www BURMA PAST AND PRESENT Jere KWANST ILLUSTRATED DS 485 .381 F98 1011011112611/1 •* . . •3• MS University of Michigan Libraries 1817 ARTES SCIENTIA VERITAS Ov *** - **** zie 3250 ३२ Mary Gibson. Prize for Good Conduct - Stall. Meswick. Grete Christmas 1885. I BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 高 ​ J.Sant R.A. pinx! TO Albert- букета До JC Armytage sculpt BURMA PAST AND PRESENT WITH PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF THE COUNTRY : BY LIEUT.-GEN. ALBERT FYTCHE, C.S.I. Z LATE CHIEF COMMISSIONER OF BRITISH BURMA, AND AGENT TO THE VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA. Ηδη μὲν πολέων κεκορήμεθ᾽ ἀέθλων. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: C. KEGAN PAUL & Co., 1, PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 1878. MAWEGENERASEN thebaddon fuponecas cond, te smiles touh D5 485 .381 F 9 8 (The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved.) = 1 F204-284013 ΤΟ MY COUSIN, ALFRED TENNYSON, POET LAUREATE, This Book IS DEDICATED. PREFACE. THIS work is written much in the form of an autobiography, and a preface, therefore, is hardly necessary; because, as the author writes principally in the first person, he explains as he goes along what otherwise would have been expressed in a preface. A few preliminary remarks, however, appear somewhat desirable, not by way of preface, but of apology. The author chose this form for several reasons. He has been writing as much for friends as for the general public. The past history of Burma has been gleaned from ancient Burmese chronicles and old Portuguese historians; but in writing of Burma of the present, he has been anxious to tell what he could of the country and its people from his own personal experiences, and to carry his readers with him through his career in India and Burma. Pos- sibly he has been a little ambitious that his career should not be altogether unknown to his fellow- countrymen. viii PREFACE. Now that the book is about to be published, he is inclined to regret that he did not give his informa- tion in a more abstract form. He has been betrayed into saying so much of himself, that he fears he has laid himself open to a charge of egotism. Indeed, he is not sure that the charge would be altogether without foundation. The fact is, that an autobiography is a delicate task. It is pleasant and easy to write, but too seductive to the writer; its very nature is egotis- tical. The author can only express a hope that, as it is easy writing, so it may prove easy reading. He humbly trusts as, (C "Laudator temporis acti Se puero," he may not have made himself too offensively the darling theme of contemplation," and that his literary anatomists may not find for their lashes a "knot of scorpions in every page." ALBERT FYTCHE. PYRGO PARK, HAVERING-ATTE-BOWER, Essex, March, 1878. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. . FAMILY REMINISCENCES OF INDIA. Embark for India.-John Nicholson a fellow-passenger.-War spirit abroad in Central Asia and China.—India in 1839.-Desire for an Indian career.-Ralph Fitch and William Fytche.-Ralph Fitch's departure to the East.-Trade between Europe and the East Indies formerly monopolised by the Portuguese. -Ralph Fitch's travels and adventures in the East.-Charter of incorporation granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company.-The year 1746.-William Fytche appointed a Member of Council at Calcutta.-Status of the British in India in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries.—Mode of life of the Company's servants in India in the eighteenth century.— Delhi captured by Nadir Shah.--Wane of the Moghul Empire.— The Koh-i-noor diamond.-Capture of Calcutta by Suraj-ood- dowlah.—Black Hole of Calcutta.-Portrait of William Fytche.— My arrival in Calcutta.-Accompany my regiment to Lucknow.— Cantonment life there.-Eagerness for active service.-Posted to a regiment in Arakan.-Hostilities with Burma anticipated. CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BURMA. Geographical position of Burma.-Extent of British territory in Burma in 1841. Territories of the King of Burma.-Burma in ancient times split up into a number of petty Kingdoms.-Site of Capital frequently changed.—Talaing and Burmese dynasties.-Burmese Chronicles unreliable. - Portuguese historians of Burma.-Position of Portugal in the East at the commencement of 16th century.-Red Sea and Persian Gulf ancient trade route with the East.--Conquest of Goa PAGE I X CONTENTS. and Malacca by the Portuguese.-The King of Toung-oo then the dominant power in Burma.-The Portuguese appear in Burma and assist the Talaings.-Defeat of the Talaings and conquest of Pegu by Branginoco.-Conquest of Martaban and Prome.- Atrocities com- mitted there by Branginoco.-Invasion of Siam.-Revolution in Pegu.-Death of Branginoco.-Xenim proclaims himself King.— Iniquities of Diego Suarez and his violent death.-Death of Xenim. -Zemindoo ascends the throne.-Zemindoo deposed by Meng-tara- gyee.- Zemindoo betrayed and beheaded.-Shimiti Shah King of Arakan.—Philip de Brito.—Treachery of Shimiti Shah.—Syriam besieged and captured by King of Ava.-Horrible death of Philip de Brito.-Career of Sebastian Gonzales de Tibao.-King of Arakan conquers a portion of Lower Bengal.-Bernier's account of Lower Bengal and Arakan.-Sultan Soojah takes refuge with the King of Arakan. He attempts to seize the country.-His failure and death. -Alompra.-British Government first brought into political relation- ship with the Kings of Burma.- Shembuan.-Chinese Invasions of Burma.-Reign of Boda Phra. -Founds a new Capital.-Talaing insurrection.-Conquest of Arakan.-Threatens to subdue Siam.- Affects to be a Buddha.-His death. His grandson Phagyi-dau succeeds to the throne.-The first Burmese war of 1824-26.— Phagyi-dau deposed and and confined by Tharawadi.-Tharawadi ascends the throne. M P • PAGE CHAPTER III. PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF ARAKAN, BASSEIN, AND TENASSERIM. Tharawadi ignores the Treaty of Yandabo.-Threatens to drive the Eng- lish out of Arakan and Tenasserim.-Marches to Rangoon.--His pusillanimity.—Am pleased with my transfer to Arakan.-Aspect of Burma and Hindostan.-Tumble-down-Dick.- An officer killed by a shark.-Expedition against the Wallengs.-Hill tribes of Arakan. -The Government vessel "Amherst."-Two extraordinary duels.- A snipe shooting feat.-Sporting adventures with "big game.". Appointed to the Arakan Commission.-The Punjab campaign.— Proceed to rejoin my Regiment in the Punjab.—Ride from Lahore into Camp.-Battle of Chillianwallah.-Battle of Goojrat.-Storm of Burra Kalra.-Wounded.-Surrender of remnant of Sikh Army at Rawul Pindi.-March to Peshawur.-Return to Sandoway.- Civil duties at Sandoway.-Rumours of war with Burma.-Explore the mountain-passes. - Tharawadi deposed. The Págan Meng ascends the throne.-His character.-Atrocities committed by his Ang 24 CONTENTS. Minister. His torture and death.-British subjects ill-treated by Governor of Rangoon.-Commodore Lambert sent with his squadron to demand reparation.-Governor of Rangoon superseded.-Arro- gant conduct of new Governor.-Squadron fired upon by the Burmese.—Burmese ports blockaded.-War proclaimed.-Province of Pegu annexed to British Empire.-Revolution at Amarapoora.- Págan Meng deposed and the Mengdou Meng becomes King. -He refuses to sign a treaty of peace.-Lord Dalhousie defines his own boundary of the newly conquered territory.-Appointed Deputy Commissioner of Bassein.-The great anarchy prevailing there.- Description of the District. -Burmese dacoits.—Expeditions against the dacoits and marauding bands.-Defeat and death of the Meng- gyee, or Governor of Bassein.-Defeat of the Ex-chief Myat-htoon and capture of his stronghold.—A military police corps organised. — Oppressive conduct of the new Burmese civil officials.-Horrible murder committed by a Myo-ok.—Elephant shooting.—Karen rebel- lion. -Karen traditions.—Boundary fixed between Tenasserim and Siam.-Timber trade of Maulmain,-Ghost story.-Sporting anec- dotes • xi PAGE Г Succeed Major-General Sir Arthur Phayre, as Chief Commissioner of British Burma, and Agent to the Viceroy and Governor-General.— Our political relations with the Princes of India and King of Burma. -Early intercourse between European nations and Kings of Burma. —Dutch, French, and English factories in Burma.—Former subservi- ence of the old East India Company.-British Envoys sent to Alompra in 1755 and 1757.-Description of Alompra.-English settlement at Negrais overpowered, and its inhabitants massacred by the Burmese.-Colonel Symes's mission to Ava.—Its failure.-Father Sangermano.-Captain Hiram Cox, British Agent at Rangoon, pro- ceeds to Ava.-Is recalled.-Colonel Symes proceeds on a second mission to Ava.-Its total failure.-Captain Canning sent as British Agent to Rangoon.-Summoned to Ava by the king.-Returns to Calcutta.-Sent again to Rangoon ; but immediately recalled. Burmese war of 1824-26.-Treaty of peace signed at Yandabo.—Mr. John Crawfurd proceeds as Envoy to Ava.-Narrative of his mission. -Concludes a short supplementary commercial treaty.—Major Burney deputed as Resident to the Court of Ava.-Remains there seven years. Succeeded by Colonel Benson.-He returns after six months' CHAPTER IV. MY MISSION TO MANDALAY, 1867: AND NARRATIVE OF FORMER MISSIONS TO THE KINGS OF BURMA. 85 xii CONTENTS. G residence. - Leaves his Assistant, Captain Macleod, in charge.-Cap- tain Macleod leaves on plea of ill-health.-Second Burmese war of 1852-53.—Due advantage not taken of our conquest.-Complimentary mission sent to Calcutta by the King of Burma.-Return mission sent under Sir Arthur Phayre.-King refuses to sign any treaty; but friendly relations are established. - Burmese capital transferred from Amarapura to Mandalay.-The three divisions of Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim amalgamated, and consolidated, into the province of British Burma.-Colonel Phayre appointed Chief Commissioner of the province. He concludes the treaty of 1862.-Unsatisfactory working of the treaty.-British officers sent to explore the upper course of the Salween river, sent back by the Burmese authorities.- An English gentleman insolently beaten in the streets of Mandalay.- Insurrection at Mandalay.—Crown Prince assassinated.-Flight of two of the King's sons into British Burma.-Insurrection suppressed. -Colonel Phayre proceeds on another mission to the King of Burma. -Failure of the mission.-I succeed Colonel Phayre.-The king abolishes some of his monopolies, and reduces his frontier dues. -Execution of the Pudyne Prince.—I proceed as Envoy to the King of Burma.-Splendid reception by the king.-King invests me with the Order of the Tsalwé.-Great success of the mission.-Conclude the treaty of 1867.—Character of the king.—The King of Burma an absolute despot.—The king's counsels.-The kingdom of Burma, how divided and governed.-No distinction between civil and military services.-The Burmese army.-Condition of slaves in Burma.—The Queen's and Zenana establishment of the King of Burma.-Descrip- tion of Mandalay and king's palace.-Comparative merit of British and Burmese rule PAGE • 183 CHAPTER V. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRITISH BURMA, INCLUDING AREA, CHARACTER OF THE SURFACE, CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND BOTANICAL PRODUCTIONS. Geographical description.-Limits and extent.-The Arakan division.— Valley of the Irawadi.-Northern boundary between the British pos- sessions and those of the King of Ava.-Principal rivers. —The Irawadi.—Its supposed source. -Areas drained by it in different parts of its course.—Volume of water discharged.—Its ten mouths.—The Hleing, Pegu, Sittang, and Beeling rivers.-Funnel-shaped channel at the mouth of the Sittang.-Extraordinary height and violence of the bore there.-Canal connecting the Pegu and Sittang rivers.-Lakes.-The Salween river.-Difficulty of its navigation above Maulmain.—Its CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. source involved in great uncertainty.—The expedition sent to survey its course.-Jealous suspicions of the King of Burma regarding its object. -Tenasserim Division.-Area of the province.-Communications chiefly by water.-Roads.-Soil.-Geological features.-Climate.— Temperature. The south-west and north-east monsoons.-The total fall of rain.-Ranges of the thermometer.-Climate not inimical to the European constitution.-Beautiful scenery.-Great variety of the flera. Ornamental trees. — Palms. — Fruits. — Great variety of creepers and wonderful luxuriance of the undergrowth in the forests. -Ferns and orchids.-Dendrobium Fytchianum.—The bamboo.—Its rapid growth.—Timber trees.—The teak tree.—Its valuable qualities. -Does not grow in large continuous masses.-Its immediate associates in the forest.-Peculiarity of its leaves.-Area of forests reserved by the State.-Produce of the teak reserves.-Quantity imported inland from foreign territories.-Total of British and foreign teak timber exported from the province.-Strychnos Nux-Vomica. -Dipterocarpus lævis and D. turbinatus varieties of the wood-oil tree.-Mode of extracting oil from them. 260 "a xiii AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, TRADE, AND FINANCE. PAGE Landed proprietors in the plains.-Great fertility of the soil.-Mode of tillage.—Toung-ya or hill cultivation.-Staple cereal, rice.-Export of rice.-Cargo rice.-Other principal products, cotton, sesamum, sugar, tobacco, and indigo.-Tea.-Coffee.-Average yield of the different kinds of crops.-Average rate of rent per acre.-Cinchona plant introduced into the province.—Silk and cloth manufactures.- Lacquered ware of the Burmese.-Gold and silversmiths' work.- The tools employed.—Painting and knowledge of perspective.-- Steam rice and saw mills.-Manufacture of salt.-Import of salt.— Manufacture of paraffine from petroleum.—The petroleum wells. How sunk.-Machinery used in extracting the oil.-Sericulture.- Catechu or Terra Japonica.- How manufactured.—Its uses.—Manu- factory of shellac.-Burmese love of bells and gongs.—The large bell at Mengoon.-Fine tone of their bells and gongs.-A peculiar triangular one used on "worship days."-Population of British Burma.-Gross revenue receipts, imperial, provincial and municipal. -Incidence of taxation.-Expenditure on provincial administration. -Surplus for Imperial purposes.-Value of seaborne and inland exports and imports.-Compares very favourably with that of India. -Great future of the province. My .309 3 xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE INHABITANTS OF BURMA, AND OF THE NEIGHBOURING HILL TRIBES. Burma inhabited by separate and distinct tribes of the Mongoloid type.— Their mutual affinity.-Not autochthonous.-Migration of Món and Shan tribes.-Radical affinity of the Talaing language with the Mónda or Kól.-The portions of country occupied by the Burmese and Talaing races.—Origin of the Burmese race.—They claim descent from Gautama and the Sakya race.-Derivation of the word Burma.—Three tribes described in the Radza-weng as inhabiting the upper valley of the Irawadi.-King Abhi-radza and his two sons.- Disputed succession to the throne. The younger son succeeds to the throne.—The elder one emigrates to Arakan and becomes King of that country.-Description of the different tribes of Karens.-A Karen monkey feast.-Ceremonies observed at the burial of their dead.—The Sgau most numerous of the Karen tribes.-The Pwo Karens.-The Bghai tribes.—Divided into six clans.-The Karennee the dominant one.-Western and Eastern Karennee.-The former well disposed towards the British Government, the latter always held aloof. — Effective guarantee required from the Burmese Government against all interference with Western Karennee.-Boundary laid down between Burma and Western Karennee. -Boundary described. -Dress of the Karennees.-Interment of their dead.-Passion for large metal drums.-The Toung-thoos.-Their supposed origin.— Ancient city of Thatún.-The Let-hta tribe.-Hill tribes westward of the Irawadi basin.—The Munipúris.—Game of Polo.—The Naga tribes.—Kowpöee tribe.—Curious practice on death of a wife. —The Tunkhúl tribe.-Their marriage customs and "full dress.”—The Khyengs.-Tattooed faces of the females of this tribe.-All hill tribes of Ultra-India bear great similarity to each other.-Their barbarous philosophy.—Feticism of the Bghais M · PAGE 322 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PORTRAIT OF LIEUTENANT-GENERAL ALBERT FYTCHE, C.S.I. DEATH OF THE TIGER PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM FYTCHE, GOVERNOR OF BENGAL, 1755 To face page LIST OF SKULL OF RHINOCEROS 0 VIEW OF BASSEIN VIEW OF SANDOWAY IN ARAKAN SKELETON OF AN ELEPHANT THE ELEPHANT'S CHARGE SKULL OF AN ELEPHANT VIEW OF MAULMAIN RALPH AND THE BONES DENDROBIUM FYTCHIANUM 2 HEADS OF CERVUS FRONTALIS AND BOS GAURUS • Q 19 "" 77 93 "" Frontispiece "1 . 21 100 104 116 128 153 157 158 159 172 179 297 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. CHAPTER I. FAMILY REMINISCENCES OF INDIA. Embark for India.-John Nicholson a fellow-passenger.-War spirit abroad in Central Asia and China.-India in 1839.-Desire for an Indian career. — Ralph Fitch and William Fytche.-Ralph Fitch's departure to the East. -Trade between Europe and the East Indies formerly monopolised by the Portuguese.-Ralph Fitch's travels and adventures in the East. Charter of incorporation granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company. The year 1746.-William Fytche appointed a Member of Council at Calcutta.—Status of the British in India in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries.—Mode of life of the Company's servants in India in the eighteenth century.-Delhi captured by Nadir Shah.-Wane of the Moghul Empire.-The Koh-i-noor diamond.-Capture of Calcutta by Suraj-ood-dowlah.-Black Hole of Calcutta.-Portrait of William Fytche. -My arrival in Calcutta.-Accompany my regiment to Lucknow.-Canton- ment life there.-Eagerness for active service. -Posted to a regiment in Arakan.-Hostilities with Burma anticipated. M I LANDED in India as a young Ensign in 1839; I left it as Chief Commissioner of British Burma in 1871. With the exception of two years at starting, and a few occasional intervals, I spent the whole of this period of thirty-two years in the province of British Burma. My experiences are therefore chiefly con- fined to Burma; and Burma and its people are the main subject of the present volume. As, however, I propose dealing with this subject in the form VOL. I. B 2 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. somewhat of an autobiography, rather than as an abstract work, I may be pardoned if I occasionally turn aside to glance at the current of affairs in India, or indulge in other reminiscences which may possibly prove of interest to general readers. When I embarked for India in 1839, I was scarcely eighteen years of age; the world around seemed equally as young. A youthful Princess had been crowned Queen of the British Isles only a few months before. My fellow-passengers were nearly all young. One of them, a boy of sixteen, was destined to be famous in Indian annals. His name was John Nicholson. He lived to become the demi-god of the Sikhs; the daring soldier who fell at the storming of Delhi in 1857. Again, in 1839 the era of peace seemed to be passing away. The war spirit was abroad in Central Asia and China. Pottinger had compelled Persia to raise the siege of Herat. A British force was already on the march for Kandahar and Ghuzni. Hostilities were about to begin in the Chinese seas. In going to India, therefore, I was not without hopes of taking a part in the progress of events which might occupy a lasting place in history. In the present day, India is regarded in a very different light to what it was in 1839. It can be reached in three weeks, and can be traversed in a few months. It has been brought under the direct DISTANCE OF INDIA. rule of the British crown, and is the greatest depen- dency of the British Empire. To use the language of Lord Beaconsfield, “Great Britain has become an Asiatic power." In 1839 India was remote, obscure, and semi-independent. It was under the immediate administration of the Court of Directors of the East India Company of merchants; was only loosely connected with the constitutional government of the British Empire, and rarely subjected to Parlia- mentary interference or control. Its shores were only reached after a voyage of six months or there- abouts. Those who left England for India, regarded 'the embarkation almost as a life-long separation from their family; as an interminable exile from their native land.* Moreover, the Anglo-Indians of * An illustration of the feelings with which a family regarded the departure of one of its members to India, will be found in the following lines. They were addressed to my late mother by my cousin, Charles Tennyson, the brother of the Poet Laureate. Since then, Charles Tennyson has taken the name of Turner. 3 "ON THE DEPARTURE OF ALBERT FYTCHE FOR INDIA BY THE SHIP MARQUIS CAMDEN.'-ADDRESSED TO HIS MOTHER. March 9th, 1839. "To India's bright and sunny skies The youngest of the house hath gone; His belt and scarlet garb is on, And laurels he hath not yet won Are blooming in his mother's eyes. "But will she quit him thus? Confide In records of her thought alone To feed her yearning heart upon ? No livelier trace of her sweet son, The high in heart, the hazel-eyed. • B 2 4 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. those days stood on a very different footing to the Anglo-Indians of the present decade. Most of those who had passed a large portion of their lives in India, were only familiar with particular Presidencies or localities. Calcutta people rarely went to Bombay; Madras people seldom went to Calcutta. Only a few political officers, like Sir John Malcolm and others of his stamp, were sent on duty to all parts of India, and were thus enabled to become acquainted with India as a whole. I had always a desire for an Indian career. Two men of my name and family had been associated with India at critical periods of her history. Ralph Fitch explored India and Burma in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, about 1583-91. He is said to have been the first Englishman on record, who travelled through India and Burma. Certainly, his travels preceded by some years the formation of the late East India Company. Another ancestor named William Fytche was "Nay-though than mother's memory There cannot be a stronger light, And though it bides for ever bright, And sees with a delightful sight Her absent darling on the sea.— "Yet painting is a wizard power, And ere the billows washed his prow, She put in force her tender vow To trust him with those eyes, that brow, And then she better brooked the parting hour." CHARLES TENNYSON. FAMILY REMINISCENCES. 5 President of the English settlement at Calcutta im 1752, just four years before the tragedy of the Black Hole. Each in his turn was a representative man of his time; Ralph Fitch opened up India and Burma as they were in the reign of the Emperor Akbar; the period of William Fytche furnishes a halting ground, on which to take a view of Bengal as it was in the old commercial days, before the late East India Company aspired after dominion and sovereignty. It will be my endeavour, hereafter, to bring my own humble experience to bear upon Burma; to add, if possible, to the stock of know- ledge already available regarding that interesting country and its people. Ralph Fitch was a merchant of London. He was associated with another London merchant, named Newbone. The two were accompanied by a jeweller named Leedes, and an artist named Storie. All four were sent out to the East at the charge of two rich citizens of London-Sir Edward Osborne, and Mr. Richard Staper. In those days the English had no direct trade with India; they had no ships sailing round the Cape of Good Hope. The whole of the trade between Europe and the East Indies was monopolized by the Portuguese. Dutch adventurers were beginning to appear in the Eastern seas. They were treated by the Portuguese as interlopers of the worst kind; as pirates that 6 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT might be attacked, plundered, and destroyed wher- ever they were to be found. Merchant ships of other countries that dared to venture round the Cape were often treated in like manner. Ralph Fitch published a narrative of his travels. It has been printed in the collection of Hakluyt and others. Ralph Fitch and his companions sailed from London to Syria in an English ship. There they joined a caravan and made their way overland through Western Asia to the Persian Gulf. They next embarked in a native vessel, and sailed through the Gulf to the island of Ormuz. The Portuguese were masters at Ormuz. The governor of the island arrested the English adventurers, and kept them for some time as prisoners: he then sent them to Goa to be dealt with by the Viceroy of Portu- guese India. The Viceroy threw the Englishmen once again into prison. Storie, the artist, obtained his liberty by becoming a Roman Catholic and joining the College of Jesuits at Goa. Subsequently the three others were allowed to go at large on their procuring personal securities that they would not leave Goa. In the end, the three had reason to fear that their lives were in danger. They made their escape to the mainland, and wandered through the Dekhan in an easterly direction as far as the city of Golkonda, near the modern town of Hyderabad, the capital of WANDERINGS OF RALPH FITCH. 7 the Nizam's dominions in the Dekhan. From Gol- konda they marched in a northerly direction through Berar and Rajpootana, to the city of Agra, where the Emperor Akbar, the "Great Moghul,”* had fixed his Court. At Agra the party broke up. Newbery returned homewards by Lahore, Afghanistan, and Persia. Leedes, the jeweller, entered the service of Akbar, and appears to have settled at Agra. Fitch made his way by boat down the Jumna and Ganges towards the Bay of Bengal. He passed through the ancient cities of Allahabad, Benares, Patna, and Gaur, and visited Cooch Behar.† He then turned south to Orissa, and finally sailed to Burma. The wanderings of Ralph Fitch in the Indian continent must have extended over many hundreds, if not thousands, of miles. They must have been characterised by extraordinary incidents. He occu- pied himself, however, chiefly in describing what Properly Mongol. Moghul is the Persian form of spelling the word, which has been adopted by Europeans. The name Mongol (according to Schmidt) is derived from the word Mong, meaning brave, daring, bold, an etymology which is acquiesced in by Dr. Schott. Ssanlug Setzen says it was first given to the race in the time of Jenghis Khan, but it is of much older date than his time, as we know from Chinese accounts. ("Hauworth's Hist. of the Mongol," p. 27.) + Cooch Behar is one of the most interesting countries in Eastern India. Its history is very obscure, but the manners and usages of the people are very suggestive. Fitch says that the reigning king of Cooch Behar was named Suckel Counse. Colonel Haughton, late Commissioner of the Gooch Behar Division, has kindly furnished me with a Coorsinamah, or genealogical table of the Cooch Behar family, in which this prince appears under the name of Sukladuge or Seela Roy; he was the progenitor of the Durrung branch of the family. - 8 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Со he saw in Indian lands, and the nature and prospects of the Indian trade. He did not trouble himself to relate much of his personal adventures. It may be inferred that he went from place to place in native attire. Indeed, such was the custom amongst all the early English and Dutch travellers, otherwise their presence would have excited attention, and perhaps suspicion, and exposed them to many dangers. He does not relate much regarding the government of the country. Akbar, the great Moghul, reigned over the Punjab and Hindustan ; he had not as yet attempted the conquest of the South. The Dekhan was still in the possession of Mussulman Sultans, who were carrying on desultory wars against the Hindu Rajas of the Peninsula. Ralph Fitch met with no other Englishman in India. Probably at this early date the name of Englishman was scarcely known to either Moghuls or Hindus. It is difficult to avoid lingering over the memory of Ralph Fitch. During the first half of his travels, and down to the time he separated from his com- panions at Agra, he may have had much suffering; but he also had much consolation. His energy, audacity, and self-reliance were more or less shared by his English associates; still they are none the less amazing. In the present day we steam away for India, surrounded by every comfort and luxury; yet we complain of the motion of the vessel, the C DANGERS OF TRAVELLING. 9 tropical heat, and the short-comings of stewards. In the sixteenth century Ralph Fitch and his party must have endured the same inconveniences under infinitely worse conditions. The sail up the Mediterranean in an English ship was probably not unpleasant. The caravan route to the Persian Gulf, surrounded by dirty Arabs, stewing beneath the hot sun of Nineveh and Babylon, may have been somewhat unpleasant, but accomplished without much real suffering. The voyage in a native craft down the Persian Gulf, the imprisonment in a suffocating dungeon at Ormuz, the farther voyage from Ormuz to Goa must have been accompanied by pains and priva- tions which may well excite a shudder. The English travellers were confined as prisoners; they were treated as heretics and spies, and were ulti- mately compelled to fly from Goa in terror of the Inquisition. The subsequent march from Goa to Gol- konda must ever remain an obscure episode in Fitch's narrative. It is, however, certain that amidst all his troubles and perils he always had a keen eye for business; in fact, he was a living type of the commercial spirit which was abroad in the sixteenth century. He furnished many details of Indian trade which are obsolete now; one may serve as a specimen. The Portuguese at Goa en- 10 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. couraged the import of Persian horses. The ship that carried Fitch and his party from Ormuz to Goa likewise carried a hundred and twenty horses. Every ship that transported horses to Goa was per- mitted to land all her other cargo duty free; any ship that arrived at Goa without horses was obliged to pay an ad valorem duty of eight per cent. on the whole of her cargo. When the English party separated at Agra, Ralph Fitch had to encounter his difficulties alone. Storie the artist had stayed at Goa. It is curious to add, that subsequently he left the Jesuits and married a girl of Goa, half native and half Portuguese. He made himself so useful in painting the churches of the Jesuits and others, that his backslidings were either forgiven or ignored. Leedes the jeweller, and Newbone the merchant, disappear from the story. In what mood Ralph Fitch bade his com- panions farewell, and made his lone way down the Jumna and Ganges, can only be inferred. No doubt he struck up a certain acquaintance with the natives around him; but at no time does an Englishman feel more the lack of the society of his fellow countrymen than when he is travelling alone in Oriental climes. There was no want of strange sights to attract the attention. It is evident that Ralph Fitch gazed on the same characteristic scenes that still meet the 脅す ​MENDICANTS IN INDIA. I [ eye of the sojourner in India. His boat was one of a fleet of a hundred-and-twenty vessels; they were laden with salt, opium, indigo, lead, carpets, and other commodities. As he glided down the stream he saw the Brahmans performing their mysterious rites, the Hindu women bathing in the river, the men saluting each other with cries of "Rama." At Allahabad he saw naked mendicants; they were common enough in those times, but in the present day they have almost disappeared from India. One monster was half hidden by his hair and beard; his nails were two inches long. At Benares he saw the same bewildering wilderness of temples and idols, thronged with endless crowds. of worshippers, which meet the eye at the present day. Lower Bengal was nearly covered with jungle, and so beset with thieves that the jungle was safer than the highway. A great trade, however, was carried on at the different marts on the river; it was duly noticed and recorded by the observant traveller. He left Bengal for Burma in the month of November 1586, embarking at Hooghly in a small Portuguese vessel, and the first port he touched at was Bassein;* from whence he proceeded by the * Singular enough, I traversed myself probably the very same route through these creeks while in pursuit of some marauding bands, during the second Burmese war, and was the second Englishman that had done so. At least, there is no record of any other having gone this route during the interval. I 2 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. inland navigation through the creeks to Rangoon, and Syriam :-thither we shall follow him in a future page. The account given by Ralph Fitch on his reaching England in April, 1591, of the very great wealth and resources of India, and the lucrative trade established there by the Portuguese, served to quicken the spirit of commercial enterprise, which Queen Elizabeth-sensible how much the defence. of her kingdom depended on its naval power- endeavoured, at that time, so much to foster and shortly after his return, a petition from some of the leading merchants of the City of London was presented to Her Majesty for permission to send three trading vessels to India; but the extreme political caution of Lord Burleigh, and her other ministers, rendered their efforts, for the time, abortive. Eight years afterwards, however, an influential Association of merchants was formed for developing the trade with the East Indies, and in the following year, 1600, the first patent or charter of incorpora- tion, guarded with most exclusive privileges, the only means according to the ideas of the day, by which extensive mercantile enterprises could be I The passage had become much blocked up from disuse and the banks over- grown with trees, which had to be cleared in many parts before the gun-boats could pass through. ORIGIN OF EAST INDIA COMPANY. 13 * guided to favourable results, was conceded by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company, granting them the monopoly of this traffic for fifteen years, if it proved if it proved advantageous to the nation; if otherwise, it was liable to be annulled on two years' notice. Such was the origin of the East India Company, which confined itself to commerce for a hundred and fifty years, and then took up arms in defence of its factories, and in less than a century established British sovereignty from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and from Peshawur to the borders of Siam. The stock of the Company was, at first * Monopolies and exclusive patents were very rife during Queen Elizabeth's reign, all of which had to be paid for in some shape or other, and it may be inferred that this patent to the East India Company was not given without some consideration. The active reign of Elizabeth had enabled many persons to distinguish themselves in civil and military employments; and the Queen, who was not able, from her revenue, to give them any rewards proportioned to their services, made use of the expedient of granting her servants and courtiers patents for monopolies. She was very averse to having recourse to Parlia- mentary supplies, imagining that they interfered with her dignity and indepen- dence. She was attentive to every profit, and embraced opportunities of gain which may appear somewhat extraordinary in these days. She kept, for instance, the see of Ely vacant nineteen years in order to retain the revenue ; and it was usual with her when she promoted a bishop to take the opportunity of pillaging the see of some of its manors. There is a curious letter of the Queen's, written to the Bishop of Ely, and preserved in the register of that It is in these words: "Proud prelate, I understand you are backward in complying with your agreement: But I would have you know that I, who made you what you are, can unmake you; and if you do not forthwith fulfil your engagement, by God, I will immediately unfrock you. Yours, as you demean yourself, ELIZABETH,” The bishop, it seems, had promised to exchange some part of the land belonging to the see for a pretended equivalent, and did so, but it was in consequence of the above letter. Hume's "History of England,” vol. v. see. + Marshman's "History of India.” 14 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Į starting, seventy-two thousand pounds; and they fitted out a fleet of five ships, with a valuable freight, which they placed under the command of Captain James Lancaster. The expedition returned to England in September, 1603, with a large profit to the adventurers, and encouraged the Company to continue the commerce. A second East India Company was formed in 1698, which was united to the first one by King William III. in 1702, and styled the Honourable United Company of Mer- chants of England trading to the East Indies. The partial policy of King William III., who favoured his Dutch subjects, tended to discourage the English East India Company from engaging very extensively in the lucrative trade of the great spice and other markets of the Malay Archipelago -which after the decline of the Portuguese power had become almost monopolised by the Dutch- and caused them to turn their chief attention to the continent of India, where, during close upon a cen- tury and a half, which followed their first formation, they defended themselves as they best could against the occasional aggressions and exactions of native princes. They had not as yet aspired to political power in India; but they gradually fortified their trading establishments. Every year a fleet of East Indiamen came out to India with such commodities as could be sold to advantage amongst the natives; WILLIAM FYTCHE IN CALCUTTA. 15 every year it returned to England loaded with such merchandize as would command a profitable sale in the old Company's warehouses in Leadenhall. The year 1746 was an epoch. It was the year of the battle of Culloden. It was the year when the English and French began hostilities in Southern India; when Madras was captured by Labourdonnais, and turned into a French city. In 1746 William Fytche was appointed a member of Council of merchants at Calcutta. In 1749 he was made Chief of the English Factory at Cossimbazaar; the fort and mart of Moorsherabad, which was at that time the native capital of Bengal. In January, 1752, William Fytche* was appointed President † of Fort William; he died of dysentery on 10th August following, at the age of thirty-five. It is a strange coincidence that during that same year of 1752, Warren Hastings was sent from Calcutta to fill a subordinate post at Cossimbazaar.‡ He must have arrived there a few weeks after the departure of William Fytche for Calcutta. * In those days the rate of exchange was very different from its present lamentable state. From family papers I perceive that William Fytche used to send remittances home to his brother Thomas Fytche of Danbury Place, Essex, by Government Bills of Exchange, drawn at ninety days after sight, at two shillings and fourpence each rupee. + The heads of Local Government were styled in those days President- hence the word Presidency-which latter term is still in use. Fort William was erected into a Presidency in 1707. It was called Fort William in honour of King William the Third. For this fact I am indebted to Macaulay's "Essay on Warren Hastings." 16 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. B The status of the British in India had undergone a vast change between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. In the sixteenth century Great Britain was represented by individual adventurers of the same type as Ralph Fitch. In the seventeenth cen- tury the East India Company had established fortified factories at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. All the East India Company's servants from the lowest to the highest were lodged and boarded within the walls of the factory. They were divided into the respective grades of apprentices, writers, factors and merchants; they all took their meals together in the old English fashion. All looked forward to promotion in regular routine; the ap- prentice hoped to rise from grade to grade until he became a merchant; every merchant looked for- ward to becoming a member of council, a chief of a subordinate factory, or to the still higher post of governor of the presidency. Every one had his daily duties to fulfil. There were prayers twice a day; three times on Sundays. On Saturday evenings they met to drink to the health of their "sweethearts and wives" whom they had left in England. On Sundays after service they went to a garden-house in the suburbs and "played at shooting at butts.” During the Commonwealth manners became more puritanical. After the Re- storation there was the same decay in morals, the · ENGLISH SOCIETY IN CALCUTTA. 17 same drunkenness and debauchery, that prevailed in England. In the eighteenth century there was a change; much of the simplicity of the old commercial life had passed away. Only the apprentices, writers, and factors were lodged in the factory; the merchants and higher officers brought out their wives and families from England and dwelt in separate houses. The English settlements grew into cities; sobriety and decorum again became the rule. Captain Hamilton, who visited Calcutta in the earlier part of the eighteenth century, presents a tolerably graphic picture of English society in those days. "Most gentlemen and ladies in Bengal,” he says, "live splendidly and pleasantly. They devote the forenoon to business; the afternoon to dinner and rest. In the evening they go into the country in chaises and palanquins ; or they get into budgerows and row about the river, fishing or fowling. Before night they make friendly visits to each other, excepting when society is spoiled by pride and contention, which too often appear among the ladies; just as discord and faction appear among the men." William Fytche lived in what may be called a transition period in Indian history. He became a Member of Council, as already stated, in 1746. Eight years before that event, the Moghul Empire had received a mortal blow. Another Jenghis Khan VOL. I. C I 18 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. had appeared in Asia under the name of Nadir Shah,* who seized the Persian throne, and conquered all Central Asia. He captured Delhi, massacred its inhabitants, and carried away the treasures of the * Nadir Shah is said to have taken off with him from Delhi spoil to the value of £160,000,000, in jewels, gold, and silver, and other precious articles. Amongst this booty was the peacock throne of Shah Jehan, in which was fixed the famous "Mountain of Light," the Koh-i-noor diamond, now one of the English crown jewels. This diamond fell into our possession, together with the other crown jewels of the Punjab, at the close of the Punjab campaign in 1849, was prize property, and presented by the Army to the Queen. There is a curious story connected with the way this famous diamond fell into the hands of Runjeet Singh, which, together with other matters connected with it, may not be out of place to relate here. On the assassination of Nadir Shah, the diamond passed into the possession of his grandson, Shahrookh Mirza, from whom it was taken by his grandfather's commandant of cavalry, Ahmud Shah Dourani, the founder of the Afghan monarchy. At Ahmud Shah's death, his son, Tymoor Shah, became possessed of it. Tymoor Shah had three sons, Zuman, Dost Mahomed, and Shoojah. The diamond descended to the eldest son; but he was almost immediately dethroned by his younger brother, Dost Mahomed, who had his eyes put out, and demanded the diamond and other jewels from him. Zuman declared that he had thrown them into a river on his brother's pursuit of him. He had, however, concealed the diamond in a crevice of the wall of the dungeon in which he was confined, and subsequently, on his informing Shoojah of it, the latter became possessed of the diamond. Shoojah himself was shortly after driven out of Afghanistan by Dost Mahomed, and on passing through the Punjab to seek an asylum in British territory, he became the guest of Runjeet Singh. Runjeet Singh was aware that the diamond was in Shoojah's possession, but which was denied by him. At last the wily old Rajah tried the starving system on his guest, by gradually reducing his food, and when Shoojah could hold out no longer against it, he gave up the diamond to his hospitable host! He had had the diamond all the time on his person con- cealed in a ball of opium, and which, in order to draw suspicion from it, he used to hold openly in his hand, and pick off small pieces to eat. The diamond was first discovered in the seventeenth century near Golconda by a peasant while ploughing his field, and, when found in its rough state, is said to have been the size of a hen's egg. It got into the hands of a Hindu Rajah, from whom it was extorted by the Emperor Aurunzebe. The Hindus believe it to be a most unlucky stone, and to bring certain ruin upon those possessing it. The race of Baber is said to have degenerated from the date it came into their possession, ending, as was the case also with Runjeet Singh's, in the ruin of the family and subjugation of their territories. Runjeet Singh, in order to avert the evil spell from his race, bequeathed the diamond to the THE KOH-I-NOOR DIAMOND. 19 Empire. The Moghul Empire, which for some time previous to this, had become much weakened by the contentions of the Sunni and Sheah factions, and from other causes operating for its destruction never recovered its prestige. The house of Baber* had Temple of Juggernaut; but his successors would not give it up. Within a few years after it came into our possession the Sepoy revolt broke out, which nearly ended in the loss of India to the British Crown, and more evils con- nected with it are said by the natives of India to be still in store for us. The Rev. C. King, in his history of antique gems, says, that when "Taver nier saw it two centuries ago in the treasury of the Great Moghul at Delhi, its weight in the rough, of about 800 carats (according to report), had been reduced to 284, by the bungling Venetian lapidary who had brought it to the ugly and unskilful form of a rude hemisphere facetted all over, apparently intended for the rose shape." It was in this form, that I saw it myself in the Toshukh Khana at Lahore in 1848, and in which it appeared when brought to this country. The recutting of it in London was effected by means of a small steam- engine, under the superintendence of two artists brought expressly from Holland, where alone the business is kept up. This operation cost £8,000, and has brought the stone to the form of a perfect brilliant, with a wonderful augmentation of its beauty and lustre; though with a reduction of the weight to 180 carats." The diamond is generally believed to be almost infrangible- "but in reality, from the fact of this gem being composed of thin layers deposited over each other parallel to the original faces of the crystal, it can easily be split by a small blow in direction of these lamina. The jeweller who was entrusted with the recutting of the Koh-i-noor, was displaying his finished work to a wealthy patron, who accidentally let the slippery and weighty gem slip through his fingers and fall on the ground. The jeweller was on the point of fainting with alarm, and on recovering himself, reduced the other to the same state by informing him that, had the stone struck the floor at a particular angle, it would infallibly have split in two, and been irreparably ruined.” Competent judges declare that the brilliancy of the Koh-i-noor has not been increased to such an extent as to make up for the very serious diminution of weight caused by its recutting. Sir David Brewster is said to have strongly advised its not being recut; but the opinion of a foreign diamond merchant was taken in preference to his. * Sultan Baber was the sixth in descent from the fierce Timur Beg, known in Europe as Tamerlane; and by the mother's side a descendant of Jenghis Khan. He captured Delhi in April, 1526, and established the so-called Moghul dynasty there, which lasted for one hundred and eighty years. C 2 20 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. #! accomplished the cycle of its existence, and the sceptre of India was about to pass into other hands -the merchant strangers from the West. The great Subahdars or Viceroys of provinces ;-such as the Nizam of the Dekhan, the Vizier of Oude, and the Nawab of Bengal (better known as the Nawab of Moorsherabad) had become independent Princes. There was still a show of dependence on the Mog- hul Court at Delhi. Presents were occasionally sent to Court; insignia of investiture were sent from Court; patents for every post and government were issued, with the seal of the Vizier at Delhi. But this was all empty show; nothing but the shadow of sovereignty remained; the substance of Power was altogether wanting. The government of every pro- vince was becoming hereditary in the family of the governor; every Viceroy was assuming the dignity and ceremonial of an independent sovereign, and, as the Mahommedan historian remarks, "beating the drum of independence." The history of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa during this transition period is little more than a dreary round of Mahratta invasion and Afghan revolts. The Nawabs of Moorsherabad took Afghans into their service to enable them to repel the raids of 66 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. A rude precipices or penetrate the dense jungle. He is said to have been overtaken and killed; nothing further was heard of him. His women and children were brought back to Arakan, and thrown into prison. After a while they were released and treated kindly. The King of Arakan then married the eldest daughter. At the same time the Queen mother of Arakan expressed a strong desire to be married to the eldest son. The Moghul Prince was probably disinclined to the union; at any rate he hatched another plot of the same character as the previous one. It was discovered in like manner. The King of Arakan was so exasperated that he ordered the total extermination of the entire family. Even the Princess whom he had married, and who was about to become a mother, was sacrificed in obedi- ence to his brutal mandate. The sons of Shoojah were beheaded with blunt axes; his daughters were confined to their chambers, and left to die of hunger. The later history of Burma is the same old story of usurpations, commotions, rebellions, and mass- acres, by a recital of which, I will not tresspass on the patience of my readers. In 1700 the Burmese King of Ava was also lord of Pegu. In 1735 the Talaing King of Pegu was also lord of Ava. In 1752 a Burmese hero appeared and established a ALOMPRA. 67 new Burman empire. He is known as Alompra* the Hunter.† * The original name of Alompra is unknown. He was, however, of very humble origin, and followed the calling of a Mok-tsho or hunter. He was a man of a bold and energetic character, and became Kyay-dan-gyee, or head of his native village Moutshabo (Mok-tsho-pho)—then a very insignificant one. When he revolted and renounced allegiance to the Talaings, who had lately conquered Ava, he assumed the name of Oung-dzay-ya, victorious conqueror, which on his advance to the throne, he altered to Aloung-phura or Alompra. He also changed the name of his native village to that of Rutna-thengha (Pali-meaning Gem-lion), and made it for some time his capital. The mean- ing of Aloung is embryo, or imperfect state, but progressing towards perfec- tion, and phura (Pali-Prahoo) an object of reverence and adoration. This epithet of Aloung-phura, or Phura-loung, has been assumed by many of the kings of Burma, as an augury of their apotheosis; and implies a being who is destined to become a Phura, by attaining "niebban." Gantama attained "niebban" in 543 B. C., and thus became a Phura. In the Burmese sacred books, he is often called Phura-loung, which alludes to him when a living being. Before he became a man, he underwent Metamsomatosis in the bodies of various animals, in all of which he was a Phura-loung. It is said that one night when Alompra was asleep, his arms suddenly shone out like fire, which some of his followers observing, poured water upon, and woke him. On his asking them the cause of the shower-bath, they informed him of what they had seen. Soothsayers and learned men were sent for, to expound the meaning of this luminous appearance; who declared it to be a good omen, and that he would shortly become a king. This was probably a stratagem on the part of Alompra, to give confidence to his followers. Nearly the same thing happened to the Karen Meng-loung, who raised a rebellion since our occupation of Pegu (of whom mention will be made hereafter), and who, it is well known, used to rub his arms with phosphorus, by which, in imitation of Alompra, he caused a similar effect to be produced. + Hunters and fishermen are held in very low esteem in Buddhist countries, and Alompra must indeed have been a very extraordinary man, to have even overcome this prejudice. According to Buddhist law, there are twenty-one kinds of people, on account of their evil deeds, will fall into the lowest hell. Nineteen, however, of these, "if they see their evil ways, perform good works, listen to the Law, steadfastly observe Saranagamana and the five command- ments, and keep good watch over their bodies, shall be redeemed from their sins; but the hunter and the fisherman, let them attend Pagodas, listen to the Law, and keep the five commandments to the end of their lives, still they cannot be released from their sins. See "Buddhaghosha's Parables," translated by Captain Rogers, R. E., p. 194. Saranagamana is the formula of Buddhist worship, viz., Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, the Deity, the Law, and the Assembly or Priesthood. The five commandments are:-1, Kill not: 2, Steal not: 3, Commit not adultery: 4, Lie not: 5, Take nothing that intoxicates. KRO + · F 2 68 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Alompra is the founder of the reigning dynasty of kings of Burma. He threw off the Talaing yoke, and conquered an Empire which extended from China to Siam. He founded the city of Rangoon, near the mouth of the Irawadi river; and during his reign the British government was first brought into political relationship with the kings of Burma. Alompra died in 1760. Under his successors there were frequent revolts and massacres. During the reign of Shembuan,* the third King of his line, there was an invasion of the Burmese Empire by the Chinese, which lasted for about three years. The Chinese ravaged and took possession of a large portion of the upper part of the country, but retired on certain humiliating submissions, in- cluding the acknowledgment of vassalage, being made. Two former invasions by the Chinese appear also to have occurred; the first in 1284, A.D., when the seat of government was at Pagán, and the second in 1305, A.D., when established at Panya. The first invasion is said to have been caused by the treacherous murder of certain Chinese envoys, together with their whole suite, by the then reigning monarch, Nara-thee-ha-padé, for disrespect, * The name is spelt in this way by Symes. I keep up the nomenclature of places and persons as formerly used, as much as possible, to prevent confusion. The Burmese way of spelling this King's name is Tshen-byoo-sheng, Lord of the White Elephant. INVASION OF BURMA. 69 or some breach of etiquette,* committed in the royal presence. Major Burney, who was some years British Resident at the court of Ava, gives in his journal a literal translation (at least as nearly so as possible) from the Maha-radza-weng, of the Burmese account of this invasion, and which I will extract at length, as it is a good specimen of the inflated and romantic style of these "Chronicles of the Kings of Burma." It is curious also from the superhuman agency exhibited in the shape of nats or spirits of either nation, who perform miracles, and mix per- sonally in the engagements, reminding one somewhat of those performed by the Homeric deities before the walls of Troy. "When the Emperor of China received intelli- gence of the execution of his envoys, he was exceed- ingly angry, and collecting an army of at least six millions of horse, and twenty millions of foot, sent them down to attack Pugan; the King of which, Naratheehapadi, as soon as he heard of the coming of this force, placed under the generals Nanda- peetzeen and Yanda-peetzeen 400,000 soldiers, and numerous elephants and horses, with orders to proceed and attack the Chinese army. The two generals marched to the city of Ngayounggyan, * The breach of etiquette is said to have been the royal presence with their boots or shoes on. great vexata questio" in the East. 66 caused by their appearing in This "shoe question" is a 70 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and, after putting its walls, moat, and fortifications in a proper state of defence, opposed the Chinese army at the mouth of the Bhamo river, killing during three months so many of their army, that not a grass-cutter even for its elephants and horses. remained. The Emperor of China, however, kept reinforcing his army, and replacing those who were killed by sending 200,000 men when he heard of the loss of 100,000 men, and 400,000 when he heard of 200,000. Hence the Burman Army was at last overpowered with fatigue, and the Chinese crossed the river and destroyed Ngayounggyan. "As the nats or spirits attached to either nation were fighting together in the air, four of the Pugan nats, namely, Tebathen, guardian of one of the gates of Pugan City, Tsalenwotthakenyoung nat, Kanshyeyoung nat, guardian of the long lake or tank, and Tounggyeyen nat, lord of the foot of the mountain, were wounded by arrows. In the new Yazawen, Tebathen nat is styled Thanbethen. On the very day on which the stockade of Ngayoung- gyan was taken, the nat Tebathen returned to Pugan, and entered the house of the King's teacher, on whom he had always been accustomed to wait. The King's teacher was asleep at the time; but the nat awakened him, and said, 'Ngayounggyan has been destroyed this day. I am wounded by an arrow, and the nats Tsalenwotthaken, Kanshye • ADDRESS OF KING OF BURMA. 71 and Tounggyeyen are also wounded in the same manner.' The priest and King's teacher called one of his disciples, a young probationer, and sent him to the King to report the loss of Ngayounggyan. His Majesty inquired how this circumstance was known, when the young probationer declared that the nat Tebathen, guardian of the Tharabha Gate, had just arrived from Ngayounggyan, and reported the matter to the King's teacher, who had thus learned that that place had been destroyed on that very day. The King then summoned a council of his ministers and officers, and addressed them as follows: The walls of the city of Pugan are low and enclose too small a space to permit all the soldiers, elephants and horses to remain comfortably within, and defend them. I propose, therefore, to build a strong wall, extending from the eastward, from the village of Balen in the upper part of the river straight down to the southward, taking in the village Yonatha. But it is not possible just now to procure bricks and stones quickly; if we break down some of the temples and use the bricks, we shall be able to complete this wall most expeditiously.' Accordingly 1,000 large arched temples, 1,000 smaller ones, and 4,000 square temples were de- stroyed. During this operation, a sheet of copper, with a royal prediction inscribed on it, was found in one of the temples. The words were, 'In the 72 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. city of Pugan, in the time of the father of twins, the Chinese destroying will be destroyed.' The King thereupon made enquiries among the royal women, and learnt that a young concubine had just given birth to twins. "As his Majesty now believed that even if he built the intended fortification, he would be unable to defend it, he caused 1,000 boats with figure-heads and warboats to be made ready, and embarked in them all his gold and silver and treasures; 1,000 cargo-boats also he loaded with paddy and rice; in 1,000 state boats he embarked all his ministers and officers, and in the gilded state boats, his concubines and female attendants. But as the boats could not accommodate all the royal concubines and female attendants, who were very numerous, the King said, 'These women and servants are too numerous to be all embarked in the boats, and if we leave them here, the Chinese will seize and take possession of them; tie their hands and feet together, therefore, and throw them into the river.' The King's teacher, however, observed: 'In the whole circle of animal existence, the state of man is the most difficult of attainment, and to attain that state during the time of a Buddha, is also most difficult. There can be no occasion for your Majesty to commit the evil deed of throwing these people into the water. Such an act will be for ever talked of even among kings, RETREAT OF KING OF BURMA. 73 and will be registered in the records of the Empire. Let your Majesty, therefore, grant permission for any person to take such of the royal female attend- ants as cannot be embarked in the royal boats, and by so doing, your Majesty will be said not only to have granted them their lives, but to have afforded them protection.' The King replied, 'Very true,' and set at liberty 300 of the female servants of the interior of the palace, who were taken and carried away by different inhabitants of the city. "The King then embarked in his gilded accom- modation boat, and retired to the Talaing city of Bathein (Bassein). Nanda-peetzeen, and Yanda- peetzeen, after the loss of Ngayounggyan, retreated and built a couple of stockades on the eastward slope of the male mountain, where they again re- sisted the Chinese. Both the Generals, holding some fixed * quicksilver in their mouths, leaped fifteen and sixteen cubits high in the air at a time and attacked the Chinese. But whilst fighting in this manner, an arrow, which had been discharged by one of the nats of the two countries, who were contending in the air, struck Nanda-peetzeen, and threw him lifeless to the ground. "In consequence of this event, and the Chinese army being very numerous, victory was unattainable, * Burmese alchemists value fixed or dead quicksilver very highly for its supposed miraculous powers. 74 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 5 and defeat again ensued. The Chinese pursued vigorously, and the Pugan generals retreated, keep- ing their force as much together as possible. On arriving at Pugan, and finding that the King and the whole of the population had left that city and had fled to the Talaing country, the army followed them to Bassein. The Chinese continued the pur- suit until they reached Taroupmau, but their army, owing to the great distance which it had marched and its great numbers, began to experience a scarcity of provisions, and was induced to turn back from that place. "In the Burmese year 646 (A.D. 1284) the King Naratheehapadi fled in fear of the Chinese. Hence he is styled Taroup-pyee-meng, the king who fled from the Chinese. (C After remaining five months at Bassein, the King hearing that the Chinese had retreated from Pugan, made arrangements for returning thither. On his way up the river, it is recorded that on one occasion, his cooks having been able to serve him up a dinner of only 150 dishes, instead of the 300 to which he had always sat down every day, he covered his face with his hands and wept, saying, 'I am become a poor man.' Shortly after, on his arrival off Prome, he was poisoned by his own son, the Governor of that place." Bhodau Phra, the third son of Alompra, and sixth A NEW CAPITAL FOUNDED. King of the dynasty, was one of the most powerful and ruthless sovereigns of Burma in modern times. He established himself on the throne, and crushed out rebellion by merciless cruelty and slaughter. The predecessor of Bhodau Phra was put to death by him; his women and children were burnt alive. Conspiracies were formed against the new king ; they were soon rooted out. One plot was hatched in the village of Poungha. Bhodau Phra dragged every inhabitant of Poungha from his home. Young and old, women and priests, were all assembled to- gether and burnt alive in one vast holocaust. The village was razed to the ground; the trees and plants- in the gardens were cut up and burnt; the site was turned up with a ploughshare; and a stone was set up on the spot as a perpetual malediction. Father Sangermano, an Italian priest, who laboured as a missionary in Burma during the greater part of the reign of Bhodau Phra, has left an authentic account of this King. Bhodau Phra founded a new capital, and gave it the name of Amarapúra.* He ordered all the inhabitants of Ava to remove to it. The royal order was carried out with extreme rigour. Father Sangermano says "that no words can express the sufferings, the fatigues, the exactions, and the oppressions which were brought about by this change of capital!" • * (C 75 City of the Immortals." 76 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ' Shortly after the peopling of Amarapúra a Talaing rebellion broke out in Pegu. The story of this revolt is characteristic, and illustrates the kind of insurrections which occur occur even in the present day. A Talaing of some mark dreamed that the kingdom of Pegu would be taken from the Burmese and restored to the Talaings. This ridiculous circumstance led three hundred Talaings to join together in a plot for driving the Burmese out of Pegu and placing the Talaing dreamer upon the throne. These men entered Rangoon one night with knives concealed in their jackets, and murdered the Burmese Viceroy of Pegu. The Burmese garrison fled in a panic out of Rangoon. Meanwhile the Talaings sent out messengers in all directions to collect a large force of Talaings from the neighbouring towns and villages. Early next morning the Burmese discovered the weakness of the insurrection. They re-entered Rangoon and slaughtered every one of the Talaings. The Talaing population from the country round about approached Rangoon in innumerable boats. They were cannonaded by the Burmese soldiers, assailed on all sides, and put to the sword. Shortly after this rebellion had been suppressed, Bhodau Phra sent a large force to conquer the kingdom of Arakan. The Burmese did not enter Arakan as invaders. They went in the guise of BURMESE CONQUEST OF ARAKAN. 77 * Buddhist pilgrims, and declared that their only object was to pay their adoration to a great bronze idol of Gautama Buddha, which was set up in the city of Arakan. By this pious fraud they obtained possession of the capital and kingdom. They carried away the idol to Amarapúra and placed it in a splendid pagoda which was built for it by Bhodau Phra. The conquest of Arakan turned the head of Bhodau Phra. He threatened to subdue Siam, China, and India. He marched a large army to the frontier to invade Siam. At the frontier his courage gave way. He was seized with a panic. He turned back to Rangoon in such tremor that he left his elephants and stores in the hands of the Siamese. Such alternate fits of arrogance and cowardice are a characteristic of Burmese sove- reigns; they have more than once acted in a similar manner towards the British government. Bhodau Phra is represented by Father Sanger- mano as a monster of cruelty and pride, and merci- less beyond conception. He was not content with the execution of rebels, but delighted in wholesale massacres in which the innocent were slaughtered with the guilty. His ambition was boundless. He During my term of office as Chief Commissioner of British Burma, the present King sent a large body of Buddhist pilgrims to Arakan, and a report got abroad that a similar stratagem was to be attempted as that carried out by Bhodau Phra. 78 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 sought to be regarded as a divine being, and affected to be a Buddha.* He made extraordinary sacrifices to attain his object. In imitation of Gautama he cast aside his sovereignty; he withdrew from his palace, leaving behind all his queens and concu- bines, and took up his abode in a religious building. But the Buddhist monks would not believe in him; they proved from their sacred books that he could not possibly be a Buddha. He argued, he pleaded, he threatened, but could not persuade them to believe. At last he was disgusted, and returned to his palace and re-assumed the reins of sovereign power. From that time up to the end of his reign * Guatama, the last Buddha, commanded that his statue and relics should be carefully preserved and adored for five thousand years, during which period his laws would be observed. After the expiration of that time his laws ceased to be binding, and another Buddha would appear and promulgate a new code. Although not half of this period had elapsed Bhodau Phra persisted that he was Gautama's successor. One of his illusions was that he could be-like Sir Boyle Roche's bird-in two places at the same time. Guatama is believed to have had this power, and he evidenced it as a proof of his Buddhaship. His courtiers, to get out of the difficulty, it is said, tried to persuade him that he was one of the Pakkekabuddhas, or semi-Buddhas, who are believed to appear at intervals between Buddhas; but he would hear of nothing less than that he was the "whole animal." Buddha is a title not a name. A Mǎhāgăbbă, or great system, or creation of universes, is characterised by the presence of twenty-six Buddhas; a Būddagăbbă, or system such as the present mundane universe, is marked by a smaller number; the present is distinguished by five Buddhas, four of whom have already appeared. viz., Kõkoothănda, Kōna- gammă, Kāthăbă, and Găutămă, the fifth Arimăitrīya, the Buddha of kindness is still to appear. He will be the twenty-sixth Buddha of this Măhāgăbbă, and will close the number; the universe will be utterly annihilated, and then perhaps "Novus ab integro sæclorum nascitur ordo." It is curious to observe how universal is the belief that there will be one more manifestation of the Divinity, which will terminate the present dispensation. BURMESE CLAIM OF BRITISH TERRITORY. 79 he became bitterly hostile to the priesthood, so much so, that the order had scarcely any ostensible exist- ence. He died in 1819. Phagyi-dau was the grandson and successor of Bhodau Phra. He was haughty and overbearing like Bhodau Phra-but without his ability. His arrogant conduct in demanding the surrender of political refugees, and threats regarding the cession to him of territory in Eastern Bengal, forced on the first Burmese War of 1824-26. The claim to territory was put forth in a manner which shows the real character of the Burmese. After their conquest of Arakan the Nâf river was the boundary between Bengal and Burma. The Burmese began by demanding custom duties from British subjects proceeding up this river in boats. A fray ensued; a British subject was killed. To prevent further outrages a British force was posted on a small island, named Shahpuri, which lay off a tongue of land on the British side of the Nâf. The Burmese claimed possession of Shahpuri. They would listen to no agreement; refused to negotiate. and demanded the surrender of the island. They threatened that unless the island was given up, they would invade the British Territories and take possession of Chittagong, Dacca and Moorshedabad, which belonged to them as being ancient depen- dencies of Arakan. 80 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Lord Amherst was at that time Governor- General of India. He was prepared to make any concession short of an acknowledgment of inferiority. But war was inevitable. The Burmese themselves commenced hostilities. A considerable force, under the Burmese General, Bundúla, crossed the frontier from Arakan and attacked and defeated a detach- ment of our Sepoys at Ramoo. The government of India sent an expedition an expedition against Rangoon. When the English landed at Rangoon Bundúla took the command of the Burmese army. The war began in bombast, and ended in a panic. Bundúla was defeated at Rangoon and fled in hot haste to Donabew, where he constructed earth- works, fortified with stockades and abattis, which he thought was impregnable. His army at Donabew is said to have numbered twenty thousand men. He maintained strict discipline after the Burmese fashion. He ordered one of his offending generals to be sawn asunder between two planks. The British force thought to capture the works by a coup de main, but suffered a repulse. A regular siege was then commenced, and in firing half-a- dozen shells to ascertain the range of the guns, one of the shells killed Bundúla. The other Burmese chiefs offered the command to Bundúla's brother; but he was frightened and declined the honour. The whole of the Burmese army then broke up and FIRST BURMESE WAR. dispersed in all directions. Bundúla's brother fled to Ava, and was put to death within half-an-hour of his arrival. 81 From that day the Burmese war was a farce. The British had a contempt for the enemy; the Burmese were in a panic of terror. At one time a spy was found in the English camp; instead of shooting him he was employed as a groom. The change of opinion amongst the Burmese was most amusing. Before the war began they fully expected to conquer Bengal. After the dispersion of the army at Donabew they spread the most exaggerated rumours of the English. They declared that the white foreigners were Beloos, or demons, invincible, fierce, and bloodthirsty; that Europeans kept ad- vancing on after their hands had been chopped off at the stockades; that European doctors picked up arms and legs and replaced them after the action. Meanwhile the British army pushed up the Irawadi river as far as Yandabo, within forty miles of Ava. The whole of the Burmese empire was virtually in their hands. VOL. I. All this time the war in Burma was growing most unpopular in England. Lord Amherst was abused ; the conduct of the war was condemned; the grasping covetousness of the East India Company was held up to reprobation. Peace was to be made at any price. The King of Burma, on his part, was anxious G 82 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. to be quit of the English on any terms. He promised to pay a crore of rupees (equal to a million pounds sterling), and ceded the provinces of Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim. He was left in possession of the whole of Ava and Pegu including the maritime city of Rangoon. The war was a very harassing and expensive one for the British. All arrangements connected with it -more especially during the first year—were ill- conceived, and made in great ignorance of the nature of the climate and the character and re- sources of the country. At the commencement of the campaign the heavy periodical rains flooding the land impeded the advance, and during this period of inactivity, fever and dysentery broke out amongst the troops to a frightful extent, causing the casualties from disease to very far exceed those caused by the enemy. From a return drawn up by the Adjutant-General it appears that during the first year of the war 3 per cent. of the troops were killed in action, while 45 per cent. perished from disease. In the ensuing year the mortality from the same causes had decreased one-half; but the total loss during the war amounted to 72 per cent. of the troops engaged. The Burmese historiographer of the court at Ava drew up a history of the war. It is entered in the Maha-radza-weng, and is a fair illustration of BURMESE ACCOUNT OF THE WAR. 83 Burmese ideas of history, and the dependence to be placed upon them. The facts were so recent that the truth could not be wholly withheld. It is, how- ever, pretty well varnished by the Burmese scribe; and, moreover, a pious lesson is introduced, which is highly edifying. I give the translation as it appears in Mr. Crawfurd's journal of his mission to Ava after the conclusion of the war. "The kula-pyro, or white strangers of the West, fastened a quarrel upon the Lord of the Golden Palace. They landed at Rangoon, took that place and Prome, and were permitted to advance as far as Yandabo; for the King, from motives of piety and regard to life, made no effort whatever to oppose them. The strangers had spent vast sums of money upon the enterprise, and by the time they reached Yandabo, their resources were exhausted, and they were in great distress. They petitioned the King, who, in his clemency and generosity, sent them large sums of money to pay their expenses back, and ordered them out of the country." A further account of the reign of Phagyi-dau, and the influence possessed over him by his queen— attributed to sorcery-will be given in a future chapter. In the latter years of his reign, he suffered much from hypochondria, and ultimately became insane. He was deposed and placed in confine- * Crawfurd's “Embassy to Ava," Vol. I., page 304. G 2 84 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 ment by his brother Tharawadi in 1837, and is said to have died in 1845. Tharawadi was King of Burma when I was trans- ferred to Arakan in 1841. Indeed, as I have said before, it was the hostile attitude assumed by him towards the British Government, that attracted me there. I shall have something to say to say about Tharawadi in the next chapter. i CHAPTER III. PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF ARAKAN, BASSEIN, AND TENASSERIM. Tharawadi ignores the Treaty of Yandabo.—Threatens to drive the English out of Arakan and Tenasserim.-Marches to Rangoon.-His pusillani- mity.-Am pleased with my transfer to Arakan.-Aspect of Burma and Hindostan.-Tumble-down-Dick.-An officer killed by a shark.-Expe- dition against the Wallengs.-Hill tribes of Arakan.-The Government vessel Amherst.-Two extraordinary duels -A snipe shooting feat.- Sporting adventures with "big game."—Appointed to the Arakan. Com- mission. The Punjab campaign.-Proceed to rejoin my Regiment in the Punjab.-Ride from Lahore into Camp.-Battle of Chillianwallah. — Battle of Goojrat.-Storm of Burra Kalra.-Wounded.-Surrender of remnant of Sikh Army at Rawul Pindi.-March to Peshawur.-Return to Sandoway.--Civil duties at Sandoway.-Rumours of war with Burma. Explore the mountain-passes.-Tharawadi deposed.—The Págan Meng ascends the throne.-His character.-Atrocities committed by his Minister. His torture and death.—British subjects ill-treated by Governor of Rangoon.-Commodore Lambert sent with his squadron to demand reparation. -Governor of Rangoon superseded.—Arrogant conduct of new Governor.-Squadron fired upon by the Burmese.-Burmese ports blockaded.-War proclaimed.-Province of Pegu annexed to British Empire.—Revolution at Amarapoora.—Págan Meng deposed and the Mengdon Meng becomes King. He refuses to sign a treaty of peace. Lord Dalhousie defines his own boundary of the newly conquered terri- tory.-Appointed Deputy Commissioner of Bassein.—The great anarchy prevailing there.-Description of the District.—Burmese dacoits.- Expe- ditions against the dacoits and marauding bands.-Defeat and death of the Meng-gyee, or Governor of Bassein.-Defeat of the Ex-chief Myat- htoon and capture of his stronghold.-A military police corps organised. -Oppressive conduct of the new Burmese civil officials.-Horrible murder committed by a Myo-ok.-Elephant shooting.-Karen rebellion.—Karen traditions.-Boundary fixed between Tenasserim and Siam.-Timber trade of Maulmain.-Ghost story.-Sporting anecdotes. Sp - A de WHEN I left Bengal in 1841 there was great excite- ment in Calcutta. Tharawadi had succeeded Phagyi- 86 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. dau on the throne of Ava, and had already shown himself to be as arrogant, cruel, and restless as any of his predecessors. He spoke with great contempt of the English Government; declared that the treaty of Yandabo was not binding upon him. He made a great show of military preparations at the capital, and threatened to drive the English out of Arakan and Tenasserim. Everyone appeared anxious for the safety of the British provinces on the Burmese frontier. At the time I landed in Arakan, Thara- wadi was actually on his march to Rangoon.* Tharawadi, previous to his accession to the throne, was fond of the society of Europeans, and a great favourite with his own people on account of his affa- bility and liberality. But immediately he became King, his disposition appeared suddenly to change. He turned morose, and committed great barbarities. His brother Phagyi-dau's favourite queen, and her brother Meng-tha-gyee, both of whom had exercised great influence during the preceding reign, were executed with frightful barbarity, and the Ministers, after being compelled to work as common labourers on the roads, were ultimately put to death. The deposed King's only son Tsakya-meng, on a false charge of treason, together with his whole family * So called from Van, victory, and Kon, accomplished. This name was given to the town by Alompra, on his totally defeating there the Crown Prince of Pegu and his famous general, Da-la-ban. KING THARAWADI VISITS RANGOON. 87 and household, were also put to death; and every encouragement was given to oppress and plunder all who had been in power during the former reign. A British Resident had remained at Ava from 1830 to 1837, and had succeeded in exercising some influ- ence for good over Phagyi-dau: but it was impos- sible for a British officer to submit to the arrogance of Tharawadi. Three Residents retired one after another. The last went in 1840. When he de- parted from the capital, Tharawadi began his pre- parations for war. All our martial hopes of a war with the "Golden Foot," however, soon vanished into thin air. When Tharawadi reached Rangoon in 1841, he began to cool down. The place and its surroundings brought up disagreeable memories of the defeat and destruc- tion of the Burmese forces. His courage seemed to have oozed away. He confined his operations to casting a big bell for the Shwé Dagon Pagoda; and then returned to his new capital at Amarapúra. Notwithstanding my disappointment, I had no reason to repent my transfer from Bengal to Burma. I was delighted with Arakan. The old Arakan battalion, whose head-quarters was fixed at Akyab,* * The old capital of Arakan was situated in the interior of the country on a branch of the Kuladan river. But, shortly after our taking possession of the country, from the reputed unhealthiness, inaccessibility, and distance from the sea of the old city, a new site was chosen on a large land-locked estuary at the mouth of the Kuladan river, forming a safe harbour. A small fishing village 88 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. was a very social corps. with The country abounded game of every kind and size, from the snipe to the elephant. Moreover, I was soon engaged on active service of a somewhat adventurous kind, of which I shall have something to say hereafter. The aspect of Burma differs as widely from that of Hindustan as their respective inhabitants. Approaching the coast from Calcutta, after leaving the mouth of the Ganges, the first land seen is that of Arakan. The shore rises abruptly from the sea, in ranges of undulating hills covered by luxuriant vegetation. Even the massive black rocks on which the waves of the Indian Ocean unceasingly surge and break, are crowned with the evergreen foliage of perpetual spring. Entering the harbour of Akyab, one of the first objects which strikes the attention, is a very remarkable rock projecting at an angle over a cliff in the midst of an irregular convoluted heap of boulders; which has gained for itself, from British sailors, the quaint sobriquet of Tumble-down- Dick," and has been attributed to the agency of witchcraft by the Asiatic mind. The sands, all along the coast, are admirably adapted for bathing; and there is no greater luxury in a warm climate like that of Burma, than a dip in (C existed on this site called Tseet-way, and by which name Akyab is known by the natives of the country. We named the new town Akyab, from an old pagoda which stood near the village, called Akyat-dau. AN OFFICER KILLED BY A SHARK. 89 the cool sea. Bathing, however, was not without its terrors. Shortly after my arrival at Akyab, a tragical affair happened which deeply impressed itself on my memory. Captain Lumsden-the Civil Officer in charge of the Aeng District, whose head- quarters, as also that of a regiment of Bengal Native Infantry, was at Kyouk Phyoo,* situated about seventy miles south of Akyab-when bathing off the station one day, with a number of the officers of the regiment, swam out to sea at a considerable distance from his companions, and was attacked by a shark. . His screams soon told what had happened. Two of the officers swam gallantly out to help him. They brought him in, but he expired on reaching the shore. His flesh had been torn away, chiefly from the thighs in a horrible manner, and the femoral artery divided. Indeed, owing to the forma- tion of its teeth,† no wounds can well be worse than those inflicted by the shark. The two men who brought him in had a narrow escape. The blood of the dying man attracted other sharks to the spot. The dorsal fins of five very large ones were seen very shortly afterwards, cruising up and down the * Kyouk, rock, and Phyoo, white-White Rock Station-so called from a light-coloured sandstone rock off the harbour's mouth, and which affords a good landmark for entering the harbour. + The teeth of the shark are arranged in several series, one within the other, of a triangular form, sharply pointed, and serrated at the edges. 90 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. very spot where Captain Lumsden had been mortally lacerated. Life in Arakan was a very different thing in those days to what it is now. At Akyab we were as much cut off from the world of civilization, as if we had been posted beyond the Himalaya moun- tains. The Cabul war was being brought to a close. The army of occupation was being cut to pieces by the wild tribes in the Khyber pass. Long before the news reached Calcutta, and longer still before it reached Akyab, I was detached for active service in a very different quarter. A wild hill tribe, known as the Wallengs, had committed several raids on British territory; each time they had retired with impunity to their natural fastnesses. I was appointed to the command of a detachment of the battalion which was sent to punish the Wallengs. I was accompanied by the Senior Assistant Commissioner of Arakan, the present Sir Arthur Phayre, who is now Governor of the Mauritius; but the military command de- volved solely on myself. The service was not an easy one. The principal stronghold of the Wallengs was perched on the top of a precipice, which could only be ascended by ladders. I need not dilate upon the difficulties and perils we encountered. It will suffice for me to say, that I succeeded in dislodging the Wallengs, EXPEDITION AGAINST THE WALLENGS. 91 and inflicted such a punishment that no more raids were repeated for years afterwards. For this service I received the thanks of the Government. The official papers which tell the story of this expedition will be found in the Appendix to the second volume.* • This expedition against the Wallengs was my first introduction to the Hill Tribes of Arakan. These people have inhabited the impenetrable tracts of hill and jungle beyond our frontier from an unknown antiquity. They are all primitive savages, more or less civilized according to their distance from provinces under British administra- tion. Their religion is a child-like reverence for the spirits or genii of the hills and streams, whom they propitiate with offerings of fowls, pigs, and strong liquors. They practice a rude kind of culti- vation, which is a relic of times primeval. They burn away the jungle from some available slope, and then dibble in the grain with a kind of spud, the ashes serving as manure. Under such a system the same spot can only be cultivated about once in ten years. Accordingly the people of a hill village often migrate from one site to another, carrying with them their families, household goods, pigs, and dogs. Whether civilization will ever penetrate these * Appendix A. 92 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. pathless wilds is a problem of the future. Up to the present day the chief object of the British administration has been to protect British subjects from their kidnapping raids. I have reason to believe that the measures which were initiated in after years during my own administration as Chief Commissioner of British Burma, have done something towards putting a stop to their lawless inroads. At this period regular communication between Akyab and Calcutta was kept up by a single Government sailing vessel named the "Amherst." The Amherst appeared at Akyab about once every six weeks. six weeks. After each trip she remained at anchor for about a week, in the Akyab harbour. Her arrival was an an event in our social history. She brought us our mess stores, the latest intelli- gence from Europe, and all the gossip and scandal of Bengal. Captain Patterson, the Commander, was a very popular man. The Amherst was generally filled with passengers from Calcutta, Bengal civilians, staff officers, and others, who had escaped from the heats of the City of Palaces, to enjoy the sea air of the Bay of Bengal. Whilst the Amherst anchored at Akyab, her passengers were generally made honorary members of the Arakan battalion mess. Visitors were scarce in those days, and we A REMARKABLE DUEL. 93 had a rollicking time of it. The week was not only a pleasure whilst it lasted, but furnished us with topics for conversation after it had passed away. It will therefore be readily understood, that we hailed the arrival of the " Amherst" with delight, and beheld her departure with wistful eyes. There was one feature of social life in those days which has now utterly passed away. I allude to the practice of duelling. In my early days a duel sometimes came off, but always under great risk; as principals, seconds, and all concerned were liable to be cashiered. One of the officers who tried to save poor Captain Lumsden, was after- wards cashiered on account of a duel. Wine was generally at the bottom of the mischief. There was more so-called conviviality in those days, than in the present sober generation. Men flushed with wine were too ready to give or take offence; and when they became sober they shrank from retracting their words, or offering an apology, lest they should be suspected of showing the white feather. The most remarkable duel that ever came under my immediate notice, is a case in point. The Commandant of our battalion, was a man of great * The good old times of "no heel taps," when the door of the mess room was often locked after dinner, and the key placed in the president's pocket, so as to allow no officer to leave the table and "shirk his liquor," has now happily passed away. نا 94 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. social qualities, but a hot tempered Irishman. He has been dead some thirty years, so there is no harm in telling a story about him. One night during a game at billiards, a dispute arose between the Commandant and a civilian. Unfortunately, the civilian was an Irishman likewise, and his temperament was equally equally fiery. A challenge passed between the two. It was in the small hours, but the disputants were so angry, that they refused to wait till daylight. They insisted on fighting the duel at once by torchlight. I shall never forget the absurd uproar of the scene. The rage of the principals, the gravity of the seconds, the excitement of the lookers-on. Lighted torches were procured. The principals were posted in the compound which surrounded the mess-house. The signal was given; both fired a shot; as good luck would have it, no one was hurt. The seconds promptly interfered; they refused to allow another shot to be fired; they declared that the honour of both was satisfied, and that the duel must not go on. The indignation of the principals was beyond all bounds. The Commandant especially was in such a towering passion that he called his second a * An East Indian term; it means a yard or enclosure round a building, and is a corruption of the Portuguese word campania. Yule, however, thinks— and he is probably right—that Compound is derived from the Malay word Kampong, and was introduced by the Portuguese from the Straits of Malacca, together with other words in common use in India, such as Paddy, Malay, Fadi, unhusked rice. DUELLING IN THE INDIAN ARMY. 95 coward. The matter was allowed to stand over till the morning. By this time all parties had cooled down. The expression was withdrawn; the word was explained away. The Commandant declared that he charged his second with moral cowardice only, not with physical! The apology was accepted under the circumstances, and nothing further was said of the matter. In the last century duelling was an established institution in India. Almost every man in society, military or civil, had, at one time or other, fought, or been concerned in, a duel. The late East India Company strove in vain to stop the practice. They were actuated partly by a laudable desire to prevent their servants from slaughtering each other; and partly from the loss which a killed or disabled officer brought on the public treasury. A brigade was stationed in Oude. There was constant rivalry between the Cavalry and Infantry. The quarrels were frequent, and so were the duels. Whenever an officer was killed, another officer had to be sent up country, at a vast expense, to fill his place, whilst another one was sent out from England. The Court of Directors grew irritated and alarmed. At last they issued the most peremptory orders that any officer convicted of fighting a duel should be cashiered. These orders were duly forwarded to the Brigade. The officers were filled with conster- 96 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. nation. There was no mistaking the order. No one wanted to be cashiered; yet it was obvious to all that the rivalry between the two arms of the service would still continue. continue. At last, after much cogitation, they determined to settle all questions, present and future, by one great duel between the com- mandant of the cavalry and the senior officer of the infantry. That duel was to be final. There was no privacy about the matter. The duel came off one fine morning, in the presence of a large portion of the Brigade. The signal was given, and the com- mandant of the cavalry was shot dead on the spot. A more sensational event had rarely occurred in the Indian army. The Bengal Government was exasperated in the highest degree. A court-martial was ordered. Fears were entertained that Bengal officers would hesitate to convict a brother officer. Other officers were brought up at a great expense from Madras and Bombay. The court-martial was held; there was no denying the facts. The feeling in favour of duelling was so strong, that it over- powered all other considerations. The result was that the prisoner was acquitted.* Whilst on duty with the Arakan Battalion, I had * This anecdote regarding the duel between the two Commandants has never, to the best of my belief, been published. My authority for it is a dis- tinguished officer of the Bengal artillery, lately deceased. I tell it as it was told to me, and those who doubt it may perhaps admit what a certain Cardinal is reported to have said of the New Testament,-“Si non è vero, è ben trovato.' • SNIPE SHOOTING IN BURMA. 97 one or two sporting adventures, which may be thought interesting on account of their specialities. In those days there was little cultivation in the neighbourhood of Akyab. The rice, or paddy fields, which are now to be seen extending over many miles, were open wastes, more or less covered with coarse grass and underwood, with occasional trees, and large patches of dense jungle. The conse- quence was that we often had such sport as would appear incredible to English readers. One evening, when the "Amherst" had brought some visitors from Calcutta, we talked of the bags of snipe we had recently made. Our guests put us down for a regiment of Munchausens. The dispute became somewhat personal; at last some of my friends backed me to shoot a hundred couple in six hours. My friends shared the wager amongst them; it was readily accepted by the strangers. * Next morning all was ready. The mess tents were pitched near the snipe ground; preparations were made for a general tiffin, and nearly every member of the station was present at the luncheon. I began shooting at ten o'clock; by four o'clock in the afternoon I had bagged 126 couple. The Chaplain of the station was umpire on the occasion, * I used to be considered a good shot in those days with either gun or pistol. With a pair of Camelford-handled "Joe Manton's" pistols, which had belonged to my father, I could cut the four aces out of a pack of cards at fifteen paces distance in four successive shots with the greatest certainty. VOL. I. H 98 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and is still alive to tell the story. He counted the birds as they were brought in. It should be remem- bered that it was in the days of muzzle-loaders; but I had two guns and one man to load. I consider that my success was mainly owing to the abundance of birds. Another adventure befel me about this time, which is also, perhaps, worthy of note. I have shot tigers in various parts of Burma, but I never killed one, perhaps, that gave me more sport than the following. I should explain that all post letters that were not sent by sea, were carried through the jungle between Akyab and Chittagong by men known as dâk wallahs, or post-runners. These post-runners were sometimes exposed to great perils from wild beasts. One evening, whilst dining at mess, news arrived that a post-runner had been carried off by a tiger near a village not very far from Akyab. Accordingly a brother officer and myself mounted our horses and rode off to the village. At day-break we set the villagers at work to beat the jungle. At first they were very un- willing to go. They said that the tiger was a man- eater; that some of them would certainly be killed. We promised plenty of rupees; and at last the all- powerful prospect of bucksheesh induced them to encounter the danger. The haunts of this tiger were thoroughly well- ADVENTURE WITH A TIGER. 99 known to these men. Several of the villagers had already been carried away, and the seizure of the post-runner was a crowning exploit. There was a large open plain near the village, scattered as usual with patches of thick jungle. The tiger's lair was in one of these patches. Accordingly the villagers moved off towards it, whilst my companion and myself ensconced ourselves in two trees just outside the patch, and prepared to fire on the man-eater. My companion had never fired at a tiger before. He was most anxious to have the first shot, and, therefore, posted himself on the tree nearest the spot where the tiger was most likely to break. Scarcely had the beaters entered the jungle when we knew that they had come upon the tiger. They filled the air with their shouts. They made a still more horrible din with the so-called musical instru- ments, which they invariably carry with them on such occasions. Presently the brute appeared in the open. It seemed to take no heed of the deafen- ing noise behind; it moved in a most majestic manner towards the tree where my friend was posted. My friend fired his two barrels. The tiger dashed off with his bristles up and his tail erect in the air, towards another patch of jungle. It was evidently wounded, but only slightly. The beaters saw this; they knew that its savageness would be increased by the wound, and they objected H 2 100 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ; to having anything further to do with the business. We made light of it. There were no trees near this jungle, and we undertook to face the tiger in the open if the beaters would only drive it out. We would then make an end of the matter, kill the man- eater, and deliver the village from all further alarm. At last they consented to beat again. My com- panion, as before, wanted the first shot. We both knelt down upon the plain; but my friend was about fifteen paces in front of me. After firing he was to run behind me. The tiger suddenly ap- peared with a magnificent bound. He He gave himself a shake, and then, with all his bristles up, he bore down straight upon us. My companion fired when the tiger was at a considerable distance, missed it, and then ran past me as was agreed upon. When the tiger was within twenty paces of me I fired my first barrel; when he was making his last bound I fired the second. He fell dead upon his head, with his body over me. Fortunately he fell upon his back, or he would have torn me to pieces in his dying agonies. It is strange that in a moment of excitement like this, every trifling incident is impressed upon the memory for ever. To this day I can see, in my mind's eye, the same things that I saw then. My friend was somewhat vain of his brown hair. He wore it very long, after a fashion in those days C Kegan Paul & Co London. DEATH OF THE TIGER لي . F. DEATH OF THE MAN-EATER. 101 which used to be called "a flow." Charles Dickens used to wear his hair in the same fashion; he did so when Maclise painted his portrait for the first edition of Nicholas Nickleby. My friend lost his hat in running away from the tiger, and as he passed me I could see, through the corners of my eyes, his long brown hair floating in the wind. When I got from under the brute, I saw my friend disappearing over some rising ground, with his hair streaming out in the bright sunshine. I turned round in the opposite direction, and saw the beaters coming out of the jungle. They were stretching out their arms in the air, evidently imagining that I had been destroyed by the tiger. They were undeceived when they saw that I was alive, whilst the brute was lying dead on the ground, and pre- sently my friend reappeared upon the scene. We then examined the tiger. My friend's first shot from the tree had grazed its side. My first bullet had entered the chest, and was found near the stern. My second shot had struck between the eyes and gone through the centre of the brain. I shot other tigers whilst at Akyab, but none of them showed any particular fight. One day, whilst we were at luncheon, a man came in to say that an old woman had been just carried off by a tiger, whilst drawing water at a well close by. We started im- mediately on the elephants belonging to the Battery 102 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. which was attached to our corps. On this occasion we came upon three tigers, and bagged them all. After four years I left my regiment, and entered the Arakan Commission, in other words, I left mili- tary duty, and began to take a part in the civil ad- ministration of the province. In 1846 I was pro- moted to the grade of Deputy Commissioner, and placed in charge of the Sandoway district. It was in the interior of this district that I first shot a rhinoceros. A native huntsman told me that it was the habit of the rhinoceros to deposit its dung from day to day on the same spot. He added that if I would accompany him to a certain spot which he mentioned he could show me one rhinoceros, if not several. I could scarcely believe him, but the promised sport overpowered all other considerations. I placed myself under his guidance. We started about midnight, and proceeded through the jungle by torchlight. It was still dark when we halted under a gigantic peepul tree,* put out our torches, and waited for the morning. Dawn was just breaking when I saw two large forms approaching, looming through the twilight. The first was passing me within ten paces. I fired both barrels of my heavy rifle. The brute fell at once; the other one escaped. The balls had struck the animal behind the left foreleg; its death must * Ficus religiosa. RHINOCEROS SHOOTING. * 103 have been almost instantaneous. On examining the ground round about, I found that the animals had been wallowing in a pool. A track ran from this pool, past the peepul tree, to a dense forest of trees which covered the hills beyond. No doubt the animals remained in the shades of the forest during the heat of the day. At night they de- scended into the low lands to feed. About thirty yards from the peepul tree, on the way to the forest, was a heap of dung. Possibly, if the two animals had not been interrupted, they would have halted at the same spot. My huntsman declared they would have done so, and I see no reason to doubt his word. The animal shot was a fine male specimen of the Rhinoceros Sondaicus, the lesser one-horned rhi- noceros. It is about a third smaller than R. Indicus. It is readily distinguished from the R. Indicus by having the tubercles of the hide uni- formly of the same small size, also by having a fold or plait of the skin crossing the nape, in addition to that behind the shoulder blades. I have also shot several specimens of the two other species of Rhinoceros which exist in Burma, namely, the Ceratorhinus Crossii, and Rhinoceros Sumatrensis. Both are two-horned. In the former type the hide is comparatively thin, of a pale clay colour, covered with longish brown hairs. The skin * Blyth's "Catalogue of Mammals and Birds," page 51. 1 104 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. is not tesselated nor tuberculated, nor does it form a coat of mail.* The latter type is a much smaller species. It has a rugose black skin, clad with HEAD OF A RHINOCEROS. bristly hairs. I have often heard natives speak of its " eating" fire. They say it has a propensity to attack the night fires of travellers. When Pro- fessor Oldham was engaged on a geological survey in the jungles of the Mergui district, his camp fires * I shot a very fine male specimen of this species in the Tavoy district. It was described and figured by my late friend, Mr. Edward Blyth, the eminent naturalist. (See the "Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal," vol. xxi. p. 156.) Mr. Blyth was of opinion that the specimen I shot served to settle the question in his favour against Grey's assignment of this species to Rhinoceros Sumatrensis, which, as stated in the text, is a much smaller species. HABITS OF THE RHINOCEROS. 105 were attacked and dispersed by an animal which is supposed to have belonged to this species. The Rhinoceros tribe wander about much during the night in search of food, when they frequent marshy ground, and wallow in its mud. During the day time they prefer high ground, where such is to be found in the vicinity of their feeding places. When disturbed they utter a peculiar shrill cry, not unlike the scream of a steam whistle. "As is well known, the existing Asiatic rhinoceroses are sharply differentiated from those of Africa by the presence, throughout life, of well-developed and functional incisor teeth.”* The one-horned + species has eight incisors, four in the upper, and four in the lower jaw; and the double-horned‡ half this number. The form of the lower incisors are peculiarly calculated for up- rooting plants, and stripping off the bark of trees, which form its favourite food. The horns are not * Professor W. H. Flower. +"Rhinoceros unicornis is generally supposed to be the Hebrew 'Reem,' or Unicorn of Scripture (Numbers xxiii. 72; Deut. xxxiii. 17; Job xxxix. 9, 10; Isaiah xxxiv. 7). In the Septuagint, or Greek version of the Old Testament, the word is translated Movoкépws, or Unicorn, except in Isaiah, where it is rendered Adpol (or the mighty or powerful ones). Some are of opinion that the word signified the Oryx, observing that 'Reem' is the Arabic name for a species of wild-goat or gazelle. The better opinion seems to be that the animal or animals intended to be designated in most of the passages quoted, if not in all, was or were the Rhinoceros unicornis, or great Asiatic one-horned Rhinoceros. The description in Job (chap. xxxix.) would almost forbid the conclusion that any animal was in the writer's mind except one of surpassin bulk and indomitable strength."-English Cyclopædia, p. 589. fr The skull of the two-horned rhinoceros figured above, is peculiar in having two incisors on the left of the lower jaw, altogether five. 106 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. attached to the skull, as generally supposed, but to the hide; are solid, and formed of congregated parallel horny fibres. They are much valued by the Chinese, and other Eastern nations, for certain alleged restorative properties, and as remedies for epilepsy, and against the effects of poison.* I have also shot a tapir† in the same locality as the above. It is a most inoffensive animal. Its flesh is not good to eat, and it affords no trophy worth taking away. After killing one, though I often came upon their footprints, I never afterwards followed them up. There are four species of Bovidæ in Burma: Bos Gaurus, B. Frontalis, B. Sondaicus and Bubulus Arni; a number of each of which I have shot, and kept fine specimens of their heads. The first named is the grandest species, and attains, like the elephant, a finer development in Burma than elsewhere. The horns are short and thick, and the skull large and very massive. The largest I shot stood twenty- one hands at the shoulder. The bulls are very * In the narrative of the "Voyage of Mr. James Lancaster," who visited the Indian Seas with "three tall ships in the yeere 1591," when off a town situated between Malacca and Pegu he speaks of the horn of the Abatto or unicorn being considered as an antidote against poison. He states: "We sent com- modities to their king to barter for Amber-griese, and for the hornes of Abatto, whereof the king onely hath the traffique in his hands. Now this Abatto is a beast which hath one horne onely in her forehead, and is thought to be the female Vnicorne, and is highly esteemed of all the Moores in those parts as a most soueraigne remedie against poyson!"-Hakluyt, vol. ii. p. 491. + Tapirus Malayanus. THE SECOND SIKH WAR. 107 fierce, and much dreaded by the natives. The old solitary ones almost invariably charge. It is often called in India the "bison," which is a misnomer, the difference between the two animals being not merely specific but generic. But I must reserve further stories of sporting ad- ventures for a future page. In 1848 I was called away to active service by the breaking out of the second Sikh war. Lord Hardinge's benevolent effort to save the Punjab from annexation had utterly failed. There was an outbreak in Mooltan, in which Mr. Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Ander- son were brutally murdered. Shortly afterwards, a formidable conspiracy was discovered at Lahore. All the Sepoys were to be won over to the cause of the Sikh conspirators; all the British officers in the Punjab were to be murdered; all British influence was to be driven out of the Punjab. Sir Frederic Currie was resident at Lahore; how he discovered the conspiracy, and crushed it at the outset, are matters of history. But the whole country was ripe for revolt. Whilst General Whish was besieging Mooltan, the Sikh army was in rebellion under Shere Shing. • Lord Dalhousie had arrived in India early in the year as Governor-General. He was prepared from the beginning to re-establish the prestige of British supremacy. When he saw that annexation was the 108 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. only alternative, he carried it out with a high hand. It was about this time that he made his celebrated announcement at a public dinner at Calcutta :- "The Sikhs are resolved on war; they shall have it with a vengeance." All the officers in civil employ in Arakan were ordered to rejoin their regiments. We proceeded together to Calcutta in a pilot vessel. At Calcutta we had to start in palanquins for Lahore, a journey of about 1,400 miles. We travelled day and night, but were fifteen days on the way; the journey may now be accomplished by railway in three days. At Lahore we were in difficulty. The army was encamped at Heelah, on the banks of the Chenab river, some eighty miles off. The country between Lahore and the camp was overrun with the enemy's light horse, and it was supposed to be unsafe to travel without a strong escort. Accordingly, we waited at Lahore for a convoy which was to carry commissariat stores into camp. Fortunately, I was personally known to Sir Frederic Currie, and he kindly invited me to stay at the Residency until I could join my regiment. One morning at breakfast, Sir Frederic Currie received a dispatch from Lord Gough, the Com- mander-in-Chief. Lord Gough had been recon- noitring the Sikh positions in company with Major Mackeson, the political officer attached to his staff. OUR RIDE TO CAMP. 109 He informed the Resident that he was resolved on bringing the Sikh army very shortly to a general action. My host handed the dispatch to me to read, and remarked that if I wished to be present at the battle, I must go at once. I expressed my anxiety to be off, and he kindly offered an escort of twenty troopers for myself and any officers that might like to accompany me. He told me, how- ever, that I must take the risk upon myself, as he could not be responsible for disasters. I soon found a couple of officers as eager as myself. We started next morning, carrying nothing with us but our arms. The Resident gave us a written order on Heads of villages, to give us every help in their power. The Assistant Resi- dent gave us a sketch of the country, and this with a pocket compass was our only guide to camp; for all the direct roads were in the posses- sion of the enemy. We had scarcely got twenty miles from Lahore, when our escort wanted to halt. The men said that their horses could carry them no further. We told them we must go on at all hazards; that if they could not accompany us they might rest their horses and return to Lahore. We then rode on without an escort. About half way between Lahore and the camp, we came upon a number of carts which had been plundered and upset; they were carrying shopkeeper's wares IIO BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. to camp, when the Sikhs stopped them and carried away the contents. In the distance we saw several bodies of horsemen. We made straight for a walled village about three miles off, and luckily reached it without attracting attention. We con- gratulated ourselves at having got rid of the escort. Three horsemen could pass unnoticed; twenty-three would have been attacked and overwhelmed. We stopped at the village till evening, and re- cruited ourselves and our horses. We then started off again, and reached camp without any further adventures, about five o'clock on the following morning. Then I began to feel the inconvenience of having joined the camp without a single change of clothes. Fortunately, I fell in with my old friend and shipmate, John Nicholson. He sent me six camels, a tent, clothing, servants, and every- thing I could require until I was able to provide myself with what was necessary. Subsequently, I heard that tinned provisions had been fired upon our force. The hermetically sealed tins plundered from the carts, had apparently been mistaken by the Sikhs for canister shot; and the consequences was that salmon, green peas, carrots, and solid soups had been fired upon us." * The horse," Bob Allan," I rode from Lahore to * Something of the same kind is said to have occurred during the first Sikh war. BATTLE-FIELD OF CHILIANWALLAH. III camp, was a valuable Arab, for which I had to pay a high price. He had been in training for the Lahore Races, but the meeting had been stopped by the war. He carried me beautifully, At camp I put him again in training, and he won me two of the best prizes at our camp Races, namely, the Maiden Arabs, and the All Horses. As it turned out there was no occasion for our hazardous ride to camp. The general action did not take place until some weeks after our arrival. I need hardly describe the hard-fought battle of Chilianwallah; it is a matter of history. After the action, our army was drawn up for more than a month in front of the Sikh position. Between us was the battle field of Chilianwallah, still strewed with many of the unburied dead. of the unburied dead. At last General Whish captured Mooltan, and was enabled to join Lord Gough with all the force under his command. The Sikhs suddenly disappeared from our front and marched on to Goojrat. On the 21st of February 1849, Lord Gough fought the great battle of Goojrat. It was not such a hard fought-battle as Chilianwallah. We had more guns and the day was chiefly won by artillery, but for all that it was a splendid victory. From that day the whole of the Punjab became virtually British territory. During this battle an incident occurred to myself; and I am half doubtful whether to relate it, or to 112 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. pass it over in silence. I have already told stories of myself; and I fear that in the course of my narrative, I shall be tempted to tell many others. By so doing I lay myself open to the charge of egotism, but unless I indulge in such personal details, I know not how I can convey an accurate impression of every-day life in India and Burma. One thing is certain; so long as I mention matters in which I myself am concerned, my narrative is, at any rate, authentic. The only question therefore, I mean to ask myself before telling a story, is whether the reader is likely to be interested or wearied. I may fall into occasional errors upon this point, because I may delude myself into the belief that what interests myself may interest others; but I must run the risk. If my reader is interested I can bear the censure; if he is wearied, I can only hope that he is too weary to condemn. Towards the close of the battle of Goojrat, whilst I was lying down under fire with my regiment, Sir Walter Gilbert rode up with his staff. He directed the brigadier to dispatch an officer with a couple of companies to take possession of Burra Kalra. This was a strong position to the left of the Sikh line. Our guns had been playing on it for some time, and it appeared to have been deserted. I was selected for the duty. I got my men within about three hundred yards of the position, when the place became BATTLE OF GOOJRAT. suddenly alive with Sikhs; they had concealed them- selves behind the broken ramparts, and as we ap- proached they opened a heavy fire. Fortunately we found ourselves in a corn field in which there was a ridge, that had been used for irrigation purposes. I consulted the Brigade Major* who had accompanied me in the advance, and we agreed that I should lie down with my men behind this ridge, whilst he went back for orders. Presently he re- turned with instructions for us to remain as we were. Shortly afterwards the whole division moved up to our support, and stormed the position. It was during this attack I received my wounds. Meantime our whole line advanced against the enemy. The Sikhs broke and fled, leaving nearly all their guns behind them. The few they managed to carry away were delivered up to us at Rawul Pindee. * I accompanied the force under Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert in the pursuit of the Sikhs and Afghans, as far as Peshawur. I was present at the surrender of the remnant of the Sikh army, with all their war material at Rawul Pindee. But hostilities were at an end. The Punjab was made over to the civil authorities. I went down the Indus in one of the Government steamers to Kurrachee; and thence returned by Bombay to Captain M. E. Sherwill, 2nd European Bengal Fusiliers. VOL. I. 113 1 114 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Calcutta by sea, and finally resumed my district duties in Sandoway. The second Sikh war extended and consolidated the British Empire in the north-west. Many a time during the return voyage did I ponder over this fact; many a time did I consider the pro- bability of the same process of extension and consolidation being carried out in the south-east. If the Punjab had been destined to become an integral part of the British dominion, why not Burma? Eight years had elapsed since Thara- wadi had threatened to invade British territory; since then no rumours of hostilities to the eastward of the Bay had disturbed the political atmosphere. But the war element often takes a long time to simmer before it boils over. At the death of Runjeet Sing war was sooner or later inevitable; but nearly a decade passed away before the Punjab was annexed. Moreover, the second Sikh war had broken out at a moment's notice; a second Burmese war might do the same. Meantime there was nothing for it but to return to the old civil work and wait till time should solve the problem. No country or village in the world can be more quiet than a district of India or Burma under the ordinary routine of British administration. Sando- way was no exception to the general rule. The revenue and judicial work went on much the same SANDOWAY. from day to day. So did the filling up of returns, and drafting of reports and dispatches. Beyond occasional sport whilst out in the district, there was little to break the monotony of official life; I used occasionally to feel hot and solitary, like unto Coleridge's Ancient Mariner on the Enchanted Sea; "Alone, alone; all all alone; Alone in an empty square; And never a friend with whom to dine, To flirt with never a fair." And yet on the whole, "The strength of gladness Came to my spirit in my solitude,” "* 115 and I have often found the days pass away more pleasantly amongst the people of the country in these secluded regions, than amongst the gayest doings at head-quarters. An officer in charge of a district has the power of bettering the condition of thousands, and the habits of the people are so simple, that his personal influ- ence-if they really see that he takes an interest in their welfare-affects them very rapidly, and is one of the great charms of civil employment in the East. In the great round of daily duty, too, nearly every officer has some little hobby of his own. At Sandoway I was much interested in the improve- "Revolt of Islam.”—Shelley. I 2 116 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ment of the tobacco cultivation,* and I may say that my efforts met with considerable success. The people of Burma are certainly more ready to take a hint from an English officer, where their own interests are concerned, than the people of India, who go on without change from generation to gene- ration. But, no doubt, the besetting failing of the Burmese, in common with all Asiatics, is—inertness ; which is most difficult to overcome, and their general character, in this respect, is consonant with that given of the Egyptians of old, that "their strength is to sit still." † I also succeeded in constructing a lattice bridge of iron-wood across the Sandoway river, after the * The district of Sandoway used to grow the best tobacco in Burma. I drew up a report on its special characteristics, and the Burmese mode of culture, which was published in vol. viii. of the "Transactions of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India." + Isaiah, chap. xxx. See illustration on opposite page. This view of Sandoway and its bridge appeared in the "Illustrated London News,” of 6th December, 1851, with the following description :- "The station of Sandoway, in Arakan, is famed for its tobacco, and has a considerable trade, also, in rice, timber, and other products. Its romantic and beautiful scenery is very striking. The building to the left, in the illustration, is the residence of the Principal Assistant-Commissioner, Captain Albert Fytche, who holds, in his own person, the responsible duties of civil judge, collector, magistrate of the district, and commandant of frontier police. The structure on the hill is a Buddhist pagoda, called Nan-dau (Royal side-bone), from a relic in the shape of a rib of the last Buddh, Guatama, being supposed to be buried beneath it. The bridge that makes so prominent a feature in the landscape has just been erected; it is a lattice, composed of iron-wood, a species of mahogany, and one of the hardest and most durable woods in the world. The spans between the piles, where the chief strength of the current lies, are 64 feet in clear breadth, to allow the large trees, which are washed down from the landslips in the mountains to pass through. The river, like I NODAR C. Kegan Paul & Co London. SANDOWAY, ARAKAN. POLITICAL STATE OF BURMA. II7 description of one I had read of having been con- structed in America, and which afforded me much pleasurable occupation. Meanwhile, the Punjab was sobering down, and the political state of the kingdom of Burma at last began to attract the attention of the Indian Govern- ment. In those days Sandoway was the frontier district towards Burmese territory. The neighbour- ing province of Pegu, with its capital and port of Rangoon, belonged to the King of Burma. The native Governor of Pegu was perpetrating such outrages upon merchants at Rangoon, and the masters of British merchant vessels visiting the port, that it was obvious our relations with the King would, sooner or later, end in a rupture. I sent spies out in all directions. They explored the passes through the Yoma mountains, which separate Arakan from Pegu. They visited Amarapúra, the capital of the kingdom, and other chief towns of Burma, and brought me back authentic information of all that was going on, The following details will sufficiently explain the progress of affairs.* G most tropical streams, is an insignificant one in the dry season, but in the rainy one a perfect torrent, rising occasionally 15 to 20 feet in 24 hours. The total length of the bridge is upwards of 600 feet, with a roadway of 14 feet, and certainly reflects great credit on the Principal Assistant-Commissioner, by whom it was designed and constructed." *The information which I transmitted to the Government of India at this period proved of some importance. I drew up a very full report on the passes through the Yoma mountains; and especially pointed out the reasons why the Aeng Pass was to be preferred to all others. Had the government decided on 118 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. When Tharawadi returned to his capital after casting the big bell at Rangoon, he degenerated into a tyrant of the worst form. He indulged in strong liquors to such an extent that at last he became mad. In his paroxysms of rage he would shoot or stab a minister or favourite with his own hands. Such a course could only end in a palace revolution of the Asiatic type. In 1845 he was suddenly placed in confinement. Henceforth he passed away for ever from the eyes of man. There was no public opinion. There was no necessity for pro- claiming the death of the King by suicide or other- wise, as appears to have been necessary in the recent revolution at Constantinople. He is said to have been smothered in the recesses of the palace, and there is no reason to doubt the truth of the rumour, which reached me from many different quarters. The eldest legitimate son of Tharawadi, the Pagán Meng, succeeded to the throne of Burma. He removed the capital from Amarapura to Ava. He was a slave to low pleasures, such as cock- fighting, ram-fighting, gambling, and debauchery. Strange to say, his minister was a Mussulman. Possibly this fact might be cited as an illustration of S sending a force from Arakan through these passes, which at one time was under consideration, the route through the Aeng Pass would undoubtedly have been adopted. EXECUTION OF THE KING'S MINISTER. 119 the tolerance of Buddhist courts. Possibly it only shows that the King refused to trust a minister of his own faith. He was in constant fear lest he should share the fate of his father, Tharawadi. He was cruel enough to condemn all persons sus- pected of disaffection to the most horrible deaths. Amongst these were two of his brothers, the Pyee- myo-meng, and the Tarop-mau-meng, who were executed, together with their wives and families and the members of their households. The King was artful enough to let all the blame fall upon his Mussulman minister. Indeed, the minister was fully as unscrupulous as his master. He was exposed to the jealousies of numerous rivals, and he could only hold his own by a reign of terror. At last the people of Ava rose in revolt. The minister was sacrificed to secure the safety of the King. He was made over to the populace, and forced to endure all the agonies he had inflicted on others. Pins were thrust under his nails; hot irons were applied to all parts of his body; his limbs were beaten by sledge-hammers. After three days of torture, he was beheaded at the place of execution with a crowd of his creatures. Whilst the Court of Ava was in this distracted state, there could be little check on the Governors of provinces. At Rangoon the Burmese Governor did as he pleased. He oppressed his own subjects, and I'm I 20 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. insulted foreigners. He filled his coffers by despotic exactions, and there was no one to oppose him. British subjects laid their complaints before the Government of India; but nothing was done for some time. Indeed, whilst the Punjab absorbed the attention of the Governor-General, he could not be expected to pay much regard to the affairs of Burma. At last, in 1851, Lord Dalhousie was roused to action. Two British subjects, Captains Lewis and Shepherd, were arrested by the Burmese Governor at Rangoon, thrown into prison, and fined nine hundred rupees; Captain Shepherd is said to have been placed in the Burmese stocks. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert with his squadron to demand reparation. He called for the immediate removal of the Governor as a punishment for his offence; and the payment of a sum equivalent to nine hundred pounds sterling as compensation for the losses sustained by Messrs. Lewis and Shepherd. The Burmese authorities displayed at this period that mixture of pride and pusillanimity which is so characteristic of the people. They still remembered the first Burmese war, but they ascribed their de- feat to their want of cannon and discipline. Since then the King had taken European adventurers into his pay; some of them were deserters from the British army. army. They had They had manufactured a large ARRIVAL OF NEW GOVERNOR AT RANGOON. 121 number of cannon, and made some progress in drill- ing the Burmese infantry. Accordingly, the younger officials were puffed up with the idea that they could cope with the English. They thought that the English knew nothing of the improvements in their army, and would be surprised by the discipline of their forces, and the superiority of their guns. The King of Burma was not so ready for a war as his officials. On the 1st of January, 1852, he sent a reply to the communication he had received from Lord Dalhousie. He professed an anxious desire to comply with the demands of the Governor- General, and to keep up peaceful relations with the English. On the 4th of January a new Governor came down to Rangoon from Ava, ostensibly to settle the claims of the Government of India. He appears to have thought he could frighten the English. He arrived at Rangoon in all the pomp of royalty. He had a retinue of three thousand men, and an armament of war boats and barges glittering with gilding. He came to a most friendly understanding with the Governor he had come to supersede. During two days the two men had frequent interviews, and the new man appears to have made up his mind for war. At the expiration of that period the ex-Governor went off to Ava with all his ill-gotten gains. The new Governor ignored the presence of Com- 122 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. F modore Lambert and his fleet. He ordered an English merchant at Rangoon to take down a flag- staff which communicated with the English fleet. The order was obeyed; but a .messenger was sent to the Governor to ask when he would receive a deputation from the Commodore regarding it and other matters. The messenger was insolently treated by the doorkeeper. He was admitted, how- ever, after some delay. The Governor then told him that he would be happy to receive a deputation from the Commodore at any time; but he said it in such a tone of derision that the Burmese officers in attendance burst with laughter. Next morning, the Commodore sent a deputation of officers. In the first instance, they were refused admittance. They were then kept waiting until permission could be obtained from the Governor. At last, the members of the deputation pressed for admittance, and were told that the Governor was asleep. Next it was said, that the Governor would see one of the members alone. This was out of the question ; and after further vain attempts to obtain an inter- view, the deputation returned to the Commodore, and reported the insolence to which they had been subjected. Commodore Lambert saw that he could only bring the Governor to reason by taking action. The British residents at Rangoon were in mortal BURMESE FIRE ON THE BRITISH SQUADRON. 