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E. DORSCH, M. D.
Monroe, Mich.
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THE DORSCH LIBRARY,
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gam by his widow, May, 1888, in accordance with a wish
The private Library of Edward lºorsch, M. 1)., of
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wound by
CULBERT & KROENCKE, !
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C A S S E L L 'S
PO PU L A. R.
NATURAL HISTORY.
r
B I R D S.
I. RAPACIOUS BIRDS. IV. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
II. PERCHING BIRDS. W. WADING BIRDS.
III. CLIMBING BIRDS. VI. SWIMMING BIRDS.
V O L U M E III.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NEARLY THREE HUNDRED AND FIFTY ENGRAVINGS.
L ON DO N :
CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN, LA BELLE SAUVAGE YARD, LUDGATE HILL, E.C.;
AND 596, BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
de

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INTRODUCTION.
which the two preceding Volumes of “CASSELL's PopULAR NATURAL
HISTORy” were devoted, it is remarkable that the bat alone is endowed
with the power of flight; a flight which is strong, rapid, and marked
by sudden evolutions and turns, executed with astonishing celerity.
In the next Class, AVES, which demands our consideration, the
body is invariably covered with feathers, and the anterior extremities
are organs of flight alone. As the plumage, in its endless modifications,
is intimately connected with the habits of the species, these variations are studied
by Naturalists, not only as demonstrative of consummate design on the part of the
Great Creator, but as an index to the manners of birds, and as a clue to a natural
arrangement.
The entire mechanism of the body, indeed, corresponds precisely with the organs of flight.
Long and slender, like a snake's, the central point of gravity would have been wanting for
maintaining an even, steady course; while, had it been round, there could have been no cleaving
of the sky, like that of an arrow in its course. But the body is beautifully boat-shaped; the
prow being formed of the small head and pointed beak, and the rudder by the broad, expanded
tail; so that the resistance of the air may be effectually overcome. If, too, the plumage and
the skin be removed, how fine, how large, how powerful will the muscles appear, expressly
destined for the motion of the wings, constituting, as they do, the solid mass of the whole chest,
and being more in volume than all the others put together. s
The destined tenants of the upper air, birds, borne on rapid wings, transport themselves
from place to place, and even from one country to another, with ease and safety. Familiar
with the tempest, they rise till lost amidst the clouds; and, from their lofty pinnacle, look down
on the outspread earth, with its seas and rivers interspersed on its surface. Yet are they not
restricted to the regions of the air; the land and the waters are theirs also; some traversing
the fields, some trooping around the dwellings of man, some wading the treacherous morass,
some scouring the sandy desert, some living in the umbrageous shade of the sequestered thicket
or the lonely forest, and some diving and sporting on the ocean billows.
The appearance of birds is a special attraction to every intelligent observer. As Thomson
S3W S :-
“The redbreast pays to trusted man
His annual visit. Half afraid, he first
Against the window beats; then brisk alights
On the warm hearth; then, hopping e'er the floor
Eyes all the smiling family askance,
And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is;
Till more familiar grown, the table crumbs
Attract his slender feet.”

iv. INTRODUCTION.
Who can look on the peacock, arrayed in gorgeous plumes of azure, purple, green, and gold,
spread out to the bright rays of the sun, without being filled with admiration at the spectacle?
The lark, that we may see far aloft in a country walk; the goldfinch, the yellow ammer, the
swallow, the wren, and a number more of which we may occasionally catch sight as we pursue
our way; the swan, conspicuous for its beauty and the elegance of its attitudes, which seem as
if purposely intended for display, gliding over the water with arched neck, and the plumes of
its wings proudly expanded, like sails, to catch the breeze; and others, far too many to be now
enumerated, have each a charm for the eye and the heart. ©
The music of birds arose towards heaven before the creation of man. Adam and Eve
could not have heard their melody without lively emotions, and from their days to ours
multitudes have felt with the poet, when he said:—
“A few, with melody untaught,
Turned all the air to music, within hearing,
Themselves unseen; while bolder quiristers,
On loftiest branches, strained their clarion pipes,
And made the forest echo to their screams
Discordant. Yet there was no discord there,
But tempered harmony; all tones combining,
In the rich confluence of ten thousand tongues,
To tell of joy, and to inspire it. Who
Could hear such concert, and not join in chorus P
Not I.”
Coleridge says, as he asks the nightingale to repeat her strain :-
- - “My dear babe,
Who, capable of no articulate sound,
Mars all things with his imitative lisp,
How he would place his hand beside his ear,
His little hand, the small fore-finger up,
And bid us listen.”
Not that all birds are musical; on the contrary, they are remarkable for a very great variety of
tones and qualities of voice, from the cawing of the rook, the croaking of the raven, and
the monotonous scream of the eagle, to the rich and varied modulations of the nightingale. ,
Each species has a note peculiar to itself, and it is only to certain tribes that the power of
melody is given. A voice capable of rapid inflections and full of harmony was not wanted by the
rapacious tyrants of the air, by the birds that play and dive among the billows of the ocean, by
the wild swan, and the host of water birds that make the marsh or the dark morass their home,
nor yet by the feathered tribes that yield food for man. These, therefore, only emit sounds
desirable for themselves; and it is to a multitude of smaller birds, the tenants of woodlands and
groves, that we must listen, if we would hear a thousand voices swelling, in mingled harmeny
the hymn of praise. -
In a savage state of society man hunts the timid for food, and contends with the ferocious
for safety; but his influence is limited; the effects are scarcely appreciable; and the loss occa-
sioned by the destruction he makes is speedily supplied. As he advances in civilisation he
extends the field of his operations. Some desert tracts excepted—some regions where the exces-
sive cold militates against human enterprise, man, wherever he spreads his race, gradually
INTRODUCTION. W
modifies the surface of the earth, its state of irrigation, and the proportion of vapour dissolved
in the atmosphere, thereby materially affecting the botanical and animal productions of such
localities. As the forests are gradually cleared, and give way to cultivated fields; as swamps
are drained, and meadows assume their place; as mountain wastes become clothed with corn
by his labours, the primitive tenants gradually recede, and others take their place. He intro-
duces plants of various kinds, and with them their parasitic insects, and other animals which
depend on them for subsistence; and thus, while, within certain bounds, the zoological features
of such districts become perceptibly modified, he extends his influence to the most remote
regions. - * -
Man, whose mental energies have brought so many of the Mammalia under subjection, and
whose influence in changing the condition of a country, as it regards even the brute creation,
is manifest wherever he takes up his abode, has made a successful conquest over the birds of
the air. Bending the falcon tribes to his will, he has effected a permanent subjection over such
as minister to his necessities, and whose flesh yields him wholesome and nutritious food. Still,
it is manifest that other triumphs await him over “the feathered fowl;” surpassing, perhaps 5
any that have been hitherto achieved.
Never were there such shows of birds remarkable for beauty and song as those with which
only recently we have become familiar. In a late report we are told that the classes exhibited
were very superior. In those of Belgium, vast improveméht is described as very discernible,
so that there was scarcely a bad bird among them—a striking contrast to those submitted to
inspection in former years. So nice has the difference in the shades of colour become, that it
could only be discovered by taking the birds out of the cages, and bringing them into close
proximity. The feathers were of a most brilliant gold colour, and the green markings almost
black. The goldfinch mules are said to have been of themselves a show, while various British
songsters presented a first-rate appearance—delighting the eye, as well as gladdening the ear.
Of birds called GALLINAGEOUS, no fewer than 346 species have been enumerated, yet of all
these we have, as yet, only made eight available for domestication; while, at least, 230 actually
inhabit sufficiently temperate regions to admit of their being, more or less, acclimatised in
Europe. All are able to live in confinement, and what is more, they are prolific and eatable.
Hence the attempts at acclimatisation which are being made by the Zoological Society of
London, especially in connection with the game birds of the Himalaya. Similar efforts are
being carried on in France. The common pheasant is a comparatively modern accession to the
coverts of England, and is not naturally more adapted to our climate than several other species
of true pheasants which are known to inhabit Mongolia, China, and Japan. The birds brought
home by Mr. John Reeves, in 1838, bred in the Society's collection without difficulty, and were
only lost by the accident of their number being insufficient to guard against casualties. Those
splendid birds, the Cheer, the Monal, and the three Kaleeges—the Horsfield, the White-
crested, and the Black-backed—all breed abundantly in the Zoological Gardens. The Society
has always paid great attention to collecting water-fowl, which, from their general hardiness,
are adapted to acclimatisation in this country; and no fewer than forty-seven species are men-
tioned as observable by visitors in their last “ Guide.”
The science of Natural History is therefore becoming of increasing importance; and to its
advancement the descriptions and engravings of the present Volume, like those of the two
preceding, and the one on which we shall immediately enter, will be regarded, we trust, not
Wi - INTRODUCTION.
merely as a popular, but a truly valuable auxiliary.
of a poet:—
“ Ye birds that fly through the fields of air,
What lessons of wisdom and truth ye bear !
Ye would teach our souls from the earth to rise;
Ye would bid us all grovelling scenes despise;
Ye would tell us that all its pursuits are vain,
That pleasure is toil—ambition is pain—
That its bliss is touch'd with a poisoning leaven,
Ye would teach us to fix our aim on heaven.
“Beautiful birds of lightsome wing,
Bright creatures that come with the voice of Spring;
We see you array'd in the hues of the morm,
Yet ye dream not of pride, and ye wist not of scorn!
Though rainbow-splendour around you glows,
Ye vaunt not the beauty which Nature bestows;
Oh! what a lesson for glory are ye,
How ye preach the grace of humility.
*~
<º
Well may we now adopt the genial words
“Swift birds, that skim o'er the stormy deep,
Who steadily onward your journey keep,
Who neither for rest nor for slumber stay,
But press still forward, by night or day—
As in your unwearying course ye fly
Beneath the clear and unclouded sky; .
Oh! may we, without delay, like you,
The path of duty and right pursue
“Sweet birds, that breathe the spirit of song,
And surround heaven's gate in melodious throng,
Who rise with the earliest beams of day,
Your morning tribute of thanks to pay,
You remind us that we should likewise raise
The voice of devotion and song of praise;
There's something about you that points on high,
Ye beautiful tenants of earth and sky!”.
*** *
HILL PARTRIDGES OF CALIFORNIA.
->


CONTENTS.
——º-
B I R D S.
THE Bird is born from an Egg—Incubation—The Structure of Birds—The Skeleton—The Brain—The Inferior
Limbs—The Head and Neck—The Digestive Apparatus—The Organs of Respiration and Voice—The Growth
of Feathers—The Wings—The Organs of Sense . . . . . . . . . . p. 1 to 14
- ºr
RAPACIOUS BIRDS.
The Condor—The King Vulture—The Egyptian Vulture—The Griffon Vulture—The Turkey Vulture—The Black
Vulture—The Bearded Vulture—The Sociable Vulture—The Vulturine Caracara Eagle—The Caracara Eagle—
The Imperial Eagle—The Golden Eagle—The Wedge-tailed Eagle—The Bird of Washington—The White-
headed Sea Eagle—The Fish-hawk, or Osprey—The Secretary Bird—The Harpy Eagle—The Falcons—
The Iceland Falcon—The Peregrine Falcon—The Merlin—The Hobby—The Kestrel—The Goshawk—The
Sparrow-hawk—The Common Kite—The Swallow-tailed Kite—The Common Buzzard–The Marsh Harrier—
The Hen Harrier—The Barn Owl—The Eagle Owl—The Snowy Owl—The Burrowing Owl—The Virginian
Hormed Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 15 to 74
PERCHING BIRDS.
The Common Goat-sucker—The Fork-tailed Goat-sucker—The Whip-poor-Will — The Swift–The Swallow
—The Sand-martin—The Esculent Swallow—The Martin—The Purple Martin—The Sordid Thrush—
The Green Tody—The Common Kingfisher—The Black-headed Kingfisher—The Bee-eaters—The Yellow
Shrike—The Great Shrike—The Red-backed Shrike—The Pied Fly-catcher—The Collared Fly-catcher
—The Tyrant Fly-catcher—The Stone-chat —The Whin-chat—The Wheataar—The Redbreast—The
Nightingale–The Redstart—The Fan-tail Warbler—The Tailor Bird—The Hedge Sparrow—The Grass-
hopper Warbler—The Reed Wren—The Blackcap—The Meadow Pipit—The Tree Pipit—The Willow
Wren—The Water Wagtail—The Pied Wagtail—The Golden-crested Regulus—The Wren—The Thrush—
The Golden Thrush—The Missel Thrush—The Rock Thrush—The Mocking Bird—The Ferruginous
Mocking Bird—The Water Ouzel—The Golden Oriole—The Lyre Bird—The Blackbird—The Crested
Titmouse—The Great Titmouse—The Long-tailed Titmouse—The Cole Titmouse—The Blue Titmouse—
The Bearded Titmouse—The Black-cap Titmouse—The Rock Manakin—The Green Mamakin—The Fork-
tailed Manakin—The Crested Pardalotus—The Cotingas—The Cedar Bird—The Umbrella Bird—The
Bohemian Wax-wing—The Skylark—The Shore Lark—The Short-toed Lark—The Meadow Lark—The
Crested Lark—The Lapland Bunting—The Snow Bunting—The Common Bunting—The Yellow Bunting, or
Yellow Ammer—The Black-headed Bunting—The Cirl Bunting—The Cow Bunting—The House Sparrow—
The Tree Sparrow—The Goldfinch—The Mountain Finch—The Poy Bird—The Common Linnet—The
Mountain Linnet—The Lesser Redpole—The Mealy Redpole—The Chaffinch—The Siskin—The Canary Bird
—The Greenfinch—The Bullfinch—The Pine Grosbeak—The Broad-shafted Whidah Finch—The Malurus
Cyaneus—The Philippine Grosbeak—The Bottle-nested Sparrow—The Sociable Grosbeak—The Loxia
Bengalensis—The Abyssinian Grosbeak—The Cap-more—The Pensile Grosbeak—The Baltimore Oriole–The
Orchard Oriole—The Malimbic Tanager—The Black-collared Finch—The Scarlet Tanager—The Crossbill-
The Common Starling—The Red-winged Starling—The Satin Bower Bird—The Raven—The Book—The
Carrion Crow—The Hooded Crow—The Jackdaw—The Alpine Crow—The Blue Jay—The Piping Crow—
The Common Jay—The Nut-cracker—The Chough—The Magpie—The Rice Bird—The Honey Sucker of
New Holland—The Great Emerald Bird of Paradise—The Greater Bird of Paradise—The Magnificent Bird
of Paradise—The King Bird of Paradise—The Rhinoceros Hornbill—The Unicorn Hornbill—The Crescent
Hornbill—The Concave Hornbill—The Violaceous Hornbill—The Abyssinian Hornbill—The Red-billed
Hornbill—The Euryceros Prevostii—The Common Creeper—The Wall Creeper—The Baker—The Splendid
Sun Bird—The Topaz-throated Humming Bird—The Ruby-throated Humming Bird—The Tufted-necked
Humming Bird—Gould's Trochilus—The Supercilious Humming Bird—The Nuthatch—The Hoopoe—
‘Gould's Neomorpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 75 to 233
viii CONTENTS.
s
CLIMBING BIRDS.
The Jacámars—The Cuckoo-The Gilded Cuckoo-The Eastern Black Cuckoo-The Golden Trogon—The Red-
Headed Malcoha—The Parti-coloured Barbet—The Spotted-bellied Tamatia—The Green Woodpecker—The
Greater Spotted Woodpecker—The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker—The Great Black Woodpecker—The Golden-
winged Woodpecker—The Ivory-billed Woodpecker—The Varied Woodpecker—The Larger Red-crested
Woodpecker—The Wryneck—The Ash-coloured or Gray Parrot—The Indian Parrot—The Great Scarlet
Maccaw—The Blue and Yellow Maccaw—The Rose-crested Cockatoo—The Greater Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
—The Lesser Sulphur-crested Cockatoo—The Blue-bellied Parrakeet—The Carolina Parrakeet—The Pavouan
Parrakeet—The Papuan Lory—The Toucan–The Saffron-coloured Hill Toucan—The Plantain Eater—The
T}ouble Collared Araçari—The Colies. © e o e e º º © Q º ... p. 234 to 276
GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
The Crowned Goura Pigeon—The Carrier Pigeon—The Carunculated Ground Pigeon—The Aromatic Winago—
The Magnificent Pigeon—The Nicobar Pigeon—The Ring Dove, or Cushat—The Passenger Pigeon—The Cape
Turtle—The Turtle Dove—The Galeated Curassow—The Peacock—The Chinese Peacock Pheasant—The
Wild Turkey—The Domestic Turkey—The Talegalla, or Brush Turkey—The Guinea Fowl—The Common
Pheasant—The Ring-necked Pheasant—The Chinese Pheasant—The Silver Pheasant—The Golden Pheasant
—The Argus Pheasant—The Impeyan Pheasant—The Jungle Fowl—The Frizzled and Silky Fowl—The
Wallakiki Fowl—The Capercaillie—The Black Grouse—The Red Grouse—The Ptarmigan—The Pinnated
Grouse—The Hemipodius Tachidromus—The Partridge—The Red-leggéd Partridge—The Quail—The
Californian Quail—The Wirginian Colin—The Ostrich—The Emeu–The Cassowary—The Apterix—The
Mooruk—The Dodo . © tº º e © tº © tº º o º o º ... p. 277 to 334
*
*-m-
*
WADING BIRDS.
The Common Crane—The Crowned Crane—The Demoiselle—The Mantchourian Crane—The Scopolaceous Heron
—The Great White Heron—The Bittern—The Great Bustard–The Little Bustard–The Asiatic Bustard—
African Bustards—The White Stork—The Marabou Stork—The Common Spoonbill—The Flamingo—The
Jabiru-The Ibis—The African Jacana—The African Water Fowl—The Boat-Bill—The Golden Plover—
The Stilt Plover—The Avocet—The Woodcock—The Common Snipe—The Jack Snipe—The Redshank—The
Dotterel—The Pied Oyster-Catcher—The Ruff—The Knot—The Sandpipers—The Gallinules—The Corn-
Crake—The Horned Screamer—The Notornis . . o e º o e o º ... p. 335 to 371
---
SWIMMING BIRDS.
The Mute Swan—The Black-necked Swan—The Duck—The Summer Duck—The Eider Duck—The Chinese Teal
—The American Wigeon—The Common Shelldrake—The Teal—The Gray Lag—The Domestic Goose—The
Dean Goose—The Egyptian Goose—The Canada Goose—The Bernicle Goose—The New Holland Cereopsis—
The Goosanders—The Grebes—The Divers—The Common Skua–The Common Gull—The Guillemot—The
Puffin—The Great Auk—The Penguin—The Terns—The Wandering Albatross—The Petrels—The Gannet
—The Pelican—The Cormorant—The Darter—The Tropic Bird—The Frigate Bird. . . p. 372 to 403
SEPARATE PLATES.
Frontispiece • • - - - - - - . . . . . . . To face Title.
Wedge-tailed Eagle © e º o e e tº e º 'º © e º e º • , page 42
American Sparrow Hawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • , , 62
Bagle Owls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 72
IBee-Eater tº e e º e & º O ºf º º © © º © © O º º • 33 33 90
White-shafted Fantail • e e e o e o e o e º e º º º • , , 128
Dicaean Swallows gº © © o © & • C e º 0. e Q & O © • , , 168
Blue Jay . º e o e o e o o © e o e e e © © O • 32 33 192
IIumming Birds tº ſº © © e © © © © © O º º ſº º © • 33 32 228
Cassowary e e e & o º º e o e o O º e º º º O • 33 29 326
Red Flamingo and Jabiru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 350
Water Fowl º o e e o º G o te o O e e @ º © © • 23 29 379
Divers and Puffins tº C e º O C & • - - - - - - - , , 888
C. A. S S E L L’S
909), AR WA'ſ jRA, 43'ſ ORY,
; I” our last chapter we concluded an account of the
Mammalia. We now proceed to treat of the next
division of the Animal Kingdom—BIRDs.
Birds are described as vertebrate, warm-blooded animals,
which breathe by means of lungs. The main distinction,
however, that cannot ſail to occur at once to the mind of every one who thinks upon the subject, is,
that they are oviparous, or produced from eggs. They are, in fact, the only class of vertebrate
animals of which all the species are oviparous.
The development of the young bird proceeds, as is well known, by means of brooding after the
egg has been laid. The warmth requisite for the development of the chick in the egg is about 100°
Fahrenheit: in a somewhat lower temperature the development still proceeds, but more slowly; a low
temperature causes the death of the chick. Since the eggs that lie directly under the breast of the
hen are, necessarily, exposed to a greater heat than those placed at the edge of the nest, the hen moves
the eggs after a time, and places those in the middle at the edge, and conversely, so that the develop-
ment of the whole may proceed uniformly. This development continues for about twenty-one days.
WOL. III. - 97

















2. CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Eggs vary in size, but this difference arises from the amount of mourishment required by the
chick before it is launched into the world: the embryo, or speck upon the yolk, which is subsequently
developed into the perfect animal, is not, in the first instance, much larger in the ostrich than in the
sparrow. The size of the egg is, in fact, proportionate to the growth the animal is to attain before it is
born : for instance, the crocodile is destined to attain to an enormous growth, and yet its egg is smaller
than that of many birds, because its young is able to enter the water and live on its own resources
before it is any larger than one of our lizards; there is, therefore, only so much food placed within the
shell as will support it until it attains to that size.
The eggs of birds are variously tinted and mottled, and, though not in every instance, yet in
many, we can certainly see a design in the adaptation of the colours to the purpose of concealment,
according to the habits of the various classes of birds. Thus, as a general rule, the eggs of birds which
have their nests in dark holes, or which construct nests that almost completely exclude the light,
are white; as is also the case with those birds that constantly sit on their eggs."or leave them only for
a short time during the night. Eggs of a light-blue or light-green tint will also be found in nests that
are otherwise well concealed; while, on the other hand, a great proportion of those nests which are in
exposed situations have eggs varying in tints and spots in a remarkable degree, corresponding with the
colours of external objects in their immediate neighbourhood. Thus, a dull-green colour is common in
most gallinaceous birds that form their
nests in grass, and in aquatic birds
among green sedges; a brighter green
colour is prevalent among birds that
nestle among trees and bushes; and a
brown-mottled colour is found in those
eggs that are deposited among furze,
heath, shingle, and gray rocks and
stones.
The intensity of the instinct of
hatching is well known, since it diverts
the animal from one of the strongest—r
the pursuit of food; while we see the
wisdom of the provision, knowing that
a steady and high temperature is neces-
sary to bring the offspring to maturity.
It is a care added to that of nest-
SECTION OF AN FGG READY FOR INCUBATION. building, both tending to the same end.
Yet here, as in the parental affections,
there are variations and exceptions. The former are shown in the unequal perseverance of different species,
under disturbance or otherwise; as, in the same species, it seems to depend on the personal character of
theindividual parent, familiarly differing in our domestic fowls, and, perhaps, nearly unknown to usin the
wild ones. The exception familiar to us is the cuckoo; and of this anomaly no adequate solution
has been offered, since this bird remains with us long enough to rear its own offspring. Yet, even that
exception has its interest, as the mode adopted is equally efficacious for its designed end.
The egg of a bird is beautifully adapted to the process it has to undergo. Thus, its oval form
permits a greater part of its surface to be in contact with the warm body of the parent than any
other; and within, when an egg is ready for incubation, a small spot may be observed on the yolk (1),
which, when examined, is apparently a vesicle, containing fluid matter. In this the embryo swims,
and is kept there to the breast of the mother-bird. Nor is this all; for, were its axis through the
centre, the embryo would not move with the change in the position of the egg; but the axis being
placed below the centre, it must turn round with every such change, whether the yolk be lighter or
heavier than the surrounding white. Two dense cords (2), each of them strongly attached to the yolk-
bag, pass through the white, and are connected with the inner lining membrane at each end of the
egg. A spiral filament runs through each of these cords. There are thus two fixed points on which
the yolk can rotate ; and the spiral filament, surrounded by thickened albumen, is, by its greater

THE PROCESS OF INCUBATION. 3.
weight, always inclined to its lowest point. And, to perfect this beautiful arrangement, the elasticity
of these spiral cords is so nicely adapted to the force with which the yolk is borne up, as to restrain it
at a certain point, and allow sufficient space between the yolk and the inner lining of the shell for the
white to lubricate the surface of the yolk, and thus to defend the embryo from injury.
Indescribably various are the situations in which the mother-birds pass through this interesting
and remarkable process. Our chief knowledge of incubation, however, arises from the attention given
to the domestic hen, and some of the results, therefore, we proceed to notice.
A few hours after the hen has brooded over the eggs, a considerable alteration takes place in them.
As one of the following engravings will show, the embryo acquires length, and a blood-vessel, issuing
from either side, branches into numerous smaller ones, which unite at their termination, and become a
net-work on the covering of the yolk. The embryo is in the centre of this net-work of vessels, which
multiply as it increases, until they nearly pervade the membrane of the yolk. It appears that when
these vessels are first formed, each branch is accompanied by a vessel carrying yolk into the body of
the chick, that there may be a due supply for its sustenance and growth.
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º
º ---
FARLY CHANGE IN INCUBATION. TILE EGG ON THE THIL-D DAY
The vascular tissue which is to suffice for the primitive circulation, appears in the engraving
exhibiting the egg on the third day. It is a circular network, in the centre of which is a bent and
palpitating vessel; this is the heart (a). The entire network is bounded by the primogenial vein; vic
is the caudal vein.
This network may be regarded as a lung, which the embryo exhibits above it, and which is found
placed in that part of the egg where the oxygen can penetrate most easily—that is, below the air-
chamber. It is a simple pulmonary circulation, resembling that of fishes, and lasts about two days.
A new circulation then begins; the vascular network, deprived of its principal venous trunks, becomes
almost unfit for the process of respiration, but its nutritive functions are more developed.
The yolk becomes flattened, and a portion of the white penetrates the yolk-bag. A vesicle
is now so far formed as to have passed from the body of the chick to the lining membrane of the shell,
and, as the embryo grows, so does this vesicle increase. It is full of blood-vessels—a living system of
arteries and veins—carrying livid, red blood from the heart of the chick, and returning it of a bright
red colour, perfectly fitted for every purpose it is designed to answer.
Even at the beginning of the third day the beating of the heart is perceptible, though no blood
is visible. But only a few hours elapse, and two vesicles, containing blood, appear, one forming the
left ventricle, the other the great artery. The auricle of the heart may now be observed; and the
writer will never forget the pleasure with which he first saw an egg at this stage of developing the
chick, exhibiting, as it did, the course of the blood to the unassisted eye.
About the sixth day, the bare wings and legs of the chick may be fully seen. The eyes are large
--































4 cAssºil's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
and prominent; the brain begins to acquire consistence; and, a little later, the beak opens for the
first time. The additional growth of a few days shows the wings and the body covered with short
feathers; and that which was a little time before a shapeless mass, has now form and proportion. If
, an egg be opened between the twelfth and thirteenth days, the pulses of the numerous blood-vessels will
be seen propelling onwards their contents, and thus presenting a very remarkable and beautiful spectacle.
As, on the eighteenth day, the faint piping of the little tenant of the shell is heard, respiration has
already taken place. The vesicle, which had increased with the growth of the embryo, has continued
to enlarge over the surface of the membrane of the shell, which it now entirely surrounds, thus forming
an external covering to the yolk. The large blood-vessels which connect the chick with this membrane
—any one of which, if left open, would prove fatal to the bird—begin to be sealed and shrink, and
preparation is made for its escape.
On the twenty-first day, the little bird—disengaged from all its protecting membranes, which
.* have become dried up, already accustomed to
pulmonary respiration, and with its first ne-
cessities provided for by the remainder of the
yolk being drawn into the body—is ready to
leave the shell. With its beak armed with car-
bonate of lime, it makes a line on the inner
surface, thus preparing it for fracture; and, by
repeated pushings of the body, it gradually raises
the upper portion of the cell, and thus effects its
BRAIN or A BIRD. ºsCape. ^.
The first peculiarity which strikes an obſer-
ver, when comparing the skulls of birds with those.of mammals, is
the absence of sutures in the former, the proper cranial bones being
consolidated into one piece. The skull is articulated to that part of
the vertebral column called the neck by a single condyle, or joint,
which is situated at the front margin of the great occipital
opening,” through which the brain, becoming elongated, as it were,
into the spinal cord, descends into the vertebral column. The
following scale has been given as an example of the size of the
brain in relation to that of the body –Eagle, 1-260th ; Sparrow,
1-25th; Blackbird, 1-68th ; Duck, 1-257th ; Goose, 1.360th;
Man, 1-22nd to 1-33rd of the body.
a cervical Veitch, c. c Thigh Bone, a Tibia. . It is this beautiful adaptation of structure to the wants of
, ; e Tarsus f Tucs. . the animal that gives such a freedom of motion to the head,
skeletos or a pimp. especially in a horizontal direction. The wryneck,t for example—
as those who have Surprised the bird in the nest will readily admit—can writhe her head round so
as to look the intruder in the face, hissing all the while like a snake; and, by this “terrible show,”
many a bird's-nesting noyice is frightened away. The number of cervical vertebrae is generally very
considerable. In the mammalia there are seven, but in birds there are twice that number ; and in the
swam there arc twenty-three. -
. The skeleton of birds has the same constituent parts as that of other vertebrated classes. The
bones of the anterior extremity, though destined exclusively to support the wing, retain the same
. divisions, and are composed of the usual elements. The general form of the body is the one best
calculated to glide with the least resistance through the air. As birds swallow their food entire, they
need no hard, and solid teeth, nor the large muscles and, heavy jaws, which are required by most
quadrupeds: hence, the head is greatly reduced in size, whilst the pointed beak cuts the opposing
air, and aids the progress of the bird in its flight. In birds the ribs, and the viscera which they protect,
are placed as far back along the spinal column as possible; and a long and flexible neck extends from
the trunk to the head, which is thus carried considerably forwards.
The inferior limbs consist of the thigh-bone or femur (), which lies close to the body onveloped
-
*---, * Foramen magnum. * Yunx torquilla.

GENERAL GROUP OF BIRDS,

6 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
in muscles, covered with the skin, and concealed beneath the feathers. The next part is the tibia (d),
consisting of a single elongated bone, and to this succeeds the tarsus (e), covered only with scaly skir.
having the toes articulated to the extremity. In most birds, the toes (f) are three before and one
behind, but here great variety prevails.
A man would soon be tired who was accustomed to stand on stilts, but a stork does this without
any fatigue. This bird, like others, has a provision, by which the legs are kept extended without any
exertion of the muscles, in the manner of curtain strings—a structure which enables it to pass whole
days and nights on one foot, without the slightest weariness. If the cook be visited the next time she
trusses a fowl, the nature and utility of this structure will be seen at once. On bending the legs and
thighs up towards the body, it will be observed that the claws close of their own accord: now, this is
the position of the limbs in which the bird rests upon its perch, and in this position it sleeps in safety;
for the claws do their office in keeping hold of the support, not by any voluntary exertion, but by the
weight of the body drawing the strings tight,
In the structure of the body, also, we discover all that could contribute to give it lightness. The
general size of birds is considerably smaller than quadrupeds of corresponding habits. Pegasus, that
winged steed which sprang forth from the neck of Medusa, after her head had been severed by Perseus,
and, flying upwards, fixed his abode on Mount Helicon, is the offspring of imagination alone, and, for
anatomical reasons, never could have had a real existence. Great condensation has been given to the
osseous substance in birds; ossification, indeed, not only proceeds more rapidly, but is also carried
to a greater extent in birds than in any other animals; as a proof of which the tendons, especially
those of the muscles of the legs, are frequently ossified. Thus it is ordered that the greatest degree
of strength might be procured with the same weight of solid materials; and the mechanical advantage
derived from their being disposed in the circumference, rather than in central masses, might be
most fully obtained. -
In like manner, the horny material of which the feathers are composed are formed into hollow
cylinders, which, compared with their weight, are exceedingly strong. A similar shape has been given
to the cylindrical bones, which are fashioned into tubes with dense but thin sides. Most of the other
bones have likewise been made hollow, and they contain only air. No provision of this kind appears
in the bat, winged as it is, for lightening the bones; they, too, contain marrow, as in other mammalia,
and not air. Thus, in the case of birds, the whole skeleton is rendered remarkably light; that of
the white pelican,” for instance, which is five feet in length, was found by the Parisian Academicians
to weigh only twenty-three ounces, while the entire bird weighed nearly twenty-five pounds. The
cavities in the bones communicate with large air cells, which are distributed in various parts of the
body, and which contribute still further to diminish its specific gravity; and, by means of canals which
open into the air passages of the lungs, this air finds a ready outlet, when it becomes rarefied by the
aseent of the bird into the higher regions of the atmosphere.
In these creatures alone.we find a perfect adaptation of structure to the purposes of rapid and
extensive flight. The frame of the skeleton, the figure, position, and structure of the wings, the size of
the muscles, their peculiar irritability, and even the outward form of the feathered tribes, have a direct
and beautiful relation to the element in which they are designed by the Great Creator to move. Thus,
in their formation, a new, and, in so far as relates to the organs of progressive motion, a more developed
type is adopted, but still preserving a conformity with the general plan of the vertebral organisation,
and with the general laws of its development.
That the body may be exactly balanced while the bird is flying, its centre of gravity must be
brought precisely under the line connecting the articulations of the wings with the trunk; for it is at
these points that the resistance of the air causes it to be supported by the wings. When the bird is
resting on its legs, the centre of gravity must, in like manner, be brought immediately over the base of
support formed by the toes: it becomes necessary, therefore, to provide means for shifting the centre of
gravity from one place to another, according to circumstances, and for adjusting its position with consider-
able nicety; otherwise there would be danger of the equilibrium being destroyed, and the body upsetting.
The principal means of effecting these adjustments consist in the motions of the head and neck,
which last is, for that purpose, rendered exceedingly long and flexible. The cervical vertebrae à l'6
-
* Pelicanus onocrotalus.
**
+ r.
STRUCTURE OF BIRDS, - 7
joined together by articulations, generally allowing free motion in all directions; that is, laterally, as
well as forwards and backwards. This unusual degree of mobility is conferred by a peculiar mechanism.
which is not met with in the other classes of vertebrated animals. A cartilage is interposed between
each of the vertebrae, to the surfaces of which these cartilages are curiously adapted, being inclosed
between folds of the membrane lining the joint ; so that each joint is, in reality, double, consisting
of two cavities, with an intervening cartilage.
It should be observed, however, that, in consequence of the position of the oblique processes, the
upper vertebrae of the neck bend with more facility forwards than backwards, while those in the lower
half of the neck bend more readily backwards; hence, in a state of repose, the neck naturally assumes
a double curvature, like that of the letter S, as is well seen in the graceful form of the Swan's neck,
By extending the neck in a straight line, the bird can, while flying, carry forwards the centre of gravity,
so as to bring it under the wings; and when resting on its feet, or floating on the water, it can transfer
that centre backwards, so as to bring it towards the middle of the body, by merely bending back the
neck into the curved form which has just been described, and thus the equilibrium is, under all
circumstances, preserved by movements remarkable for their elegance and grace. The great mobility
of the neck, too, enables the bird to employ its beak as an organ of prehension for taking its food—an
object which was more necessary, in consequence of the conversion of the fore extremities into wings,
of which the structure is incompatible with any prehensile power, such as is often possessed by the
anterior extremity of a quadruped.
Another advantage arising from the length and mobility of the neck is, that it facilitates the appli-
cation of the head to every part of the surface of the body. Birds require this power, in order that
they may be able to adjust their plumage, whenever it has, by any acci-
dent, become ruffled. In aquatic birds, it is necessary that every feather
should be constantly anointed with an oily secretion, which preserves .
it from being wetted, and which is copiously provided for that purpose
by glands situated near the tail. The flexibility of the neck alone would
have been insufficient for enabling the bird to bring its bill in contact
with every feather, in order to distribute this fluid equally over them ;
and there is, accordingly, a further provision made for the accomplish-
ment of this object in the mode of articulation of the head with the neck.
In fishes and in most reptiles this articulation consists of a ball and
socket-joint, a rounded tubercle of the occipital bone being received
into a hemispherical depression in the first vertebra of the neck. In the
mammalia, the plan is changed, and there are two articular surfaces, one
on each side of the spinal canal, formed on processes corresponding to the
leaves of the first cranial vertebra, and assimilating it more to a hinge-
joint. In birds, however, where, as we have just seen, the most extensive
lateral motions are required, the plan of the ball and socket-joint is again
resorted to, and the occipital bone is made to turn upon the atlas by a
single pivot. So great is the freedom of motion in this joint, that the
bird can readily turn its head completely on its back, on either
side.
THE STERNUM, OR BREAST-BONE.
As spinous or transverse processes of any length would have interfered with the flexions of the
neck, we find scarcely a trace of them in the cervical vertebrae of birds. The spinal marrow passes
down along the canal formed by the arches of the vertebrae, and any pressure applied to its tender
substance would instantly paralyse the whole body, and speedily put an end to life. Some extra-
ordinary provision was therefore required, in order to guard against the possibility of this accident
occurring during the many violent contortions into which the body is liable to be thrown. This is
Accomplished, most simply and effectually, by enlarging the diameter of the canal at the upper and
lower part of each vertebra, while, at the middle, it remains of the usual size, so that the shape of the
cavity of one of the cervical vertebræ of the ostrich, for instance, resembles that of an hour-glass.
Thus, a wide space is left at the junction of each successive vertebra, allowing of very considerable
flexion, without reducing the diameter of the canal beyond that of the narrow portion, and therefore

8 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
without compressing the spinal marrow. It has been found that vertebrae united in this manner may
be bent backwards to a right angle, and laterally to half a right angle, without injury to the inclosed
nervous substance. The design of this structure is further evident from its not existing in the dorsal
and lumbar portions of the spine, which admit of no motion whatever, and where there is no variation
in the diameter of the spinal canal.
The sternum, or breast-bone, is of enormous size, extending over a considerable part of the
abdomen, and having a large perpendicular crest descending, like the keel of a ship, from its lower
surface. The object of this great development is to furnish extensive attachment to the large pectoral
muscles employed to move the wings, and which, taken together, are generally heavier than the rest of
the body. Considered with reference to all the other muscles, and to the weight of the body itself,
these pectoral muscles are of enormous strength. The flap of a swan's wing is capable of breaking
a man's leg, and a similar blow from an eagle has been known to be instantly fatal. -
The scapular is, generally, a small and slender bone. The corncoid bone is largely developed,
and assumes much of the appearance of a clavicle. Dut the real clavicles are united below, wilere they
join the fore part of the sternum, appearing as one bone, which, from its forked shape, has been called
the ſurcular bone. In the fowl, it is commonly known by the name of the merry-thought. This bone,
placed at the origin of the
wings, and stretching from one
to the other, is of great im-
portance, as constituting a firm
basis for their support, and for
scculing their steadiness of
action; and being, at the same
time, very elastic, it tends to
restore them to their proper
situations, after they have been
disturbed by any violent im-
pulse. - -
If a feather be carefully
examined, it will be found
composed of three primary
parts: the quill, the shaft, and
the vane. These, with the sub-
ordinate parts, are exhibited
) in the following figures:—In
# , (s) appears the posterior sur-
* , face of the solid stem, divided
...'..."...º.º. into two parts by alongitudinal
a piece of bone lying across. groove, and from either side
ORGANS OF RESPII:ATION AND VOICE, of which proceeds 8, series of
laminae, composing, with the fibrils, what is termed the valie
(v). The lines from which the laminae arise approach one
another at the lower part of the stem till they meet at a
point. Here the groove terminates, and there is a small
w “s orifice (o) leading to the interior of the quill. From this part
• The cror a the Gizard. the transparent, tubular portion of the quill (T) commences; and
IXIGFSTIVE APPARATUS OF A CHICKE.N. at its lower extremity (L) there exists a second, or lower orifice.
The growth of a feather is exceedingly curious. When a bird leaves the egg, it is covered, except
on the under side, with a downy kind of hair. On examining its little garment closely, several little
tufts, of ten or twelve hairs each, will be observed, resembling the fibres of a camel-hair pencil. Each
tuft grows from a bulbous root in the skin, just as the parts of the future flower arise from the round
root of the tulip or crocus. Commonly, the first robe of down soon falls off; but, in the eagle and
other rapacious birds, the tufts adhere for a considerable time to the feathers.

