40.
Sard, 166, 168.
Sardius, in High Priest's breastplate,
36, 38.
Sardonyx, account of, 163-168.
266
Index.
SCO
Scott (Sir Walter), mention of opal,
185.
Scriptural mention of gems, 22,
33-47; emerald, 135; pearl,
194.
Semitic knowledge of gems, 33.
Seneca, mention of pearls, 195.
Shah diamond, account of, 81.
Shebo, or agate, description of, 43.
Shoham, or onyx, description of,
44.
Single-cut brilliant, form of, 74,
75-
Skaif, for diamond polishing, 68.
Specific gravity of gems, 14-16; of
the diamond, 49.
Spessartine, variety of garnet, 146.
Spinel, found with ruby, 102; sold
for ruby, 105; account of, 118–
123; found with emerald, 133.
Splitting diamonds, 71.
Star-cut, 100.
Star of the South diamond, 61;
account of, 85.
Succinite, variety of garnet, 146.
Superstitions regarding gems, 23,
29-31, 107, 112.
Syrian garnet, 144.
TA
ABLE diamond, form of, 75.
Table of present value of
brilliants, 93.
Table of comparative values of
diamonds, 94.
Tavernier, mention of gems, 31;
of diamonds, 54; rubies, 108.
Tharshish, or beryl, description of,
44.
Theophrastus, mention of gems, 24-
10, ruby, 107; sapphire, 111;
26;
carbuncle, 147; agate, 171.
Topaz, in High Priest's breastplate,
ZOD
36, 39; account of, where
found, &c. 123–129.
Topaz, false, or cairngorm, 160.
Topaz, oriental, 115.
Tourmaline, or Brazilian ruby, ac-
count of, where found, &c. 147-
151; resemblance to chrysolite,
178.
Trap, or step-cut, 98.
Turkey, Sultan of, diamonds in his
possession, 86.
Turquoise, superstition regarding,
23, 29, 42; in High Priest's
breastplate, 42; account of,
where found, &c. 178–182.
Tuscany, Grand Duke of, diamonds
in his possession, 86.
UWA
WAROWITE, variety of
net, 142, 147.
gar-
ALUE of diamonds, 86-96;
VALU
ruby, 109; sapphire, 112;
chrysoberyl and cymophane, 118;
spinel, 123; topaz, 129; eme-
rald, 136; beryl, 138; jacinth,
141; garnet, 146; crystal, 155;
amethyst, 158; onyx, sardonyx,
&c. 166; jasper, 175; chryso-
lite, 178; turquoise, 181; opal,
185; pearl, 196-201; lapis
lazuli, 205; coral, 215.
WA
ASHING for diamonds,
hereditary in India, 55;
mode of, 59.
Whereditary
Ꮓ
Zf, 139-141.
IRCON, or hyacinth, account
Zodiac stones, 28.
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