123 fear of being attacked by the Burmese. The Commodore took them all on board his flag ship, and sent them away to Maulmain. He then seized a King's ship lying off Rangoon, and carried her down the river. Several Burmese officers went to the Commodore to make excuses for the Governor, but not one of them could show any credentials. Meantime the Governor began to threaten. Stock- ades had been erected on the banks of the river. The Commodore was told that if he attempted to pass these stockades his squadron would be fired upon. In reply, he told the Governor that if a pistol-shot was fired, he would level the stockades to the ground. Then followed the first appeal to arms. The Commodore passed the stockades with his squadron. The Burmese opened fire from the shore. The Commodore returned the fire with a storm of shot and shell which destroyed the stockades. War appeared now inevitable. The Rangoon river, the Bassein river, and the Salween river above Maulmain, were placed under a blockade. Further hostilities were, however, deferred, for Lord Dalhousie was still anxious to avert a war. It would be tedious to relate in detail all the efforts that were made to preserve peace. Lord Dalhousie wrote a letter to the King of Burma. No additional requisition was made beyond a 124 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. demand for a written apology from the Governor of Rangoon. His Lordship said that the English were desirous of peace; that if the King came to terms all would be well; if he refused there must be war. The letter was made over to the Burmese officials at Martaban, with the remark that the English were prepared for war. The reply of the Burmese showed their arrogance and determination. They said, that if the English were prepared for war so were the Burmese. In the beginning of April, Commodore Lambert sent a steamer to Rangoon under a flag of truce, to inquire if a reply had been received from the King. He had taken the precaution weeks before to explain to the Burmese authorities what was meant by a flag of truce. Meantime, fresh stockades had been erected. As the steamer passed by them, the Burmese violated the flag and opened fire. This was another proof that the Burmese authorities were resolved on war. The details of the military operations which fol- lowed would have but little interest now. They are fully related by Colonel Laurie in his exhaustive history of the second Burmese war.* It will suffice to say, that after some more hard fighting, Rangoon * Colonel Laurie's narrative will be found very pleasant reading by those who may be interested in the progress of events in Burma in 1852-53. I fear he has been too flattering in his notices of my services, but upon this point I can, of course, have nothing to say. PEGU ANNEXED TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 125 was occupied by the English, and the ramparts of the Great Shwé Dagon Pagoda were taken by storm. By the end of May, both Martaban and Bassein were in the possession of the English. In July, Lord Dalhousie came to Rangoon, and ordered preparations to be made for an advance up the valley of the Irawadi. The expeditionary force was known as the "Army of Ava." In Sep- tember, the "Army of Ava" left Rangoon. In November, the town of Pegu was taken and oc- cupied. In December, the whole province of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire by public proclamation.* My spies, amongst other intelligence, had brought me well authorized rumours from the capital, of an impending revolution, and which, I reported to the Government, would probably take place very shortly; and, in the event of its being successful and a change of Sovereigns taking place, would exercise a con- siderable influence on the war; by causing many of its officers to proceed to the capital to proffer their allegiance to the new King, and the dispersion of the men to their homes. Events turned out as I had anticipated. The victories of the English had filled the Burmese Court with alarm, and all the blame was thrown * The Proclamation of the Governor-General of India, annexing the province of Pegu, was published at Rangoon on 20th December, 1852. 126 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. upon the King. Early in 1853, it was suddenly known that the Pagán Meng had been deposed, and his half-brother the Meng-don Meng was taken from a Buddhist monastery and placed upon the throne. For years this prince had lived under monastic Vows. But this was no strange event in Burmese history. The Meng-don Meng, as has been pre- viously shewn, was not the first monk of the royal family who had been suddenly taken from a life of poverty and celibacy and enthroned in a palace. The result of the catastrophe was that all the Burmese troops disappeared from Pegu. As the "Army of Ava" advanced further into the interior of the country, they found stockades, but no enemy. There had been an universal rush to Ava. Every Burmese officer was eager to reach the capital. One and all hoped to gain some advantage from the new régime. Meantime the newly conquered territory of Pegu was hardening into a British province. There was no open resistance on the part of the new King to our possession of the province; but he would enter into no formal treaty of peace. He utterly refused to sign any such document; he would not acknow- ledge any cession of Burmese territory to the English. His reasons for declining were, that he did not wish to go down to posterity as the King who had signed away a portion of the Empire of Alompra. THE FRONTIER LINE FIXED. 127 When the Governor-General found that the King was impracticable, he declared that he did not want a treaty; that a treaty with such a potentate would not be worth the paper on which it was written.* The result was, he issued his own proclamation of peace, by a Notification dated Fort William, 30th June, 1853, and fixed on his own authority a parallel of latitude to be the line of frontier between British and Burmese territories. The frontier pillars were put up, and which, with the exception of a slight rectification that has lately been made by mutual consent in the hill country of the Karens, mark the boundary to the present day. The province of Pegu was brought under British administration. My old friend and senior officer, the present Sir Arthur Phayre, was the first Commissioner of the newly acquired territory. Under these circumstances I was appointed Deputy Commissioner of Bassein,‡ a large and im- * I was previously in possession of Lord Dalhousie's views upon this subject. I had been ordered, specially, from Sandoway to Calcutta to communicate personally with his lordship regarding information I had furnished: this, with other matters, was discussed. † A line running due east, from the Myeng-Mateng-toung (a high peak of the Arakan range of mountains) situated in 19° 30′ N. Lat. See accompany- ing map. ‡ Bassein is an old Talaing city. Its Talaing name was Kau-smin, corrupted by the Burmese to Po-thein, and by us to Bassein. At the time it was visited by Ralph Fitch in the latter end of 1586, it appears to have been then known by its ancient name, as he spells it in English, Cosmin. Kau-smin corresponds, I believe, to Kon-dau in the Burmese language, meaning royal high ground. The city stands on an elevated site. The portion of the country of which Bassein is the capital city, formed in 128 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. • portant district in the newly conquered province, which formed the western half of the delta of the Irawadi. The post was one of peculiar difficulty, on account of its pirate-haunted creeks, and bands of banditti, or dacoits, which had been greatly swollen during the anarchy that prevailed through- out the war. This will be readily understood after a brief description of the condition of the country. The district of Bassein, and, indeed, the whole province of Pegu, was divided under Burmese rule into a number of townships. The head of every township paid a fixed sum every year towards the imperial revenue. The money was either sent direct to the imperial treasury, or paid over to some official, or inmate of the palace or zenana, to whom it might have been assigned. In those days the Burmese Government paid no fixed salaries. Ministers, queens, concubines, favourites and others were supported by the grant of a township, or of some village or circle within a township, and known by the name of Myo-tsa, or "eaters of the revenue." The position of the head of a township was thus ancient times one of the three great divisions or provinces of the kingdom of Ramagnia, and included within its boundaries the territory lying between the Irawadi river and the Arakan mountains. The other two provinces of Ramagnia were Hengtha-wadi, and Motaba (Martaban): the former com- prising the country between the Irawadi and Sittang rivers; and the latter that between the Sittang and Salween rivers. The limits of these two latter provinces to the southward are not defined by old historians, and no doubt varied much on account of the continual wars which raged in those parts. C. Kegan Paul & Co. London. EXES WAX HAMA BAMBER BASSEIN. POWERS OF BURMESE OFFICIALS. 129 in direct antagonism to the interests of the people. As already said, he was responsible for the fixed yearly revenue; but as he received no salary, he was compelled to squeeze as much as he could out of the people, for the support of himself and his followers. Nominally, he was under the Viceroy of Hengtha-wadi (the old Talaing kingdom of Pegu so called) who held his head-quarters at Rangoon, and was generally known as the governor of Ran- goon. Practically he was independent of the governor, who indeed exercised little real authority beyond the limits of the town and the country immediately around it. Of course all were subject to the supreme authority of the imperial govern- ment at Ava; and any governor whatever, whether of a province or a township, might be appointed or removed at the pleasure of the King. But occa- sional presents to a queen, minister, or favourite, generally sufficed to smooth down any difficulty that might arise. In some respects the heads of townships re- sembled the barons of Europe during the Middle Ages. They possessed individually the power of the sword, and were supreme in their petty terri- tories. They were constantly at feud with their neighbours, who held the like position. They were thus led to keep up large bodies of followers, who were the curse of the country. Though each ruler VOL. I. K A 130 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. could rely with confidence on his own train of re- tainers, he was not bound, however, to the people by any feudal ties. His office was not hereditary. Very many of them were foreigners from Upper Burma, who had been made heads of townships by the mere will of the King, and had no hold what- ever upon the inhabitants. They established them- selves as lords of townships by the prestige of the royal name, and the terror inspired by their armed followers. A few, however, had been taken from the Talaing inhabitants of Pegu, and all this class of men were disaffected rather than loyally disposed towards the King of Burma. In a word, they detested the Ava rule. They were favourably inclined towards the English, and some of them helped the English during the hostilities against the King of Burma's forces, and for such service re- ceived appointments at the close of the war. After the English had taken possession of Pegu, most of the heads of townships lost all their autho- rity. Some who had joined the royal forces accom- panied them in the retreat into Upper Burma. The greater number, however, took to the jungles, and led the lives of outlaws. They formed themselves into marauding bands, and ravaged the country far and wide. Down to the present day offshoots of these bands occasionally break out and create disorders. They are the so-called Burmese dacoits, < ▾ BURMESE DACOITS. A and it will probably be some time before they en- tirely disappear.* The condition of Bassein of course resembled that of Pegu. I find a paragraph in one of my dispatches at the period, which sets forth the actual state of affairs in my district. † "During the Burmese government this district was distributed into eleven divisions, under officers with different Burmese titles. Each of these officers had under him from three to six hundred armed retainers. A portion of these retainers have gone into the Ava territories; a few have turned cultivators of the soil and fishermen ; the remainder, by far the greater portion, are at large without any means of honest livelihood, and it is they who form the bands of 'dacoits,' and keep the country in a disturbed state." The following extract from one of my dispatches shows the nature of the dacoities which were carried on under Burmese rule.‡ Dacoity appears to be 131 (6 + Dispatch dated 18th February, 1854. Dispatch, dated 5th August, 1853. * Shortly after I left Burma in 1871, notwithstanding a considerable increase to the police force, the dacoits seem to have become bolder than at any former period. Colonel Hamilton, the Director-General of the Police in British Burma, was shot dead by them, as also an Assistant-Commissioner, and one of the District-Superintendents severely wounded. The wholesome dread of the British authorities appeared to have diminished. I fear this may be attributed, somewhat, to the so-called energetic measures of my successor, who was new to the country, and had no personal experience of the class with whom he was dealing. K 2 132 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 品 ​normal in the country; almost evey inhabitant is ready to perpetrate one, if the plunder to be obtained is worth his while, and it can be committed with small risk. The punishment for the offence during the Burmese rule was generally death with torture, confiscation of goods, and the sale of the criminals' wives and families into slavery. But this punish- ment, as also any other, could be evaded, if the person apprehended could pay a handsome bribe to the Burmese officials or had powerful friends. When it is discovered that there is no outlet or escape of this kind, punishment invariably succeed- ing detection, and that dacoits are not fostered, as was also often the case with Burmese officials for a share of their plunder, I have no doubt this species. of crime will greatly decrease." I reached Bassein in the latter end of December, 1852. The morning after my arrival I summoned the inhabitants, and read the proclamation annexing the whole of Pegu. Reports of the exploits of dacoits came to me from all quarters. The means, however, at my disposal, were of the most limited description. There was an English garrison at Bassein surrounded by a stockade. The country round about was still harassed by parties of the King's troops, as well as by bands of dacoits; and owing to a repulse, a detachment of the garrison that had been sent out against these, had lately suf p SERVICE AGAINST THE DACOITS. 133 fered, strict orders had been issued by the military authorities, that not a single soldier was to leave the stockade on any pretence whatever. Fortu- nately I had brought some trustworthy men with me from Sandoway and in addition to these I secured the valuable services of the crews of two of H.M.'s steamers, the Nemesis and Zenobia, which were stationed in the Burmese river. I also en- listed a number of the better disposed natives of Pegu, who had already declared themselves on our side.* With this force I left the town of Bassein on the Nemesis, the third day after I had landed at the place, in the hope of cutting up and dispersing the more formidable bands of marauders. The creeks were so shallow and narrow, that we generally found it necessary to take to the boats before we could get sight of the enemy. It was active service of a unique description; just the kind of fun that sailors like. Sometimes our boats were suddenly exposed to the fire of a band of desperadoes. At other times we followed them up to their secret haunts, where they resisted us with all the reckless- ness of men fighting for their lives. We had many hard conflicts hand to hand. On some occasions we made large captures of arms, * The official account of this expedition, and others following it, will be found in Appendix B. ... ونه 5. 134 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT -3 stores and war boats, by which we not only crippled the robbers, but added to our own resources. The story of our first expedition will serve as a specimen of the kind of service it was. A Burmese chief of banditti, who was known by the uncouth name of Nga-tee-hwot, had plundered and burnt several large villages. As we passed down the Bassein river, we heard that a large detachment of Nga-tee-hwot's men had gone by to plunder a village which was seated on an island. We reached the place in time to save the village, but the enemy escaped through a narrow creek. Next morning at daybreak we left the steamer with two paddle- box boats and a cutter. Each boat was mounted with a twelve-pounder howitzer, and manned by English sailors. A considerable force of Karens and Talaings also accompanied us in their own boats. About noon we fell in with the dacoits. They fired upon our boats, but were dispersed after a few discharges of grape, leaving a quantity of arms behind. Next morning we came upon an outpost strengthened by breastworks. A sharp fire of musketry was opened upon us, but we pushed forward in our boats, and again dispersed them after a sharp jungle skirmish. At this spot we captured three war boats, and the standard of the chief of the marauders. We next proceeded to three large villages; one DESOLATION CAUSED BY DACOITS. 135 of them strengthened by breastworks like the out- post. The marauders, however, had fled before we came up. I wished our native auxiliaries to follow them up, as they might easily have done in their small boats; but they would not proceed alone, and the English sailors were too fatigued to proceed further. It turned out that these three villages were the head-quarters of the dacoits. In their hurry to get away they had left their huts standing with an accumulation of arms, stores and plunder. The desolation caused by these ruffians is beyond all conception. The peaceful inhabitants of all the villages round about had deserted their homes and fled to the jungle to subsist as they best might on roots and wild animals, or die of disease or starva- tion. My object was to encourage all these poor people to return to their respective villages. Ac- cordingly I appointed head men to the several villages, each of whom had one or two hundred followers. They engaged to bring back the villagers from the jungles; and they spoke confidently of success, now that the marauders had been beaten and dispersed. Notwithstanding this success, and some others of a like character, bands of dacoits soon reappeared in distant quarters. The Burmese governor of Bassein, Meng-gyee Moung-ngo, who, at the com- 136 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. mencement of hostilities had been sent by the King to Bassein with 20,000 men, was still at large; and it was evident that the district would never be settled until he had been driven out of the country, or destroyed. This done the other Burmese chiefs, who acted, or pretended to act under his orders, and apparently considered that they had a perfect right to plunder the country, would be more easily dealt with. By this time I had got together a considerable increase of force, and determined to attack him. Before the Meng-gyee could be reached, however, we had to attack two of his principal chiefs, Nga- thein, and Moung-tha-bon, who had taken up strong positions between him and Bassein. The first position was situated on the bank of a creek, strongly entrenched, and the stream staked across with rows of stakes. We carried these works with the bayonet, under the fire of the boat's guns. On the following morning we marched inland against the other chief, and after marching eleven miles, came upon the enemy, drawn up in the jungle, and across the road to oppose our passage. Our advanced guard, consisting of about 600 Karens, were at first driven back, but were soon rallied, and the flanking parties being reinforced, the enemy were driven through the jungle into an open plain, where they attempted to make a stand under their sky DEFEAT OF THE BURMESE TROOPS. 137 chief, Moung-tha-bon,* who boldly advanced to the front of his men, cheering them on; a fortunate shot from my rifle, however, disabled him, when the whole of his force broke and fled. The other chief, Nga- thein, defeated the day before, and who had fallen back on this force, escaped with great difficulty, throwing off his gilt hat and gold-embroidered robes of office in his flight. After a few days' halt, we proceeded against the force under the Meng-gyee, encamped some miles up the Bassein river, in the vicinity of the town of Lemena. Arriving at this place, we found that he had broken up his encampment, and was marching towards the Burmese frontier, but would halt that night only a few miles from us. The force I had with me consisted of 1,500 natives of the country, together with eighty "blue jackets," and four guns. I determined to halt where we then were, and to make a night march round his right flank with the whole of my force, and get in his front by daylight, if possible. Everything succeeded as I wished. We arrived in front of his encampment about half an hour before daylight, and drew up our forces across the road he had to march, masking the guns in some low jungle. A little after daylight, the enemy's camp began to Moung-tha-bon, who had been the Myo-thoo-gyee of the important town ship of Pantanaw, died the day after the receipt of this wound. 138 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT break up, and their advanced guard, consisting of 800 Ava soldiers, marched down upon us, followed close by the main body, composed of about 2,500 fighting men under the Meng-gyee in person. person. On perceiving us they advanced boldly, opening a smart fire. When within 150 yards, our guns opened upon them with grape, which tore through their masses, throwing them into complete dis- order, and they broke and fled in all directions. Forty-eight bodies were found in front of our guns, and a great number were killed in the pursuit. Two of the Meng-gyee's sons were captured, and Meng-gyee Moung-ngo himself, being severely wounded, took refuge in a neighbouring village, where he died two days afterwards. We captured on this occasion nine guns, upwards of 3,000 stand of arms, and a quantity of ammunition and other stores. I shortly afterwards co-operated with the force under Sir John Cheape against the powerful bandit chief, Myat-htoon, and was present at the taking of his stronghold of Kywn-ka-dzeng. The position was a very strong one, and offered a long and stub- born resistance. The loss in killed and wounded, during the several attacks that were made upon it, were greater even than those experienced during the three days' attack and storming of Rangoon. In the last, and successful attack, the storming parties CAPTURE OF KYWN-KA-DZENG. 139 formed from the 18th Royal Irish, and 80th Foot, were led, the former by Lieutenant Taylor, and the latter by Ensign Garnet Wolseley.* Both were severely wounded. Lieutenant Taylor died of his wounds, but Ensign Garnet Wolseley lived to dis- tinguish himself still further, and become an honour and an ornament to the British army. In 1854 the dacoits were beginning to be over- awed, although many bands were still at large. At this juncture a rebellion broke out in Bassein, which for a while assumed a formidable character. Two mysterious persons suddenly appeared, accompanied by a Buddhist priest. They displayed royal warrants to the people, appointing one of them to be Governor of Pegu, and the other to be Com- mander-in-Chief. "( دو The storm must have been brewing some months before anything was heard of it. At last I obtained full information regarding it from one of my retainers, who had pretended to join it. But by this time the rebels were in considerable force. Fortunately, I was enabled to take the field then with a little army of British soldiers and sepoys, and a large levy of Burmese. By rapid marches we came up with the rebels before they had time to erect stockades, and killed or captured most of the ringleaders. The dangerous character of this rebel- * The present Sir Garnet J. Wolseley, K. C.B., G. C.M.G. 140 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT lion induced the Governor of India to invest me with extraordinary powers; and I was thus enabled to organize a military police upon a novel basis, which proved of vast utility in reducing the disturbed district to order and tranquillity. The idea struck me of absorbing a portion of the bands of dacoits, and inducing them to act against the others, by forming them into a military police corps. The one peculiar feature of their organiza- tion was that I refrained from enlisting the peace- fully disposed inhabitants. I admitted no man into the corps unless it was shown that he had been a bad and dangerous character. In dealing with such scoundrels the strictest discipline was of course necessary. Fortunately, I had been invested with great and responsible powers, extending to death, within the limits of my district; as otherwise it would have been utterly impossible to have formed a corps out of such materials. At the outset I experienced the most serious difficulties. They were brave enough in all con- science. They required no European officers to lead them into action. But for a long time I could never trust them unless I commanded them in per- son, or placed them under an European subordinate. Nothing would repress their predatory instincts. It was only after making some severe examples, that they could be prevented from plundering the THE BASSEIN POLICE CORPS. 141 inoffensive inhabitants of the country, whenever they had an opportunity of doing so.* But whilst I found difficulties in dealing with my military police, I had still greater trouble in check- ing Burmese civil officials. It has been explained that some of these men in Bassein had been taken from the original inhabitants of the country, and were well disposed towards the English. A few had been allowed to retain their posts under British administration. But Burmese ideas of oppression and plunder are so radically opposed to those of Europeans, that it was many years before they could be trusted with anything like independent authority. - * The character and formation of this corps may be further gathered from the following extract from a dispatch which I penned about this time. ""I commenced raising the corps in June last. The service is popular. A large number of candidates appeared for enlistment, and the corps could have been completed that month, but I rejected, from policy, men with settled employ- ment, being anxious to absorb those that had been in employ, or were pro- fessional dacoits and robbers under the Burmese rule, the majority of whom would never settle down, at any rate, for some considerable period, to any honest means of livelihood, but still continue the practice of extortion and robbery for subsistence. About three-fourths of the men now enlisted are of this stamp, and the commissioned and non-commissioned officers already appointed, men of influence, who brought in large bands of their followers with them for enlistment. One of these, for instance, was one of the most active chiefs under Myat-htoon, and he has brought in with him some eighty picked men, who were with Myat-htoon up to the final defeat and dispersion of his force at Kywn-ka-dzeng. This absorption will be a very great relief to the country, and these 'Ishmaelites of Society' will gradually fall under control, and be turned to a good account, if properly handled at the commencement. But their management for some time to come will be a source of anxiety, and demand the whole of my leisure time in drilling and disciplining them. Such material requires a peculiar course of discipline, and I would, with due deference, recommend that I be appointed their commandant, and they be taught to look to me alone for their rewards and punishment.” 142 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. There was one man especially with whom I was utterly disappointed. He possessed considerable influence, and had rendered me great help in the settlement of the district. I had seen a great deal of him, and I certainly entertained the hope that he knew enough of our procedure to be trusted to follow it. Accordingly, I raised him to the rank of Myo-ok, and placed him in charge of a township. How he fulfilled the duties of his position may be gathered from the following story :- One moonlight night, whilst smoking an after- dinner cigar in my garden at Bassein, a human shadow suddenly crossed me, and a Burmese woman fell at my feet. She then made the following state- ment. About a year previously she was proceeding with her husband in a couple of boats up the river. At night they had anchored off the very village where my protégé the Myo-ok was residing. In the middle of the night, when they were all asleep, the Myo-ok came down with a party of armed fol- lowers, seized all on board, bound them with ropes, and carried them off to his house. All the men, nine in number, were put to death, including the woman's husband. She herself escaped, because an adopted son of the Myo-ok, who had formerly been her lover, recognised her face and wanted to make her his wife. They were married in Burmese fashion, without much ceremony, but both were MURDER BY A MYO-OK. 143 bound to secrecy by the most solemn oaths. For one whole year she had been kept at the village. She had then been allowed to accompany her husband to Bassein on the present excursion, and whilst he had gone into the town to see some friends, she had hastened to tell me of the crime. She said that she could not sleep at nights. The ghost of her first husband was constantly appear- ing, and urging her to tell me the story of the murder. I at once despatched a party of police to arrest the Myo-ok and all his followers. The result con- firmed the truth of the woman's story. Part of the property of the murdered man was found in the possession of the Myo-ok; and the murderers, seeing that all was discovered, sought to obtain mercy by confessing their crime. Eleven were put on their trial; five were sentenced to death, and six to transportation for life. Strange to say, one of the sons of the Myo-ok was an officer in my military police corps, and by an oversight, had been told off to command the detachment that was present at the execution of his father. I was exceedingly annoyed at the discovery, but was assured that the man had shown no emotion whatever. He had looked on the execution of his father with the same apathy as he would have looked on a scene in a native play. Burmese-like, he regarded the execu- 144 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. tion of his father as a decree of fate in which he had no part or concern. I will now relate a few anecdotes of elephant shooting, coupled with a brief description of the animal. The Bassein district is famous for its big game, especially for its superior breed of elephants,* * The etymology of the word "elephant" has long been a vexed question. Sir Emerson Tennent (to whom I am indebted for many of my remarks regarding the elephant), in his valuable "History of Ceylon," quoting from M. Ad. Pictet, and other authorities, [says: "The word 'elephant'—a term which, whilst it has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcely to be traced in any language of Asia. The Greek eλépas, to which we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean the animal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to its tusks, and signified ivory. Bochart has sought for it a Semitic origin, and seizing on the Arabic fil, and prefixing the article al, suggests alfil, akin to èλep; but rejecting this, Bochart himself resorts to the Hebrew eleph, an "ox "-and this conjecture derives a certain degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans, when they obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army of Pyrrhus, in Lucania, called it the Luca bos. But the avros is still unaccounted for; and Pott has sought to remove the difficulty by introducing the Arabic hindi, Indian, thus making eleph-hindi, "bos Indicus." The conversion of hindi into avros is an obstacle, but here the example of "tamarind " comes to aid; tamar hindi, the "Indian date," which in medieval Greek forms TauáрevтI. A theory of Benary, that ¿λépas might be compounded of the Arabic al and ibha, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, is exposed to still greater etymological exception. Pictet's solution is, that in the Sanskrit epics “the King of Elephants," who has the distinction of carrying the god Indra, is called airavata or airavana, a modifi- cation of airavanta, "son of the ocean," which again comes from iravat, abounding in water." Nous aurions donc ainsi, comme corrélatif du grec ¿λepavto, une ancienne forme. Airâvanta ou âilavânta, affaiblie plus tard en âirâvata ou âirâvana . . . . On connaît la prédilection de l'éléphant pour le voisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l'eau, dont l'abondance est nécessaire à son bien-être. This Sanskrit name, Pictet supposes, may have been carried to the West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyors of ivory from India ; and from the Greek, the Latins derived elephas, which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and France. But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the Moors their Arabic name for ivory, marfil, and the Portuguese marfin; and that the Scandinavians, probably from their early expeditions to the Mediterranean, adopted fill as their name for the elephant itself, and fil-bein for ivory; in Danish, fils-ben. The Spaniards of South ELEPHANT HELD IN VENERATION. which are said, in common with those of other parts of Burma, to be larger and stronger than in any other portion of Asia. In the vast primæval forests of Burma, and indeed in all the uninhabited parts of the country, where shade and water abound, they are very numerous. I have often been in the midst of large herds. A fine male "tusker" is always fair game, and I have shot several very large ones; but it has always been my rule to abstain from shooting females, as their tusks* are very small, and their carcase is worthless. On one occasion, how- ever, an old female charged me so persistently that I was forced to shoot her. The cause of her ferocity was, no doubt, her having a young one by her side at the time, and which I brought home with me alive. It was fed with cow's milk, and strange to say, with women's milk also. 145 The elephant is always held in great veneration by Buddhists. The last incarnation of Gautama, before he became Buddha, was that of a white elephant; and whilst he was alone in the desert, an elephant also is said to have ministered to all his wants. Women of all races are generally more superstitious than men, and those of Burma regard young elephants with peculiar tenderness. * America call the palm which produces the vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa) Palma de marfil, and the nut itself marfil vegetal." The females have only small straight tusks, rarely weighing more than nine pounds. VOL. I. L 146 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Accordingly women used to come to my infant elephant and permit it to suck* their breasts. They regarded this as an act of piety, or rather as a Koung-hmo," or work of merit, for which they would be rewarded in another state of existence. There are many curious and interesting matters connected with the elephant, tr 1 "The huge earth-shaking beast, The beast who hath between his eyes The serpent for a hand—” which have attracted observers in ancient as well as in modern times. The period of gestation is about twenty-two months. As a rule they do not breed in captivity, but I have known exceptions. For instance female decoy elephants are sometimes let loose in the jungle for the purpose of enticing male elephants into the toils of the huntsman. On such occasions they have sometimes fallen victims to circumstances, and a female has brought forth an infant elephant about the end of the period men- tioned. The brain of the elephant is remarkably small in comparison with the bulk of the body. In man the brain † is about to of the size of the body; in the elephant the brain is about 5. 1 1 30 3.5 00 * The young elephant sucks with its mouth, and not with its trunk. †The nature or sagacity of neither man nor animal can, however, be deter- mined by the size of the brain. In the relative weight of the brain and body, man does not take the highest place, for although the weight of the brain of the whale is only 300, that of the elephant, of the dog, ʊ, man is sur- 2501 ܐ AGE OF THE ELEPHANT. 147 They have no canine teeth. These are repre- sented by two incisors-the well-known tusks- which are not shed, as is often supposed, except as milk teeth, when the animal is about a year old. The second growth is permanent, and the capsule being free, they continue to grow throughout the animal's life. More than one molar and occasion- ally, perhaps, a portion of another, ever appear on each side of each jaw of an elephant at the same time. They are not deciduous, but each one as it is worn away by mastication, is pushed forward by its posterior one which takes its place. This singular system of decay and production occurs six times during the life of the animal. From the movement of these teeth, and the number of transverse plates (denticuli) of which it is composed, it is now confidently asserted that the norınal age of the elephant can be ascertained, and which is fixed at about one hundred and twenty years. Cuvier allots two hundred years as its age; older writers two to three hundred; and Fleurens,* again, according to his ingenious theory of assuming the life of all animals to be five times the period taken to perfect their full development, and sup- 12 passed by the song-birds, among which the weight of the brain reaches; by the titmouse and the sparrow, in which it reaches respectively and, and by the American apes, in which it amounts to from to of the weight of the body."-Th. Bischoff, Naturwissenschaftlichen Vorträgen Münchener Gelehrten, p. 139, Munich, 1858. 28 * Fleurens.- De la Longévité Humaine. : L 2 148 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ANRAIGA 121 posing the elephant to attain its full growth at thirty years, determines its full age to be one hundred and fifty years. * The growth of animals, he believes, to cease as soon as the final consolida- tion of the bones takes place with their epiphyses.† Elephants are occasionally troubled by tooth- ache. When at Maulmain, I saw an elephant, a fine tusker, in the timber yard of Messrs. Currie & Co., which had just wrenched out one of its tusks in its agony from tooth-ache. Mr. Currie assured me that the elephant had been most uneasy for some time past, and would not allow this tusk to be touched. On examining the broken tusk, the internal perforation of a parasite was distinctly visible, and on the animal's death, which occurred a few days afterwards, a large ulcer was discovered at its root. It is most curious to observe the wonderful sagacity of the elephants at work in these yards, and their aptitude in comprehending what is required * The ancients had a very vague idea of the age of animals. Hesiod gravely tells us that the elephant lives a thousand years, the crow ten times as long as a man, the stag four times as long as the crow, the raven three times as long as the stag, and the phoenix nine times as long as the raven. As for the phoenix, it was supposed to have fifty orifices in its bill, which are continued to its tail, and that after living one thousand years, it builds itself a funeral pile, sings a melodious air of different harmonies through its fifty organ pipes, flaps its wings with a velocity which sets fire to the wood, and consumes itself.". "Bibliotheca Græca," vol. i., Göttling.-Richardson. +"Epiphyses are appendices of the long bones, for the purpose of articula- tion, formed from a distinct centre of ossification, and in the young subject connected with the larger bones by an intervening cartilage, which in the adult is obliterated."-Parr. SAGACITY OF THE ELEPHANT. 149 of them. They drag the timber to the appointed place, and with their head, tusks, trunk, and feet, stack it in any form desired. Old ones, accustomed to the work, are most particular about the timber being correctly laid, and push the logs with their head until it fits exactly in its place. An officer, in an official report, I remember, in describing their sagacity, stated his belief that they actually squinted along the logs to see, in military parlance, if they were "properly dressed!" It was long a popular delusion that the elephant had no joints, and being unable to lie down slept against a tree. Sir Thomas Browne in his "Pseudo- doxia Epidemica," speaking of this fallacy, says that it "is not the daughter of latter times, but an old and grey-headed errour, even in the days of Aristotle."*"So great was the authority of Aristotle, that Ælian, who wrote two centuries later, and borrowed many of his statements from the works of his predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after describing the exploits of the trained ele- phants+ exhibited at Rome, adds the expression of * "Natural History of Ceylon," by Sir Emerson Tennant. + The elephants spoken of here, as being exhibited in the Roman arena, must have been of the African species (E. Africanus), which are never now tamed or trained in their native country. There can be no doubt, however, that the Carthaginians availed themselves of the services of this species, in the same manner as the natives of India have from time immemorial done those of the Asiatic species; but they must have been trained by them, or by Arabs, never by negroes. Sir Samuel Baker notes as a curious fact that a negro has never been known to tame an elephant, or any wild animal; that, though he 150 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. his surprise, that an animal without joints (avap@pov) should yet be able to dance." So late as the commencement of the seventeenth century, Shakspeare puts in the mouth of Ulysses, in his play of Troilus and Cressida, 66 "The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy ; His legs are for necessity, not flexure." And, as stated by Professor Flower, in a late lecture on the elephant delivered at the Zoological Gardens, people even in the present day believe that this animal's joints move in the contrary way from those of other quadrupeds. The explanation of this being in the fact, that the elbow and knee of the elephant are much nearer the ground than those of a horse or cow, and are thus confused by a casual observer, with the so-called knee (the true wrist) and hock (the true ankle) of the latter animals." The great had often offered rewards for a young elephant, he never succeeded in getting one alive; and that a person may travel all over Africa and never see a wild animal trained and petted. The African animal differs from the Asiatic one in having a shorter and more rounded head with the front convex instead of concave. Its ears are much larger, the colour of the skin darker, and the number of nails on the hind feet are three instead of four. The species also differ in the curvature of the spine, which is concave in the former and convex in the latter, and in the character of their teeth. Both species attain about the same height and weight. The large elephant in the Zoological Gardens is a fine specimen of the African species. It is, I believe, about ten feet high. Almost all the elephants to be seen now in menageries and shows in England are African elephants, which was not the case some years ago; the Indian species being formerly chiefly imported. Persons who have had charge of both species, say that the African animal is more cunning, but not so docile as the Indian. * THE DRAWINGS OF ELEPHANTS. 151 peculiarity in an elephant's lying down is, that he thrusts his hind legs behind him, like a horse when he kneels, and then rolls over on his side, and does not throw them under his body in the same manner as a horse or other quadruped. * The drawings seen of elephants, as a general rule, are made without adequate knowledge of the osseous framework and its muscular clothing, are very false, and but a sorry resemblance of this fine. animal. The prevailing absurdity appears to be in giving the elephant hocks! The perpetrators of such drawings appear to have adopted the idea (and selected their model accordingly) of the elderly Scotch lady in "The Last of the Lairds," who exclaims while admiring a painting of a tiger hunt "Ech! Sirs! wha'd ha'e thought it?-that y'r eelephant, after a', shauld be naithing mair than a muckle pig wi' a langer snoot; "-a deprecatory comparison truly, of the animal on which Milton has deservedly bestowed the epithet of "half- reasoning." The posterior extremities of the elephant (due allowance being made for great difference in length and size) seem to approach more nearly to the inferior ones of the human skeleton than those of any other quadruped. The vertical position of the sacrum adds to this similitude, while the lateral * See Osteology of the Elephant, "India Sporting Review," No. 2 of 1844. I E 0000000. SKELETON OF ELEPHANT. 14 15 Bucat 16 17 OSTEOLOGY OF THE ELEPHANT. 153 power bestowed by the articulation of the thigh and knee joints, is visible externally-as a favourite position of the animal, while tethered and at rest is supporting the weight of his hinder quarters on one leg, while the other is thrown in a stand-at-ease manner across it, one foot resting carelessly on the other." The outline, drawn by a well-known sportsman and naturalist, of the skeleton of the elephant figured on the opposite page, together with the ac- companying description, is taken from the "India Sporting Review," No. 2, 1844, and well illustrates the internal structure of the elephant, so unlike that of all other quadrupeds. The head in this drawing, excepting the lower jaw, is drawn in section, show- ing the situation of the brain and its defences; also the process of dentition, in which one, the foremost, grinder is seen to be superannuated, and gradually disappearing; the next, the centre one, in present use, and the third descending to take the place of the last in due course. A. Cavity of the brain. B. Space occupied by bony cells, between C, the outer, and D, the inner tablets of the skull. E. Opening of the nostrils. F. Alveolus of the tusk. G. Old molar in a state of diminution and decay. H. Perfect molar. I. Embryo molar, progressing forwards and downwards. K. Inferior maxillary. 1. Cervical vertebræ, 7 in number. 2. The ribs-19 on each flank. 3. Bones of the pelvis. 4. The caudal vertebræ, 24 in number, 5. The sternum. 6. The first pair of ribs. 7. The scapula. 8. The humerus. 9. The ulna. 10. The radius. II. The carpus, comprising 7 bones. 12. The metacarpus, and anterior digital phalanges, 5 in each foot. 13. The femur. 14. The tibia. 15. The fibula. 16. The tarsus. 17. The metatarsus and posterior digital phalanges, 4 in each foot. 18. The patella. 154 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The largest elephant I ever shot was in the Bassein district. The giant in question led a solitary life, apart from any herd. Solitary ele- phants, I may preface, are invariably males, who it is supposed were originally driven from their herd by stronger competitors for female society ; or from being naturally troublesome and vicious ; and become morose, and savage from solitude. It is a curious circumstance that when once a male elephant is thus ostracised, it never rejoins its own herd or family, and no other strange herd will receive it. The lord of a herd, however, does not object to receive a strange female into his seraglio. If a young male is driven out of his herd for pre- cociousness or other failings, he either fights the leader of another herd or becomes a "rogue" or outcast. The largest tusker is generally leader of the herd; but it not unfrequently happens that a large, strong minded, and cunning female becomes So. The devotion of the herd to their leaders is very remarkable, and their leaders are implicitly followed and obeyed. But to return to my elephant; this animal had killed a great many people in his time. It was said that his memory, as a vicious elephant, that had lived alone, had been preserved from father to son, for a period of more than two hundred years. During a great part of that time he had A “ROGUE" ELEPHANT. 155 * been a terror to the people far and wide. Native huntsmen came from different parts of the country, and assailed the huge beast from time to time, but their bullets appeared to have no effect upon him. Accordingly, the story was spread abroad that the elephant was under the protection of the nats or wood sprites. These nats have been likened to fairies; but religious ideas are associated with nats, which are wanting in fairies. In reality, the nats were the gods of the Burmese before its mythology was broken up by Buddhism; and under that name their memory and worship are still lingering in the land. He The last shikarry† who attacked it, had loaded his gun with a very heavy charge of English gun- powder, and a magic silver bullet, which had been cast by a tsha-tha-má, or "medicine man,"-half necromancer and half doctor-under peculiar in- cantations, imagined to possess occult power suffi- cient to break the spell. The gun burst in the discharge, and it has, ever since, been a moot point, whether the magic power possessed by the bullet, or the influence of the nats, had caused it -the overcharge of powder never having been taken into consideration at all. The reputation of such an elephant was sufficient An account of the folk-lore connected with nats will be given hereafter. Native huntsman. - 156 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT to excite the ambition of any sportsman; and I de- termined to obtain for myself the glory of subduing an elephant of such renown. No such guns as mine had ever before been seen in Bassein. Especially I had a heavy single six-ounced rifle,* which carried a charge of nine drachms of powder; and with this weapon I determined to have a bout with the monarch of the jungle. I had the elephant tracked very soon after my arrival in Bassein. He had taken He had taken up his quarters in a dense forest of timber. When I first caught sight of him, he was rubbing himself against the bole of a gigantic tree, and fanning himself with some branches which he held in his trunk. I crept up within fifteen paces, and fired at his head. He fell on his knees; I thought he was dead. I had struck him, but my ball had missed the brain, and he was only stunned. The huge beast almost immediately picked himself up, and came straight at me. Fortunately I had, in the meanwhile, got a second rifle in my hands; a double rifle carrying three-ounce balls. I could not get a fair opportunity of again firing at him with any * This gun, especially after it had been fired a few times, used to kick frightfully, and I have frequently felt greater apprehension of its recoil, than of the animal which might be charging me. Coming home in a boat from shoot- ing on one occasion, a friend asked me to let him fire it off at an empty bottle, which had been dropped over the stern; and he, taking a snap shot at the bottle without holding the gun tightly to his shoulder, it knocked him head- over-heels into the boat. He declared he would never touch any one of my guns again! Vulcanite pads to lessen the recoil of guns had then not been invented. C. Kegan Paul & Co London. THE ELEPHANT'S CHARGE. CHARGED BY THE "ROGUE." certainty, and for some time I dodged the animal from tree to tree. The jungle was composed of large forest trees, and tolerably free from brushwood. Had not the latter been the case, there would have been some difficulty in avoiding him; as the under- wood, while obstructing my movements, would have offered no obstacle to him. At last I got tired. I saw that the question between us must be decided very soon. Accordingly I paused at the foot of a large tree, and awaited the charge. When the ele- phant was within twelve paces, I fired both barrels at the small shield-shaped depression in the skull at the root of the trunk. He fell, or rather sank down dead at my feet; both balls had entered the brain. This elephant was a monster in size. measurement was as follows: His Feet. II From bottom of fore foot to top of shoulder, ) perpendicular height. Height of head. From the crown of head along the spine to root) of tail From bottom of foot to centre of backbone between the shoulders Circumference of fore foot * Greatest girth Length of tusks I2 I I 5 15 7 Inches. 2 157 5 5 12 3 6 4 4 * I have measured the fore feet of several elephants, both alive and dead, and have invariably found that twice the circumference of the fore foot is very close upon their perpendicular height. This measurement is a little under the mark, owing, no doubt, to the animal being in a recumbent position. Had it been alive, and standing on its feet, their girth would, doubtless, have been enlarged, somewhat, by its weight. Circum. 1 ft. 6 in. 7 ft. 4 in. 3 ft. 4 in. 6 ft. 9 in. SKULL OF THE ELEPHANT. 3 ft. 21 in *********** MEASUREMENT OF THE “ROGUE.“ Circumference of tusks Breadth between points of tusks Length of head Breadth of skull at broadest point *LOH 4414 41 VALAMINGOF • RALPH AND THE BONES. • 159 Feet. Inches. I 61 6 3 3 Ha Ha H→ 9/1 43 21 |_ Mar 21 Mart His tusks are a large and even pair; and the skull and leg bones are said to be larger and more perfect specimens than any that are to be found in * The engraving of the skull of the elephant is taken from a photograph, and from the peculiar position in which it had to be taken, does not do it justice. The perspective of it looks, too, very queer. K 160 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the museums of Europe. I had them all preserved, and they are still in my possession. On the surface of the skull are several old bullet-holes nearly ossi- fied up; the bony matter having been poured out on the sides of the cavities in a stalactitic form. The two most vulnerable parts* of an elephant to aim at is the depression over the root of the trunk, about six inches above the eyes. The bone of the skull is here honeycombed and thin, and the bullet passing through the muscles encasing the roots of the trunk penetrates the brain and causes instan- taneous death. The other is at the temples between the ear and the eye, and is perhaps even the most certain and deadly shot of the two. The former is called the forehead and the latter the side shot; and both shots should be delivered within a distance of twenty paces. The bullets require to be hardened with zinc, tin, or quicksilver; for if made of pure lead they are apt to flatten, and not penetrate the skull. Shortly afterwards I had a narrow escape from another elephant. His reputation was quite as bad as that of the monster above mentioned, and he must also have fully equalled him in size. Lord Dalhousie had been paying a visit at Bassein, and when he took his departure I accompanied him to the mouth of the Bassein river. After taking leave, I anchored for the night in one of the large creeks. * See letters E and A of the skeleton of the elephant. THE DEMON ELEPHANT. 161 About midnight I was aroused by cries from the village. I imagined that one of the many maraud- ing bands had attacked the village. I landed at once, and marched at the head of my men towards the spot. Presently a woman rushed by, shouting "Demon Elephant! Demon Elephant!" On en- quiry it appeared that a solitary elephant, well known as the "Mie-dho" or "broken-tailed," had entered the village, and by means of his head and tusks, had managed to break down the strong planking of teak timber which formed the outer wall of a Buddhist monastery. This proceeding had sufficed to alarm the whole village. I ordered all who knew anything of the elephant's haunts to be in readiness next morning, as I was resolved, if possible, to follow him up and carry off the tusks which had done so much damage. There was no difficulty in tracing the foot-prints of the "broken-tailed." We followed them through- out the day, and towards evening we found him lying on his side in some low bush-jungle. I crept up to him so closely that I could have touched him with my out-stretched rifle; but he kept on moving his head, so that I could not fire with any certainty. His tusks appeared enormous. I was longing for the moment when I could dig them out of his skull ; when he suddenly gave a shrill trumpet,* leapt up, M S * A shrill cry of rage-so called-caused by the elephant blowing through its proboscis, or trunk, and which generally precedes the charge. We have VOL. I. 162 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and came down upon me, just as I had got on my own feet. His head was slanting upwards, with his trunk rolled up. I fired my first barrel, but having to jump on one side to avoid his charge, I was unable to fire the second. He rushed straight away. He had smelt * me, but had not seen me; and this circumstance, together with the shock of the bullet, luckily prevented him from judging of the distance between us. He left a track of blood behind him, which we followed till nightfall, but did not succeed in getting another glimpse of the elephant. Major Leveson (the Old Shekarry)—and my expe- rience corresponds with his describes the elephant as uttering four distinct sounds, each of which is indicative of a certain meaning. The first is a shrill whistling noise produced by blowing through the trunk, which denotes satisfaction. The second is the note of alarm, or surprise, a sound made by the mouth, which may be thus imitated-"pr-rut, pr-rut." The third is the trumpeting noise they make when angry, which, when they are very much enraged, and when charging an assailant, changes into a hoarse roar or terrific scream. The fourth sound betokens borrowed the term from ancient writers, who describe the elephant's trunk as shaped similar to a trumpet, and the roar like its "shrill bray." Our term "trunk " is, I believe, a corruption of the French word trompe. * The senses of smell and hearing in the elephant are very acute as compared with its sight, and it depends much more on the two former, rather than the latter, to warn it of danger. *. J SOUNDS UTTERED BY THE ELEPHANT. 163 dissatisfaction, or distress, frequently repeated when separated from the herd, tired, hungry, or over- loaded, which may be thus imitated-" urmph, urmph." Next morning I was called away by some dis- turbances which had broken out in another part of the country; no uncommon thing in those days. I left some men to follow up the track of the elephant. Subsequently they reported that they had found him, but in a very exhausted state. They were afraid to venture near him. From their account it was evident that my ball had gone through several folds of his trunk, and passed out at the top of his head, without striking any vital part. Some time. afterwards I came on his track on two several occasions, but I could not succeed in coming up to him. Besides these anecdotes of sport, I should like to have explained some of the details of civil work at Bassein, but I fear they would prove of little interest for general readers. I had to distribute the whole of the district into divisions and circles, and select Burmese officials to take charge; but it was a long time before I could altogether suppress the gross malpractices, of which I have already given an example. Salt manufactures required a considerable amount of attention for revenue purposes. Whilst I was in Bassein I had to plan out the new town of = M 2 164 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Dalhousie, and lay down rules for the grant of town and suburban allotments. I had also to make revenue settlements, and submit revenue returns for the whole district. Official life in Bassein in- volved something more than shooting elephants and suppressing bands of rebels and robbers. 6 My last year at Bassein was characterised by a rebellion amongst the Karens, which I was enabled to suppress with the aid of my military police corps. About this time the Treasury and Court-house caught fire, and the conflagration became pretty general. Fortunately we were enabled to save the gaol and barracks, but my own house was burnt down and nearly all my books and papers were destroyed. On this occasion I lost the private journal which I had kept ever since my first landing in India. In 1857 † I was promoted to the post of Commis- sioner of the Tenasserim and Martaban provinces, which formed the northern division of British Burma. Martaban, like Bassein, was in reality a part of the new territory of Pegu, which was acquired at the * The Karen rebellion continued to disturb other parts of the country for some time afterwards. Its origin, with some account of the Karens generally, will be told presently. ✦ Before leaving Bassein, I had the satisfaction of receiving the following compliment from the Commissioner and Governor-General's agent in Pegu :— "You will leave the district of Bassein profoundly quiet, a district which you reduced to order in a style which earned for you the marked approbation of the Government of India, and the distinction of an honorary reward for distinguished service from Her Majesty." 4 THE INDIAN SEPOY MUTINY. 165 end of the second Burmese war. Tenasserim, on the other hand, had been acquired after the first Burmese war of 1824-25, and consequently had been for more than thirty years under British administration. It was during this year that the great Indian peninsula was convulsed by the Sepoy mutiny. It is a remarkable fact that the spirit of military revolt found no echo in British Burma. The whole pro- vince was perfectly tranquil. The only shadow of disturbance was caused by the Karen* rising. It had been suppressed in Bassein, but was assuming a threatening character in Martaban and the interior. The Burmese people, properly so called, took no part in it. It was a religious movement amongst the Karens of the hills; and in order to under- stand it aright, it may be as well to furnish a few particulars respecting the religious ideas of these primitive tribes. The Karens are a different people from the Burmese. According to Dr. Mason, whom I shall have occasion to notice presently, they probably emigrated from China about the sixth century of the Christian era. They seem to have moved from China, by way of Tibet, into Burmese territory. Like *Karen is a Burmese word, and said to be derived from Areng, root, original, and Ka, a primitive particle: thus signifying aboriginal. They are certainly not the aborigines of Burma, however, as they immigrated into the country subsequent to the Burmese. 166 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. hill tribes in general, they have nothing that can be called history. Many became more or less Buddhists, but the greater number professed a religion of their own, which seemed to be a relic of primeval revela- tion. They have traditions of the fall of man, the deluge, the dispersion of nations, and the differences of language; but all these are mixed up with ideas which have no place in Holy Writ, and seem to have sprung up from independent sources. For these traditions the world is indebted to Dr. Mason, the well-known American missionary. Dr. and Mrs. Mason spent very many years amongst the Karens. They laboured hard to civilise the people, to educate them, and to convert them to Christianity. Their efforts have been attended with considerable success. Dr. Mason has written an exhaustive work on Burma.* Amongst other in- teresting particulars, he gives the following Karen tradition of the fall of man. It professes to be a literal translation of some rude verses which have been preserved by these people :- C "Anciently, God commanded, but Satan appeared bringing destruction. Formerly, God commanded, but Satan appeared deceiving unto death. The woman Eu and the man Tha-nai pleased not the eye of the dragon. * "Burma, its People and Natural Productions." By Dr. F. Mason. Ran- goon, 1860. KAREN TRADITIONS. 167 The dragon looked on them-the dragon beguiled the woman and Tha-nai. How is this said to have happened? The great dragon succeeded in deceiving-deceiving unto death. How do they say it was done? A yellow fruit took the great dragon, and gave to the children of God; A white fruit took the great dragon, and gave to the daughter and son of God. They transgressed the commands of God, and God turned his face from them. They kept not all the words of God-were deceived, deceived unto sickness. They kept not all the law of God—were deceived, deceived unto death."* The tradition of the deluge is by no means so striking. Similar traditions are to be found amongst many ancient nations, and notably amongst the Hindus. The legend of the origin of the differences in languages, and the dispersion of nations is more *The Karens identify the great dragon here mentioned with the serpent known as the python or boa constrictor. According to a Karen legend, all the poisonous serpents in the world derive their virulence from the python. In the present day the python is innocuous, but originally it was the only one that was venomous. There is a strange myth that in primeval times the python was perfectly white; but having seduced a man's wife, Eu (Eve), he made her white in his den, and caused her to weave the figures on his skin, which are the characteristics of the modern python. If the ancient python bit the earth, such was the virulence of the poison that it killed anyone who passed over the bitten part. The python had been assured of this result, but had never seen it. One day he went to a crow, who told him that the poison caused no hurt, but promoted the happiness of the animal creation. The python was so angry at this information, that he ascended a tree and spit out all his venom, and other creeping things came and swallowed it. The result was that venom left the python, and was henceforth the property of a variety of poisonous reptiles. This myth is an illustration of the way in which eastern imaginations associate fabulous details with primitive legends. As regards the modern python, I shall have some remarks to offer hereafter. 168 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. extraordinary. It bears a remarkable resemblance to the Bible narrative, excepting that it involves no reference to the building of the tower of Babel, and is apparently a transposition or reversion of the sacred story. In the Bible narrative the confusion of tongues comes first, and leads to the dispersion of the nations. According to the Karens, the dis- persion of the nations comes first. It is not brought about by the confusion of tongues, but by the decay of loving-kindness amongst mankind in general. Moreover, it was the dispersion of the nations led to the differences of language, and not the confusion of language which led to the dispersion of the nations. Dr. Mason says that these traditions must have come from a written source, and that there is no other source than the Old Testament. He remarks that there have been Jews in China from time im- memorial, and that ancient copies of the Pentateuch, written on sheep-skins, have been found in their possession. He suggests that the Karens may have obtained their traditions from Chinese Jews prior to their emigration from China in the sixth century, already alluded to. I believe other missionaries have hazarded the idea that the White Karens may be descended from the Ten Tribes. I leave the hypothesis of Dr. Mason for the consideration of Biblical critics. I hesitate to form an opinion until something further is known re- KARENS NO RESEMBLANCE TO JEWS. 169 specting all the primitive traditions of other ancient nations. The Karens certainly have not the slightest resemblance to Jews.* They have no Jewish institutions. The traditions of the fall, the deluge, the dispersion of nations, and the origin of the differences of language, are undoubtedly sug- gestive; but they may be relics of some primeval and universal revelation, granted to all nations, which is supposed by many to have preceded the later and special revelation, which was made to the Jews only, as the chosen people of God. Dr. Mason adds that the Karens have a prophetic kind of legend to the effect that at some future day "white foreigners" would appear amongst them, and teach them the true religion. The zealous missionary naturally interpreted this prediction as referring to the appearance of himself and other members of his mission amongst the Karens; and there is every reason to believe that the tradition has proved efficacious in promoting the spread of Christianity amongst them. Dr. Mason says, how- ever, that this prophecy is not confined to the Karens. He explains that when Gutslaff, a German missionary, reached Siam, there was a general panic, because predictions were to be found in the Pali * In my description of the Karen and Toung-thoo tribes in Chapter VII. it will be observed that I think there are good grounds for supposing them to be descendants of remnants of dispersed hordes of Huns. 170 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. books, that a time would come when Buddhism would be vanquished by a religion from the West. With reference to the same subject a curious legend * is related also of an Emperor of China (Ming-ty of the Hân dynasty, who reigned about the middle of the first century of the Christian era) who, pondering over a certain prophecy of Con- fucius, to the effect that a saint would appear in the far West, sent emissaries to seek him out. These on their way through India met Buddhist priests, from whom they procured, and brought back with them, images of Gautama and his sacred writings. From this extraordinary story it might be inferred that, but for an inscrutable accident, Christianity, rather than Buddhism, might have prevailed in China. The whole matter is a mystery. One of the most striking episodes in the Gospel narrative of the birth of our Lord, is the appearance of the wise men from the east, It is a startling fact that the Karen rebellion was in general accordance with religious ideas which are familiar to all Christians. The leader was a mysterious character, named Meng-Loung, who affected to be an incarnation of deity. He pro- claimed that he had appeared on earth to drive the English out of Burma, and establish a Karen dynasty in Pegu. Meng-Loung was a vulgar "The Chinese," by Davis. * MENG-LOUNG. 171 impostor, but many of the simple Karens placed implicit faith in his divine mission. They joined him in large numbers from the most remote villages. The rebellion was suppressed in the end, but not until it had given considerable trouble to the English authorities. An excitement prevailed for months afterwards amongst the Hill Karens. Meng-Loung was still at large, and every attempt to capture him proved abortive. At last it was known that he had made his escape out of British territory, and found a refuge in the remote region of Eastern Karennee. Throughout the thirty years that Tenasserim had been under British administration, the line of frontier had never been settled between Burma and Siam. From the time I took up the duties of commissioner, my attention was frequently drawn to the subject. At last I received instructions from the government of India to open up negotiations with commissioners appointed for the purpose by the King of Siam. It was necessary, in the first instance, to study the face of the country along the border. Next followed the negotiations with the Siamese commissioners, which extended over many weeks, and were often enlivened by sharp disputes and brisk discussions. The correspondence alone fills a respectable printed volume, and to this might 172 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. be added a number of semi-official letters which I received from the King of Siam and his prime minister. Years passed away before the line of frontier was fairly laid down in maps, and ratified by the two governments. At last every formality was brought to a close. Questions were set at rest which had been raised from time to time ever since the first Burmese war. Maulmain, the chief town and port of Tenasserim, is situated at the confluence of the Salween, Gyne, and Attaran rivers, about twenty-seven miles from the sea, and is built on the southern slopes of well- wooded hills crowned by numerous symmetrical gold tipped pagodas. The river here is a mile and a quarter broad, studded with bright green and thickly wooded islands, famed for their productive gardens, and rich rice-producing soil; and on the opposite shore is the ancient town and pagoda of Martaban. Approaching Maulmain from the sea, and looking up the Salween river, the eye is attracted by the bare perpendicular cliffs of Dza-kabin, standing out in bold relief 2,000 feet high, on the sharp outline of whose summit, where it cuts the clear blue sky, nature has carved features so curiously resembling a human face as to obtain for it the name of the "Duke of York's nose." This is one only, though perhaps the most conspicuous, of several gigantic limestone rocks, which rise from the plains in isolated grandeur near C. Kegan Paul &C London. SALWEEN HOUSE, MAUL MAIN. LIMESTONE CAVES. 173 Maulmain. They appear in detached masses, rising as it were perpendicularly out of the earth; and as each mass preserves a similar direction with the one preceding it, they bear at a distance the semblance of an extensive rugged chain, continually broken and interrupted by some great convulsion of nature. Their general structure is mural limestone of a grey colour, and fine compact texture, presenting little or no signs of stratification. Another characteristic of this limestone is that it is cavernous. Many of the caves are of considerable magnitude, and have, at some distant period, evi- dently been worn out by the "desolating power of the ocean." They are well worthy of a visit. To examine them properly, and see them to the best advantage, is with a number of torches and blue lights. About the centre of one of the finest of them, in a vast hall, with a roof groined like an old cathedral, and dimly lighted high overhead by a ray of light striking through a fissure in the rock, graceful stalactites, white and glittering as snow-clad icicles, are suspended; while stalagmites rear their hoary heads in fantastic grandeur from the floor. Many of these stalactites and stalagmites are of great size, and gradually becoming larger from the constant supply of water impregnated with cal- careous matter, percolating through the hill, and giving a new crust to those already formed. 174 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. These caves, too, are almost all lined with figures in wood and stone of Gautama and his disciples, the former represented in a state of abstraction, sitting in the usual manner, with the right hand pendant over the right knee, the left hand resting open on the lap, and the head often arrayed, as well as those of his disciples, with the "glory," or nimbus.* The most important item in the trade of Maul- main,† is teak timber, almost all of which comes from foreign territory. In former times, the merchants at Maulmain carried on large and lucrative transac- tions in this timber, with various hill chiefs beyond our borders. Some of these chiefs owe a quasi- allegiance to the King of Burma; others, a similar allegiance to Siam; and some consider themselves altogether independent. For a long time when timber was abundant, matters went on tolerably smoothly. Logs were purchased; the chiefs were Qua * "The nimbus that distinguishes the Greek and Romanist saints is of eastern origin. Buddha is said to have been attended by an appearance of glory, extending six cubits above his head; and his principal disciples are represented by the native painters as having a similar mark of eminence." Hardy's "Eastern Monachism." + Maulmam, called by Portuguese historians the Castle of Murmulau, is, according to Dr. Mason, a Talaing word, and derived from moot, eye, mwoa, one, lem, destroyed, that is, Moot-mwoa-lem (the city of), the one-eye-destroyed. The tradition is, that the city was founded by a king with three eyes, the third eye being in the forehead, but that by the machinations of a woman, the eye in the forehead was destroyed, and hence the city obtained the name of the 'one-eye-destroyed." The classic Pali name of Maulmain is Ramapura, the city of Rama, and there is a tradition that it was founded by a colony of Hindus. 66 TEAK TIMBER. 175 satisfied with the amounts they received; and splendid timber was cut down in the forests, and floated down to Maulmain. Of late years, however, when timber has become scarcer, and has to be dragged long distances from the forests in the interior, to the different water- courses, quarrels have arisen between the chiefs for its ownership, caravans have been attacked and plundered; and different chiefs making demands for separate payments for the same logs, have given rise to great litigation, and very considerably inter- rupted the trade. This state of affairs has been attempted to be remedied, by the despatch of several friendly missions to these chiefs; but with- out any great perceptible effect. The falling off in its chief staple of commerce, has sadly interfered with the prosperity of Maul- main: a town once regarded as the most flourishing one in all the British possessions in Burma. It is still the head-quarters of a Commissioner of Division; but Rangoon, with all its superior advantages, has now completely overshadowed it. A short description of bringing the timber to the Maulmain market may be interesting. Teak wood in its green state will not float, and the tree is killed and seasoned previous to felling, by what is techni- cally called ringing. The process is effected by cutting a ring of bark from the bole near the ground, 176 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. about one foot in breadth. The following year it is felled and stamped, and then dragged by elephants to the banks of the Salween river, or some of its numerous tributaries; there it is launched into the water, and left to find its own way down-a distance often of a couple of hundred miles-to the rope. station at Kyo-dan, where a very strong cable of twisted rattans is stretched across a narrow part of the stream to intercept the floating logs. The timber is there claimed by its owners, rafted, and taken down to Kado, the Government timber revenue station near Maulmain, where the duty is paid, and the timber cleared for export; or for use in the ship- building yards of Maulmain. * The teak (Tectona grandis) is an oily wood, of great toughness and durability, and is perhaps the most generally useful timber in the whole world. It is most easily worked, and, in combined strength, lightness, and elasticity, there is none to compare with it. The backing of our ironclads is composed of teak, and it is extensively used for railway car- riages. The oil contained in this timber protects it from the attacks of insects, including that destructive one-the white ant. It has the property also of preserving iron from rust, and vessels built of teak do not require copper fastening. I remember seeing the wreck of an old teak vessel broken up near *A full description of this valuable timber tree will be found in Chapter V. GHOST STORY. Maulmain, that was said to have been running for over sixty years, and the iron bolts taken out of it, which had been in contact with the wood, were perfectly free from rust. When unseasoned, it weighs from fifty-five to sixty pounds per cubic foot; but when seasoned, by the process described above, the weight of good close-grained, is about forty pounds per cubic foot. 177 A remarkable incident occurred to me at Maul- main, which made a deep impression upon my imagination. Believers in the supernatural are laughed at in these days of material science; ghost stories are especially derided; and yet, whilst I was residing at Maulmain I saw a ghost with my own eyes in broad daylight, of which I could make an affidavit. I had an old schoolfellow, who was afterwards a college friend, with whom I had lived in the closest intimacy. Years, however, passed away without our seeing each other. One morning I had just got out of bed, and was dressing myself, when suddenly my old friend entered the room. I greeted him warmly; told him to call for a cup of tea in the verandah; and promised to be with him immediately. : I dressed myself in all haste, and went out into the verandah, but found no one there. I could not believe my eyes. I called to the sentry, who was posted at the front of the house, but he had seen VOL. I. N study 178 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. no strange gentleman that morning. The servants also declared that no such person had entered the house. I was certain I had seen my friend. I was not thinking about him at the time; yet I was not taken by surprise, as steamers and other vessels were frequently arriving at Maulmain. A fortnight afterwards, news arrived that he had died, six hun- dred miles off, about the very time I saw him at Maulmain. It is useless to comment upon this story. To this day I have never doubted that I really saw the ghost of my deceased friend. Before leaving Tenasserim, I may be permitted to say a few words respecting the sport also to be found there. I have hitherto said nothing about deer; and deer of nearly all the species common to India and the Malayan Peninsula, are generally diffused throughout Burma. The natives have a peculiar way of catching and killing them. They go out in a party on a dark night. A man walks in front having a large lantern, with a powerful bull's eye, on his head. He carries a bell in his hand which he occasionally tinkles. The deer approach the light, appear fascinated by it, and are easily speared, or cut down with the Burmese sword known as a dha. One night I joined a party of this description, but found it very poor sport. It was also trying work walking over the rough ground in the dark, · J CC:277 1. HEAD OF Bos GAURUS. 2. HEADS OF CERVUS FRONTALIS. DEER SHOOTING. 179 for all the light of the lantern was thrown in front. The man who carried the lantern on this occasion, told me that during one of these expeditions he came upon a tiger. He said he was horribly frightened. The The eyes of the tiger were fixed upon the lantern; in that light they assumed a bright green colour. The man shook off his lantern, and there was a general sauve qui peut; luckily the tiger did not follow them. There is one particularly beautiful species of deer, the Panolia eldi, or Cervus frontalis, which is peculiar to Burma, and the adjacent valley of Manipúr. The stag has large horns for its size, -which is about that of a fallow deer-with very prominent brow antlers, and is, altogether, a very elegantly formed animal. This remarkable deer is highly gregarious, resorting to large plains, and openings in the forest. In the large open plain near Thatún, in the Martaban district, I shot, one morning, nine fine full-grown stags of this species. There were several herds of them feeding in the plain at the time, and they were driven past a small patch of jungle where I was concealed, by a number of men placed some distance apart, holding cords in their hands, with plantain leaves attached, by which means they were able to extend to a long distance, and encircle a large space of ground. The last tiger I killed in Burma was shot whilst N 2 180 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. stalking deer, near that part of the Siamese frontier which is formed by the Pak-chan river. The forest had been partially cleared, and a number of Chev- rotain, or mouse deer,* were feeding and playing about. My gun was a smooth bore, loaded with swan shot. In order to get within range, I crept on my hands and knees through a small patch of bamboo jungle. On reaching the opposite side, I suddenly found myself face to face with a tiger devouring a boa constrictor or python.† I was so close that I felt the hot breath of the tiger in my face. My gun was on my hip; I fired both barrels without raising it, and ran backwards through the jungle. A second's delay might have cost me my life. As it was, the tiger was killed, and I escaped unhurt. Two charges of shot, fired with the muzzle nearly touching him, had made a tremendous hole in his chest. Perhaps the imme- diate shock was greater than if I had fired bullets. Tigers, and in fact all the Felida, are said to take a pleasure in eating snakes. I have seen a common domestic cat in Burma playing with a snake before * Tragulus karchil. They are beautiful little animals, with a medial black stripe on the chest, and are not much larger than an English hare. The term deer, though strictly correct, is apt to convey a false impression as to their size. + The difference between the python and the boa constrictor is very slight- about the same as the difference between a lawyer and a solicitor! Their con- strictive powers are the same, and even their principal anatomical details are almost exactly alike. According to Pliny, the name of boa was given to these serpents because they were said to be nourished by the milk of cows, and to have followed the herds for the sake of the milk. 2 THE PYTHON OR BOA-CONSTRICTOR. 181 devouring it. Its paw was on the neck of the snake, whilst the reptile was coiling round the cat's body. The tiger in question had devoured about a third of the boa constrictor. As far as we could judge from what remained, the boa or python must have been about sixteen feet in length. Shortly after my arrival in India, I met one of these serpents in the Sylhet jungles. It had just before swallowed a hog deer,* and was very nearly in a torpid state. We found the hog deer in its stomach; the boa had stripped all the flesh and skin from the head, leaving the other parts uninjured.† It had then covered the whole with a glutinous saliva, and swallowed the animal head foremost. The stag was full- -grown ; the horns were not fully developed, but the points must have caused some inconvenience to the boa in their passage downwards. The python, or boa constrictor, properly so-called, is without venom. But the absence of the poison is amply compensated by the immense power of its muscles. As already seen, it is able to kill large animals by constriction, preparatory to swallowing them whole.‡ * Hyelaphus Porcinus. + This is a curious fact. I do not remember seeing it mentioned in the works of any naturalist, that any of the Boide treated the head of their prey in this fashion before deglutition. Yet this was certainly the case in the pre- sent instance. The gall bladder and the fat of the python are much sought after by the 182 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. In Anglo-Indian or Anglo-Burman life, events soon die away, and are forgotten. Wars and dis- turbances may excite a passing interest, and are generally worthy of permanent record; but the ordinary work of civil administration, like all or- dinary daily duty, soon drops into oblivion. I thought I had much to tell of Arakan, Bassein, and Tenasserim, during the many years I was there. I find however, as I go over my old records, that 1 have but little to relate. Matters of great interest and importance at the time, which occupied much anxious thought, and which I had fondly fancied would prove attractive topics to my countrymen in general, have shrivelled into the few dry facts I have given, and will, I fear, coupled with the hard Burmese words, create but little interest to the casual reader. natives of Burma. The former is valued for its medicinal virtues. The fat is used as an ointment for the cure of rheumatism, strains, and other similar inflictions. US CHAPTER IV. MY MISSION TO MANDALAY, 1867: AND NARRATIVE OF FORMER MISSIONS TO THE KINGS OF BURMA. Succeed Major-General Sir Arthur Phayre, as Chief Commissioner of British Burma, and Agent to the Viceroy and Governor-General.-Our political relations with the Princes of India and King of Burma. - Early intercourse between European nations and Kings of Burma.-Dutch, French, and English factories in Burma. -Former subservience of the old East India Company. British Envoys sent to Alompra in 1755 and 1757.-Descrip- tion of Alompra.-English settlement at Negrais overpowered, and its inhabitants massacred by the Burmese.-Colonel Symes's mission to Ava. -Its failure.-Father Sangermano.-Captain Hiram Cox, British Agent at Rangoon, proceeds to Ava.-Is recalled.-Colonel Symes proceeds on a second mission to Ava.-Its total failure.-Captain Canning sent as British Agent to Rangoon.-Summoned to Ava by the King.-Returns to Calcutta -Sent again to Rangoon; but immediately recalled.—Burmese war of 1824-26.-Treaty of peace signed at Yandabo.-Mr. John Crawfurd proceeds as Envoy to Ava.-Narrative of his mission.-Concludes a short supplementary commercial treaty.--Major Burney deputed as Resident to the Court of Ava.-Remains there seven years.-Succeeded by Colonel Benson. He returns after six months' residence. —Leaves his Assistant, Captain Macleod, in charge.-Captain Macleod leaves on plea of ill-health. -Second Burmese war of 1852-53.-Due advantage not taken of our conquest. -Complimentary mission sent to Calcutta by the King of Burma. -Return mission sent under Sir Arthur Phayre.-King refuses to sign any treaty; but friendly relations are established.-Burmese capital transferred from Amarapura to Mandalay.-The three divisions of Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim amalgamated, and consolidated, into the province of British Burma.-Colonel Phayre appointed Chief Commissioner of the province.— He concludes the treaty of 1862.-Unsatisfactory working of the treaty.— British officers sent to explore the upper course of the Salween river, sent back by the Burmese authorities.—An English gentleman insolently beaten in the streets of Mandalay.-Insurrection at Mandalay.-Crown Prince assassinated.-Flight of two of the King's sons into British Burma.- Insurrection suppressed.-Colonel Phayre proceeds on another mission to the King of Burma. -Failure of the mission.-I succeed Colonel Phayre.— The King abolishes some of his monopolies, and reduces his frontier dues. -Execution of the Pudyne Prince.-I proceed as Envoy to the King of ― 184 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Burma. - Splendid reception by the King.-King invests me with the Order of the Tsalwé.-Great success of the mission.-Conclude the treaty of 1867. --Character of the King.~The King of Burma an absolute despot.—The King's councils.-The kingdom of Burma, how divided and governed.—No distinction between civil and military services.-The Burmese army.- Condition of slaves in Burma.-The Queen's and Zenana establishment of the King of Burma.-Description of Mandalay and king's palace.-Com- parative merits of British and Burmese rule. ON the 11th of March, 1867, I succeeded Major- General Sir Arthur Phayre, as Chief Commissioner of British Burma, and Agent to the Viceroy and Governor-General. These official designations will probably prove unintelligible to most English readers. The Chief Commissioner of British Burma is in reality the governor of the province, under the supreme control of the Government of India. The Agent to the Viceroy is, or rather was in my time, the local representative of the Government of India in the conduct of all political and diplomatic intercourse with the Burmese Court at Mandalay ; either by direct correspondence with the King, or through the assistant to the Agent, who resided at Mandalay.* In 1867 the post of Agent was one of no small responsibility. The relations between the British government and the King of Burma were engaging the serious attention of the Viceroy of India, the * Three or four years after I left Burma, the Government of India found it necessary to take the conduct of political relations with the king into their own hands. In the present day the British Resident at Mandalay is in direct com- munication with the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, without the intervention of the Chief Commissioner. POLITICAL RELATIONS WITH PRINCES. 185 present Lord Lawrence. Shortly after I had assumed charge of the Province, it was determined that I should proceed on a mission to the Court of Mandalay, for the purpose of negotiating a new treaty with the King of Burma. Before telling the story of this mission, it may be as well to glance at the rise and progress of our political relations with the Burmese empire. There are few things more extraordinary in the annals of the world, than the history of our political relations with native princes in the East. In India the growth of British power is obscured by a system of subsidiary alliances. When the old wars with Indian princes had been brought to a close, about the year 1818, the British government found itself pledged to maintain the native powers in their re- spective territories. It guarded against their making war upon each other, or carrying on any political negotiations amongst themselves, excepting through the medium of its own political officers. It rigidly prohibited all communication whatever with any foreign nation, European or Asiatic. It put a stop for ever to an objectionable practice which had grown up during the eighteenth century, under which native princes had taken French and other European officers into their service, for the purpose of drilling their armies in the same way that the East India Company's officers had drilled the English sepoys. 186 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. In a word, the British government had become the paramount power from the Himalayas to Comorin. A British contingent was furnished to every native prince for his own protection, as well as for the general maintenance of the public peace throughout the Empire; and the charges for these contingents were provided for by special arrange- ments, either by the cession of territories, or the yearly payment of tribute, all of which are duly set forth in the several treaties that brought the wars to a close. In dealing with Burma, no subsidiary alliance was ever contemplated. In the earlier years of British ascendency, the king of Burma was always regarded as an independent sovereign, whom it was desirable to propitiate by any and every means in our power. This fiction of treating the semi-barbarian monarch as superior to the English authorities at Calcutta or elsewhere, was kept up, with some exceptions, throughout the period which preceded the first Burmese war of 1824-25. During the interval of nearly thirty years which separates the first and second Burmese wars, there were no cordial rela- tions between the two states. After the second Burmese war of 1852-53, my predecessor, Sir Arthur Phayre, brought about a better understand- ing with the king; and I trust I shall be able to show that the treaty I negotiated in 1867, also PORTUGUESE EMBASSY TO AVA. 187 further tended to establish a new and more satis- factory political relationship. The early intercourse between Europeans and the King of Ava, which was carried on during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, furnishes singular instances of the barbarous arrogance of the latter potentate. The Kings of Pegu and Arakan, from their proximity to the coast, had learned to respect Europeans. Not so the King of Ava, in the remote interior. Fear may have sometimes induced him to seek the assistance of Europeans; but the moment it subsided he became as puffed up as ever. A story is told of the Portu- guese times in the early part of the seventeenth century which furnishes an amusing instance of these alternations of fear and pride. About 1616 the King of Ava was terrified at a threatened alliance between his natural enemies, the Kings of Siam and Arakan. He sent an embassy to the Portuguese Viceroy at Goa. The Portuguese Viceroy sent a return embassy to Ava. By this time the King of Ava had ceased to be afraid of Siam or Arakan. He no longer craved help, but insolently sought to assert his superior dignity. The Portuguese envoy was kept at Ava for weeks with- out obtaining an interview with the King. At last he was promised an audience at midnight. At that hour he was led to a dark place, and told to speak 188 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. out, on which the King would answer him. The envoy did speak out, but received no answer what- ever. In the end he was fairly tired out, and returned to Goa without having had a single opportunity of speaking to the King. At a later period the Dutch and English were permitted to establish factories in various parts of Burma. They penetrated to Bhamo, the frontier town towards China. A quarrel ensued between the Dutch and the King of Ava. The Dutch were imprudent enough to threaten to bring about an invasion of Ava by the Chinese. The King of Ava was naturally furious at such an unwarrantable declaration. He turned both Dutch and English out of his dominions; and from that time the Dutch were never re-admitted into upper Burma. The English were treated with greater forbearance, and after some years were permitted to return to Ava territory.* The subservience of the English servants of the old East India Company to the Kings of Ava or *This anecdote, which is related by Crawfurd, has some bearing upon recent proceedings. The Dutch managed to offend the King of Ava only, by threatening to bring the Chinese into Ava territory. Since I left Burma a policy was pursued which might have landed us in a war with China as well as with Burma. Shortly, previous to the Panthay rebellion in Yunan being crushed, and when the struggle was at its height, envoys from the Panthays were ostensibly entertained at Rangoon, and sent on to England, while envoys from the King of Burma, proceeding about the same time to Calcutta and England, were received in anything but a cordial manner. This policy was, however, very properly reversed on the arrival of the two missions in England. LETTER TO THE KING OF AVA. 189 Burma, is sufficiently shown by their letters or petitions to that famous potentate. Mr. Nathaniel Higgenson, who was governor of Madras in the latter end of the seventeenth century, sent an envoy to the king with the following letter: "To his Imperial Majesty, who blesseth the noble city of Ava with his presence, Emperor of Emperors, and excelling the Kings of the East and of the West in glory and honour; the clear firma- ment of virtue, the fountain of justice, the perfection of wisdom, the lord of charity, and protector of the distressed; the first mover in the sphere of great- ness, president in council, victorious in war; who feareth none, and is feared by all; centre of the treasures of earth and sea; lord proprietor of gold and silver, rubies, amber, and all precious jewels; favoured by Heaven, and honoured by men ; whose brightness shines through the world as the light of the sun, and whose great name will be preserved in perpetual memory." After this outburst of flattery, Mr. Higgenson approached the subject of business in the following courtly language:-" The fame of so glorious an Emperor, the lord of power and riches, being spread through the whole earth, all nations resort to view the splendour of your greatness, and, with your Majesty's subjects, to partake of the blessings which God Almighty hath bestowed upon your 190 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. kingdoms above all others. Your Majesty has been pleased to grant your especial favours to the Honourable English Company, whose servant I am; and now send to present before the footstool of your throne a few toys, as an acknowledgment of your Majesty's goodness, which I beg your Majesty to accept, and to vouchsafe an audience to my servants, and a gracious answer to my petition ! "I humbly pray your Majesty's fountain of good- ness to continue your wonted favours to the Right Honourable English Company, and to permit our factors to buy and sell, in such commodities, and under such privileges, as your royal bounty shall please to grant; and allow us such conveniences as are necessary for the repair of ships, whereby I shall be accustomed to send my ships yearly to your Majesty's ports; having orders from the Honourable Company to send ships and factors into all parts of India, when their service requires it; and pray your Majesty to give me leave to send a factor next monsoon to reside at Syriam.” * The embassy was well received, and the petition was granted. The English were permitted to es- tablish a factory on the island of Negrais, at the mouth of the Bassein river. For a long period the English traded with the Burmese on an amicable footing. Large timber yards were established in Crawfurd," vol. ii. pp. 360, 361. * ALOMPRA. 191 the island, and ships were built of teak of a sufficient size to navigate the Eastern seas. Sixty years passed away. The Burmese Empire was revolutionised by the insurrection of Alompra, the founder of the present dynasty of Kings of Burma. He had driven the Talaings out of the kingdom of Ava, which they had subdued a few years before, and brought a large force down the River Irrawadi for the siege of the Talaing, capital of Pegu. At this time the English had, besides the settlement on the island of Negrais, a factory at Syriam. The French also had a factory at Syriam. During the war between Alompra and the King of Pegu, it was difficult for either English or French to know exactly which side to take. Both were anxious to take opposite sides, in order to gratify the hatred and rivalry which at that time subsisted between the English and French throughout the world. Each, however, was so anxious to stand well with both parties, that the English appear to have allied with Alompra, whilst selling arms and ammunition to the King of Pegu, and the French in like manner seemed to have allied themselves with the King of Pegu, whilst trying to keep on friendly terms with Alompra. In the end Alompra gained the mastery. He conquered the whole of Pegu, and with the intuitive genius of a conqueror, he founded the modern seaport of Rangoon. 192 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. * It was about this juncture that the English sent envoys to Alompra, one in 1755, and a second in 1757.† Stories of the old world diplomacy may be regarded as somewhat obsolete in the present day, but there are certain details related by the two envoys, which are of singular interest. They serve to bring out the individuality of Alompra as a type of Burmese warriors, profoundly ignorant of the outer world, and yet gifted with a barbarous intelli- gence which excites our wonder. The Burmese monarch was about forty-five years of age, and nearly six feet in height. He was hale, sturdy, and dark complexioned, but rude in his manners, and hasty and vain-glorious in his temper. He received the first envoy with great dignity, and entertained him with a considerable amount of braggadocio. He was very angry at an offer made by the East India Company to help him against his enemies. He declared that he wanted no help, no muskets, and no cannon. He boasted that he had conquered Pegu with bludgeons. He had carried off some princesses from Munipúr as his prisoners. He was devoid of that gallantry which generally distinguishes civilised Orientals in their dealings with female captives of any rank, and he actually obliged the unfortunate women to * Captain Robert Baker, the commander of an East Indiaman. + Ensign Lester, one of the officers attached to the settlement at Negrais. ALOMPRA'S QUESTIONS. 193 come forth and show themselves to the foreign ambassadors. The second envoy sent to Alompra, in 1757, found him less boasting, but brimming with curiosity. The conquerer considered himself above every potentate on earth; but still he was anxious to know something of the habits and ways. of other sovereigns. Accordingly he asked endless ques- tions: "Does your King go to the wars and expose himself to danger, as I do? Could you fire a cannon and kill a man at a great distance? Is there as much rain in England as there is in Burma? Why do you wear that thing (a shoulder knot) on your shoulder? How much money does the Company pay you a month? Why do not the English tattoo their bodies and thighs as we Burmese do? Is there any ice in your country ? Are the small creeks ever frozen over as they are here?" The envoy answered the questions as he best could. As regards the freezing process, he stated that he had seen the river Thames frozen over, and an ox roasted whole upon the ice. This statement was received by the king and his great men with a roar of laughter; but whether they were only tickled with the story, or disbelieved it altogether, was not known. The middle of the eighteenth century was charac- VOL. I. O 194 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. terised by a revolution in English affairs in Burma as well as in India. In India the merchant traders were becoming sovereign princes. In the south, the English at Madras had got the better of their French rivals at Pondicherry. They had espoused the cause of a new Nawab of the Carnatic, and effectually suppressed all his enemies. In Bengal, they had suffered a terrible reverse. The capture of Calcutta and massacre of the Black Hole seemed for awhile to have ruined their interests in India. The victory of Clive at Plassey, the destruction of the Nawab of Moorsherabad, and the setting up of a new dynasty of Nawabs, who were destined to be the mere puppets of the English, had not only restored the prestige of the East India Company, but con- vinced native princes that the English were a powerful and dangerous people. News of these events in Bengal soon reached Alompra, and he began to regard the English with suspicion and alarm. He had reason to suspect that they had secretly helped the people of Pegu. His fears were worked upon by French and Ar- menian adventurers, who had found their way to his court. Meantime, the English force in the island of Negrais had been called away to Bengal. It was insidiously whispered into the ears of Alompra, that now was the time to get rid of the English alto- gether. The result was another tragedy, not unlike ( : MASSACRE AT NEGRAIS. 195 that of the Black Hole, though on a smaller scale. The English in the island of Negrais were surprised, overpowered, and massacred.* The settlement was destroyed; and the intelligence reached Calcutta at a time when it was impossible to think of revenge. The factory was not attempted to be re-established, and diplomatic intercourse appears to have ceased with the Burmese Empire until 1795, when Colonel Symes was sent to Burma as ambassador from Sir John Shore, the Governor-General of India. Colonel Symes has published a narrative of his mission. His object was to establish friendly relations with the King of Burma, who, since his conquest of Arakan in 1783, had been making threatening demonstrations on the Bengal frontier. The King and his officials, however, were suspicious of his motives, and treated all his advances with insolence and contempt. This was partly owing, it is said, to French in- trigue; but was doubtless more especially due to the jealousy of Portuguese half-castes, Armenians, and other Asiatic merchants, who had then most of * The massacre is said to have been planned by an Armenian named Gregory, and a Frenchman named Lavine, aided by the interpreter of the factory, a Portuguese, and took place on the night of the 6th October, 1759, when the whole of the inhabitants of the settlement, European and native, were put to death, with the exception of one, a young midshipman, who, at the commencement of the attack, swam off to a vessel lying in the river. The ruined brick walls of the factory, as also some small tombstones, are still to be seen on the island of Negrais. 0 2 196 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ་ the foreign trade of the country in their hands. They were alarmed, that if Colonel Symes's mission was successful, that it might interfere with their interests. Amongst other mischievous acts, they caused a prophecy to be promulgated to the effect that, within twelve months, the English colours would be flying on the flagstaff at Rangoon. Colonel Symes spent several months in Burma. He visited Pegu, which the reigning monarch Bhodau-phra was attempting to restore after its destruction by Alompra, and went up the river to Ava and Amarapúra, but he failed to estimate the real character of the Burmese people, whilst he overrated the government and resources of the country. His mission was a complete failure. There is one incident in Colonel Symes's narrative, which is worthy of note. At Rangoon, he met the Roman Catholic Missionary, Father Sangermano. The father was an Italian priest who had been many years in Burma. In 1795, he had a Portu- guese congregation at Rangoon, who had built him a chapel and dwelling-house, and supported him by voluntary contributions. In return, he educated their children and celebrated a daily mass. Father Sangermano was long held in the highest estimation by the natives. The Burmese Viceroy of Pegu treated him with much distinction. The Viceroy's wife often attended his church, especially during the FATHER SANGERMANO. 197 festivities of the Holy Week. She had long con- ferences with the father, and it was thought that she would become a Christian, which, however, was not realised. Subsequently, Sangermano returned to Italy, and died there in 1819. He left a manuscript behind him, entitled a Description of the Burmese Empire." It was translated into English by Dr. Tandy, and was published at Rome in 1853, under the auspices of the late Cardinal Wiseman. It is the best work which has hitherto appeared in Europe, on the condition of the Burmese Empire under the dynasty of Alompra. In January, 1797, Captain Hiram Cox* (who had previously acted as British agent at Rangoon, according to a permission granted by the King to Colonel Symes), proceeded to Amarapúra; but after a five months' residence there, and being unable to contend against the arrogance of the court, was recalled by the Indian Government. Colonel Symes was again despatched in 1822 on a second mission to Ava, which proved even a greater failure than the first. No narrative has been pub- lished of this mission. (6 In 1809 Captain Canning was sent as agent to Rangoon, and shortly after was summoned by the * A narrative of Captain Hiram Cox's Mission was published in 1821, a short time after his death. . メ ​L } 198 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT King, of his own accord, to Amarapúra. He was better treated than the two preceding officers, and was enabled to explain the nature of our blockade system, which was then being enforced on the French islands, and which the Indian Government was anxious should be done; but beyond that, he left without producing much impression. He was again sent to Rangoon in September, 1811, to complain of interference with our trade there; but was almost immediately recalled in con- sequence of violent encroachments having been made by the Viceroy of Arakan on our frontier district of Chittagong. This was the last mission attempted by the British Government up to the first Burmese war of 1824-26. At the conclusion of the war in 1826, and shortly after the treaty of peace was signed at Yandabo, Mr. John Crawfurd was sent by Lord Amherst, the Governor-General of India, as an ambassador to the court of Ava for the purpose of concluding a treaty of friendship with the King. Mr. Crawfurd sub- sequently published the journal of his mission, together with his own observations on the nature of the Burmese government, and condition of the people at large. Mr. Crawfurd added much to the stock of information already on hand. He showed that the Burmese assumptions of greatness and grandeur were utterly unreal. He put an end to CRAWFURD'S EMBASSY TO AVA. 199 the wild exaggerations which had been entertained in Europe as to the strength and resources of the Burmese Empire. But he found great difficulty in contending against the pretensions of the court of Ava. Notwithstanding the utter defeat which the Burmese had experienced, they were puffed up with the same idea of lofty superiority which inspired the court historiographer. Indeed, the English ambas- sador found them nearly as grasping and vain- glorious as they had been before the beginning of the war. Mr. Crawfurd divided the people of Burma, Talaings as well as Burmese, into classes, namely: (1) the royal family; (2) the public officers; (3) the priesthood; (4) the merchants, or "rich men" ; (5) the cultivators and labourers; (6) the slaves; (7) the outcasts. This division has no historical significance like the division of the people of India into seven castes by the Greek ambassador, Megas- thenes.* It is simply a convenient distribution, under which the various classes of the people can be best described. Mr. Crawfurd's notices of different members of the royal family are interesting in themselves, and * Strabo, India as described in sects, 39, 40, 41, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, and 59. The same division into castes is given by Diodorus Siculus and Arrian, who, as well as Strabo, derived their information from Megasthenes. Pliny ("Nat. Hist." vi. 19), however, gives four divisions only, which is correct, namely, Brahmans, Kshatryas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Megasthenes evidently separated into distinct classes, individuals belonging to the same class. 200 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. typical of Burmese sovereignty. The reigning King was Phagyi-dau, the husband of the "sorceress." The English ambassador gives an interesting ac- count of his first introduction to the happy pair. Phagyi-dau received the Mission in the hall of audience. This hall was built of wood; it was sup- ported by pillars, and decorated with carvings. The lower parts of the pillars were painted a bright red; the rest of the hall, including the walls and carvings, was a blaze of gilding. The throne was in the centre, at the back. Over it was a canopy, richly gilt and carved. The approach of Phagyi-dau was announced by the sound of music. A sliding-door behind the throne opened with a quick and sharp noise. Phagyi-dau ascended the throne up a flight of steps from behind. He seemed to totter under the load of dress and ornaments. He wore a tunic of gold tissue, ornamented with jewels. His crown was a helmet with a high peak, not unlike the spire of a Burman pagoda. The queen, ie., the sorceress," presented herself immediately after his majesty; she seated herself on the throne at his right hand. Her dress was like that of the King, but her crown was of a different form. CC Phagyi-dau was a short, active man, about forty- three years of age. He was lively and affable; sometimes he was too familiar. He would pinch the ears of a favourite courtier, or slap him on the THE QUEEN OF BURMA. 201 face. He had been sorely troubled by the successes of the English during the war. He bitterly repented having provoked them to hostilities. During the British advance up the river Irawadi, he is said to have complained that he had taken hold of a tiger's tail; that it was equally dangerous to continue to hold it or to let it go. The queen was two years older than her husband. She was not handsome; consequently her influence over him was ascribed to sorcery. She was of low origin; her father was a gaoler. She had been a concubine of Phagyi-dau before he came to the throne, and was said to be avaricious, vindictive, intriguing, and bigoted. She made the King believe that she had been his chief queen in a previous state of existence, but having committed some slight sin had been punished by being born again in a low family. She had no sons, and only one daughter, of five or six years of age. Some days after the audience with the King and Queen, Mr. Crawfurd and his suite called on three other members of the royal family, namely,-Sakya- meng, the son and heir apparent of Phagyi-dau; Tharawadi, the brother of Phagyi-dau; and Meng- that-gyee, the brother of the "sorceress. He Sakya-meng was only a boy of fourteen. was the son of Phagyi-dau by his first queen and lawful wife. His mother had died of jealousy and 202 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. mortification after the elevation of the "sorceress." He received his English visitors with as much dignity as he could assume; but he was evidently greatly agitated. He was kept under by the "sor- ceress;" but it was understood that he was to marry her daughter. Such marriage between a brother and a half-sister was customary in the house of Alomprá. Tharawadi was about forty years of age. Craw- furd describes him as cheerful and pleasing; his character changed afterwards. He received his English visitors with much frankness, and con- versed with them on indifferent topics. Before the war, Tharawadi shared the opinion of Burmese generally, that it would be easy to conquer Bengal. Mr. Judson, the American missionary, says that he often spoke to the following effect :*-"the English are the inhabitants of a small and remote island. What business have they to come in ships from so great a distance to dethrone kings, and take posses- sion of countries they have no right to? They contrive to conquer and govern the black strangers with caste (i.e. Hindùs), who have puny frames and no courage. They have never yet fought with so strong and brave a people as the Burmese, skilled in the use of the sword and spear. If they once fight with us, and we have an opportunity of mani- festing our bravery, it will be an example to the "Crawfurd," vol. ii., supplement. 2 THARAWADI. 203 black nations who are now slaves to the English, and encourage them to throw off their yoke." Subsequently Tharawadi changed his tone. He declared that the English fought too "roughly" for the Burmese. He warned Bundúla that the European soldiers at Rangoon belonged to a different class from the Sepoys, who had been repulsed on the Arakan frontier. When he heard that Bŭndúla had fled from Rangoon to Donabew, he laughed and clapped his hands; he said,-"I told Bŭndúla how it would be." Meng-tha-gyee,* the brother of the "sorceress, belonged to a low type. His appearance was against him. He lived in great state, but was evidently of vulgar origin. Before the elevation of his sister, he had gained his living by selling fish in the bazaar. Since then he had shared in her prosperity. He exercised unbounded power in the state, and was supposed to have hoarded vast wealth. He was said to have committed many acts of oppression and cruelty. He tortured and murdered those who offended him without mercy. Mr. Crawfurd con- cluded a short supplementary commercial treaty with Burma. But it proved of little value. In accordance with the 4th article of the treaty of peace signed at Yandabo, Major Burney was "" * His miserable end, and that of his sister, has been described in a preceding chapter. 204 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. deputed as Resident at Ava in 1830, and where he remained until 1837. He was a very able officer, and obtained some personal influence over the King and his ministers; but was always looked upon with suspicion as a spy. In April 1837, Phagyi-dau was dethroned by his brother Tharawadi, and fearing, from the well-known character of the new King, that some insult might be committed, which would lead to a collision between the two Governments, together with his health failing him at the same time, he withdrew from the capital and proceeded to Calcutta. In 1838 Colonel Benson was sent as Resident to Ava, but was never even received by the King. He returned after six months' residence, leaving his as- sistant, Captain Macleod, in charge, and who shortly left also for Rangoon, on the plea of ill-health. * He resided at Rangoon until the commencement of 1840, when the British Residency was finally with- drawn from Burmese territory, and no further inter- course took place between the British and Burmese Governments, until Commodore Lambert was sent by Lord Dalhousie, in 1852, to demand reparation for the confinement in the stocks of the master of a British vessel, by the Viceroy of Rangoon, and which brought on the second Burmese war. - > * King Tharawadi is said to have been much amused at the success of his efforts to extinguish the Residency, and thought it an especially good joke that the Residents somehow always got ill. Yule's "Mission to Ava," p 227. POLITICAL RELATIONS WITH AVA. 205 The second Burmese war of 1852-53 was more effective than that of 1824-26; but was unfortunately brought to a premature close. On neither occasion did we take due advantage of our conquest. In 1826, and again in 1853, it would have been an easy task to have reduced the King of Burma to the con- dition of a feudatory prince, maintained by a sub- sidiary alliance, like the Princes of India. Of late years the British the British Government seems Government seems to have awakened to a sense of their omission. They have striven to obtain by diplomacy in time of peace, the commanding attitude of a paramount power in upper Burma, which could only have been legitimately ob- tained by force of arms. The present state of political relations with Burma has no connection whatever with the old diplomacy of the eighteenth century. It belongs to an entirely new era; it has grown out of the second Burmese war, and is in fact the result of that war. It has already been explained that in 1853 the King of Burma refused to sign any treaty, and that Lord Dalhousie fixed the boundaries of British Burma without exacting any treaty. He declared that a treaty with such a potentate would be utterly worth- less. Accordingly he ignored the King, and annexed the valuable province of Pegu; the result was, that the empire of Burma, which had once commanded the greater part of the eastern coast of the Bay of 206 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Bengal, was reduced to the condition of an inland power, and shut up in the upper valley of the river Irawadi. The King of Burma soon grew weary of his isola- tion. At the same time he must have keenly felt the loss of Pegu. He had derived a larger revenue from Pegu, including the duties levied at the seaports of Rangoon and Bassein, than from any other pro- vince in his kingdom. The loss must also have been bitterly felt by all the "eaters of the revenue of the Pegu townships. Accordingly, the recovery of Pegu became a passion with the Burmese court. King and ministers pondered over the question night and day,—war was, of course, out of the question. Every Burmese warrior in the kingdom had been thrown into mortal terror by the reports, more or less exaggerated, of the "bomb balls" of Commodore Lambert; and not a soul could be found who would venture to suggest a renewal of hostilities. At last it was resolved to work upon the generosity of the British Government. "" In the beginning of 1855, about eighteen months after the conclusion of the war, a complimentary mission arrived at Calcutta from the King of Burma. The Burmese envoys brought presents for the Governor-General, and preferred the modest request that the province of Pegu might be restored to their royal master. LORD DALHOUSIE. 207 The Burmese mission was well received at Cal- cutta. Lord Dalhousie was anxious to establish friendly relations with the King of Burma, and to open out a new trade up the valley of the Irawadi into the far interior. Few men, however, knew Asiatics better than Lord Dalhousie. He treated the request for the restoration of Pegu as utterly preposterous; as altogether out of the pale of diplomacy. He pointed emphatically to the sun. He said:"So long as that sun shines in the heavens, so long will the British flag wave over Pegu." The decision was final. The envoys saw that the Governor-General was not to be moved; and went back to Ava to make what excuses they could for the failure of their mission. Before the Burmese envoys left Calcutta, Lord Dalhousie promised that the complimentary mission should be returned. Accordingly, in the following August, the present Major-General, Sir Arthur Phayre, (at that time Colonel Phayre) proceeded up the river Irawadi to the city of Amarapúra, which was then the capital of the King of Burma. He was accompanied by a considerable suite, including Captain, now Colonel Henry Yule, C. B., of the Bengal Engineers, who acted as secretary to the mission.* The main object of the mission was * Colonel Yule subsequently published a very interesting "Narrative of the Mission," in a splendid quarto volume, abounding in illustrations. .: 208 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. not only to establish friendly relations, but to make another attempt to conclude a definite treaty with the King; and this fact was broadly stated at the first audience. The King objected to any treaty which would recognise the loss of Pegu; but he was prepared to enter into any arrangement which would benefit himself. He said to the envoy, with charming frankness,—" If a treaty is made, there must be mutual advantage;" and he requested to be in- formed in what way the treaty would benefit him. The envoy replied, that without a treaty no gun- powder or warlike stores would be permitted to pass up the river Irawadi; but that if a treaty were concluded, a confidence would be established according to western ideas, and commodities of all descriptions would be permitted to pass.* The King refused to sign a treaty; but friendly relations were established. Indeed it was evident that the King, who was by no means wanting in shrewdness, was beginning to perceive that his interests were now bound up with those of the British Empire. Seven years passed away. The capital of Upper Burma was transferred from Amarapúra to Manda- lay, according to the nomadic usages of Mongol * Yule's "Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava," pp. 97, 98. It took this name from the hill so called, which stands at the north-east corner of the new city. THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH BURMA. 209 princes. The King was slowly and cautiously evincing further anxiety to cultivate the friendship of the English. In 1862 the three divisions of Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim were amalgamated and consolidated into the province of British Burma. Each division had its own commissioner as before, with an establishment of deputy and assistant commissioners; but Colonel Phayre was appointed de facto governor of the whole, under the name of Chief Commissioner. These changes excited deep interest at the Burmese court; and in the latter part of the year Colonel Phayre pro- ceeded again to Mandalay in the hope of con- cluding a treaty of commerce and friendship with the King. The main object in view was the abolition or reduction of the frontier duties, for the purpose of opening out a new trade with Upper Burma, and if possible with the countries beyond. The British Government agreed to abolish the duties on their side of the frontier within a year. In return the Burmese Government agreed to do the same, if so inclined, within two, three, or four years. This was a one-sided arrangement, but it was considered necessary to educate the Burmese in the principles of free trade. Accordingly, the treaty of 1862 was concluded on this basis. Some solid advantages were also promised VOL. I. P 210 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ?! under the treaty. British subjects were granted full permission to trade in any part of His Majesty's dominions; and a representative of the British Government was to reside at Mandalay to smooth down all difficulties, and remove all misunderstand- ings that might arise. The working of the treaty of 1862 was not satis- factory; it can scarcely be said to have worked at all. The British Government abolished the duties on their side of the frontier. The Burmese Government did nothing whatever. The King had been glad to dismiss the English envoy, in the hope of some day abolishing the duties. In like manner he dismissed the English representative at Mandalay : he was only waiting for further reports; the ministers were to blame; he would take an early opportunity of settling the question. In this way three or four years slipped by, and in 1866 the frontier duties were still levied by the Burmese authorities. The British merchants at Rangoon, as can be readily understood, were exasperated at the delay. All this while there was a still more formidable obstacle to all attempts to open out a trade in Upper Burma. Nearly every article of produce in Upper Burma was a royal monopoly. No Burmese subject could sell grain, timber, cutch, or other com- modities, excepting through royal brokers, or express DIFFICULTIES WITH THE COURT OF AVA, 211 permission of the local authorities. Other difficul- ties also sprung up, which might have led to serious consequences. ch The King was well disposed towards the Eng- lish; but his officials were imbued with the old arrogance towards foreigners, which two disastrous wars had failed to remove. Two British officers, who had been sent into the interior to explore the upper course of the Salween river, were stopped and sent back by the Burmese authorities, in direct violation of the treaty. Obstacles were thrown in the way of any attempt to explore the upper valley of the Irawadi, in the direction of Bhamo. Above all, an English gentleman, wearing European cos- tume, was insolently beaten in the streets of Man- dalay for refusing to sit, or kneel, whilst a Burmese official, of no particular rank, was passing by. These complications were, somehow, explained away. In 1866 another mission was determined upon, but before it could start, an insurrection broke out in Upper Burma, which seemed likely to lead to a revo- lution at the Court of Mandalay. Although the dynasty of Alompra has been main- tained for more than a century, the kingdom has been constantly exposed to palace revolutions. Not unfrequently a reigning king has been suddenly de- posed, and another sovereign set up in his stead. Instances have already been narrated of similar out- P 2 212 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. breaks in connection with the reigns of Phagya-dau, The attempted Tharawadi, and the present King. revolution of 1866 was of this type. The King had favoured his brother, the Kanoung-Meng (who had assisted to place him on the throne), at the expense of his sons. He had appointed his brother to be Ieng-shé-meng,* or Crown Prince. He had placed his sons, since they came of age, entirely under the control of the Crown Prince. His sons complained of the harsh treatment and tyranny of their uncle. Two of them formed a conspiracy against him. The King had left the palace in the city of Mandalay, and gone out to a summer palace about three miles off. On the 2nd of August, 1866, when the Won-gyees and other high officials, with the Crown Prince as President, were assembled holding council in the temporary Hlwot-dau situated close to the gates of the palace, the two princes suddenly rushed in with about thirty armed followers. The Crown Prince and one of the ministers were killed on the spot. Two other princes, who stood next in succession after the Crown Prince, were also slain. So rapid was the slaughter in the Hlwot-dau, and so great the panic and consternation caused by this * This title signifies "Lord of the Eastern Palace." Shé means also "to be before" as well as east. Burmese, in speaking of their country, often call it Ashé-pyee, the Eastern Country, or the country before, or superior to all others. T BURMESE INSURRECTION. 213 sudden and unexpected attack, that before the palace gates could be closed, the rebel princes and their followers had made good their entry into the interior enclosure of the palace. The King, warned fortu- nately, however, by one of the queens, who had been alarmed by the noise, succeeded in effecting his escape on foot to the palace within the city. The summer palace was given up to plunder, but the rebel princes, on discovering the King's escape, with- drew their men in pursuit of the King, and reached the city palace only a few minutes after his arrival. They besieged the city palace until the following morning, when they were driven off by a strong detachment of the late Crown Prince's troops. Captain Sladen, the British representative at Mandalay, was in the summer palace at the time the outbreak occurred. Of course, it was impossible for him, or for anyone else, to foretell the result. He escaped with his life from the infuriated rebels, and made his way to the British Residency. There he found a crowd of Burmese and others in the Resi- dency compound; it was evident that during the insurrection the Burmese considered themselves more secure on the premises of the British repre- sentative, than in their own houses. Captain Sladen remained at Mandalay for seven days after the commencement of the outbreak ; but great anarchy and disorganization still prevailing, 214 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and being informed by the King that he could not guarantee either the safety of the lives or the property of the European residents, he embarked with nearly the whole of them, with such property as they could hastily gather together, on board a British merchant steamer, then fortunately lying off Mandalay, and proceeded down the Irawadi to Rangoon, which was reached without opposition. This steamer, I must observe, the King had been employing against the rebels, contrary to the wishes of the British Resident, and it required some con- siderable tact and caution on the part of Captain Sladen to regain possession of her without bringing on an actual collision with the King's troops. The insurrection was suppressed; but the rebel princes having seized one of the King's steamers, escaped down the river Irawadi into British territory. Colonel Phayre took the necessary steps for pre- venting them from committing further mischief; and they were required to reside at Rangoon, under the surveillance of the British authorities. This step relieved the King of all further danger. So long as the rebel princes were kept in British territory, his life and throne were secure, as far as they were concerned. It was consequently assumed, that his Majesty would feel something like gratitude for the moral support and friendly feeling which the Chief Commissioners of British Burma, had shown FAILURE OF PHAYRE'S MISSION. 