º - GROWTH OF A FEATHER. 9
While the down remains, a marvellous apparatus is being formed, which may be called a feather
manufactory, for a mould is made for every feather. When first visible, this organ has the form of a very
minute capsule (B), which rises above the cuticle, and is attached by a filament proceeding from its base
to one of the papillae of the skin, thus establishing its connection with the living
system. In a few days this cone has become a cylinder (Fig. 1) with a pointed ex-
tremity (A), while its base (B) is united to the true skin by a more distinct bond of
connection, formed by the enlarged vessels, which are supplying it with nourishment.
*:::
THE FEATHER. FIBRILS OF A FEATHER. MAMINAE INTERLACED.
At the time, too, in which the outer covering of the shaft is growing in one place, the spongy sub-
stance is deposited in others. The parts which form the vame of the feather are, however, produced
first. They do not grow from the base, like hairs from the head, for all the materials composing the
fibres are cast into moulds, where they harden, and acquire their exact shape. The smaller parts, called
fibrils, are probably formed in moulds still more minute.
As the parts of a feather thus advance below, those which are
completely formed rise above the skin, carefully covered, however, for
a short time; after this they unfold, and assume their proper shape.
On the feather being perfected, the substance which forms it dries up,
the blood-vessels which nourish it disappear, and thus we have the
pith, which is removed before making a pen. Geese are sometimes
plucked too soon, the feathers being still young; hence the soft barrel
is gorged with blood. -
Marvellous as all this is, it should be observed that this feather
manufactory is not merely in action once during the life of a bird ;
for all its feathers are generally moulted annually, and even at shorter
periods. A new mould must, therefore, be produced every time a new
feather is formed. -
“Light as a feather,” has long been a proverb; but a feather is
also remarkable for its strength. In the upper part of the shaft is a
material, used in no other class of animals, and, indeed, in no other lºroductive capsule, A, n. 2 capsule
part of birds. As the pith is neither bone nor flesh, membrane nor gº.º.º.º.º.º.º.
tendon, it is a very peculiar substance, and, like the former, it is made is filled up.
and used for one special purpose. The quill is partly composed of THE GROWTH OF A FEATHER.
circular fibres, which must be scraped off in making a pen, or else it will split roughly, and make
what boys call “cat's teeth.” This part serves as a sheath while the feather issues from the skin, and
during its future growth. -
The shaft will be found divided into two portions by a long groove, and from each side proceed
the parts which form the vane (v). One of these is usually stripped off in making a pen. The vane is
formed to oppose proper resistance to the air. Rub the feather up and down in the line of the stem,
and no difficulty will arise; but press it in the direction of its greatest width, and it will resist the
effort. Now, the impulse of the air occurs just where the feather does not yield ; here, therefore, it
wants strength, and here it has it. -
WOL. III, •=
2.
98



1.É) CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The resistance thus presented arises from a number of fibres, on the margins of which, as the
microscope shows, there are fibrils, fitted to unite together, a thousand of which have been counted in
the space of an inch. (See cut, page 9.) They are of two kinds : one branched, or tufted, and bending
downwards; the others, not divided into branches, but directed upwards. They act like the fingers when
the hands are clasped together. The interlacing of these fibrils causes the close texture of the vane.
When they are separated by accident or force, and are brought together again, they reunite at once,
and the vane is as firm and smooth as it was before. If the finger be drawn down the feather, against
the grain, perhaps some of the fibrils will be broken off; but, if it be drawn the other way, all of them
will appear in order. -
The part of the plumage first wanted is always the earliest produced. Thus, when wings are not
needed so soon as clothing, the coat of down precedes the pinions. A young partridge, for instance, is
no sooner hatched than it runs off to pick up the chrysalis of the ant, which the parent scratches up
for her brood; hence, from the first, the body is defended by a close-set downy covering, while all the
strength of the bird is given to the thighs, legs, neck, and bill—the parts actually in use. It is not
necessary that the partridge should fly for some time, and therefore the wings are afterwards gradually
formed. Not so is it with the young blackbird or thrush : this bird must fly as soon as it leaves the
º:
Ş
sº º
9 &
wº
*3
º
º
BONES OF THE WINGs FEATHERS QF A BIRL).
nest; and hence, while its body shows only a few scattered bunches of weak, downy, hair-like feathers,
the quills and other wing-feathers are very rapidly formed. *
The plumage of the male bird is generally far more brilliant than that of the hen; and, when it
is so, the young always put on first the plainer dress of the mother. When there is little difference
between the two, the young have a particular and distinguishing attire of their own.
Colour is intended not merely for beauty; it is, in fact, a mode of concealment, the most universal
of all means of defence, and one that appears in every race of animals. As the strength, the weapons,
and the velocity are all on the side of the pursuer, colour is much more resorted to for the defence of
birds than of any other creatures. In the partridge, the quail, the woodcock, and the snipe, the like-
ness of their colours to the brown earth on which they move is such as often to conceal them from every
eye, not excepting the piercing sight of the hawk or the kite. The hovering foe may be observed
above during the chase, though the victim has not escaped, deceived also by smaller birds, even when the
accordance in colour is not great. Often do they shift their position under the eye of a hawk eager to
pounce upon them, and then stop, as if, as White says, “they knew the colour of the spot on which
they are cowering and squatting was a sure defence.” f
Of this there is a special instance when the males are provided with the most beautiful plumage,
while the females are attired in a dull, earthy colour, so that they can scarcely be distinguished from
the ground on which they sit. This difference particularly appears in the pheasant, peacocks and
duck tribes. ~. - -


…”
STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. II
In the wings there is an osseous framework, acted upon by muscles, the tendous of which are
respectively inserted into the several bones composing it, the whole being covered with skin, and
affording a solid basis, on which the feathers rest. The wing, which is, in fact, the arm of the bird,
consists, as in man, of the true arm, the fore arm, and the hand. -
The true arm is formed of the humerus (h), a cylindrical and hollow bone, the head of which is
received into a shallow cavity of the seapula, or shoulder-blade (a), at the angle made by the sudden
turn and descent of the large coracoid process, which is attached at its posterior extremity to the
anterior margin of the breast-bone. The fore arm consists of an ulna (b), and a radius (c), which is
very slender. The ulna has often a row of tubercles on the upper surface, denoting the situ-
ation of the barrels of the secondary
quill feathers, to which it yields sup-
port. The hand is divided, as usual,
into carpus (d), metacarpus (e), and
phalanges ; but, so far from being flex-
ible, as the name hand suggests, it is an
inflexible basis for a series of stiff, elas-
tic feathers, continuous with those pro-
ceeding from the ulna. On the anterior
edge, and at the base of the metacarpus,
is seated the thumb bone, a single-
jointed piece (f). The fingers (g) are
two : the first consists of two phalanges,
a broad basal bone, as if several were
compacted into one, and a small pointed
bone. The second finger consists merely
of a small portion in close contact with WING OF A BIRD.
the first phalanx of the first finger. The hand, thus formed, is as perfectly adapted to its circumstances
as the hand in man, to which it bears, however, only a slight resemblance.
The feathers arising from the hand and ulna are termed quill feathers, and are divided into two
sets. One arises from the hand, consisting of the most important of the series, and chiefly instru-
- F A BUZZARD,
ACUTE WING OF A FAICON, OBTUSE WING O
mental, by their length and shape, their stiffness or flexibility, in determining the character or power
of flight. These are the primary quill-feathers (No. 1); they are ten in number, but differ in form as
well as relative length. The other set arise exclusively from the ulna, and are the secondary quill-
feathers (No. 2); they are usually shorter, broader, and less rigid than the former, and the number varies.
From the small bone which represents the thumb arise certain short, stiff feathers, lying close on the
quills of the primaries, and constituting the winglet, or spurious wing (No. 3). There ls also a group
of feathers termed tertiaries, arising from the humeral joint of the fore arm, and which, in many birds,


12 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
as the curlew, plover, lapwing, &c., are very long, and form a pointed appendage very apparent
during flight. In most birds, however, they are not to be distinguished from the rest of the greater
coverts (No. 4), of which they are, in fact, a continuation. Other feathers, attached to the upper part
of the humerus, lie along the sides of the back, and in many birds they are of great length; they are
called scapularies (No. 5.) - -
A series of feathers, termed the lesser coverts (No. 6), are disposed in scale-like order, row after
row, on the fore arm and carpal joint. The quills of the tail-feathers are hidden beneath the upper
tail coverts (No. 7). Beneath are the under tail coverts (No. 8). A tuft of feathers form the ear
coverts (No. 16), and the tail (No. 9), has only to be mentioned to complete a general view of the
plumage of birds. -
When the longest feathers occupy the edge side of the wing, and then go on decreasing, the wing
- s is acute; when the longest feathers correspond with the
middle of the hand, the wing is obtuse. Each of these
types may offer three cases: when the second feather of
the wing, beginning from the edge, is the longest, the
wing is simply acute; when the first feather is as long, or
longer, than the others, the wing is swr-acute; when the
third feather is equal to the second, the wing is sub-acute.
In like manner, three degrees have been established in
the obtuse wing: if it is on the fourth feather, which
is the longest, it is simply obtuse ; if it is the third, it is
sub-obtuse; if it is the fifth, or following, it is sur-obtuse.
The bird with acute wings moves with greater agility than the one whose wings are obtuse ; hence,
the one has been called a sailing bird, and the other a rowing bird.
One of the laws of motion is, that action and reaction are equal—that is to say, that whenever
one body exerts a force on another, the second body opposes the first, with equal force, in an opposite
direction. When, for instance, a boy runs with his kite against the wind, he strikes the air, and thus
produces a reaction, which is equal to the force given to it. When the wind is high, and its action is
not intercepted by surrounding objects, there cannot exist any necessity for such an expedient.
In like manner, if a bird strikes the air below it with a force which is equal to its weight, then
sub-AcuTÉ wing of THE GOAT-SUCKER.
SUB-OBTUSE WING OF THE CUCKoo. SUR-OBTUSE WING OF THE JAY.
must there be a reaction of the air, upwards, exactly equal to it; and the bird, being acted on by two
equal forces, in opposite directions, will, necessarily, rest between them. But as the force of the stroke
is greater than the weight of the bird, it therefore rises with the difference of these forces; were
the stroke less than its weight, then would it sink with the difference. If, for example, a bird weighs
twelve ounces, and it strikes the air with a force equal to sixteen, it must rise with a force equal to four;
and if it strikes the air with a force equal only to eight, it is equally clear that it must sink with a force
equal to four. -
The flight of birds is, sometimes, very extraordinary. M. Adanson caught swallows on the coast
of Senegal, which arrived there eight or nine days after their departure from Europe. A falcon,
eagerly pursuing a smaller bustard at Fontainebleau, was taken the following day at Malta, being
recognised by the ring she bore. And to mention only one more instance: at Barbadoes, the sea-gulls
proceed in flocks to a distance of more than two hundred miles, and return again the same day.


VARIOUS WINGS OF BIRDS. 13
The tail of a bird differs, in its action and uses, from the rudder of a ship. The rudder, for
example, is so fixed that it can only move in one horizontal plane, and can therefore only turn the
vessel to the right or left, which, indeed, is all that is required; but the tail of a bird, in addition
to this motion, can be placed in a diagonal direction, and, when expanded, will offer a considerable
SUB-ACUTE WING OF THE SEA SWALLOW. - FEAT IIIERS OF TIII. T.A. L.
surface to the air, so as to fulfil some of the offices of a third wing. If, for instance, a rook be watched
as he gambols through the air, it will be seen that, after flying in the ordinary way, his wings are at
rest, and that he glides along without the least exertion in his descent. In this case his expanded
wings act as a parachute; then, again, he will be observed wheeling round—a manoeuvre which is
partly produced by the oblique position of his tail. The tail, too, serves to poise the body of the bird.
The wings are used to direct the bird in its course, and the tail acts as a supplementary organ.
Thus, it is evident that it can easily turn, either to the right or left, by flapping the opposite wing with
increased force, just as a boat is turned about to the right, by a brisk application of the left oar. And
hence, the more rapid the flight is forward, the greater is the difficulty of one wing surpassing the other
in velocity; and less sudden are the deviations. This is the reason why the birds which fly with the
greatest velocity make large circuits in turning. In like manner, the irregular flight of the butterfly,
now up and now down, now to the right and now to the left, is, probably, effected by the wings striking
the air one after the other, or, perhaps, with an alternate and unequal force.
The object of such an action is to baffle the pursuit of birds which fly in a
right line, whereas the butterfly does just the contrary.
Of the five senses, sight, smell, and hearing are the most acute in birds.
To begin with the first : the bony orbits are of great magnitude, and the
organs of vision contained in them are proportionably large. In the birds of
prey, “the orbits have the shape of a chalice,” says Blumenbach, “or cup used
in the communion service. The cornea, which is very convex, forms the
bottom of the cup, and the posterior segment of the sclerotica resembles its
cover. This peculiar form arises from the curvature and length of the bony
plates, which, as in all other birds, occupy the front of the sclerotica, lying close together, and over-
lapping each other. These bony plates form, in general, a flat or slightly convex ring; being long and
curved, as in the hawk, they form a concave ring, which gives the whole eyeball the above-mentioned
form.” By means of this ring, the eye becomes a kind of self-adjusting telescope, so as to take in both
near and very distant objects.
The crystalline humour is flat in birds, and the vitreous humour is very small. The colour of the
iris varies in different species, and in many cases is very brilliant. They have three eyelids, two of
NICTITATING MEMBRANE,


14 CASSELL’S POPULAR, NATURAL HISTORY.
which, the upper and the lower, are closed, in most of the race—as may be seen in our domestic
poultry—by the elevation of the lower one. The owl, the goat-sucker, and a few others, have the
power of depressing the upper eyelid. Of these birds, the upper only is furnished with eyelashes
generally. The ostrich, secretary vulture, some parrots, and a few other birds, have them on both
lids. But the third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, forms the most curious apparatus. When at
rest, this, which is a thin, semi-transparent fold of the tunica conjunctiva, lies in the inner corner of
the eye, with its lower edge nearly vertical. By the combined action of two muscles which are
attached towards the back of the sclerotica, it is capable of being drawn out so as to cover the whole
front of the eyeball like a curtain, while its own elasticity restores it to the corner in which it rested.
This, it is said, enables the eagle to look at the sun.
The sense of hearing appears to..be sufficiently acute in birds, though, with the exception of the
night-birds, the owl in particular, they have no external cartilaginous ear; and the peculiar valve,
partly muscular and partly membranous, placed at the ordinary opening, even in those birds, has none
of the development which generally marks the concha of mammals. The peculiar arrangement of the
comparatively loosely-barbed feathers, however, round the aperture” compensates for it; and this
arrangement may be well seen in the rapacious birds. *
The sense of smelling, highly developed in the majority of birds, was supposed to have reached its
highest power in the vultures. But some doubt, as we shall see hereafter, has been cast on this
supposition.
Though all birds possess a tongue, it is probable that but few find enjoyment in it as ministering
to their taste, and in those few it is thick, soft, and covered with papillae. In general, the tongue is horny
and stiff; but, as an organ for taking food, it becomes of the highest importance. The sense of touch,
as applied to external objects, must, generally speaking, be very obtuse.
Perhaps the most interesting display of the instinctive affections of birds appears in the education
of their offspring. The transition between the repose of the nest and flying is very great ; and, even
after their escape, the young, yet feeble, are not capable of finding sufficient food. Thus the parental
cares are still exerted in teaching their young how to fly; and it is pleasant to watch this course of instruc-
tion in the swallow, and others which build high above the ground. He who has the opportunity must
be a careless observer of nature who has not witnessed the gradually diminishing dependence of the
offspring, after this great change, in the beseechings and the caresses which solicit food, sometimes
granted and at others refused, till the link is broken, and the passion implanted for this great purpose
ceases to act; when the new animal at length takes its independent place in the great Society, to
labour, in no long time, and in like manner, for a posterity, as it has been a cause of care and labour
to its parents.
Cuvier has placed the Birds of all known regions in Six Orders; and hence, slightly departing
from the details of his arrangement, we shall now proceed to consider them as follows:–
ORDER I. THE RAPACIOUs BIRDs. ORDER IV. THE GALLINACEOUs BIRDs.
, II. THE PERCHING BIRDs. , W. THE WADING BIRDs.
, III, THE CLIMBING BIRDS, , - VI. THE SwiMMING BIRDS,
* Meatus auditorius,
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R A. P.A.C I O U S E I R D S.*
No portion of the world is without raptorial animals, and, according to the all-wise constitution
established by the Creator, no other system could long exist, except that which operated as a salutary
check on the production of, and as balance of power between, all creatures.
The first Family of raptorial birds that demands our consideration is one t whose geographical
distribution is confined to warm climates. The genus Vultur, of Linnaeus, stands first in his first
order Accipitres, and consists of the following species: — W. gryphus; W. harpyja : V. papa;
V. monachus; W. aura ; V. barbatus; W. percnopterus, and W. albicilla. Cuvier divides the genus
Vultur into the following sub-genera : —Sarcoramphus ; Cathartes; Percnopterus; including the
Urubu, Vultur Jota of C. Bonaparte, and the Griffons. Other arrangements have also been pro-
posed, into which it is needless to enter.; attaching, as we shall do, the assigned technicality to
each one of the more remarkable birds of the family, which will be described as popularly as possible.
It has often been remarked that the carnivorous animals and rapacious birds are strikingly
typified by each other. In the principal forms of each order there are the strongest creatures in
existence, and both are generally of a large size. Their dispositions are fierce and daring, and the
whole frame is specially adapted to powerful action and swift pursuit. The sight is remarkably
acute; and, as we draw out or push in the tube of a telescope, as the distance of the object is greater
or smaller, so there is a similar power over the lenses of the eye, that the rapacious bird may discern
from its towering height the prey far beneath, and see it with no less distinctness as it descends
to the spoil. In some groups, vision is particularly acute by night, and in these the hearing is
also delicate. The organs of mastication are fitted for tearing, as may be seen in the powerful
canines of some, and the strong and toothed bills of others. The claws are large, curved, sharp, and
retractile.
If it be affirmed that the parallels drawn by some naturalists between mammalia and birds are
overstrained and visionary, it may be asserted that there are some instances in which they are truly
indicated by nature. This analogy is, perhaps, in no instance better established than between the
vultures and the hyaena, jackal, or wolf. Alike scavengers of the earth, they remove its offal, and
they clear away its dead, which would otherwise corrupt the air with pestilential exhalations.
* Raptores. + Vulturidae.
a's

16 CASSE1,IPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
.*
Far less ferocious, however, are the vultures than the analogous quadrupeds. The latter attack
living prey, thirsting for blood, while the former batten on the carcases of the dead, and rarely make
the living their victims. Happily for them, they are seldom at a loss for a meal in the countries
where they abound. If the unburied slain on the battle-field will attract them in flocks from a great
distance, the death of any beast of the field summons an assembly to the banquet. Sailing on wide
and ample wings, they sweep from the higher regions of the air to their repast, on which they often
gorge themselves until they are unable to rise from the spot. At the impulse of hunger alone the
vulture is thus roused from his apathy, to go in quest of his carrion meal. Then, mounting aloft till
almost out of sight, he skims in large circles, sustained on outspread but motionless pinions, scanning
the surface of the earth.
The vultures are distinguished from other birds of prey by the entire or partial denudation of the
head and neck, the latter of which is much elongated. This peculiarity of structure enables them to
burrow in the putrid carcases on which they prey, without risk of spoiling their plumage. Other
differences are observable, as the lateral position of the nostrils in a generally broad and powerful bill,
curved only at its point, and clothed at its base by an extended naked skin, or cere; the nakedness
of the tarsi, which are covered only with small, reticulated scales; and the strong, thick talons, some-
what blunted at the points, but little curved, and scarcely, if at all, retractile.
THE CONDOR.*
THE Condor is peculiar to the New World, but it approaches very closely, in its most essential
characters, to the vultures of the Old Continent. Like the king vulture, which will next be
described, it differs from the latter principally in the large, fleshy, or rather cartilaginous caruncle,
which surmounts its beak; in the large size of its oval and longitudinal nostrils, placed almost at
the very extremity of the cere, and in the comparative length of its quill feathers, the third being
the longest of the series.
Forty years ago, one or two mutilated specimens of this bird formed the only memorials of its
existence in the cabinets of Europe, and all the knowledge possessed of it was derived from some
settlers but little acquainted with natural history. Errors were multiplied, when some repeated
without examination whatever stories happened to be current ; and others, less scrupulous, or more
fanciful, allowed imagination unrestricted to describe the condor. The roc of eastern mythology—
the wondrous guardian of immense mountain treasures—was, however, sufficient for their purpose,
and so the fabulous bird was said to be equalled, if not surpassed, by this native of the Andes.
Garcilasso expressly says, there are some condors in Peru sixteen feet from the point of one wing
to that of the other, and that a certain nation of Indians adore them.
Even Buffon exaggerated its size; and Vieillot truly remarks: “It was with the condor as it was
with the Patagonians—both shrank before examination.” Often nestling on the ridges of rocks
which border the lower limit of perpetual snow, and standing forth in solitary majesty, crowned with
its extraordinary comb, it appeared to the eyes of Humboldt himself as a winged giant. Precisely
contrary, however, was the effect of the grand scenery around on Lieutenant Mann, as he descended
into the deep and narrow valley of Magdalena. Several of these birds, he says, hovered around and
about the rocks on which they build their nests, but so vast was the scale of these rocks and moun-
tains, that even these immense birds appeared quite insignificant, and he doubted, for a time, that they
were condors. *
All optical illusions ceased on the actual measurement of this bird. The extent of its wings
scarcely exceeds fourteen feet, and even this it appears but rarely to attain. Humboldt in his travels
met with no one that went beyond nine feet. and was assured by many credible inhabitants of
Quito that they had never shot any that measured more than eleven. The length of one male
specimen, somewhat less than nine feet in expanse, was three feet three inches from the tip of the
beak to the extremity of the tail; and its height, when perching, with the neck partly withdrawn,
two feet eight inches. Its beak was two inches and three quarters in length, and an inch and a
quarter in depth, when closed,
* Sarcoramphus gryphus: Duméril.
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CONDORS.