215 to him during the rebellion; at any rate, that he would have been satisfied that the British Govern- ment was sincere in its professions of friendship. Accordingly, about the end of 1866, when the King's authority was fully re-established, Colonel Phayre proceeded on another mission to Mandalay ; but he was disappointed in all his expectations. The King, on the plea that the country was too unsettled and impoverished, after the late troubles, for the introduction of changes, and other reasons, refused to reduce his frontier duties, or to forego any one of his monopolies. All negotiations were therefore abruptly broken off, and the old duties on the British side of the frontier recommended to be re-imposed. The Secretary of State, however, over- ruled this suggestion. Indeed, if the measure had been carried out, it would only have irritated the King, and rendered him more obstinate than ever. At this crisis, namely, in March, 1867, I succeeded to the Chief Commissionership. I at once applied myself to the task of overcoming the existing diffi- culties; and I found an able coadjutor in Captain Sladen. In the following May, the King had begun to come round. His Majesty issued proclamations abolishing some of his monopolies, and reducing the frontier duties; but it was doubtful how far he was in earnest; there was reason to fear that the pro- clamations were only a blind, and might be with- 216 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. drawn at any moment. At this juncture I had information of another conspiracy at Mandalay; and as the story is illustrative of the doings of the Burmese Court, I shall tell it with more detail. When the Crown Prince was slain in the summer palace, his eldest son, known as the Pudyne prince, escaped the massacre, and fled to the remote north, where he was joined by a large body of his father's adherents, and others favourable to his cause, and prepared for war. Had the King been killed, there would probably have been a bloody struggle for the succession between the Pudyne prince and the sons of the King. On the news, however, reaching the Pudyne prince, of the King being alive, the total failure of the rebellion, and that the rebel princes were captives in Rangoon, he at once surrendered himself, without resistance, to the royal forces which had been sent against him, and was imprisoned in the palace enclosure, together with several of his younger brothers. Suddenly, it was found out, that a sister of the Pudyne prince had bribed the palace officials and gained admittance to her brothers. The discovery filled the King with suspicious fears. The attendants of the prisoners, and the princess herself, were beaten and tortured into a confession, that a plot was being hatched for setting the palace on fire, and liberating the prisoners. It was expected that the , EXECUTION OF THE PUDYNE PRINCE. 217 catastrophe would have a bloody ending; but on the 15th of May, Captain Sladen was told, on good authority, that the matter had blown over, and that nothing further would be done. Within an hour afterwards he heard that all the prisoners had been ordered for execution. He hastened to the palace to attempt to save their lives. On the way he met the procession going to the place of execution. There was a strong guard of soldiers; a crowd of executioners, more or less in- toxicated, carrying large naked swords; a body of assistants carrying red velvet sacks, for the reception of the bodies, of the Princes of the Blood who were to be executed.* Captain Sladen rode to the palace, and persuaded the King to recall the execu- tion party. Captain Sladen galloped off with the reprieve, but was too late to save all the victims. The eldest son of the Crown Prince was already in the agonies of death; his younger brothers would have shared this fate, but for the timely arrival of the English representative. Strangely enough, when the affair was over, the King warmly thanked Captain Sladen for his interference, and declared * According to Mongolian tradition, it is considered improper to spill the blood of any member of the royal race. Princes of the Blood are executed by a blow, or blows, of a bludgeon inflicted on the back of the neck. The corpse is placed in a red velvet sack, which is fixed between two large perforated jars, and then sunk in the river Irawadi. Princesses are executed, and their bodies treated in a similar manner, with the exception that they are put to death by a blow in front, instead of the back of the neck. 218 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. that he was unaware that the execution had been ordered by his own ministers! This tragedy was merely an episode in Burmese life at the capital. The manner in which the King had taken the interference of Captain Sladen, was accepted as a proof of the friendly relations which were growing up between the British Government and the King of Burma; and his Majesty appeared to show, in a variety of ways, that he was sincere in his desire to form a close and permanent alliance with the Government of India. At this time I had two objects in view. I was, of course, most anxious to open out a trade with upper Burma, both to promote the commercial prosperity of my own province of British Burma, and to bring about a community of interests between Rangoon and Man- dalay. At the same time, I was bent upon arranging with the King for the despatch of an expedition viâ Bhamo into Western China, for the purpose of discovering the cause of the cessation of the trade, formerly existing by this overland route between Burma and China, which had ceased only, so short a time back as 1855 (the commencement of the Mahommedan or Panthay rebellion in Yunan); and ascertaining the exact position held by the hill tribes and Panthays, with reference to that traffic, and their disposition, or otherwise, to resuscitate it; also — MY MISSION TO MANDALAY. 219 to examine the physical condition of the routes. For the present, I shall confine myself to narrating the progress of my treaty negotiations. The expe- dition to Yunan, will form a portion of a succeeding chapter. * The official narrative of my mission, together with a copy of the treaty I concluded with the King of Burma, will be found in the Appendix to the second volume. There the reader will find every detail of the voyage to Mandalay, and the several audiences with the King and his ministers. Still, a few general observations may not be out of place in the present chapter, if they only enable the reader to realize the scenes and circumstances. We left Rangoon on the 20th of September, 1867, and reached Mandalay on the 7th of October. Our party † consisted of eleven gentlemen and two ladies, including the members of the suite, and the officers who commanded the military escort which accompanied the mission. Our voyage was made in two steamers, the Nemesis and Colonel Phayre, the latter having a large flat or barge in tow. * Appendix C. + The following composed the party: the Envoy, Colonel Fytche, Chief Commissioner of British Burma, Captain Duncan, Inspector-General of Police, secretary to the mission, Mr. Edwards, Collector of Customs, Rangoon, the Reverend H. W. Crofton, Chaplain of Rangoon, and the officers of the military escort, viz.: Captain Surplice, Mr. Assistant-Surgeon Douglas, and Lieutenants Younghusband, Williams (acting aide-de-camp), and Randolph, 2-24th Regi- ment; and Captain Hannen and Lieutenant Rolland, Royal Artillery. Mrs. Fytche and Mrs. Lloyd accompanied the mission. 220 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The river Irawadi is only beginning to be known to western travellers. Many English readers will be surprised to hear that it is a greater river than the Ganges, can be more easily navigated, and flows through regions which are destined to become as important to the world of civilization as the India of the nineteenth century. The voyage up the river, although occasionally impeded by the force of the current, is of a most interesting character to all who delight in new scenes. In the lower Irawadi the shores are flat and sometimes dreary; but as the voyage progresses the scenery changes and improves. The range of blue mountains may be seen in the distance which sepa- rates Pegu from Arakan. Occasionally there are hills sloping down towards the river covered with forests and luxuriant foliage, dotted here and there with Buddhist pagodas and shrines. The quaint river craft, often bearing a strange resemblance to the shipping of the ancients, will not fail to attract notice. Moreover, the observer will be struck with the half-dreamy routine of Oriental life, which meets the eye in all directions. Families are sailing up and down the river in boats, or floating down the stream in crafts, without seeming to have a care in the world; whilst men and buffaloes appear to lead the same lazy and thoughtless round of existence, pursuing their several avocations on the shore. A THE MISSION PASSES THE FRONTIER. 221 On the 24th of September, being the fifth day after leaving Rangoon, we reached the frontier. Henceforth there was a marked change at every station at which we stopped. The people in general were meanly attired, and their houses very inferior as compared with those of British Burma. They occasionally presented an anxious and worn expres- sion, although the light-heartedness of the Burmese character often betrayed itself under the most unsatisfactory outward appearance. Official life amongst the Burmese is a different story. Burmese notables are generally decked in their best attire whenever about to meet Europeans; and they have a way of displaying colours in their dress, and gild- ing and decorations in their surroundings, which is very effective for the moment. Experience, how- ever, soon teaches that there is very little that is substantial in the sight, and that all is mere show and parade. On the morning after passing the frontier we reached the Burmese town of Menhla. Here we received a deputation of three Burmese notables, who had been sent from Mandalay in four large war boats, resplendent with gilding, to welcome the mission on its arrival in the territories of the King. All three gentlemen were very courtier-like and dignified in their manner One of them had accompanied the Burmese ambassadors, who were * 222 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. sent to Calcutta in 1855 to ask Lord Dalhousie to restore Pegu. Another had been educated at Cal- cutta, and spoke English with the utmost fluency. We of course received the deputation on board in great state. The quarter-deck of the Nemesis was decorated with flags. A guard of honour was drawn up on either side. All the English officers were arrayed in uniform. The three Burmese deputies, accompanied by the local officials, appeared in their gayest attire, and took their seats on chairs in the European fashion. The interview passed off to general satisfaction. On shore the day was spent as a public holiday. A Burmese drama, known as a Pooay,* was being performed all day, and indeed all night. We went ashore in the evening and witnessed part of the performance. Our visitors of the morning were all in attendance. Indeed, the Pooay was in reality a State affair, got up expressly for the benefit of the members of the mission. Next morning we resumed our voyage. The Burmese deputies were now joined by so many officials that the war boats which accompanied us were increased to eight in number, each having a crew of forty men. The chief official had also a large barge, which was taken in tow by the Nemesis. It would be needless to describe the various places at which we stopped on our voyage. * A description of the Burmese Pooay or drama is given in Chap. VIII. .> BEAUTIFUL RIVER SCENERY. 223 Towns and villages were all of one type. Groups of wooden houses, with Buddhist pagodas towering amongst them, and often surrounded by a wooden stockade. At every place the mission was welcomed with every mark of respect; with presents of fruit and vegetables, and the inevitable Pooay. One of the royal steamers came down from Mandalay to meet us, and several processions of boats; all of which turned round and accompanied us to the capital. At last, on the morning of the 7th of October, we approached Mandalay, passing the old capitals of Tsagain on the right, and Ava and Amarapoora on the left bank; the two former being opposite to each other, and the latter two, five miles apart. Tsagain is still a flourishing town; but Ava the capital of the kingdom for nearly four hundred years -from 1400 to 1783-as well as Amarapúra, the late capital, and only abandoned in 1860, are almost entirely deserted, and their sites overgrown with jungle. The Irawadi opposite Tsagain alters its course. Flowing from the north it is diverted by a bold promontory to the westward, and forms numerous islands. The scenery here is most beau- tiful. The Shan mountains with their lofty irregular outline forming a fine background to the well- wooded and well-watered plains on the left bank; while the small serrated ridges of the Tsagain hills, 224 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. } crowned with monasteries and pagodas towering over the town of Tsagain, embowered in its mango and tamarind groves, bound the view most pic- turesquely on the right. While looking up the stream, the different spurs and well-wooded little hills running from these ranges close to the wind- ings of the great river, give the appearance as if they were rising out of its bosom; the whole forming a coup d'œil not surpassed, perhaps, by any lake or river scenery in the world. Mandalay is about seven miles above Amarapúra, and on arriving off the landing-place, we found a guard of royal troops drawn up on the shore, arrayed in the quaint Burmese uniform of green jackets, striped hilts, and red helmets. It was arranged that on the morrow we were to receive a visit from the ministers; and on the day after to make a public landing at Mandalay. Meantime it was hoped that the King would notify an early day on which to give an audience to the envoy. I need not particularise these proceedings; the details, as I have said before, will be found in the official narrative. But there are many particulars which would have been out of place in an official narrative, which may perhaps possess an interest to those who have had no personal experience of Asiatic courts. The pleasure taken in form and ceremony is A ¿ DEPUTATION OF BURMESE MINISTERS. 225 common perhaps to all courts, European and Asiatic; but it is a passion with Mongols, and especially so with the dynasty of Alompra. It is the main support of that extravagant adulation of the reigning Sovereign, which is the foundation of Mongol despotism. During my mission these displays were on a grander scale than usual; for the King of Burma was anxious to dazzle the British envoy with pomp and show, and at the same time to familiarise his people with the idea of the great friendship which was henceforth to subsist between the Court of Mandalay and the British Government. The visit of a deputation of ministers to the English steamers was a formal affair; but in a very short time all formalities were forgotten. The deputation came on board with a large fol- lowing of secretaries and minor officials, and for a brief period behaved with gravity and maintained a stately bearing. Nothing whatever was said about the Mission or its objects, but many questions were asked respecting our voyage, and how far we had enjoyed it. After a while the party began to disperse over the ship, and the conversation de- generated into gossip. What were the dimensions of the Nemesis? How fast could she go if she put on all her steam? Could she go out to sea without fear of being swamped by the waves? VOL. I. ૨ 226 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. What was the name and official position of each member of the Mission? This last question in- volved a considerable amount of hard work, not on our part, but on the part of our visitors. It was easy enough for us to reply to the ques- tion as regards each individual; but it was a tough task for the members of the deputation to learn every answer by heart. It was necessary, however, that they should carry away the lesson in their memories; for it was certain that they would be subjected to a minute examination when they re- turned to the palace. At the same time they were anxious to avoid suspicions by a too frequent repeti- tion of the questions. Accordingly it was easy to perceive that they often endeavoured to correct or perfect their knowledge, by comparing amongst themselves those details which they had been able to collect in their individual memories. The landing on the following morning was effected in great state. The procession from the landing-place to the British Residency, a distance of about three miles and a half, was to be per- formed on elephants. On this point the chief Queen had been kind and considerate as regards Mrs. Fytche. Her Majesty sent a present of a handsome gilded litter with men in the royal livery to carry it, and on which the foreign lady could be conveyed in suitable state and comfort. The King PRESENTATION OF UMBRELLAS. 227 sent me two golden two golden umbrellas,* and also the same number to my wife, accompanied with royal warrants or tablets of authority, entitling us to use them. This was a token of high favour and honour, as only Princes of the Blood are allowed to use golden umbrellas at the capital, and was a good augury for the success of the Mission. The van of the pro- cession was formed by a body of the royal troops dressed in the national uniform. Then Mrs. Fytche was carried in her golden litter, followed by * The white umbrella is the emblem of sovereignty in Burma, and its use is limited to the King, and to being placed over the images of Gautama. The King is never supposed to move without an attendant holding over his head the distinguishing mark of royalty, and veiling the golden face with its shadow. Colonel Yule remarks in the "Book of Ser Marco Polo," vol. i., pp. 310 and 317, that “an honorary character appears to have attached to umbrellas in the East from a very remote period. Carpini notices that umbrellas (solinum vel tentoriolum in hastâ) were carried over the Tartar nobles and their wives, even on horseback; and a splendid one, covered with jewels, was one of the presents made to Kuijuk Kaan on his enthronement.” “Adrian speaks of the σkiádia, or umbrellas, as used by all Indians of any consideration. Pallium, according to Muratori, was applied in the Middle Ages to a kind of square umbrella, but by that is probably meant rather a canopy of four staves, which was sometimes assigned by authority as an honourable privilege. Ducange quotes, from a MS. of the Paris library, the Byzantine court regula- tions about umbrellas, which are of the genuine Pan-Asiatic spirit, σkiádia Xpиσokokkiva extend from the Hypersebastus to the Grand Stratopedarchus, and so on. And yet it is curious that John Marignolli, Ibn Batuta's con- temporary in the middle of the fourteenth century, and Barbosa in the sixteenth century, are alike at pains to describe the umbrella as some strange object. And in our own country it is commonly stated that the umbrella was first used in the last century, and that Jonas Hanway (died 1786) was one of the first persons who made a practice of carrying one. The fact that the gold umbrella is one of the paraphernalia of high church dignitaries of the Romish Church in Italy, seems to presume acquaintance with the thing from a remote and, perhaps, Buddhistic period." Q 2 228 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. a Burmese official of high rank seated on an elephant. Then the envoy and members of the Mission all mounted on elephants arranged ac- cording to a regular programme. The procession closed with the escort of English troops on foot. About half way between the river Irawadi and the Residency there was a creek which had to be crossed in boats. Here we were met by another procession, which turned back and joined us. They were accompanied by about five hundred Burmese cavalry and at least three thousand Burmese infantry. The cavalry were armed with swords and spears, and dressed in red jackets and trousers; and some of them wore a gilt helmet with side pieces and embroidered jerkin. The infantry were dressed in the ordinary white jacket worn by the general population, and armed with muskets. At last, after traversing a broad and clean street, lined with tamarind trees, we reached the Residency, heartily glad to be out of the show and glare. It was of some importance from a diplomatic point of view that the Mission should be received as soon as possible after its arrival. On previous occasions it had been the ostentatious custom of the Burmese sovereign to keep a Mission waiting for several days under a variety of excuses, as an assertion of his Majesty's superior power and dignity. The story has already been given of a PROCESSION TO THE PALACE. 12 229 Portuguese envoy in the seventeenth century, who was kept waiting for weeks, and then was only granted a sham audience at midnight. English ambassadors before and after the first Burmese war had encountered considerable insolences on this point. My public reception by his Majesty took place the second day after my landing-unusually quick. This was the more fortunate as the four days which followed the one fixed for the audience, were occupied by a festival, during which his Majesty was propitiated by presents from his subjects and officials to avert punishment for any faults com- mitted, or neglect of duty. They were known as kodau* or "beg pardon days;" and it would have been obviously incorrect for the envoy to have appeared in the character of a suppliant begging for forgiveness. As it was, the arrangement for my obtaining an audience was particularly gratifying. The procession from the Residency to the Palace was much the same as that formed at the landing, excepting that there were no ladies present. The palace† enclosure was surrounded in the first instance by a wooden stockade, and afterwards, at intervals of * This ceremony of Ko-dau is evidently taken from the Chinese, or rather Mongol one of Kow-tow (Khéu-théu). The gifts are accompanied with very similar ceremonies, and with the same number of prostrations. For a full description of the palace and city, see concluding pages of this chapter. 230 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. about a hundred feet, by two massive brick walls, one within the other. Altogether it reminded us of the descriptions which have been preserved of the ancient cities of India. The palace itself, with its walls, towers and pinnacles, exhibited a profusion of carving and gilding, but is like nothing that has been seen or described elsewhere. We were led through the principal hall of audience into another open hall, supported by pillars of white chunam, which again reminded us of the great hall of marble pillars which is still to be seen in the palace of the Moghul Emperors at Delhi. On one side, before a golden folding-door, was placed a couch for his Majesty. We all sat down in front of the couch. Presently the King made his appearance up a vista of gilded doors, and took his seat, and the audience began. The details of this audience, and of the audiences which followed, will be found in the official narrative in the Appendix. I need only draw attention to the treaty* of 1867, which was concluded after some lengthy negotiations. It will show the advance which was made in the progress of the Mission to- wards establishing a thorough understanding with * The great advantages of this treaty, in a mercantile point of view, are shown in the large increase of our exports to Upper Burma. The transaction in treaty goods, or goods entered through the Rangoon Custom House for direct exportation to Upper Burma was, in 1868-69, the year the treaty came in force, Rs.524,378; and in 1869-70, the year I left Burma, had increased to Rs.1,401,612, or 167 per cent. THE QUEEN'S "DRAWING ROOM.” 231 the King. It should be borne in mind that only a year previously the King had refused to conclude any further treaty with the British Government. On the present occasion I made no more con- cessions than had been offered by Colonel Phayre; yet I succeeded in obtaining the King's 'consent to every point that could have reasonably been expected or desired by the government of India. The King abandoned all his monopolies, excepting earth oil, timber and precious stones. The duties on all goods and merchandise passing between British and Burmese territories were reduced to a uniform rate of five per cent. ad valorem. A Resident or Political Agent was to be always posted at Mandalay. He was invested with full and final jurisdiction in all civil suits between British subjects. He was also associated with a Burmese official of high rank in a mixed court, which dealt with all civil cases arising between Burmese and British subjects. Rules were also laid down for the extradition of criminals on either side. Three days after my public reception by the King, the Queen Nama-dau-phura gave my wife a recep- tion. The King was present, and the same cere- monies were gone through as in my own case. How different from the customs prevailing in India! Her account of the Queen's "Drawing room” is a very amusing one. 232 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The official narrative of my mission to Mandalay comprises reports of the conversations which passed between the King and myself during the several interviews. They are useful, because they bring out his Majesty's personal character. At the first audience he talked about my voyage; the existing friendship between the two governments; the recep- tion I had received in my passage through his Majesty's dominions; the rapid growth of the new capital at Mandalay; and the house which had been built in the Residency compound for the accommoda- tion of the Mission. On this occasion I was decorated with the Burmese order of the Tsalwé* of the first grade, as a visible token of his Majesty's desire to do me honour. At the second audience he began to talk Buddhism; bringing it to bear upon the diplomatic negotiations which were going on. He spoke of friendship based upon mutual advantage; of the way in which such friendship might be destroyed by listening to the idle stories of evil-minded men. He said that false reports had reached him regarding myself; and was thus evidently seeking to guard against any bad * This is the badge of the order of nobility among the Burmese, and consists of six classes, distinguished by the number of gold chains, united by bosses, that compose the order. Three chains of fine open work is the lowest ; three of twisted gold chain the next; then six, nine, and twelve, the latter being the highest grade, with the exception of the one worn only by his Majesty, and which consists of twenty-four chains. The order is worn depending from the left shoulder across the breast, and back under the right arm. CONVERSATIONS WITH THE KING. 233 rumours of his internal administration or political intentions, which might have reached my ears. In like manner he referred to the first duty of Kings, which consists, according to Buddhist ideas, in maintaining the most perfect control under all provocations. He expressed a wish that I should see his hospitals* for the sick and aged; and then he tendered me a share of his good works. This gift is perfectly intelligible to Hindus as well as Buddhists, though it may be foreign to western ideas. Under the doctrine of merits, one man may transfer to another a share of his good works; that is, a share of the happiness by which good works are rewarded. I made no reply to the tender of his merits, beyond referring to the Chris- tian idea of charity to the poor; and I soon turned the conversation to the proposed expedition by way of Bhamo into China. His Majesty sanctioned the expedition without raising the slightest objection, and promised to promote the objects in view to the utmost of his power. The commercial advantages * Charity is considered among Buddhists a great "Koung-hmo," or good work, from which a reward is to be derived in a future existence. The general establishment of medical aid for men and animals is alluded to in the edicts of Asoka; and hospitals for the diseased and destitute were found by Fahian at Palibothra. The Archbishop of Soltania bears like testimony to the charities of the Great Khan of Tartary; and Friar Jordanus had also heard of his un- exampled almsgiving. Various examples of a charitable spirit in Chinese institutions will be found in a letter by Père d'Entrecolles in the "XVth Recueil de Lettres Edifiantes ; " and a similar detail in Nevius's "China and the Chinese," ch. xv.; see Prinsep's "Essays," II. 15; Beal's "Fah-hian," 107; "Book of Ser Marco Polo," p. 399. 234 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT attendant on the resuscitation of the trade via Bhamo appeared to be fully appreciated by him, and he quite saw the chance of its being diverted into other channels unless some effort was imme- diately made. Next to the treaty, I considered that this consent and co-operation of the King were the most important concessions which were obtained by the mission to Mandalay. To all appearance I carried the King with me in all the treaty stipulations. There was no direct opposition offered to any one of the Articles, although naturally there was discussion; and all the communications I had both with his Majesty and the officers of his court, both at official and private interviews were, apparently, of the most cordial and satisfactory character. At our private interviews in the palace gardens, held there, as he remarked, to be quite free from eaves-droppers, the King conversed very familiarly on every topic which presented itself, and was most confidential and unreserved in speaking of the affairs of his country, and without any Oriental fastidiousness, even of his family. Amongst other matters he mentioned, that since the violent death of his brother the Crown Prince, he had not as yet declared his successor* to the Crown, because he wished to avoid the danger of * No rules in favour of primogeniture exist among the Burmese. The King may appoint whom he pleases as his successor. THE CONFIDENTIAL CIRCULAR. 235 exciting a premature ambition in the young mind of one of his sons; and also, of producing factions among his numerous children, in opposition both to himself and his nominee. He feared, under any circumstances, whether he appointed a successor or not, that on his decease there would be great dissen- sions among the different claimants to the throne, that disturbances would be caused even in British territory thereby, and that the English government would probably have to interfere, whether they wished to do so or otherwise. He seemed, or pretended to be, deeply impressed with the evils of polygamy and the Nemesis accom- panying it. He instanced the fearful anarchy and civil war previously wrought in his own country by the children of former kings by different mothers scrambling for the inheritance. As he paused for my remarks on the subject of polygamy, I observed that in Europe, and wherever the Christian religion had been adopted, the system of monogamy was practised, and the old Semitic idea of woman being a "vessel or mere utensil for man's service," had long been banished. He replied that he was aware of it, and was previously acquainted with my ideas in the matter, from a circular which I had lately promulgated in British Burma on a somewhat similar subject. See Cf. Fairburn's "Studies," p. 279. G 236 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. There can be no doubt that the King is a firm follower of Buddha. As already stated, he spent many years as a Buddhist monk; but in the begin- ning of 1853 was suddenly taken from the seclusion of the monastery to sit upon the throne of Burma. From that date he has ceased to lead a life of celibacy; and it is certain that the teachings of Buddha on this point find no expression in the royal harem. But as far as morals are concerned, as some- thing apart from monastic discipline, his Majesty is an exemplary character. He boasts that he has never ordered an execution since his reign began. In reality he leaves the power of life and death in the hands of his ministers; and his piety consists in throwing upon his ministers all the obloquy or demerit which may be attached to a capital sentence. The King is doubtless one of the most enlightened monarchs that has ever sat on the Burmese throne, and his reign has not been disgraced, like his pre- decessors, by wanton atrocities, and wild excesses. He is polished in his manner, has considerable knowledge of the affairs of state, and the history and statistics of his own and other countries. In personal character he is amiable and kind, and, according to his light, religious. The idea which I have always formed of him, and which I still maintain, is that he is a naturally ABSOLUTE POWER OF THE KING. 237 well-meaning man, brought up in two bad schools, religious and political. The Buddhist religion, with all its artificial and overstrained morality, is nothing more than a system of selfishness. Kindness and benevolence may characterise the actions of Buddh- ists, but they do not appear to spring out of the spontaneous goodness of the heart, but originate in the hope of a reward exactly proportioned to the merit of the act performed. Thus when the King spoke of the mutual interests of the two states, and the welfare of the two countries, he thought of nothing beyond the profit he might individually gain by the alliance. He asked for arms and steamers, on which point, as he had been informed on several previous occasions by Sir Arthur Phayre, the English government was inclined to be liberal. His only object however was to guard against rebellion. He never thought of the well-being of his subjects, excepting so far as it would promote his own. The political school in which the King has been educated since his accession to the throne, is perhaps the worst in the world; and he has been debased and corrupted by the absolute power which he is doomed to exercise. The administration of Burma is absolute despotism. The King is under no re- straint whatever, saving his voluntary respect for Buddhist rules and precepts; otherwise he is lord 238 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and master of the life and property of every one of his subjects. His name when a child was Moung-Lwon,* and his title as a Prince, Mengdon-mengtha, derived from a town and district which were his patrimony. But since his accession to the throne he is known by his royal titles only, it being the Burmese theory that the name of a King is too sacred to be uttered. There is no hereditary rank or title in the kingdom, excepting in the royal family. The King is the “fons et origo" of all honour. The so-called nobles are only officials, appointed or dismissed at his will; and it not unfrequently happens that a man may be in high favour with the King one day, * Thunder and lightning, which ordinarily precedes rain in the tropics, are supposed by the Burmese to be caused by nats playing in the air and flourishing their spears and other weapons; and it is their custom, when rain is much wanted, for the people from opposite quarters of a town to assemble in the streets, and pull a long rope backwards and forwards, at the same time, uttering loud cries, inviting the nats to come forth and play and produce rain. The rope that is pulled on these occasions is termed Lwon. It was during one of these festivals at Amarapúra, that the present King was born, and he was hence named Moung-Lwon. + This town and district is situated just within our boundary, and, it is said, the king was given to understand by Lord Dalhousie, that if he would sign a treaty of peace, and acknowledge the concession to us of the province of Pegu, the frontier line should be drawn so as not to include his patrimony-but, as already shewn, he "would not listen to the voice of the charmer." The king's titles are: His most glorious and excellent Majesty, Lord of the Tshaddau, King of Elephants, Master of many white elephants, Lord of the mines of gold, silver, rubies, amber, and the noble serpentine, Sovereign of the empires of Thuna-paranta and Tampadipa, and other great empires and countries, and of all the umbrella-wearing chiefs, the Supporter of Religion, the Sun-descended Monarch, Arbiter of Life, and great King of Righteousness, King of Kings, and Possessor of boundless dominion and Supreme Wisdom. THE HLWOT-DAŬ. 239 and in a horrible Burmese dungeon on the next. Any subject, not a slave or an outcast, may aspire to the highest offices in the state. Thus the country and people are entirely at the disposal of the King; and the only check on mal-administration is the fear of insurrection. But whilst the King is an absolute despot, there are popular forms of government which at some remote period may have exercised a wholesome check upon the sovereign's authority, although they have long since become wholly subservient to his will. He has no Vizier, or prime minister, in the ordinary sense of the word. He has two councils, a public one and a privy one. The public council is known as the Hlwŏt-dau. It is held in a separate building inside the palace enclosure, but outside the palace properly so called. Its officers are four in number, and are known as Won-gyees. Their functions are legislative, executive and judicial. They sometimes act in their individual capacity, and during my mission I had frequent interviews with one or other of them. But they exercise supreme power under the King in their collective capacity. The King used at one time to take his seat as president of the council; sometimes the Crown Prince sat as his representative. Since the rebellion of 1866 he has been very chary of leaving his palace, and has not, as yet, 240 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. sence. appointed another Crown Prince; but his empty chair still remains as symbolical of the royal pre- The Hlwŏt-daŭ is the final court of appeal. Every royal edict or proclamation is issued by the Hlwŏt-dau. Each Won-gyee has an assistant known as a Wondonk, who sits in the Hlwŏt-dau, but does not speak or vote. Thus there are four Won-gyees and four Wondonks. A number of Tsayé-dau-gyees, or royal scribes, are also engaged in the Hlwŏt-daū. The privy council is known as the Byadeik. It is held, not in a detached building like the Hlwŏt-dau, but in a chamber within the palace. Its members are called Atweng-wons. They are the private advisers of the King. Whatever emanates directly from the King is first discussed in the privy council, and then communicated to the Hlwŏt-dau. A number of secretaries are also engaged in the privy council. These two councils appear as relics of a consti- tution, which has long lost all real power. The members of both are mere nominees of the King; they are the creatures of his will, the instruments by which his orders are carried out. Occasionally he may listen to their advice; but they exercise nothing of the influence which attends a hereditary or elective body; and their authority, excepting in matters of detail, is little better than a sham. GOVERNMENT OF THE COUNTRY. 241 The provincial administration radiates from these central councils. It covers the whole kingdom like a network. Every local head is in official corre- spondence with the Hlwot-dau; but there is a supplementary system of espionage throughout the kingdom, under which a secret surveillance is main- tained over the whole. The kingdom is divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, the districts into townships, and townships into hamlets or villages. The governor of a province is known as the Myo-won; he is vested with the entire charge —civil, judicial, military, and financial. In the old days of Burmese rule, the Myo-won of Pegu had three officers directly under him, namely: the Yé-won, or deputy; the Akwon-won, or collector of taxes; and the Akouk-won, or collector of customs. Old travellers to Rangoon frequently refer to these four officials, who sometimes sat together as a council, and transacted business in the public hall, known as the Yon-dau. Every district is governed by a Myo-thoo-gyee; every township by a Tseetkay; and every hamlet or village by a Thoo-gyee or Kyay-dan-gyee. The mode in which the ministers and officials were supported by grants from the land revenues, has already been described. Under this system the "eaters of revenue" exercised a certain territorial influence over the township or village assigned them. VOL. I. +7 R 242 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The present King has, however, attempted to make a great change in this system, and which, if he succeeds in fully carrying out, will very considerably decrease their influence. Many of these grants of revenues have been abolished, and the ministers * and other officials, and I believe the ladies and favourites of the zenana also are now paid by fixed salaries. This measure is said to have been ini- tiated by the King in imitation of British administra- tion, and its effect will be to render him more absolute and despotic than ever. as ever. The people of Burma will not profit by the change. The financial system is still as oppressive The great principle of the Burmese régime is, that the subject is the property of the King, and that he is entitled to his labour gratis. There is little or no private property in land. Gardens and sites of houses, and sometimes tanks and fish- ponds, are respected as private property, but lands in general are not regarded as property, or only as the property of the King. The lands are distributed in small allotments of only a few acres, and in this shape are assigned to the immediate cultivators, but only as tenants raising produce for the good T * The salaries of the four ministers of state is said to be £2,400 each a year, the senior Atweng-won-who is also royal treasurer-receives the same as a Won-gyee, and the remaining three, each, £1,500, the four Won-donks receive each £1,200 per annum. No perquisites are allowed, except those which may be occasionally and specially allowed by His Majesty. PROPERTY IN THE SOIL. 243 of the King. Under the despotic system of the Burmese Government, no large areas of land can possibly accumulate in the hands of independent proprietors. The petty proprietors owe their existence to their insignificance. The Burmese Government claims the right of property in their labour; it overlooks the land as the material of labour, and collects such con- tributions as it pleases. In former times it was the cultivators, rather than the lands, that were assigned to officials and favourites in lieu of stipends or salaries, and in like manner they were made over for the maintenance of public establishments, such as war boats and elephants. Besides their regular con- tribution, the cultivators are subjected to occasional demands for extraordinary subsidies, which are or- dered through the Hlwot-dau. Such demands are invariably made a pretext for additional exactions, which go into the pockets of local officials. In Burma torture is freely used to force confes- sion, and punishments have always been excep- tionally cruel. Imprisonment in fetters, confiscation, and flogging, are the common punishments for slight offences, but graver ones are punished with mutilation, slavery, and death with torture. The law, too, allows no individual responsibility, the punishment, or the execution of one, often involving the members of a whole family, together with their relations and R 2 244 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. dependants. Money, however, will expiate almost any offence except treason and sacrilege. Under the present King there has been much ameliora- tion, especially as regards death and torture. His Majesty does not like to order executions on his own authority, and he has been induced in some cases to modify the severity of punishment by the personal influence of the Chief Commissioner and British Resident. An odious system prevails of the office of con- stable, gaoler, and executioner being united in the same person, and he is generally a criminal pardoned on consideration of his performing these duties for life. He receives no pay from the state or other- wise, but lives by bribery and extortion wrung from his unfortunate prisoners. He is called Pa-Kwet (cheek-circle) from a circle which is branded on each of his cheeks on his undertaking office; and he has often, also the nature of his crime, such as loo-that, dhamya, thoo-kho (murderer, bandit, thief), tattooed on his breast in large letters. The pa-kwet are looked upon as outcasts, and when they die the usual funeral rites are not performed, their bodies being interred in the same manner as lepers and other unclean persons. During our procession from the steamers to the Residency at Mandalay, several of these guardians of the peace, armed with long white rods, were interspersed along the streets to BURMESE ARMY. 245 keep order amongst the crowd assembled to see the procession pass. No occasion, however, appeared for their services, for nothing could be more quiet and orderly than the behaviour of the people, and so different from an European crowd, not a word or sound being uttered. There is one remarkable usage amongst the Burmese which is essentially Mongol. There is no distinction between civil and military services. Treasurers and Judges are expected to take the command of armies. The Burmese army comprises the whole population of adult males, or rather as much of the population as can be brought together by a forced conscription. Sometimes they are collected from particular provinces, townships, or districts, but on great occasions levies are made of the whole population. The officials then become generals. Such an army is a mere rabble. It is without any discipline or military virtue. It is for- midable only to the petty tribes and nations in the neighbourhood. The present King has occasionally employed Europeans to drill his army, but a very small amount of success has hitherto attended his efforts in this direction. The conduct of the Burmese troops during their predatory incursions into bordering states has often been cruel and ferocious. In the present day, the 246 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. growing influence of the British Government acts to a certain extent as a check upon these atrocities, and they are only now openly committed in the more remote quarters of the King of Burma's ter- ritories. The condition of slaves in Burma is very sad. Some are hereditary, such as those who are con- demned to serve in pagodas.* Others are bond slaves, who might obtain their liberty by paying their debts. The condition of outcasts is nearly as bad as that of hereditary slaves, though it does not necessarily extend to their offspring. They include lepers and other incurables, executioners, who are generally pardoned malefactors, coffin-makers, and others employed in the disposal of dead bodies, as C * On completion of the building of a pagoda by a royal personage, a grant of slaves (Phura-kywon) is generally made to look after it. Such persons may be people seized for the purpose, and driven from their homes in another part of the country, prisoners of war, malefactors, or the inhabitants of a tract of country, the governor or leading authority in which has been concerned in a rebellion. There is no escape from bondage, either for them or their progeny. The following, taken from Buddhughosha's "Parables," is the Buddhist law concerning them :-"Although anyone shall give a substitute for a Pagoda- slave, he cannot liberate him, for the slaves set aside by kings as consecrated property for the five thousand years of the church, are fixed and settled for the five thousand years of the church." (That is to say for the period of Guatama's dispensation.) "Whoever from kings downwards shall break the continuity of the consecration for the five thousand years of the church, and resume the property, shall pass into the lowest hell. Slaves who have been offered to pagodas can only be employed in cleaning pagodas. They must not wait upon kings or anyone else. If those who have great power employ pagoda-slaves, they will lose their power and die a frightful death; they will come to misery and destruction: so it is written in the book Sutta." Again, as regards church lands, it is stated: "Whoever shall take for himself or for another any consecrated land, shall become a mite, or a white ant, upon that consecrated land for the whole of a hundred thousand cycles." LARGE FAMILY OF THE KING. 247 well as deformed and mutilated persons. I need not enter into details respecting such unfortunate wretches. They live apart from the masses, indeed few people will hold any communication with them. The King's principal Queen *—and who must be of royal blood-is the daughter of the late King Tharawadi, and the King's half-sister. She is called Her age Nama-dau-phura, or divine royal mother. Her (this year, 1876) is sixty-seven, and the King's sixty- two years. She is peculiarly plain and dark com- plexioned for a Burmese, and much pitted with small-pox. Besides the principal Queen, the King has four lesser queens, called Ashé, Alay, Myouk, and Anouk Mie-phura-dau, or Queens of the east, centre, northern, and western palaces. There are, moreover, upwards of two hundred concubines. The King has no children by his principal Queen; but by the lesser queens and concubines,† is said to be the father, or putative father, of one hundred and twenty-six children, eighty-four of whom are living. On the death of a King, the whole of his female establishment is immured for the rest of * Since this was written the Queen has died. She died in November, 1876. Her body is embalmed and placed in one of the apartments lately occupied by Her Majesty, dressed in the royal robes and paraphernalia of Burmese royalty. The King, according to the precepts of the Buddhist religion, spends a portion of each day in this apartment, absorbed in contemplation and musings on the transitory nature of this life. + Concubines in Burma are considered in the same light as the handmaids of the Old Testament. 248 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT their lives in a building set apart for the purpose within the palace enclosure, called the palace of chastity! The number of eunuchs kept up by the King is small. One, whom I frequently saw when I was at Mandalay and who appeared to be a special favourite of the King's-was tall for a Burmese, and appeared strong, but loosely put together. He was said to be young in years, but his face was much wrinkled, which was attempted to be concealed, apparently, by a thick wash of tha-nat-kha,—a fragrant yellowish pigment, much used by Burmese ladies for rubbing on their face and body, and made from the bark and root of the Murraya paniculata, an ornamental flowering shrub of the citron species. The appearance of this eunuch agrees with the description as given of them by Claudian, who remarks, "that there is scarcely any interval between the youth and decrepitude of such persons;” and Chrysostom also observes that "when the paint was washed away from the face of Eutropius (the eunuch), it appeared more ugly and wrinkled than that of an old woman." Their influence is much dreaded by the King's ministers and others in authority, as they are reputed to be very spiteful towards those who offend them. When at Mandalay, we were asked by the King to visit the white elephant. We found it to be a 2, the THE WHITE ELEPHANT. 249 small specimen, and could only by great courtesy be called white. It had a few light coloured marks, and the hair did not appear so coarse as that in the ordinary elephant, but it might be more truly described as brownish; the lighter tint being more observable by contrast with a very black female elephant, which had purposely been placed near it. It was splendidly lodged within the palace enclo- sure, in a handsome pavilion, with a roof similar in shape to that which covers the royal palace. Its paraphernalia was laid out for our inspection, and was very splendid, being composed of red velvet and scarlet broad-cloth, thickly studded over with rubies and diamonds, and highly worked gold bosses. To wear on its forehead, was a gold plate inscribed with its titles, large circles set with the nine precious gems,* and many other ornaments. All the vessels used in its service for eating and drinking and other purposes, were of gold and silver. It ranks next to the heir apparent, and before all the Great Ministers of State. A Won, or Minister, and other officials, together with a large retinue are attached to it, and it has lands assigned for main- tenance, like other great dignitaries of the Empire. * Nauwa radana, or nine precious gems, which are often worn set in a ring as a charm against evil. They are the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, cat's-eye, turquoise, pearl, amethyst, and oriental topaz. 250 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The white elephant* is held in extraordinary veneration by the Burmese. Its supernatural excel- lence is supposed to communicate itself to its possessors, and both the King and his people would deem it most inauspicious to be without one. The cause of this great veneration is, I believe, that the last incarnation of Gautama before he became Buddha, was that of a white elephant, and that one might be so of the coming Buddha also, and cause great blessings to flow to the country possessing it. In case of illness, the white elephant is attended by the King's principal physicians, and prayers offered up for its recovery by the priests; and on its death, royal funeral honours are paid to its remains. The present capital of the kingdom, Mandalay, was founded by the present King in 1860. The city is laid out in a square, each side of which is a little over a mile in length. It is enclosed by a brick wall, twenty-six feet high, and three feet thick, crenelated at the top. In the rear of the wall is an earthen parapet twenty-six feet broad, reaching within four feet of its upper surface, so as to allow of a fire being opened through the in- dentations. The flanking defences are provided for * Equal veneration is paid to the white elephant in the neighbouring country of Siam. In the King's estimation one of the most precious gifts he presented to Her Majesty, through Sir John Bowring, on his mission to Siam, was a tuft of his white elephant's hairs! FORTIFICATIONS OF MANDALAY. 251 by towers, or buttresses, protruding from the wall, and placed about two hundred feet apart. At the angles two of these meet together, and form one large bastion. The wall is pierced with twelve* gates, three on each side, protected on the outside by very thick masonry traverses. Over the gateways are pavilions, or watch towers, with double and triple roofs. Sixty feet from the walls a deep moat has been dug one hundred feet in breadth, and always kept full of water. It is crossed by five bridges, two on the west or river face, and one on each of the other three sides. No provision has been made for the defence of these bridges, except that afforded from the wall, but being formed of timber they could be easily removed or destroyed on the approach of an enemy. There is no glacis, or any other advanced work beyond the ditch. The roads, both inside the city and in the suburbs, run parallel with the city walls, dividing the building sites into rect- angular blocks. The number of houses, intra- mural and extra-mural, are said to be, in round * It is said that when the massive teak posts of the gateways of the new city were erected, a man was bound and placed under each post, and crushed to death. The Burmese believe that persons meeting a violent death haunt the place where they were killed, and their spirits become nats. Nats inflict injury on any persons molesting the spots where they abide, and it is thought that they would in this way contribute to the defence of the gates. There is no doubt that a custom of the kind prevailed in former times; and Burmese follow precedents invariably, even in the most trifling matters. But the King has denied that the above practice was followed in the present instance. 252 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. numbers, twelve thousand; and the population is estimated at sixty-five thousand. The palace of the King is in the centre of the city. It is enclosed, first, by a stockade of teak posts, twenty feet high, then, at an interval of one hundred feet, by a brick wall, and at a further interval of one hundred feet, by another brick wall. There are three gates in the stockade, one, the public entrance, in the eastern face, and the two others in the northern and southern sides. Just outside the inner wall is placed the Hlwŏt-daū, or Hall of the Supreme Council. In the inner en- closure stands the palace, the front facing the east, and containing the great Hall of Audience, about two hundred and sixty feet long, composed of teak timber, beautifully carved and gilded, erected on a terrace of brickwork ten feet high.* The front is a colonnade, the central part running back, forming a nave with two side aisles. At the extremity of * This ancient style of Panasiatic architecture can be traced in the audience halls of the Moguls at Delhi and Agra, though the superstructure there has assumed a lithic form and become an arcade of marble, instead of a pavilion on timber columns. "" - Fergusson, in his "History of Indian Architecture," (page 630), says :— "Solomon's House of the Cedars of Lebanon is, with mere difference of detail, reproduced at Ava or Amirapura; and the palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis are rendered infinitely more intelligible by the study of Burmese edifices.' A good idea of this style of architecture can be formed from the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, which in shape is similar to that of a Burmese Thein. In Burma these Theins, or open pavilions supported on four pillars, are built over large sitting images of Guatama; the latter being generally gilt. THE KING'S PALACE. 253 this nave, is a space like a chancel (said to be the exact centre of the city) where stands the throne, over which rises a grand shwé-pya-that,* or gilded spire, rising in light graceful diminishing stages, visible from all parts of the city and surrounding country. Behind this hall is the Bya-deik, or Privy Council Chamber, and other offices; and to the westward of them are the private apartments, and pleasure grounds; the latter of which the King is very proud of. They are well planted with flowering shrubs and fruit trees, and laid out in winding paths, with here and there artificial pieces of water, mounds, and rockery work; and as my wife remarked to the King, when he asked her opinion of them, and which appeared to please him, “have a pretty and peculiar effect, quite unlike anything we had seen before." The palace † enclosure also contains the treasury, * Pya-that is a corruption, I think, of the Pali word Prasada, a palace. † It is extraordinary how the above resembles the description of the palace of the great Cublay Kaun, as given by Yule in the "Book of Ser Marco Polo,” and shows how the Burmese, in the construction of their cities and palaces, still keep up their Tatar proclivities. It is as follows :— (C The palace is enclosed all round by a great wall forming a square, each side of which is a mile in length: that is to say, the whole compass thereof is four miles. This you may depend on; it is also very thick, and a good ten paces in height, white-washed and loop-holed all round. At each angle of the wall there is a fine and rich palace in which the war-harness of the Emperor is kept. Also midway between every two of these corner palaces there is another of the like, so that, taking the whole compass of the en- closure, you find eight vast palaces, stored with the great Lord's harness of war. 254 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. arsenal, powder magazine, and mint. Close to the eastern gate is a lofty campanile, where the water- clock is placed which gives the time to the palace and city. This clock consists of a large jar filled with water, in which a brass cup, with a small "The great wall has five gates on its southern face, the middle one being the great gate, which is never opened on any occasion except when the Great Khan himself goes forth or enters. Close on either side of this great gate is a smaller one, by which all other people pass; and then towards each angle is another great gate, also open to people in general, so that on that side there are five gates in all. Inside of this wall there is a second, enclosing a space that is somewhat greater in length than in breadth. This enclosure also has eight palaces corresponding to those of the outer wall, and stored, like them, with the Lord's harness of war. This wall also hath five gates on the southern face, corresponding to those in the outer wall, and have one gate on each of the other faces as the outer wall hath also. In the middle of the second enclosure is the Lord's great palace, and I will tell you what it is like. "You must know that it is the greatest palace that ever was. Towards the north it is in contact with the outer wall, whilst towards the south there is a vacant space which the barons and the soldiers are constantly traversing. The palace itself hath no upper story, but is all on the ground floor, only the base- ment is raised some ten palms above the surrounding soil, and this elevation is retained by a wall of marble raised to the level of the pavement, two paces in width and projecting beyond the base of the palace so as to form a kind of terrace-walk, by which the people can pass round the building, and which is exposed to view, whilst on the outer edge of the wall there is a very fine pillared balustrade, and up to this the people are allowed to come. The roof is very lofty, and the walls of the palace are all covered with gold and silver. "The hall of the palace is so large that it would easily dine six thousand people, and it is quite a marvel to see how many rooms there are besides. On the interior side of the palace are large buildings, with halls and chambers, where the Emperor's private property is placed, such as his treasures of gold, silver, gems, pearls, and gold plate, and in which reside the ladies and con- cubines. There he occupies himself at his own convenience, and no one else has access. described, there are The account goes "Between the two walls of the enclosure which I have fine parks and beautiful trees bearing a variety of fruits." on to describe these grounds as filled with artificial mounds, lakes, and inter- sected with raised paths, &c. The plan of the wall of the city of Mandalay, too, with its crenelated top, flanking buttresses and parapet, strongly resembles the Great Wall of China, known as the rampart of Gog and Magog, described in the same work. Ps BRITISH AND BURMESE RULE. hole pierced in the bottom, is made to float. When it sinks it marks the hour. The day and night are divided, each, into four equal parts, and the number of the hours is sixty-four. At the end of each quarter a large gong and great drum, placed at the summit of the tower, are beaten alternately to mark the quarters and number of the hour.* The foregoing details perhaps render it unneces- sary for me to dwell upon the comparative merits. of British and Burmese administration. No one but a special pleader, or a fanatic, will ever try to induce the world to believe that any Asiatic dominion, whatever, will bear comparison with that of Great Britain, excepting, perhaps, that of Im- perial Rome. In 1867, I was called upon by the Government of India to draw up a memorandum on the subject ; it is printed in the Appendix† to the second volume. * The following is the Burmese division of time :— 12 Khanna I Khara. 10 Khara 6 Pyans 16 Beedzana = 4 Pads 64 Narees I Pyan. I Beedzana. 2 Pakkha 12 La + Appendix D. 255 I Pad. 1 Naree (hour). I Ayet (day). I Tathedeng (week). 7 Ayet 2 Tathedeng = 1 Pakkha (a side of the moon waxing or waning; a fort- night). I La (month). I Amheet (year. - 256 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. I did not deem it necessary to contrast the rank oppressive rule of rapacious and cruel Burmese Viceroys-when no man dared to be rich, trade languished, and the people were content to bound their exertions to the narrow limits of their actual wants-with the benevolent and enlightened ad- ministration of English officials. I confined myself to the main fact, that ever since the first Burmese war, all the surrounding populations have immigrated in large numbers into the provinces under British protection. The following conclusions, which will be found worked out in the memorandum in the Appendix, will suffice to show the material progress of the Burmese people under British administration, as compared with their condition under Burmese officialism. In 1826, the provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim were annexed to the British dominions, whilst Pegu remained under Burmese administration. The population of Arakan amounted at that period to about 100,000 souls; and that of Tenasserim to about 70,000. In 1855 the population of Arakan had increased to more than 350,000; whilst that of Tenasserim had increased to more than 210,000. Within thirty years the population of both provinces had trebled under British rule. This vast increase was due to immigration from provinces under Burmese government, and notably from Pegu. THE BURMESE DYNASTY. VOL. I. HOM Shortly before the completion of this period Pegu was wrested from the Burmese government, and the interposition of the new British province almost immediately caused emigration to the two older provinces to subside; thus proving that the cause which had given rise to it had been removed. The tide of life flowed no longer from Pegu, when a Government which respected the rights of in- dividuals had been established; but commenced to flow into it from Upper Burma in a continuous. stream, and in a very short time more than re- couped it for the multitude who had abandoned that province for Arakan and Tenasserim. 1855, the population of Pegu was about 700,000; in 1865 it had swelled to 1,400,000; in 1875 it was 1,750,187. In The Burmese dynasty, unlike many of those we have supplanted in India, has always possessed a stronghold on the reverence and imaginations of the people, and offences against the reigning sove- reign, he being believed to be sprung from the same sacred kin as their God, carry with them religious, as well as social penalties. The deser- tion of their own sovereign and country by these masses, and their voluntarily placing themselves under an alien rule, coupled with the vast increase of prosperity in every shape of the portion of Burma which has become British, must, therefore, 257 S 258 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. at least as far as British Burma is concerned, un- equivocally convince the blindest admirer of native rule and institutions of the excellence of British over Native Rule; and that no portion of our great Eastern Empire is more important, and with a greater future before it, than our possessions in Burma. A late writer* on Burma has truly said, "England's mission in this part of the East-the India beyond the Ganges of our old geographers-is but com- mencing. In many respects her task is easier, and her advantages greater than in her elder trust of the other India. She has to deal with popula- tions less fanatical, less dissimilar, less numerous, more simple and unprejudiced, with a milder and more tolerant religion, free from caste, from all cruel and impious rites, from fierce hatred and hostility to its rivals, and in its ethics almost Christian. She has the experience of the past to guide her an experience often bitter and dearly purchased, but invaluable for her future guidance. "Let us hope that her career in India, though not inglorious, will be eclipsed by that in Burma-her success, though not inconsiderable, in civilising and evangelising the Hindus, be surpassed by what she will achieve among the Buddhists. "Ubi vincit Romanus habitat " cannot be said of British conquest in the East. Adam Smith quaintly * The Rev. H. W. Crofton, late Chaplain of Rangoon. "" PROSPERITY OF BRITISH BURMA. remarks that “it is a very singular government in which every member of the Administration wishes to get out of the country, as soon as he can, and to whose interest, the day after he has left it, and carried his whole fortune with him, he is perfectly indifferent, though the whole country was swallowed up by an earthquake." This may be partially true; but, though its officers are continually changing, the constituent principles of the government remain the same; and the best proof of our rule is that, India, and more especially British Burma, in no pre- vious period of their history, have ever enjoyed such liberty, security, and general prosperity as at present. J 霍 ​259 A S 2 CHAPTER V. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF BRITISH BURMA, INCLUDING AREA, CHARACTER OF THE SURFACE, CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND BOTANICAL PRODUCTIONS. Geographical description.—Limits and extent.—The Arakan division.—Valley of the Irawadi.—Northern boundary between the British possessions and those of the King of Ava.-Principal rivers.-The Irawadi.—Its supposed source.-Areas drained by it in different parts of its course. —Volume of water discharged.-Its ten mouths.-The Hleing, Pegu, Sittang, and Beeling rivers.-Funnel-shaped channel at the mouth of the Sittang. —Extraordinary height and violence of the bore there.—Canal connecting the Pegu and Sittang rivers. —Lakes.-The Salween river.-Difficulty of its navigation above Maulmain.-Its source involved in great uncertainty. -The expedition sent to survey its course. -Jealous suspicions of the King of Burma regarding its object.-Tenasserim Division.— Area of the province.-Communications chiefly by water.-Roads.-Soil.--Geological features.—Climate.-Temperature.—The south-west and north-east mon- soons.—The total fall of rain.-Ranges of the thermometer.-Climate not inimical to the European constitution.-Beautiful scenery.-Great variety of the flora.-Ornamental trees.-Palms.—Fruits.-Great variety of creepers and wonderful luxuriance of the undergrowth in the forests.— Ferns and orchids.-Dendrobium Fytchianum.-The bamboo.-Its rapid growth.—Timber trees. The teak tree.-Its valuable qualities.—Does not grow in large continuous masses.— -Its immediate associates in the forest.—Peculiarity of its leaves.—Area of forests reserved by the State.— Produce of the teak reserves.-Quantity imported inland from foreign territories.—Total of British and foreign teak timber exported from the province.—Strychnos Nux Vomica.—Dipterocarpus lævis and D. turbi- natus varieties of the wood-oil tree.—Mode of extracting oil from them. AT the commencement of the second chapter, I gave the boundaries of our territory in Burma as they existed when I was first posted to Arakan in 1841. The second Burmese war of 1852-53 very : PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 261 considerably enlarged these limits, and the province of British Burma (see accompanying map) now extends in a continuous line for nearly 1,000 miles along the eastern shore of the Bay of Bengal, from the southern limits of the Chittagong Division of the Lower Provinces, situated in 20° 50 N. Lat., to the northern boundary of the kingdom of Siam in 10° N. Lat., and may be geographically divided into four portions: Arakan stretching from the Nâf Estuary, which separates the Province from Chitta- gong, to Cape Negrais, and consisting of a com- paratively narrow strip of country between the sea and a high mountain chain-the valley of the Irawadi, which, divided from the Sittang valley by the Pegu Yoma range, unites with it in its southern portion; to the eastward is the chain of hills which forms the watershed between the Sittang and the Salween rivers, and on the west the Anouk-bhet toung-myeng, literally "the high western range of mountains," sometimes called the Arakan Yoma range-the valley of the Salween -and Tenas- serim, a narrow strip, like Arakan, reaching down to the Pakchan stream, its southern boundary with Siam, and separated from Siam to the eastward by a lofty chain of hills running from north to south nearly parallel to the coast, at a distance of from thirty to forty miles inland, but approaching nearer to the sea at its southern extremity. 262 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Arakan, originally a powerful kingdom conquered by the Burmese, and ceded by them to the British after the first Burmese war in 1825, and having an area of 18,531 square miles, lies between the Nâf Estuary and Cape Negrais, and is bounded on the south and west by the sea, and on the north and east by the high range of mountains which, spring- ing southwards in a chaos of forest-covered spurs, form the great Assam chain of mountains, between longitude 93° and 95°, encloses the alluvial valley of Munipúr, and forming the eastern boundary of Bengal, extends from the south-eastern extremity of Sylhet and Cachar in a south-westerly direction as far as the Fenny river, whence, about the 23rd parallel of North latitude, it turns south-east for 360 geographical miles; then, turning again to the westward of south it gradually diminishes both in breadth and elevation till it ends sixteen miles south-east of the rocky promontory of Cape Negrais at Pagoda point, called by the Burmese Hmau-deng. This chain, though of considerable height to the north, (the Blue Mountain is supposed to be 6,000 feet above the sea level,) diminishes in altitude as it reaches Arakan, and none of the passes across it in that portion of its length are more than 4,000 feet above the sea, the Aeng pass into the valley of the Irawadi, much less. From Combermere Bay, twenty-five miles south of Akyab, the coast is ARAKAN. rugged and rocky, offering few harbours for ships; Kyouk-phyoo harbour inside the island of Ramree is safe and easy of approach, and at the mouth of the Gwa river further south there is a fairly sheltered roadstead and an inner harbour easy of access through a channel with two fathoms of water at low tide; the rise and fall of the tide is seven feet only. 263 The coast is studded with fertile islands, the largest of which are Cheduba and Ramree. Owing to the nearness of the range which bounds Arakan, there are no large rivers; the principal ones are the Nâf Estuary on the extreme west, the Mroo river, an arm of the sea about forty miles to the eastward, and from three to four miles broad at its mouth, and extending more than fifty miles inland; and the Kuladan, Yan-pany, or Arakan river rising some- where near the Blue Mountain in 23° N. Lat., which is navigable for fifty odd miles by vessels of 300 or 400 tons burden, and on the right bank of which, close to its mouth, is situated the town and port of Akyab the head-quarter town of the Akyab district and of the Arakan division, the approach to which is easy for vessels drawing up to twenty-two feet of water. Beyond this the rivers are of but * . Kuladan, i,e., limit or border of the Kulah or western foreigner. St. John thinks the name is derived from dan, a place, and kulah, a foreigner; as it was on this river that the Kings of Arakan located their Bengalee slaves. 264 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. • little importance; they are the Talak and the Aeng, navigable by boats only, and the Sandoway, the Toungoop and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance owing to its mouth form- ing a good port of call or haven for steamers or vessels of from nine to ten feet draught. The whole of the rivers in the Akyab and Ramree districts anastomose by channels which, though dry in some instances during ebb tides, are all navigable for boats during the flood; the whole coast-line is in fact a labyrinth of creeks and tidal nullahs which rise at the foot of the hills and receive the contribu- tion of numerous small streams. There are no lakes properly so called, but there are some small sheets of water, the principal of which are near the old town of Arakan, the capital of the ancient king- dom, formed by bunds placed across different valleys by the former kings which are now all out of repair and have become marshes, rendering that portion of the country very unhealthy. The valley of the Irawadi at its lower end, unites with the valley of the Sittang to form an extensive plain stretching from Cape Negrais on the west to Martaban on the east. The watershed between these two streams is the Pegu Yoma range, which, running north and south, terminates in low hills at Rangoon. The boundaries of the tract of country which compose these two valleys are the Anouk- THE BOUNDARY LINE. 265 bhet-toung - myeng, or Arakan Yoma range of mountains on the west, and the Poung-loung range, rising to a height of 7,000 feet, it is said, on the east. The northern boundary line, which separates the British possessions from the territory of the King of Ava, and which is marked by a line of masonry pillars, erected at distances apart varying from two to ten miles, leaves the Arakan hills at a point called Myeng-mateng -toung, "The ever-visible peak," situated in 19° 30′ N. Lat., and, running east- ward in an irregular deflected line, passes the Irawadi at its fiftieth mile, and forty-three miles further on the Pegu Yoma range; thence, after thirty-three miles, it crosses the Sittang, and ends abruptly at a point in the Poung-loung range of mountains, constituting the water-shed of the Sittang and Salween rivers, in about Lat. 19° 24′ N., and Long. 96° 41′ E. The Irawadi valley, which is about eighty miles broad at the frontier line, counting from chain to chain, and is there so rugged that little regular culti- vation can be carried on, gradually widens towards its southern extremity, and about sixty or seventy miles south of the frontier the hills which bound it have receded so far that it becomes a broad flat level plain, highly cultivated, and the richest portion of the whole province. 266 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Owing to the spurs thrown out by the Pegu Yoma range, the main valley is divided into several smaller ones, principally that of the Hleing river, which is almost identical with the main valley, that of the Pegu river, and that of the Poozoon- doung river. The Sittang valley in its northern portion resembles the valley of the Irawadi, and towards the south it gradually widens, leaving on the west a strip of country about twenty-five or thirty miles broad, covered with dense jungle, which stretches down as far as Shwè-gyeen; thence to the sea on the western side is rice cultivation. On the eastern side there is a lower range of hills between the main range and the river, to which they approach so close that there is hardly any plain; they gradually recede, and leave a narrow strip for some distance below Shwè-gyeen, and at last end a short distance below Sittang. From this point to the sea there is one immense plain, stretching from Martaban to Cape Negrais, and intersected only by rivers and tidal creeks. The coast line, which is low and flat, runs in an easterly direction from Hmaudeng or Pagoda point to Baragon point, and thence in a north easterly direction to the gulf of Martaban. The main rivers (see accompanying map) are the Irawadi, the Hleing or Rangoon, the Pegu, the Sittang and the Beeling. The Irawadi, which is THE IRAWADI RIVER. 267 supposed to have its rise in about latitude 28° N. and longitude 97° 30′ E., flows for some 780 miles before reaching the British possessions, and thence its waters roll on for 240 miles to the sea in a S.S.W. direction. As it nears the coast it divides, converting the lower portion of the valley into a network of tidal creeks. A little above Henzadah, about 90 miles inland, it sends off its first branch to the westward which, flowing past Bassein, receives the waters of the Panmawaddee and of the Penglay- galay, and bifurcating, enters the Bay of Bengal by two main mouths, the Bassein and the Thekkay- thoung rivers. The former is navigable for large ships drawing up to twenty-six feet of water, for sixty miles, that is, as far as the important town and port of Bassein. After passing Henzadah it sends off a small branch to the eastward which joins the Hleing just above Rangoon. The main river then divides and sub-divides till it empties itself into the sea by ten mouths-the Yuay, Dayaybhyoo, Pyamaloo, Pyengazaloo, Dalla, Phyapon, Donyan, Thanhteat and China Buckeer rivers, and the Irawadi which is between the Pyengazaloo and Dalla mouths. The waters of the Irawadi commence to rise in March, and continue to rise till September, when, or in October, they begin to fall, having risen from thirty-seven to forty feet above the lowest level. It 268 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. is navigable for river steamers as far as Bhamo, 600 miles beyond the British frontier. The velocity of its waters, when the river is full, is five miles an hour. Colonel Yule,* from facts collected by him, assumes that the Irawadi takes its rise in the lofty Langtam range of the Himalayas, whose peaks, covered with perpetual snow, separate the valleys inhabited by the Shan race of Khamtis, from the head-waters of the sacred Brahmaputra, and which would be some- where about the latitude and longitude I have given above; but the exact position of its source is still a matter of speculation. A gallant attempt to solve the problem was made, in 1827, by Lieutenants Wilcox and Burlton, who penetrated across the mountains from Assam, and reached a point on the Irawadi in lat. 27° 26', a few miles north of Mong- khamti. The river there was about eighty yards broad, and though considerably swollen by melting snows, was still fordable, and traversed by numerous shallow rapids. From this point the sources of the river could not be far distant, and their position was pointed out in a towering wall of snow-capped mountains, stretching from west to east transverse to the valley. Colonel Yule also states that, as well as can be ascertained, the areas drained by the Irawadi in different parts of its course, * See "Mission to Ava," p. 273, and Appendix G. THE RANGOON RIVER. assuming its sources in the Khamti mountains, are as follows: Immediately below the mouth of Mogoung river 5 sq. degs. 131 31 32/1/ At Amaropoora At Prome At the head of the Delta • • • "" 269 "" "" "" "" "" The dry-weather volume of water discharged by the Irawadi off Prome, taken by Dr. McClelland on 25th April, 1853, when the river was about fifteen inches above its lowest level, and 1,210 yards broad, was found to be 105,794 cubic feet per second; the mean spread of current being 12 of a mile, or 3,440 yards, per hour, and mean depth 12.708 feet. The difference between the highest and lowest level of the river at Prome is about 25 feet. 22 The Hleing rises close to Prome, where it is called the Myeetmakat stream, and flowing in a southerly direction nearly parallel to the Irawadi, it gradually assumes the name of the Hleing, and finally of the Rangoon river, and flows past the town of that name, having received some of the waters of the Irawadi through the Nyoungdon stream. Just below Rangoon it is joined by the Pegu and Poozoondoung rivers flowing from the east and north-east. It is navigable for vessels of the largest size for some little distance above Ran- goon, or say twenty-six miles from its mouth; but owing to the Hastings shoal, formed at the junction 270 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ! of the Pegu, the Poozoondoung and Rangoon rivers, vessels of more than six feet draught cannot come up at low tide. The Pegu and the Poozoondoung rivers rise close together in the Yoma range, about fifty-eight miles above the town of Pegu, the capital of the ancient Talaing kingdom conquered by the Burmese under Alompra, and which gives its name to all this por- tion of the country. Here the Pegu river, which is almost dry during the hot season at low tides, is 105 yards broad: in its further course of sixty miles to the Rangoon river, it rapidly increases in breadth, but narrowing at its mouth a bore goes up it, the effects of which are felt at Pegu. The Poozoon- doung river, which empties itself into the Rangoon river at the same spot as the Pegu river, is a much smaller stream, being only fifty yards wide at a distance of thirty-five miles from its mouth. Throughout the whole of the lower portion of the valley, the rivers inter-communicate so much that it is almost impossible to say that they are distinct : the waters of the Irawadi are partially poured out through the Rangoon; the Poozoondoung and the Pegu rivers are connected by many small streams ; and the Rangoon river itself returns some of its waters to the western mouth of the Irawadi. The Sittang river, known in its upper course by the name of Poung-loung, takes its rise, according THE SITTANG RIVER. 271 to Dr. Richardson, in the hills south-east of Ava, about twenty-five miles north of the great lake of Nyoung-Gwé, and with which it is supposed by the natives to be connected by a subterranean passage. About half its course, which is very tortuous and has been compared to the writhing of a wounded snake, only lies in British territory, which it enters just above Toungoo; here it is narrow and navigable with difficulty for large boats during the dry season. Below Shwè-gyeen, where it receives the waters of the Shwè-gyeen river from the east, it gradually and slowly widens, till, at the town of Sittang, it is half a mile broad. Thence it curves backward so as to form an inverted co, and it at last flows into the Gulf of Martaban through a funnel-shaped channel, widening so rapidly that it is impossible to tell where the river ends and the gulf begins. Owing to the meeting in this gulf of the great tidal wave of the Indian ocean, arriving from the south-west, and of other portions which come along the Tenas- serim coast from the south-east, a bore, with a speed at spring tides of twelve miles an hour, and a curling crest nine feet high, sweeps up the Sittang river with ungovernable fury, its effect, though broken by the serpentine curve below Sittang, being felt at Shwé- gyeen. The Beeling river rises in the Poung-loung hills, and flows southward to the sea, entering the gulf between the Salween and the Sittang. 1 272 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. There is only one canal, which was constructed a few years ago, connecting the Pegu and Sittang rivers. There always was a stream there, which was deepened and widened, so as to allow of the passage of large boats, and a small river steamer once passed through it from Rangoon up the Pegu and Sittang rivers to Toungoo. Of lakes there are but four, which are more properly lagoons: the Thoo lake in the Myanoung district, on the west bank of the Irawadi, between that river and the Arakan hills, which is eight or nine miles round and two-and-a-half across; the Lahagyin, in a large low tract of ground on the opposite bank of the Irawadi; the Kandaugyee, or "large Royal lake," near Rangoon, about three miles round; and the lake of clear water in the Bassein district, about five miles in circumference, with a pretty uniform breadth of 280 to 300 yards, and a depth of from twenty to forty-five feet in the centre. The valley of the Salween is British territory only in its lower portion. The right bank of that river is a wilderness of mountains, drained by various streams, the most important of which is the Yonza- leen; but lower down, and especially below the Thoungyeen river on the east bank, there are large alluvial plains, which are drained by the Gyne and the Attaran rivers. The Salween, owing to its rapids, though a large river, is not navigable for *: THE SALWEEN RIVER. 273 large ships above the town and port of Maulmain, situated twenty-seven miles from its mouth. Maul- main is the head-quarter town of the district of Amherst and of the Tenasserim division. The source of the Salween is involved in still greater uncertainty than that of the Irawadi. Colonel Yule, in his map of Burma and adjacent countries, lays it down in lat. 26° 45', and long. 98° 40', in the Goolan Sigon range, in which is the conspicuous Siue Shau, the lofty snowy mountains, visible from Momein, and gives its upper course as delineated in the Lamas maps sent home by the Jesuits from Thibet. He thinks, however, the inferior amount of water discharged by this river is scarcely consistent with such a vast length as has been ascribed to it, and that its source will be found not far beyond the northern limits of Yunan. The general character of the Salween beyond where it enters British territory, and a short way within it, is that of a rocky and rapid stream flowing chiefly through narrow valleys, constantly interrupted by rapids, and only navigable for boats at short intervals ; except in a portion of Yunan, where the stream is said to be deeper and less swift. When I was Commissioner of Tenasserim, in 1864, an expedition was sent from Maulmain under Lieutenants Watson and Sconce to survey the course of the Salween; but owing to obstructions placed in VOL. I. T S 274 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. its way by the short-sighted policy and jealous sus- picions of the present King of Burma, had to return without gaining information of any value. The Attaran rises in the chain of hills which forms the boundary between the kingdom of Siam and British Burma, and flows in a south-westerly direction through dense teak forests and an almost unin- habited country. The Gyne, which flows in a some- what similar direction and rises in the same chain, passes through a more open country, and there are numerous villages on its banks: it is navigable for 120 miles for small boats. Tenasserim is that tract of country lying between 17° and 10° N. latitude along the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, and between it and a high chain of hills about forty miles inland, and includes the Mergui Archipelago, that is, the chain of islands along the coast fifteen or twenty miles distant from it. The surface of the country is mountainous, thinly populated, and much intersected by streams. Between the sea and the boundary range is another lower one, separated from the higher by the Tenas- serim river. The grand range is in some places 5,000 feet high: its breadth at Martaban has never been ascertained, but further south, in the latitude of Tavoy, it appears to be forty miles wide, whence it gradually narrows to ten miles near Mergui. The whole range is covered with pathless jungle, and TENASSERIM. (C may be said, without exaggeration, to be without a human habitation of any kind. The coast is very irregular, and low for some miles inland, consisting of uncultivated mangrove islands. The Tenasserim river rises in about 16° N. lati- tude, and flows through a valley scarcely broader than its bed to the southward, when, after passing the ancient town of Tenasserim, which gives its name to the division, it turns suddenly to the west, and empties itself into the sea by two mouths, the northern of which is the easier navigable for large ships, although in 1825 the cruiser Thetis sailed up the southern entrance as far as old Tenasserim. The river is navigable for boats for 100 miles. In its upper course is a very remarkable igneous dyke or fault, which runs like a wall nearly half-way across the stream, and is called by the natives the * giant's dam." It is a silicious rock, with perfect parallel sides, twenty feet above the water, five feet thick, and inclined at an angle of about ten degrees. The total area of the Province is 93,883 square miles, of which 18,531 are in Arakan; 36,454 in Pegu, which includes the valley of the Irawadi and the whole of the valley of the Sittang on the right bank of that river; and 38,898 in the Tenas- serim division, which includes the left bank of the Sittang, the southern portion of the left bank of the * Mason's "Burma," p. 550. 275 T 2 276 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Salween, i.e., the country to the eastward drained by the Gyne and the Attaran, and the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The communications throughout the Province are mainly by water. Steamers ply on the Irawadi between Thayetmyo, Prome, Myanoung, Henzadah and Rangoon, and a small steamer runs from Bassein to Rangoon. There is steam communication all round the coast from Calcutta to Akyab, and thence on to Rangoon and Maulmain, and a small steamer runs once a month from Maulmain south to Tavoy and Mergui. The only artificial water communica- tion in the province is that by the Pynekyun creek, between the Pegu and Sittang rivers, through which boats on their way from Rangoon to Sittang can pass during the flood tide. The soil throughout Arakan is mainly alluvial, mixed in places with sand; the islands are of volcanic formation, and though rocky are fertile. The rocks are composed of a dark brown sandstone, black gneiss, and brown or grey clay slate, and towards the southern portion, basalt is plentiful. Except a small quantity of iron and of limestone, there are no mineral productions of any value. The soil of the delta of the Irawadi is very rich, and gives a high return; owing to the sparseness of the population, however, there is but a comparatively small area cultivated. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL. 277 The Yoma range is composed mainly of brown or grey slate-clay, alternating with beds of argillaceous sandstone, assuming at times a basaltic character. Overlying the slate-clay is a bed of laterite, forming an undulating dry tract about thirteen miles wide, covered with trees or bamboos. The Arakan range abounds in limestone, and in some portions granite, gneiss, greenstone and hornblende are met with ; quartz nodules are common. Coal has been found in small quantities near Thayetmyo, but, after a careful examination by Dr. Oldham of the Geolo- gical Survey of India, it was found to be worthless, both as regards quality and quantity. In 1854, the soil in the northern portion of the valley of the Irawadi, was reported to be well suited for the growth of cotton, but rice is the principal cultivation. The soil of the upper portion of the Sittang valley is clayey, mixed with a good deal of sand, the sand gradually disappearing towards the south. The chief formation of the small hills is laterite, and but few rocks are met with in the low land to the west of the river. To the east of the Sittang river, large masses of rock (limestone) rise suddenly and perpendicularly out of the soil, to a height of 400 or 500 feet, and from a quarter to half a mile in length, with sharp jagged ridges. These are apparently outcrops of a chain which runs north- west and south-east from the plains, to the north-east 278 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of Maulmain across the Salween and Yonzaleen rivers to the inner Poungloung range. The soil of the northern portion of Tenasserim is alluvial, but not much cultivated except near the Gyne, though cultivation is spreading. Stratified sandstone is the prevailing rock in the north, inter- sected with veins of quartz, in which crystals of great beauty are sometimes discovered; vesicular ironstone, or tufa, or laterite is also prevalent, and bituminous shale is found below the rocks. At Amherst, there is a granite reef which is uncovered at low tide only; and towards the south, granite, with the felspar white, becomes the main formation, with clay slate and micaceous iron ore on the eastern slope of the hills. At the mouth of the Tavoy river, there is also a granite containing pinkish coloured felspar, re- markable for its hardness and its property of resist- ing exposure to the weather without disintegration; it also exists in a mountainous range in the north- east of the province, and was taken by Dr. Helfer for syenite. Still further south, sandstone, grey wacke, and conglomerate, in which latter there is much iron, prevail. In several parts of the country where the clay oxides predominate, the remains of furnaces for the reduction of the ore are seen, giving evidences of the rude and imperfect method of the Burmese in former years, in obtaining supplies of COAL, IRON, AND TIN. 279 iron. The slag and scoriæ of these furnaces often contain from fifteen to twenty per cent. of metal. Fifteen miles inland, the secondary stratified for- mations predominate, and of these the old red sand- stone is most common. Coal has been discovered in five distinct localities, and has been reported to be "well adapted for steamers, having a low specific gravity, burns with a brilliant white flame, and leaves but a very small proportion of ashes." It appears to exist as a broken series of coal basins, the extent of which has not as yet been accurately defined. From a point of lati- tude, about 14° 45′ north, to the southern extremity of the province, the whole coast line is stanniferous, scarcely a stream within that space but has tin asso- ciated with the detritus of its bed. In some locali- ties, pits have been sunk through the alluvium of the ancient stream courses, and the tin beds, varying from six to fourteen feet in depth, have been exten- sively worked. A tin mining company with an extensive plant was established at Malewon, on the right bank of the Pak Chan river, just before I left Burma in 1871, by an enterprising merchant of Rangoon, Mr. James Strang Steel, and is, I am happy to hear, meeting with great success. Gold is present in the upper portion of the Lenya river, and is found in minute particles accompanying the stream tin ore, 280 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and in the affluents of the Shwé-gyeen river, as indicated by its name. Both the ores of lead (galena), some of which contain a high per-centage of silver, and those of copper (chiefly sulphurets), are obtained to the northward, on both sides of the Salween river; as also those of plumbago and antimony. A mine of the sulphuret of antimony was worked near Maulmain some years ago, but did not meet with much success, the operations having been conducted without a practical knowledge of such undertakings. The temperature of Burma, taking it all the year round, is much cooler than that of Bengal. It being more to the southward, the south-west monsoon sets in earlier, and the intense heat which immediately precedes the commencement of the rainy season, is consequently shorter. A sultry evening or night is of rare occurrence. In the lower portions of the province, owing to their proximity to the sea, there is generally a breeze; and in the upper also from the natural formation of the country in valleys. The seasons may be divided into two, the wet and the dry, or the south- west and north-east monsoons. The former com- mencing early in May, and ending in October, and the latter extending during the remaining period. The prevailing winds during the wet season blow from the south-west, and in the dry from the north- CLIMATE OF BURMA. 281 east; and these vary but slightly, being interrupted, at times only, by light land and sea breezes. The proverbial fickleness of the weather in northern climates is therefore unknown, and the changes may be predicted throughout the year. The south-west wind brings with it from the equator a warm humid air, taking up in its passage across the Indian Ocean vast quantities of aqueous vapour, and being checked in its course by the hills running along the Tenasserim and Arakan coasts, deluge those parts of the country with torrents of rain,* which to those who have not experienced a rainy season before in the tropics, excite great astonishment. The rain descends from the lurid skies in dense sheets, accompanied with vivid lightning, and crashing peals of thunder, and during the paroxysms of the monsoon has an appearance, as if Heaven, in its justice, had deemed fit to immerse in a second cataclysm an impenitent world. In the delta of the Irawadi, however, the rains are not so heavy as on the northern and southern * The total fall of rain during 1870 (the year previous to my leaving Burma) was, at the sea-coast town of Maulmain, 184.6 inches, and at Thayet-myo, our northern frontier station in the delta of the Irawadi, 40.8 inches. The greatest amount of rain fell at Maulmain this year in the month of August, namely 59.2 inches. During January, February, March, April, November, and December, the six dry months of the year, the total fall was only 3.9 inches. The greatest amount of rain ever recorded as having fallen in any one day at Maulmain, was on May 27, 1857, when 12.97 inches were registered. 282 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. coasts; and in its northern part, which is some- what sheltered from the influence of the south-west monsoon by the Arakan hills, the fall of rain, comparatively speaking, is scanty, and gradually decreases as you proceed further to the northward, till at a little above our frontier post at Meaday,* the south-west monsoon is marked by only occa- sional showers. Drought is sometimes experienced there, and in Upper Burma; but famines † pro- ceeding from such-as in India-are happily un- known. Famines have occurred in Burma in former times, but are ascribed to devastating wars and political causes, rather than to soil or climate. - Along the coast the thermometer during the south-west monsoon ranges from 70° to 86° in the * The derivation ascribed to this word is rather curious. It is stated in the Burmese Maha-Radza-Weng that as the two blind sons of the King of Tagoung, named Maha-tham-ba-wa and Tsoo-la-tham-ba-wa, were floating down the Irawadi upon a raft-on which they had been cast adrift by their mother from shame at their being born blind-and were passing the site of the present town of Meaday their eye-sight was suddenly restored to them by a Beloo-ma. On looking up and seeing the sky for the first time, they exclaimed, "The sky covers the earth like a tent," from which saying, in after times when a city was built there, it was called Myé-dai (earth-tent or cover). On dropping further down the river they met Bhe-da-ree, the adopted daughter of their uncle La-ba-da-na, who had deserted Tagoung some years previous and turned hermit. Maha-tham-ba-wa married Bhe-da-ree, and shortly after founded the city of Thare-Khet-ta-yu (the Pali name for Prome) and estab- lished the Burmese monarchy there. This latter event is said to have taken place in the year 60 of the Gautama era, or 486 B.C. The Burmese call Prome, Pyee, and the Talaings, Praun. We have derived our name of Prome from the latter. + Famines in India, even in modern times, are very destructive. The most fatal one on record is that which happened in 1770, when ten out of twenty- five millions of the inhabitants of Bengal perished in consequence of the failure of the crops owing to drought. The present one is also very severe. TEMPERATURE. 283 shade, and during the hottest part of the year, that is in March and April, rises occasionally as high as 95°. In the northern parts of Pegu, where the temperature is not affected by the sea breeze, the thermometer in the two seasons ranges to a maxi- mum and minimum of 10° above and below what it registers on the coast. The greatest thermo- metric variations occur in the north-east monsoon when the thermometer is at its lowest range, 52°, extending as much as 34° frequently in the twenty- four hours. * No snow falls in British Burma; but at the commencement of the south-west monsoon there are occasional storms of hail. A phenomenon so striking as a fall of ice at the season of most intense atmospherical heat is surprising." Accord- ing to Professor Shavelly of Belfast, the rationale of its appearance on such occasions seems to be that as the sudden formation and descent of the first drops of rain, the air expanding and rushing into the void spaces, robs the succeeding drops of their caloric so effectually as to send them to the earth frozen into ice balls! Frost is, however, frequent during the middle of the north-east monsoon in the higher ranges of mountains. remember on one occasion in the Yoonzaleen range, during the month of January, having to break the I * Sir J. E. Tennent's "Ceylon," vol. I., p. 70. 284 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ice on the water of a tub standing in my tent, before I could bathe. The climate is not inimical to the European con- stitution.* The British regiments and their detach- ments stationed at Rangoon and Maulmain on the coast, and at Thayet-myo and Toung-oo on the northern frontier, enjoy excellent health during their tour of service, which extends generally to four years. Their average mortality per thousand for the last few years has only been 18.21, a fourth of which the climate has no influence on. The most prevalent complaints are fever, dysentery, and he- patic diseases, from which the natives themselves are by no means free. The general sturdy and vigorous appearance of the latter, however, is the best criterion of the healthiness of the climate as regards them. The surface of the country presents great variety, embracing rich alluvial valleys and fertile uplands, and perhaps no country in the world possesses a richer and more varied flora. Nature appears to * The greatest evil that the British soldier has to contend against in the East is the facility of obtaining drink. I remember hearing of a soldier just arrived in a transport off Fort William, asking a fellow private—who had reached Calcutta in another vessel a few weeks previous-what kind of a quarter India was, and the reply was that "it is a fine country, lots to drink, and you are always dry." Though not a strict advocate myself for total abstinence, thinking, as I do, that the Word of God enjoins temperance and not total abstinence, I am glad, nevertheless, to see that "The Soldiers' Total Abstinence Association in India" is making steady progress. From an Indian periodical called "On Guard," I perceive the number of its members has risen to 8,600. The association was first established in 1862. BEAUTIFUL SCENERY. 285 revel in the luxury of her charms, and imagination can hardly picture any scenery more beautiful and luxuriant. There are but few deciduous trees, and owing to the plentiful moisture during a great part of the year, and the warmth of the atmosphere, the plains are enamelled with a most exuberant vegeta- tion and flowers of the brightest hues, while the mountains are clothed to their tops with perennial foliage of endless variety, bright with the verdure of perpetual spring. An extraordinary fact connected with the flora of Burma, and which, I believe, has not yet been satisfactorily accounted for, is the growth of extra- tropical plants in the plains and on low hills that only appear on the opposite coast, and in India generally, on the mountains at an elevation of several thousand feet, and consequently in a much lower temperature. Among these I may instance Pinus longifolia, growing in the Thoung-gyeen valley about three hundred feet above the level of the sea. Garcinia pictoria, which Roxburgh states grows on the highest parts of the Wynaad (about six thousand feet high), is found at the foot of the hills in the Tavoy district bordering on tidal * waters. * This peculiar mixture of tropical and temperate forms of vegetation has been attributed to the moisture of the climate; but in Upper Burma, where the same phenomena occur, the rainfall is much less, and the atmosphere drier, also, than it is in Bengal. 286 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. "Of the rose tribe, which includes the apples, cherries, and plums, Wight says there is not a single indigenous species in the plains of India, and that the species are peculiarly extra-tropical, a very few only being found within the tropics, and then at considerable elevations; but on the coast of Burma there is one indigenous species of rubus or bramble, another of cerasus or cherry, observed by Griffith, another of pyrus or pear, found by Wallich on the Irawadi, and I have myself seen a species of pygeum on an affluent of the Tenas- serim river, within a short distance of the influence of the tide.” * Many others could also be men- tioned, but I will conclude with mentioning that the English brake (Pteris aquilina) abounds in the hills, and the silver fern of Kamptschatka (Notho- chloena argentea) is to be found growing on the walls of the old fort at Toung-00. Ornamental trees are in great abundance, and remarkable for their beauty. In the first rank must be placed the Amherstia nobilis. It is peculiar to British Burma, and grows to the height of forty feet when full grown. Nothing can be more graceful and beautiful than its slender pendulous branches, with their bright green foliage "draperied with large pea-blossom-shaped flowers of scarlet and gold, * This quotation, as well as several of those following on Burmese botany, is derived from Dr. Mason's work on the "Natural Productions of Burma." * AMHERSTIA NOBILIS. 287 which hang down from its graceful arches in tassels more than a yard long." It was first discovered near Trocla on the Salween river by Dr. Wallich, and named by him after Lady Amherst, the wife of the then Governor-General of India. Dr. Wallich says, "There can be no doubt that this tree when in foliage and blossom is the most strikingly superb object which can possibly be imagined. It is unequalled in the flora of the East, and I presume not surpassed in magnificence and elegance in any part of the world." Its precise habitat was unknown until 1865, when it was discovered by the Rev. C. Parish growing wild on the banks of the Yoondzaleen river. From the fact of old trees of this species being found only in the vicinity of sacred places, it was for a long time supposed not to be indigenous, but to have been introduced by Buddhist pilgrims from the Shan States, or China. It is often found planted in company with the Jonesia, and which is called by the Burmese the wife of the Amherstia. The tree first discovered by Dr. Wallich was growing beside a Fonesia; and the symmetry and numerous graceful racemes of crimson and orange blossoms of the latter, well fit it for such companionship. According to Klaproth, "Gautama was born under this tree; and within the fall of its shadow, and at the instant of his birth, he delivered his first 288 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. harangue. With the voice like the roaring of a lion he exclaimed, 'I am the most excellent of men. I am the most famous of men. I am the most vic- torious of men!"" This tree was called Fonesia in honour of Sir William Jones. The fragrant gold-coloured blossom of the Cham- pac (Michelia champaca) is a great favourite with the Burmese, as well as Indian women, for decking their hair, and has furnished Sanskrit, Persian and Burmese poets with many elegant allusions. Our own poet Moore, too, alludes thus to its flowers in "Lalla Rookh "* (tulip-cheek):- "The Maid of India, blest again to hold In her full lap the Champac's leaves of gold, Thinks of the time when, by the Ganges' flood Her little playmates scatter'd many a bud Upon her long black hair, with glossy gleam Just dripping from the consecrated stream.” The strong aromatic scent of the flowers is said to be offensive to bees, who are never seen on its blossoms. The Brahmins say that there is a blue variety, but it flowers only in Paradise. It is of the Magnolia species, and few Burmese gardens are without this tree. One of the trees, however, that most readily attracts the eye of a stranger is the Mesua, or Gungau of the Burmese. It possesses in a peculiar * 'Poetical Works of Thomas Moore,” p. 302. THE MESUA OR GUNGAU TREE. degree the property, when changing its foliage- which is common, also, to other Burmese trees, but not to that extent of throwing out fresh shoots, forming a perfect blaze of young crimson leaves. This takes place prior to the decay of the old leaves, which still remain vividly green, and while the tree, too, is in full flower. The blossom has beautiful ivory-white petals, with deep golden-coloured sta- mens, and the whole taken together has a most remarkable effect. The flowers possess a delicious. odour, and have been placed by the Hindus in the quiver of Camadeva, the Indian Cupid. These flowers are also noticed by Moore in "Lalla Rookh:" VOL. I. "And those sweet flowerets that unfold Their buds on Camadeva's quiver." 289 In the Sanskrit poem called Naishadba,* there is a wild but elegant couplet, where the poet compares the white corolla of the Nágacésara (Sanskrit name of the Mesua) from which the bees were scattering the pollen of the numerous gold-coloured anthers, to an alabaster wheel on which Camadeva was whetting his arrows, while sparks of fire were dispersed in every direction. These flowers are presented as new year's gifts by the Burmese, accompanied with wishes for "a happy new year. "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv., Calcutta, 1795. U "} 290 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. And the tree itself is much venerated by them, as it is recorded in the Buddhist scriptures that Ara- măitriya, the coming Buddh, and the fifth and last of the present dispensation, will enter upon divine life while musing beneath its hallowed shade. The palms are well represented in Burma, and of which, I believe, there are twenty different species, viz. Cocos, 1; Areca, 2; Borassus, 2; Corypha, 2; Phoenix, 3; Livistona, 1; Macroladus, 1; Licuala, 2; Calamus, 5; and Calamosagus, 1. The cocoanut (Cocos), areca (Areca catechu), and palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis) are more generally diffused than any of the others. The cocoanut is a most invaluable tree, its stems, leaves, and fruit being turned to innumerable uses. It flourishes best on or near the sea shore, and expe- rience has shown that both its growth and produce diminish where not under the influence of the sea breeze. The Areca catechu grows to the height of fifty feet, with an elegant, straight, smooth stem, about twenty inches in circumference, and of equal thickness throughout. It is cultivated for the sake of its nuts, which appear in clusters amidst its crown of feathery foliage. The nuts have an austere and astringent flavour, and are universally chewed in Burma and in India, mixed with lime, and the leaf of the betel pepper. The mixture of the three substances when masticated, stains the lips and PALMS. 291 saliva a deep red colour. It is esteemed a great luxury, and is believed, also, to be a good tonic and prophylactic. The leaves of the palmyra as well as the corypha (Corypha umbraculifera) are used as substitutes for paper,* and are very large, more especially the latter, which are divided into many rays, and are often fifteen feet in diameter and eighteen feet long, exclusive of the stalk. The Buddhist sacred bookst are chiefly composed of these leaves, written upon with a steel style. They are also largely used for fans by the Buddhist priests; and are borne by the followers of chiefs and head-men as portions of their paraphernalia on occasions of ceremony. Sir William Jones, speaking of the former palm, says, "This * Sir Emerson Tennent in his " History of Ceylon," vol. i., p. 110, thus describes the process as pursued by the Ceylonese in preparing these leaves. It is similar to that pursued by the Burmese, who probably first learnt it from them. The leaves are taken whilst still tender, and, after separating the central ribs, they are cut into strips and boiled in spring water. They are first dried in the shade, and afterwards in the sun, then made into rolls, and kept in store, or sent to market for sale. Before they are fit for writing upon they are subjected to a second process, called Madema. A smooth plank of areca-palm is tied horizontally between two trees, each leaf is then damped, and, a weight being attached to one end of it, it is drawn backwards and forwards across the edge of the wood till the surface becomes perfectly smooth and polished; and during the process, as the moisture dries up, it is necessary to renew it till the effect is complete. The smoothing of a single leaf will occupy from fifteen to twenty minutes." + In the Arabian manuscript of Albyroum, who wrote his account of India in the tenth century, he describes a tree in the south of the Dekkan resembling the date or cocoanut palm, on the leaves of which the natives wrote, and passing a cord through the centre formed books. These leaves, he says, were a cubit in length, and three finger-breadths wide, and, according to him, were called târy. This might be taken as a description of the Burmese books in use at the present day. U 2 292 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. magnificent palm is justly considered the king of its order, which the Hindus call 'trina druma,' or grass-trees. It is much esteemed for its vinous sap, and the sugar extracted from it. "The mode of obtaining the sap is by crushing the young inflorescence and amputating the upper half; the lower is then tied to a leafstalk, and has an earthen pot attached to its end, which gradually fills with sap, and is removed every morning; when replaced a fresh slice is cut from the wounded end of the inflorescence-an operation which is repeated daily until the whole of the raceme is sliced away. In procuring the sugar exactly the same process is followed, but the inside of the receiver is powdered with lime, which prevents fermentation taking place; the juice is afterwards boiled down, and finally dried by exposure to smoke in little baskets, and in this form it is sold in Burma under the name of tan-lyet. The female tree produces three or four times as much sap as the male, and a good healthy one is said to furnish some three quarts a day, which is continued for about five months." The pith of the trunk of Corypha umbraculifera also furnishes a sort of flour from which a kind of bread is made; but it is not held in much esteem. This palm attains to the height often of one hundred feet. It only flowers once and then dies. The flower is not unlike that of the Yucca or Adam's BURMESE FRUITS. (6 293 needle in shape, but very much larger. It issues from the apex of the tree and centre of the leaves, forming an immense ovate panicle of about twenty feet or more in height, and is a very grand object. The first bursting of its closely crowded spike or spadix is accompanied with a loud explosion. Burma abounds with esculent fruits, which, unlike northern regions, with their tedious winter and cœlum nebulis fœdum" that bring forth few to maturity until autumn, are distributed in plenty throughout the whole year. Pine-apples and plan- tains (Musa paradisiaca) are amongst the most abundant. The former are cultivated to a great extent near large towns. Early in the morning, on the roads leading to Rangoon, carts loaded with them, like turnips in England, may be seen wending their way to market. to market. They grow to great perfec- tion, and are sold at the rate of four for a penny, and even cheaper. The plantain may be pronounced the staple fruit of the country, and is in constant succession all the year round. There are at least thirty varieties, some of which are used as dessert fruit, and others cooked as a vegetable. The mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) and the dorian (Durio zibethinus) are peculiar to the Indo- Chinese peninsula and the Malay Archipelago. They appear only to flourish in the climate of 294 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. "India aquosa," as this part of the world is called by old writers, and are not found northward of the equator, or on the continent of India. Malaya's nectared mangosteen," Marsden says, "is perhaps the most delicate fruit in the world." It is about the size of a moderately large orange, spherical in shape, with a thick, smooth, dark red rind, crowned with the permanent peltate six to eight-lobed stigma. Enclosing the seeds is a delicious white pulp, which, from its dissolving freely in the mouth, has been compared to "perfumed snow." The rind is very astringent, and its decoction is used in dysentery and other diseases. The dorian is regarded with peculiar favour by the natives, and I may say generally so also with Europeans resident in the country, though, chacun à son goût, I must confess I am not partial to the fruit myself. A friend of mine (Colonel J. P. Briggs), who was a great enthusiast regarding it, writes thus of the fruit: "It is so rich and highly- flavoured, that it resembles marrow rather than fruit, and is subject when ripe to speedy decom- position, when its odour becomes disagreeable, a circumstance which has made it disliked by some who have not been enabled, by the locality in which they reside, to eat the fruit fresh from the tree. Everyone who has had this advantage, on the other hand declare it to be beyond question the finest (( H DORIAN FRUIT. 295 fruit in the world; and though few eat it the first season of their residence in the country, they after- wards become so fond of it, that they never tire of its flavour-never grow weary of speaking in its praise." The fruit, which is the size of a large melon, is covered with sharp spikes, and has been com- pared to a rolled-up hedgehog. It divides into several lobes, filled with seeds about the size of a bantam's egg, enveloped in a rich white cream-like pulp, which latter forms the edible portion of the fruit. The odour of this substance, Rumphius, in describing the fruit, compares "to that of onions in a state of putrefaction "--but he, possibly, as Colonel Briggs would say, could not have met with the fruit in its fresh state. The tree will not grow in Upper Burma, and before our annexation of Pegu, the Kings of Burma used to have this odoriferous fruit despatched to Ava from Martaban by horse post. In 1862, when I was Commissioner of the Tenasserim and Mar- taban provinces, the present King of Burma sent his steam yacht to me at Moulmein for a cargo of dorians, and which I procured for him, but they did not stand the voyage, and but few, I afterwards heard, reached the palace in sound condition. The Kana-tso-thee (Pierardia sapota) is an elegant tree, and bears long golden bunches of 296 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. fruit, in shape resembling grapes. The fruit has a very agreeable sub-acid flavour when ripe, and in its green state is pickled and used like olives. Besides the above fruits, mangoes, oranges, limes, citrons, and all fruits common to the continent of India and the Eastern Archipelago, are produced in Burma. The wonderful luxuriance of the vegetation in the vast forests of Burma, and the great variety of creepers, lianes, epiphytes, and parasites which abound is very striking. There is scarcely a tree to be found without some of them upon it. With one remarkable exception, however, and to which no plant can attach itself to, and that is Homatium tomentosum, called by the Burmese "Myouk-Kyau- beng," or monkey-slipping tree, because not even a monkey can climb it, owing to its smooth bark being covered with a white slippery pulverulent substance, not unlike French chalk, which comes off on the slightest touch. It grows to the height of about eighty feet, with a straight stem, destitute of branches to a considerable height. With this single exception it is sometimes diffi- cult to discover the tree that supports them, owing to the mass of verdure* and cortical lichens which * • Amongst this verdure the green drapery of the grass fern (Vittania graminifolia) Polypodium quercifolium, Aroidea, Lomaria scandens, Epi- dendreæ, Vandeæ, Drynaria quercifolia, Loranthus pentandrus, and the various kinds of Echites, Eschynanthus, Hoya, Hedychium are very con- spicuous. 龟 ​ Box DENDROBIUM FYTCHIANUM. FERNS AND ORCHIDS. 297 cover their trunks and branches. The forks, hollows, and boughs of the trees are often loaded and festooned with those beautiful epyphytes the ferns and orchids, of which there are great varie- ties, more especially of the Dendrobiæ, one very beautiful new variety of which I discovered, and was named after me. The leaves of this Den- drobium are of a slender linear shape, and the flowers, which are an inch across, are of the most dazzling whiteness, except that the small lateral lobes are tinged with crimson. They are borne in graceful racemes a span long, proceeding from the extremity of the upright stems, the latter being about a foot in length, and of the thickness of a goosequill. It is figured on the opposite page, and a description of it from the "Botanical Magazine," 1864, Tab. 5,444, is given below.* Many of the creepers are of gigantic size, some exceeding even a foot in diameter. They twist themselves around the trunks, scramble over the branches, and run over the tops of the largest trees, linking them together in a maze of living network above, and from the huge festoons they throw down often form an almost impenetrable tangle below. * Dendrobium Fytchianum: Caulibus erectis cylindricis vaginatis, foliis remotis, oblongo lanceolatis, racemis terminalibus strictis multifloris, peri- anthium explanatum album, sepalis lanceolatis, petalis latissime obovatis, labello tribolo, basi barbatulo, lobis lateralibus parvis oblongis incurvis purpureo-roseis, intermedio latissime obcordato apiculato integerrimo peta- lorum magnitudine, calcare obtuso breviusculo. 298 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. One, Entada Pursatha, has immense pods, five feet long and upwards, and six inches broad, con- taining large brown beans, used by the Burmese in one of their favourite games;* they also enter into the native Materia Medica as a febrifuge. Another conspicuous species, Pothos gigantea, has enormous leaves two feet long, and one and a half foot broad. A creeper, called by the Burmese Tshalay, a species of Daphne, grows also to a large size. From the bark of this creeper the Burmese prepare the paper, or rather thin card-board, of their paraboiks. The surface of the card-board is blackened, and written upon with a steatite pencil; and the paraboik is made to open backwards and forwards, in the shape a map is sometimes folded, and forms the common memorandum, or account book, in use in the country. A scandent Bauhinia (Bauhinia scandens) is curious from the contorted and writhing appearance of its stem, and is said by Loudon to have been the origin of Esculapius' snaken rod, which he brought from India. Other climbers of less dimen- sions, such as Butea superba, Congea velutina, and Thunbergia laurifolia, are beautiful for their flowers. • * The game is played by fixing a line of these seeds in the ground; a seed is then spun at them, which from the peculiar twist given to it forms a kind of parabolic curve; and a skilful player often succeeds in knocking down the whole line in one spin. The player who knocks down the most in a certain number of spins wins the game. ? BAMBOOS AND RATTANS. 299 These three species are almost ubiquitous, and flower all the year round. The canes or rattans belonging to the Calamus genus are mostly ground creepers. One of this species, which I traced along the ground, measured upwards of three hundred feet long, was about three inches in circumference, and had no leaves except a small tuft at its extremity These canes are used for dragging timber, rigging boats, and other purposes where hemp or coir ropes are em- ployed; and the smaller ones as ties for matting, making baskets, caning the bottoms of chairs, and other such work. The undergrowth is most abundant. Varieties of the following genera are most richly represented, and are chiefly evergreen, namely :-Barringto- niacea, Cinchonacea, Duonaciea, Euphorbiacea, Jasminacea, Lauracea, Leguminosea, Graminacea, Milvacea, Myrsinacea, and Rubiacea. The most extensively diffused under-wood, however, is the well-known Bamboo (Order Graminaceae). It ap- pears to flourish everywhere, irrespective of site or soil, and from the various uses it can be put to occupies a most important place in the domestic economy of the people, and is doubtless one of the most valuable productions of nature to the natives of the countries where it grows. Its stems form the chief material in houses, boats, and furniture, and it 300 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. would be difficult to find an object requiring strength and elasticity, combined with lightness, for which it is not adapted. These stems are, properly speaking, the branches of the plant, and are "pushed forth by a strong, jointed, subterranean, creeping rootstock, which is the true trunk of the Bamboo."* When first they appear they resemble asparagus sprouts, but having a sharp point, and are much relished as articles of food. These sprouts are most rapid in their growth, and in one variety, Bambusa gigantea, has been known, according to Dr. Mason, to grow eighteen inches in twenty-four hours. The bamboo grows in clumps, and its feathery green foliage waves in the wind like plumes of feathers. I have Burmese names for forty different varieties. Their mean height is about thirty feet; but one variety, the Wa-bo or Bambusa gigantea, alluded to above, attains the height of one hundred feet, each joint ranging from twenty to twenty-four inches in length, and as much as thirty-six inches in circumference. Amongst some of the hill tribes in India, worship is offered to the bamboo, as an impersonation or representative of the Deity of the forest. One tribe (described by Dr. Balfour in his interesting article published in Jameson's "Edinburgh Journal,” No. LXIX. for 1843), a migratory tribe of "Athletæ,' Roxburgh, "Flora Indica," vol. ii. 19 THE TEAK TREE. - 301 called the Bhatoos, worship the bamboo, with which their principal feats are performed, as their chief. Dr. Balfour says that on the summit of a hill, near Kittoor, in the Bombay Presidency, is erected the shrine of their patron Goddess Karewa, an incarna- tion of Mahadeva. The hill is surrounded by a dense forest of bamboo. From this forest a bamboo stem is selected, and the attendants of the temple consecrate it. After which it is called "Gunnichari" (Chief), and receives their worship annually. To it, as to a human chief, all respect is shown; and in cases of marriage, of disputes requiring arbitration, or the occurrence of knotty points demanding con- sultation, the Gunnichari is erected in the midst of the counsellors or arbiters, and all prostrate them- selves to it previous to commencing the discussion of the subject before them. Of timber trees the Teak (Tectona grandis)* is the most valuable, both for export and domestic use; and as it forms, after rice, the most important staple product of the country, calls for rather a lengthy description. I know, myself, of only four species of teak in Burma, Kywn pharoon (Pumpkin teak), Kywn kyouk (Rock teak), Kywn-pho (Male teak), - * A genus of plants belonging to the natural order Verbenacea. It is characterized by having a 5-6 toothed calyx, which becomes inflated over the growing pericarp; corolla 1-petalled, 5-6 cleft; stamens 5, but often 6; germ superior, 4-celled, cells i-seeded, attachment central; drupe obtusely 4-sided woolly, spongy, dry, hid in the calyx. Nut hard, 4-celled. Seed solitary; embryo erect without perisperm. 4. 302 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT.. i * and Kywn-noo (Leprous teak). The Burmese say there are several other varieties, and, I believe, as many as twenty, obtained from various localities, and arranged according to their density, were displayed by the Naval Department of the East India Com- pany at the Great Exhibition of 1851. The first, the true Tectona grandis, is by far the most abundant, and comes to maturity in about eighty years. It attains a girth of twelve to sixteen feet, with a bole of eighty to ninety feet to the head of the branches, and splendid baulks of sixty feet in length, and as much as twenty-four inches square, are frequently shipped from Maulmain. The wood is of a light brown colour, and amongst its other valuable properties contains a resinous oil, which preserves iron from rust, and resists the action of water, as well as of insects. It is quickly seasoned, and easily worked, and from its combined strength, elasticity, and endurance, is known as the most valuable timber for ship building in the world. Its specific gravity is on an average about 0'720. The second variety is a closer grained wood, much harder and darker, takes double the time to come to maturity, and does not, even then, attain the size of the first. These These-more especially the former-are the chief varieties exported. The two other varieties are mostly used for house building in the country itself, and for furniture. The Kywn-noo . TEAK FORESTS. 303 has a peculiar knotty appearance and wavy grain, and is well adapted for the latter purpose. Teak does not grow in large continuous masses, but, as described by Dr. McClelland,* is diffused throughout the general forest in the proportion of about one to five hundred of other trees. In what are called the teak forests, strictly speaking, it is found in the proportion of about one to three hundred, not equally diffused, but confined to certain localities of small extent where it constitutes the prevailing tree for a few hundred yards, seldom for a mile continuously. It is in the hill forests alone that teak appears to perfection. It is chiefly found on the southern and western declivities, where it is exposed to a strong sun. On the open and exposed ridges it becomes scarce, and it disappears altogether on the northern sides of the hills. It is this peculiar partiality it exhibits for the southern and western slopes, together with the time of year it seeds, that renders the distribution of teak so partial and limited. Its immediate associates in the forests are chiefly Spondia acuminata, Swietenia chaplas, Dalbergia robusta, and D. emarginata, Blackwellia propinqua, and B. spirale, Shorea robusta, Strychnos, Hofea odorata, Inga xylocarpa, Lagerstroemia, Fagraa * "Report on the Teak forests of Pegu," by Dr. McClelland, 1854. 304 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT fragrans, Sterculia alata, Phyllanthus, Terminalia scevola, T. bellerica; all large timber, rivalling the teak itself in magnitude, and far outnumbering it in quantity. The soil of the teak forests presents the same uniformity as the geological structure. In the hill, forests where the best teak is found, the soil is a grey, stiff, sandy clay, derived from the dark slaty sand-stone and slate clay, the particles passing downwards into comminuted slaty rhomboidal frag- ments. Teak is a tree of rapid growth when placed in a favourable soil. The first year the seedling attains the height of twelve inches, throwing out two large leaves; the second year it springs up to the height of three or four feet, after which it goes on increas- ing rapidly, and bears seed in the eighth year of its growth, when it has attained the height of twenty- five feet and upwards. It is remarkable for its very large leaves, which are from ten to twenty inches in length, and eight to sixteen in breadth; these, as also its yellowish white flowers, are produced in great masses in the rainy season-but the foliage is very deciduous, and by the month of February little of it remains on the tree. The leaves, which have been com- pared by oriental writers to elephants' ears, in their fallen state strew the ground very thickly, and are AREA OF STATE FORESTS. * very brittle. Stalking game in such cover is a difficult matter, rendering silent walking almost impossible, and as Captain Forsyth's facetious friend expressed it, in a very unnecessary whisper when they were trying to creep up to a stag—" 'tis likę walking on tin boxes.” The seeds are produced after the rainy season, and are contained in a hard shell, which requires both considerable moisture and heat to decompose them. The teak tree therefore loses nearly a whole season in its propagation, and in its early stages is at great disadvantage "in the struggle for existence" with other giants of the forest, and the luxuriant jungle under-growth, which almost invariably shed their seeds at the commencement of the rains, and sprout almost immediately on reaching the ground. The area of forests reserved by the State in the Province in 1875-76 was 392,793 acres, 335,880 of which contained teak. The produce from these teak reserves delivered at the central depôts during that year was 46,597 tons, which realized at public auction an average of £3 18s. per ton. The quan- tity imported from Upper Burma, the Shan States, and Karennee amounted to 165,913 tons, and the total of British and foreign teak timber exported from the Province was 162,164 tons. The other most important timber trees, and * "The Highlands of Central India," by Captain Forsyth. VOL. I. 305 X 306 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. which are most plentiful throughout all parts of the forests, are those already mentioned as commonly associated with teak. The Shorea robusta, the Eng-ghyeng of the Burmese, and in Sanskrit, Sâl, is abundant both in Burma, and in the forests of the Indian Continent. In India, it is considered one of the best timber trees; and every species of this family, of which there are several, affords valuable timber. According to the Southern Buddhists, it was in a forest of these trees, that Queen Maia, when on her way to visit her relations in the country of Dewah, was delivered of the infant Gautama. Inga xylocarpa, the iron wood, is a very hard durable wood. It grows very lofty and straight, and is chiefly used for house posts. Three species nearly allied to the Sissoo of India, namely Dalbergia robusta, D. emarginata, and D. frondosa, yield very tough wood, valuable for gun carriages. Diospyros melanoxylon, or ebony, occurs plenti- fully from fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter, and fifty to seventy feet long. Lagerstroemia, next to teak, is perhaps in greater request than any other timber for ship building, and for various economic purposes. Strychnos Nux-vomica is a hard, tough, useful wood. It is characterised by its oval shining leaves, and its fruit, which, when ripe, is the size and colour VALUABLE TIMBER. 307 of an orange. From the seeds of this fruit, the deadly alkaloid poison strychnine is extracted; but the pulpy substance in which they are enveloped, and that forms the nux vomica of commerce, is perfectly harmless, and is a favourite repast with native children. Snake charmers eat the fresh seeds in small quantities without any ill effect, believing them to be a prophylactic against serpent's venom. Fagræa fragrans, which also belongs to this tribe, yields an excellent timber. The Burmese regard it as too good for the laity, and say it ought to be confined solely to sacerdotal purposes. It is used frequently for the posts of Buddhist monasteries, and other religious edifices. Hopea odorata, though scarce in Pegu, is very plentiful in the southern portions of the province, where it is considered the most valuable indigenous tree. It grows to a very large size, and is the timber from which boats are chiefly constructed; the large solid cart-wheels in use by the Burmese are made from it; as also oil and sugar-cane presses. Dipterocarpus lævis, and D. turbinatus, two varie- ties of the wood-oil tree, produce a useful sound timber, which, sawn into planks, is used for house building; but their chief value consists in the oil they produce. A triangular excavation, the base of which is about eighteen inches, is made in the boll X 2 308 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT of the tree, a fire is then lighted therein, that causes the oil to flow freely into an earthen vessel sus- pended to collect it. According to Dr. Helfer, a single tree will produce from thirty to forty gallons in a season without injury. The oil is identical in its chemical and medicinal properties, with that of the balsam copaiva. The Burmese distinguish the species as Kanyeng-nee, and K.-phyoo, red and white Kan- yeng. Torches and the best charcoal are made from their wood. It grows with a straight smooth stem to a height of one hundred and eighty feet, with a girth of sixteen feet. The immense but- tressing of the stems of this and other species of trees, especially where they grow on hill slopes, is very noteworthy. Trees of sixteen feet girth, a short distance from the ground, may have a girth of fifty feet close to its surface. CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, TRADE, AND FINANCE. Landed proprietors in the plains.-Great fertility of the soil.-Mode of tillage. -Toung-ya or hill cultivation.-Staple cereal, rice.-Export of rice.— Cargo rice. Other principal products, cotton sesamum, sugar, tobacco, and indigo.—Tea.-Coffee.-Average yield of the different kinds of crops. ---Average rate of rent per acre.-Cinchona plant introduced into the province.—Silk and cloth manufactures.-Lacquered ware of the Burmese. -Gold and silversmiths' work. -The tools employed.-Painting and knowledge of perspective.-Steam rice and saw mills.-Manufacture of salt.-Import of salt.—Manufacture of paraffine from petroleum.—The petroleum wells.—How sunk.—Machinery used in extracting the oil.— Sericulture. Catechu or Terra Japonica.-How manufactured.—Its uses. -Manufactory of shellac.—Burmese love of bells and gongs.—The large bell at Mengoon.-Fine tone of their bells and gongs.-A peculiar triangular one used on "worship days."-Population of British Burma. Gross revenue receipts, imperial, provincial, and municipal.-Incidence of taxation.--Expenditure on provincial administration.-Surplus for Im- perial purposes.-Value of seaborne and inland exports and imports.- Compares very favourably with that of India.-Great future of the province. P OCCUPIED land in the plains is an allodial posses- sion held by small peasant proprietors, whose hold- ings, on an average, do not exceed ten acres. The fertility of the soil is most exuberant. The imple- ments employed in tillage are ploughs and harrows; and, with the exception of the ploughshare, which is generally iron, are all composed of wood. They are drawn by a couple of oxen or of buffaloes, the former used on dry light soil, and the latter where K 310 BURMĄ, PAST AND PRESENT. it is wet and heavy. They commonly scarify the land with a harrow before ploughing, to remove the weeds; but their whole system of agriculture is generally very rude. In the mountains the people have no fixed abodes. They practise a wasteful mode of tillage called toung-ya, which consists in clearing a fresh patch of forest each year, and burning the timber, the ashes of which serve as manure. They change the site of their villages at uncertain intervals, as the soil of the surrounding country becomes exhausted. The staple cereal of the province is rice, of which 2,379,001 acres were under cultivation during 1875-76. A great stimulus has been given to its cultivation in Burma (where, as previously stated, drought is unknown), by the abnormal demand caused by the late famines in India, and the exceptional high prices this grain consequently demands. Except in special years, like the present (1877), when famine prevails in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, almost the entire quantity of rice avail- able for export is sent to foreign countries. The export* of rice, from the province during 1875–76 was 653,803 tons, of which 551,344 tons were shipped to the United Kingdom. Of this quantity, however, it is calculated about seven-sixteenths of the ship- ments are disposed of on the Continent, the quantity Report on the Trade and Navigation of British Burma ” for 1875–6. * (6 :. PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS. 311 cleared for the United Kingdom being sent to Fal- mouth and other channel ports for orders, whence it is diverted to France, Germany, etc. The grain is shipped to Europe as "five-part cargo rice," which is supposed to be by measurement, four parts of husked to one of unhusked; but it usually contains a larger portion of clean rice than that named. The other principal products are cotton, sesamum (oil-seeds), sugar, tobacco, and indigo. Wheat is grown abundantly in Upper Burma; but it is only cul- tivated to a very small extent in our territories. Tea exists in a wild state in the hill tracts, and is culti- vated in plantations on the slopes of the hills in the northern part of Arakan. The tea from the Kola- pansang estate has been pronounced to be of excel- lent quality. Coffee, though as yet only grown in small patches, thrives remarkably well. In former times Pegu cotton used to be in great request for the manufacture of the celebrated Indian muslins at Dacca. But since these manufactures have become nearly extinct, what is not now used in the native looms of the province, is exported to England, or to China by the overland route, viâ Bhamo. The average yield of rice is 1,400 lbs. per acre. The cultivation of cotton seems marvellously pro- ductive on the hill slopes of northern Arakan, the crops averaging 1,200 lbs. per acre, while the general average of the province is so low as 456. The yield < S 312 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of tobacco is about 461 lbs., of sugar 1,290, of indigo 265, of oil-seeds 704, and of tea 350. The general average rate of rent throughout the province for rice land is 2s. 9d. per acre, and the price of grain in the province itself is quoted last year at 4s. 8d. the maund of eighty pounds. The average rate of rent for the other products mentioned is 4s. 3 d. per acre. The cinchona plant was introduced into the pro- vince, during my term of office, from Ootacamund, in the Madras Presidency, and a plantation formed at Plumadoe in the Toung-oo district, and which, according to latest accounts, is progressing very satisfactorily. The seedlings planted in 1871 are annually measured, and record is kept of their increase in height and girth. They averaged last year twelve feet and one foot in these respective dimensions. The principal manufactures in British Burma are silks, putsoes, hta-meins, that is, waistcloths for men, and petticoats for women, which are woven chiefly in Arakan and Tenasserim, and in the Prome district of Pegu, at Prome, and Shwé-doung on the Irawadi, ten miles south of Prome, and here also good cotton cloths and twist are made. Man- chester imports are gradually displacing home-made cloth; but the native silk manufacture, notwith- standing its patterns having been imitated to suit MANUFACTURES OF BRITISH BURMA. 313 Burmese taste, still holds its own, and is infinitely preferred for strength of fabric, and the permanence and beauty of its dyes. The Burmese have a keen sense of the harmonies of colour and design, and their festal costumes especially indicate the gaiety and vivacity of the national temperament. In the Prome district good lacquered ware is manufactured, fine cane and bamboo work being covered with a red and yellow, or black and yellow lacquer, on which fanciful and sometimes elegant designs are traced. The repoussé gold and silver work of the Burmese is very beautiful and finished in execution: and their ivory and wood carvings in clear and bold alto rilievo are clear and artistic in composition and design. The effect which can be produced in both arts by the few and rough tools employed is extra- ordinary. The bellows used by jewellers, and workers in metals other than gold and silver, con- sist of a couple of wooden cylinders, their diameters The being proportioned to the force required. cylinders are fitted with pistons, alternately raised and depressed by one or two men, and the air, forced out at an aperture in the lower end of the apparatus, is conducted into the fire by an iron tube. By means of these bellows, they are enabled to melt the hardest metals. Painting is in a very rude state, the knowledge 314 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of perspective being very imperfect. They under- stand and can appreciate, however, good painting, which capacity is totally wanting in the natives of India.* The most important mills† in the country are those employed in the seaport towns for the clean- ing of rice, and for the sawing of timber. There are now forty-five steam rice mills in the province, which are mainly worked for the preparation of cargo rice; but machinery for polishing the grain has also been introduced, and it is hoped that a trade in clean white rice will be shortly opened. The majority of the timber mills are at Maulmain, but there are several at Rangoon also. The manufacture of salt used to be carried on to a considerable extent on the sea coast during the former rule of the Burmese, but during our oc- cupation of the province has fallen off to a con- siderable extent, being displaced by English salt, which is sold at a less price than that of local manufacture. A large portion of this imported salt finds its way to Upper Burma, and into China and the Shan States via Bhamo. It is a trade of * There is a good story told of an old Indian Judge, rather proud of his personal appearance, who, on showing to his Sherishtadar (head native judicial officer) a likeness of himself painted in oils, and asking him what it resembled, received the reply that it was "either the painting of a tiger or a monkey, but which he could not say." + These statistics and those following are taken from the "Report on the Administration of British Burma," for 1875-76. SALT AND PETROLEUM. 315 great importance, as it not only gives freight to ships coming to the province to load with rice, many of which have to come in ballast, but has also the effect of compelling the Chinese who come for salt to bring articles of Chinese manufacture for sale at Bhamo. The bulk of the imports consists of fine-grained salt from Liverpool, and is used for domestic purposes. From Trepani, in Sicily, a few cargoes of coarse-grained product are received, which is utilised in the preparation of ngapee and salted fish. A manufactory for the preparation of refined burning oil from earth oil, or petroleum, produced in Upper Burma, and for the manufacture of candles from the paraffine extracted from the crude oil, has been in operation in Rangoon for some time, and has been fairly successful. Considerable quantities of this burning oil are exported to Calcutta and the Straits of Malacca, and the candles are used locally. This petroleum is obtained from wells in the vicinity of Ye-nan-Khyoung, a town on the Irawadi, about sixty miles beyond our frontier. On my way to Mandalay I visited these wells. They are situated on a plateau, in two groups, about two miles apart, upon the northern and southern sides of the town the former, and most productive, contains ninety, and the latter sixty wells, all in 316 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. working order. The wells are sunk indifferently on the level top of the plateau, or the sloping sides of its ravines, and are formed by sinking frames of wood, composed of beams of Mimosa Catechu, in shafts of four and a half feet square, and varying in depth from 180 to 320 feet. The strata through which the shafts pass appear to be reddish brown sandstones, blackish shales, and thin irregular patches of coaly matter, after which a yellow clay, strongly impregnated with sulphur, is struck, through which the oil gushes. The yield of the wells varies from 250 to 1,400 lbs. daily, and the total annual produce of all of them is estimated at about 12,000 tons. The machinery used for extracting the oil is a cross beam supported on two stanchions. Above the cross beam, in its centre, is fixed a revolving drum for a drag rope, to which is appended an earthen pot, that is let down into the oil, and then hauled up full by two men walking down an inclined plane by the side of the well. The oil is raised daily in the early morning, and after the quantity has been extracted, which it is known by experience the well should yield, it is left to accu- mulate until the following day. The petroleum when first taken out of the well has a green colour, with a strong pungent aromatic odour, and is of the consistence of cream. SILK MANUFACTURE. 317 The wells are private property, and have been in the joint possession of the same families for many years. They do not allow any wells to be dug in the vicinity by interlopers, and by mutual agree- ment no well can be sold or mortgaged except to a proprietor. A royalty of five per cent. on the value of the produce is exacted at present; but this varies in amount according to the exigences or caprice of the reigning monarch. All the silk used in local silk manufacture is pro- duced in the country. It is a coarse strong` silk, and whether its coarseness is inherent in the nature of the worm, or the rough methods pursued when reeled off the cocoon, is doubtful; but however this may be, it is highly esteemed by the Burmese, and admirably adapted for the purpose required. The cocoons are placed in boiling water previous to being reeled off, involving the death of the chrysalis, and were it not for the strong Buddhistic prejudice against the taking of life, sericulture would be more extensively followed than it is, as the employment is an easy and lucrative one, and the mulberry plant grows luxuriantly almost everywhere in the country. Orthodox Buddhists look upon the calling with horror, and the people who follow it as outcasts. From this feeling, the silk-growers, from time imme- morial, have resided in villages by themselves, hold- 318 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ing little social intercourse with their neighbours, and though of pure Burmese origin, have come to be regarded as a distinct tribe, and are called Yabein. A pound of this silk sells for about twelve shillings. Catechu, or Terra japonica, an inspissated, brown, astringent substance, obtained by decoction and evaporation from the heartwood of Mimosa Catechu, is manufactured in considerable quantities in the Prome district for exportation to Europe. It is a similar product to gambier, procured by boiling the young shoots and leaves of the Uncaria gambier, a large climbing shrub, with hard woody hooks, or recurved spines, grown largely in the Straits of Malacca. Both are used for the same purposes, and bear the same market value. Their use is chiefly for tanning and dyeing, but they are also said to be largely employed for the adulteration of various articles of commerce, one of them being tea. As they appear in commerce they resemble small masses of earth, breaking with a dull fracture, and were formerly supposed to be a species of earth obtained in Japan, and they hence got the name of Terra Japonica. The extract from the Mimosa Catechu is obtained as follows:-At the close of the rainy season, when the sap has fully risen, the tree is cut down and barked, the outer white wood removed, and the BURMESE LOVE FOR BELLS. 319 heartwood cut up into chips, and placed in narrow- mouthed earthen pots filled with water, which is boiled down to half its original quantity; it is then put for further evaporation in shallow iron vessels placed in the sun, and frequently turned. As it becomes dry, it is transferred to cloths, cut into square pieces, and when thoroughly hard is fit for market. The tree attains maturity in twenty years, and is then about three feet in girth at the base, and yields some twenty-five pounds of catechu. The quantity of catechu imported into Great Britain in 1874-5 was 191,891 cwt., three-fourths of which came from Burma. A lac manufactory has lately been started at Rangoon, and both shellac and dye of excellent quality are prepared. The Burmese have a great love for bells and gongs, and are very clever in casting them. The largest bell in the world, with the exception of the one presented by the Empress Anne to the Moscow Cathedral, was cast at Mengoon in 1796 for the pagoda then building there by the King. It is 12 feet high, with an external diameter at the lip of 16 feet 3 inches, and weighs 90 tons, or some fourteen times heavier than the great bell of St. Paul's. Their gongs, varying in size from 3 feet to 3 inches, have a much finer and deeper tone than Chinese ones; and a triangular Galg 320 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. one, peculiar to Burma, and used on "worship days" by the people on their way to the pagodas, which spins round when struck, has a very re- markable sound, maintained in prolonged surging musical vibrations. The population of British Burma in 1875-76, was 3,010,662, and the gross revenue receipts, imperial, provincial, and municipal, amounted to £2,004,813 ; giving an incidence of taxation of 135. 3 d. per head. The expenditure on the Provincial Civil Adminis- tration was £675,935; and after payment of all Local and Municipal charges, a surplus was left of £1,112,019, available for Military and Public Works, and for a share of the cost of the Central Govern- ment. The total number of vessels entered and cleared at the ports of the province, was 2551, of an aggregate burthen of 1,164,615 tons. The value of the seaborne and inland exports, was £7,208,896, and imports £6,159,925, total* £13,368,821: and this with a population of only a little over three millions! If the commerce of India bore the same proportion to population, it would be ten times greater than it is that is to say, it would be about nine hundred and fifty millions, instead of ninety- five. British Burma also contrasts favourably with * To Great Britain :-Exports, £2,944, 122. Imports, £1,225,746. Total, £4,169,868. que GREAT FUTURE OF THE PROVINCE. 321 India, in the value of the imports being much nearer to that of the exports. It may therefore be hoped that this province, which, in all reasonable probability, has a greater future before it than any country in Asia, may meet from the Government of India the care its import- ance deserves; and that every attention be paid towards facilitating its further development. VOL. I. ÷ Y ? > 7 CHAPTER VII. ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE INHABITANTS OF BURMA, AND OF THE NEIGHBOURING HILL TRIBES. Burma inhabited by separate and distinct tribes of the Mongoloid type.—Their mutual affinity.—Not autochthonous.—Migration of Món and Shan tribes. -Radical affinity of the Talaing language with the Mónda or Kól.-The portions of country occupied by the Burmese and Talaing races.---Origin of the Burmese race. They claim descent from Gautama and the Sakya race.-Derivation of the word Burma.-Three tribes described in the Radza-weng as inhabiting the upper valley of the Irawadi.-King Abhi- radza and his two sons.-Disputed succession to the throne.-The younger son succeeds to the throne.—The elder one emigrates to Arakan and becomes King of that country.-Description of the different tribes of Karens.-A Karen monkey feast.-Ceremonies observed at the burial of their dead.-The Sgau most numerous of the Karen tribes.-The Pwo Karens. The Bghai tribes.-Divided into six clans.-The Karennee the dominant one.-Western and eastern Karennee.-The former well disposed towards the British Government, the latter always held aloof.— Effective guarantee required from the Burmese Government against all interference with Western Karennee.-Boundary laid down between Burma and Western Karennee.-Boundary described.-Dress of the Karennees. Interment of their dead.-Passion for large metal drums.— The Toung-thoos.-Their supposed origin.-Ancient city of Thatún.— The Let-hta tribe.-Hill tribes westward of the Irawadi basin. --The Munipúris.-Game of Polo.-The Naga tribes.-Kowpöee tribe.—Curious practice on death of a wife.—The Tunkhúl tribe.—Their marriage customs and "full dress."-The Khyengs.-Tatooed faces of the females of this tribe.-All hill tribes of Ultra-India bear great similarity to each other.— Their barbarous philosophy.—Feticism of the Bghais. เ THE extensive area of British and Independent Burma is inhabited by many separate and distinct tribes of the Mongoloid type, differing in language, and often in their religion, manners, and customs ; TRIBES OF MONGOLOID TYPE. 323 but all betraying evident indications of mutual affinity, and their dispersion from one common centre-the great seed plot of Central Asia. The most important of these are the Burmese, Mon or Talaing, Arakanese, Shan, Laos, or Anam, and Karen. At the time of the first Burmese war with the British in 1825-26, and for some time previous, the predominant race, and to which all others, more or less, were subject, was the Burmese. None of these tribes appear to be autochthonous, or to have any reliable traditions of their arrival. Pritchard, in his "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 229, says “the vast region "the vast region of Asia, forming the south-eastern corner of that continent, which reaches on the sea border, from the common mouth of the Ganges, and the Brahma-pútra to the Hoang-ho or Yellow river of China, and even further northward towards the mouth of the Amúr or Saghalien, is inhabited by races of people who resemble each other so strongly in moral and physical peculiarities, and in the general character of their languages, as to give rise to a suspicion that they all belong to one stock. With the rivers which descend from the high country of Central Asia, and from their diverg- ing waters on all sides, after traversing extensive regions of lower elevation, into the remote ocean, these nations also appear to have come down, at various periods, from the south-eastern border of Y 2. 324 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the Great Plateau; in different parts of which tribes are still recognised who resemble them in features and language." According to Mr. J. R. Logan's theory,* the first migration was that of the Mon and Shan tribes, and who, on a succeeding great migration † from Tibet-that of the proper Tibeto-Burman tribes- appear to have been gradually pressed by them to the eastward and southward. The structural and glossarial characters of the languages of the Mon and Shan, show that, in the first era of their dis- persion, they must have occupied a part of Bengal, and had a close intercourse with aboriginal Indian tribes of the north-east Monda or Kól family. This infallible test of language, as regards the Mon or Talaings particularly, has been also confirmed by Dr. Mason, who states that the Talaing language has a radical affinity with the Kól. "The first six numerals, the personal pronouns, the words for several members of the body, and many objects of nature, are unquestionably of the same origin; while many other words bearing a more remote * CC 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,” vol. ii. 66 + I adopt the spelling of "Tibet," instead of "Thibet," in conformity with Schlagintweit, Hodgson, Schmidt, Foucaux, Csoma Korasi, &c. The word Tibet, according to Schlagintweit, has resulted from the combination of the two Tibetan words Thub and Phod, both meaning to be able." A King of the seventh century is said to have first made use of this name; at present, however, Bhod-gul, "territory of the Bhod," is the only name given by the inhabitants to the country. ‡ Mason's “Burma,” pp. 130–134. THE TALAING RACE. 325 resemblance, are probably derived from the same roots." The Chinese, the Burmese, the Karen, and all the known languages of Ultra India, including the Assamese, use numeral affixes; while the Tala- ing language stands alone, and like Occidental tongues, unites the numeral to the noun. While in Chinese, and in all Indo-Chinese languages, the numeral is united to an affix. A singular noun in Kól is made plural by affixing kaú; and in Talaing by taú. The ancient name of the Kóls, Monda, is almost identical with Mon,* the name by which the Talaings call themselves. The evidence, too, of physical appearance shows an intermixture of race, for the Talaings are taller, have more elegant figures, and a darker skin than the pure Mongoloid races. It is a curious fact, also, that the figures in basso-rilievo on the terra-cotta tiles of the ancient pagoda at Thatún, show the Csoma de Koros in his Tibetan dictionary, defines Mon by a general name for the hill people between the plains of India and Tibet. The term Talaing, by which the Mon are now generally known, was given to them by the Burmese. It is not an Indo-Chinese word, and Sir Arthur Phayre thinks it is probably derived from the word Telinga, and hence it appears that the tribes of the upper Irawadi, separated during long ages from the kindred tribes to the south of them, only came to know the Mon after these latter had settle- ments of Telingas on their coast. These people, being great traders, no doubt extended their commerce into the interior, and hence the name, easily changed into Talaing, came to be given to the whole population. The same result of a partial knowledge of a leading race may still be seen. Until comparatively of late years, the Burmese mixed up English and all Europeans with the natives of India in the one common appellation of Kuláh or western foreigners; and it is only since the war with the British of 1825-26 that they have learnt to distinguish the more prominent of the nations lying west of them." 326 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Talaings wearing in olden times their hair tied in a knot at the back of the head, like some of the Indian aboriginal tribes, instead of well forward on the top of it, as is their modern practice. The Talaings occupy the deltas of the Irawadi, Sittang, and Salween rivers, the sway of which, owing to the civilization and wealth derived by their insular position, they long successfully contested with the Burmese. "They preceded the Siamese in Tenas- serim, and at one time appear to have occupied the basin of the Menam river also, and to have marched and intermixed with the closely-allied Cambojans of the lower Mie-kong." " The Burmese race, from the earliest periods with which we are acquainted, have occupied, with the exception of intervals when they were driven from portions of their territory in contests with the Chinese, Shans, and Talaings, the same part of the basin or middle region of the Irawadi and its tribu- taries, where they now are: say from about lat. 24° 30′ to lat. 18°, namely, the lower basin of the Irawadi, above the delta of Pegu, the southern part of the upper basin, and the valley of the river beyond as far as Bhamo. At one period of its history the Burmese Empire extended as far as Momein,† in western Yunan; but it attained its greatest expan- * "Journal of Indian Archipelago," vol. ii. † Burney, "As. Soc. Journ.," vol. vi., p. 122. - THE BURMESE RACE. sion in 1823, when it embraced the conquered king- doms of Pegu, Arakan, and Tenasserim, and the whole valleys of Assam, Cachar, and Munnipúr. As regards the origin of the Burmese, Pritchard considers them as an offset from the great nomadic races of high Asia, probably from the Bhotya,* who occupy the southern margin of the great central upland, which conjecture is confirmed by Mr. B. H. Hodgson,† who observes that "one type of language prevails from the Kali to the Kuladan, and from Ladakh to Malacca, so as to bring the Himalayans, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetans into one family." Great rivers in their downward course have generally formed the high roads of nations, and the Burmese, descending from the vast steppe lands of central Asia, may have struck the sources of the Irawadi, and thus reached its upper valley. They invent a story, as I have stated in a previous chapter, of their being descended from Gautama and the Sakya race. The Siamese,‡ in like manner, boldly tack on and group their ancestors around the first disciples of Gautama, and commence their annals about five centuries before the Christian era. It is curious to * 327 Bhatiya is the Hindu name. The Tibetans call themselves Botpa. The name is most probably derived from their profession of Buddhism, Bauddha being the designation of a Buddhist. A. Cunningham's "Ladák," p. 290. + "As. Soc. Journ." No. 1 of 1853, p. 3. Bowring's "Siam," vol. i., p. 35. 328 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. observe, too, that the Lamas,* when the Mongols proper adopted their religion, desired to flatter them by tracing their reigning house to that of Tibet, and through it to Sakya-muni himself. Sir Arthur Phayre is of opinion† that the Burmese adopted their present appellation since they became united with other cognate tribes under one powerful chief, and shortly after their conversion from a reli- gion of naturalism and Shamanism to Buddhism. He considers that Burma is derived from the Pali word Brah-ma, signifying celestial beings; and that it "need not cause surprise that a people should have assumed a foreign term as a national designa- tion." "With their religious instructors they re- ceived knowledge of every kind. The districts of their country were named after the countries of their teachers. Even their great river, known in the vernacular as Myeet-gyee, received an equiva- My * Khubilai Khan was the first of the Mongol Khakans to definitely abandon Shamanism and to adopt Buddhism as the state religion, an example which was followed by many Mongols. The Buddhist priests were called Lamas by the Mongols, and in January, 1261, Khubilai promoted a young man, called Mati Dhwadsha, more widely known by his title Pakba Lama or Supreme Holy Lama. He was born at Sazghia, in Tibet, and belonged to one of its best families, that of the Tsukoans, who had for more than six centuries furnished ministers to the Kings of Tibet and other western princes, and by his wisdom, &c., won the confidence of Khubilai, who not only made him Grand Lama, but also temporal sovereign of Tibet, with the title of King of the Great and Precious Law and Institutor of the Empire. Such was the origin of the Grand Lama. Howorth's "Hist. of the Mongols," p. 220. Gaubil, 137. De Mailla, ix., p. 287. + Sir Arthur Phayre's Paper on the origin of the Burmese race, published in the "As. Soc. Journ.," No. 1, 1864, and which I have largely drawn on for my information regarding the Burmese race. THE PROGENITORS OF THE BURMESE. 329 lent term in Pali-Era-wa-ti; and their capital city always has a Pali name.” No mention is made by the Burmese in the Maha- radza-weng of early struggles with the people of the country on their first arrival. But we learn from these " Chronicles," that there were, at an early period, three tribes in the upper valley of the Irawadi, the Kan-ran, Pyoo, and Thek tribes, who appear to have been the progenitors of the Burmese nation; and it is possible from the names of his two sons, the elder named Kan-radza-gyee, and the younger Kan-radza-ngay, that the chief who united them was the head of the Kan-ran tribe, and the Abhi-radza of Burmese tradition, who founded the Burmese monarchy at Tagoung, which flourished there under a succession of Kings, until it was overthrown by an invasion from China, when the Burmese retreated down the Irawadi, and founded the city of Tha-re-Khe-te-ya near the modern Prome. The long line of Kings, thirty-two in number, who are said in these annals to have succeeded Abhi-radza at Tagoung, and the early date given for the founding of Tha-re-Khe-te-ya in the year 59 of the sacred epoch or era of Gautama, corresponding with 485 B C., must, however, be treated as fiction, and influenced by the source from whence they obtained their religion, has been evi- dently invented to fit in with their story of India * 330 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. being the cradle of their race, their descent from the Sakya race, and ancient Kings of Kap-pi-la-wot. After the death of Abhi-radza the succession to the throne is said to have been disputed by his two sons, the younger of whom succeeded by a strata- gem * in obtaining the throne; when the elder proceeded with his followers across the Yoma-toung range of mountains into Arakan, where he married the two daughters of the Queen of the Mrú tribe- the then dominant tribe in that country-made Dhi- ngya-wati his capital, and founded the second † dynasty of that city. * From the chronological table of the Kings of Arakan, taken from the Rakhoing-maha-radza-weng, and given by Sir Arthur Phayre in his Paper on the History of Arakan, published in vol. viii. of the A. S.'s Jl. 1844, p. 47, a previous line of no less than fifty-one Arakanese Kings is given, called the first Dhi-ngya-wati dynasty, and who commenced to reign 2666 B.C. ! + The following is an account of the Burmese emigration from Central India, of the founding and history of the city of Tagoung, and of the stratagem by which the younger son of Abhi-radza obtained the throne, as given in the third volume of the Burmese Maha-radza-weng. Long before the appear- ance of Gautama, a King of Kauthala (Kosala, Oude) and Pínjalarít (Punjab), desiring to be connected by marriage with the King of Kauliya, sent to demand a daughter, but receiving a refusal on the ground of his being of an inferior race, he declared war, and destroyed the three cities of Kauliya, Dewadaha, and Kappílawot, which were governed by the Sakya race of Kings. These cities were afterwards restored, and the Sakya line re-established; but on the occasion of the above disaster, one of the Sakya race of Kings, Abhi- radza, the King of Kappílawot, retired with his troops and followers from Central India, and came and built Tagoung, which was then also styled Thengat-tha-ratha, and Thengat-tha-nago. Here had stood a city in the times of the three preceding Buddhas. In the time of Kekkuthan it was called Thanthaya púra, in that of Gounágoun, Ratha púra, and in that of Katthaba, Thendwé. On the death of King Abhi-radza, his two sons Kan-radza-gyee and Kan-radza-ngay disputed the throne, but agreed, by the advice of their respective officers, to let the question be decided by the result of a rivalry in good works, and not of war. It was arranged that each should com- mence to construct an alhoo múndât or religious building on the same night, THE ARAKANESE RACE. 331 From this King and his followers, the present race of Arakanese believe themselves to be derived, and from being descended from the elder branch of the Burmese nation, they style themselves Brama- The Arakanese are gree, or the great Burmese. undoubtedly of the same stock as the Burmese, and as the traditions of both agree on the main points, there may possibly be some truth in this legend of their descent. There are several tribes of Karens all differing, somewhat, in their social and domestic practices; but united by the common bond of one language, though spoken in widely different dialects. In a previous chapter (Chap. III.) I have given a brief description of some of the traditions and religious ideas of this interesting people. They may be divided into three distinct tribes, the Sgau, Pwo, and Bghai-each of which are again sub-divided into several separate clans. The Sgau tribes are found from Mergui in Lat. 12°, to Prome and Toungoo in about 19° N. Lat. On the east a few have wandered over the water- the and he whose building should be found completed by the morning should take the throne. The younger brother used planks and bamboos only, and covered the whole with white cloth, to which, by a coat of white-wash, he gave the appearance of a finished building. At dawn of day, Kan-radza-gyee, elder brother, seeing the other's being completed, collected his troops and followers, descended the Irawadi as far as the mouth of the Khyengdweng river, and then crossed over the Yoma-toung range of mountains, and established a monarchy in Arakan. → 332 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. + * shed that separates the Meenam, from the Salween to the eastward of Zimmay, and on the west portions of them have migrated into Arakan. They may be distinguished from the other Karen tribes by their dress, a long white frock, or night-shirt- looking garment with loose sleeves, embroidered at the lower extremities with red horizontal parallel bands, and wearing round the waist a cloth similar in shape to that worn by the Burmese. The hair they wear long, and bound into a knot on the top of the head, with often a rakish twist to one side. They are fair in complexion, and when young are often good looking; but the Mongolian roundness of their faces, which in youth gives an innocent and pleasing air, often imparts an inane, heavy expression in after years. In common with most of the less civilized of the Mongolian races they are very foul feeders. No animal food comes amiss with them, they eat vermin such as rats, and reptiles such as lizards and snakes. There is a black monkey with a white ring round the eyes (Semnopithecus obscurus) found in con- siderable numbers in the jungles, and which they consider as a great delicacy. Colonel Tickell, when on a tour in the interior of Amherst district, thus describes a Karen monkey feast of which he was eye-witness. "At breakfast we were heartily sick- ened by seeing the Karens devour the raw bloody THE KAREN RACES. body and entrails of a monkey I had shot. They swallowed the intestines 'au naturel,' like macaroni!* 333 All the Sgau tribes and the Pwo proper burn their dead. A bone is taken from the ashes-the back bone is chosen if not calcined-and preserved, and after the lapse of a few months a feast is prepared in honour of the deceased, after which the bone is buried. The bone, when the feast is made, is placed in the centre of a large booth erected for the purpose, and around it are hung the articles belonging to the deceased. A torch is placed at the head, and another at the foot, to represent the morning and evening stars, which they say are spirits going to Hades with lights in their hands; and around the whole a procession marches singing dirges, of which the following is a specimen :- "Mother's daughter is proud of her beauty; Father's son is proud of his beauty: He calls a horse, a horse comes; On the beautiful horse, with a small back, He gallops away to the silver city. O son of Hades, intensely we pity thee, Panting with strong desire for the tree of life. The Jambu fruit, the Jambu fruit hangs drooping o'er the lake ; Red Jambu flowers, red Jambu flowers, hang drooping o'er the lake ; * This quotation, and those immediately following, are taken from Dr. Mason's "Burma," chapter on Ethnology, to which those who may wish to pursue this subject further can refer. 334 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Should seeds of the tree of life still exist, Then man awakes up from death in Hades, O son of Hades, intensely we pity thee, Panting with strong desire for the tree of life." The Sgaus, who are sometimes called Burmese Karens, appear to be the most numerous of all the Karen tribes, and those of them who reside in the plains are, comparatively speaking, good farmers. In my old district of Bassein they formed the great bulk of the agricultural population. Villages of the Pwo tribes, who prefer the banks of creeks for their houses, are found scattered along the coast from Mergui up to and within the deltas of the Salween, Sittang, and Irawadi rivers. They are very muscular, powerful men, form capital boat- men, and are considered to have more "stay" in them than any other race in the country, Burmese or otherwise. Before our conquest of Pegu, under their different Pé-nengs, they often carried off the first prizes at the royal boat races at the capital. From their residing principally in the deltas of the above large rivers-the country of the Talaings— they are called by the Burmese Talaing Karens. Their dress is similar to that of the Sgaus, except that the embroidery on their long gowns is much wider, and formed in different patterns and colours ; and that several of the clans of this tribe wear short trousers reaching half way down the thigh. THE RED KARENS. 335 Their creed nominally is Buddhism, though they still retain many of the forms and practices of Shamanism. The Bghai tribes are divided into six clans, the dominant one of which is the Karennee or red Karen; so called by the Burmese from the colour of the bright red turban they wear; though they call themselves Kå-ya, their term for man. They inhabit the elevated plateau of Karennee (the name is equally applied to the country and to the inhabitants) extending from the eastern slope of the Poung-loung range, immediately joining our territories on the north-east, to the right bank of the Salween river. It consists chiefly of high table-land about 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, is well cultivated, and in parts very fertile. The red Karens originally acknowledged the supremacy of one Chieftain; but within the last hundred years have split into two separate tribes, Western and Eastern Karennees. Since our occu- pation of British Burma, the former tribe has been most friendly disposed towards the English Govern- ment, and has given every assistance in its power in keeping peace on the frontier, and opening out trade; while the latter has kept entirely aloof from all communication with us, and has lately acknow- ledged the suzerainty of the Burmese Government. 336 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. In 1864 Khay-pho-gyee, the old chief of Western Karennee, requested the British Government to undertake the government and protection of his country; but was informed that though the British Government placed the highest value on the friend- ship of Western Karennee, and which it trusted would always be maintained, it had no desire to extend its frontier in that direction. On the death of the old chief in 1869, this request was renewed by his two sons, on the ground that the Burmese were making encroachments on their territory, as well as Eastern Karennee, and that they would have finally to succumb unless the British Govern- ment interfered. A similar answer to the first was returned, with the addition, however, that the Burmese Government would be urged not to inter- fere in the internal affairs of their country, and informed that it was the wish of the British Govern- ment that Western Karennee should retain its existing independence and nationality. A representation was made accordingly to the Burmese Government, and, notwithstanding a formal disclaimer on its part of any claim to authority over Western Karennee, and an assurance that the wishes of the British Government should be scrupulously respected, a subsequent course of menace and assumption of sovereignty over this Hill State obliged our government in 1875 to exact a more * + KARENNEE BOUNDARY. 337 effective guarantee; and after sundry negotiations had taken place with the King of Burma, an expedition was despatched under the orders of the Government of India to survey and lay down a boundary between Western Karennee and Burma, which has been formally recognised by all parties, and the automony of Western Karennee secured. This boundary extends from our eastern limit twelve miles to Sauau (see map), a hill in 19° 23′ 30″ N. Lat., and 96° 53′ E. Long., and thence carried on in about the same parallel of latitude to Preusok, a hill in 97° 3′ 20″ E. Long. It then proceeds zig-zag to a point on the Nampay river, in 97° 14′ E. Long. and 19° 41' 30" N. Lat., leaving a 41′ tract* of Eastern Karennee, some thirty miles in breadth and sixty in depth, running like a wedge between Western Karennee and Siam into British territory. The Karennees wear generally the shan, or common Chinese jacket, and short dark blue trousers with perpendicular narrow white stripes. *This tract of country is of some considerable political as well as strategical importance. The boundary line should doubtless have been extended eastward to the right bank of the Salween river, the boundary with Siam, and to which the Burmese Government having given way as regards Western Karennee, would have raised no further objection. A somewhat similar mistake was made some time ago, I believe, by the Calcutta Foreign Office regarding the frontier of Afghanistan, but was fortunately discovered by the India Office in time to be rectified. VOL. I. N 338 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The dress of the female sex is formed of rectangular pieces of red or blue cloth, and is very picturesque. The gown or jacket is worn like a Roman toga, tied by the two corners on the right shoulder, with the left arm drawn out above the garment. The petti- coat is wrapped twice round the person, and kept in its place by a broad belt embroidered with cowry shells. They wear large silver bangles on the wrists and ankles, and numerous strings, of silver coins, and coloured glass beads on the neck. The head-dress is composed of cloth of the same colours, and wound round and round the head so as to form a tower-like object. * For the interment of their dead, a small grove is reserved near each village, and in the deep foliage of the underwood small miniature houses are seen, upon which hang suspended the baskets, implements of agriculture and household use, and fresh offerings of pumpkins, heads of maize and millet, and the never-failing gourd shell, which contained the in- toxicating beverage (Koung-yé, fermented liquor of rice and millet) of the departed. In addition to the articles of daily use when alive, portions of the arms and valuables (gold or silver ornaments) of the de- ceased are buried with the body. They do not make any human or other sacrifices at the grave, like their Mongol ancestors, and some of the Tibeto-Burman "Journal of a Tour in Karennee," by Mr. E. O'Riley, 1856. * KARENNEE DRUMS. 339 tribes even of the present day, the Kúrkí and Gāro; but on the interment of a chief, a slave and a pony are secured near the grave, and, although bound with the ostensible purpose of preventing escape, they invariably release themselves from their bonds and escape; the slave in such cases regaining freedom from all previous claims. Throughout the whole of the tribes* of the moun- tain races, included between the Salween and Sittang rivers, and especially the Karennees, a passion predominates for the possession of large metal drums, formed in the shape of a hollow cylinder, closed at one end, called kyee-dzees. To such an extent does it operate, that instances are by no means rare of their bartering their children for them. A superstition, common to many mountain tribes, that the deep sounding note of a monotoned instru- ment propitiates the presiding deities of the moun- tains, and averts evil from them, is a reasonable enough cause for such a propensity to possess them, and those clans or families who have the greatest number are regarded as the more powerful. In all their gatherings, whether for peaceful enjoyment, or preparatory to an expedition to settle some inter- tribal blood-feud, the kyee-dzees are brought forth and beaten, and as the sound echoes back from the * "Journal of a Tour in Karennee," by Mr. E. O'Riley, 1856. 2 2 340 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. deep gorges of the mountain glens, they regard it as the approving answer of the spirit. This branch of Karens is supposed to have been the earliest of these tribes, who made their appear- ance in Ultra India, and according to their own traditions, they preceded the Burmese as the domi- nant people in the Irawadi basin. Their dialect of the Karen language has been pronounced by Mr. J. R. Logan to be a distinct and very ancient one of the Yuma family. * The Toung-thoos (hill-folk),† are a cognate race with the Karens. Their language has the greatest affinity with the Pwo Karen. Their chief village is Thatún, and sporadic villages of them are scattered along the banks of the Salween and Sittang, and even amongst the Karennees, and the Shan States as far as Moné, (( 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,” vol. ii., p. 76. + Captain Foley, from their habits, customs, and personal appearance, believes the Toung-thoos to be a remnant of the Tanjous or Huns; and quotes the following extract from chap. xxvi. of "Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" in support of his opinion in support of his opinion :-"One of the princes of the nation (Hun) was urged, by fear and ambition, to retire towards the south with eight hordes, which composed between forty and fifty thousand families, and he obtained, under the title of Tanjou, a convenient territory on the verge of the Chinese Empire (A.D. 48).” “Journal As. Society, Bengal,” 1836, p. 813. I think, myself, it is possible that both they and the Karen tribes may be descendants of dispersed hordes of the Huns. To check the incursions of the Huns, the great wall of China was constructed in the third century, B.C. ; but two centuries later their pride and power was humbled and curbed by Vouti, the fifth Emperor of the powerful Hân dynasty, and before the expira- tion of the first century, A. D., was utterly broken and destroyed as far as the eastern world was concerned. See De Guignes, "Hist. des Huns," p. 189, tom. i. ; p. 21–144, tom. ii. THE TOUNG-THOOS. 34T Their habits are curiously wandering. They till but little land: most families having no land under cultivation beyond a garden. The men of every family proceed generally, at least once a year, on distant expeditions, ostensibly for "trade and barter," but really often on predatory excursions. They always go well armed, and are a bold and independent race. They are short and squat in figure, with features of the Mongolian type-but much coarser; and their complexion is more swarthy than those of the neighbouring races. The name Toung-thoo was given to this race by the Burmese. It has been generally adopted, and held now to mean hill people. The word Toung, in the Burmese language, however, means both a hill, and south; and the Toung-thoos say that the Burmese, emigrating from the north, found them at Tha-tún, that is to say, to the south of them, and hence called them southern people, which was the original meaning of the term, and not hill people. They call themselves Pan-you, (not unlike Tan-jou, see footnote to preceding page). They claim Thatún as their ancient capital, and declare that its name is derived from Tha-too, the word for laterite in their language, and of which mineral the hills in the vicinity of this old city chiefly consist. Thatún is situated about thirty miles north of Martaban, and was originally a port; but which it 1 342 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. has long ceased to be, from the silting of the Sittang, Beeling, and Salween rivers, or upheaval of the land. It is the city to which Asoka, in B.C. 308, sent two Buddhist missionaries, named Oo-tara and Thauna, to carry "the glad tidings" of the religion of the conqueror (Jina). The city was sacked and burnt by Anaurata, King of Pagan, A.D. 1080, and after that never recovered its importance. The foundations of the walls of the old city can still be traced. They appear to have enclosed an area of about 800 acres. Within this space, and still in good preservation, is a large, ancient, square, three-storied pagoda, built of laterite blocks, with a circular pagoda of the present prevailing type crown- ing its third story, and evidently of modern date. The general form of the old portion of the pagoda is not unlike the square temples at Pagan, and has a flight of steps on each face. There are other smaller pagodas of similar description, but in a state of ruin, with the exception of some which have been restored after the modern manner. Mr. E. O'Riley, in the report of his second Mission to Karennee, on which I despatched him in 1863- 64, mentions the existence there of a tribe whom he considers the most interesting of the hill races which exist in that region. They call themselves Let-htas, but are known to the Burmese by the name of Goung-dhō, from their custom of wearing the hair THE LET-HTAS TRIBE. 343 short, with a pendant lock from each temple. The account given by him of their appreciation of moral goodness, and the purity of their lives, as compared with the semi-civilised tribes amongst whom they dwell, almost savours of romance. The tribe ap- pears to be a small one, and occupies the country to the north-west of Mobyay, called the twelve hills of Levay Loung. According to Mr. O'Riley, they differ widely in form of feature and of skull from the neighbouring tribes. Their language is much more guttural-and he thinks "they may be a branch of the old Leythee families, represented at the present day by the Kalmuks, and wandering tribes of the Keirgheish; and this is more likely from the heavy eyelid nearly closing the eye, the retreating forehead, and elon- gated shape of the skull." Until married, the youths of both sexes are domiciled in two long houses at opposite ends of the village, and when they may have occasion to pass each other, they avert their gaze, so they may not see each other's faces. A strange feature of their social system, is that of self-immolation. Their sense of shame is said to be so acute, that on being accused of any evil act by several of the com- munity, the person so accused retires to some secluded spot, there digs his grave and strangles himself. 344 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. To the westward of the Irawadi basin, the con- fused masses of mountains, forest-covered spurs, and grassy uplands starting southwards from the great Assam Himalayan chain, in about 25° 40′ N. Lat., and between 93° and 95° E. Long., and contracting into the Arakan Yoma-toung range, which sinks into the sea at Pagoda Point, at the mouth of the Bassein river, are inhabited by innumerable tribes of the Tibeto-Burmese type, known as Munipúri, or Meithei, Naga, Kúki, Gāro, Looshai, Khyeng, and other various specific names. Of these the most highly civilized and important race is the Munipúri, who occupy the level alluvial valley of Munipúr, and adjacent hill-country, lying between 24° 30′, and 25° 60′ N. Lat., and 93° 10, and 94° 50′ E. Long. The name for the Munipúr valley, amongst the people themselves, is "Meithei laipak," or Country of the Meithei; and, from their traditions, the valley appears to have been originally occupied by the Koomul, Looang, Moirang, and Meithei tribes, the latter of whom ultimately gained the supremacy, and its name was adopted as representing the whole. Their written history has only been composed since they were converted to Hinduism, during the reign of their Rajah, Gurreeb Nawaz, about 1750 A.D., and in it, following and mixing up the history MUNIPÚR. 345 and fables of their religious teachers with their ow traditions, as is the case with the Burmese and others formerly described, they claim a Western or Hindu descent, for which there is no foundation whatever. Their language is a dialect of that of the surrounding tribes, and their physical and other characteristics are also similar; with the exception that their original Mongolian features have become somewhat modified by intermixture with the Bengali inhabitants of the adjacent districts of Cachar and Sylhet. The Munipúr valley was invaded and occupied by the Burmese in 1819, and Cachar in 1824. In the latter year, on the breaking out of the first Burmese war, we drove the Burmese out of Cachar, and the Munipúris, on being furnished with arms, expelled them from Munipúr. The final indepen- dence of Munipúr was secured by the treaty of Yandabo, at the conclusion of the war in 1826; and in 1835 an English officer was appointed there as Political Agent, to reside at the Raja's court for the purpose of preserving a friendly intercourse, and as a medium of communication with the Munipúr Government." Since the Munipúris have adopted the Hindu religion, their customs and ceremonies differ in no important particulars from the neigh- bouring Bengali Hindus. (( Their great national game is "Polo," lately become so popular in England, where it was first 346 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. introduced by the 9th Lancers on their return from India. When the Duke of Edinburgh visited India in 1870, a party of Munipúris, in their national costume, with their ponies, were sent for from Munipúr to Calcutta, and played their game in his presence. The mode in which they play the game is well described by Dr. R. Brown, the Political Agent in Munipúr, in his annual report to the Indian Government for 1868-69, and which I will transcribe at length. "The traditions of Munipúr have it that the game of polo or hockey on horseback, was introduced by a Raja named Vakungba, who flourished about 1570 A.D. According to some, the introduction is given as late as the reign of Gurreeb Nawaz about 120 years ago. The game, it is said, has not altered since that time, and as it is now so generally understood, I will describe it but briefly. In the more important games as played in Munipúr, seven on either side is considered the correct number, but, in ordinary games, any number may play. "As might be expected, in the place of its birth* the play is much superior to what can be seen " but I * I believe “Polo" to be an old Tatar game, and no doubt a legacy to the Munipúris from their Mongol ancestors. They are certainly very expert at the game, and have their plucky little ponies admirably "well in hand; think, nevertheless, that the players of Hurlingham and Lillie Bridge would be a match for them. THE GAME OF POLO. 347 elsewhere; it is much faster, and the hits are de- livered with greater precision. The games are always started from the centre of the ground, by the ball being thrown into the middle of the players; it is frequently struck before reaching the ground. The pace is kept fast from the commencement of the game, and such a thing as a player being allowed to spoon a ball along before delivering his stroke is unknown; an attempt at this kind of play would result in the ball being at once taken away by a stroke from one of the opposite party. When an evening's play has commenced, the games suc- ceed each other quickly; so soon as the ball is driven to goal, the players hurry back to the centre of the ground, and a fresh game is begun. When a ball is sent off the ground to either side, it is flung as at starting, among the players, opposite the point of exit. "The Munipúr riding costume for the game is a dhotie well tucked up, and a pair of thick woollen gaiters, reaching from the ankle to the knee; a whip is carried in the left hand suspended from the wrist, to allow free motion of the hand. The saddle is furnished with curved flaps of enamelled leather suspended from the sides opposite the stirrups, and stirrup leathers. The ball used is made of bamboo root and is tough and light. The clubs have handles of well-seasoned cane; the 2 348 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. angular striking part is of heavy wood. As might be expected, a good polo pony is a valuable animal, and is parted with reluctantly. All classes, from the Raja, who is a good player, down, play the game, and an unusually good player is sure of royal favour." The Naga* tribes are divided into several sec- tions. Each village, again, of these separate clans, has its own chief, and peculiar patriarchal style of government apart from the others; there being no central authority to whom they acknowledge alle- giance. They are powerful and warlike tribes, and, unlike most of the other hill races, do not shift the sites of their villages, which often contain a thousand houses, and upwards, and are well fortified by stone` walls, ditches, and stockades. The most numerous of them appear to be the Angami tribe, who are said to number some 60,000. They possess a greater regularity in feature than most of the other Naga tribes, and their facial characteristics, Dr. Brown considers, resemble strongly those of the Maoris of New Zealand. They are generally tall, broad shouldered, and muscular, and their brawny lower limbs are peculiarly well developed. Their origin as described by themselves is, "that * The Nagas amongst themselves have no specific name; but use the tribal name as distinctive. Naga is supposed to be a word of reproach given them by the Aryan race, and to be derived from the Sanscrit word Nanga, naked. Others derive the word from Nag, a snake.-Dr. R. Brown, THE NAGA TRIBES. 349 in the olden times three men emerged from the Great lake in the Angami country, one remained on its borders and became an Angami, one went towards Cachar, and the remaining one towards Munipúr." The relations of the sexes are similar to those prevailing amongst these hill tribes generally, namely, that of great moral laxity before marriage, and the very opposite after it. "Marriage is entered upon by both sexes after they have arrived at full maturity, and, as a matter of inclination on both sides, as a rule." Adultery is considered a very serious offence. Its punishment is death to the male offender," and the female has her nose slit and hair cut off. Amongst the Kowpöee tribe of Nagas, "on the death of a man's wife, the extraordinary practice exists of taking from her husband Mundoo' or 'the price of her bones."" If he be alive, this will be demanded by her father; in default of the father, by the next of kin. If the wife's husband should die before the wife, the wife is taken by a brother of the deceased. ( Another branch of the Nagas, the Tunkhúl or Loohúpa, whose powerful muscular appearance and extraordinary customs, I remember being very much struck with, when on a visit, in 1840, to my old friend the late Colonel Guthrie, R.E., who was engaged at the time in the superintendence of the 350 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT construction of the road from Cachar to Munipúr, on which large gangs of this tribe were employed. Their hair is worn in a very peculiar fashion. The sides of the head are shaven, having a ridge of hair on the top about five inches broad, narrowing to the front, as also behind where it ends in a small knotted pig-tail about three inches long. The dress of the male is at all times very scanty indeed, their “full dress" consisting only of a narrow piece of cloth folded round the waist, and a small portion of it hanging down in front*; but clothing of any kind is dispensed with when they are engaged in any hard work. They have a most extraordinary habit, and as far as I know, a unique one, described in the footnote,† and which Dr. Brown thinks may * There is a tribe in the Arakan hills, the end of whose scanty waist-cloth hangs behind them in similar manner, and they are called by the Burmese Khwā-mie, or monkey-tail. + His gentibus mos est, meâ sententia singularis, iis-qui solis proprius. Annulum, a quartâ ad octavam partem unciæ latum, et ex cornu cervi vel ebore factum, glandem penis et præputium arcte comprimentem mares induĕre solent. Hujus moris antiquissimi hoc est propositum, erectionem penis impedire ; opinantibus quidem iis privata membra conspicienda præbere, nisi in tali conditione, rem non indecoram esse. Hanc opinionem audacissime in actu ostendunt, licet enim videre, in valle Munipúrensi, multos eorum congregatos, aut in femineis tabernis, aut in viis ad laborandum, ne vestigium quidem vestitûs indutos, quippe qui annulum modestiæ omnino satisfacere existiment. Annulus iste a pubertatis ævo assumitur, et ad mortem geritur. Primo cum assumitur, magnus dolor complures per dies sentiri solet-sed premendo membri forma gradatim mutatur, et post aliquantum temporis annulus indui et exui facillime potest. Exuitur solum micturationis causâ, et ad noctem, et amplitudo ejus aliquando variatur, prout occasio poscit. Etsi modestia pro moris hujus origine sola causa affertur, significationem ulteriorem habuissi haud improbabile est ; vide quod antea dictum est de harum gentium ritibus. nuptialibus. THE KHYENG TRIBES. 35L have been originated by some anxious parent to put off the evil day, resulting in the following custom, and which is also peculiar to this particular tribe. "On the eldest son of a family marrying, the parents are obliged to leave their house with the remainder of their family, the son who has married taking two-thirds of the parents' property, not only of the household, but of his father's fields, &c. Oc- casionally, the parents are recalled and allowed to remain for some time, but eventually they have to leave, and the property is claimed and divided as above stated. When the parents are well off they provide a house beforehand. On the marriage of another son the same process is repeated, and may be again and again; but according to the usual custom the parents may, after the process has been repeated several times, return to the house of the eldest son. When a couple have a large family of sons who marry in succession, the poor people are often thus reduced to serious straits." The Khyengs, or as they call themselves Shyú, are a widely diffused race, some sections of them inhabiting both British and Burmese territory, and others in the wild and unexplored parts of the hilly region, are altogether independent. They are remarkable for tattooing the faces of their women in 352 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. lines mostly describing segments of circles, and which, to the eye of an unaccustomed beholder, gives a hideous and demoniacal appearance. This operation is invariably performed on every female at a certain age, and the practice is said to have originated to prevent their being carried off in the raids of neighbouring tribes. There can be no doubt of the ethnographical position of the hill tribes of Ultra-India; and, with the exception of a few prominent differences, such as I have noticed, they all bear great similarity to each other. It would be unprofitable, therefore, to devote more space to a record of further details, and I will conclude my notices of them with a few remarks on their religious conceptions, or "animism,' as they have been styled. Save where the light of Christianity has broken upon a few portions of the Karen tribes under the auspices of the American Baptist Mission, and the conversion in one instance to Hinduism, and in a few others to the Buddhist faith, the whole of these tribes still retain their ancient forms of debased spirit worship, namely: that of the "dii loci," the tutelary deities presiding over the elements, the mountains, streams, trees, or other objects, natural or artificial; that of the spirits of their ancestors, and those of wicked men; and that of evil beings, and malevolent influences. "" RELIGIOUS EXEMPTIONS. In their barbarous philosophy, all objects, natural and artificial, animate or inanimate, have spirits, and are supposed to reside near the objects over which they preside, and to be co-existent with them. Without a spirit nothing could come into existence. These spirits are looked upon in the light of demons whose malevolence must be propitiated by supplications and offerings. They know of no Supreme Being from whom voluntary mercy can be expected. When the field is sown, the spirit of the rice field has to be satisfied, and again when the crop is reaped. Man has a presiding spirit whose presence is necessary to his existence. During sleep it wanders abroad, and dreams are supposed to be what it sees during these wanderings. If it does not return the man sickens and dies. Like the Dyaks of Borneo (no doubt a cognate race), they "ascribe also a physical nature even to plants. They regard un- healthiness in a plant as a temporary absence of its ego, and when the rice perishes its spirit is said to have flown away. "'* VOL. I. The Karens believe that "the spirits are ever abroad on the earth, and that nothing separates us from them but a white veil." Offerings of food are made to them, and it is supposed they can be communed with by certain gifted "medicine men ", 353 * "The Races of Man," by Oscar Peschel, p. 245. A A 354 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. or mediums, who in their ravings and convulsions speak strange things in their name. The spirits of those who have died violent deaths are believed to be peculiarly malignant, and have to be laid with special ceremonies. Amongst the Kowpōee tribe of Nagas, a murdered man's soul receives that of his murderer in the spirit world and makes him his slave. Milton's lines, as quoted by Ellis regarding the Polynesians, are equally applicable to these tribes: "Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth Unseen, both when we wake and when we sleep." Offerings to stones* hold a prominent place in the feticism of the Bghais, and some other tribes. Every house among the Bghais has one or more "In all parts of the world stones seem to have attracted the devotion of man. It is not surprising that worship was often offered to meteorolites which, falling red hot, penetrated into the ground." "The black stone, the chief object of worship of Mahomedans in Mecca, is said to be an aerolite, and to have shone brightly at first, but very soon to have turned black on account of the sinfulness of man. It is undoubtedly a remnant of the fetish worship of the pre-Islam Arabs, as is also the stone built into the Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem, which carried the prophet heavenwards and then fell down, or rather still hovers in the air.” "The prophets of Israel and the devout Kings of Judah contended incessantly against the worship of the high places, which were probably tall, pointed stones symbolical of the Most Holy. Even Jacob anointed the stone at Bethel on which he had rested. In Celtic Europe we find stone circles as places of worship, and also trilithic cromlechs or stone tables, which served either as places of sacrifice or for the faithful to crawl through. Even in A.D. 567 a Council at Tours was obliged to threaten excommunication against stone worship; and in England similar interdicts were issued in the seventh century by Theodoric, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the tenth, by King Edgar, and again in the eleventh by Canute." "The Races of Man," by Oscar Peschel, pp. 248, 249. + OFFERINGS TO STONES. stones as household gods, to which blood offerings of a cock are made. They believe that "if they do not give them blood to eat, they will eat them." The play of colours seen in a precious stone, they deem the movements of the spirit that inhabits it. END OF VOL I. 355 BRADBURY, AGNEW & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 2 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. & C. Kegan Paul & London. THE SHWE DAGON, PAGODA, RANGOON B.I. BURMA PAST AND PRESENT WITH PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF THE COUNTRY BY LIEUT.-GEN. ALBERT FYTCHE, C.S.I. LATE CHIEF COMMISSIONER Of British BURMA, AND AGENT TO THE VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA. Ηδη μὲν πολέων κεκορήμεθ᾽ ἀέθλων. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: C. KEGAN PAUL & Co., I, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, 1878. F I (The rights of translation and of reproauction are reserved.) CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Burmese the standard language of the country.-The Talaing little used.—The Burmese and Talaings received their religion and alpha- bet from India.--Description of the Burmese and Talaing languages. -Great reverence paid to the numerals III. and IX.-Use made of the numeral V.—Burmese metaphysical works are in the Pali language. -Books, how formed.—Writing of the Burmese.-Burmese literature. —Their sacred books.-The Bee-da-gat-thoon-bon and the Baideng. -Secular literature. The disputed wife. -The Burmese drama.- Description of a Burmese theatre.-Dress of the actors.-The orches- tra.-Plots of the plays.-A ballet at the Palace at Mandalay.— Burmese great lovers of both vocal and instrumental music. - Transla- tion of a Burmese drama, The Silver Hill G • CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION, AND HABITS AND CUSTOMS OF THE BURMESE. M PAGE Physical characteristics of the Burmese race.-Male costume.-Tattooing. --Its absence considered a mark of effeminacy.-Female dress and ornaments.-Ear-tubes.-Universality of smoking.-Singular custom. - Burmese altogether a different people from the inhabitants of Hindostan. -Absence of caste prejudices. Their pleasing manners. -Happiness of the people.-Absence of pauperism.-Affection of parents for their children. -Fondness for amusement and excitement. -As a rule not laborious.-Marriage customs.-Perfect freedom of. marriageable girls.—Marriage purely a civil rite.-Hla-pet.-Curious custom pursued by a bridegroom's bachelor friends.- Privileges of I vi CONTENTS. the female sex.-Code of divorce.-- Polygamy.-Sensitiveness to raillery.-Tendency to suicide.-Suicide of a bridegroom.-Attempted suicide of a girl.-Food.-Description of a Burmese banquet.—Their treatment of disease. -The devil dance.-Disease caused by witch- craft.—Funerals.-Boat races.-Peculiarity of the boats.-Mode of rowing.-Description of the goal.-"Palmam qui meruit ferit.”- Vaunting songs, and grotesque attitudes of the winners.-Subscrip- tion purses.-Game of football.-Boxing and wrestling.—Admirable temper of the combatants.-Description of the Ta-soung-doing fes- tival. --Weaving the sacred cloth.-Relays of workers.-Working and courting.—Floating lights.-Water festival on New Year's Day. -Meaning of the observance.-Mythological legend M CHAPTER III. FOUR YEARS' ADMINISTRATION OF BRITISH BURMA, 1867-1871. Our commerce with China confined to sea-ports. -Ancient overland com- merce between Burma and Western China viâ Bhamo.-Brought to a close in 1855.-Early history of the Panthays or Chinese Mahom- medans.-They establish a Mahommedan kingdom in Yunnan. Monopoly of trade between Burma and Yunnan confined to Chinese inhabitants of Mandalay and Bhamo.-Their jealousy regarding it.— Despatch of a Mission under Major Sladen to Western China viâ Bhamo.- Burmese suspicion of it.-The King ultimately sends the expedition in his own steamer to Bhamo.-Hill ranges and valleys occupied by Kakhyens and Shans.-Description of these tribes.- The Governor of Bhamo defeated and slain by the Kakhyens.—Diffi- culties of the Mission in consequence.-The Mission starts for Momein.-Secret agencies at work to stop the Mission.-Mission delayed at Ponsee.-Delay profitable in some ways.-Valuable collec- tion of specimens of natural history made by Dr. Anderson.-Bam- busicola Fytchii.—Kakhyen ideas of marriage. Their superstitious observances. - Communication opened with the Governor of Momein. -The Chinese freebooter Li Hsieh-tai.-Destruction of his strong- hold. - Mission escorted by Shans and Panthays to Momein.— Hospitality of Ta-sa-kon.-All objects of Mission successfully obtained.-Mission returns to Bhamo.-Return journey quite an ovation.-Description of Kakhyen oath.-Exposition of the policy in despatching the Mission.-Objects not political but commercial.—The tact and gallantry shewn by Major Sladen.-Favourable view taken by him of the Panthay rebellion.-Policy of the British Government towards Yacoob Beg, Sultan of Kashgar.-An English political agent • PAGE 59 Mad K CONTENTS. appointed to Bhamo.—Large increase of trade. -A Panthay Embassy proceeds to England viâ Rangoon and Calcutta.-Collapse of Mahom- medan power in Yunnan.-Despatch of a second Mission to Western China. Its failure.-Murder of Mr. Margary.—Lord Lawrence retires from the Viceroyalty of India.-Lord Mayo appointed Viceroy.— Correspondence with Lord Mayo.—Important measures carried out during my administration of British Burma.-Speech at a public dinner · 95 CHAPTER IV. BUDDHISM AND EDUCATION IN BURMA. Shamanism the ancient religion of Burma.-Adoration of nats and other spirits.-Three religions preceded Buddhism in India.-Buddhism a wide-spread religion. —Propagated by persuasion alone. -The Buddhas previous to Gautama.—The Jātaka fables.-Birth and parentage of Gautama.—His miraculous conception.—Education of Gautama.- Gautama's four visions. He deserts his palace and assumes the garb of an ascetic.—His trials and temptations in the wilderness.—He becomes a Buddha.—The sacred Bó-tree.-Gautama proceeds towards Benares to preach his doctrine.-He visits his father.--Attempts on his life. Punishment of Déwadat.-Gautama's death -His funeral. Gautama's relics.-The Shwé-dagon pagoda at Rangoon.—The three Synods.-The Pitakatayan, or Buddhist scriptures.- Powers of memory of Buddhist priests.-Two Buddhist missionaries arrive at Thatún.—Buddhagosa. —Talaings received their religion and alphabet from Ceylon.-The Burmese from the Talaings. —Karma and Nirvâna described. -Buddhism and Brahminism compared.-Dāna, or alms- giving.-Purity of Buddhist ethics.—Singular analogy of Buddhistic rites and observances to those of Romish Christianity.-Early Roman Catholic missionaries in the East. Their opinions regarding Budd- hism.-Buddhism existent in the western world previous to the birth of our Saviour.-Gautama a saint in the Roman calendar.-Phongyees. -Rules of the Order.-The Novitiate.-Ordination.-Celibacy.— Diet.-The Habit. -The Order of Nuns.-Funerals.-Monasteries. -Education in Burma. - Monastic and lay schools. -System of education lately adopted by the British Government.-Difficulties regarding it.—How overcome.-Success of the system - • vii mga p PAGE . 137 viii CONTENTS. APPENDICES. APPENDIX A.-Official reports regarding an expedition against an Arakan Hill Tribe APPENDIX B.-Official documents connected with services in the Bassein district APPENDIX C.-Narrative of the Mission to Mandalay in 1867 • APPENDIX F.-Letter of apology from the Emperor of China. • • APPENDIX D.-Memorandum on the comparative progress of the pro- vinces now forming British Burma under British and Native rule • APPENDIX E.-Memorandum on the Panthays, or Mahommedan popu- lation of Yunnan • • APPENDIX G.-Memorandum on four years' administration of British Burma, 1867-71 PAGE 213 220 252 286 296 304 307 MAPS AND AND ILLUSTRATIONS. VIEW OF THE SHWÉ-DAGON PAGODA AT RANGOON LIST OF SPECIMEN OF BURMESE WRITING BURMESE DANCING GIRL AND A BURMESE LADY GAME OF FOOTBALL BAMBUSICOLA FYTCHII · • · FUNERAL PROCESSION OF A BUDDHIST PRIEST INTERIOR OF A BUDDHIST MONASTERY • • To face page "" "" "" Frontispiece "" MAP OF BURMA AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES, WITH ROUTES OF VARIOUS EXPLORERS 3 63 86 104 201 204 At end of Volume BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. CHAPTER I. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Makedon The Burmese the standard language of the country.-The Talaing little used. - The Burmese and Talaings received their religion and alphabet from India. — Description of the Burmese and Talaing languages. — Great reverence paid to the numerals III. and IX.-Use made of the numeral V.—Burmese metaphysical works are in the Pali language.—Books, how formed.-Writing of the Burmese.-Burmese literature. Their sacred books.-The Bee-da-gat-thoon-bon and the Baideng.--Secular literature. -The disputed wife.-The Burmese drama.-Description of a Burmese theatre.—Dress of the actors.-The orchestra.-Plots of the plays.—A ballet at the Palace at Maudalay.-Burmese great lovers of both vocal and instrumental music.-Translation of a Burmese drama, The Silver Hill. C THE Burmese is the standard language of the country, in which the administration of affairs is conducted, and is spoken generally by all classes of natives, including, also, in many instances, the hill tribes. In a few villages coast-ward, however, peopled by descendants of the old kingdom of Pegu, and remote from the main sources of access to the principal towns, the Talaing, or Mon language -notwithstanding the efforts of the. Burmans during their rule to stamp out all knowledge of it-is VOL. II. B 2 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. still taught in the Buddhist monasteries, and the sacred writings expounded in that dialect. It is, I consider, a source of regret that nationality of language was not restored to the Talaings on our occupation of the country. It would have removed the feeling of degradation of a conquered race, and, together with the grateful sense for such a considera- tion, have served as a check on any combination by them with the Burmese, which might possibly arise in the future. The Burmese, as well as the Talaings, received their religion and alphabet from India. Their alphabets differ very slightly, both being a circular variety of the ancient Deva Nagri;* but the two languages have no radical affinity, the Burmese being cognate with the Tibetan, and the Talaing (as stated in the previous chapter) with the aborigi- nal Indian tribes of the north-east, Monda, or Kól family. The former is labial and soft as the Italian, the latter harsh and guttural as Arabic. In com- bination of words and sentences and in idiom they are entirely different. In the Talaing language† the subject usually precedes the verb, and the object follows it, as in English; but in a Burmese and Tibetan sentence the order of the words is inverted. * A specimen of Burmese writing, being a transcript of a petition made to me when Chief Commissioner of British Burma, is given on the opposite page. + The Rev. Dr. Mason, "Burma," p. 126. အင်္ဂလိတ်မင်းပိုင် ၊မြမ္မာနိုင်ငံကိုအစိုးရတော်မူသော မဟာဝရွှင်တော်မင်းကြီး သခင်ဘုရား ထံရှိခိုးသံတော်ဦးတင်ရာန်အလွှာ ဘုရားကျွန်တော်မောင်အောင်။ရှိခိုးသံတော်ဦးတင်ပါသည်အရှင်သခင်မင်းမြတ်ကြီးဘုရား ကျွန်တော်မျိုးသည်။ငယ်ရွယ်စည်ကယခုတိုင်မြေတိုင်းခြင်းပညာ။အင်းစာရင်း အတွက် လက်ရေး လက်သားများကိုသင် ကြားတတ်မြောက်ပြီးသည်နော်။အစိုးရမင်းရုန်းတော်မှာနှစ်စည်မပြတ်အ ရွှ တော်ကိုထမ်းရွက်လုပ်ကိုင်နေပါသည်။၍သို့လုပ်ကိုင် သည်စ၁တွင်း။ကျွန်တော်မျိုးအပေါ်နှိုက် ။ ရွှ ဖြစ်တစုံတရာမရှိဘူးပါ။ယခုကျွန်တော်မျိုးမှာအလုပ်မရှိပါသောကြောင့် ။ဂျွန်ဆင်ရဲပင်ပန်းနွမ်း နယ်ရှိနေပါသည်။ကိုယ်တော်စွာရွှင်သခင်မှတပါး။အခြားကိုင်းကွယ်ရာအရှင်သခင်မရှိပါသော့ ကြောင်။ခြေရင်းတော်တွင်အမှုတော်ကိုထမ်းရွက် ၁သက်မွေးရပါဘင်။တစုံတခုသောနေရာ၊ မှာ ခန့်ထားသနားတော်မူရာန်းအမိန်.လက်မှတ်ကယ်မသနားတော်မူပါမည်စာကြောင်းကို။ကိုင်းကွ ကွယ်ရာစာရွှင်တပါးရှိပါ၍။ရှိခိုးသံတော်ဦတင်ပါသည်အရှင်မင်းမြတ်ကြီးဘုရား။ ၁၈၆၉ ခုဇွန်လ ၂၂ ရက်နေ့ ၇ ၁၃၁ခု ပဌမဝါဆိုညွှန်၁၄ရက်နေ SPECIMEN OF BURMESE WRITING. ။မောင်အောင် ။ R 2 4 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 2 For instance, in the example given by Csoma de Koros in his grammar of the Tibetan language, the translation of "in a book seen by me," would become in both these latter languages "me by seen book a in.” The Burmese language, according to August Schleicher's classification* belongs, in common with the other Indo-Chinese tongues, to the type of the isolating languages, consisting of mere roots, in- capable of forming compounds, and not susceptible of inflectional change. With few exceptions all words are derived from original roots, which, by being used with affixes or prefixes, are converted without inflection into different parts of speech. It is written from left to right, has no division be- tween the words, and is wholly monosyllabic, with the exception of polysyllabic words intro- duced from the Pali dialect, and even these are pronounced as if each syllable of them was a distinct word.† The alphabet consists of ten vowels and thirty- two consonants. The vowels are written in their original character only when they form the initial syllable of a word of Pali origin. When combined * Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatick der Indogermanischen Sprachen, von August Schleicher, 8vo. Weimar, 1866. + From this has arisen the system complained of by Colonel Yule, of hyphenized aggregation of syllables, when Pali names are written in English. See "Mission to Ava," p. 106. i THE BURMESE LANGUAGE. LO 5 with consonants they are represented by symbols. The vowel a is supposed to be inherent in every consonant that is not furnished with the symbol of another vowel or marked as final. The first twenty-five consonants are divided into five classes of five each, viz., gutturals, palatals, linguals, dentals, and labials. Of the remaining seven, five may be considered liquids, one a sibilant, and the other is the aspirate h. Gender is strictly confined to those appellatives which imply objects distinguished by sex, and is usually expressed by affixes referring to the sexual difference; such nouns as virtue, house, are not held to be of the neuter gender, but are considered to be of no gender at all. In combining a numeral with a noun, the term implying the genus, or essential quality of the thing spoken of, is added. To render into Burmese the idea two oxen, it would be neces- sary to say oxen, two animals; two shillings, shil- lings, two flat things; four priests, priests, four objects of reverence; and even when the appellative is used without a numeral, the term implying its class is often superadded, as tsa-gnhet, a sparrow; from tsa, a sparrow, and gnhet, bird. In the oral language, affixed particles, especially connective ones, are often omitted: this, with many words being spelt the same and only differing very slightly in tone when spoken, but having a widely Get 6 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. different signification; and words declaring any action being frequently not used in expressing a modification* of them; together with other pecu- liarities, renders the language difficult of acquisition, at first, to those accustomed to the inflecting and more finished structure of the Indo-European languages. The numeral system of the Burmese is decimal. Most of the names of the numerals have some sig- nification in the language, and two of them bear evident marks of allusion to the tenets of the Buddhist faith. They are thoon, "three,"† and Ko, "nine.” The first typifies the Buddhist triad, or "the three most precious gems," Buddha, Dhamma, Thengha. "Buddha, His Law, and the congregation of his Saints." According to Buddhism, from Buddha proceeded the Law, and from the Law came those who fulfilled it; for, that human intelligence has in itself the power of transcendental perfectibility, is the dia- gnostic dogma, the foundation-stone of Buddhism as a religion. For this reason, thoon implies, likewise, *For instance, to wash the hands, the face, the body, linen, dishes, &c., are all different phrases, each expressing the action to wash by a different verb. + Great reverence is also paid to the number three by the Egyptians in their worship of Amounra, Amoun-neu, and Sevek-ra; by the Hindús of Brahma, Vishna and Siva, and by the ancient Greeks of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. Number seven is held among Semitic nations as a sacred and perfect number, evidently in allusion to the seven epochs of creation : or, possibly, to the seven stars (the Pleiades) in the constellation of Taurus. See footnote to page 91. THE BUDDHIST TRIAD. -I 7 so to perform one's moral exigencies, as, by be- coming enrolled in the latter member of the triune Three (the Thengha) to become also a compo- nent part of the Supreme Triad, the Thărănagōon, "the Supreme and final attributes, beyond which there is no passing." The number nine, in the same manner, is a triple combination of three; a trebly expressive symbol, therefore, of the expressive three; and, being the product of that number into itself, it emblematises the active energy of the Supreme Triad teeming in itself: hence Kō, “nine,” implies likewise, to "reverence, worship, trust in," &c. It is usual, in epistolary writing, to make a mark or pause, as a sort of starting point: the figure five is often used in this way, because it refers to Pegny- tseng, "the five commandments;" and its use in this instance implies that the writer has kept in mind these commandments while writing his letter, as also that the reader should do the same, and not put an evil interpretation on any part of it.* On the introduction of the Buddhist religion and literature, numerous admixtures of terms from the Pali dialect were introduced; but they remain as distinctly extraneous now as they did on their first admission, and are seldom made use of in common conversation. All the Burmese metaphysical works * "Grammar of the Burmese Language," by Lieutenant Thos. Latter, pp. 89, 90. 8 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. are in the Pali language,* in copying which recourse is had to the vernacular alphabet, the ancient square Pali character being seldom adopted, except in one instance, in which it is invariably used, and that is for the sacred Kambhawa,† or rules to be observed at the ordination of priests. These ordinances are supposed to have been promulgated and sanc- tioned by Gautama himself, and are held in profound veneration by all Buddhists. Burmese books are composed of leaves ‡ of the Palmyra palm, through the ends of which a string is passed, and are bound between a couple of wooden covers, gilt, and lacquered in coloured devices. The letters are engraved on the leaves with an iron stylus, held nearly perpendicular by the two fore- fingers and thumb of the right hand, and steadied * It has long been a disputed point whether the Pali or the Sanskrit is the most ancient language. The Buddhists hold that Pali is the root of Sanskrit, and the primitive language from which all others are descended. Whereas their rivals, the Brahmans, declare that it is a derivation from the Sanskrit ; but polluted like cow's milk in a dog's skin by the unholy contact of Buddhist heretics. European philologists appear generally to agree that Pali represents one of the oldest Prakritic dialects of Northern India, which has been handed down to us, and was the popular dialect of Magadha and Central India at the time of Gautama; and if not a derivation from Sanskrit in an early stage of its development, that the two dialects were contemporaneously evolved from a kindred source, the traces of which cannot be discovered at the present day. See Muir's "Sanskrit Texts," pp. 53-103, vol. ii.; Lotus de la Bonne Loi. App. Burnouf. + I have in my possession two very beautiful manuscripts of this work in the old square Pali character; one written in letters of gold on ivory leaves, and the other on gilt, and highly varnished palm leaves. The process of preparing these leaves has been given in the preceding chapter. LITERATURE OF THE BURMESE. 9 by the thumb-nail of the left hand, in which a nick is often cut to receive it. The writing is rendered visible by the application of charcoal ground with eng-tway, a fragrant gum procured from Diptero- carpus grandiflora, and which latter preserves also the leaves from the attacks of insects. Every Buddhist monastery contains a library of these books, kept in carved and lacquered cabinets. The literature of the Burmese, both sacred and profane, has mostly an Indian origin. Their two great metaphysical works are the Bee-da-gat thoon- bon, or Pittakatayan* (the three baskets), and the Baideng. The former contains the three great divisions of the Buddhist scriptures, the Thuttan, Winiya, and Abhidhamma, and is very voluminous. The first, Thuttan, or the line,† contains the nume- rous sermons and discourses of Gautama; the ex- cellent precepts contained in some of which would do honour to a Christian teacher of the present day. In one of these sermons, for instance, Gautama prescribes the manner in which religious festivals should be observed. "Whoever," he says, "wishes - * The King is having the entire Bee-da-gat engraved on white marble slabs, which are to be placed round the temple he has built near Mandalay. When at Mandalay I visited the place where they were being engraved. A large number of stone-cutters were employed, and busily engaged on the work. + It is like a rule or line, because as the line (thuttan) is a mark of definition to carpenters, so is the Thuttan a rule of conduct to the wise. In the same way that flowers strung together upon a thread are neither scattered nor lost, so the precepts contained herein are united by this line (thuttan). Turnour's “Mahawanso.” Hardy's "Eastern Monachism,” p. 168. J IO BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. to acquire great merit, must not limit himself to the customary adorations and offerings on these days, but must spend them in meditating on the favours of God, and the excellence of his law. He must be contented with one simple dish in the morning, and with little or no sleep at night, which should be passed in prayer, and in reading good books. As it is, moreover, forbidden to do any work on these days, everyone must be careful to despatch all neces- sary business the day before, that so he may be free from all cares and distractions." In another, he thus accosts a young disciple who had gone astray. "A man should refrain from the six things that are called ruinous, viz.: love of intoxicating liquors; the custom of wandering about the streets; too great passion for dancing; games and spectacles; gambling; frequenting vicious com- pany; and lastly, slothfulness and negligence in the performance of one's duties. Drunkenness is the cause of the loss of goods and reputation, of quarrels, diseases, immodesty of dress, disregard of honour, and incapacity for learning. Unseasonable wander- ings expose a man to great dangers and temptation, and leave his family and possessions unprotected. A passion for games and shows draws a man from his occupations, and hinders him from gaining his livelihood. A gambler has no friends. In gaming, success is followed by intrigues and quarrels : loss, : BUDDHIST ETHICS. I [ by bitterness and sorrow of heart, as well as dilapi- dation of fortune. Finally, frequenting the company of the vicious, idleness, and neglect of one's proper duties, lead to debauchery, deceit, robbery, and all kinds of wickedness." In speaking of false friends, he describes them "as always making show of friendship without its reality, professing a love which they do not feel, giving little that they may receive much, and being friends with a man only because he is rich, or because they have need of his favour. Those, too, are false friends, who give a promise in words, but are far from fulfilling it in their actions: and, finally, those who are ever ready to assist a man in doing evil, but never in doing good. Real friends, he adds, are of four kinds; firstly, those who are such both in adversity and prosperity; secondly, those who give good advice on proper occasions, even at the peril of their lives; thirdly, those who take care of whatever belongs to him they love; and fourthly, those who teach a man what is good, who are delighted in his prosperity, and sorrowful in his misfortunes.' "" The second division,* Winya, or discipline, is subdivided into five books, and contains the regula- tions of the priesthood. It "is said to be the life of the Buddhist religion, as where discipline is at an * Hardy's “Eastern Monachism,” p. 168. 12 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. K end, religion is at an end." The third division, Abhi-dhamma, or pre-eminent truths, was addressed by Gautama to the Brahmas and Déwas, and con- tains seven sections, not in the form of sermons, but specifying terms and doctrines of dogmatic philosophy, with definitions and explanations. The Baideng is divided into four parts, one, how- ever, of which has been lost. It is the great Pali work on mathematics and astronomy, or rather astrology. Of secular literature there are works on subjects such as chronological history, medicine, topography, ballads, and romances; the latter two of which are, to the credit of the Burmese, free from the gross- ness and indelicacy of similar productions in India. I will here extract a tale from the Thoo-dhamma- tsarie, translated by the late Colonel Sparks, which will serve to illustrate the general character of the latter kind of literature. THE DISPUTED WIFE. In the olden time, during the era of Thermaydha,* in the country of Kaytoomatee, the son of a certain man who was possessed of countless wealth, and the daughter of another rich man named Thanga, were *The sixteenth Buddh, who lived 90,000 years, and was eighty-eight cubits in stature. ! THE DISPUTED WIFE. 13 married to each other, with the consent of their parents. The rich man's son said to his wife, “Our parents are in the enjoyment of vast wealth, but we have nothing; therefore, I shall embark on board ship, and go with others to Lankha Deepa.* His wife, on hearing these words, spoke to him affec- tionately, saying, "My husband, if you leave me to go trading, I have no other protector; it is the poor only that go to sea; both your parents and mine are in the enjoyment of all that wealth can bestow; go not, I beseech you." Her husband replied, "It is good to have riches which have been gained by our own industry, and even if I am drowned in the attempt, such a death will be honourable. A man without substance is base and contemptible. Sitting still, and eating and drinking, are disgraceful to a man. The wise have said, therefore, that they who, setting no value upon their lives, embark upon the ocean in search of wealth, even although they should be disappointed in their aim, are deserving of praise; † so I am determined to go." Thus saying he took some stock in trade with him and departed. He had not been gone long before his wife formed an intimacy with a servant named Payta, who said to her one day, "We are living together *The Pali name of Ceylon. †These manly sentiments are expressed at much greater length, and with more force, in the Zanekka, one of the ten Dzats which contain the history of Gaudama in a former transmigration. . 14 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. continue to do so, now, but how shall we be able to when your husband returns ?” The rich man's daughter desired Payta to bring a corpse from the burying ground, and to place it on the roof, and set the house on fire, saying, "People will think that I have been burnt to death, and then we can go to some other place, and live together." Payta did as he was told, and they removed to another part of the country. The parents thinking that it was in reality their daughter who had been burnt, mourned for her bitterly, and performed the funeral rites over the corpse. Payta and the rich man's daughter, being without the means of subsistence in their new place of abode, the latter said, "We are in a miserable condition. here, let us return, and my parents, on seeing me, will be struck with my resemblance to their daughter, and give us something with which we shall be able to procure clothes and food." They returned ac- cordingly, and arriving at her parents' garden, sat down to rest under the shade of a flowering tree, by the side of a bank. The rich man's servants came down to draw water for a libation to the memory of their master's daughter, and on seeing her cried out, "If it were not that she has a husband with her, we could declare that this is our master's daughter." So taking up their golden pitchers, they returned THE HUSBAND'S RETURN. 15 and reported to their mistress what they had seen. The rich man's wife hastened down to the garden, and on looking upon her daughter, with difficulty refrained from weeping; as she asked her who she was, she answered, Madam, your servants are travellers, and are about to depart immediately.” "Go not away from us," said the lady, "you shall be to us in the place of the daughter we have lost." So saying, she made them both return to the house with her, and gave them a pavilion to dwell in with a pinnacled roof.* (( About this time the husband returned, and, on inquiring for his wife, was informed that she had perished in her house, which had been destroyed by fire. Restraining his tears, he chanced to enter the pavilion which his mother-in-law had built, where, seeing his wife, he exclaimed, "What do people mean by saying that my wife is dead, when here she is all the time?" So he applied to the village judge, who, on the testimony of the com- plainant's mother-in-law, and many other persons, threw out the case. Being dissatisfied, he appealed to the governor of the district, who confirmed the previous decision. He then went to the King, who, not being much versed in the law, the nat's daughter, the guardian of the white umbrella, cried * A roof of several stages, rising one above another, the use of which is confined in Burma to religious edifices, palaces, and the houses of men of rank. 16 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. out, “O King, this case is not one for the ignorant to meddle with. Is not your chief noble skilful in the disposal of suits?" The King, on hearing this, sent for the chief nobleman, and told him that, unless he settled the case, he would degrade him from his rank. The nobleman's daughter observing that her father was dejected, inquired the reason; whereupon he repeated to her the King's order. She said, "Let not my father distress himself, but let him cause the three parties to appear before me, and let him erect a building for the purpose, and place them in the three corners thereof, whilst I will remain in the centre and examine them." All having been done as she desired, the noble- man's daughter called the rich man's son and thus addressed him, "O excellent man, adorned with all perfection, every one says that after, regardless of life, you embarked upon the ocean, your wife perished here in the flames which consumed your dwelling. Your parents abound in riches, and you have acquired much wealth besides by your voyage. It is unbecoming in a person of your condition to be engaged in such a contest as this, where two men are quarrelling for the possession of one woman. This young lady also says that she is your adver- sary's wife, and he declares the same thing, conse- quently all, from the King downwards, have decided + S NOBLE SENTIMENTS. against you. should she deny the fact? If she were really your wife, why 17 “You had better follow my counsel which I am about to unfold to you; but how will you receive it, or how shall I utter it?" Being asked to explain herself further, she continued, "You are the son of a rich man, and I am the daughter of a great noble; if we are both but of one mind, what sorrow can ever befall us for the rest of our lives?"* The rich man's son replied, “How can I give up a wife who was betrothed to me by her parents before she was able to walk alone, and before she ceased to be allowed to go without clothes on? The nature of man ought to be incapable of doing a cruel or heartless action, and what good can ever result from the breach of a solemn compact?" The nobleman's daughter, on hearing these words of this man of honour, expressed her astonishment and dismissed him. The nobleman's daughter then called Payta, and said to him, “It is not meet for two young men, who are endowed with every perfection, to quarrel for one woman. I have no husband, and I desire to live with you; great will be our love; and, I being * I cannot help noting the delicacy with which this proposal is made. Indeed, there are several passages in this story, which are calculated to give a favourable idea of Burmese literature. How simple, for instance, and yet how noble, is the young man's reply. Mark also the different styles of her address to Payta, with whom there was no occasion for much refinement. She tempts the former with her love, the latter with her riches and her rank. VOL. II. с 18 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. a nobleman's daughter, shall not we enjoy the pleasures attending upon rank and wealth?" Payta, on hearing this, considering that it would be wise to follow her advice, replied, "Women are by nature fertile in devices for the accomplishment of their ends; they are full of deceit, and their minds dis- posed to treachery. My life is like water in the hollow of the hand of this woman.* Therefore I will do as you desire." "If you agree to my plan," answered she, "we must elope together, and live in some other part of the country; on this condition only will I trust you." To this also he consented, and she desired him to return to his place. (( After this she sent for the rich man's daughter, and thus examined her. 'My sister, the circum- stances of your husband are humble, whilst the position and means of happiness enjoyed by this rich man's son are great. If you were to live with him, you would know no sorrow during the rest of your life; why then do you refuse?" She replied, "You, lady, are a woman, and so also am I; the nature of woman is like fruit upon a tree, and her husband is like the tree itself. The nature of fruit is this; first a shoot sprouts out, which gives forth * His paramour,-either because she was his accomplice, and he feared that she might betray him, or because it occurred to him, that as she had suggested the means by which she had rid herself of her husband, she would not be wanting in an expedient to put himself out of the way hereafter, should she entertain the wish to do so, and would not scruple to use violent means, if necessary, to effect her purpose. CONVICTION OF THE CULPRITS. 19 one or two leaves, and then grows into a branch; on the branch is formed a bud; this in time expands into a blossom, which changes into fruit; the fruit ripens, and then falls off, and is cast away among the refuse. Can the fruit be re-attached to the stalk from which it has fallen? or can a child, after it has once been born, re-enter its mother's womb from which it came forth ?"* When the nobleman's daughter had heard this she exclaimed, "Now I comprehend the treachery of which this woman has been guilty." So saying, she dismissed them all three, and having dictated to the secretaries all that each of them had said, and caused them to record it, she had it read to her father. He, rejoicing exceedingly, took the three parties to the suit before the King, and on questioning them [they confessed the truth]. The King thus passed sentence: "The servant Payta, not being the true husband, deserves to suffer death; nevertheless, I spare his life. The rich man's son turned merchant, who, although he had acquired vast wealth, would not break his troth, is the original husband. The rich man's daughter is also worthy of death, because she denied her husband; but, in con- sideration of her having indicated the truth, by the C An elegant and touching picture of the lost and fallen state of a wife, who by her unfaithfulness has forfeited the love and respect of her husband, to which she feels her too late repentance can never hope to restore her. C 2 20 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. metaphor of the ripe fruit, which after it has fallen from its stalk cannot be united to it again, and of the child, which having once been born, cannot re-enter its mother's womb, she is cautioned and released." . Then the nat's daughter, the guardian of the white umbrella, testified her approval, and the King made the nobleman's daughter his Queen. Therefore let wise judges carefully consider and inquire into all cases of fraud, deceit, and treachery, before they pass a decision. Another of their romances, called “ Apau-radza- bon," treats of the principles of political science, and shows peculiar shrewdness in many of its precepts. I will quote one of these precepts, and which may yet be applicable to the present great war raging between Russia and Turkey. "Once upon a time two Kings, whose territories bordered on Burma, declared war against each other, and both had recourse for assistance to the Burmese monarch, who sent for the Minister, in whom he placed much confidence, for advice as to what he was to do under the circumstances; and which was given in the following manner :- "In the presence of a countryman, who was working in his field, two cocks ran out of the jungle and commenced fighting together, and after con- tinuing the combat for some time with great bravery and determination, they became so over- sut THE BURMESE DRAMA. 21 come with their exertions, that they became ex- hausted and could fight no longer, when he sprang upon them and seized them both. Do you there- fore, O King! do likewise. Remain quiet. Let these two Kings fight with each other until their resources are exhausted, and then dictate peace to them, and annex such portions of their territories as your Majesty may desire." The drama in Burma is a national institution, exercising a wide-spread and powerful influence on the minds of the population: and one of the first impressions which strike a stranger is the universal passion that exists among the people for dramatic performances. It is a strange and curious sight to see the large crowds of Burmese assembled for the night to witness the performance of a pooay, or play, and the delight and perfect good order which they manifest. Their attention appears wholly absorbed by the performance, and the sympathy shown for distressed virtue, and rattling peals of laughter caused by the comic parts of the play, are very natural. Except for the dresses of the actors and actresses, which appear rich and handsome, the mise-en-scène and stage accompaniments are rude and simple. A structure of bamboos, supporting a roof of trellis work, lightly thatched with grass, and picturesquely draped with bright-coloured silks and cloths, suffice 22 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. for a theatre. The stage is in the centre, and in its midst, around a green bough unhesitatingly accepted as a substitute for a wood scene, are grouped the footlights, consisting of earthen bowls placed on plantain stems, and fed with petroleum oil. Raised bamboo platforms, on one or more sides for distin- guished visitors, supply the place of boxes; and pit and gallery are represented by the orderly crowd seated close together in a circle on the ground. At the back is the orchestra, and behind it the corps dramatique, surrounded with dragon wings, masks, and other stage properties, change their dresses, and have their " exits and their entrances." The plots of the different plays bear a great resemblance to each other. The dramatis personae generally representing the adventures of a prince, first in quest of, and then in the courtship of a princess, a "heavy father" in the shape of a king, oppressively wise ministers, humble courtiers, and maids-of-honour for the princess. There are court receptions, processions, and dances as interludes. The prince is invariably accompanied by a servant, a loo-byet, or "sort of Shakespearian Lance," whose jokes with the maids-of-honour and others, often improvised, and bearing on matters of local gossip and scandal, give rise to peals of laughter. The tones and cadences of the Burmese language, giving a different meaning to words whose alphabetic A BURMESE BALLET. 23 forms are the same, lends itself readily to puns and double entendre, and the jokes of the loo-byet are not always of the most delicate nature; though seldom or ever anything said at these plays exceed the average licence of an English stage. The dialogue is chiefly recitative, interspersed with solos, chorus, and dancing. The music and singing are by no means dissonant and inharmonious, many of the airs being very sweet and pleasing. In dancing they observe time accurately, not only with their voices, but every joint in their bodies appear obedient to the sound of the instruments, displaying that litheness and flexibility of fibre, which distinguish natives of a tropical climate from those of a temperate region. When I was at Mandalay the King invited the Mission to a ballet at the palace. The performance commenced by the entrance of about thirty young girls in single file, who arranged themselves in a semi-circle, and kneeling down bowed to his Majesty. They wore the ordinary hta-mien, or Burmese petticoat, but the jacket was more of the fashion after that worn by princes in the plays. The hta-miens were all red and green, the jackets white satin, with circular pieces of silver stitched on, so as somewhat to resemble armour. On their heads the girls wore peaked helmets, such as are used by male performers in the ordinary plays. 24 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The girls, rising, first performed a slow graceful dance round the theatre to the accompaniment of the band, varying the step and pace from time to time, and again kneeling down; one of the number, taking up her position in the centre, then sang or chanted a slow hymn in honour of his Majesty, describing his greatness and goodness. This was acknowledged by all of us to be one of the most effective exhibitions we had ever wit- nessed in the East. The dead silence of the whole assembly, the clear and exceedingly sweet tone of the girl's voice, and the peculiar measure of the air, half-recitative, half-melody, made the whole scene most striking and beautiful. The hymn consisted of three verses; at the end of each, the girls, still kneeling, bowed low to his Majesty. They then resumed the dance, which they accompanied with a low chant, and varied it by beating time with two ornamental sticks which they now carried. This, too, being ended, the King rose and left. During the performance the Nanmadau Phura, or chief Queen, entered, and seated herself close to his Majesty on a sofa placed for her reception. The people are great lovers of both vocal and instrumental music, and many Englishmen and other foreigners, who have merely a superficial knowledge of the language, are under the impres- sion that the songs of the people are wholly, or WAR-BOAT SONGS. 25 chiefly amatory ones. But such is not the case ; they delight in those of a domestic nature, also; and many a time when on my tours in the interior of the country, I have heard villagers singing charming little songs of children playing, flowers, birds, the merry sunshine, the working in the rice- fields, and such-like subjects. * Their war-boat songs are stirring and lively. The recitative of the pai-neng, or steersman, and then the swell of voices when the boatmen, often sixty or eighty in number, join in the chorus, keep- ing time with their oars, is very striking. I landed Lord Dalhousie in one of these boats on his visit to Bassein shortly after the last Burmese war, and he was very much struck with the men's song, remark- ing that it reminded him of the boat-songs he used to hear in Canada in the days of his youth. As some of my readers can have possibly no conception of what a Burmese play really is, the following drama, called "The Silver Hill," which is a good type of this vein of Burmese literature, and one of their popular plays, will give a good idea of their general plot and dialogue. * This part is often taken by the pai-kheit, or stroke oar, in place of the steersman, and he is chosen for this post on account of his good voice, as well as his skill with the oar. †This play was translated by Lieut. Sladen (now Lieut.-Col. Sladen) and the late Colonel Sparks in 1856, and the original thoughts and imagery of the vernacular has been well and carefully preserved. THE SILVER HILL. A BURMESE DRAMA. Bramatis Personae. THE KING OF PINZALA. PRINCE THOODANOO, his son, heir to the throne. DOOMARAJAH, King of the Silver Hill in Fairy-land. MOZALINDA, a hunter. PAMOUK, a hermit. MOKA, a soothsayer. Another Hermit. Ministers of State, Officers, a Beloo,* Guards, Attendants, &c., &c. PRINCESS DWAYMENAU, daughter of King Doomarajah. Six Princesses, her sisters. MALA, chief of the Ladies of the Palace of Pinzala. MANINGYA, wife of Mozalinda. Virgin Attendants, &c. ACT I SCENE I.-A HALL IN THE PALACE OF PINZALA. The KING surrounded by his Ministers of State. In a recess the PRINCE sleeping on a couch of gold; Attendants watching over his slumbers. KING. My faithful Ministers, who constant pay To me your cheerful homage, as the stars Rejoicing circle round the glorious moon Enthroned in splendour on Eugandia's mount ; * An ogre, who possesses certain superhuman powers and whose favourite food is human flesh. THE SILVER HILL. Say, since the day when first Pinzala's realm Bowed 'neath our sceptre, have its people known One hour of fear, one cause of discontent? Not one, O King! MINISTERS. KING. Attend, then, while I ask Your counsel on a matter which concerns Not us alone, but all our subjects' weal. You know the Prince; albeit green in years, To Zamboodeepa's * farthest boundary Extends the fame of his transcendant worth. Speak, wise and trusty nobles, know ye cause Why this our son, who, as the orb of heaven, Shines forth in radiant glory, should not be Straightway installed successor to our crown? FIRST MINISTER. Joyfully, sire, your servants acquiesce In this your royal purpose. Our young prince, Sprung from the race of Maha Thamada,— Before whom kneels the mighty elephant, Who, like a warrior, curbs his fiery steed, Bends the tough bow, and every weapon wields,— Excels the greatest monarchs of the world. Why then delay ?-With fitting.pomp and state, Let this day see him heir apparent made. In vain upon this My weary limbs. My high estate. PRINCE (awaking from sleep). [Exeunt KING and Ministers. 27 diamond couch recline Vain is my princely birth, With sorrow's weight oppressed, *The world of man. 28 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Nor pomp, nor power, can calm my tortured breast. See, at yon lattice, 'midst her shining train Of beauteous handmaids, my beloved stands.- Ah me! I do but dream ;-the vision melts Away, and mocks my waking loneliness. Methought I lay upon a golden couch, Thick studded o'er with gems, and by my side Reposed the Princess, but in sleep alone E'er knows this heart one moment's happiness.— As fades the lily when the sun departs, So do I pine and droop, whom cruel fate Divides for ever from the one I love. ATTENDANT. Dear master, weep not. E'en the fairy maids, Who love to twine amidst their golden hair The blossoms of the sweet Mezoothaka, Must wait to cull their floral favourites Till spring returning calls them into life; So, in due season, shall possession cool The fiery torment of your passion's flame. SCENE II.-A FOREST. Enter MOZALINDA. [Exeunt. MOZALINDA. O you love of a black lily! as a poet would say. O you very reverse of grace and beauty! O you frizzle-haired, crook-backed, dirt-begrimed, thick-lipped, paunchy, beetle-browed, pug-nosed, pig-eyed, black beetle! O you dear little Maningya, get up, will you, and give your darling husband, who is as good as a father to you, something to eat and drink; for he is off to the hills with his bow, to pick up some game. Come, look sharp, you dearest of wives, and don't be dawdling there all day. THE SILVER HILL. Enter MANINGYA. MANINGYA. You lump of calamity! You quintessence of selfishness! What is all this hurry-skurry about? Don't you see that I am shaking with the cold, with nothing on me but this rag of a petticoat to keep out the cutting wind-and midnight too!-What are you after? I'll not stand any more of your behaviour. I'll kick you with these two legs of mine till you learn better manners, you five-broken-ribbed fool! Here, take this jar of water and bundle of rice, and be off with you to the jungle, and mind what you are about, for, if you return again without some game worth eating, I'll abuse you till you don't know whether you are standing on your head or your heels. [Exit. MOZALINDA. Behold the noble hunter Mozalinda, At the soft bidding of his beauteous dame, Armed with his bow of horn and glitt'ring arrow- Defence sufficient against ev'ry foe- Off to the forest wends his way. (To the orchestra.) What, ho! As with its million wheels the Ship of Fire Strikes with loud noise the extremest firmament, Making the world as with an earthquake tremble, So let the thunder of your drums resound. 29 [Loud music. Exit MOZALINDA. After a pause, re-enter MOZALINDA. Soft music. MOZALINDA. How sweet to wander through these shady groves, Where star-like jasmine flowers their incense breathe, And the bright Engyin blooms on every side. In amorous couples rainbow-tinted birds Flit through the branches. Here my weary feet Shall rest awhile.-(Starts.) Hark! from yon sloping hill The tiger's roar comes floating down the breeze. Alas! my Maningya, in this lone spot 30 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. My heart is heavy when I think on thee. I still must onward, if I would escape The savage beasts that in these hills abound. [He arrives at the Lotus Lake. Ha! what bright scene is this? I surely stand On some enchanted ground. Of various animals who throng the brink Of this fair lake to quench their burning thirst. The zephyr, laden with the blended scent Of jasmine, lily, and unnumbered flowers, Cools my hot brow ;-gay flocks of parroquets, In circling flight, like shooting emeralds, wheel; The song of birds makes pleasant melody. My Maningya ! O, would that you were here, To share the enjoyment of this paradise! Here, by the margin of the limpid wave, Whose waters gleam like diamonds in the sun, Upon whose bosom float the lotus buds, Purple and white, like amethysts and pearls, I'll lay me down beneath th' umbrageous boughs Of this wide-spreading banyan, and court The soft approaches of refreshing sleep. See! here the frequent prints [He sleeps. Scene closes. SCENE III.-FAIRY-LAND, OR THE COUNTRY OF THE SILVER HILL. The King DOOMARAJAH on one side of the stage, and his Seven Daughters on the other. FIRST PRINCESS. Dear sisters, and companions, who with me Share the calm quiet of our blest abode In Fairy-land ;-once more the time is come That we, as is our custom, should descend To earth, and in the lovely Lotus Lake THE SILVER HILL. Sport 'midst the lilies we alone outvie. Come, let us ask our royal father's leave. SECOND PRINCESS. O lovely daughter of a kingly sire, Whose glory that of other kings excels, As thou all other maidens dost surpass In beauty; go, and to your father kneel; We, your six sisters of one mother born, Who love you as our lives, will follow thee. [They cross over to the KING. FIRST PRINCESS. O King and Father! greatest of thy race, Lord of this palace and of Fairy-land, Whose might, like Meru's Mount, no power can shake; Behold your daughters suppliant at your feet. We crave permission to descend to earth To enjoy our pastime 'midst the shady bowers That fringe the Lotus Lake, and, when fatigued, Our glowing bodies in its waves to cool. KING. Go, if it please you, but, my daughters dear, Remember that the world where mortals dwell, Is not, like ours, exempt from accident. Be careful then ;—that bright intelligence Which to our highly gifted race belongs Exert, I charge you; well each action weigh, And with all speed to this your home return. 31 FIRST PRINCESS. Thanks, generous father ;—in the world of men No lingering stay our nimble feet shall make, But hasten back to Fairy-land and thee. [Exeunt. 32 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. SCENE IV. THE LOTUS LAKE. MOZALINDA asleep under a banyan tree. Enter the seven Fairy Princesses. FIRST PRINCESS. O lovely lake, what sweet and tender thoughts Thy emerald waters in my breast awake! O fount of rapture! Here the balmy wind Is but the sigh of incense-breathing flowers ;- What god, or fairy, first created thee? (To her sisters.) Come, let us doff our costly ornaments, Our necklaces and chaplets set with gems, And, as we sport amidst the crystal waves, Our lovely forms, but half concealed, shall gleam Like summer lightning through a silvery cloud. [They bathe. MOZALINDA awakes. MOZALINDA. Sure I was born 'neath some auspicious star! Happy the hour in which I first drew breath! Yes, now I feel the proverb's homely truth "Who wins a Beauty needs desire no more.” No fabled beings of inferior race Are these, but fairies of the first degree. Behold the dazzling lustre of the gems And pearls that glisten, like the morning dew, On their rich necklaces and earrings rare. Not lovelier is the moon, when all the sky Reflects the splendour of her argent rays. I faint with ecstacy ;—a sight like this Is more than poor humanity can bear. [He falls back insensible, then slowly recovers. These sweet perfections mock the limner's skill. O could I one of these fair bathers seize, And to our Prince.present my peerless prize, THE SILVER HILL. Such bounteous largess would my guerdon be, That care or want I never more should know. I have it.—Near this lake a holy man, Pamouk, the Hermit, dwells. He has, 'tis said, A magic noose, which if I can obtain, One of these birds of paradise I shall With ease secure.-To him I will repair. Enter the Hermit PAMOUK and MOZALINDA. SCENE V.-THE HERMIT'S CELL IN THE FOREST NEAR THE LOTUS LAKE. PAMOUK. There is one way, and only one, my son, To gain the end you seek. A magic noose The King of Dragons gave himself to me. The worthless gift, in yonder alms-bowl cast, Neglected lies ; nor will I now defile My hands by touching the unhallowed thing;- But take it, if you list, and snare your bird. MOZALINDA. Kind Hermit, deign to accept a poor man's thanks. DWAYMENAU. 33 [Exit. [Takes the noose and exit. SCENE VI.-THE LOTUS Lake. Fairies bathing. Enter MOZALINDA, who casts the lasso and catches the Princess DWAYMENAU. Exeunt the other Six Fairies, who fly off to Fairy-land. Ah me! what unforeseen calamity On me has fallen? Help, dearest sisters, help! VOL. II. D 34 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. And free me from this horrible distress ! In vain I struggle, all my limbs are cramped, And like a statue's, stiffen into stone. Help, or your sister dies !— MOZALINDA. Nay, beauteous Queen Of Fairy-land, such idle words as these Become not those fair lips. What now you deem Misfortune, rather is the sure reward Of works of merit in a former state. The Prince of this great country, to whose sire, Lord of the Tsuddan Elephant, and raised Above the influence of Destiny, A hundred kings submissive homage pay, Still needs a wife his loneliness to cheer :— You, therefore, have I thus, by magic art, Ensnared, to make you sharer of his throne. DWAYMENAU. Kind Hunter, whom men Mozalinda call, In me behold a daughter of the King Of Fairy-land, Lord of the Silver Hill:- Reflect, I pray thee, whether such as I Can stoop to be the bride of mortal man. You will not then this hateful union press, But rather free me from these cruel bonds. MOZALINDA. Grieve not, most beautiful of fairy queens, For some good action done in ages past, 'Tis now your happy destiny to share The heart and fortunes of this puissant Prince. Come, my fair captive, you must follow me Straight to the palace of your future lord. [Exit MOZALINDA, leading off DWAYMENAU. THE SILVER HILL. SCENE VII.-HALL IN THE PALACE OF PINZALA. Enter PRINCE and MOZALINDA. MOZALINDA. Great Prince, whose majesty surpasses all Th' united glory of the hundred kings Who at thy footstool bow their lowly heads, As thy rare beauty in itself contains The several attributes of every flower That glads the eyes of earth's inhabitants; As I was wandering through the pleasant woods, Where dappled deer and antelope abound, I came by chance upon the Lotus Lake; There I beheld, descending from the sky, Seven beauteous damsels like a flock of birds Alight upon the margin of the pool: One of these seven I, with a magic noose, Secured, and with due reverence, O Prince, My peerless prize I humbly now present ;— Deign to accept the lovely Dwaymenau A Fairy Princess, pure as virgin gold. PRINCE. My worthy Mozalinda-quick-your gift Bring to our presence. [Exit MOZALINDA, Re-enters, leading in DWAYMENAU. Ha! what do I see? Before that face, the moon abashed would veil Herself in clouds; Thooza, the Fairy Queen, With envy pale ;—more beautiful than gold Wrought into fairest forms by artist hands; Pure as a lily, or the morning dew; Soft is her cheek, as down on insect's wing; Her mouth breathes incense, and her flowing hair 35 1 D 2 36 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Is dark as night. How musical her voice! How graceful every movement! She indeed, And she alone, is meet my Queen to be. COURTIERS. The Princess is in truth most fair, and seems As good as she is fair.— PRINCE. O charming nymph, Daughter of Fairy-land, whose blushing cheek Glows like a petal of the lotus bud; Some work of merit in a former state Which we have done, now bears its fated fruit, And in one lot our destinies unites. Still am I free: but thy consent accord, And, to my father's throne when I succeed, Thou, dearest Dwaymenau, with me shall sit- My Queen. DWAYMENAU. O mighty Prince, this may not be; Our races differ, and our countries lie Wide as the poles asunder.-I was born In Fairy-land, a daughter of the king Who reigns in splendour o'er the Silver Hill; I with no earthly monarch e'er will mate: Therefore, I pray your Highness, give me leave Back to my home and father to return. PRINCE. Nay! lovely gem, thou precious composite Of all things beautiful, thou shalt not thus My proffered love reject. With life alone. Will I so rare a pearl consent to lose! THE SILVER HILL. No! grieve not dearest, though I still persist To win and wear thee ever near my heart. END OF ACT I. In the interval between the 1st and 2nd Acts the PRINCE marries DWAYMENAU and she becomes pregnant. Pinzala is invaded by a hostile army. ACT II. SCENE I.-HALL IN THE PALACE OF PINZALA. KING surrounded by his Ministers of State. KING. [He takes her hand. Nobles and Ministers, well versed in all The arts of war, attend! These men of Gyoon Have dared Pinzala's borders to invade. Therefore our will is that our Royal Son Shall head our army, and make instant march, These boasting rebels to exterminate ; So that not one be left to carry back The fearful tidings of his comrade's doom. Enter PRINCE. 