THE CONDOR. 17
The beak of the condor is straight at the base, but the upper mandible becomes arehed towards
the point, and terminates in a strong and well-curved hook. The basal half is of an ash-brown, and
the remaining portion towards the point is nearly white. The head and neck are bare of feathers, and
covered with a hard, wrinkled, dusky-reddish skin, on which are scattered some short brown or
blackish hairs. On the top of the head, which is much flattened above, extending some distance
along the beak, is attached an oblong, firm caruncle, or comb, covered by a continuation of the skin
which invests the head. This organ is peculiar to the male. It is connected with the beak only
in its anterior parts, and is separated from it at the base in such a manner as to allow of a free
†
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CATTLE ATTACKED BY CONDORS.
passage of the air to the large, oval nostrils, which are situated beneath it at that part. Behind the
eyes, which are somewhat elongated, and not sunk beneath the general surface of the head, the skin of
the neck is, as it were, gathered into a series of descending folds, extending obliquely from the back of
the head, over the temples, to the under side of the neck, and there connected entirely with a lax
membrane, or wattle, capable of being dilated at pleasure, like that of the common turkey. The neck
is marked by numerous deep parallel folds, produced by the habit of retracting the head, in which the
bird indulges when at rest. In this position scarcely any part of the neck is visible.
On the lower part of the neck, the female, as well as the male, is provided with a broad white ruff
of downy feathers, which forms the line of separation between the naked skin aboye and the true
WOL. III. 99





18 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY, .
feathers covering the body below it. All the other feathers, with the exception of the wing Goverts,
and the secondary quill-feathers, are of a bright black, generally mingled with a grayish tinge, of
greater or less intensity. In the female, the wing coverts are blackish-gray; but the male has their
points, and, frequently, as much as half their length, white. The wings of the latter are consequently
distinguished from those of the female by their large white patches. The secondary quill-feathers of
both sexes are white on the outer side. Ulloa asserted that, in the colder parts of Peru, the skin is
to closely covered with feathers, that eight or ten balls may be heard to strike it without penetrating
its body. The tail is short and wedge-shaped. The legs are
excessively thick and powerful, and are coloured of a blueish-
gray, intermingled with whitish streaks. Their elongated toes
are united at the base by a loose but very apparent membrane,
and are terminated by long black talons of considerable thick-
ness, but very little curved. The hinder toe is much shorter
than the rest, and its talon, although more distinctly curved, is
equally wanting in strength—a deficiency which renders the foot
much less powerful, as an organ of prehension, than that of any
other of the large birds of the raptorial order.
The immense mountain chain of the Andes, which runs
down the continent of South America, is the native stronghold,
where these birds dwell securely; in Peru and Chili they are
even abundant, but more than three or four are seldom seen
together. There, in the regions of perpetual snow, and of
terrific storms, 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, on some
isolated pinnacle or crag, the condor rears its brood, and looks
down on the plains beneath, yet far away, for food, from the
pººr - towering elevations, which, with their declivities and valleys,
HEAD OF THE conDoR. cover about a sixth part of that continent. We have learned
much respecting it from Humboldt, and his fellow-traveller, Bonpland; for whenever they
reached, in their botanical excursions, the limits of perpetual snow, three or four condors always
appeared on the points of the rocks, showing no distrust, suffering themselves to be approached to
within a short distance, and seeming indisposed to make an attack. Though here these birds find
their home, they build no nest, but deposit their eggs on the naked rocks, without surrounding them
even with straw or leaves. The eggs are white, and from three to four inches in length. The female
remains with her effspring for the space of an entire year. <-- - = 3 & 7 - • *
Of all birds, ºi. º into the atmosphere. Hüäbäldt describes the flight of it
in the Andes to be at least 30,000 feet above the level of the sea, , Frölä the éâve of Antisana,
elevated iz,958 feet above the isvål Bf the Pacifle Ocean, he saw this bird º: a perpendicular
height of 6,875 feet. He says it is a temāikāble circumstance, that this bird, which coiltinues to fly
about in regions where the air is sº takefied, descends all at once to the edge ºf the sea, and thus, in a
few minutes, passes through all the variations of climate. At a height of 20,000 feet, the air-cells of
the condor, which are filled iñ the lowest regions, must be inflated in an extraordinary manner.
Many years ago, Uliba expressed his astonishment that this bird ebuld fly at a height where the
mean pressure of the air is only fourteen inches. It was then imagined, from experiments made with
the air-pump, that no animal could live in so rare a medium ; but Humboldt has seen the barometer
on Chimborazo fall to thirteen inches eleven lines; and Gay Lussac respired for a quarter of an hour
in an atmosphere whose pressure was even less than this. At these heights, man generally finds himself
reduced to a painful state of debility, while the condor, on the contrary, appears to breathe freely. Of
all living beings, it appears to be the one that can rise, at will, to the greatest distance from the earth's
surface. -
When driven by hunger, the condor descends into the plains, but leaves them as soon as its appe-
tite is satiated, as if the increased weight of the atmosphere, and the warmer temperature there, soon
became oppressive. It prefers resting on the ground, for which its comparatively straight talons are
peculiarly fitted, to perching on trees. Like the rest of its family, it subsists on carrion, and so gorges


THE CONDOR. 19
itself as to become incapable of flight. The Indians, who are well acquainted with this effect of voracity
turn it to account for their amusement in the chase. For this purpose, they expose the dead body of a
horse or a cow, by which some of the condors, which are generally hovering in the air in search of food
are speedily attracted. As soon as the birds have glutted themselves on the carcase, the Indians make
their appearance, armed with the lasso, and the condors, being unable to escape by flight, are pursued
and caught by this singular weapon. This sport is regarded in South America as second to
that of the bull-fight alone—the Indians galloping away, and dragging after them the ensnared
victims.
t Sir Francis Head says:–“In riding along the plain, I passed a dead horse, about which were
forty or fifty condors, many of which were gorged and unable to fly; several were standing on the
ground devouring the carcase, the rest hovering above it. I rode within twenty yards of them; one
of the largest of the bifºls was standing with one foot on the ground, and the other on the horse's body,
with a display of muscular strength as he lifted the flesh, and tore off great pieces, sometimes shaking
his head, and pulling with his beak, and sometimes pushing with his leg.
“Got to Mendoza, and went to bed. Wakened by one of my party who arrived; he told me that,
seeing the condors hovering in the air, and knowing that several of them would be gorged, he had also
ridden up to the dead horse, and that, as one of these enormous birds flew about fifty yards off, and was
unable to go any farther, he rode up to him; and then, jumping off his horse, seized him by the neck.
The contest was extraordinary, and the rencontre unexpected. No two animals can well be imagined
less likely to meet than a Cornish miner and a condor, and few could have calculated a year ago, when
the one was hovering high above the snowy pinnacles of the Cordillera, and the other many fathoms
beneath the surface of the ground in Cornwall, that they would ever meet to wrestle and ‘hug' upon
the wide desert plain of Villa Vicencia. My companion said, he had never had such a battle in his
life; that he put his knee upon the bird's breast, and tried with all his strength to twist his neck; but
that the condor, objecting to this, struggled violently, and that, also, as several others were flying over
his head, he expected they would attack him. He said that, at last, he succeeded in killing his anta-
gonist, and, with great pride, he showed me the large feathers from his wings; but, when the third
horseman came in, he told us he had found the condor in the path, but not quite dead.”
Sir Francis also says:–“When I was at one of the mines in Chili, I idly mentioned to a person
that I should like to have a condor. Some days afterwards, a gwacho arrived at Santiago with three
large ones. They had all been caught with a noose, and had been hung over a horse; two had died of
galloping, but the other was alive. I gave the guacho a dellar, who immediately left me to wonder
what I could do with three such enormous birds.”
The condor does not confine itself to carrion, but sometimes pounces on living animals. Ulloa
states that, observing on a hill, adjoining to that where he stood, a flock of sheep in great confusion,
he saw one of these birds flying upwards from among them, with a lamb betwixt its claws; and when
at some height, the condor dropped it. The bird immediately followed, took it up, and let it fall a
second time, when it flew out of sight, on account of the Indians, who, at the cries of the boys and the
barking of the dogs, were running towards the place.
These gigantic birds, however, contrary to what has been asserted, are far from being formidable.
They are not ferocious, and their talons are too feeble to lacerate, nor, from this cause, can they carry
away weights which prove no obstacle to an eagle. The natives do not fear them ; they are accus-
tomed, with their children, to sleep near their place of resort, and the little ones are about their
fathers while engaged in collecting the snow to sell it in the neighbouring towns; yet no danger is
apprehended, nor has it, according to Humboldt, ever been heard that one of them has been attacked
or killed. So much, then, for such tales as that of Garcilasso :—“Two of them will dare to attack a
cow or a bull, and will devour it ; neither do they abstain from the human race, but will set upon and
slay, single-handed, boys of ten or twelve years; and it is by a providence of Nature, for the protection
of the flocks and the natives, that many are not hatched; for, if they were numerous, they would cause
great slaughter among the herds, and the greatest damage to the inhabitants.”
When these birds are first taken, they are sulky and timid; but the latter feeling soon wears off,
and they become savage and dangerous. After a time, however, they seem to become reconciled to
captivity, and to bear it tolerably well. A fine condor, purchased for the Zoological Society in Holland,
20 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
many years ago, was as quiet and resigned as any one of the birds of prey living in the Gardens, where
these, as well as others, may be studied with the greatest advantage.
Of the strength of the condor, the following is an instance;—Feuillée was in the valley of Ylo, in
Peru, when he discovered one perched upon a great rock; he approached it within musket-shot and
fired; but, as the gun was only loaded with swan-shot, the lead could do little more than pierce its
feathers. He perceived, however, from its motions, that it was wounded; for it rose heavily, and could
with difficulty reach another great rock, five hundred pages distant on the sea-shore. He therefore
charged his piece with a bullet, and hit the condor under the throat. He then saw that he had
succeeded, and ran to secure the victim; but it struggled obstimately with death, and, resting on its
back, repelled his attempts with its extended talons. He was at a loss on which side to lay hold of it,
and he believed, if it had not been mortally wounded, he should have found great difficulty in securing
it. At last, he dragged it down from the top of the rock, and, with the aid of a sailor, carried it away
to his tent.
The condor exceeds almost every other oird in its tenacity of life. During Humboldt's stay at
Riobamba, he witnessed some experiments which were made on one by the Indians, who had taken it
alive. They first strangled it with a lasso, and hung it on a tree, pulling it forcibly by the feet for
several minutes; but scarcely was the lasso removed, when the bird arose and walked about as though
nothing had happened. A pistol, loaded with three balls, was then discharged at less than four paces,
all of which entered its body, and wounded it in the nock, chest, and abdomen, but it still kept its legs.
Another ball struck its thigh, and it fell to the ground: this was preserved by M. Bonpland for a con-
siderable time, as a memorial of the circumstance. The bird did not die of its wounds until half an
hour had elapsed. -
THE KING WULTURE.3%
THE royal name which this bird bears is not derived from its majestic appearance—for it is one of the
smallest species of the family—but from its being often surrounded by troops of common vultures,
who seem, even under the pressure of hunger, to acknowledge its precedence: hence its usual name
in Mexico seems to be Tzopilotl, literally, King of the Vultures. Sonnini states that, in Guiana, it
bears a title exactly synonymous; and in Paraguay, according to D'Azara, that of Iriburubicha, which
signifies the same thing.
At its maturity, this bird measures about two feet and a half in total length, and more than twice
as much in the extent of its wings. It is, unquestionably, the most elegant of its tribe. The naked
skin of the head and neck is deeply tinged with mingled orange and violet; over its beak there hangs
a loose comb of bright orange; the general plumage is of a delicate fawn colour; the quill and tail
feathers are black; the iris is pearly white, a scarlet circle surrounds the eye, and the remainder of the
side of the head is purplish-black. The back of the head is covered by a patch of short, blackish down;
and behind the eye, on either side, are several broad and deep wrinkles of the skin, giving rise to a thick
and prominent fold, which extends obliquely downwards along the whole of the neck. This fold is of
a reddish brown, mingled with blue, and is traversed by numerous lines of minute black hairs. From
the upper part of the neck, which is of a bright red, the colour gradually becomes less intense, and fades
into orange and yellow as it descends towards the lower part. The legs and claws are generally of a
dusky black; but sometimes the former are reddish, and, at others, of a dirty-yellowish white.
The King Vulture, like the condor, is a native of South America, but is not a mountain bird.
On the contrary, it delights itself in the intertropical regions of America and the adjacent islands,
among the most luxuriant scenery of Nature, forests and low savannahs, where animal life abounds,
and putrefaction speedily follows death. Bonaparte mentions it among the birds of the United
States, and it is said to have been occasionally met with in Florida, which is probably its northern
limit. Towards the south, D'Azara describes it as common in Paraguay, but states that it does not
pass the thirty-second degree of latitude. In the intermediate countries it appears to be extremely
abundant, and many travellers mention it as congregating in large flocks in various parts of Mexico.
Contrary to the habits of their family in general, these birds perch on the tallest trees, living solitary,
* Sarcoramphus papa.
***
THE KING WULTURE. 21
or in pairs, building their nests in the hollows of the trunks, and laying only two eggs. In walking,
their gait is slow and heavy, and their body is maintained in a horizontal position. They endure the
S
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THE KING WULTURE AND ITS PREY,
Lº pangs of hunger with extraordinary patience. When about to mount into the air, they are compelled
to take several leaps before they can do so, and have some little difficulty in quitting the ground.
The odour of their flesh is precisely that of the carrion on which they feed, and even their skins

22 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
retain it for many years. When carrion is deficient, they feed on Snakes and lizards, and, during the
summer, chiefly subsist on the putrid fish of the lakes, that are dried up by the parching heat of
the sun.
Waterton mentions that, while sailing up the Essequibo, he observed a pair of these birds sitting
on the naked branch of a tree, with about a dozen of the common species, waiting to begin the feast
on a goat which a jaguar had killed the day before, and been obliged to abandon; and still, though
tolerating the company of its inferiors, it appeared to guard its royal privileges with jealous care.
On another occasion, this naturalist directed the body of a large serpent he had killed to be
carried into the forest, in order to tempt this kingly bird; and he thus describes the result:—“The
feliage of the trees where we laid it was impervious to the sun's rays, and, had any vultures passed
Ży *Tº & º
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THE RINC, WULTURE.
over that part of the forest, I think I may say with safety, that they could not have seen the remains of
the serpent through the shade. For the first two days not a vulture made its appearance at the spot,
though I could see, here and there, as usual, a vultur aura gliding on apparently immovable pinions,
at a moderate height, over the tops of the forest trees; but during the afternoon of the third day,
when the carcase of the serpent had got into a state of putrefaction, more than twenty of the common
vultures came and perched upon the neighbouring trees, and the next morning, a little after six
o'clock, I saw a magnificent king of the vultures. There was a stupendous mora-tree close by, whose
topmost branch had either been dried by time, or blasted by the thunder-storm. Upon this branch 1
killed the king of the vultures, before it had descended to partake of the savoury food which had
attracted it to the place. Soon after this, another king of the vultures came, and, after he had stuffed
himself almost to suffocation, the rest pounced down upon the remains of the serpent, and stayed there
till they had devoured the last morsel.”





THE EGYPTIAN WULTURE. 23
It is worthy of remark that, as Hernandez states, this bird, so commonly called the king vulture,
or the king of the vultures, is the Cozcaquauhtli, or queen of the vultures, of the Mexicans.
The question still remains to be settled, Is it by the power of sight or smell that these birds
afar off in the air above, or on the very verge of the horizon, are directed to their prey ! Poets and
philosophers have dwelt on the “delights” with which they—
* — snuffed the smell
Of mortal change on earth . . . .
Sagacious of the quarry from afar;”
and Mr. Waterton, with other naturalists, sustained by the development of the organs of this sense in
TILE EGYPTIAN WULTURE,
these birds, decidedly favours the opinion. M. Audubon contends, on the contrary, that it is by
extraordinary power of sight that the vulture perceives its prey; and M. Waillant explains the
circumstance on the same theory.
THE EGYPTIAN WULTURE.;
THIs bird, the Vautour Ourigourap of Le Vaillant; the Rhachamah, or Pharaoh's Hen of Bruce, and
others, and the Maltese Vulture.of Latham, is found very rarely in the north of Europe and Switzer-
land, but is very common in Spain, on the Pyrenees, Portugal, Malta, Turkey, and in the Archipelago.
Nowhere, however, is it so abundant as in Africa.
The Neophron appears to have its stronghold in Africa. We have received it from the vicinity
* Neophron percnopterus.