37 FIRST MINISTER. O Prince, as noble as the lion king, Presumptuous foes, regardless of your might, Within the confines of our realm unfurl The standard of revolt. Our lord, your sire, Has therefore sent us to inform your Highness, It is his pleasure that you take command Of all our forces, and, with utmost haste, March forth and make an end of these his foes. [Exit KING. 38 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. PRINCE. Gladly will I the king's behest obey. Foot, cavalry, and elephants prepare, And see the army thoroughly equipped With all this expedition may require ; Then not an instant will we loiter here. [Exeunt Ministers. Enter DWAYMENAU. Fair as the moon, and soon to reign a Queen, Stern duty calls me hence against our foes:— Grieve not, beloved, whose perfection needs. No aid of ornament or glittering gems, Whose every movement in its grace excels The lily waving gently to the breeze; Safe in the palace, dearest wife, remain, Surrounded by your faithful handmaidens. DWAYMENAU. Pity! my lord, you surely must forget That I, no mortal, but a fairy, am. If you forsake me, whither shall I turn For comfort or support? It cannot be ;— I will not leave thee, but, where'er you go, There will I follow thee, though forced to cling In humble desperation to thy robe. Ah! cruel one, to choose this time to leave Your Dwaymenau, who bears your own dear babe Within her womb; a little while at least Delay ;-if you desert me now, the world, Ten times consumed by fire, less hot would be Than the fierce flame of anguish that will burn This tortured breast. O would that I were dead! My heart is in my mouth and chokes my speech. [She weeps. PRINCE. It must be, dearest ;-dry these bootless tears, THE SILVER HILL. And let me see thee smiling say, Farewell. Grieve not for me;-our enemies o'erthrown, I soon shall from the battle-field return. Whilst I am absent, daily offer, love, Prayers and libations to our God for me. DWAYMENAU. come kind Death, and free me from this load Of grief; my heart has sunk within my breast, As o'er-ripe fruit falls from the laden tree. Re-enter Ministers, with Officers and Standards. FIRST MINISTER. All is prepared, my Lord, in strict accord With the wise precepts of our Sacred Books That treat on War. The Forces are drawn up. And wait impatient for the word-Advance! Away then, mighty Prince, and lead them on. PRINCE. [She falls fainting on a couch. 'Tis well, I go to head this fierce array Of million warriors whose heavy tread Will shake the balance of the trembling Earth. Let the loud cannon instantly proclaim [farewell, Our coming, and march on! (To DWAYMENAU.) Dearest, I will return before one little sigh Has time to travel 'twixt your heart and lips. [Exeunt. SCENE II.-CAMP IN THE JUNGLE. PRINCE surrounded by his Officers. 39 Enter Ministers. FIRST MINISTER. Good tidings bear I to my Lord the Prince ; On the same day your prosperous march began, 40 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The flower you left put forth a tender bud, And your fair Princess to a son gave birth, Who, lovely as the nine most precious gems, Shall live exempt from all calamity. PRINCE. Let this our Infant Heir To your fidelity Thanks, noble friends. Moung Kyau be called. I with implicit confidence intrust The welfare of my absent wife and Son. SCENE III.-HALL IN THE PALACE OF PINZALA. KING surrounded by his Ministers. KING. Right trusty Friends, to whose experience And practised wisdom ever I resort In times of trouble or perplexity; As on my diamond-studded couch I lay, I saw ten thousand sharp and threatening blades, Like forked lightning, flash on every side: I also saw my entrails thrice infold, [Exeunt. Like a huge serpent, high Pinzala's walls :— The Soothsayer Moka to our presence bring To interpret what this vision may portend. [Exeunt Ministers. Re-enter with MOKA. MOKA. (Aside.) O happy chance, at length I see a way To avenge the insults which that haughty Prince Has heaped on me. He loves his dainty wife ;- Her life my debt with interest shall pay.— (To the KING.) Illustrious Monarch of the Universe, Pardon your servant, if, by Truth compelled, ! THE SILVER HILL. His tidings sound unwelcome to your ear. Thus do I read, O King, your fatal dream. Against your throne shall enemies conspire, And dire misfortunes in a ceaseless train Your steps pursue, till death shall lay you low. KING. Must it indeed be so? Is there no way By which I may these fearful ills avert? MOKA. O King, inexorable Fate ordains. One only terrible alternative. A hundred fowls, as many goats and swine, Must on the altar of the Yeetnat * bleed, And the fair Consort of your Royal son Crown with her life the costly sacrifice. KING. It is in vain to strive with Destiny: To avert these threatened dangers from our head, Whate'er the price demanded we must pay : Therefore, for this great hecatomb prepare Goats, fowls, and swine ;—a gilt Pavilion raise, And in the midst an Altar dedicate 41 To the all-powerful Yeetnat Deity; Then let our daughter, beauteous Dwaymenau, The Fairy Princess of the Silver Hill, Who, as Queen Thooza's golden image, shines In radiant loveliness, thereon be laid. [Exeunt. * A demon, supposed to exercise a special influence on the fortunes of Kings. 42 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. SCENE IV.—APARTMENT OF THE PRINCESS IN THE PALACE OF PINZALA. The PRINCESS seated on a couch with her infant in her arms. Enter Ministers. FIRST MINISTER. We come, by order of our Lord the King, Fraught with sad tidings which we fear to tell. It is his sovereign will that you, sweet Lady, Fairer than mortals, pure as virgin gold, Shall on the Yeetnat's altar offered be. DWAYMENAU. Do I hear rightly? You must needs mistake You cannot mean that I, whom he so loves, Am by my Royal Father doom'd to die? MINISTERS. Alas! too faithfully have we discharged Our solemn duty. DWAYMENAU. O what fate is mine! My grief is wider than the boundless sea, The Prince, regardless of his wretched wife, Deserts and leaves me for the tented field; And now they bid me for my death prepare, So I shall never see my husband more. Alas! what deadly sin can I have done, That this calamity should me o'ertake? Wo worth the day that I, a Fairy born, Came down to earth 'midst mortal men to die! [She weeps. (To her child.) Sweet innocent, cling closer to my breast, And, e'er we part for ever, draw once more From nature's fount the bland maternal stream. THE SILVER HILL. How can I leave thee, and thy father dear? As when fierce flames in one vast blaze unite, So burns my anguish. O ye Powers that be, Why have ye thus against me all conspired? Must I, who love them both so fondly, leave My babe, more beauteous than the pearls I wear, And my dear Lord, without one fond adieu, Abandoning, return to whence I came? Cry not, my darling, ere I quit your side, From this full bosom I will draw a cup Of mother's milk, and leave it, sweet, for thee. When your dear father, who, in these fond eyes, Is fairer than the flowers from which I weave Chaplets amidst my tresses to entwine, Returns, and for his Dwaymenau inquires, Tell him what I have suffered for his sake. Now I must tear myself away, my child. Dark clouds are gathering in the distant sky, And long the journey that before me lies.— My fairy robes once more I must resume, Then, spreading my long idle pinions, soar High up amidst the rainbow-tinted clouds Which, by the gentle zephyr drawn aside, Shall, like a curtain, part to let me through. (Aside to the (With a soft strain of tender melody, Musicians.) As I ascend, my flight accompany. Farewell, once more farewell, my darling babe, And you, my husband. Ah! that you could see Your wretched wife, and her last kiss receive.— I cannot go and yet 'tis death to stay. 43 [Exit, after slowly retiring and three times returning to embrace her child. 44 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. SCENE V.-HERMIT'S CELL IN THE FOREST. Enter HERMIT and DWAYMENAU. HERMIT. Art thou the lovely Beranee, new fallen From Fairy-land, who thus appearest, decked With bracelets, necklaces, and chains of gold, And pearly chaplets 'midst thy tresses twined? The greedy eyes that once have looked on thee From the rich feast, refuse to turn away. Say, from what region of celestial bliss. Hast thou descended, and what cruel fate Has one like thee conducted to my cell? It cannot be that you, a fugitive, Are flying from a cruel husband's wrath; Or art thou some unfortunate Princess Compelled, in peril of thy life, to flee Before thy father's conquering foes? The truth, Fear not, my daughter, to impart to me. DWAYMENAU. Father, in thee I gladly will confide, And all my tragic history relate. Know, then, that I was with a husband blest. Dearer to me than life, a Royal Prince, Next in succession to his father's throne : He, called away his country's foes to meet, Was forced to leave me:-Whilst he was away, His father, moved by evil counsellors, Determined to the Yeetnat deity That I should offered be. To save my life I was compelled to fly, and thus am here. The Prince, my husband, when he learns my loss, Instant, I know, will follow on my track; When, in pursuit of me, he comes this way, Good Hermit, give to him this emerald ring, C THE SILVER HILL. And this enchanted drug, whose potent charms Shall from all evil my dear Lord protect. HERMIT. Daughter, I will; but e'er you go, inform Me how his future course I may direct. DWAYMENAU. First, in the Forest's gloomiest recess, A fierce Beloo his way will intercept; Then, sore entangled, he will struggle long Through thickets of impenetrable cane; This past, a hissing stream of molten brass Will farther progress bar,-amidst the mass Of glowing metal, he will see emerge, With threatening head and crest, a Dragon vast,— Let him, undaunted, on the monster tread, He will, subdued, his writhing folds uncoil, And form a bridge o'er which my Lord shall pass ; Lastly, a pair of Rocs he will descry, Perched high in air upon a cotton tree,— These daily to my father's Palace come In search of food. Kind Hermit, these my words, When to thy cell my noble husband comes, To him convey, and say that, by the charm Of this enchanted drug, he will surmount In safety all the perils that beset His way to me, and that his every wish Will, with its aid, accomplishment attain. HERMIT. Doubt not, my daughter, all you ask of me I will perform. DWAYMENAU. Thanks, reverend sir, farewell! 45 [Exit. 1 46 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. SCENE VI.-PALACE OF THE KING OF THE SILVER HILL. The KING. Enter DWAYMENAU to the sound of soft music. KING. What! do I see my Dwaymenau again? Tell me, dear daughter, all that has befallen You whilst a captive 'midst the haunts of men, And how your efforts to escape were crowned With this successful issue. DWAYMENAU. O my father, For some good deed which in a former state I must have done, in concert with the son Of him who o'er Pinzala's realm is King, My fate decreed that I the happy wife, On earth, should be of good Prince Thoodanoo. But brief my joy, my gallant husband, called To head his troops against his country's foes, Left me ;-no sooner his protecting arm Was from his wife withdrawn, than, lending ear To some malicious Brahmin's treacherous tongue, His sire, the King, his pleasure signified That I should on the Yeetnat's altar die :— This when I heard, I deemed it time to fly, And hastening home, in all humility, Behold me prostrate at your Royal feet. KING. Attendant Nobles, let it be your care That all arrangements speedily are made To lodge the Princess as befits her rank; See that a band of slaves obedient wait To minister to e'en her slightest wish. THE SILVER HILL. MINISTERS. Sire, your commands we hasten to obey. SCENE VII.—EXTERIOR OF THE PALACE OF PINZALA. Enter MALA, at the head of a band of female Attendants. MALA. O Royal maidens, virtuous as fair, Our Prince victorious from the war returns, Let us of betel and choice food prepare Our humble offerings, and haste to lay Them with congratulations at his feet. Enter PRINCE and Officers. PRINCE. Our foes subdued by my resistless might, I count the moments till in my embrace I fold once more my dearest Dwaymenau. Ha! Mala, welcome,—but say, how is this? Your Royal Mistress was not wont, methinks, To be the last to greet her Lord's approach; What holds her prisoner in her Palace walls? Our little friend Moung Kyau, too,—is not he Crying to spring into his father's arms?— But you look sad, and your once cherished locks I see neglected and dishevelled hang. MALA. Alas! our noble Master must prepare For evil tidings. Scarcely were you gone, 'Ere certain Brahmins, with malicious spite, Prevailed upon our sovereign Lord the King To sacrifice the blameless Dwaymenau Upon an altar to the Yeetnat raised : 47 [Exeunt. 48 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. She, hearing this, her fairy wings unfurled, And left, for ever, this too dangerous home. PRINCE. O dearest Mala, tell me what befell My boy, when thus abandoned to his fate. MALA. Blame not the Princess, so reluctantly Did she depart, that, like a new-fledged bird, She hovered long with hesitating wings; At last, a cup, with her own milk she filled, Like molten pearls, and mingled with her tears,— This leaving for her child, at length she soared On high, and disappeared amidst the skies. We, who remained, have tended on the child, And, by his golden cradle set with gems, Continued watch have o'er his slumbers kept. PRINCE. Listen, brave warriors, to my words give heed:- When first the invaders lit the torch of war, And all Pinzala kindled into flame, I sallied forth with you, my gallant Chiefs, To do our duty in our country's cause; Scarce had I marched, before our Lord the King, By some vile, false astrologer misled, My wife unlawfully condemned to die :- This fit reward for all my loyalty Tradition will preserve,-aye, though this earth Ten times may be destroyed, the tale shall live: - She, like a bird of Paradise, has flown, And left a world unworthy her to hold. But though the universe ten times dissolve Ere I o'ertake her, nought shall me prevent Her steps from following. Wherefore beat to arms,— THE SILVER HILL. The army will pursue its march with me. Go, tell the King, that I no more return, Until I bring my Dwaymenau with me. SCENE VIII.-THE HERMIT'S CELL. Enter HERMIT. HERMIT. What means this clang of armed warriors Which strikes my ears? Ha! hitherward they come, A mighty host, with helmet, sword, and shield, Horses and elephants,-the trembling earth. Quivers beneath their tread. Enter PRINCE. Illustrious Prince, From what far country, and with what intent, Has this vast army here arrived with you? PRINCE. Most reverend sir, I am Prince Thoodanoo, The next successor to Pinzala's throne,- A realm as glorious as the rising sun,— Whilst I, a hostile army to repel, Led forth our troops, some traitor knave beguiled The King, my Princess to condemn to die. She fled, and I, impelled by love and hope, Am hastening onward to the Silver Hill. Charmed with the beauty of your calm retreat, I turned aside more near the scene to view, And so approached your cell. HERMIT. But two days gone, A creature beautiful as Thooza's self, VOL. II. E 49 [Exeunt. + 50 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. And graceful as a young gazelle, was here, Calling herself a daughter of the King Of that same place you name, the Silver Hill,- Mayhap that you, from some good deed long past, Some slight acquaintance have enjoyed with her, But the effect of that good deed, be sure, Whate'er it was, has now exhausted ceased, And with it your good fortune. O my son, Consider what a difference exists Between a Fairy's nature and our own,- And how unsuitable must ever be Association, therefore, 'twixt the two. Blinded by passion now, you undertake This toilsome journey;-pray, what recompense Can you for all your pains anticipate? A youth like you, so noble and so fair, Should seek a wife as perfect as the Queen Of Tsekya Meng, the King of Nats, herself, To share the glory of your future throne; Wherefore, be wise, relinquish this pursuit, And, ere it be too late, your steps retrace. PRINCE. Your counsel, holy father, I admit, Becomes the prudence of a sage like thee: But I can never for an instant cease,- Aye, though the heavens and earth should pass away,- From following, till at last I overtake The Fairy mistress of my heart and soul. Therefore, I am resolved, if need there be, Through my next ten existences I still Will persevere undaunted, e'en although The Tsekya Meng should with his thunderbolts Oppose, and hurl me to destruction. Now, Stay me no longer, only show the road Which she was pleased to take. C A A J THE SILVER HILL. HERMIT. If go you will,- Why go, but ere you leave,—here, take this ring, A perfect emerald, which your Princess Gave me for you, and this enchanted drug, Which from all evil will preserve you safe, And all your wishes with fruition crown. Long is your way, and as you journey on, A fierce Beloo will your first danger be; The next, a forest of impervious cane; And last of all, a stream of molten brass, O'er which a Dragon keeps perpetual guard : When these are past, far off you will descry, Perched on the summit of a cotton-tree, A pair of Rocs,-these follow in their flight, And they will lead you to the Silver Hill. Thus said fair Dwaymenau, and as she charged Me strictly, I her very words repeat. Now, go, my son, success attend your hopes! PRINCE. Accept my thanks, good father.-Fare thee well. SCENE IX.-A DARK FOREST. PRINCE resting under a banyan tree. Enter a Beloo. BELOO. Haugh! here I am,—of all my mighty race The most terrific monster.-It is time I to the Himalayan forests should repair.- Strike up, and let your martial strains create Such a sensation, that all eyes shall turn 5I [Aside to musicians. [Exit. E 2 52 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. To gaze on me, as though upon my head The Sun's ten thousand rays concentred shone. (Sees the PRINCE.) Ha! ha! a dainty dinner I espy. [Approaches him threateningly. Loud music. PRINCE (rising). Vile, miserable monster! dost thou dare With me, descended from the Sun, to fight? This golden arrow, with a diamond head, Launched from my bow shall end thy worthless life. [Shoots at the Beloo and kills him. Flourish on the drums. The PRINCE proceeds, and becomes en- tangled in the cane forest. I can no more,-exhausted nature fails : Turn where I will, the matted creepers form A net whose meshes round me interlaced, All progress bar. Ah! the enchanted drug,- Let me invoke its aid, and try once more. [He emerges from the cane forest and proceeds. O lovely Fairy of the Silver Hill, What pangs do I for thy dear sake endure! Yet as I journey up the mountain side, Or through the gloomy forest, I defy Beloos, whose favourite food is human flesh, And tigers, scarce less terrible than they. My precious Pearl, for thy dear sake alone Your poor devoted husband struggles on. [He comes to the river of molten brass. O what is here? Above a bubbling mass Of liquid metal a huge dragon rears His head, and gapes at me with threatening jaws ;— Once more the magic drug must me befriend, And guide me safely o'er the monster's back. [He crosses the stream over the Dragon's back, and arrives at a cotton-tree, on which are a pair of Rocs. THE SILVER HILL. FEMALE ROC. My brother dear, from whom, since we were hatched, I ne'er have been divided, and with whom I share the shelter of the same soft nest, Say, whither shall we fly for food to-day? MALE ROC. What, sister, know you not that from the land Of men the daughter of King Doomarajah Has safe returned; the which to celebrate A royal festival this day is held? Let us then to the Silver Hill repair, And be partakers of the sumptuous feast. [The PRINCE spreads some of the enchanted drug over his body, which renders him invisible. He mounts between the wings of one of the Rocs. They fly away. SCENE X.-A WELL IN THE COURT-YARD OF THE PALACE OF THE SILVER HILL. Seven Female Attendants of the Palace drawing water. Enter PRINCE. PRINCE. Ye Powers divine, vouchsafe to me a sign,— If I am destined ever more to see My much loved Dwaymenau, then let the last Of these fair maidens try without success 53 To draw her golden pitcher from the well. [Six of the maidens draw up their pitchers, the seventh is unable to do so. FEMALE ATTENDANT. Here, gentle youth, your courteous help I crave To raise this pitcher, which my strength exceeds. [The PRINCE araws up the pitcher, and drops into it the emerald ring. [Exeunt. 54 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. * SCENE XI.-APARTMENT OF THE PRINCESS DWAYMENAU. Dwaymenau, attended by her maidens, washing her head, finds her ring in the pitcher. DWAYMENAU. Ah me! I faint,-my thoughts are all confused,— Body and mind alike are paralyzed. The father of my child, as beautiful As these my tresses, has at last arrived. Brave heart! thus fearlessly to persevere, And conquer all the dangers that beset His way to me. What has he not endured! My heart is melting at the dreadful thought. Enter KING DOOMARAJAH. KING. Why, how now, daughter, wherefore lie you thus, As though a thunderbolt had struck you down? DWAYMENAU. O dearest father, this, my favourite ring, Which, as you know, my finger never left, And which I parted with not long ago For a most special purpose, has returned. From out this pitcher as my hand I drew, I found it to its former place restored ;- This is to me a sign infallible That my dear husband has indeed arrived. Now, can you wonder that this sweet surprise Was more than I, at first, could calmly bear? KING (to Attendants). Which of you brought this pitcher from the well? FEMALE ATTENDANT. Great King, forgive your slave, this slender arm THE SILVER HILL. In vain a task beyond its strength essayed,— A courteous youth, who stood beside the well, I asked to help me, and his aid he gave. KING. Bring him before me in the Audience Hall. SCENE XII.—AUDIENCE HALL OF THE PALACE. KING on his Throne. Enter PRINCE, escorted by Ministers. KING. O thou who art o'er all pre-eminent In beauty, with all qualities endowed Which man adorn, and as a lion brave, Whence art thou, and what strange adventures led Thee to the country of the Silver Hill? Without concealment let us briefly hear. PRINCE. I will, O King.-In me behold the son Of him who o'er Pinzala reigns supreme, And next successor to my father's throne; For some good deed which in a former state I must have done, it was my rich reward To win your lovely daughter for my bride, And to complete our happiness a son Our union blessed. But brief are all our joys;— A hostile force advancing to repel, Our arms I led,-one march I scarce had ta’en, When, by a Brahmin's artful tongue beguiled, My royal father issued a decree That your dear daughter should a victim bleed Upon the Yeetnat's altar. Hearing this She fled for safety to her native land. I, counting life as but a grain of dust 55 [Exeunt. } 56 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. When cast into the scale against my love, Have followed her, and thus you see me now A suppliant kneel before your royal feet. KING. Listen, my Ministers: this gentle youth, Urged on, he tells us, by the love he bears Our daughter Dwaymenau, has hither come. If he so high a prize expects to win, He must convince us that his love is true, And undergo a trial of his worth. Therefore, from out our armory bring forth The famous bow, whose string uncurved sustains A ton suspended;-let this stranger try If he can bend this tough unyielding bow. P SCENE XIII.-LISTS IN THE COURT-YARD OF THE PALACE. Enter KING, Ministers, and PRINCE. FIRST MINISTER. Here is the bow on which our Lord the King Has willed that you make trial of your strength. PRINCE. Now is the crisis of my fate. And Dwaymenau is mine for ever. And all is lost. Succeed,- [PRINCE takes the bow. FIRST MINISTER. [Exeunt. Fail,- [He tries the bow and bends it. Your Majesty, The stubborn bow curved like the eagle's wing, And hard as steel, is, in his hands, a reed. KING. He has done well; but to a further test THE SILVER HILL. We needs must subject him, before the hand Of our Princess we can on him bestow. Bring from the stables our most vicious steed, And a wild elephant that ne'er has felt The driver's goad, whose glaring eye proclaims A spirit unsubdued ;-these let him mount, And in our presence to subjection tame. MINISTERS. You hear the royal order, will you dare This last, and worst, ordeal to essay? PRINCE. Is't not enough that I the bow have bent, And must I still new trials undertake? Well, be it so ;-I never can draw back,- Bring the wild horse and wilder elephant ! [The horse and elephant are led on. (To the orchestra.) Now thunder forth a bold inspiring strain, Whose echoes, spreading far and wide, shall shake The earth to its foundations. [He mounts the wild horse, and rides it round the Lists, after which he dismounts. On the neck Of this fierce brute I plant my royal foot, [He mounts the elephant. [He dismounts. And thus obedient to my armed heel, He turns whichever way I please to guide. FIRST MINISTER. (To the KING.) The second trial, which the King ordained, Has but confirmed the presage of the first. • 57 KING. Before my daughters let a seven-fold screen Of silk inwrought with gems suspended be, 58 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ļ 51 1 And from within let each of them, in turn, One taper finger carefully expose. If he, who claims the lovely Dwaymenau, By this can single her from all the rest, I will admit his title to her hand. [A screen is dropped. The Princesses in turn put forth a finger. PRINCE. O all ye Powers, vouchsafe your gracious aid, Grant me some sign my choice to guide aright. [As DWAYMENAU puts forth her finger, a bee settles on it. I hail the omen (takes the finger). Ah! the thrill I feel, As this dear hand I touch once more, confirms Now, King, my prize I claim. My happy choice. KING. Well hast thou earned it, true and gallant Prince. [Leads forward DWAYMENAU from behind the screen. Embrace your blushing wife, and happy be The reign of Thoodanoo and Dwaymenau. 3 CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION, AND HABITS AND CUSTOMS OF THE BURMESE. Physical characteristics of the Burmese race.-Male costume.-Tattooing.- Its absence considered a mark of effeminacy.-Female dress and orna- ments.—Ear-tubes.-Universality of smoking.—Singular custom.—Bur- mese altogether a different people from the inhabitants of Hindostan.— Absence of caste prejudices.-Their pleasing manners.-Happiness of the people.—Absence of pauperism.-Affection of parents for their children. -Fondness for amusement and excitement.-As a rule not laborious.--- Marriage customs.-Perfect freedom of marriageable girls.—Marriage purely a civil rite.—Hla-pet.—Curious custom pursued by a bridegroom's bachelor friends.-Privileges of the female sex.-Code of divorce. Polygamy.-Sensitiveness to raillery.-Tendency to suicide.—Suicide of a bridegroom.—Attempted suicide of a girl.-Food.-Description of a Burmese banquet.—Their treatment of disease. The devil dance.— Disease caused by witchcraft.-Funerals.-Boat races.-Peculiarity of the boats.-Mode of rowing.-Description of the goal." Palmam qui meruit ferit.”—Vaunting songs, and grotesque attitudes of the winners.— Subscription purses.-Game of football.- Boxing and wrestling.- Admirable temper of the combatants.-Description of the Ta-soung-doing festival.—Weaving the sacred cloth.-Relays of workers.-Working and courting.—Floating lights.—Water festival on New Year's Day.—Meaning of the observance.-Mythological legend. THE physical characteristics of the Burmese are those which distinguish the Mongolian race gene- rally. The shape of the skull is globular, and seen from the front has a peculiar pyramidal, or lozenge form,* owing to a great lateral extension of the zygomatic arches, coupled with a narrow forehead, * Cunningham's "Ladak," p. 297. 60 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. causing great breadth of face below the eyes, nar- rowing upwards and downwards. The face is. broad and flat with high cheek-bones. Mouth moderate in size, with fine vertical teeth, and show- ing no symptom of prognathism in the jaws. Lips often fleshy and somewhat intumescent, and chin short. Eyes, black, wide apart, and generally oblique, which latter appearance is caused, not by the shape or position of the orbits,* but by the structure of the lids, and is produced by the tension of the skin over the projecting cheek-bones, under the outer angles of the eyes, and by the flatness of the space between the eyes. The nose is broad, with little or no bridge, generally short, with broad nostrils, and flattened towards the forehead. Hair black, long, straight, and abundant. No beard or whiskers, and moustache small and slight. Facial angle about 77°. Colour of skin, bright pale brown, or isabelline hue, approaching to yellow. They are a fine, robust, athletic race, but not tall, the men averaging about five feet four inches in height. Their bodies are well proportioned; but somewhat long in the trunk, and arms relatively to the legs. Head well set on, shoulders square, chest wide and deep, and legs showing great muscular development. As a race, they are very healthy; and idiotcy and deformity of body are of unusually * Pritchard's "Natural History of Man," vol. i., p. 214. MALE COSTUME. 61 rare occurrence. Their demeanour is marked by elasticity of step, and the composure of their counte- nance denotes great confidence in themselves. They wear their hair tied in a knot on the top of the head, and wound round or intertwined with it is a piece of muslin or gay silk handkerchief; a jacket of cotton or broadcloth, according to the season, hangs loosely from their shoulders over the hips; and a potso of bright silk or cotton wound round the waist, extending to the ankles, and with one end often thrown jauntily over the shoulder, in the fashion of a Highlander's kilt, forms their dress. From the waist to the knees nearly every male amongst the Burmese is tattooed with a black or blue pigment in figures of lions, tigers, elephants, nats, birds, and beloos, enclosed in a groundwork of fine tracery and flowing lines. This operation commences as early as the age of six years, and is done gradu- ally until completed, often extending over several years. The operation, performed by needles and an instrument shaped like a mathematical steel pen, is a very painful one, and during the process the patient is drugged with opium to render his feelings less acute. Portions of the arms and upper part of the body are also often tattooed in vermilion with caba- listic and mystic characters, as charms against an enemy, evil spirits, and disease. These squares are ず ​1 62 subdivided into several small ones, with figures in each, so arranged by arithmetical progression, that whether added up horizontally, transversely, or per- pendicularly, the sum-total is always the same. The following are examples :- 15 T บก 7 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 15 4 8 15 I 5 9 15 2 6 15 3 15 15 8 2 9 15 II 13 6 4 34 14 12 3 I 7 16 5 IO Herodotus (v. 6) mentions the Thracians as being tattooed (ĉσTuxai) which was considered an emblem of rank, and the want of it showing mean- ness of descent. With the Burmese it is not a sign of rank, as mostly all are more or less tattooed, and its absence is considered as a mark of effeminacy.* The Burmese women are much fairer in com- plexion than the men, and their features more delicate. They have good figures, with small * William of Malmesbury mentions tattooing as being one of the English vices at the time of the Norman conquest; but, according to Cæsar, their bodies were merely stained with woad, the pigment not being inserted under the skin, as in the case of the Burmese. C.Kegan Paul & Co London. BURMESE DANCING GIRL CKegan Paul & Co London. A BURMESE LADY FEMALE COSTUME. 63 hands and feet, and limbs well proportioned. They are not handsome, perhaps, according to European ideas of beauty; but they are, never- theless, often very comely, as much from expression, as feature, or more so. They pay great attention to the adornment of their persons. Their long black tresses (frequently like their European sisters, en- riched with false tails), carefully dressed and per- fumed, are gathered at the back of the head, à la Madonna, and gracefully adorned with fresh flowers, usually an orchid, a jasmine, or a chumpac. Their petticoat, or hta-mein, is of silk from the native loom, woven in vandyke, cable, or serpentine patterns of the brightest dye and varied hues, but always blended with great taste. This is wrapped round the body, and the bust covered by a bodice generally of Turkey-red cloth, folded in under the left arm. The petticoat is tucked in tightly at the waist, and falls down in front to the ankles; but merely slightly lapping over discloses a portion of the leg when walking, one limb being visible at a time, according to the forward step. ย To the petticoat is attached a skirt of a different pattern, most generally of a pale pink, with horizon- tal narrow stripes of dark colours, interwoven with gold or silver threads. This skirt trails behind some ten inches to a foot on the ground, and its graceful management, in either walking or dancing, is one of 2 64 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. } the accomplishments of a Burmese belle. An engyee, or jacket, of muslin, silk, or satin, worn open; a ta-bet, or shawl, thrown over the shoulders, and red sandals, complete the habiliments of the sex. When in full-dress they are in the habit of powdering their faces with tha-nat-kha—a cosmetic prepared from the Murraya exotica, having a somewhat similar fragrance to sandal-wood-pencilling their eyebrows and rougeing their lips. Their necklaces and ornaments, of pure gold, set with rubies and other precious stones, are handsome and in good taste. But their most remarkable ornaments are their ear-tubes *-for they cannot be called earrings, which are introduced into a large orifice made in the lobe of the ear. The boring of the lobe of the ear is common to both sexes. It is pierced in the ordinary manner, and the aperture gradually enlarged by introducing small slips of bamboo, increasing in number by slow degrees. The ear-tubes most commonly in use are cylinders of gold, about one-and-a-half inches long, and three- quarters of an inch in diameter, and into which is often thrust a half-smoked cigar. Men, women, and children are all great smokers; and even infants at the breast, incredible as it may appear to those who have not seen them, are occasionally observed having a pull at the fragrant weed. * Na-doungs. SINGULAR CUSTOM. 65 The ceremony of boring* a child's ears is kept as a great festival, and all the relations and friends of the parents are invited. The invitations are not made by notes or cards, but, according to Burmese custom, by sending round small conical packets of pickled tea (let-phet-dhok). After the completion of the ceremony a dinner is given, and a Burmese play, open to all comers, is generally performed under a temporary theatre in front of the house. A singular practice prevails of accustoming girls, from the earliest age, to turn the inside of the elbow outwards, as if dislocated, and, by constant working, the joint is rendered so flexible that it moves with equal facility either way. When the arm is extended the elbow is inverted, the inside of the joint being protruded, and the external part bend- ing inwards. This is considered the ne plus ultra * The custom of enlarging the lobe of the ear, so as to enable it to carry ear-tubes of large size, appears to be a very ancient custom, and is supposed to be connected with sun worship. Spanish historians mention that elaborate religious ceremonies were held at the Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, on the occasion of boring the ears of the young Peruvian nobles, and in the case of princes of the blood, the Inca himself pierced the ear-lobes with a golden pin. The image of Gautama is always portrayed with long pendant ear-lobes reaching to his shoulders, "characteristic of his pre-eminence over all men.” In Pinkerton's "Voyage" (vol. xi., p. 375) it is related that Pigafetta, who sailed with Magellan in 1519, heard from an old pilot that there was an island where a race of diminutive stature existed, with ears as long as their bodies, so that they lay on one ear, and used the other for a coverlid. They were said to be Troglodides. A similar story is told by Strabo, on the authority of Megasthenes. Pliny also states that in the "Isles of the Scythians" there were reported to be natives with ears of similar dimensions, and used for the same purpose. See article in the "Journal of the Anthropological Institute,” vol. ii., No. 11., by J. Park Harrison, M.A. VOL. II. F 66 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of elegance, and in all Burmese drawings women are represented in this posture. The people of Burma, whether Arakanese, Talaings, or Burmese properly so called, are alto- gether a different people from the inhabitants of India. They are not trammelled by hereditary priests, like Brahmins, or hedged round with caste * distinctions, compelling them to live on in the same narrow grooves as their forefathers from generation to generation. Unlike the distrustful and suspicious Hindus and Mahommedans, woman holds a position amongst them of perfect freedom and independence, and their children are free to come and go. They are open-hearted and merry in disposition, and no European has ever entered into free and kindly in- tercourse with them without being more struck with their virtues than their faults. They are free from traditional and conventional dogmata, and are by nature and habit far less imbued with the odium * The Hindus recognise four distinct castes: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. The "Jatimala," a Sanskrit work, gives the following tradition respecting the origin of each caste. "In the first creation by Brahma, From his Brahmanas proceeded, with the Veda, from the mouth of Brahma. arms Kshatriyas sprung; so from his thigh Vaisyas, from his foot Sudras, were produced: all with females.” or The word caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, "race" that is, "colours." Heeren "lineage ;" in Sanskrit they are called varnas, supposes that the origin of the institution was founded upon conquest; the first three tribes being a foreign race who subdued the aborigines of the country and reduced them to an inferior caste; while others trace it "as the result of that fondness for perpetuating, like heirlooms, by descent from father to son, certain offices, or the exercise of certain arts or professions, which is so peculiarly characteristic of almost all nations of the Indo-Germanic race." PLEASING MANNERS. 67 theologicum, or that contemptuous abhorrence of all creeds and customs, other than their own, than is the case with the ordinary Asiatic of whatever creed or denomination. Their manners are distinguished by a pleasing mixture of courtesy and freedom. They possess great aplomb; and even the poorest, while frank, are well bred. In their intercourse with each other they are good-humoured and considerate, and the observer cannot but be struck with the enjoyment, contentment, and happiness of the people. All appear well off. None are very rich, or poor; two days' labour suffices for three days' bread, and destitution is quite unknown. There is neither pauperism nor poor-law in the province. If a family should happen to be in want, they are at once assisted by their neighbours, and "the stranger within their gates," of whatever creed, has never to ask twice for food. The affection of parents for their children is very great. Filial piety is inculcated as a sacred precept and its duties religiously observed. Much respect is shown by the young to the old, and there are two forms of address which are always used by the young to the middle-aged, and by both to the old. Mendacity, so characteristic of Orientals, is not a national defect amongst this people, and my experience has shown that the chances are greatly in favour of truth when evidence is sought. F 2 68 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 They are fond of amusement and excitement, and as a rule are not laborious. All have enough for their wants, and they are content with that sufficiency, They act fully up to the maxim-which is Buddhist as well as Christian-“ sufficient for the day is the evil thereof." Strong, patient, and good-tempered, they are utterly without the restless energy of Europe. Their repose is perfect, yet it is that of placidity, rather than that of indolence, the quies- cence which is the root of the Buddhist creed, which forms their idea of happiness, and which is "the only expression in the features of their motionless god." They do not, like the Europeans, convert the world into a workshop, because their world is not yet darkened with the pressure of over-population and competition; neither is their desire to possess great wealth stimulated by the painful contrast of extreme luxury with squalid poverty and humiliating dependence. The social condition of the people is largely affected by their marriage customs. In India, though betrothals take place at a very early age- even in infancy-no one ever sees a young man and a young woman walking together as companions, friends, or lovers. In Burma such a sight is com- mon. On these, and when they meet on other occasions, the blind god is allowed to have his sway, and there is a freedom of manners, a fre- . COURTSHIP. 69 quent interchange of wit and raillery, and inter- change of sentiment, which would horrify a native of India. About eight o'clock in the evening is courting time," when the young ladies "receive " their bachelor acquaintances, and a lamp placed in their casement is a signal that they are "at home." 66 Women are generally married about seventeen or nineteen years of age, to the man of their choice of about the same age or older, the parents very seldom interfering, more than to advise. The Bud- dhist law forbids opposition in such cases, leaving young people, in a great measure, to follow their own inclinations, and marriages are occasionally contracted without the consent of the parents of either party; and sometimes even in direct oppo- sition to their wishes. When a couple have agreed between themselves to marry, the mother of the man, or his nearest female relation, is generally first sent to sound the mother of the girl privately, and if she appears to approve of the match, some of the suitor's elderly friends are sent to propose the marriage formally to the girl's parents, and adjust the settlement. On * Loo-byo lai-thee kala. In this happy land, loo-byo hoing or apyo-hoing (old bachelors and old maids) are unknown, and the widowed seldom remain long in that state. It may not be out of place here to observe that the Burmese do not kiss each other in the western fashion, but apply the lips and nose to the cheek, and make a strong inhalation, which they express by the term nan-shok- thee, to sniff up a scent. ་ 70 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. • the parents giving their consent to the marriage, the corbeille de noce is furnished by the bride- groom according to his means,* and the marriage takes place almost immediately. A feast is prepared, accompanied with the inevit- able pooay, or play; the happy couple eat out of the same dish before the assembled guests; after which the bridegroom presents the bride with hla-pet† (pickled tea), the compliment is returned, and the ceremony is practically brought to a close. The marriage is thus purely a simple civil rite, to which religion lends not its holy aid; for marriage is looked upon by the Buddhist priesthood as a concession to human frailty, of the earth earthy, and opposed to the ideas of religious contemplation and abstraction which govern their order. A curious custom prevails of the bridegroom's bachelor friends and others assembling on the night of the marriage round his house, and throwing * Dowries are seldom ever given by parents to their daughters at the time of marriage; almost everything is expected to be furnished by the bridegroom. A Burmese, therefore, cannot say with the Latin poet :- "Pars minima est ipsa puella sui.” + Hla-pet, or pickled tea, is used on many festive occasions by the Burmese, and is imported chiefly from Thein-nee, in the Shan states, bordering on China. It is made up into balls of different sizes, by means of a glutinous substance, which unites the leaves together without injuring their qualities. I have also seen it in the form of small pressed cakes; and also packed in hollow bamboos of about three feet in length, with the ends stopped up with clay. This latter comes from the Kubo valley, on the borders of Munipúr. The Burmese serve up the tea-leaves dressed with sesamum oil, garlick, and assafœtida, and thus prepared look upon it as a great delicacy, and a good promoter of digestion. MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 71 stones on its roof and at the doors, and which is kept up often for many hours. It is not done as a protest against the marriage, or in the way of what an English lad would call "fun;" but as following out an immemorial custom, and though the practice must, one would think, be an incon- venient one to the "happy couple," still they would think that a proper compliment had not been paid them if it was omitted. I have already remarked that the position of woman amongst the Burmese is a much higher and independent one than amongst Mahommedans* and Hindus. She is with them, not the mere slave of passion, but has equal rights, and is the recognized and duly honoured helpmate of man, and, in fact, bears a more prominent share in the transaction of the more ordinary affairs of life than is the case, * A Mahommedan woman has neither social rank nor civil rights. She is not even permitted to enter their ideal paradise, but sighs at the portals of Heaven, a mere spectator of that happiness which she can never hope to share. "Woman," by G. N. Cresswell, p. 45. In ancient times a much purer morality existed in the East. In the laws of Menu, said to have been composed 1280 B.C., we read (Book iii., § 58): "Women are to be esteemed and honoured by their fathers, brothers, hus- bands, and fathers-in-law, if the latter wish to be happy themselves. The gods rejoice when women are honoured; where it is not done, sacrifices avail nothing. When the women are ill-treated the whole family goes to ruin; when the contrary happens, it flourishes for ever." In the Maha-bharata King Dushmanta expresses himself in the following beautiful language : "The woman is the honour of the family; she, who gives the children; the woman is the life of man; she, who is ever faithful. The woman is the half of the man, she is his best friend, the source of all happiness. The woman, with her sweet language, is the friend in solitude, the mother of the oppressed, refreshment on the journey through the wilderness of life." (Digest of Hindu Law, translated by Coleman.) 72 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. perhaps, with any other people, either eastern or western. To give a very striking instance, even in a matter the most remote from the ordinary expected duties and conventionalities of womankind, I may cite a case where the wife of a Myo-ok (head judicial and revenue officer of a township) came before me in open court, when I was Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, having nine notorious dacoits or robbers in her custody, and stating that her husband would follow with the record of the proceedings in the case. The retail business of the country is mostly carried on by women, and a large proportion, also, of the wholesale description. A Burmese seldom does anything without first consulting his wife. In fact, she possesses the "key of the house," and of the household establishment. She is no "purdah nasheen" (hidden behind a screen), or wears no boorkhah, or Mahommedan veil, for she has no cause to hide her face; her legal rights are admitted as maid, wife, or widow; the sole right in her property before, and that acquired after marriage is acknowledged, and only under rare and peculiar circumstances can property, left her by her parents or ancestors, become her husband's during her life- time; she can hold real property in her own right, and even obtain legal possession of her husband's if he forsakes her. LAW OF DIVORCE. 73 A code of divorce is provided for ill-assorted unions, which has been pronounced by Father Bigandet, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Rangoon, as “a damnable laxity." Amongst its other pro- visions are, where a desire for a separation is mutual, from "incompatibility of temper," or other causes, parties can divorce each other by an equal division of goods; or if one of them is unwilling, the other is free to go, provided all property except the clothes in wear are left behind. A woman can demand a divorce for ill-treatment, or if her husband cannot properly maintain her, and he from her in case of barrenness or infidelity. Another method which is not unfrequently resorted to is that of the aggrieved parties turning priests or nuns, which at once dissolves the matrimonial bond. They may return to a secular life at any time, and marry another; but, for the sake of appearance, their return to the world is usually deferred some months. Serious connubial quarrels appear rarer amongst the Burmese than most communities; and apart from their natural good temper, the easy severance of the nuptial knot may, notwithstanding its sweep- ing condemnation by the good bishop, have some- thing in its favour, namely, that of rendering husband and wife mutually forbearing. Buddhism disapproves of polygamy; but does • 74 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. not wholly disallow it. Few Burmese have, how- ever, more than one wife, and in the case of a second or more being taken, the Ma-ya-gyee, or first wife, always holds the highest rank in the household. Burmese women are as a rule prolific, and have the ordinary proportion of male and female children. As soon as a child is born, whatever the season may be, it is the custom to light a large fire in the mother's apartment, and place her before it, which treatment is continued for seven days. This roasting not unfrequently injures the health of the patient, and though English medical officers have often pointed out its absurdity, and tried to combat the system, all their efforts have proved in vain, so universal is the custom and so strong the prejudice in its favour. The usage is associated, I believe, with some ideas of purification, which, on such occasions, prevail in different forms in other parts of the world; but I never heard any satisfactory reason given for the practice. Mothers suckle their children for a long period, extending occasionally to two or three years, gradually weaning them on boiled rice and plantains. The Burmese are very sensitive to raillery, and have a peculiar delicacy of feeling, or dread of what they call a-shet, or shame, to use the English trans- lation of the expression, which does not, however, SENSITIVENESS TO RAILLERY. 75 hardly convey its full meaning, and show a great disregard of life by committing suicide for the most trifling causes. The nature of this feeling is well shown by Colonel J. P. Briggs, in his interesting work on Heathen and Holy Lands, in the two following cases with which he became acquainted in his official capacity. Two young women, both much admired, resided near each other; and though a good-natured rivalry existed between them, they were great friends, and often used to meet together, and relate mutually their conquests and girlish secrets. This occurred more particularly in the evening time at the village well, where they met to draw water. Here they were wont to laugh and joke with one another on that most important of all subjects, which of them would be married first, and what sort of husbands they would get. After a time one of these girls married a good respectable man, a sawyer by occupation, and had been living in her husband's house but a few days, when her old companion with others paid her a friendly visit. Her husband was not present, and the visitors commenced teasing and joking with her about her husband. "Ah!" said her friend, "you are married first, but only to a sawyer! I would not marry a sawyer! much you have got by your good looks, and your 76 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. family that looked so high!" The The young wife good-naturedly joined in the laugh against herself, and did not think it necessary to defend her husband, whose good qualities were well known. So her thoughtless visitors began pitying her for not having made a better match. The husband, who was in the garden at the back of the house overheard all the conversation, and was so ashamed at not being thought good enough for his pretty young wife, and annoyed at her not taking his part, that he forthwith went away and hung himself. Any momentary annoyance, or shock to their pride, furnishes them with sufficient cause for self- destruction, and opium is one of the means often employed for the purpose. A girl of about fifteen years of age, being sent to market by her mother to sell some oranges gathered from her garden, met a female friend there of about the same age, and employed in a similar manner. The market was not full, and the trade not sufficiently brisk to keep them employed, and the two good-for-nothings commenced gambling for the oranges, by playing odd and even with the small dried flowers attached to the fruit. One of them lost nearly all her oranges to the other, and returned home without the computed number of coppers, the sale of the missing fruit ought to have realised. RICE "THE STAFF OF LIFE." 77 On her mother discovering that her daughter had lost her oranges by gambling, she boxed her ears, and scolded her in the presence of some neighbours, when the girl left the house, purchased some opium, enough to poison two or three people, and swal- lowed it; she then returned to her mother, and quietly told her what she had done, and that she would never have the power to ill-treat her again. The mother greatly alarmed, and in the wildest grief hugging her child to her bosom, rushed off with her to the Government Hospital, where the surgeon, being fortunately present at the time, was enabled to save her life. . - Rice, as in all the countries of Southern Asia, takes the position of "the staff of life," and is the universal food, so much so as to tint the language. Breakfast is called the morning, dinner the noon, and supper the evening rice. It is usually accom- panied by a ragout of fish of different kinds, meat, and vegetables, which are eaten with it. Besides these, are salads of sliced cucumber, and on the sea-coast oysters and other shell fish, and several chutneys; amongst the latter, and without which no Burmese considers he has made a good dinner, is nga-pee, a potent preparation, somewhat re- sembling anchovy paste, composed of prawns and fish fry, pounded with chillies, garlic, and other condiments. A soup composed of the nests of the 78 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. & small sea-swallow (Hirundo esculenta) closely re- sembling isinglass, which are found on the rocky islands of the coast, occasionally accompany their meals, and is much prized by old men for its supposed recuperative powers. Their meals are served up in circular red japanned trays, fitting successively into a conical apparatus tapering to a point, called an ōk. The lowest and largest receptacle contains the rice, and the others china cups and platters holding the fish, meat, etc. When several are partaking of the same meal, they assemble round the large tray containing the rice, each helping themselves to it with their hands, and seasoning the rice with the materials taken with a spoon from the attendant trays, which are passed round. Their beverage is water. The tenets of the Buddhist religion forbid them wilfully to deprive animals of life. Any, even the most strictly religious amongst them, however, have no scruples in eating the flesh of an animal killed by another person; as then, they consider, the sin of its destruction does not rest upon them, but on the person who actually caused it. They are very hearty eaters, and are not particularly choice in the description of the food they eat. The lower classes, especially, will eat anything. They eat vermin, such as rats, and reptiles like TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 79 lizards and snakes. They will eat animals, even, that have died a natural death. In fact, they are the same foul feeders as their Mongol ancestors, the rude Tatar warriors who fought in the armies. of Jenghis Khan. The Burmese know nothing of anatomy; and their treatment of disease is mixed up with ignor- ance, superstition, and prejudice. Anyone is allowed to practise medicine. No license or diploma is necessary, and the members of the profession are, generally speaking, rogues and charlatans. Their classical work on medicine (Baideng) teaches that the human body is composed of the four elements, and the symptoms of disease manifested in the five senses. That there are ninety-six genera of diseases, which are caused by evil spirits, passions, or humours seated in the blood and nerves by climate and by food. One of their most esteemed remedies is mer- cury; but their prescriptions are chiefly confined to aromatic ingredients, such as cardamums, nutmegs, chillies, etc.; and to barks, and particularly various roots, the virtue of which latter is supposed greatly to depend on the periods when they are gathered, such as the changes of the moon, and during eclipses. They have singular ideas regarding diet. During fevers and other acute disorders far from diminishing the quantity of food to be taken by So BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the patient, they rather increase it: the idea being that the more that is eaten the stronger the patient will be, and consequently better able to withstand the disease. If all the physician's remedies fail to check the disease, it is then often declared that the malady has been caused by an evil spirit, who must be propitiated by offerings and the devil dance.* For this purpose a strong-minded female of middle age, accustomed to hire herself out on such occasions, and of whom every large village contains at least one, is sent for, and under the name of the wife of the Nat-tso, or evil spirit, in a shed erected for the purpose near the patient's house, filled with votive offerings, she goes through sundry violent con- tortions to the sound of a drum and brass trumpet, and ends by feigning syncope. When in this state she is questioned regarding the sick person, and if her replies are unfavourable, all hope of the patient's recovery is given up. There is one disease in particular that is much dreaded by the Burmese, called a-peng (peng means a wedge in the vernacular) which they suppose to be caused by a substance formed of bones, flesh, and sinews produced by magic, and forced into the * This is not a Buddhist rite, and is doubtless a remnant of Shamanism. The festival is called by the Burmese Nat-pan, or that of the "possessing spirit." FUNERALS. 81 stomach, or some other part of the body by witches. This disease is considered to be not unfrequent and incurable. I had a favourite servant, named Shwégyau, who had long been in my service, and is supposed to have died of it. After the cremation of his body, his widow brought me a hard, irregularly formed substance found amongst his ashes, and which she gravely declared was the cause of death, and through the power of the Tson-ma, or witch, was the only portion of the body that had resisted the flames. Burmese funerals are solemnized with great religious parade, and external demonstration of grief. Immediately the breath has left the body, all the people in the house, more especially the female portion, raise the most frightful shrieks, and messengers are despatched with information of the mournful event to the connections and friends of the deceased, who attend as speedily as possible to offer their condolences, and make arrange- ments for the funeral; the expenses of which they help to defray by voluntary contributions amongst them. After the corpse has been washed, and a coin called kadho-akha, or ferry-hire-the obolus for the Buddhist Charon-placed in the mouth, it is wrapped in a clean white sheet, and laid on an open bier in a front room of the house, where it remains, generally, VOL. II. G 82 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. [. for about three days, when it is removed in a wooden coffin to the place of cremation. First in the funeral procession, slung on poles and carried on men's shoulders, are alms for the priest- hood and for the poor, following which are nuns carrying pickled tea, pawn and betel; and then come priests carrying their broad-leafed palm-fans on their shoulders, and attended by their disciples, walking two and two; a band of music precedes the coffin, borne by the friends of the deceased, and imme- diately after it are the nearest relations of the deceased, dressed all in white-the Buddhist mourning. Attached to the coffin is often a piece of cloth, which is extended over the shoulders of the mourners. On the arrival of the coffin at the cemetery, it is placed on the ground near the funeral pyre, the priests sitting at the head of it, with the mourners and others in the same attitude in front of them. * Just the reverse of the custom of the ancient Romans, with their "white days," and their holiday-dress of white clothes, "et populus festo concolor ipse suo;" indeed, generally in every country at the present day white is considered a festive colour. I am not aware of the reason for the Buddhists adopting white as their mourning colour. The sitting posture is the attitude of respect in Burma; and it is the only one in which an inferior can remain in the presence of a superior. In squatting down they are particularly careful to turn the soles of their feet behind them. When presenting anything to a superior, they do it in a crouching position, with averted head, showing every symptom of awe and respect. In the event of their having to address him, they first join their hands, and touch the forehead. Instead of an assembly rising when a great man makes his appearance, as is the custom in Europe, it sinks down before him. FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 83 The chief priest then recites "the five Command- ments,” the "three kinds of worship," or Buddhist creed, and is followed by the other priests repeating the "ten good works." At the conclusion of these the chief mourner pours out water* from a cup or a cocoa-nut shell upon the cloth attached to the coffin; or, in its absence, on the ground, pro- nouncing at the same time, after the chief priest, "Let the deceased and all present partake of the merit of the ceremonies now performing," the assembly replying, "We will." They then all retire to a distance, the coffin is placed on the funeral pyre by those whose office it is to burn the dead, and set fire to. Before leaving the cemetery, the alms are dis- tributed to the priests, and to the poor; and the pickled tea, and the pawn and betel, is partaken of by all who have attended the funeral. On the third day after the funeral, the relations of the deceased return to the cemetery and gather the ashes, which they place in an urn, and bury in the earth. * This ceremony of pouring out water on the earth is of Indian origin, and adopted by the Burmese with their religion. It is performed on the presenta- tion of a monastery to the priesthood, and on other important occasions; and is done with the intention of calling the guardian nat of the earth as a witness to the donation. When it is performed some such formula as that given in the text is pronounced-the donor not being satisfied with receiving himself the sole benefit of the Koung-hmo, or “good-work,” wishes also others to reap the merits of his pious liberality; thus showing a great amount o liberality and brotherly love. 2 84 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 Amongst the wealthier class, until the ninth day after the death, receptions are held nightly at the house of the deceased, with a view of diverting the attention of the relatives, and preventing them from brooding over their bereavement, and concluded on the tenth day by a great feast given to the priests, and all those who have assisted in any way at the funeral. The ceremonies connected with the cremation of the bodies of priests differ from those of the laity, and will be described in a subsequent chapter. The Burmese are very fond of amusements of all kinds. One of their most manly and national sports is that of boat-racing, and nowhere are they seen at greater advantage than in their boats, in the management of which they show great skill. In rowing they almost always sing, keeping time with their oars, and the swell of voices (yã-lay-athăn) appears very melodious when wafted down the broad stream of the Irawadi by the breeze. The annual boat-races take place on the full moon of October, and every village of any size, and each division of a town, have generally a public racing boat with a picked crew. These boats, which have slightly peaked bows and sterns, and a wash-board about ten inches high, are from forty to sixty feet BOAT-RACING. 85 long, scooped out of a single tree. They are gaily painted, and often gilt, and the largest of them carry crews of from sixty to eighty men, who all sit facing the bow. In racing they do not use oars, but paddles about four feet long, with which, in spurts, they attain great speed. The course is from a mile to a mile and a half in length, and a boat containing the umpire, with a flag flying at the mast-head, is anchored in mid- stream, and forms the goal. Athwart the bows of this boat, and extending for some distance on either side, is fixed a hollow bamboo, through which a loose cord is passed with a bunch of palm leaves fastened at each end, and projecting from the bamboo. Only two boats race at a time, and to prevent fouling, they have to pass on opposite sides of the goal. As the leading boat shoots past the goal, a man, stationed in the bow for the purpose, seizes the bunch of leaves on his side, and the other, being attached to it, is instantly pulled through the bamboo. By this simple device, dead heats, and all possibility of disputes, are avoided, for "palmam qui meruit ferit," and wins the race. On the race being won, the winning crew jump up in their boat, throw themselves into grotesque attitudes, gesticulating and shouting wild songs of triumph, in which they are joined by many of their friends and backers on the banks of the river; and 86 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. this wild state of excitement is often prolonged until the commencement of the next race. The Burmese are very clannish in their feelings, coupled with a strong itch for gambling, especially at these annual races; and the purses for the races being raised in the districts to which the contending boats belong, are, consequently often heavy ones. A good deal of money, also, changes hands in outside bets; but all are ready-money transactions, paid down on the spot, and amongst this light- hearted people, those who lose look for better luck next year, and losses are soon forgotten. The youth of Burma show great agility in their game of foot-ball (khyay-lon), which differs, however, very considerably from the European game, and is played by six or eight young men formed in a circle. The ball, a hollow sphere formed of wicker-work, is tossed up in the air in the centre of the group, and the object is to pass it from one to the other, and keep it from falling to the ground as long as possible. It must not be struck with the hand— but foot, ankle, knee, elbow, shoulder, and any other part of the body may be used. No little skill is required in keeping the ball in motion, and they seldom miss their stroke, or fail to give the ball the direction intended. To have their limbs free, they gird up their loins," and their tattooing becomes very apparent, as may be observed in the engraving (( BURMESE GAME OF FOOTBALL. GIRDING UP THE LOINS. 87 on the opposite page. The game causes much merriment and laughter, and is pursued with great spirit. A similar game is played in Cochin China,* but with a shuttlecock made of dried skin rolled round and bound with strings, into which feathers are inserted. Most young men learn to box and wrestle, and a proficient in them is always held in high esteem and respect. In boxing, "tripping up,” and striking with the knee and foot, as well as the fist, are allowable. Wrestling is pursued in the same manner as with us, throwing on the back consti- tuting the victory. On holidays or festive occasions the most common diversions are boxing and wrestling. Ground for the ring is prepared and made soft with moistened sand, and around it the spectators sit or stand, a scaffolding being erected on one side for the umpires and "heads of the people." As is the practice at every festival, a band of music is in attendance, and plays during the combats. No severe or cruel punishment is allowed, and "the first drop of claret tapped," or blood drawn from a cut lip, or elsewhere, decides the fight. To determine this point, curious * See Macartney's "Embassy to China," vol. i., p. 339. It must be remembered that they wear no boots or shoes on these occasions. I have seen a severe fall given by the foot being caught in an attempt at a high kick, and a very awkward blow given under the chin by the knee. 88 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and minute examinations are often set on foot by the umpires, those having cut lips or other trifling mishaps, endeavouring to conceal them, and the detection of which calls forth bursts of laughter from the spectators. Their first attitude of defence is not good, the principal object appearing to be to plant the first blow, and leave the rest to chance; but the agility and rapidity with which they dodge a blow and return it, would be considered good anywhere. When a match is made up, the two competitors, dressed in a similar fashion to that shown in the game at foot-ball," after exchanging a friendly word or two, take up a position in the centre of the ring, each being accompanied by a second, who is generally an old professor and teacher of the art. The following description is not unlike that which then happens. (6 As the combatants advance, each carefully watches his opponent's eye, with one arm in reserve, and the other put out and withdrawn, as if feeling the dis- tance, the music playing as they draw near each other gradually the measure quickens, the mus- cular motions of the combatants seem to keep time to it—a feint, a blow dodged, a right and left home— the music faster and faster-a cross-buttock cleverly escaped, and another blow home. The kettle-drums dance madly in their circular frames-the com- BOXING AND WRESTLING. 89 batants close--hug and trip; and as they come to the ground the seconds rush in and separate them; the music dies away, the musicians perhaps more exhausted than the combatants themselves. Then prizes of gay silks or muslin turbans are distributed to the "gladiatori," the winners' share being more costly than the losers. The combatants on these occasions show ad- mirable temper throughout, and I have never heard of anyone being seriously hurt, or a case of bad blood arising from a boxing-match. During the day of the full moon of Ta-soung- mon, corresponding with our month of November, an interesting festival takes place called Ta-soung- doing; when pieces of yellow cloth are presented to the priesthood for their dresses; and, also, as offerings to the pagodas, round the sacred sides of which they are rolled. These pieces of cloth must be made from the raw cotton, and dyed within one night.* The evening before the festival, after the cotton is picked and the thread spun, the looms-with at least one of which every Burmese dwelling is *This is not an ordinance of Gautama. The custom for this rapid manu- facture of cloth is said to have proceeded from Maia, Gautama's mother (see the following text). It is more practised on the seaboard than in the interior of Burma. The Egyptian priests had a garment woven in one day when they observed the festival in memory of the return of Rampsinitus from the infernal regions.—Herod. ii., 123. The magic standard of the Danes was also woven and embroidered by royal hands in one noon-tide.-See "Monachism," p. 122. 90 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. furnished-are brought outside, and placed in front of the houses, and lines of them may be seen down each side of a street, with the women hard at work weaving, at which they remain all night; several reliefs being told off for each loom. The piece of cloth furnished by each loom must be fifteen feet long, by one and a half broad, and there is great rivalry as to who shall complete the first piece. Notwithstanding a great deal of flirting among the younger portion of the weavers, all the cloth is ready by morning, and the following day is chiefly spent in visiting the monasteries and presenting the cloths to the priests. The origin of the custom for this rapid manufac- ture of cloth is said to have proceeded from Maia,* the mother of Gautama, causing a priest's dress to be instantly woven, and conveyed to her son, on her perceiving from the realms of bliss that he had fled from his palace to the desert, and divested himself of the royal robes with the intention of becoming a Recluse.† In the evening the pagodas are illuminated from * Maia, by virtue of her great merits, migrated after death to the happy abode of the nats, and became a daughter of the nat Too-tseet-ta. She was fifty-six years old when she died ; and her decease took place seven days after her confinement of Gautama. Her death, it is said, "was not the result of her delivery," but she departed this world because the term of her life had come. † According to Bishop Bigaudet (“Life of Gautama,” p. 60) this dress, and the other priestly requisites, were miraculously presented to Gautama by a great Brahma named Gatigara, who had been an intimate friend of Gautama in a former state of existence. BURMESE FESTIVALS. 91 top to bottom by means of small oil-lamps, and owing to these religious edifices being always built on commanding sites, the general effect of them is very beautiful. Opposite the door of every house is also suspended a lamp on a lofty pole, which is lighted every day at sunset, and con- tinued until the close of the month. From this latter feature the festival takes its designation- Ta-soung, the name of the month, and doing, a pole or post. On the night of the full moon, in addition to the above lights, where a river or large stream exists in the vicinity of the town or village, small fire-boats and rafts are launched, each with a number of lights on them; and as they float down the current, forming brilliant lines of fantastic shapes and figures, waning away in the distance, are anxiously watched by the people who launch them; * This festival is no doubt connected with the great festival of the Pleiades, or “feast of first fruits and of the dead,” held in ancient times in the month of November; and which is still held, during this month, in some form or other in Asia, America, Polynesia and Europe. It lingers with us in the festivals of All Halloween, All Saints, and All Souls. The rising of the Pleiades on an evening of the month of November, culminating at midnight, and setting in the morning, is supposed to have marked the commencement of the primitive new year, which was siderial or astral, and regulated by the seven stars in the constellation of Taurus. The Bull and the Seven Stars are also associated with the tradition of the deluge. The deluge is supposed to have com- menced on the 17th November, at the moment of the culmination of the Pleiades. (See "Life and Work at the Great Pyramid," by C. Piazzi Smith, p. 370 et seq.). I may add also that the "Feast of Lanterns," or "Feast of Ancestors," is held by the Chinese inhabitants of Burma at the same time as the Burmese festival of Ta-Soung-doing. 92 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT for they are looked upon as offerings to the river nat, and it is a token of good luck if the lights burn long.* On the first day of the new year commences the "water festival," which lasts for four days. At daybreak the people proceed to the pagodas which they sprinkle with water, offering up at the same time prayers for a plentiful season. They, also, present jars of water to the priests, and ask forgiveness for any wickedness they may have com- mitted by thought, word, or deed during the past year. After these religious ceremonies are over, a kind of Burmese carnival begins, reminding one of the showers of confétti, and mázzi di fiori that salute the revellers during the carnival at Rome; only here, instead of sweetmeats and nosegays, water is thrown, sometimes indeed scented, or having flowers in it. The fronts of the houses are decorated with green leaves and flowers, and all hands, particu- larly the young men and women, send showers of water on the passers-by, bursts of laughter succeeding * A somewhat similar custom exists in Hindústan, where floating lights may be often seen at night on the river Ganges; and they are looked upon there also as votive offerings to the spirit of the stream. The ceremony, however, is not confined to any particular night, and the offerings are made for the safe return of relations, friends, or lovers, who have gone on long journeys. If the lamp meets with an accident and sinks, or goes out, the omen is disastrous; but if it continues burning until it disappears in the distance, the safe return of the beloved one is believed certain. The custom is alluded to by Moore in "Lalla Rookh," p. 317. THE WATER-FESTIVAL. 93 each well directed volley :-or parading the streets armed with earthen jars of water and silver cups duck everyone they meet. Occasionally these bands meet and have regular contests, drenching each other with water. No one, whatever his rank, escapes the liquid salutation. The licence gives rise to much harmless merriment, and it is considered very ill- bred for any one to object to these "compliments of the season;"--and bad luck is sure to ensue to those who are not wet at least once during the day. It is a quaint wild sight to see a bevy of maidens rushing wildly about with their long wet hair streaming down their backs, and their light dress drenched and clinging to each curve of the figure, loudly shouting, Ma-tso-boo! Ma-tso-boo! (not wet, not wet), much in the same spirit that an Italian girl calls Sénza moccoletti! Sénza moc- coletti! after having just dashed the lighted taper out of an unwary hand on the last night of the carnival. The original idea of this festival is, I believe, that of washing away the sins and impurities of the past, together with any ill feelings that may have sprung up during the year that has just faded away, and commencing the new one free from all stain. There is also a mythological tale of its typifying the wash- ing of a king's head by the seven nats that watch 94 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. over time, and who pass on the head to each other's laps as the old year goes out and the new one comes in.† * This tradition, also, is not improbably connected with the Pleiades. See note at foot of page 91. + In describing the above festival and the boxing-match, I have, with the author's permission, drawn largely upon "Heathen and Holy Lands," by Lieut.-Col. J. P. Briggs, a work containing many good sketches of the habits and customs of the Burmese. : CHAPTER III. FOUR YEARS' ADMINISTRATION OF BRITISH BURMA, 1867-1871. Our commerce with China confined to sea ports.—Ancient overland commerce between Burma and Western China viâ Bhamo.-Brought to a close in 1855.-Early history of the Panthays or Chinese Mahomedans.-They establish a Mahommedan kingdom in Yunnan. -Monoply of trade between Burma and Yunnan confined to Chinese inhabitants of Mandalay and Bhamo.—Their jealousy regarding it.-Despatch of a Mission under Major Sladen to Western China viâ Bhamo.—Burmese suspicion of it. The King ultimately sends the expedition in his own steamer to Bhamo. Hill ranges and valleys occupied by Kakhyens and Shans.—Description of these tribes.-The Governor of Bhamo defeated and slain by the Kakhyens.-Difficulties of the Mission in consequence.-The Mission starts for Momein.-Secret agencies at work to stop the Mission.-Mission delayed at Ponsee.-Delay profitable in some ways.-Valuable collection of specimens of natural history made by Dr. Anderson.-Bambusicola Fytchii. Kakhyen ideas of marriage.-Their superstitious observances.- Communication opened with the Governor of Momein.-The Chinese freebooter, Li Hsieh-tai.-Destruction of his stronghold.—Mission escorted by Shans and Panthays to Momein.-Hospitality of Ta-sa-kon.--All objects of Mission successfully obtained.—Mission returns to Bhamo.— Return journey quite an ovation.-Description of Kakhyen oath.—Ex- position of the policy in despatching the Mission.-Objects not political but commercial.-The tact and gallantry shown by Major Sladen. Favourable view taken by him of the Panthay rebellion.-Policy of the British Government towards Yacoob Beg, Sultan of Kaskgar.—An English political agent appointed to Bhamo.-Large increase of trade.--A Panthay Embassy proceeds to England viâ Rangoon and Calcutta.-Collapse of Mahomedan power in Yunnan.-Despatch of a second Mission to Western China.-Its failure. -Murder of Mr. Margary.—Lord Lawrence retires from the Viceroyalty of India.-Lord Mayo appointed Viceroy.— Correspondence with Lord Mayo.-Important measures carried out during my administration of British Burma.-Speech at a public dinner. D C THE details of four years' administration of a pro- vince like British Burma would have but little 96 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. interest for English readers. Blue books respecting remote regions do not constitute the popular reading of the day, yet measures have been carried out in Burma which might have engaged the attention of the empire. The expedition which I sent to China was of this description. It opened up scenes and countries which had been for generations a terra incognita to Europeans. It brightened up the hopes of every merchant in Burma with the prospect of new markets for British industry, new fields for British capital and enterprise. Our intercourse with China has been of growing importance for more than more than two centuries, but hitherto it has been confined to the sea-ports. Few attempts * have been made to open it up on the land side, and for all practical purposes the interior of China has been a sealed book to Europeans. Yet within the memory of the present generation, a prosperous trade was carried on between Upper Burma and Western China. Burma, amongst other articles of minor importance, exported cotton, salt, and rubies; China exported silk, tea, and gold leaf. The intermediate region between the two countries consists of hills and valleys occupied by barbarous and semi-civilized * The routes surveyed by Major Sladen, as also those by Dr. Richardson, Captain McLeod, and other explorers in different parts of Burma and the adjacent countries, are shown in the accompanying map. THE BHAMO EXPEDITION. 97 tribes known as Kakhyens and Shans. They are as ignorant and credulous as children, but are fully alive to the profits of the carrying trade. This state of things was brought to a close by political revolutions. About 1855 the Panthays* established a Mahom- medan kingdom in the province of Yunnan in Western China. The Chinese failed to crush the movement. The local Chinese authorities ignored it in the eyes of the central authority at Pekin. Indeed, they could have had no desire to draw the attention of the imperial government to their own weakness and incapacity. Meanwhile they tried to harass the Panthay dominion after Chinese fashion. They encouraged the freebooters, who preyed upon the Panthay kingdom from all sides, and so far they succeeded in cutting off the Mahom- medan dominion from the world of civilization. On the side of Burma these freebooters had put an effectual stop to the trade, or only suffered it to pass on the payment of a heavy black mail. The result was that the trade became small but profit- * The Panthays belong to the Sunni sect of the Mahommedans. In physical aspect they are a tall, strongly built, fair-skinned, race, with a type of face differing distinctly from the Chinese. Their dress for the most part resembles the Chinese; but, unlike them, they wear their hair long, coiled in the folds of large white turbans. In character they are great traders, very industrious and enterprising. A memorandum on their origin and early history, together with other matters connected with the race, read by me before a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in December, 1867, will be found in the Appendix. (Appendix E.) VOL. II. H 98 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. able. It was a monopoly in the hands of the Chinese of Bhamo and Mandalay, who bribed the freebooters and did their utmost to keep what little trade there was entirely under their own control. The revival of this trade under British auspices. would render Burma the most flourishing province in the empire of British India. It would open out a new market for British manufactures, which in due time would extend over a greater area than that of India. But, before this could be attempted, it was necessary to arrive at the actual facts. Accordingly, the main purpose of the expedition of 1868 was to investigate thoroughly the causes of the cessation of trade: to discover the exact political condition of the hill tribes between Burma and China, known as Kakhyens and Shans: to obtain as much information as possible respecting the Panthay kingdom in Yunnan : and to endeavour to interest the local communities in the restoration and extension of the trade. It was obvious that the success of any expedi- tion to Western China depended upon its being cordially supported at starting by the Burmese government. All this had been apparently secured by my treaty of 1867. The Burmese ministers issued orders or said they had issued orders to the Governor of the frontier town of Bhamo, and to the head men of all the towns and villages on the route, to make every arrangement in anticipation of the SUSPICIONS OF THE MINISTERS. 99 arrival of the expedition. The King seemed to be enthusiastic on the subject; he volunteered the services of one of his own steamers to carry the members of the expedition from Mandalay to Bhamo. Meantime some of the ministers at court began to grow suspicious of the expedition. The Chinese merchants at Mandalay were still more opposed to it; they were naturally anxious to keep the mono- poly of the trade in their own hands. It was whispered that the success of the expedition would bring a large influx of foreigners into Burma, and deprive the King of his independence; and how the English on their first appearance in India, commenced by asking for leave to trade, and ended by conquering and annexing the country. All these things worked upon the mind of his Majesty. He affected doubt whether the river Irawadi would be navigable between Mandalay and Bhamo during the dry months. At last he said he was afraid to risk his steamer for the conveyance of the expedi- tion. At this crisis Major Sladen, the Political Agent to the Chief Commissioner at Mandalay, and whom I had appointed leader of the expedition, applied for an English steamer. This step excited the jealousy of the King. He was afraid that an English steamer would have the glory of being the H 2 100 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. first to go to Bhamo. He withdrew all his objec- tions and again placed his steamer at the disposal of the expedition. Accordingly on the 13th of January, 1868, the expedition steamed away to Bhamo, and reached that place in eight days with- out any difficulty whatever. Bhamo is the frontier town towards China. Be- yond it are the ranges of hills occupied by the Kakhyens;* dirty, unkempt, ugly barbarians, armed with bows and arrows, spears and matchlocks; drunken, superstitious, and lawless to the last degree. Beyond the Kakhyen hills are valleys. occupied by the Shans; an industrious people, domestic and pious after Buddhist fashion; but the chiefs are often as drunken and refractory as their rude neighbours on the hills. The Kakhyens owe a certain amount of allegiance to the King of Burma. The Shans are more independent, and their allegiance is, to say the least, questionable. The King of Burma is nominally the sovereign of the Kakhyen and Shan tribes up to the Chinese frontier, and in his palace at Mandalay he is induced to believe that his orders are implicitly obeyed and * So called by the Burmese; but they call themselves Sheng-pau. They are a portion of the vast horde of Singphoos that inhabit the mountainous districts of Northern Assam, and stretch round the north of Burma into Western China. Intermixed with Kakoos and other kindred tribes, and the Shans, they extend, not only all along the northern frontier of Burma, but occupy large portions of the hilly tracts on both sides of the Irawadi river, dipping down as far south as the latitude of Tagoung. THE KAKHYENS AND SHANS. ΙΟΙ respected by all these tribes. Unfortunately, just before the arrival of the expedition at Bhamo, there had been an outbreak amongst the Kakhyen tribes. The Governor of Bhamo had gone out with a force. to suppress it, but had been defeated and slain. Such was the unhappy news that greeted Major Sladen on arriving at Bhamo, when he was naturally anxious to start at once for China. On the day after the arrival of Major Sladen, the two head men or magistrates of Bhamo paid him a visit on board the steamer. They were perfectly courteous, for they knew his rank as Political Agent at Mandalay; but they were strangely reticent about the expedition. They professed to be entirely igno- rant of any arrangements for his journey over the Kakhyen hills. They knew of no orders from Mandalay; they had done nothing towards ac- quainting the heads of villages with the coming expedition. This was not a very promising out- look for Sladen. Moreover, whilst the Burmese officials were friendly and hospitable, they seemed to enjoy his perplexity. Whenever Major Sladen referred to the expedition they moaned over the murder of the Governor of Bhamo, and expatiated upon the lawless character of Kakhyens and Shans. Whenever Major Sladen pressed them to make arrangements, they urged that under existing cir- cumstances nothing whatever could be done. The 102 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Chinese merchants at Bhamo talked in the same strain. They declared that even if the expedition made its way through Kakhyens and Shans, there were freebooters beyond, who would stop all further progress towards Western China. It is needless to dwell upon the details of the delay. After stopping a month at Bhamo trying to start, but thwarted in every way, the prospects of the expedition began to brighten. A new governor arrived at Bhamo, and the expedition got away. Mule carriage and guides had been furnished by two Kakhyen chiefs, known as Ponlyne and Ponsee. The chiefs engaged to carry the party in safety as far as the Shan states at the foot of the Kakhyen hills. But from the very first it was evident that secret agencies were at work to stop the expedition, and induce Major Sladen to turn back to Bhamo. Mysterious shots were fired in the distance. Some- times a bullet whizzed suspiciously near the head of one or other of the members of the expedition. Spears were hurled, nobody knew by whom. Mules were often missing. Sometimes there was a strike amongst the drivers. The Ponlyne and Ponsee chiefs incessantly clamoured for rupees; they ex- hausted their imaginations in their efforts to find fresh grounds for a renewal of their demands. In all cases of difficulty they got exceedingly drunk, + REPEATED DELAYS. 103 and were either unable to furnish any explana- tion, or assumed a threatening attitude which was extremely provoking. At the same time the autho- rities at Bhamo were more ready to thwart than to help the expedition. On one occasion a messenger arrived with orders for the Ponlyne and Ponsee chiefs to return to Bhamo; the Governor, it was said, wanted to consult them about some old silver mines. This was evidently a mere pretence. Such obstacles, however, were well calculated to damp the spirits of the members of the expedition. At the village of Ponlyne the party was delayed several days; at Ponsee it was delayed several weeks. But nothing would induce Major Sladen to say anything, or make any movement, which would indicate any intention of returning. He showed admirable temper and determination through- out. These delays involved much loss of time, but they were profitable in other ways. Major Sladen and his able coadjutor Dr. John Anderson, surgeon and naturalist to the expedition, were thereby enabled to collect much valuable information re- specting the natural history, products, and manufac- tures of this unknown region; and, moreover, become acquainted with the habits and forms of thought which prevailed amongst its rude inhabi- tants. 104 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The large collection made by Dr. Anderson, contained many valuable specimens of natural his- tory, some of which are new to science. Amongst these latter is a partridge, which he did me the honour to call after my name. It is figured on the opposite page, and Dr. Anderson's description of the bird, as given by him in the "Proceedings of The Zoological Society of London for February, 1871," is contained in the note below.* The social and religious life of the Kakhyens, is well deserving of study by all who are interested in the early developments of primitive man. Their * Bambusicola Fytchii. 3. Pileo brunneo-ferrugineo: fascia lata super- ciliari in fronte conjuncta utrinque elongata, albescenti-cinerea; fascia pone oculos nigra auchenio cinnamomeo: interscapularibus et tectricibus alarum cinereo-olivaceis, maculis subtriquetris rufo-brunneis, nigro terminatis et plumis brunneo-nigro obscure lineolatis: dorso, uropygio et tectricibus caudæ superiori- bus cinereo-olivaceis, nigro-brunneo transversim obscure nitideque notatis vel subfasciatis, interdum nigro parce maculatis, maculis triangularibus albescente cinereo terminatis: rectricibus cinnamomeis, duabus mediis nigro-brunneo undulatim fasciatis, fasciis ochraceis pallide marginatis: duabus sequentibus nigro-brunneo obscure lineolatis : loris, mento gulaque pallide ochraceis : jugulo rufo-ochraceo et cinnamomeo longitudinaliter vario: pectore lateribusque ejus cinnamomeis alboque ocellatis et nigro parce maculatis: pectore, ventre crissoque pallide rufescenti-albis, maculis magnis subrotundatis et nigris: hypochondriorum plumarum maculis permagnis et triangularibus: remigibus cinnamomeis, secundariorum marginibus externis brunneo et cinereo obscure marmoratis: remigibus tertiariis rufo-brunneis, apicibus extensis nigris et albescente cinereo tenuiter marginatis: marginibus externis cinereo et albo tenuiter marmoratis. Long. tota 12, alæ 5·80, caudæ 4'20, tarsi 1.58, rostri a rictu 9.5 a fronte 86. Q. Cauda magis brunnea: fascia post oculus cinnamomea: calcari minuto. The structural characters of this bird are decidedly Bambusicoline; but it is related in its colouring to Arboricola. Gould describes the spur of B. sonorivox as blunt; but it is very sharp in this species, and is indicated in the female by a small tubercle. The female is also distinguished from the male by the postorbital band being cinnamon instead of black. I procured this bird from the old rice-clearings on the hill sides of Ponsee, at an elevation of 3000 feet. P BAMBU SICOLA FYTCHII. SUPERSTITIOUS OBSERVANCES. 105 ideas of marriage are specially curious and sugges- tive. Women are esteemed according to their ability to bear children. Before marriage, the utmost liberty is allowed between the sexes. When, however, the woman has become a mother, she soon finds a husband; and henceforth, fidelity to her husband becomes a cardinal virtue. Indeed, unfaithfulness after marriage is generally punished by death. The religion of the Kakhyens is equally primitive. They propitiate spirits, good and bad, under the name of nats. They believe that men are some- times possessed by these spirits. In other words, they are spiritualists; they believe that certain men are endowed with the power of expressing the will of the spirits; and they consult such persons on all occasions of difficulty or danger. Major Sladen had several opportunities of forming a judgment upon these proceedings; for the Kak- hyens invariably consulted the nats, when any doubt arose as regards the expedition. The man supposed to be possessed went away to a corner of the house by himself. He crouched down, and began to work himself into a fury. He shrieked and groaned; stroked his face with both hands; tore his hair in his feigned madness. At last, his legs began to quiver. This was the signal that he was really possessed. From the moment that his - 106 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. legs quiver, his utterances are regarded as those of nats and demons. Major Sladen was told to offer a propitiation. He tried to get off by the payment of fifteen rupees. The money was laid on a new cloth, and presented, on a platter of plaintain leaves, to the possessed man. It was rejected by the spirits. A kick from the man possessed, sent the rupees scatter- ing over the floor. Five rupees more were added. The spirits were now propitiated; they proclaimed, through the man possessed, that they regarded the expedition with a favourable eye. Meantime, Major Sladen made a bold stroke, which ultimately insured the success of his expedi- tion. It will be remembered that his main object was to open up the route as far as Yunnan in Western China, that is, as far as the Panthay king- dom, which the Chinese Mahommedans had estab- lished in 1855. This involved the necessity of finding a way, not only through the tracts inhabited by the Kakhyens and Shans, but through the region beyond, which was infested by Chinese freebooters. The Chinese merchants at Bhamo had tried to terrify Major Sladen by stories of the exploits of these Chinese bandits; and especially of one terrible fellow named Li Chên-kuo, alias Li Hsieh-tai. Major Sladen suspected that the Bhamo mer- chants were intriguing with this Li Hsieh-tai to cut him off, or at any rate, to stop his expedition. HOSPITALITY OF GOVERNOR OF MOMEIN. 107 Accordingly he sent scouts with a letter to the Panthay Governor at Têng-yüeh Chou or Momein, the frontier fortress on the western side of Yunnan, to beg the Panthays to clear the route from all these brigands. The result proved satisfactory. At Ponsee, Major Sladen received letters from the Governor of Momein, to the effect, that he had taken the field against the bandits. Subsequently, the news arrived that the stronghold of Li Hsieh-tai had been captured by the Panthays, and that the Shans were overjoyed at their deliverance from this freebooter. From this moment, the expedition was a success. The Shans, who were independent of the King of Burma, sent a deputation to Major Sladen at Ponsee. The new arrivals conducted the expedition safely through the whole of the Shan country as far as Mynela. There Captain Sladen was met by a Panthay escort, which conducted the expedition past the ruined stronghold of Li Hsieh-tai, to the frontier fortress of the Panthays at Momein. Major Sladen was cordially welcomed by Ta- sa-kon the Governor of Momein, and nothing can have exceeded the friendly hospitality with which the mission was treated, both by him, and his people. The three routes by which Momein is approached from Bhamo were surveyed, and the objects for the attainment of which the Mission 108 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 5 had been sent fully accomplished, without a single important mishap. Major Sladen would have gone on to Talifu, the head-quarters of the Panthay Government, but found that there were political and other difficulties in the way; and from the circum- stances described by him, there can be no doubt he was right in not proceeding beyond Momein. It would doubtless have been interesting at the time, from some points of view, had the party suc- ceeded in reaching Talifu but the Panthay authori- ties, whom Major Sladen met at Momein, were of sufficient importance and position to render their views and opinions a safe criterion of the feeling of the Panthay Government. It was evident that on their part there existed a strong desire for the resuscitation of the trade. The long residence of the party among the Kakhyens, and in the Shan States, was productive of the best results. Apart from some local jealousies-caused by a wish to secure for themselves the advantages of having the route through their individual territories -it appeared that the Shan Chiefs were fully alive to the gain to them of the renewal of trade; while the Kakhyens seemed to have realised the peaceful character of the mission, and the profitable future they would secure, if the route was re-established. Even the physical difficulties of the route proved by no means great, and could be materially modified, RETURN OF THE MISSION. 109 whenever considered advisable to do so, by local labour which was only too anxious to be employed. The mission stayed at Momein from the 28th May until the 13th July, on which latter date they set out on their return to Bhamo, which they reached on 5th September following. Their return journey was quite an ovation, Kakhyens and Shans vying with each other in showing them hospitality. If two routes led to the same place, one Tsanbwa* or Pomaing (chiefs of clans) would almost quarrel with another for the honour of getting them to visit any particular village, or give any particular route pre- ference over others. Thirty-one Kakhyen chiefs, with some two hundred followers accompanied the mission to Bhamo, and there, according to national custom, bound themselves by an oath to protect and afford safe-conduct to all traders and travellers cross- ing their respective hill ranges. The taking of the oath is accompanied by peculiar savage solemnities, and is thus described by Major Sladen: “For each buffalo slaughtered a separate building is constructed, consisting of strong posts sunk into the ground, with cross pieces to which the animal is tied previous to sacrifice. "A separate altar is also prepared, twenty feet in * Tsanbwa is a Burmese version of the Shan title Chau-phra meaning Lord- ruler. Pomaing is also a Shan word, signifying Father-noble. IIO BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. height, with a platform of bamboos some four feet square, on which the sacrifice is offered. Kakhyen deities of every degree and denomination are invited to attend and bear evidence to the rite about to be solemnized or oath taken. "The invocation is repeated twice; once before slaughter, and again previous to laying the meat- offering on the altar. It is performed by a special office bearer, whose prayerful intonation is strangely musical and suggestive of portions of our own Cathedral service. The animal to be slaughtered is firmly bound by its horn to the wooden construc- tion before mentioned, and then thrown on one side. The whole weight and strain of the body is on the neck, which is partially twisted. There is not a moment's delay: a Kakhyen, specially equipped for the service, holding a plantain-leaf cup of sacred water in one hand and a naked sword in the other, rushes forward. The water is thrown over the sacrifice, while the sharp edge of the sword is brought down with frightful effect on that portion of the neck where the strain is greatest: the result is complete. The savagery of the whole scene is somewhat atoned for by an absence of torture or suffering, from which the animal is saved by its almost instantaneous death. "The carcase is cut up without loss of time, and the portion of it alone to which the deities are KAKHYEN OATH. III known, by Kakhyen experience, to be partial, are cooked and laid on the altar to be feasted on by the gods. This is the time, while the deities are being propitiated with the semblance of a feast, that they are called upon to witness the oath to which the whole ceremony leads up. "A small quantity of the blood of the slaughtered animal has been caught, and is now mixed in a large vessel with an abundant supply of raw native spirits. The whole is stirred up with the points of swords and spears, which are dipped into the liquor; and each chief, as he comes up in the supposed presence of the attendant deities and takes his draught from the sacred bowl, swears his oath of fidelity in muttered prayers which imply the most fearful results as a certain consequence of infidelity. "The dipping of the spears and swords in the liquor in which the oath is drank is said to be typical of the violent death which would of a certainty be incurred by a departure from the en- gagements contained in the oath.” Such is the story of the first expedition from Burma to Western China. It has led to much controversy, which I believe has chiefly risen through misconception. It was followed some years after by another expedition, which was accompanied by sorrow and disaster, and nearly drifted the British government into a war with China. I feel, II2 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. therefore, that the moment has arrived for making an exposition of the policy by which I was actuated in planning the first expedition, and which I con- tinued to pursue after the return of the expedition, down to the close of my Administration. The expedition of 1868 had no political object. The leader of the expedition was cautioned to be guarded in allowing the Panthays even to suppose that we had any political aim; or that he was authorized to entertain any propositions of a nature other than commercial. It was undertaken for the purpose of acquiring full information respecting the physical condition of the several trade routes leading from Burma to Yunnan, and how far these might be ameliorated; the causes which had brought about the cessation of the trade since 1855; the exact position held by the different tribes who inhabited the intervening country with reference to that traffic; and the possibility, or otherwise, of re-opening the trade under existing circumstances. The whole of this information was obtained, and the official narrative of Major Sladen of the pro- ceedings of the mission furnishes the fullest possible details. Nothing is wanting therein in the way of information and explanation. I must at the same time do justice to the tact and gallantry which Major Sladen displayed under various trying circumstances. Occasional misgivings are expressed at different THE PANTHAY REBELLION. 113 parts of his journal; but no trace of them is to be seen in his actions at any time throughout the expedition. Above all, I have always admired the readiness of his resources in overcoming obstacles purposely placed in his way. If Major Sladen erred in any way, it was in taking a too favourable view of the strength of the Panthay rebellion, and in intimating to the governor of Momein that the friendly state of our relations with the Court of Pekin might be utilized in bringing about a reconciliation of contending interests in Yunnan.* This, by the proverbial sanguine oriental temperament, may, possibly, have been interpreted to mean really more than was intended. But in all this, as in everything else, Major Sladen acted in perfect good faith. He was urged on by a generous and chivalrous enthusiasm. He saw the Chinese Mahommedans engaged in a resolute and conscientious struggle against the oppressive gov- ernment of the Mandarins. His sympathies were powerfully enlisted in the Panthay cause. He believed that the establishment of the independence of the Panthay Sultan, as a friendly power, would prove most advantageous to the British Government. It would solve the great problem of the time, namely, the re-opening of the old trade into Western China, under the most favourable auspices. * See p. lxvii, of Appendix to Major Sladen's Official Report. VOL. II. I 114 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. It is due to Major Sladen to say, that this policy was perfectly consistent with the role afterwards adopted by the British Government, in dealing with another rebel prince on the side of Western China, namely, Yacoob Beg, the Sultan of Kashgar. How far such proceedings were in accordance with our treaty relations with China is a matter which I leave others to decide; I have only to discuss the nature of our relations with the Panthay Sultan of Yunnan. I was afraid lest political complications might arise from an early stage of the proceedings; and I did my best to guard against them. After Major Sladen's return, I sent suitable presents and ac- knowledgments to Ta-sa-kon; for I fully appre- ciated the help which he had afforded to the Expedition, and the hospitality and kindness with which he had received and entertained Major Sladen and his party. But I took care to explain to him at the same time that the British Govern- ment was in treaty alliance with China, and that I could not help him either with arms or men in the Panthay war of independence. All this was per- fectly understood between us, and matters remained on this friendly and personal footing until I left the province in 1871. On the return of the Mission from Momein- with a view to strengthen the belief in the reality INCREASE OF TRADE. 115 of our own intentions to endeavour to resuscitate trade, and to maintain communication with the Kakhyen and Shan chiefs, and the Panthay Govern- ment,—an English political agent was at once ap- pointed to Bhamo; which contingency had been provided for in my Treaty of 1867 with the King of Burma. - During 1868-69, the year immediately following this treaty, the customs collection on the trade of the Port of Rangoon increased more than fifty per cent., and the one per cent. duty, leviable under this treaty on all goods declared for export to Upper Burma and overland to China, upwards of one thousand per cent., over that of the preceding year. Owing to this vast increase of trade, I was enabled in 1869 to enter into a contract with an English Steam Company, for a small subsidy, to despatch a steamer weekly to Mandalay, and one once a month to Bhamo; and matters had only to be left alone for trade to further develop itself. I need not dwell upon the sequel. In 1872 an embassy headed by Hussan, the son of the Sultan of Yunnan, as he was styled, arrived at Rangoon. Help was wanted against the Chinese. The embassy* was very favourably received both at * A Burmese embassy also left for England about the same time, which was somewhat snubbed, as compared with the reception of the Panthay one, The positions of the two embassies, however, were, very properly, entirely reversed on their arrival in England. I 2 116 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Rangoon and Calcutta, and sent on to England ;— but there its status was fully understood, and at once shewn to be false. The news of Hussan's embassy having proceeded to England was carried to China, doubtless with numerous exaggerations, and the Chinese, who were even then pressing the Panthays hard, redoubled their efforts. They concentrated their forces and surrounded Talifu the capital of Yunnan. They took the city by storm and committed unutterable horrors. The Panthay dominion was crushed out with fire and sword. The embers were still smouldering when another Mission of peace and commerce was sent into Western China. Its failure has become a matter of history. The murder* of Mr. Margary is one of the saddest events in the story of Chinese exploration. † * A copy of the letter of apology for the murder of Mr. Margary from the Emperor of China, and credentials of the Envoy Kuo Sung-tao on his Mission to Great Britain, dated October, 1876, is contained in the Appendix. (Appendix F.) + From the experience gained in the first expedition, I believe myself that this second expedition, notwithstanding its questionable opportuneness, would have successfully made good its way across the vast continent of China, if at the outset all the members of the Mission, including Mr. Margary, had kept together, and Colonel Horace Browne, instead of delaying, had pushed steadily on his way from Bhamo, which, I think, by patience and tact might have been safely done. Once in communication with any of the responsible officers of the Chinese Government all petty differences and opposition would have ceased; in the same way as occurred with the former expedition, when Major Sladen had succeeded in placing himself in direct intercourse with the Panthay Governor of Momein. The Mission had certainly not the difficulties to contend with at first as the previous one had, and there appears to me to have been no adequate cause for LORD MAYO APPOINTED VICEROY. 117 To return to the story of my own administration. In the beginning of 1869, shortly after the return of Major Sladen from Momein, there was a change in the government of India. Sir John, the present Lord Lawrence, retired from the Viceroyalty, and was succeeded by the late Lord Mayo. I had, and I have always had, the greatest admiration for the sterling qualities of the famous ruler of the Punjab, who has been generally regarded as the saviour of India. I have always had the utmost respect for the large and varied experiences which he was enabled to bring to bear upon all Indian questions. But his heart was in the Punjab; he never cared much for Burma; he never thoroughly grasped the political relations between British Burma and Upper Burma. He always appeared to be looking at Burma through Punjabi spectacles; to be of opinion that the present King of Burma was a strong potentate like Runjeet Sing. Indeed, in my humble opinion, the province of British Burma, prior to the advent delay, as pony and bullock carriage, porters and guides, had apparently all been prepared beforehand in readiness for the expedition. By pushing on, too, the expedition would probably have anticipated the assembly of the large rabble of young men and boys who fired over the heads of the expedition, and caused its return (see Anderson's "Mandalay to Momein," pp. 430-433). This attack was evidently well understood by the Burmese escort, and could only have been intended as a sham one to induce the return of the Mission; for, after all the heavy firing, said to have continued over a considerable periòd, the only casualties reported in Colonel Browne's numerous party were three men slightly wounded, and those non-combatants. 118 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of Lord Mayo, had never received its full share of attention from the Government of India, since the days of the great Marquis of Dalhousie. Accordingly, on Lord Mayo's arrival in India, I attempted to enlist his sympathies in my own province. I initiated a correspondence with this view, and I venture to reprint it in the present place. It will be interesting to all who are familiar with the life and career of that lamented statesman. It throws a favourable light upon the character of Lord Mayo, and serves and serves at the same time to illustrate the then state of British Burma. "RANGOON, March 10th, 1869. “MY LORD, "I had hoped to have had the pleasure of meeting your lordship on your arrival in Calcutta, and suggested to His Excellency Sir John Lawrence the advisability of my proceeding there for the purpose, but His Excellency was of opinion that having regard to the state of the Burman Court I had better defer my visit, until it should please your Excellency to desire my attendance. I write now, however, to express to your lordship my congratula- tions on your occupation of the office of Governor- General and Viceroy, and to ask of you a favourable consideration for the Administration over which I have the honour to preside. CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD MAYO. 119 "There were matters connected with the present and future condition of the province which I ventured to think might be more satisfactorily represented to your Excellency in person. Some of these will in the course of official correspondence come before your lordship, and will, I trust, go far to interest you in this outlying province. "The peculiar geographical position of British Burma, the characteristics of its people, and its political connection with the empire from which it was obtained, all go to make the province deserving of individual attention. Its system of taxation differs from that of any Administration in the penin- sula, and rated on population its revenue is more than double that provided by any province or pre- sidency. Its isolated position, and the enormous yearly accession of a population coming from the distracted country of the King of Ava, are conditions which affect the consolidation of our rule here, nowhere seen in India proper-while the rapid strides the province has made in material progress under British Government, have forced on us all the anomalies to be seen in the sudden spring of a capable country into extraordinary commercial and producing activity. "British Burma can neither be judged or managed by rule of thumb. The Burmese portion of its inhabi- tants (who are the most numerous and important), 120 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. are prosperous; but they are a sensitive and impulsive nationality, with quick feelings, crafty, fickle, and with little depth of attachment. The hitherto harassed state of their country has de- stroyed-if it ever in historical times existed-any faith in the stability of existing rulers. The use of capital is to them unknown, and in these generations, at least, they will scarcely realise (or at least, will not practically illustrate in this particular) the gain to be derived from the permanency of a strong authority. Apart from its local peculiarities and provincial interest, British Burma has other and strong grounds for attention. It promises to furnish a highway to China, and to me the day does not seem far distant when this question may force itself on Government with extreme urgency. "The extraordinary use of the Western States of America, the hot haste with which the Government are pushing on connection with the western sea- board, and the predominance they have lately advanced in Chinese diplomatic relations with other Courts, all point to a determination on the part of America to secure, if possible, the command of the Chinese market. The present obstacles of difficult communication they are in a fair way of solving, and there will then remain the necessity of adapting their exports to the Chinese requirements. "Will this be possible without running us so close CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD MAYO. 121 as vitally to affect our commercial superiority? Further, will they long stand the commanding position we derive from our opium exports, and the hold we thus have on the Exchange? It is here the question touches India in a tender point. The derangement of our opium revenue means a most serious crisis in Indian finance, and were American interference to affect our sea-borne opium, the routes through this province would become of the highest Imperial importance. In the case of such a contingency, and for collateral reasons, in themselves sufficiently advantageous, I should con- sider it highly prudent on Imperial grounds that we should be in a position to substitute a western ingress to China, for the present seaboard approach, destined to be disproportionately shared, if not entirely absorbed, by America. "If I am right in attributing so much importance to the western through route to China, it should strongly colour our policy towards the Court of Ava; but, to be of avail, it must be deliberately and seriously entertained and firmly carried out. We should, in my opinion, prosecute the exploration of the routes SO as thoroughly to master their capabilities. "There is at present before Government a pro- position for the construction of a railway within our own territories from Rangoon to Prome. It is a I 22 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. self-contained scheme, of commercial and political importance, standing on its own merits irrespective of its prospective extension beyond our frontier, or of the adoption of any other through route to China. "Trusting that sanction may be accorded to this, nothing would more happily inaugurate its com- mencement than the presence of your Excellency; should you find it feasible with the many urgent demands upon your lordship's time to visit this province, I hope your Excellency would find signs of satisfactory progress. Your arrival would afford encouragement to the official classes, and your lordship would realize the vast commercial interests which are yearly extending for the benefit of the State, as well as of those engaged in them. I have the honour to remain, "The Right Hon. the EARL Of Mayo, K.T. "&c., &c., &c." "SIR, "Your lordship's obedient servant, "ALBERT FYTCHE. "SIMLA, April 30, 1869. "In answer to your letter of the 10th March I have to thank you for your congratulations upon my assuming the office of Governor-General of India. "I can assure you that the affairs of the province * CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD MAYO. 123 of British Burma occupy much of my attention, and that I look on the position of that province with the greatest interest. cr "I consider that the rapid advance which the country has made under our government is one of the most satisfactory evidences of the success of British rule in India. "I have already sanctioned with much pleasure your proposal for placing an Agent at Bhamo, and I shall look with much anxiety to the result of his residence at that place. I shall always be glad to hear from you upon the subject of the communi- cation with Western China, but it will be neces- sary to proceed with great care in that matter, lest any precipitancy should destroy or indefinitely delay attempts made in that direction at their outset. "I have not yet received Captain Sladen's report, and regret to hear that the delay has been occa- sioned by that officer's ill health. "The project of a line of railway from Rangoon to Prome has already engaged my attention, and I consider that as British Burma is so far removed from India, uniformity of gauge is not necessary, and that therefore the construction of lines of a lighter and cheaper kind, and of a narrower gauge might with advantage be considered. "I have also, after much consideration, approved 124 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of the plan for encouraging primary education through the medium of the Buddhist monasteries of Burma. I hope that that experiment will be carried out with prudence and vigour, and I shall look with the greatest interest to the result. "I hope I may be able, consistently with the discharge of my other duties, to visit Burma at no very distant date, and I can assure you I look forward to the possibility of such an event with great pleasure. "I am, yours faithfully, "MAYO. "General A. FYTCHE, C.S.I. "&c., &c., &c." "SIMLA, June 11, 1869. II, "MY DEAR GENERAL, "From certain expressions I have observed in some of your letters, and in those of Major Sladen, it occurs to me that it is possible that the views of the officers of your Commission as regards British policy in Burma, do not altogether agree with those entertained by the Government of India. Lest, therefore, there should be the slightest misappre- hension on this most important subject, I think it my duty to inform you that I am wholly opposed to any interference in the affairs of foreign states, that can be by honourable means avoided. The future annexation of Burma, or any of its adjacent states, CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD MAYO. 125 is not an event which I either contemplate or desire; on the contrary, I should view with extreme regret and disapproval any course of action that would impose on the British Government the necessity of occupation, or of assuming, even in a temporary manner, the government of any of the states lying adjacent to the province now in your charge. While firmly but prudently insisting on the maintenance of all treaty obligations, and on the protection of our trade, and avoiding any act that would lower British influence, or compromise British interests, you will understand that it is the desire of the Government of India that the status quo as regards the relations between it and the kingdom of Burma should be strictly maintained. "I am glad to hear that Major Sladen is so much better. I fully recognize the difficult position in which he is placed, and the uncertain character of the people with whom he has to deal. But you must never cease to impress on him the neces- sity of caution in all his proceedings, especially in the delicate matter of the establishment of his new court of extra-territorial jurisdiction. "Though I am anxious that the Agency at Bhamo should be opened at a suitable time, and without any unnecessary delay, I am of opinion that, while any unusual excitement prevails among the Burmese population, it is not desirable that Captain 26 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Strover should proceed to that place, and you should be perfectly satisfied that he can do so without danger, before you authorize his departure for Mandalay. "I am, yours faithfully, "General A. FYTCHE, C.S.I. "&c., &c., &c." "MAYO. "RANGOON, June 29, 1869. "MY LORD, your "I beg to acknowledge the receipt of letter of 11th inst., containing your Excellency's views and wishes on the course to be pursued towards the Court of Ava, and the states lying adjacent to British Burma. "Your Excellency may confidently depend on my carrying out the policy prescribed; in fact, it is the policy that I have pursued from the commence- ment of my taking charge of this province, and which the whole tenor of my correspondence with the Government of India and Lord Lawrence shows. "Burmese character, and the underhand and crooked policy of the Court of Ava is such, that it is best moulded and worked upon by the unmistake- able assumption of firmness, and use of straight- forward language on the part of those who wish to influence them, and we must as your Lordship "T CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD MAYO. 127 remarks-firmly but prudently insist upon the main- tenance of all treaty obligations. The King and his Court are apt to judge us, not so much by our real power, as by our concessions and endurance of wrongs, and our yielding, even in the most trivial matters, is at once looked upon as a sign of weakness. The pressure from the mercantile community at home, as well as in this country, will continue unceasingly until we have free and unrestricted trade, not only with Upper Burma, but what is still of much greater importance, with China, and both of these can be obtained without the danger of an- nexation being thrust upon us, if the terms of the treaty I concluded with the Court of Ava in October, 1867, are carried out in their integrity. "My belief still continues that there need be no fear of collision with the Court of Ava during the present King's lifetime, such as should require us to act hostilely towards him-but a change in the occupant of the throne is a contingency that may not be overlooked. At such a time the amount and duration of the anarchy, and disorganization and stoppage of all trades that will occur in Upper Burma, will depend greatly on the promptitude with which we might use our preponderating influence, and the weight of that influence would tell in a ratio corresponding with the extent to which it had 128 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. previously been acknowledged. The customs col- lection on the trade of the port of Rangoon in- creased during the past year more than fifty per cent., and the one per cent. duty leviable under the treaty on all goods declared for export to Upper Burma and overland to China, upwards of 1,000 per cent. over the preceding one, every prepara- tion should therefore be made and precaution used, that such a valuable and marvellously increasing trade receives no sudden check. Individually, I would assure your lordship of the certain absence. of any desire on my part to push matters to ex- tremities; on the contrary, my natural inclination would be to preserve Upper Burma intact, and on friendly terms as long as possible. I have spent many years of my life amongst the Burmese, and whilst aware of the many defects in their character, I am not blind to many good qualities they possess, and I should be sorry indeed to see their nationality extinguished, although the force of circumstances require them, in their own interests, to yield to our more advanced civilization. “I shall not fail to again press upon Major Sladen the views expressed by your Excellency, and that His Majesty, the King of Burma should be assured of our good faith, and of the friendly disposition of the British Government towards him: "Captain Strover is still at Rangoon, of which he ADDRESS FROM INHABITANTS OF RANGOON. 129 is Town Magistrate, and he will not proceed to Bhamo until I am assured that no danger will result from his doing so. "I am your lordship's obedient servant, "ALBERT FYTCHE. "The Right Hon. the Earl of Mayo, K.T., "&c.. &c., &c." In the latter part of 1869 I had the opportunity long desired of discussing the affairs of Burma personally with Lord Mayo. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh was paying a visit to India; and the heads of the several local govern- ments were entertained for some weeks at the Government House at Calcutta. Under these circumstances I had many conversations with Lord Mayo, sufficient to impress me deeply with his powers as a statesman, and his capacity as Viceroy. I recall with much pleasure the thought- ful interest he took in all matters connected with a Burma ; and his great social qualities and urbanity as a host. Death allows a survivor to pay a tribute to departed greatness, without the risk of a charge of adulation. On one occasion I had the honour of presenting an address to his lordship from the European community in Burma. I append his Excellency's reply:- VOL. II. K • 130 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. "CALCUTTA, 7th January, 1870. “GENTLEMEN, "I have received with great satisfaction your address of the 11th December, which was presented to me by General Fytche, the Chief Commissioner of British Burma, on his arrival in Calcutta. "The growing prosperity of British Burma is to There is no me an object of special interest. portion of Her Majesty's Indian dominions where the fruits of good government, and the results of British energy and industry, have been so rapidly developed. "I thank you most sincerely for the expression of the desire that I should visit British Burma, and can assure you that on the earliest occasion that public duty will permit, I shall not fail to comply with the wish that is conveyed to me in your address. "MAYO." A melancholy interest appertains to this docu- ment. It was the first announcement of a visit, which was delayed until after my departure from Burma, and had such a melancholy ending. I need say no more. The sad death of Lord Mayo at the Andamans will never be forgotten by the present generation. Besides the treaty concluded with the King of MY ADMINISTRATION OF BRITISH BURMA. 131 Burma, and the despatch of the Mission to Western China, there were other important measures carried out during my Administration. A mixed Court of Civil Justice was established at Mandalay, for the trial of cases in which British and Burmese subjects were both concerned. A railway was proposed and planned between Rangoon and Prome. The country was surveyed, but the rails were not laid down until after I had left the province. Embankments were constructed, and large tracts of swamp and marsh were thereby converted into culturable territory which brings forth teeming harvests. Three new light-houses were also constructed under the able superintendence of Colonel Alexander Fraser, C.B., of the Royal Engineers. Jails and Civil Courts were constructed at every important station in British Burma, in lieu of the miserable huts which had been previously used for such purposes. The trade and revenues of the province largely increased. One of the subjects which I was much interested in was the education of the rising genera tion of native Burmese. The measures carried out in this direction are closely associated with the Buddhist religion. I will therefore deal with it in the next chapter. I might dwell upon many other matters; but as an official memorandum on my Administration of K 2 132 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. * British Burma is entered in the Appendix for the perusal of those who may feel interested in this matter, I will avoid laying myself open to a possible charge of egotism by pursuing the subject further. I trust I may be pardoned, however, for quoting here some extracts from a speech delivered by me just before leaving Rangoon, in which I endea- voured to sum up the work accomplished during my administration :- "It will perhaps be expected from me on the present occasion, to glance very briefly at the chief measures of my administration throughout the last four years, during which I have been Chief Com- missioner. "When I first took charge of this province in the early part of 1867, British Burma had made great progress under my predecessor Sir A. Phayre. Pegu had enormously increased in wealth and population under British rule, and Rangoon had been converted from a swampy village into a large commercial city. But still much remained to be done then, and I am sorry to say that there is still much to be done now. The King of Burma had just refused to conclude a treaty. No steamers had reached Bhamo, and only four merchant steamers had visited Mandalay. Our trade beyond the * Appendix G. SPEECH AT A PUBLIC DINNER. 133 frontier was almost nil. The province was without roads, and the idea of a railway had scarcely been ventilated. The officers of the commission were worse paid than in any province of India, although expense of living here was far higher. "The police were also ill paid, and were conse- quently untrustworthy and inefficient. The gaols and civil courts were mere huts, whilst the public offices at Rangoon were in embryo. "If I now venture to notice the progress which has been made during the last four years, I must, in the first instance, express my best thanks to the officers of the Commission, by whom I have been most ably served, and without whose cordial assist- ance I could have achieved but little. I beg specially to notice the services of the Commissioners of Divisions, Colonels Ardagh, Brown, Stevenson and Ryan, those of my late and present secretaries, and the officers of the Commission and Police generally ; of the latter I must not omit to mention the names of Majors Duncan and Hamilton, and Mr. Doyle. "In the first year of my administration I con- cluded a treaty with the King of Burma which has led to a large increase of trade, and established our relations with the Court of Ava on a friendly footing. An expedition has been sent under Major Sladen, which has penetrated far beyond Bhamo to the borders of China; and a new trade is springing 134 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. up, which, I trust, in the course of a few years, will carry British manufactures to Yunan, whilst bringing down the commodities of Western China to Rangoon. We are now in weekly steam com- munication with Mandalay, monthly communication with Bhamo, and the voyage to Bhamo is no longer an expedition of danger, but a pleasant holiday trip. "A complete system of imperial roads has been planned, and are in course of construction, and a line of railway has been surveyed between Rangoon and Prome. On my recommendation the pay of the officers of the Commission has been raised to the rates which prevail in other provinces. Our police have received higher salaries in the lower grades, and I am happy to say that during the last year there has been a decrease throughout the province of 27 per cent. in violent crime. New gaols and civil courts have been constructed at every important station, and the public offices on the Strand are an ornament to Rangoon. "Three more new light-houses have been con- structed under the able superintendence of Colonel Fraser at the Krishna Shoal, China Bukheer, and Eastern-grove; and in mentioning Colonel Fraser's name, I have to thank him for the great support and zealous assistance he has rendered me on every occasion, and to congratulate him on the completion. SPEECH AT A PUBLIC DINNER. (6 of that magnificent series of light-houses which protect the commerce of our coasts, as well as the other works which he has either completed or are already in progress. "A scheme for the general education of native school-masters and school-mistresses, is in course of establishment at Rangoon. I There are, however, two objects to which I have specially given my attention, and which I trust will ever be borne in mind by my successors. allude to the encouragement of immigration, and the reclamation of culturable land. The crying want of British Burma is population, and I have lost no opportunity to encourage immigration. At the same time large tracts of culturable land have been re- claimed from encroachment of rivers by a system of embankments, which I am glad to say have effected the object in view. 135 "But I need not weary you, gentlemen, with further details. I cannot, however, avoid thanking the important and growing non-official community of this province for the cordial support I have received on all occasions, and for the enlightened public opinion with which I have been favoured. If I have failed in any respect, it may be remembered that all of us are fallible, but I hope and trust that I have always endeavoured to do my duty to the best of my power. In conclusion, I beg to thank you, ÷ 136 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. one and all, for the honour you have done me on the present occasion. Whether I return to Burma or otherwise, I shall always rejoice to hear of its prosperity, and treasure up pleasant memories of the country and its people, and of the many friends who honour me on this present occasion, as well as of those who may be absent from a variety of causes, and I would fain express the hope that long after I am personally forgotten, the memory of my administration may not have wholly passed away.' CHAPTER IV. BUDDHISM AND EDUCATION IN BURMA. Shamanism the ancient religion of Burma.-Adoration of nats and other spirits.-Three religions preceded Buddhism in India.—Buddhism a wide- spread religion.-Propagated by persuasion alone. -The Buddhas previous to Gautama.-The Jātaka fables.-Birth and parentage of Gautama. His miraculous conception.-Education of Gautama.-Gautama's four visions. He deserts his palace and assumes the garb of an ascetic.—His trials and temptations in the wilderness.-He becomes a Buddha.-The sacred Bó-tree.-Gautama proceeds towards Benares to preach his doctrine.—He visits his father.—Attempts on his life.—Punishment of Déwadat.-Gautama's death. His funeral.-Gautama's relics.-The Shwé-dagon pagoda at Rangoon.-The three Synods.-The Pitakatayan or Buddhist scriptures.-Powers of memory of Buddhist priests.—Two Buddhist missionaries arrive at Thatún. - Buddhagosa. — Talaings re- ceived their religion and alphabet from Ceylon.—The Burmese from the Talaings.-Karma and Nirvâna described.-Buddhism and Brahmanism compared.-Dāna or alms-giving.-Purity of Buddhist ethics.—Singular analogy of Buddhistic rites and observances to those of Romish Christi- anity.-Early Roman Catholic missionaries in the East.-Their opinions regarding Buddhism.-Buddhism existent in the western world previous to the birth of our Saviour.-Gautama a saint in the Roman calendar. —Phongyees.—Rules of the Order. -The Novitiate.-Ordination.— Celibacy. Diet.-The Habit.-The Order of Nuns.-Funerals. Monasteries.-Education in Burma.-Monastic and lay schools. -System of education lately adopted by the British Government.-Difficulties regarding it. How overcome.-Success of the system. M DURING the progress of this work, I have attempted to give brief accounts of the politics, literature, art, and customs, and habits of the people of Burma. Properly to appreciate and understand a people, however, it is necessary to have, at least, some 138 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. knowledge of the religion they profess. I purpose, therefore, if it be but for ready reference, to give here a short description of Buddhism *—the old moral,and humanizing doctrine of the Ascetic of Kapilavastu. In ancient times, the religion of the people of Burma was Shamanism; in common with the great Nomadic races of High Asia, of which they are an offset. This debased system of spirit worship has been superseded by Buddhism; but it still lingers in the land, in the form of adoration and dread of nats or déwas, which order of beings * In the brief sketch of Buddhism given in this chapter, I have selected many of my arguments and leading points from Bigandet's "Legends of Gautama; " Hardy's "Eastern Monachism," and "Legends and Theories of the Buddhists; "Buddhism" by Rhys Davids; Wassilief's "Der Budd- hismus ; Max Müller's "Chips; Chips;" "Journal Asiatique," Mohl, 1856; and other eminent authorities on the subject. "" "" + The term nat is no doubt synonymous with Marco Polo's Natigay. In speaking of the religion of the Tatars he says:-"This is the fashion of their religion. They say there is a Most High God of Heaven, whom they worship daily with thurible and incense, but they pray to Him only for health of mind or body. But they have a certain other god of theirs called Natigay, and they say he is the god of the earth, who watches over their children, cattle, and crops. They show him great worship and honour, and every man hath a figure of him in his house, made of felt and cloth; and they make, also, in the same manner images of his wife and children." This account agrees generally with what we are told, too, of the original Shamanism of the Tunguses, which recognizes a Supreme Power over all, and a small number of potent spirits called Ongot. —Yule's “Marco Polo,” v. ii., pp. 224-25. The figures of Natigay, as illustrated in Yule's work, resemble in a remark- able degree the nats which are to be seen in Burma, carved in wood. Sir Arthur Phayre, who is intimately acquainted with all that relates to Buddhism, remarks in a note on nats as follows:-"The modern Burmese acknowledge the existence of certain beings, which, for want of a better term, we call 'almost spiritual beings.' They apply to them the term nat. Now according to Burmese notions, there are two distinct bodies or systems of these creatures. The one is a regularly constituted company, if I may say so, of which Thagya-Meng is the chief. Most undoubtedly that body of nat was ADORATION OF NATS. 139 have been adopted into the Buddhist system, and play a conspicuous part in the affairs of this world. This worship, though in opposition with the more exalted and purer doctrines of primitive Buddhism, is nevertheless, countenanced by the Buddhist priest- hood, and a large portion of the worship of the Burmese, from the highest to the lowest ranks, consists in the performance of superstitious cere- monies, and offerings made for propitiating evil nats, and obtaining favours and temporal advan- tages from good ones. The habitations of these nats are situated in the unknown to the Burmese until they become Buddhists. Those are the real déwa or déwata. "But the other set of nats are the creatures of the indigenous system, existing among all the wild tribes bordering Burma. The acknowledgment of those beings constitutes their only worship. On these grounds, I consider that the Burmese acknowledged and worshipped such beings, before they were con- verted to Buddhism. I mean "Now if they acknowledged such beings, they, no doubt, had a name for them, similar in general import to the 'fairy,' 'elf,' and so on, among the inhabitants of Britain, for beings of a quasi-spiritual nature. I may observe there is a complete analogy in the state of Burmese belief in the existence of such beings, and that which prevailed formerly in Europe, and some remnants of which may be found even now existing among the uneducated. that before the Anglo-Saxon tribes were converted to Christianity, the belief in fairies and elves was universal. With Christianity came a belief in a different order of spiritual beings, and with that a new name, derived from the Latin-angel. This is somewhat analogous to the state of things among the Burmese before and after their conversion to Buddhism. "But to return to the Burmese. They, when they received Buddhism, appear to have generally retained their vernacular name for the beings called in Pali, déwa. Why this should be done is certainly not apparent. Why have the English and all the Teutonic nations retained the ancient names Evil and Spirits, though they adopted with Christianity a new term for good spirits. generally? I allude to the term devil, which, there is no doubt, is philo- logically connected with that Pali word déwa or déva." ! 140 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. six lower heavens beyond the moon, rising in suc- cession one above the other, and which, together with the abode of man, and the four states of punishment, form the eleven seats of the passions.* Nats are endowed with forms of such ethereal nature, as to be able to transport themselves with the utmost rapidity to our sublunary world; and every mountain, tree, town, village, or other object of importance, is supposed to be under the protection of, and presided over by one of them. The Burmese also believe that there are spirits peculiar to our * "In the Buddhist system there are thirty-one seats or abodes assigned to all beings, which are disposed on an immense scale, extending from the bottom of the earth to an incommensurable height above it. At the foot we find the four states of punishment. Next comes the abode of man; above it are the six seats of nats. These eleven seats are called the seats of passion, or con- cupiscence, because the beings residing therein are still subject to the influence of passion, though not to an equal degree. "Above the abodes of nats are sixteen seats, called Rupa, disposed perpen- dicularly one above the other to an incalculable height. The inhabitants of those regions are called Brahmas, or perfect. They have freed themselves from concupiscence, and almost all other passions, but still retain some affection for matter and material things. Hence the denomination of Rupa, or matter, given to these seats. The remaining portion of the scale is occupied by the four seats called Arupa, or immaterials, for the beings inhabiting them are entirely delivered from all passions. They have, as it were, broken asunder even the smallest ties that would attach them to this material world. They have reached the summit of perfection; one step farther, and they enter into the state of Niebban or Nirvâna, the consummation, according to Buddhists, of all perfection. To sum up all the above in a few words,—there are four states of punishment. The seat of man is a place of probation and trial; the six abodes of nats are places of sensual pleasures and enjoyments. In the sixteen seats of Rupa are to be met those beings whose delights are of a more refined and almost purely spiritual nature, though retaining as yet some slight affection for matter. In the four seats of Arupa are located those beings who are wholly disentangled from material affections, who delight but in the sublimest contemplation, soaring, as it were, in the boundless regions of pure spiritualism."-Bigandet, p. 5. ANCIENT RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 141 earth, such as beloos, witches, with powers similar to those of medieval Europe, and priethas. The beloo is an ogre who haunts forests and solitary places, and feeds on human flesh. It has the face of a man with eyes of a deep red hue, and body of so subtle a nature as not to project a shadow. The prietha is a being in a state of punishment on account of sins committed in former existences, and is doomed to live in the recesses of uninhabited mountains, smarting under the pangs of unsatiated hunger. Its body, and particularly its stomach, is of gigantic dimensions, whilst its mouth is so small, that the point of a needle can scarcely enter it. A remnant of tree worship exists in the veneration bestowed on the Bó-tree (ficus religiosa), which will be remarked upon hereafter. We know that at least three religions preceded Buddhism in India: the wild devil-worship of the Aborigines, the religion of the Aryan invaders as represented in the Vedic hymns, and Brahminism, with its distinctive features of priestly mediation, caste, and pantheism.* In fact, Buddhism has been described "as little more than a revival of the coarser descriptions of the aboriginal races, purified and refined by the application of Aryan morality, and elevated by doctrines borrowed from the intel- lectual superiority of the Aryan races." "As a part * "Fairburn's Studies," p. 130. 142 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. of the reform which Gautama introduced, ancestral worship was abolished, and the sepulchral tumulus became the depository of relics of saints. Serpent worship was repressed, and its sister faith of tree worship elevated to the first rank." * Buddhism is the most wide-spread religion now existing on the earth, and one which in its various branches, according to statistical tables lately published by Mr. Rhys Davids, holds beneath its sway the minds of 500,000,000 of human beings, or forty per cent. of the estimated population of the world. "The yellow robe has never been covered by a coat of mail, nor the voice of Sramana been heard amongst the din of battle." During an exist- ence of nearly 2500 years, the doctrines of Gautama have been propagated by persuasion alone, and "though Buddhists themselves have been frequently persecuted even to destruction, no instance is on record of a religious war having been waged by them, or an attempt made to spread their faith by force in any part of the world.” † Previous to the time of Gautama, the founder of the present Buddhist system, twenty-four Buddhas are said to have appeared, twenty of whom made their appearance in different previous successive worlds, and four during the present world; of + Ibid., p. 63. *Fergusson's "Tree and Serpent Worship," p. 62. The duration of a revolution of nature, or the time required for the forma- tion of a world, its existence and destruction, is divided into four periods. The BUDDHAS PREVIOUS TO GAUTAMA. 143 these latter Gautama was the last Buddha. There is still one more Buddha to appear, Aramăitrīya, the Buddha of kindness, who will again "open the door of Niebban to man," and he closes the present dispensation. Gautama is thus represented to be only one of a long series of Buddhas that have appeared at intervals on the earth. Such Buddhas, indeed, may be said to have been known from the very beginning of things, only, in the Buddhist imagination, there is no beginning and no ending. The details of their teaching and lives strongly resemble those of the last Buddha, and as Orientals are great adepts at dovetailing the past with repetitions of the present -mapping out its eternity, as it were, into vast cycles, strongly resembling the present one-the tradition of their former legendary Buddhas may possibly have been invented since Gautama's time, with the intention of giving more extension fourth period, or that which begins with the apparition of man on the earth, until its destruction, is divided into sixty-four parts, called Antrakaps. During one Antrakap, the life of man increases gradually from ten years to an almost innumerable number of years; having reached its maximum of duration, it We live at present decreases slowly to its former short duration of ten years. in that second part of an Antrakap when the life of man is on the decline and decrease. Matter is eternal; but its organization, and all the changes attending it, are Both matter and the caused and regulated by certain laws co-eternal with it. laws that act upon it are self-existing, independent from the action and control of any being. As soon as a system of worlds is constituted, Buddhists boldly assert and perseveringly maintain that the laws of Karma, or those of merits and demerits, are the sole agents that regulate and control both the physical and moral world.-See Bigandet, p. 22. • BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 144 and solidity to the basis whereupon his system is founded. The religion of Gautama is to last 5000 years, of which 2420 have now elapsed. Buddhas appear after long intervals of time. Gautama, before at- taining to the state of a Buddha, passed through 550* * different phases of existence, at one time re- * The history of these 550 separate existences (called by the Burmese dzats) is contained in the Jātaka, the tenth division of the Sutta Pitaka, or second book of the sacred canon of the Buddhists. They form a valuable corpus fabularum, or compilation of folk-lore current in the East in ancient times. Many of the stories are substantially the same as those to be found in Æsop and Phædrus, whose fables strongly resemble Oriental rather than original Greek compositions. Their tales, too, are imbued with Asiatic manners and customs, and the animals mentioned in them, such as monkeys and peacocks, &c., are only found in Eastern countries. We may therefore infer that the fables found under their names, if not taken from the Jātaka, have at least an Eastern origin, and found their way to Europe, first amongst the Greeks, and next reached the Western nations through La Fontaine and others. The Jātaka stories, however, were not retailed at convivial parties, as is said by Aristophanes to have been customary with the "drolleries of Æsop" (Alowπikà yeλoîa); but are supposed to have been narrated by Gautama himself to his disciples, and others, in order to make them acquainted with the events that happened to him when he was passing through the different phases of metempsychosis. Almost all of them end in showing that the personage who played the most important and praiseworthy rôle was Gautama himself, and those who befriended or assisted him were now his most favourite disciples and hearers, whilst those who had opposed him were the heretics and unbe- lievers of that day, particularly the wicked Déwadat. My readers will recognise the following story taken from the Jātaka. On one occasion, when Gautama was speaking to his disciples regarding the conduct of Déwadat, he said, "Once when I was a stork, he was a lion. In his haste to eat, a bone stuck in his throat. He implored my assistance, and, with my long neck and beak, I took the bone from his throat. When I asked him for the reward he had promised me for the service, he answered it was quite enough that he had allowed me to withdraw my head safe from his gullet." The "Thousand And One Nights," commonly called "The Arabian Nights' Entertainments," which are such favourite stories in Europe, are also of Indian origin, written in Sanskrit, and afterwards translated into Persian and then into Arabic. They are called in Sanskrit, Vrihatkathâ. GAUTAMA'S FORMER EXISTENCES. 145 ceiving birth as a nat, at others, that of a bird or other animal,* gradually accumulating at each birth a greater degree of merit, and gravitating towards the centre of matchless perfection. In the birth in which they become Buddha, they are always of woman born, and pass through infancy and youth like ordinary beings, until at a prescribed age they abandon the world and retire to the wilderness, where, after a course of ascetic observance, at the foot of a tree they receive the supernatural powers with which the office is endowed. But their greatest distinction and highest glory is, that they receive the wisdom by which they can direct sentient beings to the path that leads to Niebban or Nir- wâna, the cessation of existence.† + Gautama is said to have been born on a Tues- day, the day of the full moon of the month of May, in the year answering to 623 B.C., § and was the * According to Buddhistic notions, animals are beings in a state of punish- ment, differing from man, not in nature, but in merits. They are supposed to possess reason to a certain extent. + "Monachism,” p. v. Gautama is the name by which the last Buddha is usually known to southern Buddhists, and that of Sakya-Muni, the Sakya Sage, to northern Buddhists. He has other names, but they are, properly speaking, titles, such as Siddârtha, said to have been given to him five days after his birth, and meaning he whose objects have been accomplished; Sākya-Singha, the lion of the Sākya tribe; Loka-nātha, the Lord of the world; Dharma-raja, the King of righteousness; Jina, the conqueror; Suttha, the teacher, &c. The southern Buddhists are inhabitants of Burma, Ceylon, Siam, and Anam ; and the northern of China, Japan, Tibet, and Nepaul. The sacred books of the former are written in Pali, and the latter in Sanskrit. The works in Pali are considered the most reliable and complete. § The Chinese give the year 1029 B.C. as the date of the birth of Gautama, VOL. II. L 146 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. son of Saddhódana, chief of the tribe of Sākyas, and King of Kapilavastu,* or Kapilawot, a small principality situated on the banks of the river Rohini, the modern Kohāna, about a hundred miles north- east of Benares. His mother was Mâiya, daugher of Suprabuddha, chief of the neighbouring and kindred tribe of Kolyans. Both tribes were of pure Aryan race, and branches of the Suryavansi, or line of the Sun. Many stories are told of the miraculous and mystical conception and birth of Gautama, and also of his precocious wisdom. His mother, who had lived to the age of 57 years without bearing a child, after seven days of fasting, dreams† she is conveyed and the year 951 B.C. for that of his death; but they admit that the religion was not introduced into China until 1000 years later. De Guignes, Klaproth, and Sir William Jones adopt from the Chinese nearly similar dates for these events. A comparison of many epochs, however, has established in India the date 628 B. C. for the year of the birth of Gautama; and 543 B.C. for that of his decease. This difference of some 400 years has led some to believe the Chinese era refers to an anterior Buddha. Correct dates are so far important, as the extraordinary similitude in many parts of the Buddhist doctrine, and of the books, and rituals, and forms, and institutions of this religion, with those of Romish Christianity, which was remarked by the Jesuits who visited Tibet in the seventeeth century, and even by Father Rubruquis in the thirteenth, might lead to the belief that they had been borrowed entirely from this latter, if the chain of evidence that established their greater antiquity were less complete.-Princep's "Tibet, Tatary, and Mongolia," p. 145. * The village of Nagara has been identified by General Cunningham with Kapilavastu, and Gautama is still the name of the Rajput Chief.-Cunningham's "Ancient Geography of India," vol. i., p. 417. men. In the East, miracles are generally made to precede the birth of remarkable The life of Daghda, the mother of Zoroaster, the founder of the religion of the Parsees, is said to have been so spotless as to attract the favour of the Deity, who foretold to her the greatness of Zoroaster while yet in the womb, through the medium of dreams; and the birth was attended with many miracu- MAIYA'S DREAM. 147 on her couch by four nat princes to their heavenly abode, and placed in a grotto on a mountain slope. While there she sees the future Buddha in the form of a beautiful white elephant* descending from the side of an opposite hill, who enters the cave, and after walking three times round her couch, opens her right side, and conceals himself in her womb. On her relating this dream to her husband, sixty- four learned Brahmans are sent for to expound it. - lous circumstances, calculated to make the persons who saw it adopt and spread the belief in the divine mission of the new-born infant. Many of these miracles have found their way into classical writings, and Pliny mentions that Zoroaster laughed on the day on which he was born, and that his brain palpitated so violently as to repel the hand when placed upon it. The life of the Persian prophet was nearly co-etaneous with that of Gautama. He was born 589 B.C., and died 513 B. C.-See "Hist. Nat." vii. c. xvi.; H. Lord's "Account of the Parsees in India," c. iii. Grote, in his "History of Greece," vol. iii., p. 85, says "that the century between 620 and 500 B.C. appears to have been remarkable for the first diffu- sion and potent influence of distinct religious brotherhoods, mystic rites, and expiatory ceremonies, none of which find any recognition in the Homeric epic." This was the age of Gautama and Zoroaster. The Greeks were generally free from the ascetic element, with one exception. It is said that Lycurgus in his wanderings, penetrated as far as India; and there are many points of resem- blance between the precepts promulgated by Gautama and the laws of the Spartans. "The submission of the young was strictly enforced in the code of the Spartan legislator, and great respect was paid to the aged; there was a community of property; nearly all distinctions of rank were abolished; the education, dress, and food of all classes were the same; the diet was of the simplest kind; the use of gold and silver was forbidden; and all were taught to endure the greatest hardships unmoved. The young were set free from the restrictions under which they had previously laboured when twenty years of age, the same age at which the Sramana novice was admitted to ordination. But the Spartan annihilated self that he might become a patriot; the Budd- hist ascetic, that he might become non-existent."—"The Voice of the Past," R. S. Hardy, p. 353. * This form is said to have been deliberately chosen by the future Buddha, because it was the form indicated by an angel who had in a previous birth been one of the Rishis, the mythical poets of the Rig Veda !-Foucaux, p. 52. L 2 148 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Their interpretation is, that the Queen will bear a son who will live among men, and become a Cha- kawati, or mighty ruler, whose sway all the human race will acknowledge; or, withdrawing from the world, he will become a recluse, and in that condi- tion, after disentangling himself from the miseries of existence, will become a Buddha, and remove the veils of ignorance and sin from the world. A holy man, like Simeon, also bears witness to the child's divine mission, and laments that age will prevent his hearing his doctrine. At the conception, or the moment Gautama, or the Phura-loung, entered Mâiya's womb, a great commotion is said to have been felt throughout the four elements-the blind recover their sight, the dumb speak, the lame walk, springs of cool water burst out in many places, rivers suspend their course, all nature rejoices, and even the fires of hell are temporarily extinguished. During her nine months of pregnancy, Mâiya enjoyed a perfect calm and sweetest happiness; fatigue and weariness never affected her; and the child was distinctly visible "sitting cross-legged, unsoiled, and digni- fied," in her womb, which resembled an elegant tsé- dee or dágoba (pagoda).* * Our term pagoda is a corruption of the word dágoba, which is derived from dá, dátu, or dhátu, an osseous relic, and geba, or garbha, the womb. The word tope, a corruption of thúpa, a relic, is not unfrequently used in the same sense.--" Monachism," p. 217. BIRTH OF GAUTAMA. 149 "As a dagoba holding sacred relics cannot be used to guard any less sacred object, so his mother can bear no other child, and on the seventh day after his birth she dies."* When the child is born, he steps forward seven paces on the ground, and facing the east, after looking around towards the four quarters of the globe, exclaims with a loud voice: I am the most exalted in the world; I am Chief of the World; I am the most excellent in the world; this is my last birth; hereafter there is to me no other existence."† CC Gautama was brought up in unrestrained luxury, after the manner of Oriental princes, and everything was done by his father to amuse him; as he was anxious that the first prediction of the Brahmans should come true, and the heir to his throne become CC * Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 185. + "This myth of the conception of Mâiya and the white elephant is probably in some way connected with the older superstition of sun-worship, the white elephant, like the white horse, being an emblem of the sun, the universal monarch of the sky. M. Senart, in his learned work, 'La Légende du Buddha,' has attempted to trace many of these coincidences, and has certainly established enough to show that in this direction an explanation may be found of much that appears at first sight bizarre and unnecessary in our legend of the Buddha. The idea that a man should enter his mother's womb in the form of a white elephant seems a most grotesque folly, until the origin of the poetical figure has been thus ascertained.”—-See Rhys Davids' “Buddhism,” p. 184. It bears a curious resemblance to the myth of Vitzliputzli, the god of mercy, in the religious system of the Mexicans, whose name refers to the sun, and the renovation of the world is ascribed to him. He is said to have been the off- spring of a virgin, who was impregnated by a plume of feathers invested with all the colours of the rainbow, which descended from heaven into her bosom. The rainbow in ancient mysteries is a celebrated symbol, typifying the re- appearance of the sun. 150 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. a great monarch, rather than a recluse. Gautama, however, was naturally of a serious turn of mind, and never so happy as when sitting alone wrapt up in meditation in some retired spot. It was on one of these occasions, in about his sixteenth year, that his father discovered him when he had thought him lost; and in order to divert him from such melan- choly moods, he hastened on his marriage with his first cousin, the beautiful Yasodharâ. - The marriage is said to have proved a happy one —notwithstanding that his old habits continued as- cendant in his mind, and he, often as before, re- mained absorbed in meditation on the problems of life and death. "Nothing is stable on earth," he used to say; nothing is real. Life is like the spark produced by the friction of wood. It is lighted and is extinguished-we know not where it comes or whither it goes. It is like the sound of a lyre, and the wise man asks in vain from whence it comes and whither it goes. There must be some supreme intelligence where we can find rest. If I attained it, I could bring light to man; if I were free myself, I could deliver the world." He continued thus, we are told, until his twenty- ninth year, when the nats, who knew the time was approaching when the Prince would become a Buddha, placed before him four successive visions, namely, that of an old, broken, decrepit man (C GAUTAMA'S FOUR VISIONS. 151 leaning on a staff; a man suffering from a loath- some disease, frightened at the sight of himself, and the approach of death; a corpse green with putridity and the prey of creeping worms; and lastly that of a recluse or religious mendicant, gentle and meek in manner, wearing his religious vestment with dignity, his face glowing with perfect contentment, and out- wardly showing he cared for none of the things of this world. These visions appeared only to the Prince, and his attendant charioteer, Tsanda, who appears to have been specially inspired to explain them. The first three are allegorically a compound of the miseries of human existence; and the last the pattern the Prince was to follow to attain to that state of perfection, regarding which he felt a strong but confused desire of possessing. Gautama, who was surfeited with pleasure and worldly enjoyments, and pining for seclusion and peace of mind, was mightily struck with the appear- ance of the recluse. His determination to follow his example was made at once, and at midnight of the day he had seen the hermit, when all his guards were asleep, he sent his faithful attendant Tsanda for his horse; and accompanied by him rode out from his palace into the forest to become a homeless wanderer. To increase the estimate of his self- denial, it is recorded that just before his departure, he took the first look at his first-born son lying 152 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. in the arms of its sleeping mother, and which had only been born that day. This passage in the life of Gautama is called by Buddhists the Great Renunciation. Gautama rode a long distance that night, and did not stop until he had passed the river Anauma, the bordering stream of his father-in-law's territory, where he divested himself of his royal ornaments, and directed Tsanda to return with them and his horse to Kapilavastu. He then cut off his long hair* with his sword, and exchanging clothes with a passer-by, hurried on alone towards Rajagriha the capital of Magadha. In a cave, in the vicinity of that city, he placed himself under the tuition of two Brahman ascetics, named Alāra and Udraca, and having learnt all they could teach, but not sufficient to enable him to obtain the dignity of Buddha- hood, he resolved to devote himself to a life of penance and meditation. For this purpose he * Gautama is described as cutting off his long hair with his sword, leaving what remained about one and a half inches in length, and which is said never to have grown longer than that during the remainder of his life. All statues of Gautama are represented with short points of hair on the top of the head, in some of which the hair bears a curled or woolly appearance. This, com- bined with other circumstances, led Sir William Jones to form an opinion that the inhabitants of India, previous to its invasion by the Aryan tribes from the north, were of African descent, and that in the sculptured representations of their Sage this characteristic of the Negro race had been preserved. — “Asiatic Researches," vol. i. p. 427. The custom of thus representing the hair, however, may be considered satisfactorily accounted for by the above passage in Gautama's life, and was doubtless designed to remind all Buddhists of the ever continued miracle of the stationary growth of Gautama's hair.-See Bigandet, p. 60. AUSTERITIES PRACTISED BY GAUTAMA. 153 retired to the solitudes of the wilderness near the present Buddha Gayá, where he was joined by five other ascetics. He remained here for some six years practising excessive austerities,* adding vigil to vigil, and penance to penance, till his "fame spread abroad like the sound of a great bell hung in the canopy of the skies." At last one day after a more than usual long fast, while walking up and down lost in meditation, he fainted and fell to the ground. His fellow ascetics thought he was dying, but he slowly recovered. During his illness he arrived at the conviction that extreme penance, "far from giving peace of mind, and preparing the way to salvation, was a snare and stumbling-block in the way of truth," and, when able to walk again, despairing of further profit from fasting and self-mortification, he took his alms-bowl and went to the neighbouring * Fastings, and other works of mortification, have always been much prac- tised by the Indian philosophers of past ages, who thereby attracted the notice, respect, and veneration of the world. Such rigorous exercises, too, were deemed of great help in enabling the mind to have a more perfect control over the senses, and subjecting them to the empire of reason. The fast of Gautama, preparatory to his obtaining the Buddhahood, recalls to the mind that which Our Lord underwent, "ere He began His divine mission."-See Bishop Bigandet, p. 68. + Max Müller, "Chips," p. 214. Gautama's alms-bowl, pâtra, or thabeit, as it is called by the Burmese, is believed to have been the same one as was used by the three former Buddhas of the present Būddagăbbă, or mundane universe, and is destined to serve also the fifth and last Buddha of this dispensation. "It is said to have been sent by King Asoka to Ceylon, and is still shown there in the Malagawa Vihara at Kandy. As usual in such cases, there are several rival relics, for Fa Hian 154 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. village for food. On seeing this, his companions at once deserted him as an apostate, and he was left to bear the burthen of his wavering faith alone, Left alone, he wandered out into the forest and seated himself under a Bó-tree, where, after having fed upon some miraculous food, he remained wrapped up in profound meditation (dhyana) for forty-nine days without any further nourishment. During this period he was assaulted by numerous found the alms-bowl preserved at Pesháwur. Hwen Thsang says in his time it was no longer there, but in Persia." “Fa Hian writes of the alms-bowl at Pesháwur, that poor people could fill it with a few flowers, whilst a rich man could not do so with 100, nay, with 1000 or 10,000 bushels of rice; a parable doubtless originally carrying a lesson like Our Lord's remark on the widow's mite. "This alms-bowl is the Holy Grail of Buddhism. Mystical powers of nourishment are ascribed also to the Grail in the European legends. German scholars have traced in the romances of the Grail remarkable indications of Oriental origin. It is not impossible that the alms-bowl of Buddha was the prime source of them. Read the prophetic history of the alms-bowl as Fa Hian heard it in India; its mysterious wanderings over Asia till it is taken up into the abode of the nats, where Aramăitriya, the future Buddha, dwells. When it has disappeared from earth the Law gradually perishes, and violence and wickedness more and more prevail."-Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," ch. xv. p. 264-5. "A gentle sound, an awful light! Three angels bear the Holy Grail : With folded feet, in stoles of white, On sweeping wings they sail. -What is it? The phantom of a cup that comes and goes? The cup, the cup itself, from which our Lord Drank at the last sad supper with His own. If a man Could touch or see it, he was healed at once By faith of all his ills. But then the times Grew to such evil, that the holy cup Was caught away to heaven and disappeared." Tennyson's "Holy Grail." TEMPTATIONS IN THE WILDERNESS. 155 demons, led by the evil nat Mára or Manh,* the arch enemy of mankind; and subjected, also, to the allurements of beauty, and all the forms of temptation that licentiousness could devise. But he conquers and and rejects them, and comes out triumphant out of all his numerous trials. On the morning of the fiftieth day, sitting cross-legged † * This contest between Gautama and Manh is an allegory exemplifying the triumph of truth over error. Manh is the personification of evil and the implacable enemy of mankind, or, in Christian terminology, the devil. Amongst the plans adopted by Manh to oppose the benevolent designs of Gautama to teach men the way of deliverance from all miseries, was that of flattering his ambition, and promising him, as the Brahmans foretold at his birth, "All the kingdoms of this world and their glory." At other times, to distract his attention when wrapt up in meditation, he causes whirlwinds, earthquakes, and storms of rain. His last attempt was to awaken the fire of lust by the aid of his three daughters, who, severally, assumed the appear- ances of a pretty girl, a blooming virgin, and a middle-aged beauty; but these, and all other attempts, proved powerless against a man who had con- quered himself. The conflict between Gautama with Mára and his demons, Paulinus imagines to be the same with the doctrine of the Magi, concerning Ormuzed and Arima- nius. 'Compendium legis Barmanorum," Muséo Borgia, p. 51. (C + Most of the statues of Gautama represent him sitting cross-legged, the left hand open on the lap, and the other hanging over the right knee; the expression of the face attempted by the sculptor being that of sublime abstrac- tion. In one of these statues of Gautama in my possession, he is represented in this position with a serpent coiled round the pedestal, on which he sits enthroned, in seven folds, with its hood extended over his head. This is the Nâga, or nat snake, who presided over a large pool near the Bó-tree, and who, as a means of obtaining great merit, acted thus to protect Gautama during one of the great storms of rain raised by Manh. The pedestal, or throne, on which these statues rest, is in shape that of two triangles joined at the apices, typifying fire and water, the two elements mainly instrumental in the destruction and reproduction of the world. Statues of Gautama, recumbent on the right side, with the left leg placed directly over the right one, the head resting on the palm of the right hand supported by the elbow, and the left arm extended at length over the left leg, are, too, not uncommon. This is the position he is described to have assumed when he died, or entered Niebban. These two positions of his statues are intended to force upon the attention 156 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. * under the Bó-tree, with his face turned towards the east, his meditations are rewarded by an inspiration of the divine spirit, the light of truth, in all its effulgent beauty, bursts upon him, en- compassing his mind with its pure rays, and he became Buddha, that is, Enlightened,† "wiser than the wisest, and higher than the highest.” The Bó-tree (ficus religiosa), under whose shade Gautama attained perfect knowledge, is dedicated to him, as the ficus indica was to the predecessor; and every preceding Buddha had also an appro- priate tree. The next and last Buddha will obtain supreme intelligence under the Mesua ferrea. Gautama's Bó-tree is said to have sprung miracu- lously from the earth at the moment of his birth, and is supposed to have stood in the centre of the world. The word bó, or bódi, as it is called by and memory of his followers the two great stages of his last existence, namely, that of his obtaining Buddhahood, and that of his entering the state of Niebban or Nirvâna. * Turning to the east is an ancient Buddhist practice. When Gautama was born, he glanced towards the east; and at the supreme moment when he attained the acme of knowledge, the science of the past, present, and future- the state of a perfect Buddha-his face was turned in the direction of the east. Bishop Bigandet, remarking on the preference shown by Gautama to the east over the other three points of the compass, thinks it might, possibly, have reference to the tradition universally prevailing throughout the whole east previous to the coming of Our Lord, that from the east there was to come an extraordinary personage, who would confer the greatest benefits upon the human race, and have induced him to look in that direction. + Buddha means the Enlightened, and is often used as a proper name, instead of an appellative, in a similar manner to Christos the Anointed, or Mohamed the Expected. - See "Das Leben des Mohammed," Sprenger, vol. i. P. 155 ! THE SACRED BÓ-TREE. 157 * the Burmese, means wisdom, knowledge, and Bishop Bigandet thinks, "it may not be quite out of the limits of probability to suppose that it is a remnant of the tradition of the tree of knowledge, that occupied the centre of the garden of Eden." The Bó-tree is worshipped by Buddhists, and its simi- larity to the aspen-tree of Syria (the Khashafa, meaning to be agitated) has been remarked, with regard to the constant quivering of its leaves. The Buddhists say that out of the respect to their great sage, the leaves of the Bó-tree "have always an apparent motion, whether there be any wind stirring or not ;" and the Syrians "aver that the wood of Our Saviour's crosst was made of aspen, and that • * Few species of idolatry have been more common than arbor-olatry. Among the Greeks and Romans nearly every deity had some particular tree, and nearly every tree was dedicated to some particular god. It was under the oak that the Druids performed their most sacred rites, and the principal tree of the grove was consecrated with ceremonies of a description peculiarly solemn. The ancient inhabitants of Canaan appear to have been greatly attached to the sacred groves in which they were accustomed to worship; and the Israelites were especially commanded to destroy them.—"Monachism,” p. 216. A sacred bough or plant is introduced into all the ancient mysteries: such as the Indian lotus, the rose-tree of Isis, the fig-tree of Atys, the myrtle of Venus, the mistletoe of the Druids, and the acacia of free masonry. † In a note at p. 397 of Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," an extract is given from an interesting paper by Signor Adolfo Mussafia, "On the Legend of the Wood of the Cross" (Sulla Legenda del Legno della Croce, Vienna, 1870), bearing on the curious myth of the Arbre Sec or Arbre Sol, of which there are numerous versions. It is as follows :-"Adam, drawing near his end, sends Seth to the Gate of Paradise to seek the Oil of Mercy which had been pro- mised to his penitence. Seth is allowed to put in his head at the gate. 'In the midst of Paradise he beheld a glorious fountain, from which flowed four rivers.. And over the fountain rose a Great Tree, with vast roots, but bare of bark and leaves.' A great Serpent is coiled about the denuded stem ; the upper branches reach to Heaven, and bear at the top a new-born wailing 158 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the leaves of the aspen have trembled ever since in commemoration of the event." A cutting of the original Bó-tree is said to have been taken to Ceylon 245 years before Christ, and planted at Anuradhapura, near the Ruwanwali Dagoba. The tree was then growing on the site. of the present temple at Buddha Gaya, and the cutting was brought by Sanghamitta, the daughter of King Asoka, who followed her brother Mahinda to Ceylon, where he had preceded her a few years as the first Buddhist missionary to that island. The tree which sprang from this cutting still exists in a flourishing state at the place where it was planted, and is the oldest known tree in the world, its age being now 2,123 years. Sir Emerson Tennant says of it: "The estimates of the ages of other old infant swathed in linen; whilst (as the legend proceeds in a poetical French version, from a MS. in the Vienna library, given by Mussafia) :— 'Les larmes qui de lui issoient Contreval l'Arbre en avaloient. Adonc regarda l'enfant Seth Tout contreval de L'Arbre Secq; Les rachines qui le tenoient Jusques en Enfer s'en aloient, Les larmes qui de lui issirent Jusques dedens Enfer cheirent.' The Angel of the Gate gives Seth three seeds from the fruit of the Tree. Seth returns in time to see his father die. He buries him in the Valley of Hebron, and places the three grains under his tongue. A triple shoot springs up, of cedar, cypress, and pine, symbolizing the three persons of the Trinity. The three eventually unite into one stem, and this tree survives in various forms, and through various adventures in connection with the Scripture history, till it is found at the bottom of the Pool of Bethesda (to which it had communicated the healing virtue), and is taken to form the cross on which Our Lord suffered." OLDEST KNOWN TREE IN THE WORLD. 159 trees in the world are matters of conjecture; and such calculations, however ingenious, must be purely inferential: whereas the age of this Bó-tree is matter of record, its conservancy has been an object of solicitude to successive dynasties, and the story of its vicissitudes has been preserved in a series of con- tinuous chronicles, among the most authentic that have been handed down by mankind. Its green old age would almost seem to verify the prophecy pronounced when it was planted that it would 'flourish, and be green for ever.'"* Gautama hesitated for some time, whether he should not keep the divine knowledge he had attained to himself. He revolved in his mind the unprofitable weariness that would be caused in trying to persuade men to believe in his simple doctrine of salvation-"salvation merely by self- control and love, without any of the rites, any of the ceremonies, any of the charms, any of the priestly powers, any of the gods, in which men love to trust." + But compassion for the sufferings of humanity finally prevailed, and he resolved to preach his doctrines to the world. He accordingly proceeded towards Benares, and in the Mrigadāwa wood,‡ in the vicinity of that city, .. * See "Ceylon," vol. ii., p. 613 ; Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 232. + "Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 41. ‡ Now called Dhamek, and is still a fine wood. In the third century before Christ, King Asoka built a tower there to commemorate the place where 160 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. he met again the five recluses who had deserted him in the wilderness, when he threw off the yoke of asceticism; and they, after hearing him preach his new doctrines, were amongst the first to acknow- ledge him as Buddha, and accept in entirety his plan of salvation. During the rest of his long life, some forty-one years, he spent nine months of the year in travelling through India, teaching and preaching to the people. The remaining three-the rainy season commencing about the middle of July, and ending in the middle of October*-he lived in one of the numerous monasteries built for his accommodation by his many wealthy supporters, where he devoted himself to teaching his doctrine to his disciples, and the crowds of hearers that daily resorted thither to listen to his preaching. dang Gautama first publicly preached his doctrine. The remains of this tower still exist, and have been described by General Cunningham in his "Archæological Reports," 1862, vol. i., pp. 103–20. * This period is called the religious season, or Buddhist Lent. In Burma, on the days of the new and full moons of these months, crowds of people resort to the pagodas with offerings of flowers and small wax candles. Alms, too, are abundantly bestowed on the Phongyees or priests. Many people on these occasions remain all night in open sheds, called dzeats, erected for the purpose near the pagodas, conversing on religious subjects, or wrapt up in contemplation telling their beads, and repeating certain devotional formulas, the most common of which is "aneitsa, duka, anatta," meaning that everything in this world is subject to the law of change and mutability, to that of pain and suffering, and to that of entire and uninterrupted illusion. These rosaries are often made of amber beads; but more commonly of seeds, especially those of canna indica, or "Indian shot." This plant is considered to be peculiarly sacred, as it is supposed to have sprung from Gautama's blood, when once on a time he had cut his foot by striking it against a stone. ATTEMPTS ON GAUTAMA'S LIFE. About twelve years after Gautama had attained Buddhahood be was invited by his father, King Suddódhana, to visit Kapilavastu. On his first arrival there, some of his kinsmen, actuated by jealousy, did not pay him proper respect; but ultimately, after the performance by him of several miracles, the whole tribe of Sakyas were converted to his faith, including his father, his cousin Ananda, who became from that time his personal attendant, his own son Rahula, and his brother-in-law Déwadat. His wife Yasodhara, and his foster- mother, Prajapûti, also followed the same course; and when, sometime afterwards, Gautama formed the order of female mendicants, they became the first two of the Buddhist nuns. 161 The position of Gautama was, however, not with- out its difficulties and trials. A serious schism in his Order was not long after. this caused by Déwadat, whose sectarists, at his instigation, made three separate attempts on Gautama's life. On these all failing, Déwadat proceeded himself in person with a large retinue to the monastery where Gautama was then residing, in order to enforce upon him the reforms he advocated. But on his reaching its vicinity an awful fate awaited him—the earth burst open under his feet, and, surrounded by devouring flames, he fell down to the lowest hell, where three red-hot irons transfixed him VOL. II. M 162 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. perpendicularly, whilst three others pierced his shoulders in a transverse direction.* On another occasion an attempt was made by Gautama's enemies to destroy his reputation by suborning a woman to accuse him of breaking the law of continence; but both she, and all concerned in instigating the slander, met with terrible deaths. Gautama, in speaking to his disciples regarding the troubles caused him by this charge, said that "it was but a just retribution for his having in a former existence been drunk, and, when in that state, abused and slandered a holy personage." Gautama was thirty-five years of age when he attained Buddhahood, and lived to the age of eighty. The accounts extant of the last twenty-five years of his ministry are more imperfect and fragmentary than those of the preceding ones; but it is to be presumed that he was employed in a similar manner, namely, visiting distant places and preaching† bána to men and gods:‡ or, as described * This story respecting Déwadat, according to Bishop Bigandet, has given rise in Burma to a very strange misconception. The Burmese, with their usual thoughtlessness, on being told of the particulars respecting the sufferings and mode of death of our Saviour, concluded that he must have been no other per- sonage than Déwadat himself, and for holding opinions opposite to those of Gautama Buddha he suffered on the cross. A somewhat similar opinion appears to exist in Siam, namely, that Déwadat is the god of Europe, and that he, by opposing the good intentions of Gautama, produces all the evil in the world. + Bána, or the Word. The term is generally accepted now as meaning the exposition of the doctrines of Gautama, whether orally delivered or written in books. The preachings of Gautama were not confined to the narrow limits of DEATH OF GAUTAMA. in his own words, "teaching all sentient beings the way to salvation by providing them with a ferry- boat over this vain sea of passions, and guiding them into the path leading to the eternal city" (Neibban or Nirvâna). He died at the age of eighty in a grove of sal (Shorea robusta) trees, near the town of Kusinára, of diarrhoea produced by a meal of rice and young pork, prepared for him by a goldsmith named Tsanda. When dying, he said to his favourite. disciple, Ananda, "You may perhaps begin to think the Word is ended, now our Teacher is gone; but you must not think so. After I am dead let the Law (dhamma) and the rules of the Order (sangha), that I have taught, be a teacher to you." And his last words to his assembled disciples, which are very remarkable and are well authenticated, were, "Mendicants! Mendicants! I now impress upon you the parts and powers of man must be dissolved; the principle of existence and mutability carries along with it the germ of destruction; 163 "" man's abode. All beings inhabiting the mansions of the gods or nats benefited by the publication of his doctrines, and he occasionally visited the celestial regions where they reside. On one occasion he proceeded there for the purpose of specially announcing the perfect law to his mother. The condition of nats is that of a state of pleasure and enjoyment allotted them for meritorious works performed in former existences. Their condition is not a permanent one. They are far from the perfect state of Niebban. When their sum of merits is exhausted, they return to the abode of man, commence a new existence, and endeavour to advance themselves on the road to perfection. M 2 164 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. after saying this, while the dawn was just breaking, he became unconscious, and in that state passed away.* At the moment of his death a violent earthquake is said to have happened, and at the cremation of his body many miraculous incidents are stated to have occurred. The body refused The body refused to be moved until the wish of the gods was obtained as to the direction in which it was to be borne. The funeral pile would not burn until the head of the Order, the venerable Maha Káthaba arrived, embraced the feet of the corpse, and walked three times round the pile, when it took fire spontaneously. When all the parts of the body were consumed, except the seven bones,† which it was ordained should be preserved as relics, showers of rain fell and extinguished the flames. The relics were eagerly sought for by seven princes, and tsé-dees, or pagodas, built over them. * See "Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 83; Bigaudet, p. 318. + These were the four canine teeth, the two collar bones, and the frontal bone. They form the seven great relics, and are called Athambinana. During the reign of King Asoka, who was remarkable for his religious zeal, the erection of these edifices was greatly multiplied throughout India, as visible mementos of Gautama. As such, they continue to be built at the present day throughout Burma, and are to be seen, embosomed in groves of trees, on all rising grounds in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. The form of the most ancient pagodas in India, or topes, as they are often called there, appears to have been hemispherical, an expanded umbrella wrought in stone being placed at the summit; and those of Burma, square three-storeyed ones with external flights of steps, one on each face, leading up to shrines or sanc- tuaries; as are still to be seen at Thatún and Pugan. But the normal shape the modern tsé-dee takes in Burma is that of a cone or circular pyramid of GAUTAMA'S FUNERAL. 165 The ashes of the funeral pile were also carefully gathered, and distributed amongst the most distin- guished believers. solid brick-work, supported on a square base, and crowned by a tapering spire of gilt iron-work, formed in three crowns, called a htee, bearing a strong resemblance in its shape to the Pope's tiara, and typical of the Buddhist triad. On each side of the quadrangular base are four niches, in direction of the four cardinal points, in which are placed statues of Gautama. These monuments are of all sizes, varying in their ornamentation, and ranging from those of a few feet in elevation, to that of the colossal dimensions of the Shwé-dagon pagoda at Rangoon, which rises majestically to the height of 320 feet. The Shwé-dagon is the most celebrated object of worship in all the Indo- Chinese countries, deriving its peculiar sanctity from the belief of its having enclosed in its interior shrine, below the surface of the ground on which it stands, relics of the four Buddhas who have appeared during the present Būddhagăbbă, the staff of Kōkoothănda; the water-dipper of Kōnaggammă ; the bathing-garment of Käthăbă, and eight hairs from the head of Gautama. Tsé-dees in Burma may be arranged into four classes, the last two of which are by far the most numerous, viz.:-1st. Dat-dau-tsé-dee, or those containing supposed relics of a Buddha or Rahanda. 2nd.—Paree-bau-ga tsé-dee, or those containing supposed implements or garments which have belonged to Buddhas, or sacred personages. 3rd.-Dhāmma tsé-dee, or those containing books or texts. 4th.-Oo-deit-tsa tsé-dee, or those built from motives of piety, and con- taining statues of Buddha or models of sacred buildings, generally in precious metal. Hence in Burma a pagoda is worshipped as being the depository of a relic; a monument to Buddha; or as representing Dhamma, that is Divine Law. -See Sir Arthur Phayre's article on the Shwé-dagon pagoda, A. S.'s J. 1859, P. 479. The adoration paid to the statues of Gautama, to his relics, and the monu- ments called tsé-dees, is difficult to understand. The Buddhist knows that Gautama is no more, and therefore can afford him no assistance whatever, that there is no virtue inherent in his relics or statues-in fact, there is no Providence. This moral phenomenon is accounted for, however, from Gautama having, it is said, shortly previous to his decease, declared to his favourite disciple, Ananda, that when he was not present to his believers in a visible manner, the objects proper to be worshipped, and which he wished the same honours paid as were offered to his living person, were of three kinds :-Serírika, uddé- sika, and paribhógika. The first includes the relics of his body, which were to be collected after his cremation; the second those things that were here- after erected on his account, or for his sake, which, the commentators say, mean statues of his person, and tsé-dees; and the third the Bó-tree under which he attained Buddhahood, and the articles personally used by him, such as his leathern girdle, his alms bowl, the robe he put on when he bathed, the 166 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. With a view of preserving intact the doctrines and institutions of his beloved teacher in their original purity, the venerable Maha Káthaba- whom Gautama shortly before his decease had vested with his own robe *-determined to hold a council; and for this purpose, he selected five hundred of the most distinguished members of the Order, from the large number of his brethren whom the ceremony of the cremation of the body of Gautama had brought together. The council was held accordingly sixty-one days after Gautama's death in the Sattapani cave situated in the Vaihara hill, near the city of Rājagriha, and which had been vessel from which he drank water, and his palleng, seat or throne, on which he used to sit. Hence, in obedience to his commands, these devotional practices have intrinsic worth, and are believed to add to the law of merits, or the good influence which will procure the worshipper abundant rewards in future existences, and help him on the road to the harbour of deliverance, from successive existences. The offerings made to the statues of Gautama and his shrines are very simple. They consist of flowers, rice, small flags made of cloth or paper, wax candles, earthen oil lamps, and sometimes incense and scented wood, which are placed on altars, or pedestals of masonry, erected for the purpose in their vicinity. When the offerings are presented, the worshippers prostrate themselves and bow their heads three times, the palms of the hands being placed together, and the thumbs touching the forehead: after which they rise to a sitting posture, resting on their heels, with the body slightly bent forward, and mutter the three-fold formulary of protection, called tun-surána, stating that they seek refuge in Buddha, Dhāmma, and Sangha; or they take upon themselves a certain number of the ten obligations, the words being often first chanted in Pali by a Buddhist priest. There are four Oo-bō or worship days in a month, namely, the eight of the waning of the moon, the full, the eight of the waxing, and the change.-See "Monachism,” pp. 206-15. 'Bigandet," pp. 306-7. (C * Gautama's conferring his robe upon Kāthaba-his long-tried and faithful disciple calls to mind the passages in 2 Kings ii. 9–15, regarding the spirit and mantle of Elijah falling upon Elisha, and Elisha's succession to his ministry. THE THREE SYNODS. 167 prepared for the purpose by Ajātosatra, King of Magadha. At this Synod, and at each of the two subsequent ones; the second being held at Vésali, one hundred years after the first, and the third at Pátaliputrá, near the modern Patna, in the eighteenth year of the reign of King Asoka, or 308 B.C.; although the whole text of the Pitakattayan* is stated to have been rehearsed, an authentic version estab- lished, and the ipsissima verba of Gautama repeated with the utmost precision, they do not appear to have been committed to writing until some 458 years after the great Teacher's death, or about 85 B.C. During this long period the doctrines are asserted to have been handed down by oral tradi- tion; and though it is almost incredible that they could be retained in the memory for so long a space, yet the documents themselves are an evidence that some considerable period must have elapsed between the death of Gautama, and the compila- tion of the Pitakas in their present form. Like the Koran, they may have been compiled, not from the memory of one man, but from the remembrance and imagination of numerous different persons. * From pitaka, a basket, and tayo, three. The text containing the three grand divisions of the Buddhist scriptures, called by the Burmese Beedigat- thoon-bon. + The Pitakas are believed to have been reduced to writing in Ceylon during the reign of Watta Gamini, who was then king of that island. 168 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Many of the monks in Burma, in the present day, devote a large portion of their lives to learning portions of their scriptures by heart. They may frequently be heard repeating for hours together, without reference to books, long discourses from the Pitakas to attentive audiences, and the reten- tiveness of their memory appears very extraor- dinary. Their method of delivering being recita- tive, half chanting half speaking, tends to give them confidence, by affording them, in case of their memory failing, the opportunity of dwelling by a shake or quaver on the last syllable, instead of coming to an abrupt stop.* During the third convocation it was determined by the President, that missionaries should be sent into all lands to preach the doctrines of Buddhism, and two missionaries, named Oo-tara and Thau-na, * As regards the enormous powers of memory of Indian and other priests, the Vedas are supposed to have been handed down by Brahmins from memory for many centuries. The Vedas are believed by the Hindus to be contemporary with the creation. Uyâsa, who is said to have lived about 1580 B. C., which, according to Hebrew chronology, carries us back to about the time of Moses, formed with great judgment a complete compendium of them, adjust- ing the texts which appeared to contradict each other. He called the work Vedantā, a name formed from two Sanskrit words, meaning the explanation or completion of the whole Vedas. The Druids are said by Cæsar to have been able to repeat a great number of verses by heart, some remaining in the course of training for twenty years, as they considered it unlawful to commit their statutes to writing. The Egyptian priests, too, are stated by Herodotus to have had great powers of memory. And the poems of Homer and of Hesiod are supposed to have been preserved in the memory of rhapsodists, by whom they were recited, for the space of 500 years.—See on this subject, "Monachism,” pp. 173-85; “Buddhism,” Rhys Davids, p. 9. BUDDAGOSA. 169 were despatched in a south-eastern direction to Suvana Bhumi, the country of the Mōn or Talaing race, whose chief city was then at Thatún. They appear to have gone there by sea, as the Maha- radza-weng relates that on their landing in their yellow robes, on the sea-shore at Thatún, they created great consternation, and were at first taken for beloos. By their preaching, however, they seem to have rapidly gained the confidence of the people of the country, many of whom shortly entered the priesthood; and even the King himself was ulti- mately converted, and became a zealous adherent and supporter of the new religion. The Buddhist doctrines were propagated here, as elsewhere, orally, and the Talaings did not possess the Buddhist scriptures in a written form until they were conveyed to them from Ceylon by Buddhagosa in 450 A.D. The Talaings claim this celebrated monk as a countryman of their own, and their history states that he went from Thatún to Ceylon, where he stayed three years, and then returned with a copy of the scriptures. This is, however, a fallacy, for he was a native of Mâgadha, and born near the Bó-tree, at Buddha Gāyā. He went to Ceylon in about 430 A.D., and there compiled his great work, the Visuddhi Magga, or Path of Holiness, a cyclopædia of Buddhist doctrine; and from the great knowledge he displayed, wa "( 170 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. employed by the rulers of his Order in Ceylon to rewrite, in Pali, the commentaries which had, 'till then, been handed down in Singalese."* Buddha- gosa was a convert from Brahmanism, and owing to his great eloquence, the appellation of Buddhagosa (the voice of Buddha) was conferred upon him. In 1080 A.D. the Talaings were conquered by Anaurata, the Burmese King of Pagan, who burnt and sacked Thatún, and took away with him to Pagan the Buddhist scriptures brought by Buddha- gosa, as also the most learned of the priesthood. During this King's reign, and up to the time of King Nara-thee-ha-pa-dé in 1284 A.D., when Burma was invaded by the forces of Kublai Khan, and Pagan itself destroyed, a great revival of Buddhism took place at Pagan, and the numerous square and other shaped Buddhist temples † were built, the remains of which excite the admiration of travellers. From Buddhist writings preserved at Ceylon and elsewhere, there can be no doubt that the Talaings first obtained their knowledge of the Buddhist religion through the two missionaries, as above described; and owing to their being on the sea- board, received it at a much earlier period than the "Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 236. + Besides the damage done by the invaders, the Burmese King Nara-thee- ha-pa-dé caused “1000 large arched temples and 4000 square temples to be destroyed," for the purpose of obtaining materials for enlarging the fortifications of the city. See p. 71, vol. i. G C CONVERSION OF TALAINGS AND BURMESE. 171 Burmese. But as to when, and by what means, the Burmese first obtained their knowledge of it, no authentic record exists. Sir Arthur Phayre is of opinion that they were converted by Buddhist missionaries from Gangetic India, who reached Upper Burma through Bengal and Munipúr. Others, amongst whom is Rhys Davids, suppose that Buddhism was introduced from China. It is not unlikely, however, that the Burmese obtained both their religion and their alphabet through the Talaings. The Burmese alphabet is almost the same as the Talaings, and the circular form of both strongly indicate the influence of the Singalese, or the Tamulic type of letter. According to the doctrines propounded by Gautama, nothing is eternal, but the law of cause and effect and change. There is no creator, no being that is self-existent and eternal. There is a Supreme Power, but not a supreme being. “All sentient things are homogeneous. The difference between one being and another is only temporary, and results from their degrees of merit.”† The supreme power that controls the universe is karma, literally action; consisting of kusala and * An old Burmese friend of mine, whom I visited in his last moments, said to me that his great aspiration was that he might wake up in the next world as an Engli bō, or English officer. It was not said out of compliment, for he knew that he was dying. +"Eastern Monachism," p. 5. The doctrine of merits and demerits, and of their concomitant influences, 172 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT akusala, or the merit and demerit of intelligent existence. There is no such thing as an immortal soul. At the death of any being, the aggregate of his merit and demerit is transferred to some other being; which new being is caused by the karma of the previous being, and inherits from that karma all the consequences, whether good or evil, that have been accumulated during an unknown period by an almost endless succession of similar beings, all bound by this singular law of production to every individual in the preceding link of the chain, so as to be liable to suffer for their crimes or be rewarded for their virtues. Thus, like the revolutions of a wheel, there is a regular succession of death and birth, the moral cause of which is the cleaving to existing objects, whilst the instrumental cause is karma. This state of things goes on for myriads of existences until the influence of upádána, or attachment to sensual objects is broken, and the consequences of all past demerits exhausted. Then, and not till then, the being obtains nirvâna,* and ceases to be, "as the are fully illustrated in the person of Gautama himself during his former 550 existences, as given in the Jātakas. He said of himself to his disciples that he had passed, with various fortune, through the range of the animal kingdom, from the dove to the elephant; that being man, he had been often in hell, and in various positions of riches and poverty, until by his mighty efforts he had at last freed himself from all evil influences, and reached the state of highest perfection.-See Bigandet, p. 130. * Nirvâna is a passive participle of the Sanskrit root vâ, "to blow," with the preposition nir, "out," "away from," prefixed to it: the word is also KARMA AND NIRVÂNA DESCRIBED. 173 light of a lamp when its flame is extinguished." There is no appeal by the Buddhist to a supreme being or any exterior power to assist him in the attainment of this, to him, grand consummation. He joins no one else in seeking assistance by prayer, though from the teachings of another he may receive aid, to do in a better manner what, after all, must be entirely his own work. To escape from this whirlpool of countless exis- tences was the great principle of salvation that Gautama proclaimed. Existence in the eye of Buddhism is nothing but misery. It involves disease, decay, and death. "It is subject to grief, pain, and despair. It resembles a blazing fire which dazzles the eye, but torments us by its effects. There is nothing permanent or real in the whole universe.” To get rid of decay and its accompany- ing misery we must get rid of life. Whatever is material is subject to change and dissolution, and there is no life which is not material. As long as man is, he must be miserable. His only salvation is not to be. The only deliverance from evil is by the destruction of existence and attainment of nirvâna, the characteristics of which are--that which is void, that has no existence, no continuance, neither birth nor death, that is subject to neither used with nir as a negative prefix, and then implies “what is no more agitated, ""what is in a perfect calm," 174 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. I cause nor effect, and that possesses none of the essen- tialities of being;* in a word, perfect annihilation. "No person who reads with attention the meta- physical speculations on the nirvâna contained in the Buddhist canon, can arrive at any other convic- tion than that expressed by Burnouf, namely, that nirvâna,† the highest aim, the summum bonum of Buddhism, is the absolute nothing."‡ Gautama's first teachers were Brahmins, and the doctrines of Buddhism and Brahmanism so far agree, that "a man is born into the world he has made; that by some operation of nature, too subtle to be defined or explained, he passes through countless * "" "" ،، Legends of the Buddhists," p. 174, et seq.; P. 174, et seq.; Alwis's "Lecture on Buddhism; 'Mahomed, Buddha, and Christ," p. 154; Wassilief, "Der Buddhismus," p. 101; Mohl, "Journal Asiatique," 1856, p. 94. + Dr. Marcus Dods, in his learned lecture on Buddhism (p. 168), says of nirvâna: “Nirvâna, then, is the moral condition which accompanies the eradication of self-will, self-assertion, self-seeking, self-pleasing. And had this been the ultimate aim of Buddhism, nothing could have been worthier of human effort. But this moral self-renunciation is only a means to the great end of annihilation, extinction of self in every sense. Self is to be renounced, not that man may come into a loving concord with the will of God, and with every living creature, but that he may himself escape the misery which inevitably accompanies all existence. The moral condition of nirvâna is attained in order that at death there may be no rc-birth. The oil is with- drawn and the flame dies out, so that no other wick can be lit from it. Uncon- sciously it would, no doubt, be the moral attainment which satisfied high- minded Buddhists; but theoretically the moral attainment is not the ultimate end in view, but only the means by which the man attains to non-existence. He reaches the highest development, not to become serviceable to the world at large, but to pass away into nothingness. 'He that hateth his life in this world shall keep it unto life eternal,'—that is the well-balanced, far-seeing, quiet enunciation of the real law of existence; but the Buddhist nirvana is a travesty of this, and magnificent as is the conception of man's moral state, it is stultified by the end for which it is to be attained." "Buddhist Nihilism," Max Müller, p. 11. >> BUDDHISM AND BRAHMANISM COMPARED. 175 existences, during which he can become slowly purified of his imperfections, and advance to per- fection; but they differ as to the end to be arrived at. a "'* The Buddhists are atheists, and the Hindus pantheists. They both deny the existence of a separate ego, or self; but "the Hindu idea is that I is Brahma; the Buddhist, that I is a nonentity.' The Buddhist, ignoring a creator, conducts a being that has become emancipated from the thraldom of passions to the state of nirvana. The Hindu, on the other hand, believing in Brahma, or a supreme being, from whom all things have emanated, and to whom all things must return, leads the perfected being after he has passed through a purgatory proportioned to his guilt, to be absorbed into the divine essence, in which he loses all personality, and forms a whole with the divine substance, as a lump of salt thrown into the sea becomes dissolved into the water from which it was produced, and is not to be taken out again.” CC Gautama holds the first place in the Buddhist triad,† and is worshipped by Buddhists, as one who "Eastern Monachism," p. 307. + On some Buddhist coins in my possession the emblem of the Buddhist triad is represented by three parallel horizontal lines, and also in three perpen- dicular lines joined together at the bottom in the shape of a trident. The former symbols, I believe, express the three members of the triad separately, and the latter the three in unity (Thārănă-gon). In ancient times three scores, or marks, appear to have been emblematic of the Deity, either as among the * 176 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. has attained the highest possible point of perfection, and the first and greatest of all beings. The pro- tection derived from the triad, tun-surana, or three most precious gems, Buddha, the sacred books, and the priesthood—the latter by the wonderful gift for personification, imbuing the Oriental mind, being elevated into a quasi-divine rank, is said "to destroy the dread of reproduction, or successive existence, and to take away the fear of the mind, the pain to which the body is subject, and the misery of the four hells. The protection of Buddha may be obtained by keeping his precepts; and by this aid the evil consequences of demerit are overcome. The protection of the sacred books is likened to a steed to one who is travelling a long journey. The protection of the priesthood is ensured by alms or offerings. Hebrews by the three yōds, 777, or by the high priest distending the thumb and two forefingers as he stretched his right hand over the assembled multi- tudes, when bestowing his yearly benediction :—which practice has evidently relation to the ancient cult of Priapus, and is followed, also, by the Pope at the present day. Whilst on the subject of symbols, I may allude to a remark made by an cducated Chinaman when visiting the cathedral at Hong Kong, and mentioned by Mr. F. H. Balfour in "Waifs and Strays," p. 222. "After noticing the stained-glass windows, the altar, the organ, and the font, the Chinaman took up his position in front of the pulpit, from the cushion of which hung a silken fall, inscribed with the sacred monogram I. H. S. arranged in cipher. His attention was immediately aroused, and calling the Englishman who had accompanied him to his side, he asked him how it was that a Buddhist symbol was permitted in a Christian church? His companion was somewhat per- plexed, and requested an explanation. 'There,' said the Chinaman, pointing to the letters, 'that is what I mean. That is the sacred symbol of Buddha, and has been so from time immemorial. In China it is written thus $. """ DĀNA OR ALMSGIVING. "One of the chief modes of acquiring merit is said to be that of dana, or almsgiving, and it is placed first on the list of the four cardinal virtues, which are almsgiving, affability, promoting the prosperity of others, and loving others as ourselves. The reward for the giving of alms, is not merely a benefit that is to be received at some future period; it promotes length of days, personal beauty, agreeable sensations, strength, and knowledge. There is no reward in this world or the next, that may not be received through almsgiving." The social and moral precepts of Buddhism apart from its metaphysical theories are remarkable. In no religion except Christianity is such stress laid upon the grace of universal charity, and love for all "* 177 "Eastern Monachism," pp. 81-82. A great inducement truly for the bestowal of alms! The noble principle of charity implanted in the human heart by God, has been seized upon by priestcraft in all ages. How similar to Buddhist precepts, and how mournful such passages as the following are from St. Chrysostom (xpvooσтoμos, the "golden-mouthed ") ! "Alms are the re- demption of the soul. Almsgiving, which is able to break the chain of thy sins. Almsgiving, the queen of virtues, and the readiest way of getting into heaven, and the best advocate there. Hast thou a penny, purchase heaven. Heaven is on sale, and in the market, and yet ye mind it not! Give a crust and take back Paradise; give the least and receive the greatest; give the perishable, and receive the imperishable; give the corruptible and receive the incorruptible."-Taylor's "Ancient Christianity." St. Eligius, or Eloi, in the seventh century, exhorts people to make oblations to the Church, and when our Lord comes to judgment they may be able to say, “Da, Domine, quia dedimus."-Mosheim's "Ecclesiastical History." By the exercise of charity the sick were taught to expect cures. The rich as well as the poor were accustomed to put a written schedule of their sins under the cloth which covered the altar of a favourite saint, accompanied by a donation; and a day or two afterwards, when they re-examined the schedule, the virtues of the saint had converted it into a blank.-Fosbroke's "British Monachism.' VOL. II. N 178 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. "" living beings. Gautama himself said, "A man who foolishly does me wrong, I will return to him the protection of my ungrudging love; the more evil comes from him the more good shall go from me.' As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let there be good-will without measure among all beings. Let good-will without measure-unhindered love and friendliness-prevail in the whole world, above, below, around.* The five great commandments† are the essence of morality. They contain almost word for word the same commands as those of the decalogue,‡ and are enforced by a singular variety of separate rules and precepts. The object being to guard man against every temptation to commit sin; to warn him at the very threshold of danger; to induce him to keep a constant watch upon his thoughts, words, and actions. For instance, to guard against the sin of murder, there are precepts against anger, malice, * Beal's "Buddhist Scriptures,” pp. 193-4; Dr. Dodd's "Lecture on Buddhism," p. 173. They are: 1. Kill not. 2. Steal not. 3. Commit not adultery. 4. Lie not. 5. Take nothing that intoxicates. The fifth Commandment may be excepted. Though we are enjoined to "be temperate in all things," we are taught at the same time that it is not the use of intoxicating liquors, but the abuse of them, which is an evil. In Plato's "Laws," Book II., Education, it is laid down: "No young person is to taste wine before eighteen years of age; he is to be very moderate till thirty, and never to be drunk. After forty more wine may be taken. It makes us, in opinion, renew our youth; it is the remedy against the austerity of old age, and is a temporary suspension of all our miseries." PURITY OF BUDDHIST ETHICS. 179 revengeful thoughts, and threatening language. In like manner, the precept not to covet is associated with the commandment not to steal. All authorities who have written on Buddhism praise its moral code and acknowledge the purity of its ethics. Bishop Bigandet in his valuable work on the life of Gautama (pp. 494-95) says: "The Christian system and the Buddhistic one, though differing from each other in their respective objects and ends, as much as truth from error, have, it must be confessed, many striking features of an astonishing resemblance. There are many moral precepts equally commanded and enforced in com- mon by both creeds. It will not be deemed rash to assert that most of the moral truths prescribed by the Gospel, are to be met with in the Buddhist scriptures; and in reading the particulars of the life of Gautama, it is impossible not to feel reminded of many circumstances relating to our Saviour's life sketched out by the Evangelists." Again in the preface (p. viii) of his work, he adds: "It may be said in favour of Buddhism, that no philosophico-religious system has ever upheld, to an equal degree, the notions of a saviour and deliverer, and the necessity of his mission for procuring the salvation of man in a Buddhist sense. The rôle of Gautama, from beginning to end, is that of a deliverer, who preaches a law designed to N 2 180 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. . secure man the deliverance from all the miseries he is labouring under. But, by an inexplicable and deplorable eccentricity, the pretended saviour, after having taught man the way to deliver himself from the tyranny of his passions, leads him, after all, into the bottomless gulf of a total annihilation.” Doubtless, many of the precepts of the gospel are to be found in Buddhism,* but they are merely moral ones and nothing more. The most invincible objec- tion to Buddhism, like some more modern specula- tions which could be mentioned, is, the absence of all belief in an Almighty God, or indeed in a First Cause † of any description. Matter is looked upon as eternal. The existence of the world, its destruc- tion and reproduction, all the different combinations to which matter is subject, are the immediate results of the action of eternal laws.‡ Gautama has ceased * Hodgson describes Buddhism as monastic asceticism in morals, and philosophical scepticism in religion. Trans. R. A. S., vol. i., p. 413. + Most of the Grecian philosophers agreed in acknowledging that one Supreme Being (to whom, however, they apply different designations) presided in the Universe, every part of which was animated by his influence. To this Being they gave the appellation fate, destiny, necessity, in order to evince the truth of their great tenet, that all things originated in him. Thus Chrysippus, according to Cicero, denominated God the necessity of future events (Chrysip- pus Deum dicit esse-fatalem umbram, et necessitatem rerum futurarem. De Natur. Deon. Lib. i. c. 15) and Seneca applies to him the term fate, as being expressive of the great cause or principle to which all events are sus- pended. (Vis illum fatum vocare? Non errabis. Hic est exquo suspensi sunt omnia. Natur. Quest. Lib. ii. c. 45.) Fate, in the judgment of the former philosopher, is the epithet whereby we express an eternal succession and revolution of things involving each other in an uninterrupted series, some- what similar to the Buddhistic dogma. To this series the Parcæ or destinies, the daughters, as Plato calls them, of necessity belonged. See," Waifs and Strays," p. 138. CHRISTIANITY AND BUDDHISM COMPARED. 181 to be, and there can be no intelligent prayer in Buddhism, as there is no one to listen to its voice. Can anything be more dark and cheerless than the belief that a man has no soul;* that in the myriads of existences he has to pass through, he must expect much pain and sorrow, but no real happiness; and that the noblest reward to be reaped at last is a state of blank unconsciousness? Its It is a very curious fact, attested by such eminent theologians as Warburton and Chalmers, that Moses does not mention or allude to the immortality of the soul, or a future life in any part of the Pentateuch. See also Le Clerc (Pro- legomena ad Hist. Ecclesiast. Sec. i. c. 8), who has written a learned com- mentary on the books of the Old Testament. Plato, in his tenth book of laws, defines the soul to be the self-moving substance. Hence he infers that the soul is the origin and first mover in all things that have been, are, or shall be. He observes also, that atheists use the word Nature, improperly; for if mind is older than air and fire, mind is the cause of all. The whole strain of his argu- ments is to that purpose: Mind is older than matter, because the mover is superior to that which is moved. Pythagoras supposed the soul to be a divine emanation, a vital spark of heavenly flame, the principle of reason and per- ception, doomed from unknown causes to remain during certain periods im- prisoned in matter, and that all its impulses, not immediately derived from the material organs, were impulses of the Deity. - Cicero in his admirable treatise on Old Age, and in his Tusculan Questions, rehearses all the remarkable dicta of the Greek and Roman philosophers respecting the immortality of the soul. He notices that many of these sages perceived that the material properties of man had nothing in common with the properties of thought, memory, imagination, and judgment, and that these faculties must, therefore, belong to something distinct from the body, in its nature immaterial, indestructible, spiritual, and immortal. From these specious and noble principles these ancient sages not only deduced the future immortality of the soul; but likewise inferred, in common somewhat with the Brahminic doctrine, the false conclusion of its pre-eternal existence, and of its being an emanation of the infinite eternal Spirit that pervades and sustains the universe, proceeding from it as the rays do from the sun, without diminishing or impairing the intrinsic light, power, and warmth of that celestial body. This latter philosophical and speculative view annihilates what is dearest to man-the hope of individual existence after death, a hope which, founded on the rock of revealed religion, is of more value to us Christians, than all that the depths of metaphysics can offer. 182 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. much vaunted code of morality, also, with its selfish and venal process of traffic in merit, is deficient in many of the most essential social qualities, such as spontaneous goodness; the doing what is right, apart from hope of reward or fear of punishment; and indeed in most of the promptings of genuine sympathy and real benevolence. In all radical doctrines Christianity and Buddhism are diametric- ally opposed. The fundamental idea of Buddhism is deliverance from a vortex of endless existences. The basis of Christianity is the atonement-the sufferings of our Saviour on the cross as an atone- ment for the sins of all mankind. The Buddhist seeks for eternal death; the Christian for eternal life. The singular analogies that exist between the rituals, institutions, and outward observances of Romish Christianity and Buddhism is very start- ling; and was accounted for by some of the early Roman Catholic missionaries who visited the East, with the supposition that Satan had travestied the true religion. "Diabolo ecclesiam Christi imitante!" exclaimed St. Xavier in his perplexed annoyance at observing the practices of the Buddhists in Japan; and the whole ritual of the Buddhist * Sir Rutherford Alcock, in his "Narrative of Three Years' Residence in Japan," in describing the funeral of one of the Japanese members of the British Legation, says that "It was impossible for a Protestant not to be struck with the outward similarity between the ceremonial of this Buddhist burial with BUDDHISM TINGED WITH ROMANISM. 183 religion is so tinged with Romanism that it might well justify such a remark. Father Rubrugius, who travelled in Tibet in the thirteenth century, and Fathers Dorville and Grueber about the middle of the seventeenth, were much surprised at finding a pontifical court there, and much struck with the extraordinary similitude to be found, as well in the doctrines, as in the rituals of the Buddhists of Lassa to those of the Romish faith. The latter missionary, in the pub- lished account of his travels, notices: "Ist, that the dress of the lamas corresponded with that handed down to us in ancient paintings, as the dress of the Apostles; 2nd, that the discipline of the monas- teries, and of the different orders of lamas and priests, bore the same resemblance to that of the Roman Church; 3rd, that the notion of incarna- those of the Greek and Roman Churches. The altar, the taper, the incense, the very costume and gesture of the priests, were in many striking particulars alike-a resemblance too close to have been fortuitous; but whence the seeming identity is yet a question, and one which I do not pretend to discuss." The Japanese are not such sincere and true believers in Buddhism as the Burmese, for he goes on to say, "As regards any faith the Japanese generally may have, the more immediate end which they propose to themselves is a state of happiness in this world. They have indeed some, but very obscure and imperfect, notions of the immortality of the soul, and a future state of bliss or misery. But, so far as I have seen, the educated classes scoff at all such doctrines, as fit only for the vulgar and the ignorant; and believe, with the ancient poets and philosophers, that after death there is no future, or as Catullus expresses it in his Epistle to Lesbia ;— "Vivamus mea Lesbia, atque amemus, Nobis, cum semel occidit brevis lux, Nox est perpetua una dormienda.' 184 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. tion was common to both, so also the belief in paradise and purgatory; 4th, he remarked that they made suffrages, alms, prayers, and sacrifice for the dead, like the Roman Catholics; 5th, that they had convents, filled with monks and friars, who all made the three vows of poverty, obedience, and chastity, like Roman monks, besides other vows; and 6th, that they had confessors, licensed by the superior lamas or bishops; and so empowered to receive confessions, to impose penances, and give absolution. Besides these, there was found the practice of using holy water, of singing service in alternation of praying for the dead, and a perfect similarity in the costumes of the great and superior lamas to those of the different orders of the Roman hierarchy." "X The Father might have added to the above, worship of a Queen of Heaven and Child,† tonsure, repetition of prayers with the rosary, use of bells and incense, works of merit and supererogation, * Prinsep's "Tibet, Tatary, and Mongolia,” p. 13. "On the altar of a Chinese temple, behind a screen, is frequently a representation which might answer for that of the Virgin Mary, in the person of Shin-moo, or the sacred mother, sitting in an alcove with a child in her arms, and rays proceeding from a circle, which are called a glory, round her head, with tapers burning constantly before her."-Lord Macartney's "Embassy to China," vol. ii., p. 100. See, also, the mention made of the worship of the Queen of Heaven by the Buddhists of China, in Davis's "Chinese." The monasteries of Tibet possess also similar representations to that described by Lord Macartney. As incense is now burnt in some of our high ritualistic churches, it is well ABBÉ HUC AND FATHER GRUEBER. 185 fast days and feast days, images and pictures and fabulous legends,* bowings, prostrations, and turn- ings to the east, councils or synods to settle schisms or points of faith, the worship of relics and working of miracles through them. I may state, too, that the tiara or triple crown of the Pope bears a very strong resemblance to the htees which crown the spires of Burmese Buddhist temples; and to the crown worn by the King of Burma on great state occasions. Within the last few years, even, Abbé Huc wrote in a very similar strain as Father Grueber; and he pointed out the resemblance between the Buddhist and Roman Catholic ceremonials with such naïveté, that, to his surprise, he found his delightful "Travels in Tibet" placed on the "Index Expurgatorius." "On ne peut s'empêcher d'être frappé," he writes, "de leur rapport avec le Catholicisme. La crosse, la mitre, la dalmatique, la chape ou pluvial, que les grands lamas portent en voyage, ou lorsqu'ils font quelque cérémonie hors du temple; l'office à deux that it should be known what its real origin is. Incense was burnt in ancient heathen temples with the object of neutralizing the offensive odour arising from the burning of animal sacrifice, and by the primitive fathers of the Christian Church was looked upon as a Pagan abomination. * Notably so in the legend of St. Veronica and the Sudarium, and of Gautama's footprints in the instances of Rome and Poitiers, and on the sacred summit of Olivet. There is a legend also, that when St. Augustine landed at Thanet, he left perfect marks of his feet in the rock as if it had been wax : "And the Romanists will cry shame on our hard hearts," says Fuller, "if our obstinate unbelief, more stubborn than stone, will not as pliably receive the impression of this miracle.” 186 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. chœurs, la psalmodie, les exorcismes, l'encensoir soutenu par cinq chaines, et pouvant s'ouvrir et se fermer à volonté; les bénédictiones données par les lamas en étendant la main droite sur la tête des fidèles; le chapelet, le célibat, ecclésiastique, les retraites spirituelles, le culte des saints, les jeûnes, les processions, les litanies, l'eau bénite; voilà autant de rapports que les Bouddhistes ont avec nous.”* It is impossible, however, that there can be any real analogy between the higher and better moral precepts of our Gospel, and its doctrine of the separate immortal existence of the soul, its hopes in futurity, and promises of salvation, with the wretched materialism of Buddhism. The resemblance is superficial, but not accidental. It has been ac- counted for by the fact that, under the name Mythraic, the belief in the doctrines of the Buddhist faith at the time of our Lord's appear- ance were widely spread over the westernt as well as the eastern world. The general expectation of the birth of a great prophet, redeemer, or saviour, which is alluded to even by Tacitus, as prevailing at the period when Our Lord appeared, was not * Quoted from Max Müller's "Chips,” p. 189. + "Tibet, Tatary, and Mongolia," p. 171. ‡ An Indian philosopher, Zápμavos (Sramana, or Buddhist priest), came to + Europe with an embassy to Augustus from King Porus, and voluntarily burnt himself at Athens.-Strabo, XV. ch. i. pp. 719, 720. § See note* at foot of page 156. GAUTAMA IDENTIFIED WITH CHRIST. 187 confined to the prophecies of the Old Testament, but had also a Buddhistic origin.* To minds already imbued with Buddhistic doctrines, the birth of a saviour, therefore, for the western world recognized at the same time by "wise men from the East," that is magi,† sramanas, or lamas, was readily believed in when announced: and after the acceptance of Christianity, many of the rites and observances of Buddhism, which had been current. in the East for many previous centuries, gradually crept in and were adopted by one community after another until they became universal.‡ Gautama was at one time identified with Christ. The Manichæans were actually forced to abjure their belief that Christ and Gautama were one and the same person;§ and some of the ancient Catholic * St. Augustine says: "Res ipsa, quæ nunc religio Christiana nuncupatur, erat apud antiquos, nec defuit ab initio generis humani, quousque Christus veniret in carnem, unde vero religio, quæ jam erat, cœpit appellari Christiana.” August. Retr." i. 13; Max Müller, "Chips," p. II. 66 † Paulinus supposes the religion of the magi to have been the same with that of the Buddhists; it was introduced into Persia from India during the reign of Cyrus, about 560 years before the birth of Christ, and from Persia was after- wards dispersed over the western nations." Compendium legis Barmanorum, Muséo Borgia, p. 141, et seq. This opinion of Paulinus is supported by Pliny (lib. 30, ch. i.), who thought that magic was first introduced into Europe by the army of Xerxes. ++ The primitive Christians perpetually trod on mystic ground. The Samancans in Aram adopted many of the principles of Buddhism, and the Gnostics, though Christians, partially followed this doctrine. Johannes von Müller ("Allgemeine Weltgeschite," book ix.) even affirms that Clement, a disciple of St. Paul's, participated in Buddhist views, and that Simon Magus was not only a Christian Gnostic, but a Buddhist. § Neander," History of the Church," vol. i., p. 817: Tòv Zaoadàv kaì Bovdàv 188 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. writers report that his mother's name was Maha Maria (Maiya)—the Great Mary-and there were sramanas who represented him as a as a brother of Christ.* One of the most curious circumstances, however, connected with the legend of Gautama, is that of his being entered as a saint in the Roman calendar, and ordered to be worshipped as a saint on every 27th November, under the title of St. Josaphat. How this came about has been told by Professor Max Müller in his paper on the migration of fables in the "Contemporary Review" for July, 1870. 'A certain St. John of Damascus, who wrote in the eighth century, was the son of Sergius, minister at the Court of Khalif Almansūr. St. John became a monk, and wrote many books. Amongst other works ascribed to him is a religious romance called the "Life of Barlaam and Jōasaph," which has been distinctly proved to be derived, as to the narrative part of it, from the story of Gautama, as told in the Fátaka commentary, or the Lalita Vistara. The Greek text of St. John's romance will be found in καὶ τὸν Χριστον καὶ τὸν Μανιχαιὸν ἕνα καὶ τὸν αὐτον εἶναι.-Max Müller, Chips," p. 222. "" * Loubère, "Journal du Voyage de Siam," p. 90. Loubère was sent by Louis XIV., as ambassador to the King of Siam in the year 1687. + See especially Liebrecht, "Jahrbuch der Romanischen und Englishen Literatur," vol. i. I. He compares the Catholic romance with the "Lalita Vistara," and the likeness to the Játaka is still closer.-" Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 196. SAINT JOSAPHAT. The Migne's Patrology, with a Latin translation. bulk of the work consists of long theological and moral instructions to the Prince Jōasaph by his teacher, Barlaam, in the course of which some Buddhist Játaka stories are inserted. As the moral tone of the book, which here and there seems to betray Buddhist influence, was so popular in the Middle Ages that the romance was translated into several European languages, we need not wonder that the hero was subsequently canonized.* "To have been made a Christian saint, is not the only curious fate which has befallen the great teacher. He takes his place also in the Dic- tionnaire Infernel,' of M. Collin de Plancy,† a quaintly illustrated dictionary of all matters relating to devils, fairies, magic, astrology, and so on. There he appears in a curious woodcut as 'Sakimuni, génie ou dieu,' in the character of the Man in the Moon." * Antiquity had made Priapus a saint, and that under several names. under the title of St. Foutin, of St. the south of Italy. In Burma, the Sramana,§ or Buddhist monks, are called Phongyees, literally great glory, or Rahans, which means perfect. The life of a phongyee is still a popular one in British Burma, and must have 189 C + Paris, 1863 (sixth edition). ‡ Quoted from Rhys Davids' "Buddhism," pp. 196-7. § From Srama, "the performance of ascetism." god, the middle ages raised him into a In the south of France he was worshipped Regnaud in Burgundy, and St. Cosmo in 190 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. had still greater charms in the troublous times which preceded British rule. In the quiet and solitude of his monastery, the monk was safe from all the care and turmoil of the outer world, he could not be pressed to serve as a soldier, was free from all taxation and forced labour, and no robber was sacrilegious enough to attack a monastery. For admission to the Order, only a few necessary conditions are required, and the rules to be observed convey more an obligation to refrain from certain usages, rather than as imposing a class of duties that he has to perform. "On the part of the candidate, it is an acknowledgment of the excellence of asceticism, with an implied declaration that its obligations should be observed; and on the part of the priests by whom the ceremony is conducted, it is an ad- mission that the candidate is eligible to the reception of the office, and that so long as he fulfils its duties, he will be received as a member of the ascetic community, and be entitled to all its rights and privileges." The Buddhist kyoung, or monastery, plays an important part in the life of every Burman. It is almost the universal custom for Burmese parents in every class of life, to cause their sons to enter the monasteries as novices, for the purpose of learning to read and write. Then, again, Gautama preached * "Eastern Monachism,” p. 44. "'* BURMESE BUDDHIST PRIESTS. 191 that every man should become a monk; and in theory, if not in practice, every man does become a monk, at least once in his life. It may be only for a few days or a few weeks; or it may be for months. or years. All this while he is subject to monastic discipline, even if he is a member of the royal family. As soon as boys are able to read and write, religious books are put into their hands, from which they imbibe religious notions, and become acquainted with at least some portions of their creed. The consequence is, that when they grow up to manhood, a large proportion of them possess a respect for their religion, and a kindly regard for monks and monas- teries; and there is none of the fear or dislike with which the Brahmins are often regarded by the lower castes of Hindus in India. Before a lad can obtain the novitiate, he must be at least eight years of age, and his entrance into a monastery is a marked event in his life. He pro- ceeds through the streets to the monastery, dressed in the richest apparel his parents can afford, riding on a horse gaily caparisoned, or sitting in a handsome litter borne on the shoulders of four or more men, with gold umbrellas held over his head, and accom- panied by music, and a large procession of kinsfolk and acquaintances. On reaching the threshold of the monastery, the postulant is delivered by his 192 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 parents over to the Superior or Tsaya-dau, after whom he repeats the two Buddhist formularies of the "Three Refugees" (tun-surana)* and the ten obligations (dasa-sil). His head is then shaved, and his fine secular dress is changed for the yellow robe. From that time his identity is lost, he is sub- jected to monastic discipline, the monastery becomes his home, and he must go round every morning with his alms-bowl, and subsist on the daily food that is given him. The above display is an honour paid to the postulant on his giving up the pomps and vanities of the world, and symbolical of a somewhat similar event in the life of Gautama, who went to his palace in great pomp the day before he threw off his rich attire and assumed the garb of the ascetic. Novices do not generally remain in the monasteries beyond a few years, and then they return to secular life; but in the event of their remaining until they are twenty years of age, they can then, if they wish it, receive full ordination, and became patsengs, or professed members of the Order. * "I take refuge in Buddha; I take refuge in the Law; I take refuge in the associated Priesthood." † The ten precepts are: 1. I take the vow not to destroy life; 2. I take the vow not to steal; 3. I take the vow to abstain from impurity; 4. I take the vow not to lie; 5. I take the vow to abstain from intoxicating drinks; 6. I take the vow not to eat at forbidden times; 7. I take the vow to abstain from dancing, singing, and music; 8. I take the vow not to use scents or ornaments; 9. I take the vow not to use high or honourable seats or couches; IO. I take the vow not to receive gold or silver. RULES OF THE ORDER. are The obligations prescribed for patsengs contained in a manual called Pátimokkhan, which is ordered to be studied and learnt by heart. Every member of the Order must renounce his own will, and no room is left for the independent exertions of the mind. Every action of the day, the manner of performing it, the time it should last, the circum- stances that must attend it, have all been minutely regulated. From the moment a rahan rises in the morning, to the moment he goes to his natural rest in the evening, his only duty is to obey and follow the will and commands of the founder of the society. He advances in perfection proportionately to his fervent compliance with the injunctions, and to his conscientiously avoiding all that has been forbidden. But at the same time he must conquer self by himself. Γνώθι σεαυτὸν is one of the chief of Buddhist maxims, and "the observance of no ceremony, the belief in no creed, will avail him who fails in obtaining a complete mastery over himself." + The various sins a rahan is liable to commit, are comprised under seven principal heads, which are again subdivided and multiplied into the number of 227. The Paradzeka, or four unpardonable sins, 193 ** O W * From patsnya, five, and enga, a part-that is, proficient in the five obligations. + "Buddhism," Rhys Davids, p. 168. VOL. II. 194 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. are fornication, theft, murder, and a false profession of the attainment of the Order. If any one of these sins is committed, it involves permanent exclusion from the priesthood. But all the others are subject to the law of confession, and can be expiated by virtue of the penances imposed upon the delinquent, after he has made an avowal of his sins. The phongyees in Burma take precedence accord- ing to the number of Lents, or annual fasts of three months, which they have to keep. Those who continue phongyees for life are regarded with peculiar sanctity. Every monastery has a tsaya- dau, or abbot, who regulates its affairs and attends to the religious and moral training of its members. All towns and large villages contain a number of these religious houses, and the country, at least in Upper Burma, is portioned off into ecclesiastical divisions or dioceses subject to the authority of a gōn-ök, or bishop. The religious communities. residing in these divisions form, under the authority of the gōn-ōk, a province of the Order, similar to that of several Romanist Orders in Europe. The gōn-ōk is much respected, and his monastery out- shines all others in the division in the splendour of its carving and decorations. At Mandalay is stationed the tha-thana-boing, or patriarch. He is supreme in all matters con- nected with religion, and, next to the King, is the THE BUDDHIST PATRIARCH 195 person to whom the greatest external homage is paid. He is generally made patriarch from having been the King's instructor during youth. Hence, it generally happens that each King, on his acces- sion, appoints his own patriarch, and the one in possession of the office has to retire. Great respect is paid by the King to this high dignitary of the Church. When he goes to visit His Majesty, or visits other monasteries, he is carried on a gilt litter in great state. He lives in a magnificent monastery, highly decorated with carving, and richly gilt; and from the centre of which rises a lofty shwé-pyathat,* a dignity which even is not allowed an heir apparent to the throne. Spiritual commissioners are sent by him from time to time on tours of in- spection in the provinces, to investigate and report as to whether the rules of the Order are duly observed, and if the professed members of the religious fraternity are really qualified for their holy calling.† By an express ordinance of Gautama, a priest is * For a description of this, see page 252, vol. i. † With the exception of those of the tsaya-daus, or Abbots, the description given above of the powers of gōn-ôks and of the tha-thănā-boing, refer only to that portion of Burma still remaining under native rule, and where civil and religious institutions form component parts of the national life. In British Burma, no such high dignitaries are acknowledged, and the old ecclesiastical organization is deteriorating in consequence. The English Govern- ment, while tolerating every form of religion, will not appoint spiritual heads, or enforce the canons of any religious sect by the secular arm, and schisms have crept in since the establishment of our rule, which threaten to disorganise the ecclesiastical structure. σ 2 196 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. L allowed to retire from the Order and return to the ordinary vocations of life; or, as the Burmese express it, "throw off the robe and become a man.' The circumstances under which this can be done, are "inability to remain continent; impatience of re- straint; a wish to enter upon worldly engagements; the love of parents and friends; or doubts as to the truth of the system propounded by Gautama." But to prevent abuses, no priest, after having been once ordained, can throw off the robe without express permission being first obtained from a legal Chapter. This ordinance acts no doubt as a great safety- valve to the Order, and resembles the usage of the Church when celibacy was first enjoined among Christians. "The custom was then, that as long as a spirit of penitence and a desire of Christian perfection animated the conduct of a priest, he was exercised in the several duties of the monastic pro- fession; if he repented of his choice, the road was open, and he was at liberty to depart. Even Cyprian (Epist. 62), after extolling the merit of the virgins who had taken the vows, says, "but if they are unwilling to persevere, it is better that they should marry." It was by Benedict (Reg. C. 58) that the law was first peremptorily made that all who entered a convent should remain for life. This system was soon adopted in other convents besides. the monasterium Cassinense in which he resided; and ور "} STRICT POVERTY ENJOINED. 197 these several convents "becoming united under one form of discipline, gave rise to the first monastic Order."* Poverty is strictly enjoined upon priests, as the possession of temporal goods is supposed to offer a barrier to the perfect abnegation of self, and con- tempt for material things. The disciples of Gautama possess no common treasure, and a priest in his in- dividual right is only allowed to possess the fol- lowing eight articles, called ata-pirikara—namely, the theng-gan, composed of three robes (theng-boing, kō-wōt, and dō-gōt); a girdle for the loins; a thabeit, or alms-bowl; a razor, to shave his head and beard; a needle to stitch his clothes; and a perahankadar, or water-strainer. The latter is a necessary article, not for rendering the water more pure by straining, but to prevent the accidental destruction of life. The rule in the Pátimokkhan referring to this is, “if any priest shall knowingly drink water containing insects, it is a fault that requires confession and Giesler's Lingard's "History of the Anglo-Saxon Church," ch. i. v. ; "Text-Book of Ecclesiastical Literature," ch. xxxiv. ; "Eastern Monachism," p. 56. The chaste severity of Benedict and other fathers of his type extended to whatever related to the commerce of the two sexes. One of their favourite theories was, that if Adam had preserved his obedience to the Creator, he would have lived for ever in a state of virgin purity, and that some harmless mode of vegetation might have peopled Paradise with a race of innocent and immortal beings. The use of marriage was permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a necessary expedient to continue the human species, and as a restraint, however imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. See Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," ch. xv., p. 323. 198 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. absolution." The strainer is to be a cubit square, without a single broken thread. According to an injunction of Gautama's, the monk's habit was to be composed of cast-off rags picked up in the streets, or among tombs; and to observe this law as closely as possible, when new clothes are presented to the priests, they tear them into shreds, so as to deprive them of all com- mercial value, and then sew them together again. Hence, a priest has very little that he can call his own. The monastery in which he lives, his food and raiment, are all supplied to him by the never- failing pious liberality and ever-watchful attention of his supporters. He never concerns himself about political matters, or takes part in worldly affairs of any description, He has "no care for the morrow," and his whole attention can be con- centrated on the performance of the duties of his calling. In the early morning in all the towns and villages of Burma are to be seen long files of phongyees perambulating the streets at a measured pace, with their alms-bowl slung round their necks, into which people pour food as they pass. They are bare- footed and have no covering for the head. In the right hand they carry a large palm-leaf fan, which they hold before their face in the presence of women, so that no evil thought may enter the . THE ORDER OF NUNS. 199 mind. They are forbidden to ask for food, to look to the right or to the left; and they may not enter or loiter about the doors of houses. Gautama said : "The wise priest never asks for anything; it is a proper object for which he carries the alms-bowl; and this is his only mode of solicitation." When anything is poured into their bowls, they do not return thanks, but content themselves by saying "thado, thado," that is, well, well; and when suffi- cient has been obtained to appease their hunger they return to the monasteries to eat it. Many Burmese consider it a great act of merit to make a vow never to partake of a meal without reserving a portion of it for the phongyees. Nothing whatever is cooked in the monasteries. The hours during which food can only be eaten is between sunrise and noon; for after that time it is con- sidered liable to cloud the intellect, and unfit a priest for devoting himself to meditation, and the right performance of religious exercises. In the early days of Buddhism there was an Order of female rahans, or nuns. The Order was established by Gautama himself, and amongst its first members were his wife Yasodhara, and his foster-mother Prajapûti; but from the system having been found to be connected with so many evils, it has fallen into disrepute, and the Order is now represented by only a few old women dressed in 2 200 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. white, who reside near the monasteries, sweep about pagodas, and attend funerals. The state of a priest when alive is regarded as one of great sanctity, and their very persons thereby rendered holy. Great honours are therefore in consequence paid to their mortal remains. As soon as a priest has expired, his body is opened, the viscera extracted, and the body embalmed; after which the corpse is closely swathed with bandages of linen, and covered over with a thick coat of varnish. It is then placed between two solid pieces of wood hollowed out for the purpose, and boiling resin poured into the interstices until every crevice is filled. When this is completed, the coffin is gilded, and placed on a platform under a handsomely decorated canopy, in one of the rooms of the monastery; or in a separate build- ing erected for the purpose in its vicinity, and there lies in state until preparations are completed for the cremation, which often extend over some months. If the monastery where the priest died is situated in the neighbourhood of a large town, sixteen or twenty of the most comely damsels are chosen from some of the best families of each division of the place, and taught to perform in honour of the funeral a slow, graceful dance, accompanied with a song. The dancers are arranged in parties of 3 FUNERAL PROCESSION OF A BUDDHIST PRIEST. DO CINE A PRIEST'S FUNERAL. 201 four; each of which performs separately at intervals, and has its own music and song. An equal number of young men are similarly selected, and go through their performances in like manner. The day before the ceremony, when all are supposed to be thoroughly proficient, they proceed in procession through the town, dressed in their gayest attire, to the houses of the different heads of the com- munity, and rehearse their performances for the following day. On the morning of the funeral the coffin is taken from its platform and deposited inside a lofty catafalque,* placed upon a large car with four or more wheels, and drawn out by bullocks to the cemetery. Arriving there, the bullocks are taken out, and ropes fixed to the front and back of the car, which are quickly seized by a number of men, one party of them pulling the car in the direction of the monastery where the deceased lived, and the other towards the centre of the cemetery. To the un- initiated this scene is anything but a mournful one. The car, creaking and shaking, moves slowly back- wards and forwards, until at last, with shouts of delight, the strongest party carries it off with a * The illustration shows the catafalque on the car, and the coffin borne on the shoulders of eight men. This is sometimes done, as a matter of precaution, where no road exists, and the procession has to travel over rough ground. The coffin in such case is not then placed within the catafalque until the arrival of the car at the entrance of the cemetery. 202 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. run along the grass; more men then join and assist the beaten party, and after a little coquetting away goes the car back again. At last the car is allowed to reach the centre of the cemetery, where heaps of inflammable matter are piled up in and about it; after which the people go to refresh themselves at the numerous extempore booths, see the dancing, which is going on all the time, and place the doons, or rockets, in position that are to fire the pyre. These rockets are made out of the stem of a tree, hollowed out and filled with gunpowder, and other compound combustibles rammed down with great force, and are often fifteen feet long, with a diameter of bore of nine inches. They are firmly fixed to small cars on four wheels, and each division of the town has several of them, in which they take great pride. The rockets are planted about 150 yards from the pyre, and discharged in succession åccording to a plan previously agreed upon. They are fired by means of a match applied to a small vent at the breach, and the matter with which they are charged burning gradually, propels the car they are fastened to with considerable force and speed. Many of them, however, are discharged before the pyre is struck; a slight inequality in the ground being liable to divert the car from its direct course. Some even curve back and burst among CREMATION OF THE CORPSE. រ 203 the crowd, when severe accidents not unfrequently happen. At last one strikes the pyre, scattering around its contents and igniting the combustibles about the car, and amidst the shouts of triumph of those to whom the rocket belongs, and renewed dance and song, the bright flame shoots up, embracing each gay pinnacle and flag, till the whole catafalque comes down with a crash, and all is soon reduced to ashes. · In the towns of Burma, a particular spot is generally allotted for the construction of monas- teries, and, for the sake of quietude, is isolated from the buildings of the laity. The general form of the building is oblong. The floor or platform is raised on piles about eight feet from the ground. The framework of the edifice is all of wood, sup- ported by five posts often sixty to eighty feet long, and the walls are made of planks. Above the first roof rises a second of smaller dimensions, and beyond that again a third one, smaller than the second. This style of roof is only allowed to royal palaces, and buildings devoted to religion; and the eaves, gables, fineals, and ridge ornaments of all the roofs, are often elaborately and beautifully carved. On the front face there are frequently three flights of steps, and the building is generally 204 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. arranged as follows. A large open gallery runs on all four sides of the building, within which is a second one protected by the roof, and forming what may be called a vestibulum, as all the rooms. in the monastery are connected with and open upon it. Large shutters, working on hinges, which can be raised up and supported on poles, or closed at pleasure, separate the inner from the outer gallery. The central portion is taken up by a large hall with a handsomely carved ceiling, and the floor of which is raised about a foot higher than any other part of the building. In it are arranged the images of Gautama, and often, also, those of his favourite disciples; and the book-cases containing the library of the monastery. The state-room of the abbot is separated from the hall by a richly panelled wall, and the inner gallery partitioned off for the accommodation of the priests and novices-the western side being generally reserved for the monastery school. Some travellers in Burma have supposed that Buddhism is rapidly declining, because they see many religious buildings neglected and going to decay. This is not a correct inference. A large amount of both honour and merit attaches to the founders of new pagodas and monasteries. The honorary title of "Phura Taga," and of "Kyoung Taga," meaning the builder or supporter of a 39 C.Kegan Paul & Co. London. 非​义理 ​INTERIOR OF A BUDDHIST MONASTERY. BUDDHIST MONASTERIES. 205 pagoda or monastery, is assumed by them, of which they are very proud, and always append to their signature. The religious merit which is supposed to attach to mere repairs of such edifices is of a very much smaller value in the scale of good works; and the consequence is that many of these buildings are allowed to go to ruin, whilst new ones are founded for the sake of gaining merit and fame. The monastic system in Burma has a practical interest from its being connected with national education. Every monastery has its school, where in harmony with the national religion are learnt the same lessons which have been taught from generation to generation for a couple of thousand years. On arriving at some obscure spot in the interior of the country, the first sign of life that often strikes the ear, is the murmuring sounds proceeding from the monastery school; and there is not a town or village, scarcely even a hamlet, I think, that has not at least one of such schools. The instruction of the young is one of the several means by which merit in a Buddhistic sense is obtained, and has given rise to lay schools, also, or, as they are called, "house schools." These, though comparatively few in number as compared with monastic schools, are of great importance, as they are free from some of the disabilities that are attached to the religious seminaries-notably so in 206 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the absence of the rule precluding the attendance of female scholars.* Owing to these two classes of indigenous schools, there is scarcely a man in Burma who cannot read, write, and cipher. Sta- tistics show that there are few convicts in our gaols, natives of Burma, who are not so far grounded in the rudiments of education. The masters of the lay schools are men who have retired from active life, and whose piety gives con- fidence to their neighbours. The schools are con- ducted in their private houses, a large portion of which is given up for that purpose, and the system of teaching and the text-books are the same as those used in the monasteries. The school hours, lay and monastic alike, extend over the whole day, with fixed intervals. The discipline is strict, and there is no sparing of the rod when such is necessary. From an early period of our occupation of the country, in addition to this two-fold system of indi- genous education, the British Government established denominational schools at the four chief towns for teaching the English language and literature; and several smaller schools connected with Christian mis- sionaries were also opened out in different parts in the interior of the province. These latter being under European or American supervision and con- * The last education report of British Burma goes so far even to state "that the lay schools, where girls are taught with the boys, are almost invariably found in better order than the monastic ones, where boys are exclusively educated." NATIONAL EDUCATION. 