24 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
of the Cape of Good Hope. Travellers have noticed it occurring on the northern coasts, and on the
shores opposed to Europe it is extremely abundant; whence, crossing to Southern Europe, the frequency
continues, but gradually decreases as an advance is made northwards, and France and Britain may be
accounted the utmost limits to which wanderers occasionally stray.
Notwithstanding, however, its great abundance in Spain and the opposite African shores, little, as
yet, is known of its habits. Its general food appears to be carrion, of all kinds, and, in some parts, it
is protected, on account of its utility in clearing off putrid substances. Bruce states that it is a very
great breach of sanitary regulations, to molest or kill these birds near Cairo. In Egypt, the utility of
these vultures, in clearing the streets of filth of every description—a task which they undertake in
common with the pariah dogs—has often been noticed ; nor were the services of this bird less valued
in ancient than in modern times; it was among the number of the sacred animals, and is often repre-
sented, with tolerable accuracy, on the early monuments of Egypt: hence its appellation of “Pharaoh’s
chicken.” A constant attendant on the caravan, as it wends its way from town to town, an assiduous
frequenter of the shambles, an industrious searcher for carrion, it merits, so far as public utility is con-
cerned, the regards of the community; nor are its services overlooked; for, if not now adored as a
deity, it is at least esteemed as a benefactor. In the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, and in the South of
Spain generally, flocks of this vulture are annually seen; and it is probable that they winter in Africa.
Captain S. E. Cook says he saw them near Seville, following the track of the plough, like rooks, in
order to discover the grubs in the upturned soil.
These vultures do not congregate, except when a specially attractive carcase calls them together,
but go in pairs, the male and female seldom parting company. According to Mr. Yarrell, in the
districts which this species inhabits, every village of the natives has a pair of these vultures attached
to it. The birds roost on the trees in the vicinity, or on the fences which bound the inclosures formed
by the cattle. They are, to a certain degree, domiciled and harmless. The people do them no injury,
but are glad to see and encourage them, because they clear the premises of all the offal and filth they
can find. . .
Occasionally, this vulture is said to feed on reptiles and the smaller animals. Of its nidification
we are not well informed. According to Temminck, it breeds in the most inaccessible places, in the
holes or fissures of some perpendicular cliff; but of the number or colour of the eggs he says nothing.
Bruce says that there are two, and that the nest is built in the most desert parts of the country ; but
here his information ceases.
In size, the Egyptian Vulture is a very noble bird, its length being two feet five or six inches,
and the expanse of its wings about five feet eight or nine inches. Long and ample as they are, they
give the bird amazing power of flight, and enable it to soar with great buoyancy.
A single specimen of this bird was killed on the shores of the British Channel in October, 1825,
and became the possession of the Rev. A. Mathew, of Kilve, in Somersetshire. When first discovered,
it was feeding on the carcase of a dead sheep, and had so gorged itself with the carrion as to be unable
or unwilling to fly to any great distance at a time; it was, therefore, approached without much difficulty
and shot. Another bird, apparently of this species, was seen at the same time on the wing at no great
distance, but could never be approached within gun-shot. The one procured at this time was in imma-
ture plumage, the dark feathers of the young beautifully mixed with others of a rich cream-yellow.
The colour of the naked skin on the head was of a livid flesh-coloured red; that of the legs, of a pale
yellowish gray.
The adult birds have the plumage nearly of a uniform yellowish white or cream colour, excepting
the quills, inner webs, and base of the secondaries: the former are blackish ; the latter, liver-brown,
which, on the outer webs, gradually shades into the cream colour. The feathers on the hind head and
neck are lanceolate, very pointed and hackled, and appear to be occasionally raised when the bird is
under the influence of either fear or anger. The head, before the ears, is bare of feathers; a few
straggling hair-like tufts appearing on the chin, and marking superciliary ridges and a circle round the
ears. The skin on these parts, in the adult birds, is gamboge yellow; but, in the Somersetshire
specimen, which the naturalist who describes it saw before it was dried, the colour was livid: this
undergoes a change as the bird approaches its mature state.
The young of the year have the head thinly covered with down, and, as we observed, have the colour-
THE EGYPTIAN WULTURE. 25
ing of the uncovered parts of a less clear appearance than in the adults; the plumage is entirely of a
dull blackish-brown, with yellowish spots on the tips of the feathers. The quills, however, are black,
though not of so clear a tint as in the old birds. In approaching to maturity, the dark parts of the
plumage assume a rich purplish-brown tint, the feathers appear more glossy, and these dark parts afford
a pleasing and strong contrast to the cream yellow of the body. The length of the specimens we have
received from South Africa is two feet two or three inches,
THE GRIFFON WULTURE.4
THIS splendid species—Le Griffon of the French, the Weissköpfiger Geier of the Germans—is spread
from the South of Europe throughout Turkey, Bersia, and Africa, everywhere choosing its abode
among lofty rocks and mountains. It appears, however, to be merely a summer visitant in Europe,
passing, on the advance of the colder season, over into Africa; and hence, at certain periods, flocks of
forty or fifty are seen to cross the straits of Gibral-
tar, many having made the rock itself a temporary
residence. It is, however, most abundant in the
Pyrenees and the mountain districts of Spain,
especially Granada; it is also found in the Alps and
the Tyrol.
Like all the other birds of its tribe, it feeds
principally on carrion, to which it is frequently
attracted in very considerable numbers. That emi-
ment naturalist, Mr. Bennett, says:–“When it has
once made a lodgment on its prey, it rarely quits
the banquet while a morsel of flesh remains; so that
it is not uncommon to see it perched upon a putre
fying corpse for several successive days. It never
attempts to carry off a portion, even to satisfy its
young, but feeds them by disgorging the half-digestcq
morsel from its maw. Sometimes, but very rarely
it makes its prey of living victims; and even then,
of such only as are incapable of offering the smallest
resistance ; for, in a contest for superiority, it haſ
not that advantage which is possessed by the falcon
tribes, of lacerating its enemy with its talons, and
must, therefore, rely upon the force of its beak
alone. It is only, however, when no other mode of
satiating its appetite presents itself, that it has recourse to the destruction of other animals for its
subsistence.
“After feeding, it is seen fixed for hours in one unvaried posture, patiently waiting until the work
of digestion is completed, and the stimulus of hunger is removed, to enable and to urge it to mount again
into the upper regions of the air, and fly abroad in quest of its necessary food. If violently disturbed
after a full meal, it is incapable of flight until it has disgorged the contents of its stomach; lightened
of which, and freed from their debilitating effects, it is immediately in a condition to soar to such a
pitch as, in spite of its magnitude, to become invisible to human sight.”
The Griffon Vulture is about three feet six inches in length, and eight or nine feet in the expanse
of its wings. The general colour of the adult is a deep rufous gray, which becomes black on the quill-
feathers and the tail. The head and neck are covered with short, close down, which, as well as the
beautiful ruff which encircles the lower part of the neck, are of a pure white. The nest is placed in
the clefts of a rock, from whence this vulture can look out on the surrounding country, while, perhaps,
its mate is gorging on a carcase in the distant plain. It lays from two to four eggs, which are of a
* Vultur fulvus, Gmelin.
WOL. III. 100

26 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
grayish-white, with numerous spots of a very light and diluted red. The young are of a bright-fawn
colºur, and do not acquire their full livery until the close of the third year. - -
In captivity, the only desire of the griffon vulture appears to be that of some creatures of a higher
grade—to obtain a regular supply of food. Only let this be secured, and it is seemingly indifferent to
all other circumstances.
THE TURKEY WULTURE.'s
THIS bird—a specimen of the genus Cathartes—is peculiar to America, and, like the rest, may be thus
characterised:—The beak feeble, elongated, and curved only at the top ; the head and part of the neck
bare of feathers; the skin loose and carunculated; there is a tendency to a ruff round the bare space
below the neck; the nostrils have narrow, longitudinal apertures; the wings extend beyond the tail.
The general colour of the plumage is a glossy brownish-black, with green reflexions. In length, it
measures two feet four or five inches, and its stretch of wing is about six feet.
These vultures, unless when rising from the earth, seldom flap their wings, but sweep along in
ogees, and dipping and rising lines, and move with great rapidity. They are often seen in companies,
soaring at an immense height, particularly previous to a thunder-storm. Their wings are not spread
horizontally, but form a slight angle with the body upwards, the tips having an upward curve. They
never fail to discover carrion, even when several miles from it. When once they have found a carcase,
they will not leave it, if unmolested, until the whole is devoured.
A man in the state of Delaware, as Wilson relates, observing some of these birds regaling themselves
on the carcase of a horse, which was in a highly putrid state, and on which they had feasted till scarcely
able to move, thought it would amuse his children if he could take one home. Cautiously approaching
and springing on the unsuspicious group, he grasped a fine, plump bird in his arms, and was bearing off
his prize in triumph, when the vulture, indignant at the outrage, disgorged such a torrent of filth in
his face, as made his first experiment the last he ever made.
Mr. Waterton states, that though the flocks collect for a common feast around a carcase, he does
not consider the Turkey Vulture, properly speaking, to be gregarious, but each pair to pursue its separate
interests; and this may be the case with vultures generally, and with even those like the present
species, which assemble in multitudes wherever they can discover a banquet. The same naturalist
states that he could never see this bird feeding on that which was not putrid; and that often, when he
had thrown aside the useless remains of birds and quadrupeds, after dissection, though soaring up and
down all the day long, it would never descend to feed upon them, or to carry them off, until they were
in a state of putrefaction.
Mr. Waterton adds another curious fact —“When I carried Lord Collingwood's dispatches up
the Oronoco to the city of Angustura, I there saw the common vultures of Guiana nearly as tame as
turkeys; the Spaniards protected them, and considered them in the light of useful scavengers. They
were flying about the city in all directions.”
According to Humboldt, the carcases of horses, mules, and cows attract innumerable vultures.
Of South America, he says that the zamuros, as they are called, are the scavengers, and that they
render the same service to the inhabitants of the Llanos as the vultur percnopterus to the inhabitants
ef Egypt.
At sunrise, he often saw them in flocks of forty or fifty, perched on the cocoa-trees. They range
themselves in files to roost together like fowls. They go to roost long before sunset, and do not
awake till after the sun is above the horizon—a sluggishness which seems as if it were shared in those -
climates by the mimosas, the tamarinds, and other trees with pinnate leaves. &
Humboldt also says: “We met some large herds of cattle, and with them flocks of birds of a
black colour, with an olive shade. They follow the cattle. We had often seen them perched on the
backs of cows, seeking for gadflies, and other insects. The Spanish colonists call them zamwrito, little
carrion vulture,t or garapatero, the eater of garapatas, insects of the Acarus family. Like many
birds of these desert places, they fear so little the approach of man, that children often catch them in
their hands. In the valleys of Aragua, where they are very common, we have seen them perch upon
the hammocks upon which we were reposing in open day.”
* Vultur aura: Wilson. Cathartes aura: Illiger. t Vultur aura minuta.
* *
THE BLACK WULTURE;
THIS bird, like the one just described, is respected at Charleston for the service that it renders in
removing from the city all carrion, and other refuse, on which it exclusively feeds. Black vultures
occupy themselves throughout the day to discover such substances, and then, coming down in legions,
they contend violently for the prey, which immediately disappears. If even a chicken dies, its bones
are speedily picked clean. And yet, strange to say, they may be easily knocked down with a stick.
Descourtilz says, “I had a great desire to obtain a specimen in this way, but I was not disposed to
pay the penalty of five louis-d'or.”
Wilson, with his usual graphic power, thus pictures an occurrence near Charleston —“A horse
had dropped down in the street in convulsions, and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead, and
skinned. The ground, for a hundred yards around it, was black with carrion crows; many sat on
the tops of sheds, fences, and houses, within sight; sixty or eighty on the opposite side of a small inn.
I counted, at one time, two hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were more, besides several
in the air over my head, and at a distance.
- “I ventured cautiously within thirty yards of the carcase, where three or four dogs and twenty
or thirty vultures were busily tearing and devouring. Seeing them take no notice, I ventured nearer,
till I was within ten yards, and sat down on the bank. Still they paid little attention to me. The
dogs being sometimes accidentally flapped with the wings of the vultures, would growl and snap
at them, which would occasion them to spring up for a moment, but they immediately gathered
in again. I remarked that the vultures frequently attack each other, fighting with their claws, or
heels, striking, like a cock, with open wings, and fixing their claws in each other's head. The females,
and, I believe, the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open mouth, exactly resembling that
produced by thrusting a red-hot poker into water; and frequently a snuffling, like a dog clearing his
nostrils, as I suppose they were theirs. -
“On observing that they did not heed me, I stole so close that my feet were within one yard of
the horse's legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet, but, seeing me quiet, soon returned
as before. As they were often disturbed by the dogs, I ordered the latter home; my voice gave no
alarm to the vultures. As soon as the dogs departed, the vultures crowded in such numbers, that I
counted at one time thirty-seven on and around the carcase, with several within ; so that scarcely an
inch of it was visible.
“Sometimes one would come out with a large piece of the entrails, which, in a moment, was sur-
rounded by several others, who tore it in fragments, and it soon disappeared. They kept up the
hissing occasionally. Some of them, having their whole legs and head covered with blood, presented a
most savage aspect. Still, as the dogs advanced, I would order them away, which seemed to gratify
the vultures; and one would pursue another to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting.
Sometimes I observed them stretching their necks along the ground, as if to press the food downwards.”
The Black Vulture is nearly the size of the griffon vulture, and sometimes still larger. It has
a collar of long, narrow, and bristling feathers; the naked skin of the head and neck is blue, and
garnished with down; the beak is blackish ; and the long feathers of the leg sometimes descend
sufficiently to cover the tarsus as far as the toes. The plumage, during the first year, is varied with
brown and dirty gray : it is only in the fourth year that the down of the head and the feathers are
black. *.
THE BEARDED VULTURE.}
THERE is little in the general aspect of this bird to recall the vulture, and yet the character of the head
and the general contour of the body are strikingly different from those of the eagle. There is a want
of dignity and quiet majesty in its attitude, while the glance of its red eye, though keen and cruel, has
not that expression of daring and resolution so conspicuous in the feathered sovereign. Hence an
intermediate situation has been assigned it, and which is aptly expressed in the generic appellation,
gypačius—a Greek compound, denoting a vulture and an eagle—and is clearly indicated in its robust
* Wultur Iota: Bonaparte. + Gypaetus barbatus,
28 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
form and general habits. The bristly beard, which depends from the lower mandible, tends, also, to
give a peculiar character to its physiognomy.
Equalling or exceeding the largest eagle in size, this fine bird is found throughout the great mountain
chains of the Old World, being, in fact, though not anywhere numerous, widely dispersed. It occurs
in the Pyrenees and in the Alps of Germany and Switzerland. Of its nidification little is ascertained,
except that it selects the most inaccessible pinnacles as the site of its eyrie. Pallas states that it is known
to breed on the high rocks of the great Altaic chain, and beyond the lake Baikal. Hence it has been
said of a bird of prey:-
“He watches from his mountain walls,
And like a thunderbolt he falls.”
In length, this bird measures about four feet from the bill to the end of the tail, and from nine to
ten in the extent of its wings. The tarsi are short, and almost hidden by the feathers of the leg;
the iris is bright-red; the wings are ample, the second and third quill-feathers being the longest ; the
tail is graduated; the head is clothed with feathers, and from the sides of the under mandible proceed
a row of black bristles, which form a beard or pencil at its angle, and a layer of similar bristles,
beginning at the eye, covers the nostrils: hence it is often called by the natives “Father Longbeard.”
The general colour of the upper surface is dark grayish-brown, the centre of each feather having a
longitudinal dash of white. The neck and the whole of the under surface are white, tinted with reddish
brown. The young birds are darker in the general hue of their plumage than the adult, and the white
spots are larger and less defined. In this stage, it has even been mistaken for a distinct species.
As the great bodily power, the ample wings and the tail sufficiently indicate, the flight of this bird
is sweeping and majestic. It gaily sails around the Alpine summits, whence it marks its quarry from
afar, and, collecting all its energies for the onset, glides with arrow-like force on its prey. If, however
it be lured from its aerial altitude by carrion, it no longer emulates the eagle in its pounce, but, calmly
descending to some neighbouring crag, it thence sets out, flying with heavy wings, at a short distance
from the ground, towards its foul repast, to be joined by others of its species.
Not only does it banquet on carrion, but it spreads devastation far and wide among the peaceful
tenants of the fold, and the wild but timid inhabitants of the hills, the meadows, and the lawns. The
swiftness and activity of the hare, the chamois, or the nimble marmoset, afford them no security
against their winged foe, nor can the smallest quadrupeds escape its piercing ken. It is from the lamb
becoming the frequent victim of this bird, that the Swiss peasants call it the Lammer-geyer, literally
the “lamb vulture.” Often, too, does it watch till the unwary chamois approaches the edge of a pre-
cipice, or traverses the pass of a narrow ledge, and then, sudden and impetuous as the avalanche of its
native regions, it rushes down, hurling its victim into the abyss beneath, when, after making a few
proud gyrations, as if exulting in its success, it plunges down to gorge itself on the still quivering flesh.
Bruce, the traveller, saw a bird of this kind on a high mountain near Gondar. His servants were
refreshing themselves after a toilsome and rugged ascent, enjoying a most delightful climate, and eating
a dinner of goat's flesh in the open air, when this bearded vulture came flying slowly along the ground,
and sat down close to the meat, within the ring the men had made around it. A great shout or
rather a cry of distress, called their master to the spot.
He saw the vulture stand for a minute, as if to recollect itself, while the servants ran for their
lances and shields. He now walked up to the bird as nearly as he had time to do, and saw it put its
foot into the pan, where there was a large piece of goat's-flesh in water, prepared for boiling; but,
feeling the smart, which it had not expected, it withdrew its foot, and gave up the piece it had held.
There were two other large pieces of flesh—a leg and a shoulder—lying on a wooden platter; into
these it now thrust its claws, and carried them off, looking wistfully, it was thought, at the large piece
which remained in the warm water. Away it went, slowly over the ground, as it had come 3 but the
face of the cliff—over which criminals are thrown—concealed it from view. The Mohammedans of the
party were greatly alarmed, declaring that the vulture would return; the servants, on the other hand,
were far from desiring a second visit, as they thought it had already taken more than its share.
* --over, wished for a more intimate acquaintance with this bird, and loaded a rifle with
" *eat. A prodigious shout was speedily raised: “He is coming ! he is
* -ovod a far larger creature. But whether it had some
THE BEARDED WULTURE. 29
apprehension of danger, or its hunger was abated, is unknown; the vulture was seen to make a short
turn, and then to sit down about ten yards before Bruce, the pan of meat lying between them. As
the traveller could not be sure but its next move might bring him opposite to some of his people, so
that it might actually seize the rest of the meat and make off, he shot it with the rifle-ball through the
middle of the body, so that it lay down on the grass without a single flutter.
s
W
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3. *
fºr.: rº
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& ñº wºx:
THE BE.AIRD EID Y ULTURE.
This vulture measured eight feet four inches from wing to wing; and from the tip of the tail to
the point of the beak, four feet seven. Its weight was twenty-two pounds. The legs were short, and
the thighs extremely muscular. The aperture of the eye was scarcely half an inch across. The crown
of the head, and the forehead, where the juncture occurs between the beak and the skull, were
bald,
g

30 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE SOCIABLE WULTURE.3%
VERY rarely is this bird seen ; and for the information we have of it we are indebted to M. Le Vaillant,
who met with it repeatedly in the interior of Africa, and particularly in the country of the Namaquas.
The expanse of the wings is upwards of ten feet. The head and greater part of the neck are of the
colour of raw flesh, and exhibit, in their adult state, no appearance of down and feathers, but only a
few, scarcely perceptible, scattered hairs. The throat is covered with blackish hairs, and the lower
part of the neck, behind, with a kind of ruff of crisp and curling feathers of the same colour, within
which the bird withdraws its head while in a state of repose, especially after feeding—an attitude
which is common to most of the vultures. The folds on its neck originate behind the ears, surround
the upper parts of these organs, and then pass downwards for several inches; they are somewhat
irregular in their outline, and measure nearly an inch in breadth at the widest part.
All the feathers of the body, wings, and tail, are of a nearly uniform blackish-brown, somewhat
Fºº {
: 3. ºr” º
#sº _---,
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tºº
sº-Tºº
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&: * -jºº ‘. NY \ . yºs
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T.E. SOCIABLE VULTURE.
lighter on the under than on the upper surface, and on the margins than in the middle. Those of the
breast, belly, and sides beneath, are long, narrow, and pointed, and project from the body in such a
manner as to exhibit the thick down of an almost pure white, with which it is everywhere closely
covered. On the sides of the neck, at its lower and anterior part, this down extends beyond the
feathers, and marks the boundary of the crop, which, as in all the vultures, is remarkably prominent.
The legs are principally covered with a similar down, which, on them, assumes a brownish tinge. The
beak is horn-coloured, with a shade of yellow at its base ; the legs and feet brownish ; the claws light-
brown, and the iris chestnut. The young bird, when first hatched, is covered only with a whitish
down; at the period when it quits the nest, its plumage is of a light brown, and all the feathers are
bordered by a reddish tinge. Those of the chest and abdomen are not elongated, as in the adult state
and the head and neck are entirely covered by a fine, close down, through which the ears are scarcely
visible. ... --
* Vultur auricularis.






TIIE SOCIAIBLE VULTURE. 21
The Sociable Vulture is a bird of the mountains; the sheltered retreats, formed by their caves and
fissures, constituting its proper habitation. In them it passes the night, and reposes, after it has sated
its appetite during the day. At sunrise large bands are seen perched on the rocks at the entry of their
abodes, and sometimes a continued chain of mountains exhibits them as dispersed throughout the greater
part of its extent. Their tails are always worn down by friction against the stones between which they
thrust themselves, where they perch; while the eagles, seldom walking, and frequently perching
upon trees, preserve theirs in a better state. Those of the vultures are injured, moreover, by the soil
of the plains, inasmuch as they cannot raise themselves into the air at once, but only after running
several paces forwards, and by a forced contraction of their limbs. The flight of the vultures is, never-
theless, no less powerful and lofty : they raise themselves to a prodigious height, and disappear entirely
from the view. These remarks will be found to be true of the vulture tribe in general.
The eggs of this bird are white, and not disagreeable to the tasto. During incubation, the male
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THE VULTURINE CARACARA EAGLE,
watches before the entrance of the cavern in which the female sits, and may be regarded as a certain
indication of the nest ; but this is usually-very difficult of access. “However,” says Le Vaillant, “I
have sometimes, with the aid of my Hottentots, surmounted all difficulties, and often risked my life
that I might examine the eggs of this bird, whose retreat is a sink of disgusting pollution, and con-
taminated by an insupportable odour. It is the more dangerous to approach these obscure recesses,
because their entrance is beset with filth, and this always in a liquid state, by reason of the moisture
which incessantly oozes from the rocks, so that, by sliding on the points of these rocks, one runs the
hazard of tumbling over hideous precipices, on the top of which the vultures preferably establish their
abodes.”
The sociable vulture has been taken in the neighbourhood of Athens, and may, therefore, be
added to the catalogue of Birds of Europe. -
A genus” has been established by M. Vieillot, and regarded by him and most systematic writers
* one of the connecting links between the Vulture and the Eagle tribes. Of this we shall give two
specimens,
* Polyborus,

92 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE WULTURINE CARACARA EAGLE."
THE resemblance of this bird to the vultures will at once be apparent; and hence we give it the
precedence. Two of them, indeed, were sold, some years ago, to the Zoological Society, under the
name of Pharaoh's Chickens, the common designation of the Egyptian Vulture. From that bird,
however, they differ in many respects, while the very distinct character of the beak is alone sufficient
to remove any idea of similarity which might be produced by their coincidence in general appearance.
In the latter respect, as well as in several of their technical characters, they are truly vulturine, while,
in many points of structure, in their air, and in their habits, they seem to approach more nearly to
the eagles. They subsisted entirely on flesh, and refused fish, if offered to them.
The beak of these birds is deep, elongated, and nearly similar in form to that of the Caracara, but
much more compressed and flattened at the sides; its upper surface is arched for the greater part of its
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length, the extreme point terminating considerably below the extremity of the lower mandible, which
is embraced within it, and the opening being long, straight, and without dentation. The nostrils are
placed transversely, and are long-oval in their form; and in these respects they differ from those of the
Caracara. The naked space of the cheeks is less extensive, and less defined in its edges, but entirely
surrounds the eyes, which are placed in both birds almost on a 1evel with the general surface of the
head. In the birds now under consideration, the head is narrower and less flattened above, and the
neck more elongated ; both which circumstances, as well as the somewhat downy character of the
feathers by which these parts are covered, tend to increase their resemblance to the vulture tribes.
The wings are long, reaching to, or even beyond, the extremity of the tail, and are rounded in their
outline. The tail is even and slightly rounded; the rather long and slender legs are naked and reticu-
lated from the joint downwards; the toes are rather short, and the talons weak and but little curved ;
the inner and the posterior alone being capable of grasping with any degree of firmness,
* P. Hypoleucus.


THE CARACARA EAGLE,%
CARACARA, the vulgar appellation of this bird in Brazil, is derived from its hoarse and peculiar cry.
Its resemblance to the vultures depends chiefly on the partial nakedness of its head, the prominence of
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THE IMPERIAL EAGLE."f
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its crop, and the position of its eyes on a level, or nearly so, with the general surface.
a much closer relation to the eagles in almost every other point of its general structure, as well as in
+ Aquila imperialis,
101
its habits and mode of life.
* Polyborus vulgaris,
"WOL, III,

84 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The whole upper surface of the head is black, with the feathers slightly clongated backwards, and
capable of being partially elevated in the shape of a pointed crest. The entire neck is of a light
brownish-gray, which also forms the ground colour on the breast and shoulders, but with the addition
on these parts of numerous transverse wavy bars of a deeper brown. Nearly all the rest of the plumage
is of a tolerably uniform shade of blackish-brown, with the exception of the tail, which is, at the base,
of a dirty white, with numerous narrow, transverse, undulated bands of a dusky hue, and, in its
terminal third black, without any appearance of banding. The beak is horn-coloured at the tip, and
blueish at the base; the iris hazel ; the cere and naked cheeks of a dull red; the legs yellow, and the
claws black. Changes, however, occur in the plumage as the bird advances in age ; and there is a very
remarkable diversity of colour in this species. 0. 2.
This fine bird ranges over a considerable part of South America. It builds its nest upon the tops
of trees, and prefers those which have the greater number of climbing shrubs about them. Where such
are not to be found, it selects a bushy thicket, in which it forms a spacious eyrie of sticks and twining .
branches, laid nearly flat, and lined with a thick layer of hair inartificially disposed. The female lays two
eggs, much pointed at one extremity, and dotted and spotted with crimson on a ground of brownish-red.
The Caracara devours the dead and the living. Sometimes four or five unite to pursue a prey that
a single one could not master. D'Azara states that he has seen them hunt down red buzzards, herons,
and other large birds; and it seems they prey, not only on a variety of smaller creatures, but also on
young fawns and lambs. Often do they feast, too, on what others have taken. Thus, if a caracara
sees a vulture devour a piece of flesh, it will pursue him, and compel him to disgorge it ; and the
sportsman is not unfrequently foiled by this bird coming and bearing off the game before his eyes.
In the Second Family of Raptorial Birds,” zoologists consider the destructive energy to be most
perfectly developed. Here natural instruments are found for striking, killing and dissecting their
prey, combined with a great power of flight and strength of limbs, adapted to triumph over the prey,
whether it be aerial—struck in its flight, or whether it be terrestrial—captured on the ground.
It is not improbable that similar habits of solitude in the lion and the eagle, together with their
magnitude and strength, have given rise to their titles, so generally current, of king of beasts-king of
birds. Jonston says, in an old work, “Englished by a Person of Quality:”—“The eagle challengeth
the first place, not that it is the best dish at table, for none will eat it, but because it is the king of
birds.” The ancient Greeks were of the same opinion, for Pindar speaks of “the great eagle, the chief
magistrate of the birds.” This great eagle, or imperial eagle, was sometimes confounded with other
species, but it is of a larger, stronger, and more noble description than any other variety. Josephus
says, the eagle was selected for the Roman legionary standard, because “he is the king of all the
birds, and the most powerful of them all, whence he has become the emblem of empire and the omen
of victory.” An eagle, in ancient mythology, was alone thought worthy to bear the thunder of Jupiter.
The plume of this noble bird is chosen by the young Indian warrior as his highest ornament ; and,
without it, even the garb of the Highland chieftain is considered incomplete.
Dignity and majesty are the common attributes of the eagle. Hence Mrs. Hemans, addressing
one of these birds who has been fatally wounded, thus speaks :-
“Eagle! this is not thy sphere! “Eagle ! Eagle! thou hast bowed
Warrior-bird, what seek'st thou here From thine empire o'er the cloud!
Wherefore by the fountain's brink Thou that hadst ethereal birth,
Doth thy royal pinion sink? Thou hast stoop'd too near the eartli,
Wherefore on the violet's bed And the hunter's shaft hath found thee,
Lay'st thou thus thy drooping head? And the toils of Death have bound thee—
Thou, that hold'st the blast in scorn, Wherefore didst thou leave thy place,
Thou, that wear'st the wings of morn! Creature of a kingly race?
“Eaglel wilt thou not arise? “Wert thou weary of thy throne *
Look upon thine own bright skies! Was the sky’s dominion lone?
Lift thy glancel the fiery sun Chill and lone it well might be,
There his pride of place has won, Yet that mighty wing was free!
And the mountain lark is there, Now the chain is o'er thee cast:
And sweet sound hath fill'd the air; From thy heart the blood flows fast—
Hast thou left that realm on high 2– Woe for gifted souls and high
Oh, it can be but to die! Is not such their destiny?”
* Falconidae: Leach, -
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CHILDREN ROBBING AN EAGLE's NEST ATTACKED BY THE PARENT BIRD,
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86 * CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The vulture, on the other hand, instead of being regarded as a symbol of “high and gifted” spirits,
is only taken as the type of degraded and ferocious humanity. If the one is lauded for an imperial
bravery and generosity, the other is branded as base, cowardly, and obscene. Here, however, is a
manifest injustice. Eagles, adapted to seize and carry off their living prey, are useful in checking the
increase of the smaller kinds of quadrupeds and birds, which would otherwise become too numerous;
while vultures, not organised for this task, are no less usefully employed in removing the carrion, whose
exhalations would occasion disease and death. Each class exercises its peculiar instincts, for which an
express provision is made in its structure, and confers important benefits on man : one should not,
therefore, be exalted at the expense of the other; and, whenever it is, another instance appears of the
prejudice by which utility is valued chiefly on account of its gaudy accessories.
The eagle, like the falcon and the hawk, refuses, unless compelled by necessity, to taste other food than
that they themselves have procured; they rend the quivering fibres of their expiring victim, and drink
the blood warm from its gushing veins. The eye of the eagle glares defiance and a dauntless daring : the
beak is deep, strong, and curved, the point bending into a short and formidable hook; the legs, short
and robust, are covered with rough, hard scales; the toes, too, are also thus protected; but, above all,
they are armed with enormous hooked and sharp-pointed talons. It is these that the eagle plunges
deep into the agonised body of his prey as he proceeds to lacerate it with his beak, and it is in their
grasp that he bears off the fawn, the lamb, or the wild fowl, to his lonely eyrie ; for it is seldom that
the eagle—and it is so with the falcon and the hawk—attempts to satiate his hunger on the spot,
unless the animal is too heavy to be carried away. We have a fine specimen in the imperial
eagle (p. 33).
The Abbé Spallanzani had a common, or black eagle, which was so powerful, that it could easily
kill dogs much larger than itself. When a dog was cruelly forced into the room where the eagle was
kept, it immediately ruffled the feathers on its head and neck, taking a short flight, alighted on the
back of its victim, held the neck firmly with one foot, so that there could be no turning of the head to
bite, while one of the flanks was grasped with the other, and in this attitude the eagle continued,
till the dog, with fruitless cries and struggles, expired. The beak, hitherto unemployed, was now
used to make a small hole in the skin: this was gradually enlarged, and from it the eagle tore away
and devoured the flesh. This bird never ate any skin or intestine, and rarely bone.
Thus ferocious and violently impetuous in attacking animals, it never molested man. The
Abbé, who constantly fed it, could safely enter the apartment where the eagle was kept, and
witness such assaults without any personal apprehension; nor did it discover the slightest
shyness while he remained. In general, when it had flesh at will, it made only one meal a-day.
The Abbé found, by weighing what it ate, that thirty ounces of flesh were amply sufficient, one day.
with another.
M. Ebel relates that a young hunter in Switzerland, having discovered an eagle's nest, killed the
male, and was descending the rocks to capture the young ones, when, at the moment he was putting his
hand into the cleft to take the nest away, the mother, indignantly pouncing upon him, fixed her talons
in his arm, and her beak in his side. With great presence of mind, the hunter stood still ; had he
moved, he would have fallen to the bottom of the precipice; but now, holding his gun in one hand,
and supporting it against the rock, he took his aim, pulled the trigger with his foot, and shot the eagle
dead. The wounds he had received confined him to his bed, however, for six weeks. A somewhat
similar story is related of the children of a Scottish peasant, who were surprised, in their endeavour to
take away some young eaglets from the nest, by the return of the mother, from whose indignation they
had great difficulty in escaping.
& A peasant, with his wife and three children, took up his summer quarters in a châlet, and
pastured his flock on one of the rich Alps that overlook the Dranse. The eldest boy was an idiot,
about eight years of age; the second, five years old, but dumb ; and the third, an infant. One morning
the idiot was left in charge of his brothers, and the three had wandered to some distance from the
châlet before they were missed; and, when the mother found the two elder, she could discover no trace
of the babe.
A strange contrast was presented by the two children: the idiot seemed transported with joy,
while his dumb brother was filled with consternation. In vain did the terrified parent attempt to
\
THE EAGLE, 37
gather from either what had become of the infant. But, as the idiot danced about in great glee,
laughed immoderately, and imitated the action of one who had caught up something of which he was
fond, and hugged it to his breast, the poor woman was slightly comforted, supposing that some
acquaintance had fallen in with the children, and taken away the babe,
But the day and the succeeding night passed without any tidings of the lost one. On the morrow
the parents were earnestly pursuing their search, when, as an eagle flew over their heads, the idiot
renewed his gesticulations, and the dumb boy clung to his father with frantic shrieks. Now the
dreadful thought broke upon their minds that the infant had been carried off by a bird of prey, and
that his half-witted brother was delighted at his riddance of an object which had excited his jealousy.
Meanwhile, an Alpine hunter had been watching near an eyrie, hoping to shoot the mother-bird,
on returning to her nest. At length, waiting with the anxious perseverance of such determined
sportsmen, he saw her slowly winging her way towards the rock, behind which he had taken refuge,
when, on her nearer approach, he heard, to his horror, the cries of an infant, and then beheld it in her
frightful grasp. Instantly his resolve was made, to fire at the eagle the moment she should alight on
the nest, and rather to kill the child than leave it to be devoured. With a silent prayer, arising from
his heart of hearts, he poised, directed, and discharged his rifle; the ball went through the head or
breast of the eagle; with indescribable delight he bore the babe away; and, within four-and-twenty
hours after it was missed, he had the satisfaction of restoring it—with wounds which were not serious,
on one of its arms and sides—to its transported mother's bosom. *
Other instances are recorded of children being seized and carried off by eagles to their young. In
the year 1737, in the parish of Norderhougs, in Norway, a boy, somewhat more than two years old,
was running from the house to his parents, who were at work in the fields not far off, when an eagle
pounced upon him, and flew off with him in their sight, while all their screams and efforts were in vain,
Anderson says, in his “ History of Iceland,” that, in that island, children of four or five years old have
been taken away by eagles; and Ray relates, that, in one of the Orkneys, a child was seized in the talons
of an eagle, and borne above four miles to its nest. The mother, knowing the eyrie, went thither,
clomb up the mountain, discovered her child, and took it away unarmed.
Sir Robert Sibbald, in his account of the Orkneys, gives, among other instances, the following:—
An eagle seized a child a year old, which its mother had left, wrapped up in some clothes, at a place
called Houton-Head, while she went for a few moments to gather sticks for firewood, and carried it
a distance of four miles to Hoia; which circumstance being known from the cries of the mother, four
men went there in a boat, and, knowing where the nest was, found the child unhurt. This story
seems to have furnished the groundwork of the affecting tale in “Blackwood's Magazine” of “Hannah
Lamont's Bairn.”
THE GOLDEN EAGLE."
A PoET has truly said—
* The tawny eagle seats his callow brood * With cruel eye premeditates the war,
High on the cliff, and feasts his young with blood; And marks his destined victim from afar:
On Snowdon's rocks, or Orkney's wide domain, Descending in a whirlwind to the ground,
Whose beetling cliffs o'erhang the western main, His pinions like the rush of waters sound;
The royal bird his lonely kingdom forms - The fairest of the fold he bears away,
Amidst the gathering clouds and sullen storms, And to his nest compels the struggling prey;
Through the wide waste of air he darts his sight, He scorns the game by meaner hunters tore,
And holds his sounding pinions poised for flight; And dips his talons in no vulgar gore.”
In England and the south of Scotland the Golden Eagle may be accounted rare, very few of their
districts being adapted to its disposition, or to the rearing of its young. Some parts of Derbyshire,
the mountainous parts of Wales, and the precipices of Cumberland and Westmoreland, in days gore
by, boasted of eyries. Upon the wild ranges of the Scottish Border one or two pairs used to
breed, but their nest has not been known for many years, though a straggler, in winter, may sometimes
be seen amidst their defiles. It is not till the Highlands of Scotland are really entered by one of
their grand and romantic passes, that this majestic bird can be said really to occur; and it is not till
the very centre of their wildness is reached that it can be frequently seen. But the species must be
* Aquila chrysaetos,
38 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
gradually, though-surely, decreasing; for such have been its ravages among the flocks during the
season of lambing—the time when a large supply of food is required by the parent birds for their
young—that every device has been employed, and expense incurred by rewards, for their destruction.
From March, 1831, to March, 1834, in the county of Sutherland alone, one hundred and seventy-one
old birds, with fifty-three young and eggs, were destroyed, showing that the eagle was not of the
extreme rarity that is sometimes supposed; and also, that, if the war of extermination be continued,
the northern landscape will soon lose this appropriate ornament. *.
Its loss from the Highland districts is thus lamented by a naturalist:-"How picturesque the
eagle looks, and how perfectly he represents the genius loci, as, perched on some rocky point or
withered tree, he sits unconcerned in wind and storm, motionless and statue-like, with his keen, sterm
eye, however, intently following every movement of the shepherd or of the sportsman, who, deceived
by his apparent disregard, attempts to creep within rifle-shot | Long before he can reckon on reaching
so far with his bullet, the bird launches himself into the air, and, gradually sweeping upwards, wheels
high out of shot, leaving his enemy disappointed and vexed at having crept in vain through bog and
over rock in expectation of carrying home so glorious a trophy of his skill. When intent on his
game, the eagle frequently will venture within a short distance of the grouse-shooter or deer-stalker.
I have seen him pounce (no, that is not the proper word, for he rather rushes) down on a pack of
grouse, and, with outspread wings, he so puzzles and confuses the birds, that he seizes and carries of
two or three before they know what has happened, and in the very face of the astonished sportsman
and his dogs. The mountain hare, too, is carried off by the eagle with as much apparent ease as the
mouse is borne away by the kestrel.” *
In Ireland, the golden eagle is generally distributed where the situations are favourable; but,
at the same time, it is much more rare than the sea eagle. The Horn Head, the mountain of
Rosheen, near Dunſanaghy, Achill Island, and Crowpatrie are mentioned by Mr. Thompson as
recently or formerly having eyrics on their precipices; but from Rosheen they have been driven off,
from the destruction done to the flocks. The nest, placed on a ledge perfectly inaccessible, was set
on fire by burning a lighted brand, and was consumed with its tenants. The parents afterwards
forsook a station where they had been attacked in so unusual a manner.
The distribution of this species extends over the northern parts of Europe, but towards the
south the golden eagle becomes less frequent. It also inhabits North America, but appears to be
there generally rare; although, according to Audubon, an excellent authority, it is frequently seen
in the United States. In the fur countries it again becomes scarce; and the naturalist just
mentioned saw a single specimen only on the coast of Labrador, “sailing at the height of a few yards
above the moss-covered surface of the dreary rocks.”
In a wild state, the plumage attains its maturity nearly by the third year, though the colours
of the base of the tail darken considerably after that period. In confinement, it often does not take
place fully until the fourth or fifth year; and a female which was kept from the nest for six years
had the base of the tail feathers, in the intervals between the dark bars, remarkably pure.
The colours of the adult birds are generally a deep and rich umber brown, glossed with purple
on the back and wings; on the hind head and back of the neck, the feathers are of a hackled, or
lanceolate, form, pale orange brown, occasionally edged with a paler tint; and, when shone upon by
the sun, or a strong light, have a brilliant, and almost golden appearance, whence the name of these
birds is derived. The fronts of the thighs, shoulders, and tarsi are of the same pale orange-brown
colour. The quills are blackish brown, nearly black, white towards the base on the inner webs, and
clouded with grayish black. The secondaries are clouded with browns of various tints. The tail,
with the exception of the centre feathers, is nearly square; these are narrowed toward the point, and
exceed the others in length—a form which prevails considerably in the true eagles, and is greatly
developed in the New Holland wedge-tailed eagle.
The colour of the tail is grayish brown, palest, and almost approaching to white, on the base of
the inner webs; only the whole appears very dark, from the crowded arrangement of the dark
markings; these are of very deep umber, or blackish brown, disposed in bars across, and irregular
clouding in the intervals. In the young birds, the terminal band is always present; but the base of
the whole tail is pure white, which is gradually obliterated by the occurrence of additional bars and
39
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THE GOLDEN EAGLE,