207 trol, and furnishing a higher order of education than the indigenous ones, were supported by grants of yearly allowances from Government, under the pro- vision of certain rules known as the grants-in-aid system. This plan was followed until 1866, when my pre- decessor, Sir Arthur Phayre, drew the attention of the Government of India to the large number of monastic schools in the province, and suggested that they might be made the basis of a national system of education. The idea was one which recommended itself in every way, and the scheme was adopted. A Director of Public Instruction was appointed, together with a small staff of inspectors and circuit teachers, to be increased if the plan was found to work successfully, and a few manuals of geography and arithmetic, after the European system, were printed in the Burmese language for gratuitous distribution in the monasteries. I need hardly say that, on my assuming charge of the province in the following year, every encouragement and assistance for the development of the scheme was afforded. The literature studied and taught by the Buddhist priests is entirely religious. Here and Here and there a hierophant may be found, like the priests during the revival of letters in the Middle Ages, who is anxious to acquire some knowledge of European 208 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. literature and science. But there the analogy ends. The ambition of a Buddhist priest is confined to his own monastery, or, at any rate, to the attainment of ecclesiastical rank only. He cannot aspire to political power like the ecclesiastical statesmen who took the lead for centuries in many European cabinet councils, the fundamental rule of his Order being that he must abandon all concern with the outer world, and never receive money on any pretence whatever. For the harmonious and successful working of the new scheme, the great difficulty, therefore, as re- garded the monastery schools, for none were appre- hended or have been found connected with the lay ones, which had to be solved was, how the co- operation of the phongyees could be obtained, and a stimulus introduced into the monasteries. This has been surmounted to some considerable extent in several ways: by multiplying the instru- ments of teaching, in the increase of inspectors and circuit teachers, and translations of English books of literature and science; and also by publishing in a printed form the Pali text in most common use in the monasteries. "Fixed standards have been laid down for the examination of pupils in the three subjects most commonly taught, the Burmese lan- guage, the Pali language, and arithmetic; and money prizes, varying in value with the standard passed, are awarded at periodical examinations to S EDUCATION IN BRITISH BURMA. both teachers and pupils. The difficulty of making such offerings to the monk bound to poverty is overcome either by handing over the amount to the lay patron of the monastery, or by substituting for money a gift of books. "A certificate is granted with each prize, and a keen competition has by this means been called forth among rival scholars, and between rival schools. * "A still more useful measure, and one accepted with a no less surprising readiness, even by the monks, has been the attachment to selected schools of masters (natives of the country) trained in a Government school, appointed and salaried by the Government, and accustomed to European methods of teaching and school arrangement. Special grants of public money are also made under stated con- ditions for school buildings, and for books or school apparatus, and the English school-slate and printed text-book are already widely supplanting the palm- leaf manuscript and black board which have been in the hands of preceding generations." Shortly previous to my leaving Rangoon a Govern- ment normal school was established for the training of both male and female teachers, which now fur- nishes an annual supply of both; and it may, I think, be fairly considered that the leaven introduced 1 209 "Buddhist Schools in Burma," Fraser's Magazine, November, 1877. VOL. II. P 210 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. into the national system by all the above measures, and now working under the able superintendence of Mr. Peter Hordern, the present director of Public Instruction, whom I especially selected for the post from the officers of the Educational Department in Bengal, is full of promise for the future of the rising province of British Burma. With these remarks this work is closed. Its pro- gress has awakened many pleasant memories, and it is with a feeling of regret, heightened by a con- sciousness of short-comings, that the book is brought to a conclusion, and laid before the public. - e APPENDICES P 2 APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. OFFICIAL REPORTS REGARDING AN EXPEDITION AGAINST AN ARAKAN HILL TRIBE. Extract of Station Orders by Major F. V. MacGrath, Commanding at Akyab, dated Akyab, 8th January, 1842. A FEW words are due from the Commanding Officer on the return of the Detachment Arakan Light Infantry, commanded by Lieutenant Fytche, ordered against a clan of Walleng Hill Tribes, as the duty has been performed in a highly creditable and efficient manner, and which the Civil Officer has reported will facilitate his intercourse with the Hill Tribes, and be a check to these independent races of Wallengs in future attacking, or other- wise molesting, the mountain clans under British rule and protection. I 2. The conduct of the detachment, composed of 1 lieutenant, I subadar, I jemadar, 3 havildars, 3 naicks, 2 buglers, and 80 privates, in the attack of from 200 to 300 men posted greatly to advantage on precipitous mountain cliffs, forming strong natural fortifications, renders great credit to all employed; nor is it less to their credit the cheerfulness with which they undertook the ex- treme fatigue and exposure, without tents, they were subject to. 214 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 3. To Lieutenant Fytche, for his personal exertion and gallan- try in leading so spirited a dash, to the native commissioned and non-commissioned officers, buglers, and soldiers under his com- mand, in whose praise he speaks so highly, Major MacGrath feels much pleasure in offering the assurance of his acknowledg- ments and thanks, which he will not fail to report with a detail of their proceedings to higher authority. Extract of District Orders by Lieutenant-Colonel Pogson, Com- manding in Arakan, Head Quarters, Kyouk Phyoo, dated 11th January, 1842. Lieutenant-Colonel Pogson, Commanding in Arakan, has received from Major MacGrath, Commanding Arakan Light Infantry, a report detailing the arduous exertions and gallantry of the detach- ment of that corps, under the command of Lieutenant Fytche, in attacking the Wallengs, taking their stockade by storm, and expelling them from a position which, on account of its great strength and inaccessibility, had been occupied by them for the last five-and-thirty years, enabling them to commit depredations on the territories under British rule and protection, and to carry their inhabitants into slavery. 2. To the judicious arrangements of Lieutenant Fytche, accompanied by Lieutenant Phayre, the Senior Assistant Com- missioner at Akyab, difficulties were overcome insurmountable to everything but their judgment and gallantry, and the devotion and bravery displayed by those under their command. 3. The lieutenant-colonel therefore feels it incumbent on him to record the high sense he entertains of the talent, zeal, and intelligence so conspicuous on the parts of Lieutenants Fytche and Phayre on this occasion, and to add that it will be a gratifying part of his duty to report their gallant and meritorious exertions, and those of the detachment, to His Excellency the Commander- in-Chief. APPENDIX A. From Lieutenant-Colonel Pogson, Commanding in Arakan, to Major-General Lumley, Adjutant-General of the Army, No. 13, dated Kyouk Phyoo, 11th January, 1842. 215 I have the honour to forward a letter from Major MacGrath, dated 8th instant, containing a detailed report of the gallantry of Lieutenant Fytche, and the Detachment Arakan Light Infantry recently employed against the Walleng Hill Tribe, and the entire success of his operations, also copy of a District order, which the occasion seems to demand. 2. Lieutenant Fytche having been a passenger to Arakan in the same vessel with myself, I am enabled to add my testimony in his favour to that of Major MacGrath, as he possessed the characteristics of a well-informed, intelligent, and promising officer. I therefore feel much pleasure in recommending him to the favourable consideration of His Excellency the Commander- in-Chief. Despatch from Lieutenant, now Major-General, Sir Arthur Phayre, to Captain Bogle, the Commisssioner of Arakan, dated 17th January, 1842. 1 Subadar. I Jemadar. 3 3 Naicks. 70 Sepoys. 2 Buglers. I have the honour to report to you that on the 10th December last I left Akyab in company with a party of the Arakan local battalion of the strength stated in the margin, and under the command of Lieutenant Fytche, 70th Regiment N.I., for the purpose of proceeding against the Koomee clan called Wulleng, which had been guilty of making several attacks on tribes within the British frontier, as detailed in my letter to your address of the 23rd July. 2. The detachment proceeded by water to the Koladyne Thannah, which is about 100 miles north from Akyab. We reached it by the night of the 12th, and then went without delay as far up the Mee Khyoung as the boats could proceed. Early on the 13th the detachment continued up the Mee Khyoung in canoes; a drizzling rain had commenced falling before daylight, Havildars. 216 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. P and continued throughout the day. At 5 p.m. we reached the halting-place. It rained very hard all night. The next morning, the 14th, the stream was so much swollen, and the rain still falling so heavily that it was evident we could not now continue our march, which from this point lay up the beds of mountain streams, generally dry, or nearly so, at this season. As this spot was not a fit one for a halt of some days (for it was now evident that several days' detention was inevitable), it was judged expe- dient to return to the Thannah, which we reached at 5 p.m. The rain was heavy and incessant throughout the day. During the 15th and 16th it rained at intervals, and we could not with any chance of finding open paths proceed on until the evening of the 20th, when we advanced up the Mee Khyoung as far as our boats could go. This unavoidable detention necessarily gave the Wullengs notice of our approach, and though I had not from the first deemed it practicable for us to surprise them, yet we should have been able to inflict considerable injury upon them by the seizure and destruction of their property. As the capture of any of their persons was scarcely to be expected, this was the only means we had of making any impression on them, and of securing the object in view, namely, by retaliation convincing them of their insecurity in their much-vaunted position, and thereby working on their fears and preventing their making attacks upon their neighbours, or those at least within the British frontier. On the 21st we again proceeded on in the canoes, and reached the mouth of the Sumeng Khyoung by 5 p.m. 4. On the 22nd, finding still too much water on the bed of the Sumeng to allow of marching through it, we had to take a more difficult route across the hills, until we joined the Sumeng higher in its course, and halted for the day at 4 p.m. 5. On the 23rd, leaving the Sumeng, the route lay up a small mountain torrent, and we crossed some steep hills into the Sumeng once more, where we halted for the night. Early on the 24th we were afoot, having a stiff march before us to the village of attack, it being at an elevation of about 4,000 feet above the Sumeng. It stands near the summit where the face of the moun- APPENDIX A. 217 tain is nearly perpendicular. About 10 a.m. we were sufficiently near to hear yells and shouts from the village, or rather from men stationed above it, but not a man could we catch a glimpse of ; numerous masses of rock, trunks of trees, and other missiles were hurled down by them from above, with the object apparently of intimidating us, for we had not yet advanced sufficiently near for these to take effect. Lieutenant Fytche now judiciously ordered the detachment to make a detour from the regular path, and we advanced by the left flank of the village, having Koomees ahead with dhâs, to cut a path through the thick stunted bamboo jungle. A few shots were fired at us, but the Wullengs concealed them- selves so effectually, that not one of them could be seen, though their position was disclosed by the smoke of their muskets. When we were within about 100 yards, Lieutenant Fytche directed a few shots to be fired at the particular rocks and bushes where parties of the enemy were known or suspected to be ensconced, which had the effect of dislodging them; some were wounded by our fire while springing from their hiding-places. The detachment now advanced, or climbed, as quickly as the steep, indeed almost perpendicular, nature of the ground would admit of, until they reached the village. The houses were all empty, as was to have been expected. So steep was the spot where the village stood, that the inhabitants, I found, could only leave their houses and go down the face of the hill, or communicate with each other by means of ladders; they had now removed all these and retired to the summit of the hill, pulling their ladders after them. A pursuit of them would have been useless. The precipitous nature of the ground, which rendered an ascent, save by ladders, next to impossible, and the fatiguing march the men had already per- formed, rendered it extremely improbable that we should be able to overtake any of the fugitives. Provisions also would not have been procurable, and it was advisable not to exhaust our supplies by delay in chasing an enemy, whom there was little or no chance of ever overtaking, and in a country where we could expect to find nothing. The village consisted as reported of about eighty houses. We set it on fire, and after halting here about two hours 218 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and a half, we descended the hill, and returned to the place we started from in the Sumeng, having had a very hard day's work. None of our men were wounded save in the feet, by the sharp bamboo spikes with which the hill-side was studded in grassy spots where they could be concealed. 6. From the Sumeng we returned by a different route to that we had travelled in our advance, through a difficult mountainous country, never before travelled by an European. The fact of a military detachment having marched by these paths will, I am convinced, have a great moral effect on the whole of the sur- rounding tribes. For a detail of each day's march I beg to refer you to a copy of a private Journal I kept, which is herewith annexed. We arrived in Akyab on the 30th ultimo. 7. In conclusion, I beg to state that although none of the people of this clan have been captured, yet I feel assured that the fact of a military detachment having reached and taken possession of the village of a people so feared by the adjoining tribes as the Wullengs were, will have a great effect on the Koomees generally. It will give confidence to those subject to our rule, and I have hopes that it will be the means of deterring other tribes beyond our frontier from attacking those within it. From Lieutenant Phayre, Senior Assistant Commissioner, Akyab, to Major MacGrath, Commanding Arakan Light Infantry, dated Akyab, 3rd January, 1842. Having applied to you for a party of the Arakan Light Infantry, to proceed against a Clan of Koomees, termed Wallengs, who had made some attacks on tribes residing within the British frontier, and the party having returned to cantonments, I beg herewith to express through you my thanks to Lieutenant Fytche, command- ing the detachment sent on service, for the efficient assistance he gave me in every way, to secure the objects I had in view. 2. The very strong position occupied by the Walleng Clan having been reached after a toilsome march through a moun- APPENDIX A. 219 tainous country, I feel assured that the Wallengs have received a check which will give confidence and security to the neighbouring clans. I cannot conclude this letter without expressing my admiration of the spirited style in which the men of the detach- ment scaled the steep and almost inaccessible rock upon which the village of attack was situated, and which, even if undefended, would have proved a serious obstacle to any advancing party. 3. Lieutenant Fytche having returned by difficult mountain paths which no European had hitherto traversed, will have the effect of showing many of these tribes that they are much more within our power than they had hitherto supposed, and my inter- course with them will be much facilitated thereby. APPENDIX B. OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH SERVICES IN THE BASSEIN DISTRICT. From Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, to C. Allen, Esquire, Secretary to the Government of India, dated Rangoon, 10th March, 1853. I BEG to submit for the information of the Most Noble the Governor-General of India in Council, copies of the accompanying Reports from Lieut. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, reporting an expedition in company with Captain Rennie, I.N., and the boats of the steam frigate Zenobia, also of H.M.'s steamer Nemesis, against the late Burmese Governor of the Bassein district. 2. The operations have been gallantly and successfully con- ducted. The force of the late Governor was mainly composed of up-country Burmese soldiers, numbering more than three thousand men; these were, from the excellent arrangements of Lieut. Fytche, cordially and ably supported by Captain Rennie, met and routed by a very inferior force. I beg respectfully to bring the affair prominently to the notice of the Most Noble the Governor- General of India in Council, as it appears to me exceedingly creditable to the above-mentioned officers, and all concerned therein. I now have strong hopes that the Bassein district will ere long be quieted. :..: APPENDIX B. 221 From Lieutenant A. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, to Capt. A. P. Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, Rangoon, No. 13, dated Bassein, 14th January, 1853. Having received information that a Burmese chief of marauders named Nga-tee-lwot was ravaging the country to the S.E. of this city, I proceeded on the morning of the 5th instant, in H.M.'s steamer Nemesis, to attack and disperse his band. 2. On our passage down the river we were informed by some villagers near Na-poo-tau that a large detachment from this band had passed a few hours before us to attack the village of Houng- gyee-kywon. We immediately proceeded on to that island, and were in time to save the village; but the marauders escaped through a small creek, where our boats after a fruitless pursuit were obliged to return on account of the shallowness of the water. On the following morning we proceeded up the Pamawadie Creek in progress to Woing-ka-na, stated to be Nga-tee-lwot's head-quarters, and anchored in the evening off Myoung-mya-myo, which was as far as the steamer could advance in that direction. 3. At daybreak next morning I left the steamer with two paddle-box boats and a cutter, each boat mounting a 3-pounder gun and manned by Europeans, accompanied also by a consider- able force of Karens in their own boats, and about midday came upon a large detachment of the marauders at Tsago-mya village, who fired upon our boats, but were dispersed after a few dis- charges of grape, leaving several muskets and a number of spears and other arms behind them in their flight. After taking posses- sion of these and destroying a quantity of their boats and stores of rice, &c., we proceeded on our journey, and anchored that evening at Pegon, which place we left at 2 a.m. on the following morning, and about 8 a.m. came upon the outpost guard of the marauders at Kya-gyan, who commenced a sharp fire of musketry upon us from behind a breastwork that they had erected; but our boats, dashing forward and opening their fire, soon silenced that of the marauders, and drove them from behind their works. Three large war boats, and the standard of the officer commanding the 222 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. detachment, were captured here. After a short halt we then pro ceeded on to Woing-ka-na, which consisted of three large villages one of which was strengthened in the same way as their outpost with strong breastworks. The marauders, however, would not await our arrival, but fled, some to the jungle and others in their boats; the latter we pursued, but could not come up with. The Karens in their boats might have overtaken them, but they hold these marauders in the greatest dread, and I failed in my endeavours to urge them in their pursuit. The marauders were completely surprised, and in their flight left almost everything behind them, which, together with their houses, stores of rice, &c., I ordered to be destroyed. We remained at Woing-ka-na that evening, and left next morning for the steamer which we reached on the evening of the following day, and next morning, the 12th instant, returned to Bassein, off which we anchored the same evening. > 4. Myoung-mya-myo has been a very large place, and consisted, I should imagine from the ruins, of upwards of 1,500 houses, but the whole place has been completely destroyed by Nga-tee-lwot. It is situated in a fine country, with very extensive plains all around it, admirably adapted for the growth of rice. All the villages on our route had been destroyed in the same manner, and not a single house was left standing except in the villages where the dacoits had taken up their quarters. None of the plains, with the exception of small patches about Woing-ka-na, appeared to have been cultivated this last season. I appointed a head man at Woing-ka-na,one at Kya-gyan, and another at Myoung- mya-myo, with directions to call the people in from the jungle and settle them down on the old sites of their villages. They each had one or two hundred followers with them, and spoke confidently of success now that the robber bands had been dispersed ; but I much doubt whether they will be able to hold their ground, unless detachments of police are stationed at different commanding points to overawe these robber bands and give confidence to the people. 5. During the expedition I received the greatest attention from Captain Goodwin, commanding H.M.'s steamer Nemesis, who . APPENDIX B. 223 showed himself most anxious to meet my wishes in every respect, and nothing could have exceeded the gallantry and endurance of Mr. Baker, 1st officer of the Nemesis, and his noble boat's crew, in the arduous duties which they had to perform. From Lieutenant A. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, to Captain A. P. Phayre, Commissioner and Governor General's Agent, Pegu, No 27, dated Bassein, the 3rd February, 1853. Having found that every effort of mine to settle this district would be fruitless until the Meng-gyee, or old Burmese governor, and other Burmese chiefs acting or professing to act under his orders, were driven out or destroyed, they having complete possession of the whole of the upper portion of the district above Bassein, I applied on the 19th ultimo to the naval officer com- manding in the Bassein river to furnish, in conjunction with the officer commanding this garrison, such force as they might con- sider necessary for the purpose; supplying them at the same time with an account of the positions and strength of the enemy as my means of information concerning them admitted of. The officer commanding the garrison refused to furnish any assistance whatever, stating his force far to weak to detach, and that he had stringent orders not to move out from the vicinity of his post. But the senior naval officer entered most cordially into my views and promised me every aid in his power. 2. It being an object of the greatest importance that the Burmese troops should be attacked without delay, I determined in consultation with Captain Rennie (the senior naval officer here) not to wait the result of any application of troops from Rangoon, where it was improbable, we believed, they could be spared, but to proceed at once against the enemy with the naval force here and about 1,500 armed Karens and Burmese, whom I had col- lected for the purpose. 3. We accordingly left this on the morning of the 21st ult. in H.M. steamer Nemesis with boats of the H.C.S.F. Zenobia in tow, and proceeded up the Dugga creek (which enters the Bassein 224 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. river, about ten miles above the town of Bassein), and anchored that afternoon off the Karen village of Kyan-gyee-doung, which was as far as the steamer could proceed in that direction. The stronghold of the Burmese chiefs, which was the first object of our attack, was situated about thirty miles further up this creek, and we left the steamer the same evening in boats, accompanied with our native force, and arrived off their outpost about 2 p.m. on the following day. The outpost was situated on the bank of the creek, strongly entrenched, and the river staked across with the rows of stakes, and was as strong a military position as could well have been taken up. Immediately we arrived within range of their guns they fired upon us; but our guns opening their fire, soon silenced that of the enemy; and the sailors rushing into the water, stormed the place with the bayonet, and drove them from behind their works. After destroying the place we proceeded up the stream to Kon-ghoung, the head-quarter of the Burmese chief Nga-thein, which, however he deserted on our approach, and retreated to a place called Eng-ma, situated about sixteen miles inland, where two other chiefs, Nga-tha-bon and Mow-00, had also their head-quarters. We remained that night in our boats at Kon-ghoung, and on the following morning landed four guns, which, with eighty sailors and a native force of about 1,500 men, we marched on to Eng-ma, and within five miles on this side of it came upon the enemy, who were drawn up in the jungle and across the road to oppose our passage. Our advanced guard, consisting of about 600 natives, were at first driven back, but were soon rallied, and the flanking parties being reinforced, the enemy were driven through the jungle into an open plain, where they attempted to make a stand, under their chief Nga-tha-bon, who boldly advanced in front of his men, cheering them on; a fortunate shot from my rifle, however, disabled him, when the whole of his force broke and dispersed. The other two chiefs escaped with difficulty, one of them, Nga-thein, almost naked; he throwing off his gilt hat and gold-embroidered robes of office in his flight. 4. Eng-ma we found abandoned; but towards evening a 盘 ​APPENDIX B. 225 number of the inhabitants came in from neighbouring jungles and informed us that the enemy had retreated up the country, and, they supposed, had gone to join the Meng-gyee; but they begged us to burn the place down to prevent the chance of their col- lecting there again, and that they themselves would return to their old places of abode, from which they had been driven. Eng-ma was formerly an insignificant village, but when we found it, it contained upwards of 3,000 houses, nearly the whole of which had evidently been run up in the last few months, the people having been driven to it from Pantanau and Donabew and the neighbouring villages. The chief Nga-tha-bon, mentioned above as disabled, was Myo-thoo-gyee of Pantanau, and died the day after the receipt of his wound. We bivouacked that night in the open plain opposite Eng-ma, marched back to our boats the following morning, and the evening after that, the 25th ult., reached the steamer at Kyan-gya-doung. 5. On the 26th we started up the river, anchored for the night at Phura-gyee, left that on the following morning, and reached Nga-thaing-ghyoung (within a few miles of Kyouk-khyoung-ko-lay, where the Meng-gyee was said to be encamped) about 1 p.m., where we anchored, that being the extreme point to which the Nemesis could ascend the Bassein river. There learnt that the Meng-gyee had been joined by the troops that we had dispersed at Eng-ma and Khyoung-gon, and had marched out from his position towards Lemena. We determined on pursuing him, and pushed on in the morning in the boats to Lemena, a distance of about thirty miles by water, where we arrived about 5 p.m. The in- habitants of the village, which is a very extensive one, appeared at first, if not absolutely hostile, to be very lukewarm in our cause, and it was not until late at night that I could extract from them the exact position of the Meng-gyee, which turned out only to be eight miles distant. On my gaining this information I formed a resolution to cut off his retreat by sending a select party of our native auxiliaries round his right flanks to march that night and attack him in the rear, while we marched down upon his front in the morning. Mr. Baker, first officer of the Nemesis, very gal- VOL II. ૨ 226 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. lantly volunteered to lead the native party, which started at 3 a.m. Our main body left at 7 a.m. and marched on until 1 p.m., when we came up with our advanced party, who it appeared had suc- ceeded in getting in front of the Meng-gyee, but at the sight of his overwhelming force, after firing a few shots, retreated into the jungle. After coming up with our advanced party we halted, and I sent forward scouts to bring intelligence of the Meng-gyee's movements, who shortly returned and reported that he had halted five miles in our front, and imagined that he had only been en- countered by a band of marauders, and had no idea that we were so close to him. I immediately determined, in consultation with Captain Rennie, to halt where we then were, and to make a night march round his right flank with the whole of our force, and get in his front by daylight if possible. Everything succeeded as we wished, and we arrived in front of his encampment about half-an- hour before daylight, and drew up our forces across the road, masking the guns in some low jungle. A little after daylight the enemy's camp began to break up, and their advanced guard, consisting of about 800 Ava soldiers, marched down upon us, followed close by the main body, composed of about 2,500 fighting men under the Meng-gyee. They had heard that some body of men were in their front, but merely thought it was the same party that had fired on them the day before. They therefore advanced boldly, and seeing only our native force (all the Europeans were lying down in a line behind the guns) opened a smart fire; they were allowed to advance within 150 yards, when our guns opened upon them with grape, which tore through their masses, throwing them into complete disorder, and they broke and fled in all directions. Forty-eight bodies were found in front of our guns, and a great number were killed in the pursuit. Fifty prisoners were taken, two of whom are the Meng-gyee's adopted sons. Seven guns were also brought in, together with a number of muskets, spears, and dahs, and a quantity of ammunition. 6. The loss in the European portion of our forces was trifling; during the whole expedition only one officer and three seamen were wounded. The exact loss of our native auxiliaries I have not APPENDIX B. 227 After pur- yet been able to ascertain, but it was of small extent. suing the Meng-gyee's forces for some distance we marched back to our boats, where we arrived the same evening, and returned the following day to the steamer at Nga-thaing-ghyoung, at which place I remained one day, making arrangements for the settle- ment of the country from whence we had driven the Burmese troops, and on the morning of the 2nd returned to Bassein, where we arrived this day, the 3rd instant. 7. Immediately the Burmese forces were dispersed, the whole country turned out against them. I offered a reward of one viss of silver for the capture of the Meng-gyee, and think it not impro- bable that he will be brought in, as his horse was shot, and he escaped on foot to the jungle. At any rate, his power in this district is completely destroyed, and if not captured he will not remain here, but endeavour to effect his escape to Upper Ava, by jungle road, which leads under the Yoma-doung range. 8. The results of my first expedition, reported to you in my letter to your address, dated the fourteenth ultimo, have turned out everything that could be wished. The men whom I appointed there have been able to hold their ground, and the people are coming in from the jungles and quietly settling down on the old sites of the villages. I have no doubt that the effect of the present expedition, which has completely destroyed Burmese in- fluence in this district, will be equally favourable. Many men of influence are now coming forward for appointment in the upper portion of the district, which before we started I could get no one to accept. I have also seen a large portion of my district during the late expeditions, and become to a certain extent acquainted with the feelings of the inhabitants, and I shall not now be working entirely in the dark in making arrangements for the settlement of the country. 9. Nothing could have exceeded the admirable arrangements made by Captain Rennie, commanding H.C.S.F. Zenobia through- out the whole expedition, who was most ably seconded by Captain Goodwin, of H.M.'s steamer Nemesis, 2nd Lieutenant Aylesbury, of the Zenobia, Mr. Baker, 1st officer of the Nemesis, and Lieu- Q 2 228 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. tenant Manderson, of the Bengal Artillery, who acted as a volun- teer with the force, and commanded the guns. The endurance of the boats' crews was most surprising, and the cheerfulness with which they performed forced marches and other duties they were unaccustomed to, call for the highest praise, and I hope you will not fail to bring the conduct of all concerned before the notice of Government. From C. Allen, Esquire, Secretary to the Government of India, to Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, dated Fort William, the 19th March, 1853. I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your two despatches, dated respectively the 19th ultimo, No. 18, and 10th instant, No. 24, enclosing Captain Fytche's reports of a successful attack upon bands of marauders, and of an expedition against the late Burmese Governor of the Bassein District. 2. In reply, I am directed by the Most Noble the Governor- General of India in Council to observe that the services reported in these two despatches, especially against the Meng-gyee, near Bassein, reflect the greatest credit on all concerned. The enter- prise, judgment, and gallantry conspicuous in the conduct of Captain Fytche, the Deputy Commissioner, are highly honourable to him, while the excellent spirit with which all who were engaged carried on the joint duties of the expedition are worthy of all praise. 3. On a report from His Excellency Commodore Lambert, the Government has already conveyed its acknowledgments to Com- mander Rennie, and those who served with him, and it has now, I am desired to state, to offer to Captain Fytche the special thanks of the Governor-General of India in Council for his conduct as reported on the present occasion, and to express his warm approbation of that officer's proceedings, as well as of the conduct of Captain Goodwin (of the Nemesis), Mr. Baker, and Mr. Manderson, who accompanied him. His Lordship in Council, I am desired to state, anticipates the best consequences from these spirited and skilful proceedings. APPENDIX B. 229 From Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, to C. Allen, Esquire, Secretary to the Government of India, dated Prome, 19th April, 1853. I have the honour to forward for the information of the Most Noble the Governor-General of India in Council, copy of a despatch, No. 43, dated 26th March, 1853, to my address from Captain Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, reporting the proceedings of the force of seamen and marines, under Com- mander Rennie, I.N., and of the native levies under himself, in co-operation with the attacks made by the detachment under Sir John Cheape, K.C.B., during last March, upon the bandit chief Myat-htoon, in the neighbourhood of Donabew. The force under Captain Fytche was employed in a very arduous service, and I feel assured rendered essential aid to the general operations under Sir John Cheape. I trust that the people sent in pursuit of the bandit chief by Captain Fytche may yet capture him. From Lieutenant A. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, to Captain A. P. Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent, Pegu, No. 43, dated Bassein, the 26th March, 1853. I have the honour to inform you that about midday of the 25th ultimo I received a communication from the Goung-gyok of Lemena that a large British force had arrived at Heng-tha-da from Prome to attack the Talaing chief Myat-htoon in his strong- hold at Kywn-ka-dzeng, and commenced their march for that place on the evening of the 22nd ultimo. Although I had received no intimation, official or otherwise, from any British officer that a force was being moved against Myat-htoon, the information coming from a Burmese chief in whom considerable reliance could be placed, and knowing Heng-tha-da to be only three days' march from the enemy's position, I determined to act at once upon it and proceed myself, in company with such force 230 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. as the naval officer commanding in the Bassein river could furnish (any aid from the military garrison at Bassein being hopeless, as I had been officially informed that not a single man should be detached from that post without an order from General Godwin), and raise the country in Myat-htoon's rear, to cut off his retreat when attacked, or co-operate with Sir J. Cheape's force, as cir- cumstances might point out as most fit, 2. I accordingly placed myself in communication with Captain Rennie, the senior naval officer here, who entered most cordially into my views, and at 2 P.M. of the 26th ultimo we proceeded up the Bassein river in H.M.'s steamer Nemesis, with the boats of H.C.'s steamer Zenobia in tow, and anchored at 8 A.M. at Kang- gyee-doung in the Dugga creek, which was as far as the steamer could proceed in that direction. We left the Nemesis here, and advanced in the boats up the Dugga creek, and arrived at Kyoung-gon at 8 a.m. of the following morning, where we found a note from Captain Smith, the Deputy Commissioner of Tharawah and Political Officer with Sir J. Cheape, dated the 25th ultimo, informing us of the arrival of the force at Khai-boung, within one day's march of Kywn-ka-dzeng. I hastened forward my arrange- ments for a native force which I had ordered to be collected here, to close the Wet-Khyoung road, leading from this on the enemy's position, and pushed on in the evening to Eng-ye', at which place and at Tounglo the main body of our Burmese and Karen auxiliaries had been directed to assemble. On the morning of the 28th ultimo a note arrived from Captain Smith, dated 27th ultimo, stating that Sir J. Cheape "had made a flank movement to the westward," which might delay his advance. Knowing, from the direction in which Sir J. Cheape marched, that he could. not be more at any time than one day or two easy day's march from the enemy, I informed him in reply that we would advance on Myat-htoon's position by three roads on the 2nd instant (this letter, however, does not appear to have reached him). All our preparations being completed by the evening of the 1st instant, we advanced on the morning of the 2nd instant, the Europeans consisting of 90 seamen and marines, with four small field-pieces, APPENDIX B. 231 and a native force of 1,200 men, marching on the centre road, and two detachments under the command of the Goung-gyokes of Lemena and Kyoung-kon, the former with 500 men and the latter with 300, marching by the roads on our right and left flanks (vide sketch annexed), our base of operations extending about 12 miles. We only marched four miles that day, driving in en route an outpost of Myat-htoon's consisting of about 100 men, and bivouacked in the large plain of Tho-gyo-pyeet, hoping to receive further information of Sir John Cheape's movements, or to hear the welcome sound of his guns. Having received no infor- mation whatever of Sir John Cheape's force, but imagining that he must be in our immediate vicinity, and that his attack could not possibly be delayed beyond the 3rd, we determined on advancing. Little or no resistance was met with on our march, the enemy retreating from their breastworks as we advanced, until our arrival at his strongly-entrenched position on the left bank of the Dunan lake, which was occupied in great force, and from which a very heavy fire was opened upon us. Having got our guns into posi- tion, however, and lined the banks with musketry, we kept down their fire somewhat, and parties being pushed across the lake to the right and left, turned the flanks of the enemy's entrenchments, when they fled in the greatest confusion, leaving behind them a nine-pounder carronade, 3 brass jingals of large calibre, and 32 muskets. We came to a determination to halt in the enemy's works that day, and push on to Myat-htoon's position, from which we were only 2 miles distant, the next morning. Myat-htoon him- self, however, with the whole of his forces, came down to attack us at half-past 4 P.M.; and our native force having fired away the whole of their ammunition by daybreak (the attack extending to that period), and hearing nothing of Sir John Cheape's force, we thought it advisable to make a retrograde movement to our boats. The enemy, from the severe treatment they had received, and the perfect order in which we retired, did not attempt to arrest our movement, and we reached the boats without the loss of a single European. The native auxiliaries, who behaved uncommonly well, and protected our flanks when recrossing the guns, suffered, 232 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. I am sorry to say, a loss of eleven killed and several wounded. The enemy's loss I have since ascertained to have been forty killed and a large number wounded. 3. Nothing of any consequence occurred up to the 12th instant, when we moved to A-toung, at which place the Dugga creek is fordable, and from whence a good road leads to Myat-htoon's position. We here heard from Captain Smith that Sir John Cheape had made another retrograde movement, and we were advised if we thought necessary to take up another position. On sounding the feelings of the natives, who were very much dis- heartened by the delay that had taken place in the attack on Myat-htoon, I found that if we retreated the whole of the people in that part of the country, as also some portion actually of my own native force, would lose all confidence in us, and for their own protection go over to Myat-htoon, and that his power and influence would be at least doubled thereby. I therefore resolved to hold our position at all hazards, informed Captain Smith of the feelings of the natives and our own resolve, and most strongly urged the necessity of an early advance. On the 17th instant we received information that Sir J. Cheape would decidedly break ground on that date, and march upon Myat-htoon's position the following morning. On receiving this information we determined also to advance, and marched from A-toung on the 18th and halted half way at Ain-gyee. At 8 p.m. we fired three guns as a signal, which was returned by three rockets from Sir J. Cheape's camp. On the following morning we pushed on to the enemy's position, on reaching which we found Sir J. Cheape's advanced guard had arrived about twenty minutes before us. We experienced little opposition on our route, our flanking parties turning the breast- works wherever we encountered them, when the enemy invariably retreated. The works, however, were none of them occupied in strength, the greater part of their defenders having been withdrawn to oppose Sir John Cheape's force. We remained at Kywn-ka- dzeng until half-past 1 P.M. of the 22nd, when we were abruptly turned out of it by the place accidentally taking fire. During the halt at Kywn-ka-dzeng I sent out my native forces in all directions APPENDIX B. 233 in pursuit of Myat-htoon. They came upon his traces on two occasions, shot down several of his followers, and recovered a number of tools that had been taken from the Engineer Park, but he himself escaped. The native force with me, who had been ordered out for only a five days' campaign, and had by this time been out nearly a month, having become, moreover, gorged with the plunder of Myat-htoon's village, were most anxious to return to their homes, and I found it hopeless to attempt to keep them out any longer. I therefore returned with them to Bassein, where my presence was much required, and ordered up the Goung- gyoks of Pan-ta-naw, Shwe-lon and Kyeng-gon, with their people, to pursue Myat-htoon, and have every hope that they will ulti- mately succeed to bring him in. Myat-htoon is, however, well acquainted with the deep forest country, to which he has fled, and some time will probably elapse before he is taken. My people, too, are ignorant of the jungles in which he has taken refuge; he therefore should be pursued also from the side of Donabew, Dza-lon, Veng-don, &c., when he must fall into our hands. 4. During our stay at Kywn-ka-dzeng about 5,000 families came in who had been driven from the surrounding country; these returned at once to their homes, and appeared to be delighted to escape from Myat-htoon's sway. Between three and four hundred muskets were given up by them to me, one 2-pounder brass gun, and two brass jingals. 5. I cannot conclude this letter without expressing my admira- tion throughout the whole expedition of the conduct of Com- mander Rennie, I.N., 1st Lieutenant Selby of the H.C. steam frigate Zenobia, Mr, Baker, 1st officer of the Nemesis; and indeed of every officer and man who accompanied the expedition; nothing could have exceeded the cheerfulness with which they performed long marches and other duties they were unaccustomed to, and I hope you will not fail to bring their conduct to the notice of Government. 234 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT From C. Allen, Esquire, Secretary to the Government of India, to Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, dated Fort William, 5th May, 1853. I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your despatch, No. 31, dated 19th ultimo, forwarding a report of Captain Fytche's proceedings in co-operation with the force of Brigadier-General Cheape, against Myat-htoon, in the neighbourhood of Donabew. In reply, I am directed to request that you will communicate to Captain Fytche the full approbation of the Government of India, and the satisfaction with which it has viewed the spirited and persevering conduct of himself and of those who acted with him on this occasion. In the event of Myat-htoon being captured, I am directed to request that you will take special orders regarding him. His Lordship in Council is aware that this man is not an officer of the Burmese Government, and consequently is no better than a robber chief. But the magnitude of his force, his pro- tracted defence, and soldierly conduct forbid his being ranked as a mere dacoit, and require some special treatment. From Major A. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, to Captain Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, Rangoon, No. 29, Judicial, dated Bassein, 18th February, 1854 In continuation of my letter No. 11, of 22nd January last, to your address, I have the honour to inform you that agreeably to Ist Madras Fusiliers. my intention stated therein, I moved out against the rebels on the morning of the 23rd ultimo, leaving in boats about 2 A.M. with a force as per margin, and 400 of the inhabitants of the country who had acted with me against the Burmese troops and I Bat. Major. 1 Assistant Surgeon. 2 Sergeants. 3 Corporals. 20 Privates. 19th M.N.I. 1 Ensign. 2 Native Commissioned Officers. Non-Commissioned Officers. 6 "" 45 Sepoys. marauders on former occasions. 2. We moved up the river all that day, anchoring for the night at Taboo village, proceeded on our journey next morning at day- APPENDIX B. 235 break, and arrived at Keintalee about II A.M. Information that I could strictly depend upon here reached me that the rebels were marching down on Bassein by both banks of the river, that a force of about 300 men were at Phura-gyee, ten miles above us on the right bank, and that Nga-tha-oo, the Pe'neng of Ye'gyee, with 800 men, and another force under the dacoit chief Hla-bau, con- sisting of about 300 men, a short distance in his rear, were on the left bank. I determined to attack the smaller force first, and destroy it if possible, and then move against the larger force on the opposite bank, to gain correct information in the meantime of whose movements and intended halting-place for the night, I despatched scouts. 3. I left the main road from Keintalee to Phura-gyee, and marched by a circuitous route, with which I was acquainted, in the hope of being able to surprise the rebels, requesting Major Barker to move up the river at the same time with the boats. I arrived at Phura-gyee at 5 P.M., but the rebels had obtained information of our movements, and retreated on their head-quarters at Nga-thaing-khyoung, 4. The spies whom I had despatched from Keintalee to gain information returned during the night, and stated that Nga-tha-oo had halted in a large plain called Mug-gay-la-ha, Hla-bau resting at a small village five miles in his rear. I dropped the boats down immediately to Byan-gyee village, about five miles from the rebel encampment, and half an hour before daybreak disembarked the whole of my Burmese auxiliaries, twelve men of the Ist Madras Fusiliers, and thirty-two sepoys, and marched upon Nga tha-oo's position. Arrived there I detached 100 picked Burmese with orders to watch Hla-bau's force, and when they heard us open fire, to fall upon and attack it. About 6 A.M. my advance guard came in sight of the hostile force, and drove in their pickets, on which the main body moved out and drew up in the open plain. The rebel chief, Nga-tha-oo, was most conspicuous in the centre of his men, himself and body-guard being dressed in scarlet. I formed the troops in line, European and sepoys in the centre, supported on each flank by the Burmese auxiliaries, and 236 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. marched down upon them. We had reached within half a mile of the rebel line when they detached parties of some 200 men each to turn our flanks. I extended the Burmese in skirmishing order to meet them and cover our flanks as we advanced, and then making a dash at the rebels' centre, firing a volley and charging with the bayonet. Our fire was very feebly returned, and they broke and fled. Nga-tha-oo, who appeared to handle his men very ably, contrived, however, to keep a large body of them together, and their retreat was very orderly. I despatched a note to Major Barker informing him of our success, and requested him to move up the river to Nga-thaing-khyoung (the head-quarters of the rebels) with the remainder of the force, where I would meet him the following morning about 7 A.M. I then urged on the pursuit for thirty miles to Pandaw (a large village of 1,500 houses), on which they had retreated; the place was evacuated on our approach, and we occupied it for the night. During the night the village was surrounded by Shwè-too (the person who had proclaimed himself Viceroy in the province) with a force of 800 men, who, on hearing of our approach, had moved out from Nga- thaing-khyoung to form a junction with Nga-tha-00. Our pickets kept them off during the night, and at daybreak I moved out against them. The rebels had taken up a position at the head of the village, and were drawn up in a plain, with their flanks resting on groves of mango trees, and low bushes lined with skirmishers. My Burmese auxiliaries drove the skirmishers out of their cover, and the regular portion of the force advanced by the open plain, where the rebels stood a few volleys, but ultimately broke and fled before the bayonet. The struggle was a very close one, and one of the principal rebel leaders * sought me out, engaged me hand to hand, and perished in the struggle. After pursuing the rebels for some distance, inflicting a considerable loss upon them, * A Shan chief, and a very tall, muscular man. He was supposed to be invulnerable, owing to certain charms which had been tattooed on his body; and from plates of thin gold with mystic characters on them, that had been in- serted under his skin. These latter were afterwards taken from his body and brought to me. · APPENDIX B. 237 and taking a number of prisoners, I marched for Nga-thaing- khyoung, which I reached at 7 A.M., and there found Major Barker, according to appointment, as also the Burmese that I detached from my force to attack Hla-bau, who had been com- pletely defeated and brought in as a prisoner. 5. At Nga-thaing-khyoung I found that the large town of Doung-gyee on the opposite bank of the river had been burnt down the day before in a fight between Kyau-dzan-hla (the person who had proclaimed himself commander-in-chief of the rebels), and my Myo-ok of Lemena. The latter had attacked the rebels with 900 men, but was totally defeated with great loss, and Kyau-dzan-hla was still in pursuit of him. It struck me that if I moved at once by the route which Kyau-dzan-hla had taken (with which I was intimately acquainted), it was possible I might take him by surprise, and I applied to Major Barker for the portion of the force that had just arrived by the boats, and started off at once, putting the men in the light riding carts of the country to keep them fresh for the attack. We covered twenty-five miles. of ground before nightfall, halting at Ke-khoo village, and next morning at daylight started again in pursuit. Every village on our route had been entered and plundered by the rebels, the inhabitants deserting their houses, and concealing themselves in the neighbouring jungles. They came out on our approach, and numbers of them joined us and fell in in our rear. On the advance we met several villagers who had been carried off and made their escape from the rebels. They informed me that it was the intention of Kyau-dzan-hla to halt at Lay-dan-nay village in a grove of mango trees, where they would arrive about 1 P.M. On approach- ing Lay-dan-nay I halted, and sent forward scouts to reconnoitre, who returned and reported that the rebels had halted totally un- conscious of our being near them. 6. Lay-dan-nay village is situated close under the Yumatoung range, from which a spur runs down to the village; with this exception the whole country is one open plain. In order to cut off the retreat of the rebels to the jungle, I turned off the road and marched down by the spur on the village. The surprise was 238 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. [ complete; we fell upon them whilst eating their food; a few muskets were snatched up and fired at random, and then the whole force broke and ran, most of them leaving their arms behind them. They were hotly pursued by my Burmese auxiliaries and the exasperated villagers, who did dreadful execution amongst them. The commander-in-chief escaped on horseback, accom- panied by his secretary. They were pursued for a distance of twenty-five miles to Kyouk-ywa, where they plunged into the Bassein river, and were captured while ascending the opposite bank. By this time I was thoroughly exhausted with fatigue, having had no sleep for four nights, and was unable to accompany my men in their pursuit of the rebels, who were fearfully cut up, many, I am afraid, being killed who ought to have been brought in as prisoners. But the Burmese, more especially those who had hung in my rear, were so maddened at the manner in which they had been treated, that they gave no quarter. The rebels had also a large amount of booty in silver and gold upon their persons, and cupidity as well as revenge doubtless urged on the pursuit. 7. I was joined that night at Lay-dan-nay by the Lemena Myo-ok, and marched next morning for the town of Lemena, which had been burnt to the ground by the rebels. I halted that day and the next to recall and give confidence to the people of the place, and then marched back to Nga-thaing-khyoung, and remained there until joined by my new assistant, Lieutenant Dangerfield, on the 6th instant, when I left for Bassein, which I reached on the 8th instant, and left again next morning for the lower part of the district. At Myoung-mya-myo I met the rein- forcement of troops that had been sent from Rangoon. They had an engagement there with the rebels, whom they defeated, and the chief ringleader in that part of the country, Nga-tee-hlwot, had been pursued and killed by the Karens. Lieutenant Shuld- ham, 26th M.N.I., was in command of the detachment, and appears to have displayed great judgment and gallantry. He has, I believe, despatched a report of the affair to the general commanding the division, a copy of which you will doubtless be furnished with. No troops accompanied me to Myoung-mya-myo, í APPENDIX B. 239 and those I found there I despatched to Bassein, with the excep- tion of 20 sepoys whom I took on with me to Pantanau. I arrived at Pantanau on the 13th instant, and found all quiet there, and that the people had almost all returned to the place. I remained at Pantanau one day and then left for Bassein, visiting the different villages en route, and arrived at the station this day, the 18th instant. 8. This rebellion has been secretly brewing for the last three months. Various rumours reached me from time to time con- cerning the same, and during the above period I twice despatched the gunboats of the Nemesis through the different creeks in the upper portion of the district, on one occasion of which my assistant, Captain Grant, accompanied them, but all was re- ported quiet. I should have proceeded into the interior myself had I not been tied down by the heavy press of arrears in the three departments of my office at the Sudder Station, my only assistant being removed in December last. 9. The chief leaders of the rebellion are Shwè-too, Kyau-dzan- hla, Nga-tha-oo, and a Buddhist priest. The two former had lately returned from Ava, and showed "royal warrants" to the people, proclaiming that they had been appointed by the Kanoung-Meng (the heir apparent), one the Viceroy of the Pro- vince and the other Commander-in-Chief, with orders to drive the English out of the country and take possession of it. They gradually assembled a number of desperate characters about them from the borders of this district and Sarawah, and made a dash upon, and took possession of, the three principal towns in the upper portion of the district, where they were joined by large numbers. Nga-tha-oo was formerly Pe'neng of Ye-gyee under the Burmese rule. He fled to Ava on our taking possession of the country, but returned about six months ago and was at large on parole. The Buddhist priest has been an inhabitant of this district for some years. The whole conspiracy is said to have been concocted in his monastery, and he is stated to have given the "leaders of the rebellion charms," and, from his "knowledge of the stars, to have informed them of the auspicious time of the : 240 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. breaking out of the rebellion." He also furnished the Com- mander-in-Chief with a "very sacred idol,” on which to swear his followers. The priest is said (with what truth I cannot say) to be a near connection of the present King of Ava. The “royal war- rants" (which I believe are forgeries, though the people say they are genuine), together with a large portion of their correspondence, have fallen into my hands. 10. The rebels have been completely over-reached in their own peculiar warfare, and the outbreak is completely crushed. Our marches, which I was able to effect with great rapidity from a knowledge of the country, gained in former expeditions, found them unprepared, and prevented them from stockading them selves, or combining to attack the small force which circum- stances allowed me to bring into the field. The commander-in- chief of the rebellion, the high priest, and most of the inferior leaders have been either killed or captured. The Viceroy and Nga-tha-oo are the only persons of note at present at large, and they, too, I have reason to hope, will be apprehended in a few days. From the last accounts I received, they were surrounded in some heavy jungle, with only two or three followers, and it was supposed that they could not escape. In the defeat and pursuit of these rebels a large number of them were cut down by their own countrymen who accompanied me. But it is to be regretted that means did not exist for trying the ringleaders, and executing some of them on the spot without a day's respite. Among half- civilised men, accustomed to violence and bloodshed, a degree of severity is required far beyond what will suffice in a country where submission to law is long established and general, and is much the wisest and most merciful policy. 11. Lieutenant Dangerfield, the new assistant appointed to this district, I have left at Nga-thaing-khyoung, and would strongly recommend that he be permanently posted there. I applied to Major Barker for a detachment of troops for Nga-thaing-khyoung, and he has furnished a force as per I Ensign. 2 Native Commissioned Officers. 6 Non-Commissioned Officers. margin. Lieutenant Dangerfield also "" 45 Sepoys. brought over with him half a company APPENDIX B. of the 10th B. N. I. This force should, I think, be increased to two companies. I have several times recommended one assistant being stationed at Nga-thaing-khyoung; one, too, should be stationed at the other extremity of the district at Shwè-long or Pantanau, also with a small detachment of troops, and this isolated district should never be left without at least one steamer. My report of the rebellion which broke out on the 14th January could not be forwarded to Rangoon from Bassein before the 7th February, and then only by a chance opportunity by sea; our communica- tion with Rangoon by the creeks (as I predicted it would be on an occasion of this kind) having been cut off. 12. During the Burmese Government this district was divided into eleven divisions under Pe'nengs, and three under Myo-thoo- gyees. Each of these officers had under them from three to six hundred armed retainers. A portion of these retainers have gone into the Ava territories, a few have turned cultivators of the soil and fishermen; the remainder, by far the greater proportion, are at large, without any means of honest livelihood, and it is they who form the bands of "dacoits," and keep the country in a disturbed state. The Pe'nengs and Myo-thoo-gyees we have replaced by Goung-gyops, and given them in place of these large bands of retainers two (2) Peons (the only police in the country), and curtailed their authority to an extent which, contrasted with the power exercised by the Pe'nengs, &c., under the Bur- mese Government, renders them ridiculous in the eyes of the people. When the rebellion broke out, there was only one Myo-ok amongst them (the Myo-ok of Lemena) who could make any head against the insurgents; the remainder either concealed themselves in the jungle or fled into Bassein. Could not an irregular corps for police purposes be raised to absorb these old retainers of the Pe'nengs? If one was ordered to be raised for this district, provided that strict military discipline was not at first enforced, but introduced by degrees, I could guarantee 6 or 800 men, who would in a few months be an over-match for the "dacoits," or any troops that the Burmese Government could bring against them. VOL. II. Cave 241 R 2. 242 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 13. By accounts which have reached me on my return to Bassein, I learned that the people are settling down again quietly in their villages. Such disturbances were of common occurrence during the Burmese rule, when any Pe'neng could make war on the other. The rebellion has necessarily unsettled the minds of the people, but from the anarchy formerly prevailing under the Native Government, not so much as would generally be supposed. No great loss in revenue will, I hope, be experienced. No grain whatever has been destroyed. From J. P. Grant, Esquire, Secretary to the Government of India, to Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, No. 41, dated Fort William, the 18th March, 1854. With reference to the despatch to your address from Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, No. 29, dated the 18th ultimo, reporting the particulars of the rebellion which has taken place in that district, I am directed by the Most Noble the Governor-General of India in Council to communicate to you the following sentiments of the Government thereon. 2. The outbreak it appears has been excited by two persons, who have lately arrived from Ava, and by a Buddhist priest. The two persons displayed commissions, which purported to appoint them respectively Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief in Bassein. These commissions, though regarded as genuine by the people, are considered to be forgeries by the Deputy-Commissioner. 3. Major Fytche, with a very small force of regular troops and a levy of Burmese, moved out against these insurgents, and after several affairs, completely dispersed their followers, of whom very many were destroyed by the villagers. Some of the leaders have been taken, the rest are surrounded, and it is expected will be captured also. 4. Much praise is due to Captain Fytche for the promptitude, judgment, and personal gallantry with which he has met and put down the serious outbreak which has disturbed his district. The APPENDIX B. 243 Governor-General of India in Council desires to offer to him this acknowledgment of the qualities he has shown, and of the service he has rendered. 5. Having performed this agreeable duty, it is necessary for the Government to consider what lessons are to be deduced from the experience gained on this occasion, and what measures are to be taken to prevent, or speedily to crush, any similar outbreaks in future. The Deputy Commissioner has especially urged-1st, that power should be given him to punish with prompt severity any persons taken in the act of insurrection: 2nd, that Bassein should never be left without a steamer and gunboats; 3rd, that an armed police should be sanctioned. 6. The Governor-General concurs with Major Fytche in think- ing that power should be given to punish with prompt severity any person taken in the act of insurrection. Power was last year given to you to execute such sentences without the delay of a reference to Government. The Honourable Court approved of these orders. The same principle would now require that a similar power should be given to the Deputy Commissioner in the case of all persons convicted of participation in open and armed insurrection; because your necessary distance and absence will often, as in the present instance, create as much delay as a reference to Government. 7. Evils which involve plunder and bloodshed require swift and sharp remedies. The Governor-General thinks that it would be wise for the Government, and merciful in the end, to entrust the power of administering such remedies to its Deputy Commis- sioner in Pegu, Major Fytche, at all events for the present. 8. The recommendation of the Deputy Commissioner that Bassein should never be left without a steamer, is, in the opinion of His Lordship in Council, a very reasonable and proper one. The Nemesis, whose station is at Bassein, is under repair at Rangoon. The reason his Lordship in Council apprehends why no substitute in her place was sent to Bassein was the great demand for steamers in the Irawadi, by reason of the relief of troops, the loss of the Medusa, &c. But undoubtedly it should R 2 244 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. : be a general rule that Bassein, an isolated position, should never be left without a steamer. Her boats will always serve as gun- boats. Besides these, the boat or boats attached to the European troops in garrison at Bassein will be fitted each with a 12-pounder howitzer. 9. The Governor-General in Council proceeds now to advert to the recommendation of Major Fytche, that a police corps should be raised. The Government is of course desirous to observe due economy in the new province. But a necessary out- lay for the preservation of peace, and for the security of person and property, in the first beginning of our authority, is the best and truest economy. The Governor-General in Council is quite ready, therefore, to sanction the embodiment for the present of 600 armed police in the Bassein district to obviate the necessity for those detachments of regular troops which are detailed in the 11th para. of Major Fytche's despatch. His Lordship in Council authorises you to give effect to this measure at once, or if you should still be absent on the northern frontier, the Deputy-Com- missioner is authorised to act upon the permission herein con- veyed. A copy of this communication will be sent to Major Fytche. From Major A. Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, to Captain A. P. Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, Rangoon, No. 263, Judicial, dated Bassein, 5th August, 1854. In continuation of my last letter to your address No. 215, of the 7th ultimo, I have the honour to inform you that the police corps ordered to be raised in the Bassein district, under the authority of Government, conveyed in letter No. 2,090, dated 10th May, 1854, from the Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign Department, to your address, is now complete in men. I have deferred appointing the whole of the commissioned and non-commissioned officers, waiting to choose the remainder from those who turn out the most intelligent and smart on trial. APPÈNDIX B. 245 2. I commenced raising the corps in June last. The service is popular. A large number of candidates appeared for enlistment, and the corps could have been completed that month, but I rejected, from policy, men with settled employment, being anxious to absorb those that had been in employ, or were professional dacoits and robbers under the Burmese rule, the majority of whom would never settle down to any honest means of livelihood, but still continue the practice of extortion and robbery for subsistence, until purchased or otherwise disposed of. About three-fourths of the men now enlisted are of this stamp, and the commissioned and non-commissioned officers already appointed, men of influ- ence, who brought in large bands of their followers with them for enlistment. One of these, for instance, was one of the most active chiefs under Myat-htoon, and he has brought in with him some eighty picked men, who were with Myat-htoon up to the final defeat and dispersion of his band at Kywn-ka-dzeng. 3. This absorption will be a very great relief to the country, and these “Ishmaelites of Society" will gradually fall under con- trol, and be turned to good account, if properly handled at the commencement. But their management for some time to come will be a source of anxiety,* and demand the whole of my leisure time in drilling and disciplining them. Such material requires a peculiar course of discipline, and I would, with due deference, re- commend that I be appointed their commandant, and that they be taught for the present to look to me alone for their rewards and punishments. I would also recommend that the corps had some distinctive name, such as Bassein Rangers. Many of the chiefs who have joined are of true Burmese spirit; an empty name or title has great weight with them, and would tend much to establish an esprit de corps. 4. I enclose herewith a sketch of the uniform I propose for the corps. The cloth shown on the private, and pantaloons of the others, is American drill dyed with indigo, and the jackets of the commissioned and non-commissioned officers, dark broadcloth. * I have already had to flog and imprison 3 men for highway robbery and 3 for theft. 246 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. The helmet is a Burmese pattern, and composed of leather covered with theet-tsee (the bright black varnish of the country). Until these are made up, I propose a red turban to be worn (vide margin of sketch). The scarf shown across the breast of the private in heavy marching order is the Burmese tsoung, or sheet in which the Burmese cover themselves while sleeping. Wrapped up in this and suspended at the back will be carried a bag (shaped like a large sausage bag) containing four or five days' food. Clothed in an easy dress of this description, and carrying thirty rounds each of ammunition in pouch, they will be able to march some thirty or forty miles a day, and no baggage or commissariat whatever required to accompany them. 5. I propose that two companies of the corps be stationed at Nga-thaing-khyoung under the Assistant Commissioner there, and as soon as the men are drilled, small detachments of them should be distributed under the Myo-okes of the most troublesome town- ships, and relieved every six months from head-quarters. I will report to you more fully hereafter on this subject. The detach- ment of the 10th Bengal Native Infantry has already been with- drawn from Nga-thaing-khyoung, and the removal of the company of the 30th Madras Native Infantry, still there, will, I have every hope, be able to be effected within the next six or eight months, which will leave no regular troops whatever detached in the interior of the Bassein district. I would recommend that the Burmese terms, Naick Bugler Sepahi...... Tat-tha. as per margin, be used in the corps instead of the Hindustanee denominations. 6. The two European non-commissioned officers are absolutely indispensable at present to aid me in drilling the corps. I have not as yet fixed upon two men for these appointments. But I hope, with the assistance of the officer commanding the detach- ment of H.M.'s 29th Regiment at this station, who has written to the head-quarters of his regiment concerning them, to be enabled to do so shortly, when I will inform you of the matter, in order that steps may be taken for their being transferred. For Subadar. "" 93 "" >> >> Tat-moo. Shwe-thouk-gyee. Jemadar Havildar Akyat-gyee. • .. ... ·· ...... .... Akyat-ngay. Khaya-hmok-thama. APPENDIX B. 247 AS DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF Bassein. From G. F. Edmonstone, Esq., Secretary to the Government of India, to Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, dated Fort William, 22nd September, 1854. I have received and laid before the Governor-General of India in Council your letter dated the 31st ultimo, No. 4, forwarding copy of a letter from Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bas- sein, reporting that the police corps, ordered to be raised in that district, is complete in men. 2. I reply I am directed by His Lordship in Council to ac- quaint you that the rapid organisation of this corps is satisfactory to the Government, and highly creditable to the exertions of Major Fytche. 3. Major Fytche states that he rejected men of settled employ- ment from policy, and that three-fourths of the corps consist of men who were "professional dacoits and robbers under the Bur- mese rule.". The policy of absorbing such persons no doubt will be effectual in some respects. But it will be necessary to exer- cise a very close watch and a very severe control over characters such as these, lest the authority given and the opportunity afforded them as police officers should be turned to the same purposes of extortion by which they have hitherto subsisted. The dress of the corps is approved. From Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, to Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner, Bassein, dated Prome, 9th February, 1854. During the last visit of the Most Noble the Governor-General of India to the Province of Pegu, I was requested to prepare a report on the conduct and qualities of the several officers under my orders. This report having been submitted, I have now been 248 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. directed to convey to you the approbation of His Lordship at the efficient manner in which you have conducted the duties of your office, and the energy and skill with which you have managed the affairs of the country under your jurisdiction. From Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, to Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, No. 62, dated Rangoon, June 6th, 1855. I have much satisfaction in forwarding to you extract of letter to my address, No. 73, dated the 2nd April last, from the Secre- tary to the Government of India, containing the orders of His Lordship on your revenue statements for the year 1853-54. "On the whole His Lordship is of opinion that the general results of the revenue administration, as exhibited in this report, are satis- factory, and reflect credit on the district officers, who, it is clear, have laboured under great disadvantages, and he desires that you will express to Major Fytche, Mr. O'Riley, Captain Sparks, and Lieutenant Ardagh, especially to the two former, his approbation of the manner in which they have performed their duties. From G. F. Edmonstone, Esq., Secretary to the Government of India, to Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, dated Fort William, 14th April, 1857. With reference to the letter to your address, dated 11th February last, from Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, dated the 11th February last, No. 37 (a copy of which has been sent direct by that officer for the information of Government), sub- mitting a report of the breaking out of a Karen rebellion in that district, I am directed by the Governor-General of India in + APPENDIX B. 249 Council to state that the account given by Major Fytche of the manner in which this sudden and not contemptible outbreak has been dealt with, is very creditable to all concerned. The move- ments of the force at Major Fytche's disposal were planned by him with excellent judgment and executed with great courage and per- severance. 2. The exertions and endurance of the men and officers of the Bassein police corps deserve the marked thanks of the Governor- General in Council, which Major Fytche should be instructed to convey to Lieut. Cox and to Sergeant-Major Gorman. He should also receive an entire approval of his own conduct. 3. It is to be regretted that the leader of the rebellion has escaped, for whoever he may be, and from wherever he may come, it is clear that he has much power of mischief. His Lordship in Council desires me to draw your attention to the statement in Major Fytche's letter regarding the proceedings of the King of Ava's steamer. 4. A copy of this letter has been sent for the information of Major Fytche. From Major Phayre, Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, to Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, dated Henzadah, 17th May, 1855. I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter No. 36, dated 12th instant. It is with deep regret I learn that the state of your health renders it necessary for you to proceed to Europe on sick certificate. You will leave the district of Bassein profoundly quiet, a district which you reduced to order in a style which earned for you the marked approbation of the Government of India, and the distinction of an honorary reward for distin- guished service from Her Majesty's Government. I shall feel keenly the loss of your co-operation both as regards the district 250 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. -1 generally and the foundation of the new city of Dalhousie, but if it be finally determined that you must seek* health in your native land, you carry my very best wishes for a speedy recovery. From the Secretary to the Government of India to the Commissioner and Governor-General's Agent in Pegu, No. 2,170, dated Fort William, the 8th May, 1857. I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, No. 34, dated 31st March last, and its enclosure, reporting the occurrence of a fire at Bassein, by which the Records of the Court and Treasury were destroyed, and the Treasure defaced. 2. In reply I am directed to request that you will convey the thanks of the Governor-General of India in Council to Major Fytche, for his exertions on the occasion of this formidable con- flagration at Bassein. 3. With reference to the loss which Major Fytche has sustained in the destruction of all his private property, while attempting to save the property of Government, I am directed to request that you will call upon that officer to submit a detailed list of all the property destroyed, with its value, showing at the same time what might have been saved had not Major Fytche's attention been wholly directed to saving the property of Government. * Major Fytche recovered his health somewhat, and did not leave India on sick leave at that time; but was obliged to do so two and a half years after- wards. APPENDIX B. Public Works Department. (Military.) From Colonel W. E. Baker, Secretary to the Government of India, to the Commissioner and Governor- General's Agent in Pegu, dated Fort William, the 30th June, 1857. 251 With reference to the correspondence noted in the margin, I am directed to forward for your information, Commissioner of Pegu, No. 53, dated 28th Reply No. 1454, dated 4th and for communication to Major Fytche, April, 1856. an extract from the Honourable the Court of Di- rectors, No. 56, dated 1st April last, ap- proving of the economical and effective manner in which that officer constructed a magazine for the ammunition of the Bassein Police Corps. Extract from Para. 36 of a Despatch from the Honourable the Court of Directors to the Government of India, in the Military Depart ment, Letter dated 10th October, 1856, No. 11. great satisfaction, the economical and effective measures taken by with Major Fytche, Deputy Commissioner of Bassein, in constructing the magazine of permanent materials." 66 APPENDIX C. NARRATIVE OF THE MISSION TO MANDALAY IN 1867. From Colonel Albert Fytche, Chief Commissioner of British Burmah and Agent to the Governor-General, to the Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign Department,-No. 214A., dated Rangoon, the 8th November, 1867. I HAVE the honour to forward herewith the Narrative of my Mission to Mandalay as Envoy from his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General. NARRATIVE OF THE MISSION TO MANDALAY IN 1867. The party consisted of the Envoy Colonel Fytche, Chief Com- missioner of British Burmah, Captain Duncan, Inspector-General of Police, Mr. Edwards, Collector of Customs, Rangoon, the Reverend H. W. Crofton, Chaplain of Rangoon, and the Officers of the Military Escort, viz., Captain Surplice, Mr. Assistant- Surgeon Douglas, and Lieutenants Younghusband, Williams, and Randolph, Mr. Assistant-Surgeon Douglas, 2-24th Regiment, and Lieutenant Rolland, Royal Artillery. Captain Hannen, Royal Artillery, was also of the party, being on leave; and Mrs. Fytche and Mrs. Lloyd accompanied the Mission. The escort consisted of 72 men of all ranks of the 2-24th Regiment and 12 men of the APPENDIX C. 253 Royal Artillery. The party was conveyed by the Steamers Nemesis and Colonel Phayre, the latter having a flat in tow. Leaving Rangoon on the morning of Friday, the 20th Septem- ber, the Mission reached Prome on the afternoon of the 23rd, and, starting early next day, passed the frontier station of Thayet- myo on the 24th, anchored that evening on the frontier line about 15 miles above Thayetmyo. On the 25th while proceeding up the river the engines of the Nemesis got out of order, and the distance travelled was only about twenty miles, when the town of Tsingboungway was reached, where anchor was cast for the night. This small town of 400 houses is the residence of the Meeaday Won, or Governor of the Burmese frontier, that is, of that portion of it which extends eastward from the Irawadi to the Tonghoo hills, the watershed of the Irawadi and Sittang Rivers. He, however, was not present, having gone to Menhla, as it had not been intended that the Mission should stop at Tsingboung- way. On the 26th but little progress was made, and after having got over about eighteen miles, the steamers anchored at dusk opposite the pretty village of Melloon, on the left bank, about four miles short of Menhla. Early the next morning, the 27th, four war-boats, with some of the deputation who had been sent from Mandalay to meet the Chief Commissioner, came to the steamers to welcome the Mission, when it was arranged that the Chief Commissioner should receive them at Menhla. Accordingly, having reached Menhla at 10 A. M,, the full depu- tation was received on board the Nemesis. The quarter-deck had been arranged and decorated with flags, and chairs were placed for the reception of the visitors. A guard of honour was drawn up on either side of the deck, all officers were present in uniform, and the scene altogether presented a handsome and dignified appearance, with sufficient formality to give due importance to the occasion of the first meeting of the British Envoy with the Royal Deputies. 254 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1 The Burmese officials who came on board were--the Paopa Wondouk, the head of the Mission from Mandalay, a venerable and well-affected gentleman, who bore his part with much self- composure and dignity; the Padein Won, also from the capital, a young intelligent Burman, who spoke English well, having been educated in Calcutta ; lastly, the Ex-Won of Tsingo, an elderly and pleasant-mannered officer of the Court, who had frequently been employed on like duties. He similarly received the first Mission to the Court of Ava, in 1855, and had accompanied the Burmese Ambassadors to Calcutta when they visited Lord Dalhousie. With these three officials, who had been specially deputed from the capital, came also the Tseetkay of Menhla, and the Meeaday Won referred to before. The Menhla Tseetkay has wide juris- diction over the whole valley of the Irawadi below Mandalay, the frontier Won being under his orders and control. He is a shrewd, intelligent, and determined officer, somewhat grim and severe in countenance, and stately and stiff in manners, but manifestly a man of much force of character. He occupied the same position during the rebellion of 1866, and defended and protected the King's interests with much vigour and resolution. The Meeaday Won had until the rebellion been frequently employed as supercargo of the King's steamers running between Mandalay and Rangoon, and had consequently acquired an easier (or, one might say, commoner) manner than the others; he is quick and good-natured. The old Wondouk was met at the gangway by Mr. Edwards, and, followed by the other officials, was led up to the Chief Commissioner, and after shaking hands with him was seated on his right, the other officials being seated alternately with officers of the suite to the right and left. After a friendly conversation of half an hour, the deputation left with every mark of satisfaction at their reception. The officers remarked that they had been at Menhla for more than a month. This was in consequence of a reference to Man- dalay being necessary, which had not been anticipated. They APPENDIX C. 255 said that at certain halting-places on the river preparations had been made and supplies laid in, and they asked that the Mission should visit each of these. They were ten in number from Menhla to Mandalay, giving an average distance between each of fifteen miles. As the war-boats were to accompany the steamer to the capital, these stages were considered of fair length, the river running with much strength in parts of its course. There were altogether eight war-boats, each having a crew of forty men, while the principal official, the Wondouk, had for his use a large barge, which was, however, taken in tow by the steamer. The town of Menhla has about 700 houses, and was clean, and neatly kept; the houses, however, were poorly constructed, mostly with bamboo, some of them with untrimmed wooden pole supports, but scarcely any of dressed timber. There were a few pieces of ordnance in a shed near the Tseetkay's house-a six-pounder brass gun, a small iron three-pounder ship's gun apparently, and four or five small iron pieces or boat's guns, of small bore and rough manufacture. In the Court-house, near at hand, there were seventy stand of flint muskets, much out of order and damaged at the muzzle; it was noticed that there was no ammunition in the pouches. A Pooay, or Burmese play, was going on all day, which the Chief Commissioner and his suite visited after dinner, and met there the Burmese deputation. On the morning of the 28th, the steamers, escorted by the war- boats, passed upwards to Magwé, a distance of ten miles. It was impossible to reach the town itself, owing to an island opposite to it, which leaves but a narrow and shallow channel between it and the eastern bank. The steamers stopped at a small village about three miles below Magwé, built on a pretty grassy bank over a pebbly beach. Here a small mandat, or temporary shed, had been built, in which a Pooay was going on from the time of the arrival of the steamers (3 P. M.). The village consisted of some thirty or forty houses, each in its own enclosure, fenced in by a cactus hedge. There were here also some good monasteries and 256 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. pagodas, the latter encircled by some fine specimens of petrified wood stuck up as posts. The town of Magwé, having 800 houses, and a population of 4,000 souls, which, as before stated, was three miles further up the river, was almost entirely burnt down during the rebellion by the Toungdwengyee Meng-gyee. Yule, writing in 1855, says the number of houses was given as 3,000, and he reckoned the population at 8,000 or 9,000. In the evening the Chief Commis- sioner rode up to the town of Magwé, and some of the party went out shooting. Rain came on and stopped the Pooay. From this place the Menhla Tseetkay returned to Menhla, having accom- panied the Mission on this day's journey. The war-boats lay by the steamers all night, and on the morning of the 29th all again moved on eighteen miles to Yaynankhyoung, which is on the eastern or left bank. Shortly after starting we passed the pretty town of Memboo on the western bank, with spurs of hills crowned by numerous pagodas in the back ground. On the east bank, opposite Memboo, is Magwé, seemingly a busy place, with a good many boats. Approaching Yaynankhyoung, the country on the east bank was strikingly picturesque; the banks mostly bluffs, broken with small ravines running up straight from the river; above the bluffs the country stretching away in park-like uplands, with here and there clumps of light timber. The whole formed a striking contrast to the heavy luxuriant foliage on the banks of the river on its lower portion in British territory. The steamers reached Yaynankhyoung at 3-30 P. M.; when about two or three miles below the town the Mission was met by seven or eight loungs, or long canoes, each paddled by from twenty to thirty men: these accompanied us till the steamers anchored. The usual Pooay was going on, and some fifty ponies were in readi- ness for the use of the Mission. Yaynankhyoung was burned down by the Toungdwengyee Meng-gyee last year, and now the houses are very poor; most are constructed of bamboo: there is not one good wooden house in the town. There are 1,300 houses in the town, it is said, with a population of 6,500, but it looks only half the size which this number would make it. APPENDIX C. 257 On the morning of the 30th, the Chief Commissioner accom- panied by the Burmese officials, visited the earth oil (yaynan) or petroleum wells: these are fully described in Yule's "Mission to Ava." At 9 A. M. the steamers left for Pakhan-ngé, the next stopping place, and just after starting were met by the Yaynantse- kyah, one of the King's steamers sent down to meet the Mission and to accompany it to the capital. At Yaynankhyoung, as at the other halting-places, the greatest desire was shown to consult and meet the wishes of the Mission ; large presents of grain, vegetables, and fruit were brought to the steamers, and the procession of boats which escorted us in was evidently intended as a remark of respect. On leaving, the Paopa Wondouk and the Tsengoon Won came on board the Colonel Phayre and Panlang flat to make the acquaintance of the officers of the escort. The Wondouk's barge, which had been towed by the Nemesis heretofore, was this day in tow of the Colonel Phayre, so that the Burmese officials might spend the day in company with the English officers. The Wondouk went over both vessels, and after some conversation returned to his barge for breakfast. The Tsengoon Won breakfasted with the officers of the escort, and entered readily and with much intelligence into general subjects of conversation. The halting-place was nominally at Pakhan-ngé, but really about two miles below it, at a small village where the reception shed, &c., had been erected; this was reached at 4 P. M. The King's steamer had accompanied the Mission during the day; in her were eight guns, six of them 24lb. howitzers, iron, and two much smaller guns, also of iron; besides these there were fifty stand of flint muskets, clean and apparently in good order. There were on board about one hundred and fifty men, some in red and some in green uniforms, which con- sisted of a short jacket and short loose trowsers. During the evening there was the usual Pooay, the performers being the ones who had played the previous night. On the 1st October the Mission moved on eight or nine miles only to Tsillémyo, arriving there at 11-30 Aa. M. The Won- douk's boat was taken in tow by the King's steamer. Tsillémyo VOL. II. S 258 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. is prettily situated on a point of high land on the eastern bank, the houses running up the face of the hill, which is surmounted with pagodas. On the approach of the steamers a dozen loungs (pulling boats) came out a short distance to welcome and escort the party. Considerable preparations had been made, the recep- tion-room was handsomer and larger, with a made road leading up from the river. Under temporary barracks (sheds) there were 150 of the King's troops armed with muskets, which were clean and in fair order. There is at present a Myo-ok in charge of the town and circle. The town was burned down last year by the Myeen-gon Prince, and there are now only 150 houses in it, all poor, bamboo and mat constructions. The pagodas are numerous and handsome. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is the manufacture of lacquered boxes and cotton cloths (Tsoungs). We saw the former in its different stages: first a box in the shape required, of fine bamboo basket work, this is dipped into Thittsee (wood-oil) and buried for five or six days, or until the lacquer is properly set on the bamboo, again dipped and buried, and for a third time the process is repeated. The frame is thus covered with a good coating of the lacquer. On this is traced the pattern which it is intended to produce, in red tracing say. The red pig- ment is then rubbed over the whole, but bites where the tracing has been made only. After being allowed to remain a few days the superfluous red pigment is rubbed off. There is then traced out the pattern which it may be intended to produce in yellow, and the above process is repeated with yellow pigment, and so on until all the tracing is done and coloured. The whole is then put on a lathe and polished with fine charcoal. The pattern is traced by a little iron style, and by the eye entirely. The workers were much interested when we promised to let them have some new designs, and readily undertook to produce them on the boxes. In this way, with a little trouble, monograms or any design could be obtained on the boxes. In the evening, by the particular desire of the Wondouk, the party visited the Pooay, the Myo-ok having taken great trouble in erecting a suitable build- ing. On passing the temporary barracks at about 11-30 P. M., on APPENDIX C. 259 returning to the steamer, the soldiery were observed to be on the alert, each man sitting behind his musket, which, upright, was resting on a frame before him. On the 2nd October the day's journey was to Pagan, a distance of twenty-four miles, the steamers starting at about 6 a. M. At about 8 o'clock the two largest of the Pagan pagodas were dis- tinctly visible up the river. Pagan was reached at 3-30 P. M. The Tseetkay, or Governor of the district, came down some miles with several pulling boats to meet us. The pagodas of Pagan (fully described by Yule) were visited by the Chief Commissioner and some of the Mission. The roads through the town had all been swept and cleaned, and low pathways cut through the low shrub and jungle to the principal places of interest. Guides were fur- nished to all who desired to visit the temples, and the greatest civility was shown. The town escaped the fate of Magwé and other towns lower down, and was not burned down by the rebels last year, although a contribution was levied from it by the Myeen-gon Prince. There are 300 houses in the town, but none of any pretension. The King's steamer, which was occupied by the Burmese officials, was late in coming up, and the Wondouk wished to halt here for a day or two, as the war-boats could not well keep up. The Envoy, however, declined to agree to this, and, in fact, the stages were short and easy, and there could have been no real difficulty in the boats keeping up, assisted as they were by the steamer; besides the programme, which was accepted at Menhla, did not provide for any halts, and it was thought better to adhere to it as originally agreed upon. In the evening the Pooay was visited by the Envoy and several officers of the suite; some trouble had been taken in preparing the building, and the performance consisted of a play by mario- nettes instead of by actors as previously. On the 3rd October the steamers started early. After a run of about four miles to Nyoungoo they stopped for about an hour to allow of the purchase of some of the lacquer-ware of the finer sort, for which the place is celebrated throughout Burma. The S 2 260 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 1: little town is prettily situated, having wide streets, all of which were very clean and in good order. At 9 A. M. the steamers again started, and reached Koonkwa, a small town on the right bank of the river, at about 3-30 P. M. The usual party of boats came down to meet the Mission, and a good reception-house, with a Pooay, attracted some of the party on shore. Letters were dis- patched to Captain Sladen, the Chief Commissioner's Agent at Mandalay, announcing that the Mission would be at Kyouktalon on the 5th. From Koonkwa the Mission proceeded on the morning of the 4th, passing the lower opening of the Kyeng-dweng River to the westward at about 8 A. M. At II the steamers passed the large town of Myeeng-yan on the left bank, the most populous and busiest place seen since the frontier was crossed. It is the centre of a district from which a good deal of cotton is exported to British territory and rice to the northward. Myeeng-yan is one of the few towns on the river that supplies freight to the steamers running between Rangoon and Mandalay. Last year the Myeengon Prince made it his head-quarters for a month and a half while in rebellion against his father the King, and it was here that he was attacked in October last by the two King's steamers which came up from British territory. He made no stand, but at once fled to the frontier. It was particularly noticed that as we passed the town hardly any of the inhabitants were seen on the bank. The place seemed deserted, and so unusual an occurrence could only have been caused by some order. The steamers reached Tsameet Kywn at 3-30 P. M. and remained there that night, the run having been of about twenty-five miles. The village is on the left bank, and consists of about 150 houses only, having one narrow and irregular street, flanked with, generally speaking, poor-looking houses: there were one or two, however, of wood. This place is noted for its manufacture of saltpetre. In the neighbourhood there is a considerable plain, consisting mainly of rice fields. The usual fleet of row boats met the Mission on its approach, and the usual Pooay was provided. The steamers left at about 6 A. M. on the 5th and passed the upper mouth of the Kyeng-dweng. From APPENDIX C. 261 this point the Irawadi visibly narrowed, but still remained a wide and noble stream. About 10 A. M. a large village (probably the Moowa of Yule's map) on the right bank was passed, and the Mandalay Hills came in sight. At about 11 Kyouktalon, the next halting-place, could be seen, and it was reached at about 2 P. M. No boats came out, nor were the people on the banks there was no Pooay, but a shed had been prepared. The village is a small one. ; On the 6th October, after starting, the Nemesis got aground on a sand bank. The day was spent in unsuccessful efforts to get her off. On the morning of the 7th the Colonel Phayre dragged her off, and at 10 A. M. the two steamers proceeded up the river again. Previously, at 9 A. M., Captain Sladen, accompanied by several war-boats, had arrived from Mandalay and came on board the Nemesis. The fleet of war-boats accompanied the steamers on their way up. Tsagain was passed without stopping, and Mandalay was reached at about 3 P. M. Mandalay itself is about two miles inland from the river, but at the landing-place there is a considerable village, occupied principally by natives of India and Munipúrees (Cathays). Lying here was one of the King's steamers, and one of his flats, and a second flat belonging to the Flotilla Company. On the bank was a guard of about thirty men of the King's troops in green jackets and red striped putsoes (kilts), with red helmets. The Wondouk who accompanied us was much disappointed that we had not stopped at Tsagain, where great preparations had been made. It was arranged that the Ministers should visit the Chief Com- missioner next day, and that the Mission should land the day afterwards. Some of the gentlemen living at Mandalay came off in the evening. After breakfast on the 8th all collected on board the Nemesis, which had been arranged as at Menhla, and at about midday the deputation from the King came down to the river. It consisted of the Yaynankhyoung Mengyee, Oo Tso, and the Keng Won- douk, with a number of Secretaries and minor officials. Оо 262 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Tso's son, a lad of fourteen, came with his father. The conversa- tion was lively and entirely about the journey, and whether it had been a pleasant one or not. Inquiry was made regarding the dimensions of the Nemesis, and whether it could go on the sea; and questions, numerous enough, were asked as to the personnel of the Mission. The Burmese officials went over the steamer, and shortly afterwards went on shore again. It had been requested of the English officers that none would go to the city until the formal entry had been made; the party was, therefore, confined to short strolls on the bank of the river. Early on the morning of the 9th the march to the Residency was commenced. The order being as follows:-First about fifty of the King's troops in uniform, then Mrs. Fytche in a handsome gilded litter sent to her by the Queen, followed by the Paopa Wondouk on an elephant; then the Chief Commissioner followed by Mrs. Lloyd, and in due order the officers composing the suite of the Envoy, all on elephants, followed by the escort of British Infantry and Artillery on foot, About a mile and a half from the river a creek was crossed by boats, of which a great number were collected. At his point the procession was met by the Keng Wondouk and a number of minor officials, when the march was resumed, the procession being headed by the newly- arrived officials and accompanied by about 500 cavalry, and probably 3,000 foot soldiers. The cavalry were generally in red jackets and trowsers, a few wearing a red jerkin over these, and still fewer dressed in the full uniform of the cavalry, shoulder- pieces, gilt helmet, with ear-pieces and embroidered jerkin; all had the white saddle-flap and high-peaked pummel and cantle. The men were armed with a spear and a sword each, the latter being, as a rule, the Burmese dha, but some few had a sword of European shape with a scabbard of brass or steel. The infantry had only the white jacket worn by the ordinary population; all had flint muskets. These troops accompanied the cortége through the suburbs of the town to the Residency. This suburb was that called Kulah-dan, or foreign quarter. It is traversed by a APPENDIX C. 263 handsome broad and clean street, at least half a mile in length, planted with tamarind trees of good growth, considering that the town was only commenced in 1856. The sun was hot, and the Residency was not reached until 1o A. M. The distance altogether 10 was not three and a half miles, but the pace was slow and the halts frequent. At the Residency the Envoy was received by the Yaynan- khyoung Meng-gyee and a large party of officials. The whole morning's proceeding went off very well indeed. The Agency compound has been enclosed by a good strong post and mat fence, and within this enclosure all the buildings for the Mission had been erected. During the 10th Captain Sladen visited the King, and His Majesty consented to receive the Envoy next day. This early reception was considered as a mark of condescension, as it has been the custom of the Court to require a much longer interval before receiving an Embassy, but it was important that it should thus be granted, as the 11th was the full moon, during which day religious ceremonies prevent all business, and the 12th, 13th, and 14th were to be festival days, during which the Kadaus, or Royal presents, are presented to His Majesty by his subjects; they are frequently called "beg-pardon days," as the offerings are intended to propitiate His Majesty and to obtain forgiveness for any faults committed. It would have been unbecoming for the British Envoy to have had his audience on one of these days; and as no business can be transacted until after the formal reception by the King, a considerable delay would have taken place had this ceremony been put off until the festival was over. During the day Burmese plays were going on continually within in the enclosure. The Envoy received visits from the European gentlemen resident in Mandalay. On the morning of the 11th the Envoy and suite proceeded to the palace, starting at about 10 A. M. The order of the procession was as follows:-Leading the way, a considerable distance in front, was the Myo Won, or Governor of the city of Mandalay. 264 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. He was followed by the escort of European Infantry on foot, then the British flag was borne aloft carried by ship's lascars; after which came the Envoy, Colonel Fytche, attended by two golden umbrellas. He was followed by Captain Sladen, Captain Duncan, Mr. Edwards, the Paopa Wondouk, and the officers of the escort and some officers on leave at Mandalay from the frontier station of Thayetmyo. The same number of Burmese troops that escorted the Mission from the steamers to the Agency accom- panied the cortège on this occasion, and on entering the chief gate it was found that the road leading from it to the Palace Gate was lined with men bearing arms, probably about 5,000 men. They had the common white jacket, were manifestly untrained to the use of arms, and seemed to be people called out merely for the occasion. About one-fifth were armed with spears, the remainder with muskets, a similar proportion, viz., one-fifth, were old men or young boys, unfitted for military duties. The pro- cession entered the city by the western gate, and then moved round the palace to its eastern gate: there the party dismounted, and swords and umbrellas were dispensed with. The palace is enclosed first by a strong wooden stockade, then, at an interval of 100 feet, by a brick wall, and at a further interval of 100 feet by another brick wall. Between the two walls some pieces of ordnance with their field carriages were placed, lining the road; and just outside the inner wall was placed the Hlwotdau, or Supreme Court. Here were stationed the Pakhan Meng-gyee and the Yaynankhyoung Meng-gyees with some other officials; the Envoy stopped and spoke to them, but did not enter the Hlwot. At the side of the gate of the inner wall there was a wicket through which the embassy passed. About twenty yards inter- vened between this wicket and the steps of the palace, where the party took off their shoes and were then led through the Myaynan, or principal Hall of Audience, in which is the throne. Leaving the throne to the left, and passing out of the Myaynan, a smaller chamber just behind the throne was reached: here it was that the audience was given. It was an open hall or portico, supported by white chunammed pillars, and was about thirty feet APPENDIX C. 255 square; at the western side, before a golden folding-door, was placed a low couch for His Majesty; immediately in front of this, at a distance of four or five yards, the Envoy and party sat down. They were flanked by numerous Burmese officials, who, on either side, reached up close to his Majesty's couch. At its side on the left were four of the King's grown-up sons—the Thonzai, Nyoungyan, Mek-ka-ra, and Myeengon Princes. Behind them were some more of the royal children. Some fifteen or twenty minutes elapsed, and then the doors were thrown open. The King was seen approaching from a considerable distance up a vista of gilded doors of various succeeding chambers. He was preceded by two officers carrying dhas, and accompanied by a little child of five or six years of age, one of his little daughters. He took off his shoes at the further side of the couch and sat down reclining on one side. Silence prevailed for some time, and then the King opened the conversation, which proceeded as follows:- M King. Is the English Ruler well? Envoy. The English Ruler is well, your Majesty. King-How many days is it since you left Rangoon? Envoy.-Nineteen days, your Majesty. Here the list of presents from the Viceroy to His Majesty was read out. King.-I trust you have found everything prepared in accordance with the friendship existing between the Govern- ments. Envoy. We have received every possible attention on our way through your royal dominions, and I beg to thank your Majesty for the kind treatment we have experienced. No reply. Envoy. I have been surprised and pleased to see how fine a city Mandalay is, seeing that it was only founded a few years ago. King. It is not finished yet, but next time you come it will be in a still better state. What is the age of the Envoy? Envoy.-Forty-four years, your Majesty. 266 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Here the King said something in a low voice to his sons, and a nephew of His Majesty brought to the Envoy on a golden salver a small packet, which when opened was found to contain a collar of the Burmese order of the Tsalwé of the first grade. The Burmese Minister, on a motion from His Majesty, said, "invest the Envoy," and Captain Sladen put it over the Envoy's left shoulder. Colonel Fytche bowed, and thanked His Majesty for the honour conferred on him. Envoy. The house which your Majesty has prepared for us here is very handsome and commodious, and we are grateful for the trouble that has been taken in getting it ready. King-It has been constructed mainly through the activity of Sladen. Captain Sladen.—And also, your Majesty, with the assistance of the officials you were pleased to direct to help me. King-Sladen is a good man, and has done all he can to advance the interests of both the British and the Burmese Governments. Envoy.-I have every confidence that he has done so. King.-Sladen is an honest man. It is from honest men being in such a position as his that good friendship is preserved between Governments. Envoy.-I am glad to learn your Majesty's good opinion of Captain Sladen, and I shall report to His Excellency the Viceroy all that you have been pleased to say concerning him. Captain Sladen.-I feel highly honoured, your Majesty, by your royal approbation, and I shall never forget this public expression of it. King.-Sladen must visit me daily while the Envoy is here: (addressing him) you must come every day, come with the Kulah-won (Mr. Manook, the official through whom the King communicates with all foreigners). Having said this the King got off the couch and stood up with his back to the audience. The doors were opened, he passed out, and they were at once closed. During the interview the King spoke in a quite low tone. His Majesty had a pair of APPENDIX C 267 opera-glasses through which he frequently looked at the members of the embassy. After the departure of the King considerable general conversa- tion ensued between the officers of the Mission and the numerous Burmese officials present. The audience was quite an open one, and it was found that all the servants of the officers, who had accompanied them to the palace, had been present, seated at the back. Sweetmeats and cakes in great profusion were brought in. There were fried locusts also, which were pressed on the visitors as delicacies. After a short time passed in trying the various dishes and talking the while on sundry subjects, the Envoy left. Shoes were resumed at the foot of the palace steps. The Meng-yees again greeted the party at the steps of the Hlwot- dau, and the Wondouk and other officials accompanied it to the gates of the palace, whence the return to the Agency was quickly effected on elephants, the troops still lining the streets as before and the cavalry accompanying the cortège. The Agency was reached at 2 P. M. To-day a boat arrived with letters for the Chief Commissioner which had left Thayetmyo on the 4th instant. On the 12th no business of a public nature was transacted, as it was the day of the full moon, during which the Burmese have certain religious observances to attend to. And so also on the 13th, which, besides being Sunday, was a festival day with the Burmese. On the 14th Mrs. Fytche and Mrs. Lloyd visited the palace, having interviews with the principal Queen (who is also the King's half-sister) and with her mother, and the second Queen, or Alaynandau Phura. It was also arranged that the King should receive the Envoy, attended by Captain Sladen, Captain Duncan, and Mr. Edwards, on the 16th at a private audience, when business would be commenced, the object of the Mission officially announced, and permission asked to discuss matters with the Ministers. It was hoped that the official visits to the Ministers might take place the same day. On the 15th Captain Sladen saw the King, and informed him of the communications 268 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. which would be made to him next day, and His Majesty ex- pressed his readiness to receive them from the Envoy. On the 16th, however, Captain Sladen was so unwell as to be unable to attend with the Envoy at the palace. Information to this effect was conveyed to His Majesty, and he was asked whether it would be agreeable to him to receive the Envoy and other officers without Captain Sladen, or whether His Majesty would prefer to wait for a day or two for Captain Sladen's recovery. His Majesty suggested that the audience should be post- poned till the 18th, and the Ministers at the same time sent to the Envoy requesting he would pay his visits to them also on the 18th. The delay in seeing the King did not really interfere with the transaction of business, and none could have been gone into with the Ministers until after they had been visited. On the 18th the visits were again postponed until the 19th, when the Envoy had what was called a private audience with His Majesty. Colonel Fytche was accompanied by Captain Sladen, Captain Duncan, and Mr. Edwards. The reception took place in the southern garden in a summer-house. There were present the Keng Wondouk, the Paopa Wondouk, an Atwen Won, and the Kulah-won, Mr. Manook. The following conversa- tion took place :- King.-I hope you continue well and comfortable. Envoy.-Everything is most comfortable. I already had the honour of thanking your Majesty publicly for the reception and accommodation afforded us, and I beg now to repeat the same. It will give me much pleasure on my approaching visit to Calcutta to inform the Viceroy and Governor-General of India of the kindness and consideration your Majesty has shown. Pause. Colonel Fytche.-The water in the river is now falling fast, and I should be glad if your Majesty would give me an opportunity of concluding the business upon which I have come. APPENDIX C. 269 King-Do you mean the business you have written about and which Sladen has conducted with me? Colonel Fytche.-Yes, your Majesty. King. That is arranged: nothing remains but to meet the Wongyees and conclude matters with them. Colonel Fytche.-I had great pleasure, before leaving Rangoon, in writing to inform the Viceroy of your Majesty's assent to the several Treaty propositions which were laid before you by Captain Sladen. On my return to Rangoon it is my intention to proceed to Calcutta to visit the Viceroy. King-When you visit Calcutta there is one thing I wish you to mention to the Viceroy, viz., that he would give you permis- sion to visit me once a year at least. Colonel Fytche.-I shall do so, your Majesty. King-I see Mr. Edwards; (to Mr. Edwards) Edwards you never get old; what is your age? (To Colonel Fytche.) Be kind to Mr. Edwards; he has served Government faithfully for a number of years. (To Mr. Edwards.) Edwards, when the British Government cease to employ you, come to me, and I will keep you here. I shall not expect you to work, but I shall keep you in comfort. Pause. King-There is no state or condition of life which is not made more perfect by a good friendly understanding. I wish for sincere friendship with you, Colonel Fytche. When I make a request you must not think that I wish merely for my own per- sonal interests. I look to the interests of both countries. In return, any requests which you may have to make of me should have reference to mutual advantages; our friendship will then be complete. But there are certain ways in which friendship will be completely broken off and utterly destroyed. No more effectual means exists than listening to the idle stories of evil-minded men. Even the most affectionate couple, as husband and wife, brother and sister, father and son, may soon be made to hate each other by reports from intriguers. Lately, for instance, before you came, there were people who told me you were a bad man, and that I 270 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. might expect the worst from your visit: I now see how false were these words. They also tried to make me believe that you were no friend of Sladen's. Colonel Fytche.-I have every confidence in Captain Sladen. He has been known to me for many years, and served directly under me when I was Commissioner of Tenasserim. King-A man like Sladen is rare even among foreigners. You will do well to give him your confidence. He works for the interests of both countries. He is as much in my confidence as any of my own Ministers, and I often say more to him than I would to them. Sladen, you know the duties of a Ruler; what is the first duty? Captain Sladen. That he should have patience (or self-restraint), your Majesty. King (laughing).-Exactly, a Ruler should never lose his temper; he should listen to all sides of a question, but never allow himself to be angry, &c., &c. Pause. King.-I wish you, Colonel Fytche, to see my hospitals for the sick and old; they will interest you. I myself derive much satisfaction from being able to exercise charity towards the afflicted and the priests, besides which I thereby lay up for my- self future reward; but I am not supposed to keep all this to myself. There is no gift of gold or silver which can be compared to the priceless one of a share in the reward or merit of good actions. I want you, Colonel Fytche, to say you will accept what I have of that to give you. Colonel Fytche.-I do so, your Majesty. The tenets of the Buddhist faith resemble those of the Christian religion in this and in many other respects." He that hath pity on the poor lendeth unto the Lord; what he layeth out it shall be paid him again." King. Then I admit you to share the merit of my charitable works. I cannot make you a greater offering than this. I have long known you by report, and have got your portrait, which I have had for some years. Although we have known one APPENDIX C. 271 another personally for a short time only, you must still consider that we have long been friends. Who is that sitting near the Envoy? Colonel Fytche.-It is the Inspector-General of Police, Captain Duncan. King (to Captain Duncan).-Do you understand Burmese? Captain Duncan.-I do, your Majesty. King.-Then I hope you will remember all I have been saying. Colonel Fytche.-Captain Sladen under my instructions spoke to your Majesty a day or two ago regarding the exploring expedi- tion which the Viceroy proposes to send from Bhamo to China. I wish to write on the subject to your Majesty. King-Do so by all means. I will sanction the expedition (literally, I will give permission for the party to go); when will it start, where will it go? Colonel Fytche. It will leave this in December and proceed from Bhamo to China. King.-Who is to go with the party? If you send Sladen, I will assist him throughout to China, and send my own people with him. Colonel Fytche.-It is my intention to send Captain Sladen, but arrangements will have to be made for any business which may have to be transacted here during his absence. King-Sladen will only be away a short time. It will be better not to appoint any one here in his absence. I shall order my Won-gyees to communicate direct with you in Rangoon on business matters. Colonel Fytche.-I am glad to inform your Majesty that brigandage has decreased on the frontier since your Majesty deputed a special officer from Mandalay to reside with a guard at Shazeebo. King.-I am glad to hear this; I have attended to your wishes in respect to this appointment. My desire is to put down brigandage and marauding. It is by thus having a due regard to mutual advantages that we shall continue to get on well together. 272 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Our officers on the frontier should understand each other and co- operate in the apprehension of offenders. Colonel Fytche.-My officers report that they and the Burmese officer (Boh Moungalay) work in close concert, and they speak highly of his energy. King. Do you know Moung Toung Boh, the present Governor of Meeaday? He is a good man, and gets on well with English officials. Several bad characters ran away from this during the rebellion and are now congregated in British territory where they will scheme for evil; keep a good watch on them. Colonel Fytche. We have lists of the refugees your Majesty refers to, and they are under observation. The King here pointed out to Colonel Fytche the Keng Wondouk, and said he wished Colonel Fytche to know him and like him he (the King) had reared the Wondouk from the time he was a child. Colonel Fytche replied that he had met the Keng Wondouk once or twice since his arrival, and had liked him from the first. His Majesty also pointed out the Padein Won, Shwé Beng (a young Burman who received an English education in Calcutta), and requested Colonel Fytche to look on him as his son. Colonel Fytche mentioned to the King that the Paopa Wondouk (who was present) had been most attentive since the Mission had entered Burmese territory. The King replied that the Wondouk was an old officer of Government, and served his father years ago. King-Regarding the Myeen-gon Prince, although he is my son he has given me a great deal of trouble. I now maintain 8,000 men in the Shan States to watch him. What are the last accounts you have heard of him ? Colonel Fytche.-By the latest accounts he was in a very poor condition, with but few followers in Kyaypogyee's country. The eastern and western Karennees are fighting amongst themselves, but do not countenance the Prince. King. Do all you can to induce the Prince to come into you. The Karennees are assisting him, and he is trying to raise the Shans. He has been issuing circulars to the people to join his APPENDIX C. 273. standard and fight. I can send you one of his proclamations, which was sent me by a Mahomedan trader from near Tonghoo. Colonel Fytche.-I have written to Kyaypogyee, expressing dis- satisfaction at any assistance he may give to the Prince. Strict orders have also been issued to the Shan Chiefs who are in our territory that they are not on any account to cross the frontier or to give any aid to the Prince. King.—I am aware of that, but the Shans are a foolish people, and they would listen to evil advice. Burmans are foolish, too; a small spark soon kindles into a flame. Had you not sent the Myeengondaing Prince away from Rangoon, he also would have created a disturbance. Colonel Fytche.-About the Myeengondaing Prince I wished to inform your Majesty that he was sent to the Andamans for safety at the time it was necessary to remove him quickly. But as the Andaman Islands are used as a convict colony, it is now proposed to send him to some suitable place in Bengal. King-Very good, send him as far away as possible from Burma and all association with Burmese. I should wish to have two river steamers, one of them to be armed. During the re- bellion my country was saved by the steamers that came up from Rangoon as soon as they appeared the rebels dispersed every- where. Colonel Phayre advised me to have two war steamers, one between this and Bhamo, and the other between this and the frontier. I want your Government to supply me with these steamers; what would they cost? Colonel Fytche.The steamers can be furnished easily enough, but it will be necessary that your Majesty should furnish details as to the kind of steamer you want, its length, breadth, draught, horse-power, &c., &c. There are so many varieties of steamers suitable for river navigation. Here ensued a short discussion as to what would be required, and it was eventually arranged that the Burmese Ministers would furnish details regarding the steamers, and Colonel Fytche would make inquiries in Calcutta as to the cost, &c., &c. VOL. II. T 274 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 7 King-I also want 8,000 rifles. You have already assented to my having 2,000, which I am now getting from Dr. Williams; and if you let me have 8,000 more, I shall have 10,000 men well armed with rifles, and they will always remain near me at the capital. To this Colonel Fytche replied that the rifles could be fur- nished, but that the kind of rifle wanted should be settled. A conversation ensued regarding smooth-bores, rifles, and breech- loaders, and it was explained to the King that to use rifles or breech-loaders the men had to be well instructed, and then to take great care of their arms. The King replied " In time no doubt my men would learn all that," and it was arranged that His Majesty should decide and let Colonel Fytche know what kind of arm he desired to have. The King then turned to leave, and turning round on the sofa said "Sladen, I am sorry you have been sick. I shall send you something to-morrow to make you well," and with that withdrew. The party then adjourned to an open pavilion, where sweet- meats and fruits were served. Subsequently, the Chief Com- missioner, Captain Duncan, and Mr. Edwards visited the Wongyees. The first was the Loungshay Meng-gyee, an officer who had been most severely wounded during the late rebellion, and who is still much disabled. During the visit there was no business discussed, but a friendly conversation lasted for some time. The next visit was to the Yaynankhyoung Meng-gyee, Oo He has Tso, an old soldier of high repute among the Burmese. been engaged in a good many campaigns, and during the rebellion last year re-established the King's authority in all the districts south of Mandalay to the frontier. He received a bullet wound in one of the fights, and indeed the bullet has not been extracted. The Meng-gyee is a man of very quiet and affable manners. Some of the ladies of this family were present. He spoke on general subjects, and only casually adverted to the fact of a Treaty being in negotiation, asking when it would be concluded. He seldom mixes in politics, and his reputation is entirely military. The Pakhan Meng-gyee was next visited. This official may be described APPENDIX C. 275 as holding the position of Prime Minister; he is the cleverest of the officials now in office, was a fellow-priest with the King before he came to the throne, and has always been employed in political matters. At his house the Keng Wondouk (who has already been frequently mentioned) was present. The visit was a most agreeable one, as they are both men of unusual intelligence. The The sub- subjects were general, and no business was referred to. jects talked of were some points of the Christian religion, the deluge, the solar system, the duration of night and day in dif- ferent portions of the globe, &c., &c., all carried on with great vivacity and good humour. At each of the officials' houses re- freshments were served up in the English style with plates, knives and forks, glasses, napkins, &c., &c. At the Yaynankhyoung Meng-gyee's house beer and sherry were on the table; at those of the others tea was served. On the 21st November Colonel Fytche visited the Pakhan Meng-gyee for the purpose of discussing any matters regarding the Treaty. He was accompanied by Captain Sladen, Captain Dun- can, and Mr. Edwards. At the Meng-gyee's house was the Keng Wondouk, and Mr. Manook, the Kulah-won; the usual staff of writers also were there to record whatever might pass. The negotiations regarding the Treaty have been elsewhere reported, and it will be unnecessary to give here in detail the course of the discussions. Some corrections were made in the draft Treaty making more clear the provisions of the Articles. The inter- change of value lists and their correction, the free import and export of silver and gold, the right of purchase of warlike stores, all came up more or less for desultory discussion; but no im- portant alterations were proposed by the Minister, nor any desire of pressing them shown. The subjects from various aspects were dilated upon, but throughout the whole day's conversation no opposition on either side became necessary. The conclusion was that the Treaty generally was finally agreed to, leaving only one clause in the Article regarding the jurisdiction of the Agent for reference to His Majesty the King. As soon as business was over, lunch was over, and a long general conversation ensued. T 2 276 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Next day (the 22nd) the Pakhan Meng-gyee and the Keng Won- douk visited the Chief Commissioner. It was only towards the close that a further discussion regarding the jurisdiction Article ensued; they had not yet received the orders of the King, and were themselves somewhat opposed to the Article: this led them again to bring up some of the terms of the other Articles, but there was a manifest desire to avoid coming to a direct difference of opinion. The orders of His Majesty were to be received by them that evening. On the 23rd the entire Mission visited the palace on the invita- tion of His Majesty to see a sort of amateur ballet performed by the young ladies attached to the households of the Queens. The reception took place in the same building in which the last inter- view took place. A large circular shed had been constructed as for a native play; at one side was a raised alcove with a low railing, within which was the couch for His Majesty. Imme- diately in front of the alcove there was a rough attempt at scenery, forming the background to a troop of professional actors and actresses who were in attendance. To the right of the King's position sat several of his officials and the officers of the Mission. To the left were seated Mrs. Fytche and Mrs. Lloyd, and the wives of the Burmese Ministers. After a short delay, the King entered, and took his place on the couch. He made a few remarks to the effect that he wished the English officers to visit his gardens and any other objects of interest in the palace, and concluded by asking whether we wished to see the ordinary play by the professionals or the ballet. A preference was expressed for the latter, when he called attention to the fact that the players on the drums, gongs, and clarionets were all women. The performance commenced by the entrance of about 30 young girls in single file, who arranged themselves in a semi-circle, and kneeling down, bowed to His Majesty. They wore the ordinary hta-mein, or Burmese petticoat, but the jacket was more of the fashion of that worn by Princes in the plays. The hta-meins were all red and green, the jackets white satin, with circular pieces of APPENDIX C. 277 of silver stitched on, so as somewhat to resemble armour. On the head the girls wore peaked helmets, also usually worn by male performers in the ordinary plays. The girls rising, first per- formed a slow, graceful dance round the theatre to the accom- paniment of the band, varying the step and pace from time to time, and again knelt down; one of the number taking up her position in the centre, then sang and chanted in a rich contralto voice a slow hymn in honour of His Majesty, describing his great- ness and goodness. This was acknowledged to be one of the most effective exhibitions ever witnessed in the East by any the English party. The dead silence of the whole assembly, the clear and exceedingly sweet tone of the solo, and the peculiar measure of the air, half-recitative, half-sang, made the whole scene most striking and beautiful. The hymn consisted of three verses; at the end of each the girls, still kneeling, bowed low to His Majesty. They then resumed the dance, which they accompanied with a low chant, and varied it by beating time with two ornamental sticks which they now carried. This, too, being ended, the King rose and left. During the perform- ance, the Nama-daw Phura, or principal Queen, accompanied by a considerable retinue of ladies, entered, and seated herself close to His Majesty on a sofa placed for her reception. A considerable retinue of ladies accompanied her, but as they were seated at the back of the alcove, it was difficult to see who they were. On the departure of His Majesty, the Mission were served with fruit and sweetmeats in an open arbour, and afterwards pro- ceeded to visit the so-called white elephant. The animal is a small specimen, and can only by great courtesy be called white. In reality, he has light points, and the hair is not so coarse as in the ordinary elephant; it may be more truly described as brownish ; the lighter tint being more observable from a very black female elephant being assigned him as a companion in his stable. From this the party visited the stone-cutters, now busily engaged in engraving on marble slabs the entire Pitagât, or Burmese scrip- tures. These are to be placed round the King's temple in the 278 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. " neighbourhood of Mandalay. After a cursory look at some of the ordnance, the Mint was visited, where the coinage of rupees was going on. The machinery was procured from Birmingham, but, although the engine is under the charge of an African, the actual operations of smelting and coining are performed by Burmans. They state that they can coin about rupees 15,000 per diem, but this seemed a large out-turn for so small a machine, there being only one die at work. On leaving the palace, all returned to the Agency, with the ex- ception of Colonel Fytche, Captain Sladen, Captain Duncan, and Mr. Edwards, who paid. another visit to the Pakhan Meng-gyee. The Treaty was again discussed, and the final alterations in the jurisdiction Article agreed to. It was arranged that the docu- ment should be fairly written out next day, and signed on the 25th, when, also, the farewell visit was to be paid to the King. On the 24th no visits were interchanged by the Envoy. On the 25th the Mission went in procession to the palace in much the same order as on the occasion of the first visit to the King. On arriving at the Hlwotdan, or Supreme Court, the officers took off their shoes at the steps, and entering the building, joined the Pakhan and Yaynankhyoung Meng-gyees, who were there seated; there were also present the Keng Wondouk, the Kulah-won, and some secretaries. The Treaty was prepared on large sheets of parchment, and the two Burmese copies were read over and compared. The English copies were read over carefully by the Padien Won (who understands English), and all being found correct, they were signed and sealed. The Mission then entered the palace building, and were conducted to the reception-room where the first interview was held. The same arrangements had been made as on that occasion, but there was only one of the King's sons present. After taking his seat, as usual, His Majesty first observed that the weather was very hot, to which remark, no doubt, all silently assented, as the heat had for some days been very great. The King then said that he wished the officers to visit his gardens APPENDIX C. 279 before they left, mentioning to his officers the particular places to which they should be taken. Then followed a short con- versation. King. When is it proposed that the Envoy should return to Rangoon? Colonel Fytche.