40 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
clouded markings year after year, commencing, at first, immediately above the terminal bar, and
gradually ascending and becoming closer as their age advances. White also predominates on the
other parts of the plumage; the quills and secondaries have a much greater proportion at the base,
and there is a similar distribution, in greater or less proportions, in the roots of the feathers over
the whole body, which, as with the tail, is lost and obscured by the gradual occurrence of bars and
cloudings. The irides of the young birds are dark, but, with age, grow paler, and become a clear
orange-brown. The colours of the cere and legs, from greenish-yellow, assume a pure gamboge tint.
The eyrie of the golden eagle is placed on the face of some stupendous cliff situated inland; the
nest is built on a projecting shelf, or on some stumped tree that grows from the rock, generally in a
situation perfectly inaccessible without some artificial means, and often out of the reaeh of shot, either
from below, or from the top of the precipice. It is composed of rude materials, as dead branches and
roots of heather, in considerable quantity, entangled strongly together, but without any lining in the
inside. The eggs are two in number, white, with pale brown or purplish blotches, most numerous
and largest at the thicker end. During the season of incubation, the quantity of food that is procured
and brought hither is scarcely credible; it is composed of nearly all the inhabitants, or their young, of
those wild districts called forests, which, though indicating a wooded region, are often tracts where a
tree is not seen for miles around. Hares, lambs, and the young of deer and roebucks, grouse, black
game, ptarmigan, curlews, and plovers all contribute to the feast.
Eagles hunt or survey the ground by soaring above, often to an immense height; the ascent is
made by circles of beautiful appearance. When the prey is perceived, it is rushed upon by an instan-
taneous sweep; and, surprised before it can escape, or paralysed by terror, it is generally seized at
once. The weight of the birds, and the great resistance presented to the air by their large bodies and
expansive wings, prevent pursuit being often tried, though instances of it have been mentioned. Thus,
Montague relates one, where a wounded grouse was seized before the guns could be re-loaded; and
another, where a black cock was sprung and instantly pursued; “the eagle,” he says, “making several
pounces in our view, but without success.” -
Mr. Thompson states that an eagle was seen in pursuit of a hare. The poor animal took refuge
under every bush that it could find, which, as often as she did, the eagle approached the bush so near
as apparently to beat the top of it with its wings, and thereby forced the hare to leave her place of
refuge. In this way she was eventually driven to open ground, which did not long avail, as the eagle
soon came up with her, and bore her away. º -
A party being out hunting among the Belfast mountains, an eagle appeared above the hounds
as they came to fault on the ascent to Devis, the highest of the chain. As they went on the scent
again, and were at full cry, the eagle, for a short time, kept above them, but at length advanced, and
carried off the hare, when at the distance of from three to four hundred paces before the hounds.
The golden eagle is easily kept in confinement, becomes tame, and even familiar with its keeper.
Mr. Thompson thus writes:—“My friend, Richard Langtry, Esq., of Fortwilliam, near Belfast, has
at preseat a bird of this species, which is extremely docile and tractable. It was taken last summer
from a nest in Inverness-shire, and came into his possession about the end of September. This bird at
once became attached to its owner, who, after having it about a month, ventured to give it liberty—
a privilege which was not abused, as it came to the lure whenever called.
“It not only permits itself to be handled in any way, but seems to derive pleasure from the
application of the hand to the legs and plumage. This eagle was hooded, after the manner of the
hunting-hawks, for some time, but the practice was abandoned; and, although it may yet be requisite,
if the bird be trained for the chase, hooding is otherwise unnecessary, as it remains quiet and contented
for any length of time, and no matter how far it is carried on its master's arm.
“When this eagle is at large, my friend has only to hold out his arm towards it, which, as soon
as perceived, even from a distance, it flies to and perches on. It is more partial to alighting on trees
than the sea eagles, which are kept also, and, stationed on their tops, keeps its master in view,
following him about the demesne, and, where plantations often intervene, flying from one to another
in the direction he walks, indolently remaining as long as possible where it perches, consistently with
keeping him in sight.”
That this bird can revenge itself for an injury, is shown by the following fact –A gentleman
*
*
-- *
THE GOLDEN EAGLE, 41
who lived, some years ago, in the south of Scotland, had a tame eagle, which the keeper, one day, for
some petty fault, lashed with a horse-whip. About a week after, the man chanced to stoop within
reach of its chain, when the enraged bird, recollecting the late injury, flew in his face with so much
fury and violence, that he was terribly wounded, yet luckily driven so far back by the blow as to be
out of all further danger. The screams of the eagle alarmed the family, who found the keeper lying at
some distance in a bloody plight, and stunned alike by the fright and the fall. The eagle was still pacing
about, screaming and threatening further evil. It was even dreaded whether, in so violent a rage, he
might not break loose; which, providentially for them, he did, just as they withdrew, and escaped for ever.”
The attention of the parent bird to her eaglets has often been noticed. Sir Humphry Davy
. W
N
§
THE ROYAL EAGLE." A VARIETY OF THE GOLDEN EAGLE
had an opportunity of witnessing the instructions given, and thus records the fact —“I once saw a
very interesting sight above one of the crags of Ben Nevis, as I was going in the pursuit of black game.
Two parent eagles were teaching their offspring—two young birds—the manoeuvres of flight. They began
by rising from the top of the mountain, in the eye of the sun. It was about mid-day, and bright for
this climate. They at first made small circles, and the young birds imitated them. They paused on
their wings, waiting till they had made their first flight, and then took a second and larger gyration,
always rising towards the sun, and enlarging their circle of flight, so as to make a gradually ascending
spiral. The young ones still slowly followed, apparently flying better as they mounted; and they
continued this sublime exercise, always rising, till they became mere points in the air, and the young
ones were lost, and afterwards their parents, to our aching sight.”
*_Aquila Regia. -
WOL, III, Q 8 * - 102