-On the 3rd day after this, your Majesty, we propose going on board the steamers, and the next day we will start down the river. King.-Will the Envoy then go to Calcutta, and who of the party will go with him? Colonel Fytche.-Yes; I am to pay a visit to His Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General as soon as I can after reaching Rangoon, but none of the other officers will go. King-You will, I hope, remember to ask leave to visit me once a year. Colonel Fytche.—I shall certainly do so, your Majesty, and in the next occasion I should wish, with your permission, to visit the capital in a quiet and informal manner. King-Among foreigners (Kulahs) there are many deceitful and wicked men. I trust you will be careful regarding such. The King then directed that the presents should be brought in. These consisted of a gold cup and silk putsoe to each member of the Mission, and, in addition to these, two rings (a ruby and a sapphire) were given to Colonel Fytche. King.-I understand that you have an English clergyman here? Colonel Fytche.-Yes, your Majesty (pointing to the Rev. Mr. Crofton); this is the Chaplain of Rangoon. King-Is that the Inspector-General of Police sitting near you? Colonel Fytche.-It is, your Majesty. King-Where is he generally stationed in the British territory? In Rangoon ? Colonel Fytche.—Yes; his head-quarters are at Rangoon, but he has to visit all the districts in Arakan and Tenasserim as well. 280 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. King.-I understand that you wish for some wormwood seed, which I have procured for you (it was here brought in). Now I think you would like to visit the garden, and with these words His Majesty rose and went off. The Envoy and the officers of the suit then visited the gardens inside the palace, and were served with sweetmeats, &c., &c. After this they proceeded to the house of Mr. Manook, the Kulah- won, to lunch. This officer, who is the official medium between the King and foreigners generally, had been most attentive to the Mission from the time of its arrival, and all were much in- debted to him for the constant anxiety he showed to make the visit agreeable. The 26th and 27th were passed without official business of any interest, and on the 28th, the day fixed for our departure, the Ministers came to bid Colonel Fytche good-bye; their visit was a lengthy one, and of the most friendly and agreeable kind. His Majesty sent to the Envoy a small Whitworth gun, with field carriage, which had been made in his arsenal. It carries a one pound shot, and was made from a small Whitworth presented to the King two or three years ago by a gentleman from England, who visited Mandalay regarding the construction of a railway. In the afternoon the members of the Mission embarked on board the steamers, and next day proceeded down the river, accompanied by the Paopa Wondouk and other officials, as far as Kyouktalon, in one of the King's steamers. A Secretary and a Commissariat Officer came on in our steamer to Menhla, which was reached on the 1st November. Here the Tseetkay of Menhla came on board, and after a short interview the journey was continued, and the frontier crossed that after- noon. The foregoing short description of the Mission to Mandalay of the Chief Commissioner of British Burma, as Envoy from the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, will have shown how satisfactorily all the circumstances connected with it passed off. The position of affairs anterior to the visit was such as to give exceptional importance to the event. Just one year previously, APPENDIX C. 281 the Court of Ava had declined to enter into further Treaty engagements with the British Government, which were considered essential to a proper carrying out of the spirit of the Treaty of 1852, and which were no less necessary to meet the growing requirements of the large commercial relations of the two countries. The dissatisfaction felt by the Government of India at the course pursued by the Court of Ava was communicated to His Majesty the King, and the disappointment of the public generally at the narrow policy thus displayed led to a strong expression of resentment against the Burmese Government. Negotiations were re-opened by the desire of His Majesty, and eventuated in the visit of the Chief Commissioner for the purpose of concluding a subsidiary Treaty. Some significance, therefore, was necessarily attached to the manner in which the Mission might be received, irrespective of the result, whether that might be successful or not. On this point there can be no two opinions. as to the reception of the Envoy and his suite. From the time the party crossed the frontier, until it left Mandalay, there was the most manifest desire to show every consideration and respect towards the representative of His Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General. During the progress up the river, every pro- vision was made for the comfort and convenience of the party. At the capital, the accommodation provided was exceptionally handsome and commodious. In all the details connected with the interviews with His Majesty, measures were taken to show the importance attached by the Court to a fitting reception at the palace; and in the more direct and personal communication with His Majesty and with his Ministers, the most friendly tone pre- vailed. Frequent expression was given to the desire for a lasting and close friendship between the respective Governments. Further, the Treaty was agreed to and concluded. Its terms, which provide for greater freedom in the trade of the two countries, and greater security for British interests in the Burmese territory, are eminently calculated to develope the commercial relations of the two nations. If the same appreciation of its value which has 282 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. } led the Burmese Court to conclude this Treaty will also induce it to carry out its provisions cordially and liberally, we may hope for the best results in the increased prosperity of the Burmese kingdom. RANGOON, The 8th Nov., 1867. ALBERT FYTCHE, COL., Chief Commissioner of British Burma, Agent to His Excellency the Viceroy and Governor- General. (sd.) APPENDIX. Treaty concluded on 25th October, 1867 A.D., corresponding with 13th day of the waning moon Tha-den-gyoot 1229 B. E., by Colonel Albert Fytche, Chief Commissioner of British Burma, in virtue of full power vested in him by His Excellency the Right Hon'ble Sir John Laird Mair Lawrence, Bart., G.C.B., G. C.S.I., Viceroy and Governor-General of India, and by His Excellency the Pakhan Woongyee, Men-Thudo-Mengyee Maha- Menhla See-Thoo, in virtue of full power vested in him by His Majesty the King of Burma. ARTICLE I. Save and except Earth Oil, Timber, and Precious Stones, which are hereby reserved as Royal Monopolies, all goods and merchandise passing between British and Burmese territory shall be liable, at the Burmese Customs Houses, to the payment of a uniform Import and Export Duty of five per cent. ad valorem for a period of ten years, commencing from the first day of the Bur- mese year 1229, corresponding with 15th April, 1867. No indirect dues or payments of any kind shall be levied or demanded on such goods over and above the five per cent. ad valorem duty. ARTICLE II. But after the expiration of ten years, during which Customs Duties will be collected as provided for above in Article I., it shall be optional with the Burmese Government, whilst estimating the capabilities and requirements of trade, either to increase or decrease the existing five per cent. Import and Export Duties, so that the increase shall at no time exceed (10) ten, or the decrease to be reduced below a three (3) per cent. ad valorem rate on any particular article of commerce. Three months' notice shall be given of any intention to increase or decrease the rates of Customs Duty as above, previous to the commencement of the year in which such increase or decrease shall have effect. APPENDIX C. 283 ARTICLE III. The British Government hereby stipulates that it will adhere to the aboli- tion of Frontier Customs Duty, as expressed in Article VIII. of the treaty of 1862, during such time as the Burmese Government shall collect five per cent. ad valorem duties, or a lesser rate as provided for in Articles I. and II. of this Treaty. ARTICLE IV. Both Governments further stipulate to furnish each other annually with price lists, showing the market value of all goods, imported and exported under Articles I. and II. Such price lists shall be furnished two months before the commencement of the year during which they are to have effect, and may be corrected from time to time as found necessary, by the mutual consent of both Governments through their respective Political Agents. ARTICLE V. The British Government is hereby privileged to establish a Resident or Political Agent in Burmese territory, with full and final jurisdiction in all Civil suits arising between Registered British subjects at the capital. Civil cases between Burmese subjects and Registered British subjects shall be heard and finally decided by a mixed Court composed of the British Political Agent and a suitable Burmese Officer of high rank. The Burmese Government reserves to itself the right of establishing a Resident or Political Agent in British territory whenever it may choose to do so. ARTICLE VI. The British Government is further allowed the right of appointing British officials to reside at any or each of the stations in Burmese territory at which Customs Duty may be leviable. Such officials shall watch and inquire into all cases affecting trade, in its relation to Customs Duty; and may purchase land and build suitable dwelling-houses at any town or station where they may be appointed to reside. ARTICLE VII. In like manner the Burmese Government is also allowed the right of appointing Burmese officials to reside at any or each of the stations in British Burma at which Customs Duty may be leviable. Such officials shall watch and inquire into all cases affecting trade, in its relation to Customs Duty; and may purchase land and build suitable dwelling-houses at any town or station where they may be appointed to reside. ARTICLE VIII. In accordance with the great friendship which exists between the two Governments, the subjects of either shall be allowed free trade in the import 284 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and export of gold and silver bullion between the two countries, without let or hindrance of any kind, on due declaration being made at the time of import or export. The Burmese Government shall further be allowed permission to purchase arms, ammunition, and war materials generally in British territory, subject only to the consent and approval in each case of the Chief Commis- sioner of British Burma and Agent to the Governor-General. ARTICLE IX. Persons found in British territory, being Burmese subjects, charged with having committed any of the following offences, viz., murder, robbery, dacoity, or theft, in Burmese territory, may be apprehended and delivered up to the Burmese Government for trial, on due demand being made by the Government, provided that the charge on which the demand is made shall have been investigated by the proper Burmese Officers in the presence of the British Politi- cal Agent: and provided also the British Political Agent shall consider that suffi. cient cause exists under British Law procedure to justify the said demand, and place the accused persons on their trial. The demand and delivery in each case shall be made through the British Political Agent at the Capital. ARTICLE X. Persons found in Burmese territory, being British subjects, charged with having committed any of the following offences, viz., murder, robbery, dacoity, or theft, in British territory, may be apprehended and delivered up to the British Government for trial, on due demand being made by that Government, provided that the charge on which the demand is made shall have been investigated by the proper British Officers, in the presence of the Burmese Political Agent; and provided also that the Burmese Political Agent shall be satisfied that sufficient cause exists under Burmese Law Procedure to justify the said demand and put the accused persons on their trial. The demand and delivery in each case shall be made through the Burmese Political Agent in British territory. ARTICLE XI. Persons found in Burmese territory, being Burmese subjects, charged with having committed any of the following offences, viz., murder, robbery, dacoity, or theft, in British territory, shall, on apprehension, be tried and punished in accordance with Burmese Law and custom. A special Officer may be appointed by the British Government to watch the proceedings on the trial of all persons apprehended under this Article. ARTICLE XII. Persons found in British territory, being British subjects, charged with having committed any of the following offences, viz., murder, robbery, dacoity, or theft, in Burmese territory, shall, on apprehension, be tried and punished in accordance with British Law and custom. A special Officer may be appointed by the Burmese Government to watch the proceedings on the trial of all persons apprehended under this Article. Seal. APPENDIX C. ARTICLE XIII. The Treaty which was concluded on the 10th November, 1862, shall remain in full force: the stipulations now made and agreed to in the above Articles being deemed as subsidiary only, and as in no way affecting the several pro- visions of that Treaty. Seal. (Sd.) FORT WILLIAM, The 26th November, 1867. Signed in Burmese. 285 ALBERT FYTCHE, COLonel, Chief Commissioner, British Burma ; and Aent to the Viceroy and Governor-General of India. Ratified by the Viceroy and Governor-General of India in Council this day, the 26th November, 1867. (Sd.) JOHN LAWRENCE, Viceroy and Governor-General. APPENDIX D. MEMORANDUM ON THE COMPARATIVE PROGRESS OF THE PROVINCES, NOW FORMING BRITISH BURMA UNDER BRITISH AND NATIVE RULE. Dated Rangoon, 23rd August, 1867. It may be premised, that the following paper has been drawn up on the understanding, that, data should be furnished showing, as clearly as possible, the material progress of British Burma under British Administration, as compared with its condition under Native Rule, or with the condition of existing neighbouring States and Powers: and that, no discussion or argument is desired as to the popularity of our rule, or the advantages which it may possess, except, so far as these are to be assumed, from the Statements indicative of the comparative progress of the people under our Government. 2. British Burma affords means of drawing a fair comparison between British and Native Administration-because it has in im- mediate contact with it, as a Government, the very power from whose dominions the Province was obtained. In 1826, the Provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim were annexed to the British Territories from the Burmese power, still leaving to the King of Ava the whole of the Northern portion of his dominions, as well as the important Province of Pegu, formed of the lower portion of the valley of the Irawadi River, and its delta. We thus obtained possession of the least productive portion of the Burmese King- dom, while the King retained the magnificent lands of Pegu, with APPENDIX D. 287 the valuable outlet of Rangoon, to which point foreign trade had solely been drawn. 3. A reference to the map will show, that the Province of Pegu was fairly interposed between the newly-acquired districts, in a position easily to withdraw from them both population and trade, provided Native rule had proved more attractive to either. These conditions then, seem to furnish a fair test-only that the pre- sumption was in favour of the Native Dynasty in virtue of it holding a far richer, and more accessible country. 4. As it is required that the endeavour to compare the result of British and of Native Rule, in these countries, is to be made on specific data, it is necessary to select some one element of ad- vancement as a standard, from which can be deduced the many numerous conditions, which go to make up material progress. If this be not done, the comparison must spread out into an examina- tion too minute and extended to be satisfactorily disposed of within a reasonable compass—and the difficulty is increased from the impossibility of obtaining in detail, the items which constituted the Revenue, taxes, and trade of British Burma, previous to our occupation, in such a shape as would enable individual compari- son with the fiscal arrangements now in force. 5. In the East, there is probably no better general test of the advancement of a country, than the rise or fall, the ebb or flow, of its population. A steady increase in the population indicates in fact a prosperous people, a firm and staple Government, and an absence of oppression. It produces, especially where the propor- tion is not in excess of the capabilities of the soil, extended culti- vation, and increased trade. If then, it can be fairly shown, that, the population of the Provinces composing British Burma, has increased at a rate which far exceeds the numbers to be obtained from natural increase, and must be attributed to immigration; that, in one instance where the locality, whence the immigration was drawn, became British, the exodus ceased; while the flow from Native states into British districts more accessible, continued ; and that, where detailed statistics are available, it will be seen our frontier Districts have increased at the highest ratio, then we may 288 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. conclude that British Administration in Burma has proved its superiority over Native Rule. In British Burma the population returns are fairly reliable, because they are susceptible of easy check from the Capitation Tax in force in these Provinces. This tax is levied from all male adults, and the revenue received there from,-actual money paid into the Treasury at fixed rates per head, has shown a proportional increase, corresponding with the rise in population. 6. It is well known that when Arakan and Tenasserim first came into our possession, in 1826, they were almost depopulated, and were so unproductive, that it was seriously deliberated whether they should not be restored to Burma. The following figures will show how much these apparently unprofitable acquirements pros- pered under our Administration. 7. In 1826 the Province of Arakan, with an area of 18,630 square miles, had a population of only 100,000 souls, these were the indigenous population. In 1835 this had risen to 211,536, of whom not more than 6,000 were foreigners. In 1845 the popula- tion numbered 309,608, an increase of fifty per cent. in the decade, and in 1855 reached 366,3 10, or fifteen per cent. in the decade, but in 1852 Pegu had become a British possession, the effect of which was immediately felt in Arakan, still the total increase in Arakan during the twenty nine years, was 250 per cent. of the indigenous population, or an average of fifty per cent. in each decade. 8. Now turning to Tenasserim, we find that in 1829, three years after the annexation, the population in a province with an area of 28,000 square miles, was estimated at a little over 70,000 souls. In 1835 it had risen to 84,917, or twenty-one per cent. in six years. In 1845 to 127,455, or fifty per cent. in the decade. In 1855 to 213,692, or sixty-nine per cent. in the decade. In other words it had increased by 200 per cent. in 26 years. Thè actual increase in the home population of England and Wales (after the loss from Emigration) has been about twelve per cent. in each decade of the last fifty years. 9. To support the above returns, we will give the Statistics of APPENDIX D. 289 revenue and assessed cultivation during the same period. Revenue of Arakan which in 1826 was £23,225 rose as follows:- In 1835 to £52,832: in 1845 to £68,455 and in 1855 to £127,729. The area of assessed cultivation, commencing in 1830 with 66,227 acres, advanced in 1835 to 133,952: in 1845 to 233,769 and in 1855 to 353,885 acres, while the value of the entire trade in the same year amounted to £1,876,998. : Io. In Tenasserim the first year's Revenue in 1825-26 was £2,676. In 1835-36 it had risen to £33,953. In 1845-46, £52,525, and in 1855--56 had reached £83,300: while the total trade amounted to £836,305. Land under cultivation was not assessed by area in the earlier years of our occupation, and we have no returns on that head, until 1843, when 100,657 acres were assessed. This in 1845 had increased to 119,869, and in 1855--56, to 181,681. The 11. Now from 1826 until 1852, these Provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim had, as a competitor both for trade and population, the Burman territories with a frontier of some 800 miles, across which our subjects were free to go, as far as we were concerned ; but not free to come, because the Burman authorities strongly opposed emigration, and put serious obstacles in the way of any of their people migrating to our territories. Yet the immense in- crease of population shows that very large numbers were attracted to our rule. 12. As to the trade, there are no reliable data available to show what it could have been under Burmese rule, for say, the half century before we occupied the provinces, but we know from the absence of any seaport towns of importance, and from the small number of vessels which ever visited these provinces from other countries, that, at the time they came into our possession, there was scarcely any external trade at all. During the years, however, which have now been described, Maulmain, in the Tenasserim Provinces, became from a fishing village, a city of 60,000 inhabi- tants; and Akyab, in Arakan, similarly sprung into existence, and reached a population of 20,000 souls. 13. So far has been traced the progress of these Provinces up VOL. II. U 290 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. to 1855, but in 1852, the Province of Pegu, including the rich delta of the Irawadi, had been annexed to our territory, the three Provinces eventually forming British Burma; and we have brought the older two Provinces up to 1855, because from that date a carefully prepared statement of the statistics of the whole three, provides a ready reference on all points of their material progress, as well as because in the first few years of our occupation of Pegu, the returns are necessarily not so reliable as when the Administration was completely organized. 14. Pegu came into our possession in 1852, with an estimated population of 500,000 souls, and an area of 33,400 square miles, or a ratio of 15 persons to the square mile. In 1855 it is returned at 631,640 souls, or nearly 19 to the square mile. It will be remembered that Arakan commencing in 1826, with a ratio of 5 persons to the square mile, had risen in 1855 to a ratio of 20 persons; and Tenasserim, from a ratio of 2 persons in 1829, had increased to 7 persons per square mile in 1855. But it would seem that in the beginning of the century, the population of the true Burman Empire (that is, Upper Burma, as now constituted, Pegu and Martaban) was estimated by various authorities at from 20 to 23 persons the square mile, and if this were the general average, it may be concluded that the fertile Province of Pegu containing the valley of the Irawadi, with that river as the highway from the seaport town of Rangoon to Ava, the Capital of the Empire, must have had a higher rate than the remainder of the country. 15. But taking the population of Pegu at 23 persons the square mile in 1826, we can then compare the position of the territories British and Native after 29 years of mutual contact, thus :- NATIVE BRITISH. Pegu Arakan Tenasserim * Total 1826. Population. 769, 120 100,000 70,000 939,320 Not including foreigners. 1855. Population. 719,640 341,310* 213,692 1,274,642 APPENDIX D. 291 Now we know that the gross increase in Arakan and Tenasserim in these 29 years was 385,000 souls, from which, allowing the natural increase during that period to have been 75 per cent. on the original population, we may deduct 127,500 on that account, and this will leave us 257,500 souls, as the emigration from Pegu and the other native Burman States into British Territory; and if we compare Pegu (including Martaban) fairly estimated in 1826, with Pegu (including Martaban) even in 1855 (three years after it came into our possession, during which period its population is believed to have risen from 588,000 to 719,640), we find it with nearly 50,000 less population at the latter than at the former period. This is an astonishing result when placed against the immense progress of the British territories in its immediate neigh- bourhood. 16. The very scanty ratio of population to area, which it is believed Burma has, within historical periods, always had under native rule, is almost certain proof that the actual natural increase is very low, or rather has been very low; yet it has very great capacity for supporting human life; and we have been able in tracing the British occupation of Arakan and Tenasserim, far less productive countries, to provide for a natural increase in them of 75 per cent. in 29 years, and even then have a large surplus popu- lation. Had Pegu during the same period, with its greater advan- tages, increased at the same proportion, it should have been possessed of a population of more than one million souls when it came into our hands. Instead of this, we find its population to have retrograded, and there can be no reasonable doubt that the people who should have enriched the Native State were drawn into British Territory. 17. Having thus brought up these Provinces to 1855, we shall now trace their progress since that period. The Province of Pegu, as has been said, came into our possession in 1852, but making allowances for the distressed condition of a country after a campaign, and for the imperfect returns, accidental to a newly- organized Administration, we may pass over the years up to 1855, and from that date commence our deductions. 酱 ​U 2 292 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. = 18. Now as to the Province of Pegu, it faces, with a perfectly open frontier of (say) 200 miles, the still existing Burmese terri- tories under the King of Ava, so that it is fairly pitted against the possibly superior attractions of Native Rule. From our territories, any subject of ours is free to move into Upper Burma whenever he desires, whereas there is a steady opposition shown to any emigration from the King's dominions into ours. So strong is this, that when families of cultivators wish to cross they are frequently obliged to do so by stealth at night, bringing possibly their cattle and carts, but abandoning their houses and much property. They send intelligence constantly to our Police Sta- tions on the frontier to announce that they are coming, asking at the same time that a guard may meet them on the frontier, to protect them from the pursuing Burmese officials; and again and again are our Police Stations flanked by the camps of whole villages, who have bodily moved into our territories, and taken shelter there until they had selected their future fields. 19. In the face of these difficulties, then, we find that Pegu, first a separate Province, now a Division of British Burma, had in 1855 a population of 631,640 souls, which in 1865 had risen to 1,350,989. That is, had more than doubled itself in ten years, the exact increase being 113 per cent. The proportion of popu- lation to area had increased from 19 to 40 per square mile. If we allow a natural increase of 25 per cent. during the decade in question, we may deduct 157,910 on that account; and 20,000, the number of foreigners, from 719,349, which is the total gross increase; and these deductions will leave us an immigration of · the indigenous population, into our territories, of the enormous number of 561,439 souls in the ten years from 1855 to 1865. 20. Further, if we look to the increase of individual Districts during the same period, it will appear that their ratio of increase is strangely in accordance with their propinquity to foreign terri- tory, and their consequent facility for absorbing emigrants. Thus the Prome District, which in its Northern aspect forms our frontier in the valley of the Irawadi, has increased its popula- tion by no less than 156 per cent. in these ten years. The APPENDIX D. 293 Toungoo District, which is our frontier in the valley of the Sittang (also facing Upper Burma), has had its population augmented in the same period 115 per cent. The Myanoung District, which adjoins Prome to the south, shows an increase of 81 per cent. The Bassein District, which has drawn, as will be shown hereafter, from Arakan as well as Upper Burma, has raised its population by 113 per cent. While the Rangoon District, which is the most southerly and removed from our frontier, has increased by 70 per cent. in the same decade. 21. The population returns from the other two divisions extend- ing over the same ten years, 1855-56 to 1865-66, fully support the conclusion that they formerly drew their additional population from Upper Burma, and from Pegu, so long as it was under Native rule, and that when the latter came under British Adminis- tration the transfer ceased. Thus intercommunication between Arakan and the Pegu Division is comparatively easy along their mutual boundary, but when we reach the Northern Frontier of the Pegu Division, running athwart the valley of the Irawadi, then the passage from Upper Burma (Native) above that line to the Arakan Division is one of considerable difficulty; in fact, the Aeng Pass is the only really feasible route leading through the broad range of mountains there separating Arakan from Burma Proper. We have shown that while Arakan under British Administration had to compete with Pegu under Native Rule, its population increased at an average of 50 per cent. each decade; but when it has Pegu under British management, as its neighbour, and physical obstacles prevent a supply being drawn from Burma, as has been the case from 1855-5,6 to 1865-66, we find the population has only increased We have already from 366,310 to 414,640, or 13 per cent. pointed out that the Bassein District of the Pegu Division, which immediately adjoins Arakan, has during this period increased 113 per cent., and this is probably in some degree due to the reflux of those who had, while Pegu was under Native Rule, moved into the Province of Arakan. Tenasserim, on the other hand, has many routes by which she can draw population from the Native States, and we find that in the period from 1855-56 to 294 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT, 1865-66, this Division has increased its population from 254,605 to 430,551, or 68 per cent., a decennial rate as high as any it had attained since its occupation. 22. The foregoing data seem to establish beyond any doubt that during the whole period of British Administration of the Provinces of Arakan, Tenasserim, and Pegu, they have, in addi- tion to an allowed natural increase of population, far higher than we have any historical authority for supposing they ever reached under Native Rule, withdrawn and absorbed enormous numbers of people from the neighbouring Native States, which may be summarised as follows: Into Tenasserim and Arakan, 1826 to 1855 · Pegu from 1855 to 1865 Tenasserim from 1855 to 1865 Total "" 27 • · • 257,500 561,439 113,295 932,234 23. Now looking to specific marks of material progress, to see whether they support the conclusions we would wish to draw, we find that in the Pegu Division during the decade 1855-56 to 1865-66, the area of assessed cultivation has increased from 539,808 to 991,102 acres, or 83 per cent. Customs from £56,281 to 151,088. The total revenue from £297,753 to £646,462; while the entire trade rose from £2,143,100 to £7,300,224. These results fully bear out our argument that increased population and increased prosperity in a country situ- ated and constituted as Burma is run hand in hand together. 24. Tenasserim also in the past decade has progressed satisfac- torily, in accordance with the increase in its population. The assessed area has risen from 181, 681, to 273,289 acres, customs from £7,796 to £13,517. The total revenue from £106,609 to £193,566, while the entire trade has increased from £836,305 to £1,712,307. 25. Arakan, on the other hand, shows the effect on her pro- sperity of having a British instead of a Native Administration to contend with as a neighbour. It has been indicated already that physical obstacles stand between Arakan and Upper Burma, APPENDIX D. 295 which do not, and did not, between it and Pegu. We have given the rapid increase in the population and prosperity of Arakan up to 1855, but in the decade to 1865 there is a marked falling off. Assessed lands increased from 353,885 to 377,012 acres, revenue from £127,429 to £190,032, while trade has fallen from £1,876,998 to £1,395,580. 26. We have hitherto been concerned only to show the un- doubted fact, that the countries under British Administration have possessed advantages so manifest to the population of neighbour- ing Native States, that a steady emigration from them into our territories has continued ever since our Government was estab- lished among the Indo-Chinese nations, the original ratio of population to area being very low, while the life-supporting capacity of the soil is very high. This rapid increase of popula- tion has produced a remarkable progress in all the elements which go to make up the material prosperity of the country. 27. And when we look to those native powers which have been our competitors during this period the picture is reversed. In the dominions of the King of Burma, including the tributary Shan States, we find everywhere signs of progressive decay; a discon- tented people abandoning his territory; a decreasing revenue; the area of cultivation lessening yearly; and the weakness of the Government shown in the rebellions and outbreaks which so regularly occur. During this year (1867), had it not been for the rich granaries of Pegu that supplied Upper Burma with rice, a famine would have succeeded the Civil War which raged last year. The natives of Upper Burma themselves indicate truly the process now being undergone by the British and native dominions. "Here," they say, "in British Burma your villages are becoming towns, but with us in Upper Burma our towns are becoming villages." ALBERT FYTCHE, COLONEL, Chief Commissioner, British Burma; and Agent to the Governor-General. APPENDIX E. MEMORANDUM L ON THE PANTHAYS, OR POPULATION MAHOMMEDAN OF YUNNAN. BY COLONEL ALBERT FYTCHE, CHIEF COMMISSIONER BRITISH BURMA, AND AGENT TO HIS EXCELLENCY THE VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA. Dated Rangoon, July 15th, 1867. CONSIDERABLE difficulties exist in procuring correct intelligence of the Panthays, or Mahommedan population of Yunnan. In the first place, they are not inclined themselves to be communicative; but rather assume a studied ignorance of their own affairs :— Secondly, communication can only be ordinarily held with them through Chinese Merchants and Brokers, residents of Burma Proper, who speak the Burmese language; and who, in addition to their own private and self-interested motives, for preventing free intercourse, with traders from Yunnan, are moreover in the pay, or subject to the influence of the King of Burma. They well understand the Royal policy of exclusiveness, and have been made acquainted with the several indirect orders which have from time to time been issued by that Government, in order to restrict, as effectually as possible, every means of intercourse between Panthays and foreigners of all nations. The little information, APPENDIX E. 297 therefore, which it has been possible to collect from the above sources furnished me by Captain Sladen, and also from a few Panthays who visited Moulmain with a Shan Caravan, when I was Commissioner of the Tenasserim and Martaban Provinces in 1861, is vague and meagre; but such as it is, I will now briefly record. A paper has been published in the Russian Military Journal for August, 1866, on the late rising of the Dungens, or Mussulman population in Western China. I am of opinion that no Political affinity exists between the Dungens of the North Western, and the Panthays of the South Western Provinces of China; or rather, that the present rising of the Dungens on the North, bears no relation to the former rebellion of the Panthays on the South; or to any subsequent movement of the Southern Mussulman popula- lation of Yunnan, to throw off the Chinese yoke; such movement having commenced as early as the year 1855. This opinion must be understood, however, to have reference only to the present attitude and circumstances of the Panthays in Yunnan; without any speculative allusion to causes, or the possi- bility of future combination, for the Panthays of Yunnan and the Dugens are, after all, of the same race and religion, and are merely divided from each other by the Province of Sechuen ; and a general struggle for independence, if it really exists, and is able to make head against the Chinese Government, will certainly include, at no great distance of time, the whole of the Mahommedan population in China wherever found. The first sign of a com- bination between Panthays and Dungens will be manifested by the fall of Sechuen, and the news of such an event would soon reach this Province. The term Dungen or Turgen is not known or comprehended by either Panthays or Burmese. The Mahommedans of the North Western Provinces of China are known to the Panthays, by the same denomination as they call themselves, "Mooselin," and to the Burmese as << Tharet." The word Panthay, or as it is some- times pronounced Panzee, is of Burmese origin, and is a mere corruption of the Burmese word "Puthee," which signifies, or 298 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. distinguishes Mahommedans from persons of other religions in Burma. The Chinese call the Panthays "Quayzse.' "* What they term the Mahommedans of Kansoo, I am not aware—possibly it may be Dungen or Turgen. The Mahommedans of Kansoo are said to have lately achieved their independence, and occupy that Province under a Chief named Abdool Jaffir. The Mahommedans of Yunnan are merely a remnant, I should imagine, of the great wave of Mahommedan aggression, which under Mahomed of Ghuznee, Mahomed Ghori, and Jenghis Khan,† overran Persia, India, and a portion of Northern China: their ingress and progress in China is separately given, or accounted for by Chinese and Panthays. The Panthay account is somewhat mythical, and assumes at once the superiority of their race. The Chinese version deals less in mystery, and is more in bearing with supposed historical facts. They are as follows :— Panthay version.—Once upon a time, China was subjected to a plague of evil spirits, who desolated the whole country, and in fact put a stop to the regular course of nature. The sun ceased to show itself, excepting now and then, in obscure and fitful gleams; and the land refused to produce or yield fruit in due season. During this calamitous state of affairs, the Emperor "dreamed a dream," in which a form was prominently revealed to him, in the dress of an Arab; but indicating at the same time, every appearance of peace and friendly goodwill. Astrologers and Experts in such matters interpreted the Emperor's dream to * This term Quayzse, the late Mr. J. W. S. Wylie, in an article on this Memorandum, published in the "Edinburgh Review," (No. cxxvii., p. 357), conjectures to be identical with Hoai-hoai, the generic term applied to the Chinese to all Mahomedans. But Dr. John Anderson, in an article published in the "Journal of the Anthropological Institute" on the same paper, correctly points out, I think, that Quayzse means a foreigner, and that Hoaizse is the term applied by the Chinese to the Panthays, and other Mahomedans inde- pendent of Chinese authority, Hoai meaning Mahomedan, and Zse indepen- dent. + The conquest of China by Jenghis Khan was the means, no doubt, of introducing a considerable Mahomedan population into China, particularly of the Oaijour and Turganee tribes. The former tribe had abjured Buddhism upwards of two centuries before the time of Jenghis Khan. APPENDIX E.. 299 signify, that the plague of evil spirits would cease, on the appearance of a force of Mahommedan Arabs, who were well known to be a source of terror to evil spirits and devils of every description. The Emperor was convinced, and sent a mission direct to the Prophet Mahomed, in which he begged the assistance of a few of the Prophet's followers. Mahomed sent 360 men, who, in due time, reached China. By virtue of their presence, the evil spirits vanished, and the country was restored to its former prosperity. The Arabs were treated with becoming honour, and allowed to settle, and establish themselves, in the vicinity of the Royal Capital. But in course of time their numbers increased to such an extent that the Chinese Government became anxious about its own safety; and an arrangement was effected, by which the Arab population near Pekin was broken up, and sent in small parties to the confines of the empire; where they have since established themselves, more or less firmly, and in some instances proclaimed their independence. Chinese version.-About a thousand years ago, there was a great rebellion in China, and the Government was in danger. The reigning Sovereign at the time was Oung-lo-show; and being in tribulation, he sent for assistance to a certain King, named Razzee or Khazee, who ruled over the countries to the west of China. A Mahommedan contingent of 10,000 men was sent, and with their assistance, the rebellion was suppressed, and the services of the contingent dispensed with. But a difficulty now arose, as to the return of the Mahommedans to their own country. They had been greatly reduced in numbers, and their inclination to stay where they were, and settle down in China, was en- couraged by reports, which reached them, to the effect that a return to their own country was forbidden owing to long residence abroad, and their pollution as Mahommedans by contact with swine, and other abominations, which were known to abound in China. The remnant of the contingent was finally located in Yunnan, and settling down there, became peaceful subjects of the Emperor of China. It is to be inferred that the Mahommedan population in Yunnan 300 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. · was for some centuries, at least, loyally disposed towards the Chinese Government; for no particular mention is made of them in Chinese History as far as is known, after their domestication in Yunnan, until the year 1855, when they rebelled and success- fully threw off the Chinese yoke. The rebellion is stated to have originated and been carried out in this wise. The Panthays in Yunnan had multiplied and be- come a flourishing and distinct community. They preserved their separate nationality and customs, but were nevertheless obedient to the Chinese laws. The Chinese and Tartar officials are said to have been oppressive, and the foreign population was specially marked out for the exercise of more than ordinary severity. Their industrious habits, and general aptitude, made the Mahommedans profitable subjects; whilst it rendered them at the same time victims to unjust and extortionate masters. Then a feeling of enmity and hate was engendered, with the usual results. The Loosonphoo Silver Mines of Yunnan were worked by Panthays, under the superintendence of Chinese officers. On a certain day a dispute arose at the mines, and the miners, exasperated by unjust treatment, had recourse to force, and murdered every Chinese officer they could find. The revolt of the miners was at once followed by a general armed rising of the Panthays throughout Yunnan. Being far inferior in number to the Chinese, they at first took to the woods and mountain fast- nesses, from thence they carried on a fierce guerilla warfare. Meeting everywhere with success, they were soon joined by large numbers of the neighbouring semi-independent hill tribes of Shans, Kakhyens,* and others, when they soon extended their operations to the plains, and to the siege of large towns; and the local government receiving no assistance from Pekin finally succumbed, the insurgents became supreme, and a separate Panthay Govern- * The Kakhyens above alluded to are a portion of the vast horde of Singphoos that inhabit the mountainous districts of Northern Assam, and stretch round the north of Burma into Western China. They extend not only all along the northern frontier, but dip down southward whenever the moun- tain ranges lead them, and nearly as far south as the latitude of Mandalay. APPENDIX E. 301 ment was established with its Head-quarters at Tali or Talifoo; then only a city of secondary importance, but where the Mahome- dan element had always been very strong. Feeble attempts have since been made from time to time to recover the lost province, by the despatch of Imperial troops from the capital; but the Chinese Government has never been able to make head against the Panthays; and the troops sent have generally been repulsed, before they could even penetrate within the Yunnan frontier. The present Mahommedan Government of Yunnan, is presided over by a military chief styled Sooleman by the Panthays, and Tuwintsen by the Chinese. He has assumed the insignia of Royalty, by formal installation on the Guddee, and by the ex- clusive and prerogatived use of yellow clothing and appurtenances. This Chief or King is assisted by four military and four civil ministers, the principal one of whom is established at Momein, a large town close to the Shan frontier, west of Yunnan. There appears to be little departure in the matter of administration, from the old form of Chinese Government, except being more military in its character. Taxation is extremely light, being restricted as far as can be understood, to a moderate assessment on land. The Panthays are Mahommedans of the Soonee sect, and pride themselves on their Arab descent; many of them are able to con- verse in Arabic, and their prayers are all in this language. They have Mosques or Musjids, of the true moslem type and are fana- tical and strict in their religious performances; as far as I have been able to ascertain, however, there is no trace of any religious zeal, or motive, as the origin or pretext for the present rising of the Panthays against Chinese rule. The Chinese are generally tolerant of all religious persuasions, and unlikely to cause irritation to the Mahommedans by any interference with their religion. The Buddhist wherever found is untrammelled by conventional dogma, and far less imbued with the odium theologicum, or that con- temptuous abhorrence of all creeds and customs other than their own, than is the case with other natives of the East, of whatever creed or denomination. The dress of the Panthays is in accord- ance, for the most part, with Chinese habit: though many of 1 302 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. them cut their hair to a certain length, and allow it to fall back on the nape of the neck. They also wear, in many instances, a distinctive turban, of more ample form than in use amongst Chinese. They are fair, tall, and strongly built men, are an interesting race, or community of people and after twelve years of absolute government in Yunnan, it is not improbable to suppose that their future independence is secure. Panthay traders say, that during the past year, an Embassy was received from the Emperor of China, in which the Imperial Government sued for a cessation of hostilities, and volunteered to cede Yunnan to the Panthays, provided they would come to terms, and commit no further acts of aggression on neighbouring provinces. The offer it is said was indignantly refused, and the Embassy was obliged to return to Pekin, without accomplishing its object. This, if true, bodes evil to our future intercourse with China through Yunnan by railway or otherwise. The trade viâ Bamo between China and Upper Burma, amounted in 1854 (the year before the Mahommedan insurrection) to half a million of pounds sterling. No caravans of Sechien or other provinces of China, since the establishment of Mahommedan rule, have passed through Yunnan; and trade by this route has almost altogether ceased. But with Yunnan alone, a large trade was formerly carried on, and it is hoped that the caravan route, at any rate, may be again shortly re-opened. It possesses the unusual advantage of having been used for centuries as a line of traffic, and has main- tained its vitality heretofore, among all the disturbing influences. of the flow and ebb of the Chinese and Burmese power, and is a cogent proof of the necessity for interchange of commodities be- tween the respective countries. An apparent interminable feud has doubtless arisen between the Manchur dynasty, and the Mahommedan population, of China, which may probably, combined with other numerous causes, ulti- mately end disastrously to that dynasty. How long it will take for the Chinese Government to disintegrate and re-appear under a new form; what effect such a change would have on the inde- APPENDIX E. 303 pendent Mahommedan population of the Western Provinces; and will the change be brought about by them, are questions which may probably affect a future generation; but are nevertheless full of interest to neighbouring governments, and political speculators of the present day. ALBERT FYTCHE, COLONEL, Chief Commissioner, British Burma; and Agent to His Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General of India. APPENDIX F. LETTER OF APOLOGY FROM THE EMPEROR OF CHINA, AND CREDENTIALS OF THE ENVOY KUO SUNG-TAO, ON HIS MISSION TO GREAT BRITAIN. DATED OCTOBER, 1876. (Translation.) The Emperor of China salutes the Queen of England and Empress of India. HAVING become inheritor of the great estate by the mandate of Heaven, and reverently continued the succession to our great estate, we have borne in affectionate remembrance the States in amity with us and [have desired] to consolidate for ever relations of friendship and concord. In the first moon of the first year of the reign of Kwang Sü (February, 1875), the official interpreter of your Majesty's Govern- ment, Ma Kia-li (Mr. Margary) by name, whilst travelling under passport from Burma, and on having reached the frontier region of the province of Yunnan, was murdered, and his companion, Colonel Browne, was attacked and driven back. We made special appointment of Li Han-chang, Governor- General of the Hu Kusang provinces, to proceed to Yunnan for the purpose of instituting inquiry and taking action in conformity with the principles of justice; and we furthermore issued a Decree enjoining upon the Governors-General and Governors of all the APPENDIX F. 305 provinces that they should give instructions to all local authorities within their jurisdiction to the effect that the provisions of the Treaties must be duly fulfilled with reference to all persons travel- ling under passport in the places under their authority. Li Hun-chang having completed his investigation, memorialised us requesting that the military officer, Li Chêu-kwoh, and others might be severally punished for their offences. In the month of August last, we further specially appointed Li Hun-chang, a Senior Grand Secretary, Governor-General of the Province of Chihli, of the first class of the Third Order of Nobility, to proceed as High Minister Plenipotentiary to Chefoo, in the Province of Shantung, to act there with your Majesty's Special Envoy, Wei Toma (Sir Thomas Wade), in arranging the terms of a settlement of this case. Li Hun-chang has memorialised us, in reply, stating that your Majesty's Envoy, Sir Thomas Wade, had expressed the opinion that security for the future was to be preferred to punishment of the past; and we issued thereupon a special rescript in reply, according to the request that was made, granting, as an act of grace, remission of the penalties that had been incurred by Li Chêu-kwoh and the others involved with him, and still further enjoining upon the high authorities of all the pro- vinces implicit obedience to the commands of last year, that pro- tection should be afforded in conformity with the Treaty stipula- tions. We have also commanded the Yamên of Foreign Affairs to draw up a Proclamation and to forward a copy of the draft to each Provincial Government to be acted upon, to the end that tranquillity may prevail in the relations between China and foreigners. That Mr. Margary, whilst travelling under passport within the frontier of Yunnan, should have lamentably been murdered, is a fact which not alone involves the question of a loss of life, but which also has gone near to disturb our relations of amity and concord. We profoundly regret and lament it. We have now made special appointment of Kwoh Sung-tao, an acting Senior Vice-President of the Board of Ceremonies, and one of the Ministers of the Office of Foreign Affairs, as Envoy Extraordinary, VOL. II. X 306 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. to proceed to your Majesty's country to give utterance, on our behalf, to the sentiments we have at heart, as a proof of our genuine desire of amity and concord. We know Kwoh Sung-tao to be an officer of capacity and experience, of loyalty and truthfulness, who is in disposition amiable and just, and far reaching in intelligence. He has acquired great familiarity in the treatment of affairs between Chinese and foreign Powers. We would ask that sincere confi- dence be reposed in him, to the end that blessings of friendly concord may for ever be experienced in the highest degree, and that all alike may enjoy the happiness of a state of peace. This, we doubt not, will be greatly to the satisfaction [of your Majesty]. Gra APPENDIX G. MEMORANDUM ON FOUR YEARS' ADMINISTRATION OF BRITISH BURMA, 1867-1871. BY MAJOR-GEN. A. FYTCHE, C.S.I., CHIEF COMMISSIONER. BEFORE taking my departure from the province of British Burma on a furlough to Europe, from which perchance I may never return, it may not be out of place if I put upon record for the information of my successor, and the public generally, a few particulars respecting the past history of this administration, and its progress through- out the four years during which it has been entrusted to my care. This task was in some measure undertaken by my eminent predecessor Sir Arthur Phayre, who previous to his departure from Burma submitted to the Govern- ment of India statistical tables of the progress of the province during the period of his administration prior to 1867; and if I venture to enter upon a more comprehen- sive review I may be pardoned from the consideration that the main portion of my life has been spent in this country, and that for more than thirty years I have been serving in one or other of the three divisions of Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim. When I first landed in Burma in 1841, and joined the old Arakan local battalion, British territory only com- Reasons for reviewing the adminis- tration. 1867-1871. Statistical years sub- tables for ten mitted by Sir Arthur Phayre. British Burma in 1841. X 2 308 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Early history of British occupation. prised the strips of sea-board known as Arakan and Tenasserim; Arakan being separated from Tenasserim by the important Burmese province of Pegu. In those days when the Government of India was contemplating the occupation of Affghanistan, Burma was so little cared for that a withdrawal from the country was more than once seriously contemplated. Our rule was popular with the people, but the revenue was insufficient to meet the expenditure, and indeed the country had only recently begun to recover from the devastating wars, which for centuries had been desolating the entire region from Chittagong to Siam. Meantime the whole of the fertile valley of the Irawadi, from the sea-coast upward to the wild tribes which intervene between Burma and China, was in the hands of a cruel and barbarous despot, utterly ignorant of the great world around him, and conse- quently unrestrained by the public opinion of civilised countries. Here I would take the opportunity of glancing very briefly at the early history of the British occupation of Burma, inasmuch as it will clear away much of the mis- apprehension which at present prevails respecting the Burmese wars of 1825 and 1852, and will establish be- yond all further doubt the vast superiority of British administration over Native rule. First Bur- mese war forced upon The first Burmese war, namely that of 1825-26, was fairly forced upon the British Government. For nearly Government, forty years the Government of India had endured indig- the British 1825-26. nities, which Great Britain would never have suffered for a moment; but the Indian Government was already en- gaged in expensive wars against the Mahrattas, Ghoorkas, and Pindarrees, and was reluctant to engage in further hostilities which might provoke the enemies of the old East India Company to renew their attacks upon the Aggressions trading monopoly. At length, however, the Burmese officials. officials seized an island belonging to the British Govern- of Burmese APPENDIX G. ment, and invaded territory which was under British pro- tection. To submit to such aggressions was clearly out of the question and could only have led to further insults. Accordingly, the British Government was dragged into a war which terminated, as already stated, in the annexa- tion of Arakan and Tenasserim. When these provinces came into British possession in 1826, they were so depopulated and impoverished that the restoration of Burma to the Court of Ava, although opposed to all sound principles of imperial policy, recom- mended itself to favour on financial grounds. But during the quarter of a century that intervened between the first Burmese war of 1826 and the second Burmese war of 1852, Arakan and Tenasserim had attained a prosperity which is scarcely credible when the general immobility of Asiatic races is taken into consideration. In Arakan the population had increased from a hundred thousand souls to more than three hundred thousand. The revenue had quadrupled, being less than £25,000 in 1826, and at least £100,000 in 1852. The area of cultivation had increased from less than 70,000 acres in 1826 to more than 300,000 acres in 1852. In Tenasserim it will suffice to say that the ratio of progression was nearly the same. During the first ten years of my residence in Burma, the fertile province of Pegu, which intervened between the two British provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim, was under Burmese rule; and I need scarcely add that it failed to exhibit any one of those signs of progress and prosperity, which characterised the adjoining parts unde British administration. Stagnation and squalor were the order of the day. The King who then filled the throne was rather a favourable type of a Burmese sovereign, and his reign is still regarded as a golden era. Indeed the name of King Tharawadi is still familiar to every Bur- man, and to every European residing in this country, 309 Rapid im- provement of Arakan and Tenas- British ad- serim under ministration. State of Pegu under native rule, 1841-1852. 310 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Second Bur- mese war 1852. Importance of the annex- ation of Pegu. although it is but little known to the outer world; yet this potentate was a tyrannical despot, who stabbed and shot his ministers with his own hands, and who not only repudiated the treaty which had been concluded with his predecessor, but openly insulted the British Resident at his capital, and defied the British Government to do its worst. Such provocations would have again stirred up any European power excepting our own; but we continued to endure them, and they were naturally succeeded by outrages on British subjects and war-like demonstrations against British territory. At length, after many years of arrogant insolence on the part of the Burmese officials and vain remonstrance on the part of the British Government, the latter was compelled, by a sense of its own dignity, and the very instinct of self-preserva- tion, to send an expedition up the Irawadi, which terminated in the annexation of the important province of Pegu. It is difficult to overrate the value of this acquisition to the British Government, and the increased prosperity which has thereby accrued to the people of the country. The two strips of sea-board, known as Arakan and Tenasserim, have been consolidated and strengthened by the annexation of the territory on the lower Irawadi, and the three divisions now form a compact province, occupying an uninterrupted line of sea-coast of nearly a thousand miles in length, and a water communication with the distant interior, more easily navigable than the Ganges, and which promises to open up a trade route of nearly equal importance to British commerce and manu- factures. Indeed it may be safely asserted that without Pegu our possessions in Burma are of comparatively small value; but that with Pegu our territory in Burma has become one of the most prosperous provinces of our Eastern empire. APPENDIX G. These results are due to the policy initiated by the far- seeing genius of Lord Dalhousie, who took the liveliest interest in British Burma, and was the first, and up to this date, the only Governor-General that ever visited these shores. I may however add that at least an equal interest in this province has been taken by His Excel- lency Lord Mayo; and it is a cause of sincere regret that his Lordship's visit to Rangoon, which was seriously contemplated last year, and which I had hoped would have taken place during my tenure of office, has now been indefinitely postponed. Upon one point only does the action taken by the Government of India in 1852 appear to me to have been open to question; and even in this direction it has been generally supposed that Lord Dalhousie acted under pressure from home. I allude to the premature with- drawal of the expedition in 1852. Had that force been allowed to remain a few weeks longer, our political relations with the Court of Ava might have been esta- blished on a lasting basis, which would have proved beneficial to both states. Fortunately this result has been in a great measure achieved in later years, partly by diplomatic action, and partly by a spontaneous display of friendship and confidence on the part of His Majesty the King of Ava, which was previously unknown. Within a period of little more than eighteen years British Burma has thus attained a prosperity which can be favourably compared with that of any province in India; and in the latter part of 1866, or commencement of 1867, my predecessor submitted the statistical tables already mentioned, which showed that during the ten years from 1855-56 to 1864-65 the revenue had increased from Rs. 53,17,922, per annum, to Rs. 103,00,620. At the same time the population had increased from 1,252,555, to 2,196,180; the export trade from Rs. 311 Interest of housie in Lord Dal- Burma, Premature cessation of hostilities in 1852. Subsequent prosperity of British Burma. 312 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. 232,41,866, to Rs. 555,55,595; and the import trade from Rs. 262,22,219, to Rs. 481,25,559. Causes of the increase It is scarcely necessary for me to dilate upon these of the popu- gratifying results; but I venture to allude prominently lation. to the important increase in the population, respecting which some misapprehension might otherwise arise. The leading feature in the past and present condition of British Burma is the vast excess of culturable land over land actually under cultivation. I have reason to believe that speaking in round figures there are thirty thousand square miles of culturable land in this province, which are lying waste from want of cultivators; whilst there are not above three thousand square miles which are under cultivation At the same time the population has already increased from about one million, at which it apparently stood at the introduction of our rule, to nearly two and a half millions. It would thus appear à priori that if nearly two millions and a half of people can be supported by the cultivation of three thousand square miles of land, the cultivation of the entire area of culturable waste would maintain ten times that amount of population, or about twenty-five millions of people; whilst the great increase in the population of British Burma proves that there is a yearly immigration of Burmese, Shans, Chinese, and other cognate races into British Burma, driven out from their own countries by the exactions and oppressions of native rule, who are eager to cultivate new lands under the peace, protection, and personal liberty, which they may enjoy under British administration, and which cannot be found elsewhere throughout the Malacca peninsula. If I now refer to the various measures which have been carried out, and the advance which has been made in the progress of the province since the departure of Sir Arthur Phayre in the early part of 1867, it is not so much for the sake of self-gratulation, or for the purpose of bestowing praise, however richly deserved, upon the Progress of the province since 1867. APPENDIX G. 313 officers under my administration; but as an encourage- ment to my successors, to show how much has been done within the last four years; and how much, I regret to say, still remains to be accomplished before full jus- tice is done to this province, and it is in a position to work out for itself the important problem of its future. prosperity. between policy and internal ad- ministration. I will now endeavour to review, as rapidly as may be, Distinction the main features of my administration during the past foreign four years under the several heads of foreign policy, internal administration, and public works. Under the head of foreign policy I propose to review the progress of our relations with the Court of Ava, and all the countries upon our frontier; under that of internal ad- ministration I will endeavour to indicate the progress which has been made, and the measures which have been undertaken in connection with trade, mail service, revenue, local funds, police, military defences and edu- cation. Public Works, being a most important subject in this province, I will notice under a separate heading. I.-FOREIGN POLICY. As regards foreign policy, I will in the first instance notice the progress of diplomatic relations with the Court of Ava. The expedition of 1852, as already intimated, was brought to a premature close without the conclusion of such a formal peace, as would have established our political relations with Ava upon an intelligible and per- manent basis. In 1862, however, ten years after the Treaty of war, my predecessor, Sir Arthur Phayre, concluded a treaty with the Court of Mandalay; but this treaty, admirable as it was in itself, and gratifying as the first step in opening up friendly and political relations with the King of Ava, proved to be of little or no advantage to British interests and trade. The Burmese officials were alike ignorant of our ways and suspicious of our 1862. Progress of relations diplomatic with Ava. 314 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. L... ✔ } 1866. intentions. Commerce was obstructed, injurious mono- polies were retained by the King, and justice for British subjects was practically unattainable in Burmese territory. Rebellion of In 1866 a rebellion broke out in Mandalay, which well nigh proved successful, and was only effectually sup- pressed by the friendly action of the British Government. At its conclusion a favourable opportunity appeared to present itself for concluding a more satisfactory treaty with the King, which should really open up his territories to British commerce, and provide for the stipulations of the treaty of 1862 being carried out in a spirit of sincerity and friendship by the two governments. Sir Arthur Phayre, however, was prevented by adverse circum- stances, which need not be specified, from bringing the negotiations to a satisfactory conclusion, and conse- quently no treaty was executed. Failure of Sir Arthur Phayre to conclude a treaty. Measures of 1867. Improved communica- tions with Ava. When I was entrusted with the charge of the Chief Commissionership in the early part of 1867, one of my first objects was to open up a friendly intercourse with the King, and to endeavour through Major Sladen, who was at that time my assistant at the Court of Mandalay, to remove all suspicions from the mind of His Majesty, and to convince the Burmese Government that the only object of the British Government was to promote the material interests of the two states, by mutual conces- sions. At that time so little had been accomplished in the way of developing the trade with Upper Burma under the treaty of 1862, that during the whole interval that had elapsed between that year and the date of my taking charge of this administration in the early part of 1867, only four merchant steamers had made their way to Mandalay. One of my earliest measures was to provide for a more rapid and regular communication, not only be- tween Rangoon and the frontier town of Thayetmyo, but between Thayetmyo and Mandalay, the capital of Ava, APPENDIX G. and with the stations in the Ava territory still further inland, as far as the remote and decaying commercial city of Bhamo. The details of these measures will be found more at length under the head of internal ad- ministration, and are only mentioned here on account of their political bearing; and it will suffice to say that the subject has been one of grave importance, politically and commercially. In the first instance I was contented with tentative measures which will be noticed hereafter; but I am now happy to say that after much considera- tion and correspondence, arrangements have been con- cluded under which a weekly steamer is despatched to Mandalay, whilst a monthly steamer is despatched to the more remote station of Bhamo, with the view of opening up the old trade route with Western China, and en- couraging the influx of population into British territory. Having prepared the way by diplomacy and improved communications for opening up more direct negotiations with the King, I proceeded to Mandalay in October, 1867; and after considerable discussion I succeeded in con- cluding the treaty which forms the basis of our present political relations with the Court of Mandalay. This treaty provided for the utmost freedom as regards com- mercial intercourse between the people of the two countries; for the permanent residence of a political agent at the Court of Mandalay, who is the medium of all official communications between the British Govern- ment and the King of Ava and his ministers; and for the establishment of a court, in which the political agent has the power to adjudicate in all such cases in which British subjects are alone concerned, and in which a Burman official of high rank sits on the same bench for the adjudication of all civil cases in which both Burmese and British subjects are concerned. Moreover under this treaty the King has given up his more oppressive monopolies, and measures have been carried out for 315 Conclusion of the treaty of 1867. } 316 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. re-opening the old trade route with Western China, by which in former years a considerable trade had been carried on between Burma and Yunnan. The measures so far as they refer to the re-opening of the old trade route with Western China, perhaps require more detailed notice, inasmuch as they are calculated to exercise a permanent effect upon British commerce. In the northern part of the dominions of the King of Ava is the old commercial city of Bhamo. Prior to 1852 this place was an emporium of trade. Caravans of Chinese and Shans arrived every year at Bhamo with the pro- ducts of Western China; whilst a variety of goods, European and Burmese, found their way to the same place up the Irawadi river. Between, however, 1852 and 1855, this trade was brought to a somewhat sudden con- clusion by a war which broke out between some Mussul- man subjects of the emperor of China and the surrounding Chinese population; and whilst these hostilities were in progress the route over the Kakhyen hills towards the city of Talifu in Western China was closed by banditti. Of late years this war has been dying out, and I con- sidered the opportunity a favourable one for attempting to open up communications with the Mussulman and Chinese authorities, with a view of diverting the trade to its former channel. Accordingly in 1868, at my urgent request, Major Sladen was sent with some other officers on an expedition, which succeeded not only in visiting Bhamo, but in penetrating the Kakhyen hills as far as Momein, and exchanging letters with the Mussulman governor of Talifu. The reports of this expedition have already been published at considerable length, and it will suffice to state here that its success was even larger than I had anticipated. Some obstructions may have been shown in the first instance by those of the Burmese officials who may have been suspicious of our real object; but all such difficulties have now entirely dis- A APPENDIX G. appeared before the cordial assistance which has been granted by the King, and the real interest which His Majesty has displayed in measures which are quite as much calculated to promote the prosperity of his own country as the interests of commerce generally. Since the latter part of 1869, Captain Strover has continued to reside at Bhamo as assistant political agent; and has succeeded in establishing the most friendly terms with the Burmese officials, as well as with the Kakhyen hill chiefs; and every mail steamer from Bhamo brings additional proofs of the important trade which is fast springing up in that quarter. Meantime the bonds of relation between the British Government and the Court of Ava, are drawing the two countries into closer communciation than could have been anticipated at any previous period. The King has sent several young Burmese to Europe to be educated, whilst he welcomes any European merchant or official, who may pay a visit to his capital. Another country whose frontier is conterminous with that of British territory is Siam. Our relations with Siam have it is believed always been satisfactory, but from some reason which I confess I cannot understand, all diplomatic intercourse between the British Government and the Court of Siam is carried on between Her Majesty's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in London and a British Consul residing at Bankok, the capital of Siam. For forty years, however, the question of the frontier. between Siam and British territory has never been finally settled; and in 1864, when I was Commissioner of Tenasserim, I was appointed to negotiate the matter with some Siamese officials of rank who had been especially nominated by the King of Siam to discuss with me upon the subject. I accordingly proceeded to the Pak- chan river, where I met the Siamese officers; and after a lengthy negotiation it was agreed that the Pakchan 317 318 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. and Thoungyeen rivers should be accepted as the boundaries on the south and north; whilst the watershed of the central mountain range on the east was to form the boundary in that direction. At the same time an amicable arrangement was made as regards the Islands. Since then this line of frontier has been surveyed and demarcated by Captain A. H. Bagge, R.E., and duly ratified by a treaty between the Government of India and the King of Siam. I regret to state that since this memorandum was under consideration the news has arrived that Captain Bagge is no more; and the pre- mature death of this efficient and popular young officer will not only be deplored by his friends, but will be deeply felt by this Administration and the British Government. The other questions connected with what may be called Foreign policy refer to our dealings with the hill tribes on the Arakan frontier, and similar wild tribes on the upper valley of the Salween river. The tribes on the Arakan frontier and region beyond, are a wild savage race of a very primitive type. They go by different names, but their general characteristics are the same. They cultivate the jungle by clearing away some available slope with fire, and then sow the grain and use the ashes for manure. As the same spot can only be cultivated under this system about once in ten years, the people of a hill village often find it neces- sary to emigrate from one site to another, carrying with them their families, household goods, pigs, and dogs. They also practise the system of kidnapping and slavery amongst themselves, which this Administration has done its best to suppress, but which still prevails in the more inaccessible hills, and leads to frequent raids. At my recommendation the Government of India have ap- pointed a European superintendent to reside in these hills, and much good has been effected by this measure APPENDIX G. in maintaining a check upon the tribes; but the climate. is unfortunately very unhealthy during a large portion of the year, and few European constitutions are impervious to its effects. Other measures are under consideration, which I have no doubt will tend to solve the questions connected with the administration and political control of these remote regions. The tribes on the upper course of the Salween river, and in the unknown countries beyond, have also engaged my attention. The most important of these half-savage people are known as the Red Karens and the Zimmay Shans; and they inflicted considerable injury upon the timber trade on the upper Salween by their occasional raids. The Red Karens are virtually independent, but the western chiefs have more than once requested the British Government to take them under its protection, which, however, has not been hitherto deemed expedient. The chief of the Zimmay Shans is practically almost as independent, but he owes a nominal allegiance to the King of Siam. Under Burmese rule all these tribes were treated as though they were wild beasts of the jungle; and Burmese officials have been too often en- gaged in hunting the people down, burning their villages, killing all who resisted and reducing all the rest to slavery. Of late years their condition has been much ameliorated, but the lawless condition of their territories has been much aggravated by a fierce dispute between the Zimmay Shans and the eastern Karennees respecting a tract of forest land lying on the left bank of the Salween; and the frequent hostilities employed in con- nection with this dispute has brought the timber trade almost to a standstill. At my recommendation the Government of India has sanctioned my sending Captain Lowdnes on a mission to the Zimmay chief, in the hope of being able to settle the difficulties which impede the timber trade, and bring about, if possible, a reconciliation 319 T 320 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Large in- crease of trade, 1867 to 1871. II.—INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. Heads of internal ad- The internal administration of British Burma may now ministration. be considered under the several sections of trade, mail service, local funds, police, military defences, and edu- cation. between that chief and the chiefs of Eastern Karennee. Other measures are also under consideration which it is hoped will effect the main objects in view. Customs. Trade. It affords me great gratification to notice the large increase in the trade of this province, which is especially noticeable in the year 1868-69. This com- mercial progress is no doubt due in great measure to the new markets which were opened up in Upper Burma in consequence of the privileges conceded by the Court of Mandalay under the treaty which I had the honour of concluding in 1867. It will be seen that after adding an additional month to the official year 1866-67, which in consequence of changing the close of the official year from 30th April to 31st March, consisted of eleven months only, the increase in the gross internal and exter- nal trade of the province in 1868-69 amounted to twenty- three per cent. over 1866-67, being more than ten millions and a half sterling in 1868-69 against eight millions and Inland trade. a half sterling in 1866-67. In the inland trade this increase is especially observable; for in 1866-67 it was only one million forty thousand sterling, whilst in 1867- 68 it had increased to more than two millions and a half sterling. In 1868–69 it fell slightly to two millions and a hundred thousand sterling; but in 1869-70 it rose again to two millions and two hundred thousand sterling. The customs show a still more decided increase in revenue. In 1866-67 the amount collected under this head was about one hundred and nineteen thousand pounds. In 1867-68 it rose to nearly two hundred thousand; in 1868-69 it further rose to two hundred APPENDIX G. and eighty-seven thousand. In 1869–70 it fell slightly, but still a sum of over two hundred thousand pounds was collected. Some of this increase is no doubt due to the enhanced rate levied on grain; but still a large proportion is to be ascribed to the general increase of trade. trade. There is perhaps no necessity for overloading the Export present memorandum with statistics, which will be found fully given in an appendix, but I may be permitted to notice the remarkable increase in the export trade in cutch, jade, rice, paddy, and timber. In 1866-67 the exports of cutch only amounted to £40,000; in 1867-68 they amounted to £125,000, in 1868-69 to £181,000, and in 1869-70 to more than £193,000. In 1866-67 the exports of jade only amounted to £6,400; in 1867- 68 they amounted to £36,400, in 1868-69 to £42,200, in 1869-70 there was a falling off, but still they amounted to nearly £21,000. In rice, paddy, and timber the increase has been steady but not quite so perceptible. There has also been a marked increase in imports, especially in those of cotton-twist and yarn, and piece- goods in silk and cotton. The imports in cotton-twist and yarn have risen from three hundred and ten thousand sterling in 1866-67 to three hundred and eighty thousand in 1867-68, and three hundred and seventy-five thousand in 1868-69. Cotton piece-goods have risen from five hundred and ten thousand sterling in 1866-67 to six hundred and sixty thousand in 1867-68, and six hundred and eighty thousand in 1868–69. Silk piece-goods have increased, but the increase has not been so well main- tained. In 1866-67 they amounted to two hundred and ten thousand sterling; in 1867-68 and again in 1868-69 they rose to two hundred and sixty thousand, but in 1869-70 they fell to two hundred and twenty- seven thousand. In treaty goods the increase has been VOL. II. Y 321 Imports of piece goods 322 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. the most marked of all. In 1866-67 the gross amount did not reach six hundred pounds; in 1867-68 it was five thousand six hundred pounds; in 1868-69 it was fifty-two thousand four hundred; in 1869-70 the aggre- gate amount was one hundred and forty thousand. These figures represent pretty fairly the fluctuations of trade in Burma during the four years of my adminis- tration. The treaty of 1867 naturally led to a large increase of trade, and no doubt to some over speculation. The consequence was that though a large margin of increase continued to be maintained, yet there was a decided falling off in 1869-70 in the amount of trade; but the year 1870-71 shows, I am happy to say, a decided increase, which will I trust continue to charac- terise the trade returns of this province for an unlimited period. The export duties on rice have naturally excited much public discussion; and without attempting to decide a point which is still a vexed question with political econo- mists, I will simply review the facts. Prior to March, 1867, the export duty on rice, both husked and unhusked, was seven shillings per ton. On the 20th of that month a revised Customs Act was brought into force under which the duty was raised to ten shillings and sixpence per ton. This enhanced duty had no effect in checking the exports of rice, for in the year following the introduction of the act, the exports increased by about one-third, and in 1868-69 were nearly doubled. In 1869-70 the ex- ports were not quite so large, but still about one-third in excess of what they were in the year before the rice duty was increased; and during the year now closing they have been very large, but I am unable as yet to give the actual figures. Meantime the East India and China Association in England, and the Chamber of Commerce at Rangoon, complained that the rice of British Burma was being APPENDIX G. driven out of the home markets, by the produce of Cochin China and Siam; but this has proved to some extent fallacious, as most of the rice of these countries is carried to China, where it is in considerable demand. The consequence is, that the agitation has for some time subsided, and I have been assured by some of the lead- ing merchants of Rangoon, that the reduction of the duty, as far as husked rice is concerned, will have little or no effect upon the trade, beyond swelling the profits of the brokers, or middlemen, between the European merchants and the cultivator. I am, however, inclined to think that the duty on unhusked rice, commonly called paddy, might be reduced with advantage. Mail Service. The improvement of the mail service on the Irawadi is so closely associated with the develop- ment of trade in Burma, that I am happy to say it has received every consideration during my tenure of office, and has eventuated in an arrangement which I have reason to believe will prove as satisfactory to the British Government as to the public at large. I allude to the extension and improvement of the mail service between Rangoon and the different stations on the upper Irawadi. From the acquisition of Pegu in 1852 until the year 1864, all the mails were carried up the river by Government steamers, and it was only on very rare occasions that any of these vessels proceeded beyond the frontier town of Thayetmyo. About 1862-63 all the Government steamers and plant were sold to Messrs. Todd, Findlay, and Com- pany, of Rangoon; and in 1864 the first contract for a mail service was concluded with that firm, under which the mails were to be carried once a month to Thayetmyo in return for a subsidy of £75 per trip, or £150 per mensem. When I assumed the administration of this province in the early part of 1867, the mail service was not in a satisfactory state. Messrs. Todd, Findlay, and Company complained that they had made a bad bargain; 323 Extension and improve ment of the mail service. Y 2 324 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Encourage- ment of im- migration. that the treaty concluded by my predecessor, Sir Arthur Phayre, in 1862, had not led to any increase of trade with Upper Burma; and they desired that the subsidy of £75 per trip should be raised to £200. The British Government was also dissatisfied that no better results had followed the conclusion of the treaty of 1862, and that no sustained efforts had been made to open up a trade with Upper Burma ; and I found on taking charge of the province that not a single steamer had been sent to Bhamo, and that only five trips had been made beyond the British frontier. I need not review the steps I took to remedy this state of things. It will suffice to say that it was in the first instance found necessary to increase the subsidy from £75 per trip, to £150 per trip, or £300 per mensem; but such was the increase of trade in the years immediately following, in consequence of the treaty of 1867, that, in 1869, Messrs. Todd, Findlay, and Company agreed to send a mail steamer three times every month for a subsidy of £100 per mensem, or about £33 per trip, not merely to the frontier station at Thayetmyo, but to the city of Mandalay, which is at present the capital of the dominions of the King of Ava. More recently I have concluded a contract with Messrs. Todd, Findlay, and Company which is even more satisfactory to all parties. New steamers and flats have been put on the river, and not only is there a weekly communication with Mandalay, but a monthly communication with the remote trading station of Bhamo, which I trust will be found a key to the commerce of western China, which has hitherto been shut out from the European world. There is another object promoted by the new mail service, which, if possible, is of even greater importance to the prosperity of this province than the extension of commerce. I have already explained that the crying want of this province is population. At present only three thousand square miles are under cultivation, whilst APPENDIX G. there are remaining thirty thousand square miles of cul- turable but uncultivated territory, which is literally aban- doned to the swamp and the jungle. Meantime there are beyond our frontier millions of an over-populated and oppressed people; Burmese, Shans, and Chinamen, who are eager to emigrate into British territory; and already bands of eager cultivators are swarming into British territory under special arrangements which have been made with reference to the mail steamers, and will no doubt prove the vanguard of caravans whose arrival may be hereafter anticipated. Revenue.—As regards the revenue I have but little to say. It has increased during the last four years by about £60,000 per annum; at the same time the population has received an increase of two hundred thousand souls. 325 local funds. Local Funds.-In British Burma, as in other provinces Character of of the Indian empire, there is not only an imperial revenue collected and expended under the supervision of the supreme government, but there are a considerable number of funds which are of a strictly local character, being collected under local supervision, and expended on local purposes under the administration of the province. The disposal of these local funds has largely engaged my attention, and I may, perhaps, take this opportunity to explain in more detail the decisions at which I have arrived as regards their expenditure. All the local funds in this province may be distributed Distribution. under three separate heads, viz. :— Ist. Town cesses. 2nd. District funds.. 3rd. Five per cent. cess. The town cesses comprise a number of collections, such Town cesses. as house tax, municipal tax, bazaar rents, boat and cart fees, licenses, slaughter-house fees, which may be summed up under the head of "Municipal fund,” and I have decided upon amalgamating them into one fund. 326 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ↓ District funds. Five per cent. cess. Indeed, so long as the collections raised in each town are devoted to the requirements of that town, the amalga- mation of the town funds are likely to prove more serviceable than if they were divided into infinitesimal sub-divisions that would cramp the completion of many improvements which might be otherwise made prac- ticable. As regards district funds, comprising road and ferry funds, cattle market fees and poundage fees, I have decided upon a similar course, namely, to unite them all in one fund to be expended in the district in which they are collected. In the first instance, this fund should be reserved to meet the expenses connected with the several works in the district under which the tax is col- lected; and should there be any surplus, it might be devoted to improving the approaches to the chief towns in the districts, or effect such other improvements as would seem most advantageous to the district population, all of whom benefit more or less by the prosperity of their respective systems. The five per cent. cess is levied for local purposes on land tax, fisheries, and net tax. It is payable in the following proportion for each head :— Roads. Education . . I Daks (Post) 144 Village Police 22 • I per cent. "" "" "" Total. . 5 per cent. I may have entertained some doubts upon the policy of such a cess in a young country like Burma, where it is naturally regarded as a grievance, yet I am happy to say that it has enabled me to establish a male and female training school at Rangoon, for the education of school masters and schoolmistresses for the various government schools about to be created and maintained. The APPENDIX G. 327 question of education will, however, be treated under a separate head. D Police. As regards the police of this province, I am proud to say that, during my administration, it has been placed on a more efficient footing than was ever main- tained at any previous period. From the first year of the administration of Pegu, a great difficulty has been ex- perienced in sufficiently impressing the supreme govern- ment with the idea that Burma is in every way an exceptional province, which in many respects differs very considerably from any province in India, and in nothing more so than the cost of living, and current rates of pay amongst the labouring classes. The coolies, who cannot make in India more than five to seven rupees per mensem, can easily earn from twelve to fifteen rupees per mensem in this province, and during the four months of the rice season can make from thirty to forty rupees. When, however, I received charge of this province in 1867, I found that the police were still paid at rates varying from nine to eleven rupees; and the consequence was, that the police was a kind of refuge for the destitute, and those men only enlisted who were too weak or idle for coolie work, or who, it is feared, maintained a secret understanding with thieves and dacoits, and added the wages of corruption to their small salaries. pay to and ser- After considerable correspondence, the Government of Increased India were induced by my representations to re-consider constables the questions of police pay, and from the 1st January jeants. 1869, the rates of the lower grades of constables and serjeants have been raised nearer to a level with the existing labour rates of the province. The result has been decidedly satisfactory. Recruits are obtained with such facility, that the Superintendents of Police are enabled to weed the incapable or corrupt men from their ranks, and replace them with an efficient force. At the same time a better order of men are attached to the Former diffi- culties in police ad- ministration, 328 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Frontier police. Measures necessary. force, and no longer throw up their appointments on slight provocation, but look forward to promotion and pension. Above all, violent crime has been rapidly decreasing, and during the past year I am happy to say that there has been a decrease of twenty-seven per cent. in dacoity alone throughout the province of British Burma. I am, however, still of opinion that the pay of the higher class of officers is too low, and that it might be increased with great advantage to that branch of the department. In one respect matters are not quite so satisfactory as I should have wished; I mean as regards the border police which is necessary to guard one of the largest and most difficult lines of frontier pertaining in any province in our Indian empire, that of the Punjaub not excepted. The question has been one of long and anxious con- sideration both on my part, and I believe on the part of the Government of India; but final orders have not as yet been passed on my representations, and therefore I will not further allude to the matter, beyond expressing the hope that measures will soon be in progress which will succeed in effecting the important objects in view. The establishment of the frontier of Thayet as a separate district has, however, already proved of great assistance to the police, inasmuch as it involves the presence of an additional Deputy Commissioner; and thus a close and consequently a better supervision has been maintained by the civil officers over the police in that direction. Military defences.-The military defence of the pro- vince has long engaged my attention. Our present friendly relations with the King of Ava, and the un- doubted inferiority of any military force which could be assembled beyond our frontier, render it unnecessary to consider the subject from anything like an alarmist point. of view; but still certain measures are in my opinion necessary for the protection of the province in the event APPENDIX G. of any sudden revolutionary movement in Upper Burma which might take us by surprise; or in the event of a European war, like that which has recently agitated Western Europe, and which might bring a hostile Euro- pean force to these shores. On the first point as regards our internal defences, I need scarcely enter into particulars, beyond stating that I have been perfectly aware of the importance of opening up a land communication between Thayetmyo and Toun- goo. These are our two northern frontier stations, and beyond them is Ava territory; but yet there are no over- land lines of communication between the two stations, and those between the two stations and the sea are un- satisfactory. Thayetmyo is situated on the right bank of the Irawadi river, on the side furthest from Rangoon ; and consequently any force marching up from Rangoon would have to cross the river before it could reinforce the station. Under these circumstances it seems neces- sary that either the garrison should be transferred to the other bank of the river, or the communication between both banks should be kept constantly open. Toungoo is in a still more isolated position. It has a water com- munication via the Sittang river, with both Rangoon and Maulmain, but this is not available for steamers; and there is at present no available road by which troops could march from Rangoon to Toungoo during the south-west monsoon. The position of Shwe-gyeen on the line of communication with Toungoo, is nearly as isolated. The questions connected with this state of affairs have been brought under the consideration of the highest authorities, and I have reason to believe that all that is necessary will speedily be accomplished. Already our frontier is greatly strengthened by the weekly service of the mail steamers, and the large increase in the river traffic, which shows itself in a variety of ways. 329 Internal defences. 330 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Coast defences. Importance of education in Burma. Buddhist schools. Christian schools. As regards our coast defences I need say nothing. With the restoration of a financial equilibrium I trust to see a new breakwater at Maulmain; whilst the presence of H. M.'s corvette the Cossack in these waters, by which indeed I take my departure from Rangoon, suffi- ciently proves that in the event of a European war, we may count upon the presence of a naval force amply sufficient to protect this province against any enemy on the sea. Education.-The subject of education in Burma has been one of peculiar interest on account of the special circumstances pertaining to this province, which differ from anything which is to be found elsewhere. The schools in Burma must be divided into two distinct classes, viz :- Ist. Those which are more or less attached to the numerous Buddhist monasteries that are scattered all over the country, and which are devoted exclusively to the education of Burmese children, and until very lately were under no supervision in connection with British ad- ministration. 2ndly. Those which have been established more or less for the education of Europeans and Eurasians, and have been either connected with Christian missionaries or have had a Christian object in view. A considerable number of Burmese boys have also attended these schools, for the purpose of acquiring a higher order of education, which should fit them for employment in public and private offices; and as they were more or less under European supervision and control, and furnished a far higher order of education than the monasteries could possibly have afforded, the British Government has hitherto assisted to support them by the grants of yearly allowances under certain rules known as the grants-in-aid system. In addition to these aided institutions there are four schools which have been directly established APPENDIX G. and maintained by Government, namely, one at Moul- main, a second at Akyab, a third at Prome, and a fourth at Kyouk Phyoo. 331 attained. Such, then, is the present basis of educational progress Objects to be in Burma, and it will be seen that all measures for im- provement have had to be devoted to two distinct objects, namely :— First, the efficiency of monastic schools which are ex- clusively Burmese. Secondly, the efficiency of those schools which are more or less under European supervision. Shortly before I took over charge of the province, my predecessor Sir Arthur Phayre had drawn attention to the large number of monastic schools, and suggested that they might be made the basis of a national system of education. The idea was one which recommended itself in every way. There is not a village in Burma which has not a school, either in connection with a Buddhist monastery, or established as an act of piety by some enthusiastic layman. There is consequently scarcely a Burman to be found, who cannot read, write, and cypher in the vernacular. Nothing was apparently wanting but the co-operation of the Buddhist monks or priests, who are known as phoongyees, to extend and elevate the course of study pursued in these schools, and thus to erect a superstructure of European education and train- ing on a national basis. I must confess that I have always been favourable to this scheme, and am still anxious that every effort should be made to utilize these indigenous schools, and incorporate them in the Govern- ment system. At the same time increased knowledge of these schools derived from the personal inspection of those officers in my administration, who have had the largest educational experience, have opened my eyes to difficulties which do not appear to have presented them- selves to Sir Arthur Phayre; and although I am not pre- Nature and character of Buddhist schools. 332 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Formation of an educa- tional de- partment. Internal life of Buddhist monastic schools. pared to admit that they are insurmountable, yet still I feel bound to mention them for the guidance of my successor. From statistics which have been recently collected, it is known that there are at least four thousand of these schools in British Burma, in which at least fifty or sixty thousand children are educated. To effect an improve- ment in these schools an educational department was formed in 1866, consisting of a director of public in- struction and four circuit teachers; and it was hoped that with this staff something could be done towards im- parting a higher knowledge of grammar, arithmetic, and land-measuring in the monastic schools without hurting the prejudices of the religious inmates of the building. Mr. Hough, the first director, commenced his task with considerable enthusiasm, and although he was shortly afterwards compelled to leave Burma on account of his health, yet before he left he succeeded in introducing the four circuit teachers into some of the monastic schools. Since then Mr. Hordern, who was especially selected for the post of director from the officers of the educational department in Bengal, has devoted considerable attention to this all-important work, and has devised a scheme which is now under trial, and which it is hoped may do something towards effecting the great object in view. Before describing the scheme which Mr. Hordern is now carrying out, it will be necessary to glance at the internal life and discipline of a Buddhist monastery, in order to apprehend the real difficulties against which all educational schemes have to contend. According to the peculiar tenet of Buddhism, the grand object of all human souls ought to be to escape from the turmoil of the passions and the vortex of successive existences, and to find deliverance in the eternal repose of Neibban or Nirvana. To effect this object the individual endeavours to rise to a higher state of existence by performing acts APPENDIX G. of merit in excess of his acts of demerit; and finally passes a life in the seclusion of a monastery, freed from all the cares and turmoils of the outer world, and sup- ported by the voluntary contributions of the community at large. The education of boys has thus been regarded as an act of merit; whilst making offerings of food and clothes to the priests, or phoongyees, are other acts of merit. Consequently education is never at a standstill in Burma. Phoongyees are always to be found, who are only too glad to relieve the monotony of monastic life by engaging in acts of merit like the education of boys; whilst the voluntary contributions of the laity are never wanting, and are probably given partly as acts of merit, and partly out of gratitude for the education which has been received. But the one end and object of monastic teaching is religion. The literature that is taught is of a religious character; and should a more studious boy continue to remain in school, and seek to fit himself for the higher life of a phoongyee, he can only do so by the acquisition of the Pali language, and perusal of the vast mass of Buddhist theological and semi-historical works of which Burmese literature is in a great measure composed. Here and there a few phoongyees may be found, like many priests during the revival of letters in the middle ages, who are anxious to acquire some knowledge of European literature, and of the great world without. But there the analogy ends. The ambition of the Buddhist priest is confined to his own monastery, or at any rate to the attainment of a higher ecclesiastical rank. He cannot aspire to political power, like the ecclesiastical statesman who took the lead for centuries in many European cabinet councils; and there can be no doubt that the first effect of English education on a phoongyee is to lead him to throw off his yellow gown and return to the ranks of the laity. 333 Object of a monastic teaching. 334 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. Decay of monastic discipline. Stimulus to be furnished to monastic schools. Meantime, whilst efforts are being made in one direc- tion to promote a higher education, there is an element at work in the monasteries themselves which has a direct tendency to weaken the stimulus by which the phoon- gyees of Burma, and especially those of Pegu, were formerly actuated. Under native rule the ecclesiastical hierarchy was encouraged, and the promotion of phoon- gyees to a higher rank was not only recognized, but the heads were enabled to carry out a discipline of their own irrespective of all civil law or authority. Such spiritual powers are no longer recognized under British administration, and consequently there is a spirit of insubordination abroad, under which considerable laxity and insubordination naturally prevails. Here, then, rises the question of how a new stimulus is to be introduced into the Buddhist monasteries. In the distribution of grants-in-aid education is largely promoted by a system of payment by results; in other words, the amount of the yearly grant to a school depends upon the results of a yearly examination of the scholars. But it is a fundamental rule of Buddhism that no phoongyee shall ever receive money under any pretence whatever. There are thus only two ways remaining by which a stimulus may be applied, namely, by regulating the grant of books to a monastic school according to the proficiency of the pupils, and to look forward to a rivalry which will probably exist hereafter between the monastery schools conducted by Buddhist Priests, and the primary schools which will be established by the British Government. Formation of local I have also carried out during the past year a measure committees. from which I have great hope of success. The task of maintaining anything like a supervision or inspection over four thousand monastery schools is palpably im- practicable without the appointment of a large staff of inspectors, a measure which cannot be entertained at present from financial considerations; and moreover a APPENDIX G. 335 sudden influx of strangers would probably prove most distasteful to the phoongyees, as well as to the people at large. I have accordingly sanctioned the appointment of a local committee at the head quarters of every dis- trict, the members of which will be known to the phoon- gyees by their official or social position, and who will thus be enabled to promote the progress of education in their particular district, and maintain as much supervision as is perhaps possible under existing circumstances. school at As regards the schools which have been established Normal by Government, or which are aided by yearly grants, I Rangoon. have but little to say. It is however gratifying to me to note that before I leave the province a normal school will have been established at Rangoon for the training of both male and female teachers; and will accordingly furnish a yearly supply of competent masters and governors to take charge of the primary schools which are about to be created. education. The establishment of a female department to the Female Government training school has always been to me an object of solicitude; and indeed the progress of female education in this province has ever been regarded by me with watchful care. Female education in Burma is fortunately hampered by none of those caste prejudices and zenana restrictions which impede its progress amongst most eastern countries; and as it forms the basis of all national development, it has naturally been more pro- minently considered in Burma than in India, by all who have been interested in the future welfare of the people. I believe that during the period I was Commissioner of Tenasserim, I had the honour of founding the first school in British Burma for the exclusive education of Burmese girls; and since I have had charge of the pro vince both Mrs. Fytche and myself have humbly en- deavoured to promote female education by every means in our power. In addition to the measures which have 336 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. been taken to extend female education under a Govern- ment system, I think that the Ladies' Association which was founded by Mrs. Fytche at Rangoon last year, in communication with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospels' Home Association of Ladies, will long pursue that course of usefulness which it has most suc- cessfully commenced; and although I shall no longer have the honour of remaining its president, I shall always take the greatest possible interest in its future proceedings. III.-PUBLIC WORKS. When I assumed the administration of the province I found the condition of the Public Works as follows :— 1st. Regarding Military Works.-Complete accommo- dation for the troops existed at Rangoon, though the barracks of the European Infantry were not in a satis- factory condition, owing to their age and the semi-per- manent materials with which they had been originally constructed. Very good barracks had lately been com- pleted for the European regiment at Thayetmyo, though much remained to be done in the way of providing subsidiary accommodation. Barracks for the remaining troops of the division were in existence and in good order. At Maulmain, garrisoned by a Native regiment, very good accommodation existed. At Toungoo, held by both European and Native troops, sufficient barrack accommodation had been provided. The small detach- ment from the Native Infantry regiment at Toungoo, holding Shwè-gyeen, was found in old and almost worn- out barracks. The defences of the province were in a most unsatis- factory condition. The great pagoda of Rangoon with the arsenal lying to its westward were neither entrenched or rendered secure, though the necessity for the work had been clearly shown by Lord Dalhousie so far back as • APPENDIX G. 1853. Battery Point, situated at the junction of the Rangoon, Pegu, and Puzoondoung rivers, and forming the defence of Rangoon from the seaward, was in such a condition of disrepair as to necessitate the early removal of the heavy guns from the breast work surmounting it. A redoubt at Thayetmyo, on the west bank of the river, was held by a small guard and served to cover the cantonments and native town lying to its southward. A similar work at Toungoo, and kept in good repair, was similarly held. But it could not be said that either of these works, and especially the latter, was in a condition to be made use of should necessity arise. At Shwè-gyeen was a small redoubt, formerly garrisoned by both Euro- pean and Native troops, but abandoned owing to its reputed unhealthiness. Maulmain, the remaining station held by troops, and the chief seaport of the Tenasserim division, was utterly undefended either by land works or river batteries. Practically it may be said that at the commencement of 1867, the province was, setting aside the presence of the troops, in a defenceless state by sea and by land. With the exception of a near completion of the Rangoon pagoda and arsenal defences, I cannot record that the province is in a more advanced state now quâ its defences, than it was four years ago. But so far as the local administration is concerned, the needful steps have been taken for materially improv- ing the military position of the province. First of all, as before stated, the great pagoda and arsenal of Rangoon have been completely surrounded by a ditch and escarp wall, and further safety has been ensured by shutting off all communication between the pagoda and the arsenal, the latter being now completely entrenched. The wall comprising the whole enclosure is now complete, and all that remains to be done is to make the needful provision for mounting the guns in battery at the bastions. This cannot be done until the orders of the Government of VOL. II. N 337 338 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ? { India have been received, the nature of the ordnance to be provided being still under the consideration of that Government. The needful defensive measures at the Battery point for the safety of the capital of the province are still in abeyance. Alternative projects for a battery were sub- mitted so far back as October, 1869, but no orders have been received regarding them. Beyond putting in foundations of concrete blocks to meet the twofold object of a base for the battery and to protect the point from further erosion nothing has been done. I have before said that Maulmain is entirely without defence. About three years ago, the Military department of the Government of India required a report on the subject of defending this place. Colonel A. Fraser, C.B.R.E., the Chief Engineer of the province, with the assistance of Mr. Prince, drew out a scheme for the purpose. This scheme, together with a plan, was sub- mitted to the Government of India, but apparently at a time when the state of the finances would not permit of such an extensive project being sanctioned. Complete projects for the proper occupation of the redoubt at the frontier stations at Thayetmyo and Toungoo have been prepared by Colonel Fraser. Re- garding the Thayetmyo defence scheme it may be noted. that the question regarding the position of this station generally from a military point of view is, I understand, under the consideration of His Excellency the Com- mander-in-Chief in India. The scheme for the defence of Toungoo is in process of elaboration. There can be no question but that the redoubt in its present unoc- cupied state is rather a source of weakness than of strength. During 1870, the Madras Government was addressed relative to the desirableness of again occupying the small redoubt at Shwè-gyeen. The garrison there is housed ← APPENDIX G. in barracks built of most inflammable materials, which are situated in an exposed and defenceless position, bearing in mind the troublesome nature of the tribes on the eastern frontier of the district, it appears to be highly necessary to take early measures for the proper accom- modation of the detachment there. The subject is still under the consideration of the Madras Government. The general conditions of the military position of the province have been fully set forth by Colonel A. Fraser, the Chief Engineer of the province, in a memorandum dated 5th September, 1870, and which I submitted to the Government of India in the military department. This memorandum will be found to contain a very full descrip- tion of the position, and indeed I have drawn upon it largely for the foregoing remarks. I will now address myself to the civil works of the province. And first as to the communications. Early in 1867, there was not one completed road in British Burma. A trunk road running through the valley of the Irawadi from Rangoon to the frontier station of Thayetmyo was under construction; and so was a road leading from Maulmain town to Yeh, Tavoy, and Mergui on the Tenasserim coast. A survey had been made for a road to Amherst, Rangoon, and Pegu. A commence- ment had been made on a road proposed to connect Maulmain with the Shan states on the N. E. frontier. A road runs between Toungoop in the Akyab district and Padoung on the Irawadi in the Prome district, origi nally designed by Lord Dalhousie for purely military purposes; it can hardly be called a line of communica- tion for general purposes, there being little or no traffic between the districts on the Irawadi and those in Arakan and I am satisfied there would be no object in keeping it up except for the convenience of the telegraph department. The question has been referred for the decision of the Government of India. : 339 2 2 340 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. .. The backward state of our lines of communication is a matter of great regret to me. Two of the divisions of the province (Arakan and Tenasserim) we have held for In 45 years and the third division (Pegu) for 18 years. Arakan there is not one road with the exception of the incomplete Dacca and Chittagong road. In Tenasserim, the first 37 miles of the projected road to Yeh have now been completed and bridged, and the same may be said of a branch line to Amherst, a village at the mouth of the Maulmain river and the head-quarters of an Assistant Commissionership. The road projected towards the Northern Shan states has been completed for a distance of 6 miles, or to the Gyne river. In Pegu, fair progress has been made on the Rangoon and frontier trunk road on the east bank of the Irawadi. The whole of the earthwork has been completed, many miles have been metalled and bridged, and the bridges for the remaining distance are under construction. The metalling of this road would ere this have been nearly completed, but that (as I shall show further on) a pro- posal has been made for laying the rails of the projected railway on it. The Pegu road is fast approaching com- pletion. The earthwork is complete, metalling has been collected, and the whole of the bridges, with the excep- tion of that over the Pegu river, are under construction, and will be shortly completed. A commencement has been made on the first portion of the Pegu and Toungoo frontier road. I may here refer to certain proposals I set before the Government of India in May, 1869, for the construction of many lines of roads throughout the province. These proposals were put forward by Colonel Fraser, and there can be no reasonable doubt that, if they are acted upon, the result will be most favourable both to the Government and the people. It is much to be regretted that the general scheme has failed to secure any support APPENDIX G. from the Government of India, though under the present provincial financial arrangements its execution will pos- sibly rest with the local administration. From all points of view, whether military, police, or revenue, it is one of the utmost importance to the province, and indeed with- out these great lines of communication, any great further increase of revenues cannot be hoped for. On this point I have repeatedly addressed myself to the Government of India, commencing with a letter written in March, 1868, regarding the transfer of road maintenance charges from imperial to local funds. The question of embankments is one possessing much interest and importance for this province, especially for that portion of it lying in the delta of the Irawadi. There are thousands upon thousands of acres of rich soil only awaiting protection from the floods of the river to render them available for a large population. The density and richness of the vegetation composed of trees and grass are sufficient proof of the adaptability of the soil for all the purposes of cultivation. My predecessor, Sir A. Phayre, recognized fully the urgent necessity for reclaim- ing a portion at least of this highly favoured valley, and accordingly Colonel Short, of the Bengal Engineers, was deputed in 1863 for the purpose of devising a scheme. of embankments for the protection of the land lying to the west of the river. This scheme has been carried out to a great extent; an embankment five feet above the highest known floods having been carried from above Myanoung to Henzadah. The result has been to render available land for cultivation, though other em- bankments remain to be constructed before the full benefit can be obtained. For one of these a project (that for the Laymethna embankment) has already been submitted to and approved by the Government of India. A project has also been sanctioned for the continuation of the embankment southward as far as Zaloon, but 341 342 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT neither this nor the Laymethna one can be put in hand until certain statements showing the actual and probable financial results of the whole of the works can be placed before the Government of India. Immediataly after his arrival in British Burma as Chief Engineer, Colonel Fraser wrote a most valuable note on the reclamation by embankments, of land on the east of the Irawadi. He showed that upwards of 800 square miles of rich land could thereby in process of time be brought under cultivation, leading to an increase in the revenues of the province amounting to £80,000 at an outlay of £90,000. This scheme led to the deputation. of a specially qualified officer in 1869 to make the need- ful investigation and surveys, the result of which, so far as they went, show that there is no difficulty in carrying out the project. Financial difficulties stood in the way of further inquiry, and so, for the present, the subject is in abeyance. The financial returns above referred to may, however, lead to the execution of the project. In September, 1870, I submitted to the Government of India a note by Colonel Fraser, with statements attached, which shows fully the financial results to be expected from a complete system of embankments on both sides of the river. The following figures explain themselves :— Area to be protected on west bank east "" "" "" Total Total cost of works completed and to be undertaken on west bank Approximate cost of works on east bank Total. Ultimate yearly revenue from land on west bank Approximate ultimate yearly revenue from land on east bank. Total. • Sq. miles. 2,091 I, 200 3,291 •£249,800 90,000 £339,000 £250,000 80,000 £330,000 APPENDIX G. The figures for the eastern bank are doubtless under- estimated, both as regards cost of construction and yearly revenue. But at the same time it will have to be remembered that, from the experience gained in the con- struction of the existing west embankment, we learn that for the eastern side a much less expensive style of con- struction will answer every purpose, and then even more favourable results may be looked for than those now anticipated. SA I think there can be no doubt but that the Govern- ment must carry out these works if any material increase to our revenues is looked for. Although the area of the country is large, yet the immediately available area for purposes of cultivation is small. Out of 93,000 square miles but 3,000 are under cultivation. The greater por- tion of the remainder is not available for cultivation from want of communication with the rivers, which are at present the trade arteries of the province. There is then an intimate connection between roads and embank- ments, and to render the latter useful in the highest degree will necessitate early construction of the former. These are points I have repeatedly brought to the notice of the Government of India. There is not much to he said regarding public build- ings. Gaols on approved principles have been erected in almost every station throughout the province, a com- prehensive scheme for some of them having been laid before the government by Sir Arthur Phayre. A new gaol is necessary at Tavoy and possibly a district gaol at Henzadah. During my administration a lunatic asylum has been erected in Rangoon, and lock hospitals are under construction in the four principal seaports of the province. Court-houses have been erected in the most important districts, most of them having been put in hand before my assumption of office. And a handsome building was purchased for the chief court and the two secretariats. 343 344 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. It is with much pleasure that I can record during my administration the completion of many light-houses around the coast of British Burma. The coast now is rendered perfectly secure both for local and provincial navigation. Arrangements are being made for the con- struction of a light-house on the Oyster reef to the north of Akyab, and the improvement of the Harbour light on the "Savage" rocks at Akyab has just been completed. The name of Colonel Fraser, who made the arrangements for all these works, must ever be associated with the ease and safety with which a hitherto dangerous coast may now be navigated. But his reputation is so high in this respect, that further comment regarding his services in connection with the light houses is superfluous. I have now to speak of the projected Rangoon and Prome railway. A complete scheme matured by Mr. Prince after careful surveys has been elaborated and submitted for the orders of the Government of India. Here, again, I must record my appreciation for Colonel Fraser's services, to whom I am indebted for the initiation of the project. It has been for a considerable period before the Government of India, but as yet I have received no instructions regarding it. In this province the administration of the forests is conducted in the Public Works Department. They form a considerable source of revenue to the government, for which happy results we are mainly indebted to the valuable services of Dr. Brandis, the present Inspector General of Forests, who was for many years the Super- intendent. With my review of the forest report for 1867-68, I submitted to the Government of India a statement showing the financial results of twelve years' administration, from 1856-57 to 1867-68. During that period teak timber, amounting in quantity to 1,107,695 tons, and in value to £4,984,627, has been either ex- tracted from forests within British territory or brought APPENDIX G. from forests in independent states. The cost of extract- ing the timber and of the maintenance of the foreign timber revenue stations at Maulmain amounts to £326,901; whilst the gross revenue from all sources amounts to £823,289. The net revenue is thus £496,388, a sum which has been poured into the Imperial treasury without the expenditure of any capital. This is most satisfactory, and the receipts (net) for the remaining years 1868-69 to 1870-71 are equally satisfactory. A definite scheme for the formation of plantations on a large scale has also been prepared and sanctioned by the Government of India. I have always held that any attempt at reproduction in the forests would not be successful, but that we must look to plantations, managed under proper supervision, for our eventual supplies. Reservation of certain rich forests as State domains has also been put actively in hand. There can be no question but that the stringent nature of the forest rules regarding the preservation of teak has borne very hardly upon the inhabitants of the teak-producing tracts. They have been subject to visits of a most objectionable character, and their peculiar system of cultivation (called "toungya") has been materially interfered with. The reservations now in progress will leave the people free to cultivate according to customs handed down from time immemorial. Within the reserved tracts the rights of the State will be, of course, most jealously guarded. I am inclined to think that the "toungya" system of cultivation should be brought under some control, and with this view I have asked the opinion of the Commis- sioner of Arakan with regard to the destruction of the iron wood forests of Arakan by cultivation of this nature. It will be for my successor to extend the inquiry to the Pegu and Tenasserim divisions. The matter is one of 345 346 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. ▸ = some delicacy, as the custom is a deeply rooted one, and any action restricting it is sure to produce some irritation. In 1869, I directed an inquiry to be made into the condition of the iron wood forests of Arakan with a view to bring them, if needful, under forest conservancy. Doctor Schlich, the officer of the department to whom I entrusted this duty, submitted a most interesting report, which, however, does not advocate any action being taken for the thorough conservancy of the forests. They appear to be of great extent and to contain a large num- ber of trees, but there is no demand for the timber, and therefore I could not recommend any outlay on super- vising establishment. I have, however, called for the Commissioner's opinion on the best way of lessening the mischief at present being done to the forests, and it is possible this report may show the advisableness of a small staff being entertained for the purpose. Having regard to the possible construction of the Prome railway, I ordered certain tracts of forest land to be examined and reserved as fuel reserves. The final report has not yet reached me, the work being now in hand. A new system of assessing the government dues on timber brought out of government forests have been introduced, and I have no doubt but that it will lead to increase of forest revenue. The system formerly in vogue was simply the charging of a fixed rate per log on all timber above a certain length, and another fixed rate for all timber below that length. Under the system now in force all timber will be paid for at a certain rate per foot in length, the rate being fixed with reference to the girth. The administration of the funds raised for local pur- poses throughout the province now demands notice. On my arrival in Rangoon, I found that the control over the expenditure was divided between the civil and public works secretaries, and one result of this was, that neither APPENDIX G. secretariat knew what the other was spending. Further- more the officers most interested in the proper adminis- tration of the funds, the Deputy Commisioners of districts, were kept in total ignorance of the manner in which their various district funds were being spent by the public works department. There seemed much room for im- provement in this branch of the administration, and the first step taken to carry out this improvement was to centralize the entire control of the funds in the civil secretariat. The next was the early preparation of local funds' budgets. And the third step was to prohibit any outlay by the public works department except on definite grants made by the civil department. I think improvement has certainly followed on this system. Civil officers now are brought into full rapport with the expenditure from local sources; and so far as the execution of local works by public works officers is concerned, the plans and estimates have to be signed by the civil officers in token of their approval. • CONCLUSION. In conclusion, I must now express my best thanks to the officers of the Commission by whom I have been most ably served, and without whose cordial assistance I could have achieved but little. I would specially beg to notice the services performed by the Commissioners of divisions, Colonels Ardagh, Brown, Stevenson, and Ryan; those of my late and present Secretaries, Lieutenant-Colonel Davies, Captain Spearman, Mr. Wheeler, Captain Fur- long, and Lieutenant Cooke; and those of the officers of the Commission generally. I must also not omit to mention the services of Majors Duncan and Hamilton, and Mr. Doyle of the police department. I have specially to thank Col. A. Fraser, C. B. R. E., my Secretary in the Public Works Department and Chief Engineer, for the great support and zealous assistance he 347 } 348 BURMA, PAST AND PRESENT. > has rendered me on every occasion, and to congratulate him on the completion of that magnificent series of light- houses which protect the commerce of our coasts, as well as the other works which he has either completed, or else are already in progress. To Mr. Macrone, As- sistant Secretary in the same department, my thanks are also due. A. FYTCHE, MAJOR GENERAL, C.S.I. Chief Commissioner, British Burma, and Agent to the Viceroy and Governor- General of India. BRITISH BURMA, 4 RANGOON. The 25th March, 1871. THE END. bradbury, Agnew, & co., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 2 STAN PERLUAN THAT CANNESLANDTRACK) UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 3 9015 00700 8041 1 BUILDING USE ONLY B 1,630,121 1