42 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE,%
~~~
*
This bird, which may be regarded as the type of a distinct form, agrees generally with the genuine
eagles of the Old World, and more particularly in the lengthened wings and feathered legs, but the
middle feathers of the tail exceed the outermost by about four inches; hence it has a wedge-shaped
tail, from which its name is derived.
What the Golden Eagle is to the northern, the Wedge-Tailed Eagle is to the southern hemisphere.
Universally spread over Southern Australia, numerous ifi Van Diemen's Land, and on the larger
islands of Bass's Straits, Mr. Gould—one of our most distinguished naturalists—thinks that it will,
in all probability, be found to extend its range in the south over the same countries as the golden
eagle inhabits in the north. $
Mr. Gould killed one that measured six feet eight inches in the spread of its wings, and weighed
, nine pounds; but he believed he had seen much larger specimens. Its piercing eye detects and marks,
as it wheels aloft, circling gracefully, its victims—generally consisting of the smaller kangaroos—when
down it comes with full and unerring swoop. That these quadrupeds were more abundant in the olden
time, appears from the account given by Captain Flinders, of Kangaroo Island. On one occasion, he
gays:—“I had with me a double-barrelled gun, fitted with a bayonet, and the gentlemen—my com-
panions—had muskets. It would be difficult to guess how many kangaroos were seen; but I killed
ten, and the rest of the party made up the number to thirty-one, taken on board in the course of the
day—the least of them weighing sixty-nine, and the largest one hundred and twenty-five pounds”—
which the Captain, having some misgivings, subsequently describes as “butchery.” The bustard,
whose weight is twice that of the wedge-tailed eagle, is not safe from its attacks, and even the emeu
is mentioned as its prey. It is, too, the scourge of the shepherds and stock-owners, where the kangaroo
formerly abounded, and makes terrible havoc with the lambs. Not that carrion is despised ; for
Mr. Gould, during one of his journeys into the interior to the northward of Liverpool Plains, saw
no less than thirty or forty assembled together around the carcase of a dead bullock; some, gorged
to the full, perched upon the neighbouring trees, while the rest were still engaged in their banquet.
He adds, that, for the sake of the refuse thrown away by the kangaroo hunters, it will often follow
them for many miles, and even for days together. *
The nests observed by the same sagacious naturalist, constructed in the most inaccessible trees,
were very large, nearly flat, and built of sticks and boughs; but the eggs he could never procure. The
one in the Zoological Gardens, however, laid an egg, according to Mr. Broderip, on the 27th of
February, 1850. On the 28th it was placed under a common hen, which sat very close, but fruitlessly,
and on the 21st of March the addled egg was removed. On the 4th of March a second egg was laid;
on the 29th, a third egg was produced and destroyed by the parents; and on the 4th of April another
egg was laid, but no attempt was made to get it hatched.
“The imprisoned parents,” adds Mr. Broderip, “made a poor apology for a nest of birch-broom
and straw—the materials within their reach; but, instead of manifesting any intention to do the
parental office, the birds wanted to destroy every one of the eggs; and the keeper found it necessary
to look very sharp to prevent them from carrying their ovicidal propensities into effect.
“This reversal of the great law of Nature is not confined to birds. The sow and the rabbit, if
disturbed at the critical moment, will not unfrequently devour their offspring—as those know, to their
cost, whose impatience has brought their prying eyes to look into the mystery. We forget that, in
their natural state, the first care of all vertebrated animals is to hide their eggs or young. The same
may be said of insects, crustaceous, and even of molluscous animals. In proportion as the organisation
is developed, the sensitiveness to the violation of this principle increases. The quadruped, in a state
of morbid irritation, devours its young; the bird forsakes its nest, or destroys its eggs.”
A wedge-tailed eagle, captured by Captain Waterhouse, in an excursion to Broken Bay, in New
South Wales, gave proof of its strength by forcing its talons through a man's boot, while lying at the
bottom of a boat with its legs tied together. During the ten days it was a captive, it refused to be fed
* Aquila Fucosa: .Cuvier.
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THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE.
26

THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE. * 43
by any except one particular person. But its patience was then gone; for, one morning, it was found
to have divided the strands of the rope by which it was fastened, and to have made its escape.
The Sea Eagles form a separate group, distinct from the Eagles proper. They inhabit the sea-
coast, or the banks of the larger rivers and inlets, where they prey on fish and aquatic birds.
Occasionally, when fresh food fails, they will gorge themselves on carrion, remaining for days beside
the carcase. As many as nine have been seen together in the Orkneys, winging their way towards
some tempting feast.
THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE."
THIs bird, called in Gaelic the Erne, is the commonest of the Eagle tribe, and along some parts of the
English and Scotch coast may be seen frequently. In Iceland it is a bird of every-day occurrence.
“The whole length of an adult male,” says Mr. Yarrell, “is about twenty-eight inches. The beak
and cere are yellow, the irides straw-yellow; the head and neck brownish-ash, made up by a mixture
of yellowish-white and brown, the shaft of each feather the darkest part ; body and wings dark brown,
intermixed with a few feathers of a lighter colour; primaries nearly black; tail entirely white, and
slightly rounded in form, the middle feathers being the longest ; the legs and toes yellow, the claws
black.” The female lays two eggs, about the same size and shape as those of a goose; and the young are
reared on fish or flesh, until they are able to sally forth with their parents in quest of prey, when they
speedily assume an independent course.
THE BIRD OF WASHINGTON.f
AUDUBON, the celebrated naturalist, was, on a winter's evening, in a vessel ascending the Upper
Mississippi, when the keen blast that whistled over the heads of the voyagers, and the cold from which
he personally suffered, almost extinguished the interest which, at other times, this river had awakened
in his mind. He lay stretched beside the patroon, the safety of the cargo was forgotten, and the only
thing that excited his attention was the multitude of ducks and the vast flocks of swans that were
passing onwards. His patroon, a Canadian, a man of much intelligence, and engaged for many years
in the fur trade, seemed only anxious to find some new object for Audubon's diversion, when an eagle
flew over them, “How fortunate 1” he exclaimed ; “this is what I could have wished. Look, sir! it
is the great eagle, and the only one I have seen since I left the lakes.”
Instantly Audubon was on his feet, and, having observed it attentively, concluded, as it became
lost in the distance, that it was a species quite new to him. His patroon assured him that such birds
were rare; that they sometimes followed the hunters, to feed on the carcases of the slain animals, when
the lakes were closed by the ice; but when open, they would dive, in the day time, after fish, and snatch
them up in the manner of the fish-hawk; that they roosted, generally, on the shelves of the rocks on
which they built their nests, of which he had discovered several by the quantity of white exuviae
scattered below. e
A few years afterwards, Audubon was engaged in collecting cray-fish, in one of those flats which
border and divide Green River, in Kentucky, near its junction with the Ohio, from the range of high
cliffs which, for some distance, follow the meanders of that stream. Observing, on the rocks, a quantity
of white ordure, and thinking that owls resorted thither, he mentioned it to one of his companions,
when one of them, who lived near the spot, said it was from the nest of the brown eagle—meaning the
young of the white-headed eagle, with which he was acquainted. Audubon assured him that it could
not be so, as this species never built in such places, but only in trees; when his companion, though
unable to meet his objection, stoutly maintained that a brown eagle, above the usual size, had built
there; that he had espied the nest some days before, and had even seen one of the old birds dive and
catch a fish. This he thought strange, having, till then, always observed that brown and white-headed
eagles procured this kind of food by robbing the fish-hawks; and added, that, if Audubon was anxious
to know what nest it was, he might soon satisfy himself, as the old birds would certainly come and feed
their young with fish, as they had done before, •
In high expectation, the naturalist seated himself about a hundred yards from the foot of the
* Haliaeetus Albicilla : Gould. + Falco Washingtonii: Audubon,
4A CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
rock. Never did time pass more slowly; nor could he help betraying the most impatient curiosity;
for his hopes whispered that the great eagle was about to appear, of which he had a glance on the Upper
Mississippi. Two long hours elapsed before the old bird made his appearance, which was announced by
the loud hissings of two young ones, who crawled to the extremity of the abode, to receive a fine fish.
He had a perfect view of this noble bird, as he held himself to the edging rock, with his tail spread,
and his wings partly so, and hanging something like the bank-swallow.
Audubon trembled, lest a word should escape from his companions; but they entered into his
feelings so far as to be silent, and, though personally but little interested, gazed with him. In a few
minutes the other parent joined her mate, which, from its being so much larger, they knew to be the
mother-bird. She, also, had brought a fish; but, more cautious than her mate, her quick and piercing
eye glanced around before she alighted, and, instantly detecting the discovery of her concealed nest, she
dropped her prey, alarmed the male by a loud shriek, hovered with him over the heads of the observers,
and kept up a growling, threatening cry, to intimidate them from their suspected design—a watchful
solicitude Audubon had ever found peculiar to the female.
The young having hid themselves, the lookers-on went and picked up the fish which the mother
had let fall : it was a white perch, weighing about five pounds and a half; the upper part of the head
was broken in, and the back torn by the talons of the eagle, and which they had plainly seen her
carrying in the manner of the fish-hawk. The day's sport being now at an end, they agreed to return
the next morning, being most anxious to obtain both the old and young birds; but rainy and
tempestuous weather setting in, it was the third day before, with men and guns all ready, they reached
the rock.
Some posted themselves at its foot, and others upon it, but all in vain. The entire day passed
without seeing or hearing an eagle; for the sagacious birds, no doubt anticipating an attack, had gone
with their young to fresh quarters. Thus, the expedition which had excited so much hope signally failed.
Two years elapsed since the discovery of the nest, in fruitless excursions, when Audubon, returning
from the little village of Henderson to the house of Dr. R.—, about a mile distant, saw an eagle rise from
an inclosure not a hundred yards before him, where the Doctor had, a few days before, slaughtered some
hogs, and there alight upon a low tree branching over the road. He prepared his double-barrelled piece,
which he constantly carried, and went slowly and cautiously towards him; but, quite fearless, the eagle
waited his approach, and looked on him with an undaunted eye. At the first fire he fell, and, before he
could be reached, was dead. “With what delight,” says Audubon, “I surveyed this magnificent bird!
Not even Herschel, when he discovered the famous planet that bears his name, could have
experienced more happy feelings; for, to have something new to relate, to become yourself a contributor
to science, must excite the proudest emotions of the human heart. I ran and presented the bird to
my friend, with a pride that those only can feel who, like me, have devoted their earliest childhood to
such pursuits, and have derived from them their first of pleasures; to others, I must seem “to prattle
out of fashion.” The Doctor, who was an experienced hunter, examined the bird with much satisfac-
tion, and frankly acknowledged he had never before seen or heard of it. The name I chose for this
new species of eagle was the “Bird of Washington, from its being indisputably the noblest of the genus
known to naturalists.”
Audubon subsequently verified the account of this bird, given by his patroon on the Upper
Mississippi, as he felt particularly anxious to learn its habits, and in what respects it differed from the
rest of the genus. “In the United States,” he says, “from Massachusetts to Louisiana, on the sea-
board, or as high as the mouth of the Missouri to the north-west (I speak only of the extent of
country I have visited, and where I have seen them), these birds are very rare. This will appear to
all, when I say, that, during my many long peregrinations, I never found more than eight or nine, and
only one nest.” *
THE WHITE-HEADED SEA EAGLE,”
THOUGH in the early stages of its growth there is little to distinguish this bird from the young of
the Great Sea Eagle, the difference is clearly manifest in after-life, in the pure whiteness of its head
and neck, from which it has been popularly, but erroneously, called the “Bald Eagle.”
,” * Halicetus Leucocephalus,
THE WHITE-HEADED SEA EAGLE. 45
The plumage continues of a brown gray until the third year, when the white begins to appear on
the head, neck, tail-coverts, and tail, and they are nearly, if not completely, white by the end of the
fourth year. As, too, the head becomes whitened, the eye, at first hazel, acquires a brilliant straw-
colour.
Meanwhile, the upper parts of the body present a mixture of brown and dirty-white, the separate
THE SEA EAGLE,
feathers having a ground of the latter hue, and being deeply tipped and broadly barred with the former.
The quill-feathers and primary wing-coverts are black, with their shafts of a pale brown; the secondary
are considerably lighter; and the tail, which slightly projects beyond the extremities of the wings, is
brown on the outer quills, and of a mixed white and brown on the inner. The under surface, as far
backward as the middle of the belly, is of a dull white, with numerous broad streaks of pale brown; on

- 46 CASSELLPS POPULAR, NATURAL HISTORY.
the hinder part it is of a deep brown, the feathers being only slightly margined with white. A similar
hue prevails on the upper parts of the legs, which are plumed somewhat below the knees. The beak
is of a dusky brown; the cere and legs of a golden yellow ; the iris somewhat lighter; and the talons
deep blackish-brown, long, sharply curved, of considerable power, and extremely sharp at the points.
Fully grown, this eagle measures upwards of three feet from beak to tail, and more than seven in the
expanse of its wings.
This bird is common to both hemispheres, and is occasionally met with from a high northern
latitude to the borders of the torrid zone, but chiefly in the vicinity of the sea, and along the shores
and cliffs of lakes and large rivers. Formed for braving the severest cold; feeding alike on the
produce of the sea and the land; capable of outstripping in its flight the fury of the tempest;
unawed by nothing but man; and from the ethereal heights to which it soars, looking at a glance
on an immeasurable expanse of ocean, as well as of forests, fields, and lakes, far below, it appears
indifferent to the change of season in a given locality; as, in a few hours, it can pass from summer
to winter, from the lower to the higher regions of the atmosphere—the abode of constant cold—
and thence descend at will to the torrid or the frigid regions of the globe. Théºwhite-Headed Eagle
is, therefore, found in all seasons in the countries where it dwells, but prefers the localities in which
it can banquet on fish.
It would appear that this eagle is partial to the vicinity of cataracts, great numbers of them
frequenting the Falls of Niagara; and, in Lewis and Clark's expedition, we meet with the following
account of one of their nests, which must have added not a little to the picturesque effect of the
magnificent scenery at the falls of the Missouri:-* Just below the pitch,” say these travellers, “is a
little island in the middle of the river well covered with timber. Here, on a cotton-wood tree, an eagle
had fixed its nest, and seemed the undisputed mistress of the spot, to contest whose dominion neither
man nor beast would venture across the gulfs which surround it, and which is further secured by the
mists rising from the falls.” s:
“In the month of May,” says Wilson, “while on a shooting excursion along the sea-coast, not far
from Great Egg Harbour, accompanied by my friend, Mr. Ord, we were conducted about a mile into
the woods to see an eagle's nest. On approaching within a short distance of the place, the bird was
perceived slowly retreating from the nest, which, we found, occupied the centre of the top of a very large
yellow pine. The woods were cut down, and cleared off for several rods around the spot, which
circumstance gave the stately, erect trunk, and large, crooked, wriggling branches of the tree,
surmounted by a black mass of sticks and brush, avery singular and picturesque effect. Our conductor
had brought an axe with him to cut down the tree; but my companion, anxious to save the eggs, or
young, insisted on ascending to the nest, which he fearlessly performed, while we stationed ourselves
below, ready to defend him, in case of an attack from the old eagles. No opposition, however, was
offered ; and, on reaching the nest, it was found, to our disappointment, empty. It was built of large
sticks, some of them several feet in length; within it lay sods of earth, sedge, grass, dry reeds, &c.,
piled to the height of five or six feet, by more than four in breadth; it was well lined with fresh pine-
tops, and had little or no concavity. Under this lining lay the recent exuviae of the young of the
present year, such as scales of the quill, feathers, down, &c. Our guide had passed this place late in
February, at which time both male and female were making a great noise about the nest; and, from what
we afterwards learnt, it is highly probable it contained young, even at that early time of the season.”
The white-headed eagle commonly obtains food by snatching from the fish-hawk—a variety of the
osprey—the hard-earned morsel for which the latter has watched in vain. “Elevated,” says Wilson,
“on the high, dead limb of some gigantic tree that commands a wide view of the neighbouring shore
and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue
their busy avocations below; the snow-white gulls slowly winnowing the air; the busy tringe coursing
along the sands; trains of ducks streaming over the surface; silent and watchful cranes, intent and
wading; clamorous crows, and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid
magazine of Nature. High over all these hovers one whose action instantly arrests his attention. By
his wide curvature of wing and sudden suspension in the air, he knows him to be the fish-hawk,
settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight, and, balancing himself
with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches the result,
grº
THE WHITE-HEADED SEA EAGLE. 47.
“Down, rapid as an arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its
wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around ! At this moment,
the eager looks of the eagle are all ardour; and, levelling his neck for flight, he sees the fish-hawk
once more emerge struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation,
These are the signals for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, and soon gains
on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying in these rencontres the
most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unincumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just
on the point of reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair, and honest
execration, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more
certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp, ere it reaches the water, and bears
his ill-gotten booty silently away to the woods.” *
Sometimes, however, the fish-hawks assemble in bands too numerous for the eagle to encounter,
and he is driven to hunt for himself. He then usually retires inland, and occasionally destroys great
numbers of young pigs and lambs. At other times, he contents himself with fowl; and ducks, geese,
and gulls fall victims to his insatiable appetite. *,
A vivid picture of the eagle, in such circumstances, has also been painted by the pencil of Audubon:—
“To give you,” he says, “some idea of the nature of this bird, permit me to place you on the
Mississippi, on which you may float gently along, while approaching winter brings millions of water-
fowl, on whistling wings, from the countries of the north, to seek a milder climate in which to Sojourn
for a season. The eagle is seen perched in an erect attitude on the highest summit of the tallest tree,
by the margin of the broad stream. His glistening but stern eye looks over the vast expanse; he
listens attentively to every sound that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing now and then on the
earth beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn may pass unheard. s
“His mate is perched on the opposite side, and, should all be tranquil and silent, warns him, by a
cry, to continue patient. At this well-known call, the male partly opens his broad wings, inclines his
body a little downwards, and answers to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac. The
next moment he resumes his erect attitude, and again all around is silent. Ducks of many species—
the teal, the widgeon, the mallard, and others—are seen passing with great rapidity, and following the
course of the current; but the eagle heeds them not—they are at that moment beneath his attention.
The next moment, however, the wild, trumpet-like sound of a yet distant but approaching Swan is
heard. A shriek from the female eagle comes agross the stream ; for, kind reader, she is fully as alert
as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes the whole of his body, and, with a few touches of his bill,
aided by the action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumage in an instant.
“The snow-white bird is now in sight; her long neck is stretched forward; her eye is on the
watch, vigilant as that of her enemy; her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her
body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her very legs are spread
beneath her tail to aid her flight. She approaches, however. The eagle has marked her for his prey.
As the swam is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, in full preparation for
the chase, with an awful scream that to the swan's ear brings more terror than the report of the large
duck-gun. Now is the moment to witness the eagle's powers. He glides through the air like a falling
star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair,
seeks, by various manoeuvres, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons; it mounts, doubles, and willingly
would plunge into the stream, were it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the know-
ledge that by such a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air, by attempting
to strike it with its talons from beneath.
“The hope of escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and
its strength fails in the sight of the courage and swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to
escape when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talons the under side of its wing, and, with unresisted
power, forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore. It is then, reader, that
you may see the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feathered race, whilst, exulting over his prey,
he, for the first time, breathes at ease.
“He presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws deeper than ever into the heart of
the dying swan. He shrieks with delight as he feels the last convulsions ct his prey, which has now
48 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
sunk under his unceasing efforts to render death as painfully felt as it can possibly be. The female has
watched every movement of her mate, and, if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was not
from want of will, but merely because she felt full assurance that the power and courage of her lord
were quite sufficient for the deed. She now sails to the spot, where he eagerly awaits her, and, when she
has arrived, they together turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and gorge themselves with gore.
“At other times, when these eagles, sailing in search of prey, discover a goose, a duck, or a swan,
that has alighted on the water, they accomplish its destruction in a manner that is worthy of our
attention. Well aware that water-fowl have it in their power to dive at their approach, and thereby
elude their attempts upon them, they ascend into the air, in opposite directions, over the lake or river
on which the object they are desirous of possessing has been observed. Both reach a certain height,
immediately after which, one of them glides with great swiftness towards the prey; the latter, mean-
THE CAPTURED SWAN.
time, aware of the eagle's intention, dives the moment before he reaches the spot. The pursuer then
rises in the air, and is met by its mate, which glides towards the water-bird that has just emerged to
breathe, and forces it to plunge again beneath the surface, to escape the talons of this second assailant.
The first eagle is now poising itself in the place where its mate formerly was, and rushes anew to force
the quarry to make another plunge. By thus alternately gliding, in rapid and oft-repeated rushes, over
the ill-fated bird, they soon fatigue it, when it stretches out its neck, swims deeply, and makes for the
shore, in the hope of concealing itself among the rank weeds. But this is of no avail; for the eagles
follow it in all its motions, and, the moment it approaches the margin, one of them darts upon it.”
The flight of the white-headed eagle, when taken into consideration with the ardour and energy of
his character, is noble and interesting. Sometimes the human eye can just discern him, like a minute
speck, moving in slow curvatures, along the face of the earth; at others, he glides along in a direct
horizontal line, at a vast height, with expanded and unmoving wings, till he gradually disappears in
the distant blue ether.
THE FISH-HAWK, OR OSPREY.”
A NATIVE both of the old and new continents, the Osprey is everywhere a bird of passage. In spring
it visits the shores of the larger rivers and lakes of Russia, Germany, and the middle provinces of
Europe, and is occasionally seen in England, where, unfortunately, it is greatly persecuted.
* Falco Haliaeetus: Linn.






THE FISH-HAWK, OR OSPREY. 49
On the arrival of these birds in the northern parts of the United States, in March, they sometimes
find the bays and ponds frozen, and experience a difficulty for many days in procuring fish. Yet, no
instance is recorded of their attacking birds or inferior land animals, with intent to feed on them
though their great strength of wing, as well as of their feet and claws, would seem to render this
easy. But no sooner do they arrive than they wage war on the white-headed eagles, sometimes
succeeding, by force of numbers and perseverance, in driving them from their haunts, but seldom or
never attacking them in single combat.
Their first appearance is welcomed by the fishermen, as the happy signal of the approach of the
vast shoals of herrings, shad, and other members of the finny tribes, that regularly arrive on the
American coast. Such is the respect paid to the Fish-Hawk, not only by this class of men, but
generally by the whole neighbourhood where it resides, that a person who should attempt to shoot one
of them would stand a fair chance of being insulted. Its appearance, indeed, procures it many a
benediction from the fisherman, which Wilson, so eminent as an ornithologist, has happily commemo-
rated in the following lines:–
“Soon as the sun, great ruler of the year, | Yoho, my hearts! let's seek the deep,
Bends to our northern climes his bright career, Raise high the song, and cheerily wish her
And from the caves of ocean calls from sleep Still as the bending net we sweep,
The finny shoals and myriads of the deep; * God bless the fish-hawk and the fisher!
When freezing tempests back to Greenland ride
And day and night the equal hours divide;
True to the season, o'er our sea-beat shore,
The sailing osprey high is seen to soar,
With broad unmoving wing, and circling slow,
Marksbach loose straggler in the deep below;
Sweeps down like lightning! plunges with a roar
She brings us fish—she brings us spring,
Good times, fair weather, warmth, and plenty,
Fine stores of shad, trout, herring, ling,
Sheepshead, and drum, and old wives' dainty.
Yoho, my hearts! let's seek the deep,
Raise high the song, and cheerily wish her, ºr
Still as the bending net we sweep,
And bears his struggling victim to the shore. 4.
The long-housed †. beholds with joy God bless the fish-hawk and the fisher!'
The well-known signals of his rough employ, She rears her young on yonder tree,
And, as he bears his net and oars along, She leaves her faithful mate to mind 'em ;
Thus hails the welcome season with a song:— Like us, for fish, she sails to sea,
THE FISHERMAN's HYMN. And, plunging, shows us where to find 'em.
The osprey sails above the sound, Yoho, my hearts 1 let's seek the deep,
The geese are gone, the gulls are flying; Raise high the song, and cheerily wish her,
The herring shoals swarm thick around, Still as the bending net we sweep,
The nets are launched, the boats are plying; “God bless the fish-hawk and the fisher l’”
The plumage of the fish-hawk is remarkably compact: the wings are very long, and extend
considerably beyond the tip of the tail. The general colour of the upper parts is rich glossy-brown, the
tail having alternate bands of a light and a darker colour. The upper part of the head and neck are
white or yellowish-white, a band of brown passing from the beak down the side of the neck. The under
parts are white. The cere and legs are slate-blue, the irides yellow. The entire length is about
two feet ; the extent of the wings about four feet six or eight inches. The female is full two inches
longer, and differs from the male, also, in its colouring. The nest is of very large size, is built in some
great tree near the water, and is composed of such a mass of sticks, sea-weed, grass, and other materials,
as often to measure four feet across.
On leaving the nest, the osprey usually flies direct till it comes to the sea, then sails around, in
easy, curving lines, turning sometimes in the air as on a pivot, apparently with no exertion, rarely
moving the wings, its legs extended in a straight line behind, and its remarkable length and curvature
of wing distinguishing it from all similar birds. The height at which it thus gracefully glides varies
from one to two hundred feet, while it reconnoitres carefully the face of the deep beneath. Suddenly
it is seen to check its course, as if struck by a particular object, which it seems to survey, for a few
moments, so steadily, that it appears as if fixed in the air, and flapping its wings. But the fish on
which it was intent has disappeared, and again the osprey is seen sailing around as before. Again its
attention is arrested, and a descent is made with great rapidity; but, ere it reaches the surface, it shoots
off on another course, as if ashamed that a second victim has escaped. It now sails at a short height
above the surface, and, by a zigzag descent, and without seeming to dip its feet in the Water, seizes a
fish, which it always carries head foremost, and, having ascended a few feet, shakes itself, like a water
spaniel, and directs its heavy and laborious course directly for the land. If the wind blow hard, and
WOL. III. 103
50 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
the nest lie in the quarter from whence it comes, with great judgment and exertion it beats to wind
ward, not in a direct line—that is, “in the wind's eye”—but making several successive tacks, to gain
its purpose. This will appear the more striking when the size of the fish sometimes borne along is
considered. A shad, for instance, was taken from a fish-hawk, which, though it had already ate a
considerable portion of it, weighed six pounds; nor is this a solitary case. It is singular that this bird
never descends to pick up a fish it has dropped, either on the land or in the water. In its fishing pur-
suits, however, it sometimes mistakes its mark, or overrates its strength, by striking fish too large and
powerful for it to manage: thus, it is dragged under the water, and, though it may succeed in extricat-
ing itself, after being taken three or four times down, yet often both fish and fish-hawk perish. The
bodies of sturgeon and other large fish, with that of an osprey fast grappled in them, have, at different
times. heen found dead on the shore, cast up by the waves.
THE OSPREY.
The male assists in incubation, one supplying the other with food, though each, in its turn, going in
quest of some for itself. At such times the male is sometimes observed rising to a great height in the
air, over the nest where its mate is seated, and occasionally uttering a cackling kind of note, by which
the observer can track it in its course. On attaining its utmost elevation, when the eye can no longer
perceive it, it utters a loud shriek, and dives smoothly, on half-extended wings, towards its nest. But
soon it is seen to expand its wings and tail, and to glide towards its mate in a beautifully-curved line;
when she partially raises herself from her eggs, utters a low cry, resumes her former posture, and her
delighted partner flies off to the sea, to seek a favourite fish for her.

PHE CAPE SAGITTARY.º. -
THIs bird resembles, in some degree, the eagle and the crane, having its head shaped like that of the
former, and its body somewhat like the body of the latter. Several long dark-coloured feathers spring
from the back of the head and hang loosely behind, like a pendent crest, and can be erected or depressed
at pleasure. Le Vaillant says:– “The Dutch gave it the name of Secretary, on account of the bunch
of quills behind its head; for, in Holland, clerks, when interrupted in their writing, stick their pen in
their hair, behind the right ear; and to this the tuft of the bird was thought to bear a resemblance.”
º
º º
º
| º -
º
|
TIHE HARPY. EAGLE,
The Hottentots, at the Cape of Good Hope, called this bird Slang-vraters, or Serpent-eater, and in
the destruction of these reptiles, which abound in its native country, it is very serviceable.
On approaching them, it is always careful to carry the point of one of its wings forward, to parry
their venomous bites. Sometimes it spurns and treads upon its antagonist, or else, taking the
serpent upon its pinions, throws it into the air When it has, at length, wearied its adversary, or
rendered it almost senseless, the bird kills and swallows the reptile at leisure without danger.
* Gypogeranus serpentarius: Illig.

52 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
An obstinate battle, conducted with equal address on both sides, was witnessed by M. Le Vaillant.
At length, the serpent, feeling the inferiority of its strength, tried, most cunningly, to regain its hole,
when the bird, apparently guessing its design, placed itself before the reptile at a single leap, and so
cut off its retreat. Again and again it was thus intercepted, when, as if to intimidate the bird, it
erected itself boldly, and, hissing dreadfully, displayed its menacing throat, inflamed eyes, and a head
swollen with rage and venom. Sometimes this threatening appearance produced a momentary cessa-
tion of hostilities; but the bird soon returned to the charge, and, covering its body with one of its
wings as a buckler, struck its enemy with the bony protuberance of the other. Le Vaillant saw the
serpent at last stagger and fall; the conqueror then fell upon it to inflict the coup-de-grace, and, with
one stroke of the beak, laid open the skull. 4.
At this instant, Waillant fired at and killed the bird. On dissecting it, he found in its craw eleven
tolerably large lizards; three serpents, each as long as his arm ; eleven small tortoises, most of which
were about two inches in diameter; and a number of locusts and other insects, several of them
sufficiently whole to be worth preserving and adding to his collection. He observed, too, that, in
addition to this mass of food, the craw contained a sort of ball, as large as the egg of a goose, formed
of the vertebrae of serpents and lizards, shells of different tortoises, and wings, claws, and shields of
different kinds of beetles. This indigestible mass, when sufficiently large, would doubtless have been
disgorged, in the manner of other rapacious birds.
The Secretary Bird makes a flat nest with twigs, full three feet in alameter, and lined with wool
and feathers. This is usually formed in Some high tuft of trees, and is often so well concealed as not
readily to be discovered.
This bird is easily tamed, and, when domesticated, will eat any kind of food, either dressed or raw.
Le Vaillant saw many in this state in the plantations of the Cape. He says, they commonly lay two or
three white eggs, nearly as large as those of a goose. The young remain a great while in the nest;
because, from their legs being long and slender, they cannot easily support themselves. Even at the
age of four months, they may be seen to walk resting on the heel, which gives them an awkward
appearance. Thunberg says they are very apt to break their legs. When, however, they are seven
months' old, and have attained their full size, they display much ease, and even grace, in their motions,
which well accord with the stately figure of the bird. It is very remarkable, that, in all their contests,
these birds strike forwards with their legs, and not backwards, like others.
THE HARPY IEAGLE,%
THE length of this bird, from beak to tail, is three feet and a half, and even more. The head is covered
with a thick, soft, downy plumage, of a light, slaty-gray. Its upper mandible is remarkably thick at
the base, from whence it is continued for some distance in a straight line, but suddenly curves down-
ward with a strong arch towards the point, which is extremely sharp : the lower mandible is
straight, short, and obtuse.
From the back part of the head arises a crest composed of numerous broad feathers, increasing
in length towards the middle of the head, and thus assuming a rounded form, of a dull black, with
the exception of a slight margin of gray on the tips of the longer feathers, and a more extensive
tinge of the same colour on those of the sides. This crest is slightly raised above the level of the
feathers of the back of the neck, when the bird is quiet, but is capable of being raised at right
angles with them on any sudden excitement. Below the crest, the whole of the back and wings,
together with a broad collar encircling the fore part of the neck, is black, without gloss or reflection,
each of the feathers of the back terminating in a narrow, transverse, and somewhat lighter, streak.
The under surface, from the breast backwards, is pure white; and the plumage of the legs is marked,
on the same ground, with transverse blackish bars. -
The tail is crossed by four transverse black bands, of about equal breadth, with the four alternating
whitish or ash-coloured spaces; its tip is of a light-ash colour. The wings do not reach, when closed,
beyond the middle of the tail, which is rounded at the extremity. The legs are only partially feathered
on the upper part of their anterior surface, the remaining portion being naked and reticulated; and
the talons are excessively powerful. The beak and claws are black, and the legs dull yellow.
* Harpyia Destructor.
THE FAL CONs.
*-
FALCONRy seems to have been first introduced into England from the north of Europe. Our Saxon
ancestors became passionately fond of the sport, and appear to have made considerable progress in
the training of the birds. After the conquest of our island by William, none but persons of the
highest rank were allowed to keep hawks—the general name by which all such birds were distinguished.
~.
The mass of the people were then serfs or slaves, and the life of one of them was of less value, in the
eyes of a Norman baron, than that of a hawk, a hound, or a buck. But, in the time of King John,
every freeman was permitted to have eyries of these rapacious birds in his own woods. -
The value attached to them, as well as their aptness to fly away, is evident from a law of Edward
III. According to this, any person finding one of the species was to carry it immediately to the sheriff
of the county, who was to cause a proclamation of it to be made in all the principal towns, and the
owner of the lost bird, if discovered, was to receive it back from the sheriff, on paying the cost incurred
for its maintenance. If not claimed in four months, the hawk was to become the property of the finder,
if the person who found it were of proper rank; but if he were not, the hawk was to be claimed by
the sheriff, who, however, was to give the poor man something for his trouble. Any attempt of the
finder to secrete or appropriate it was, like the stealing a hawk, to be punished as felony. A bishop
of Ely, in the reign of Edward III., excommunicated certain persons for stealing a hawk that was
sitting on her perch in the cloisters of Bermondsey, in Southwark. The guilt of sacrilege, it was con-
tended, was added, in this instance, to that of theft, for the bird was purloined during the performance
of divine service in the choir; but, probably, the ecclesiastic's choler was aroused from the fact of the
hawk being his own. * - -
The following complaint was made by a writer of the fifteenth century, Sebastian Brant :-
“Into the church then comes another sotte,
Withouten devotion, jetting up and down,
Or to be seene, and showe his garded cote;
Another on his fiste a sparhawke or fawcon
Or else a cokow; wasting so his shone.”

B4 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
That the clergy were fond of pastimes is evident from the satires of our old poet, Chaucer, who
represents a monk as more skilled in riding and hunting than in divinity; and taxes such persons
generally with worldly pride, because they rode high-bred horses, like knights, having their hawks
and hounds with them. In France and Italy they were no less addicted to the sports of the field;
and hence Ricordans Malespina, a Florentine, speaks of a churchman hunting and hawking “like a
layman.”
All over Europe hawks were long considered as restricted to the higher ranks. A knight seldom
stirred from his house without his falcon on his wrist, and his hound at his heels: in this way, such
persons are represented in their portraits ; while those who did not die on the field of battle are still
seen, in their sculptured monuments, with a falcon on hand and a dog at their feet.
The Falcon Family were alone employed in the sports that prevailed, and two or three species were
used in preference to others. Of those possessing long wings, the falcon proper and the ger-falcon, and
of the short-winged, the goshawk and the sparrow-hawk, were in special request ; and, next to these,
the hobby, the kestrel, the merlin, and the buzzard, were preferred. The female, which, in all the
varieties of this tribe, is considerably larger than the male ºwas alone employed in sport, and the
common names of all the species apply to that sex, the male having usually some distinctive appella-
tion. Thus, the male of the ger-falcon was called the Jerkin; of the falcon proper, the Tierce Gentle ; of
the goshawk, the Tiercel ; and of the sparrow-hawk, the Musket. The word gentle, moreover, so often
used, has no reference to the disposition of the bird, but to its being reclaimed and duly trained for
falconry. -
The attire of one of these birds, which was used from the first, is worthy of notice. A leathern
hood, surmounted with gay feathers, was worn on the head, to shut up the eyes; straps, called jesses,
were fitted to the legs; a small silver bell was attached to each of them; and the leash, a long slender
strap, sometimes lengthened by a creance, or common cord, was used as a tether, while it made a con-
siderable allowance for free motion. The bird was first manned—that is, used to the presence of human
beings. When it did right, it was fed; when otherwise, it was left hungry; and, when very refrac-
tory, a stream of water was directed at its head. One object was, to teach the bird to fly at its proper
game, and another, to bring it back to its master's hand. The first was sought, in the case of long-
winged birds, by a lure, consisting of a stick or cord, at the end of which were pieces of flesh, with a
bunch of feathers, or an actual resemblance of the intended prey. A falcon being set loose by one
man, another, standing at a distance, waved the lure round his head, and thus tempted the bird to
advance and strike at it. A whistle was used to bring back the hawk, which, when kept on the hand,
required very strong gloves as a defence from its talons. -
Izaak Walton says:–“In the air, my noble, generous falcon ascends to such a height as the dull
eyes of beasts and fish are not able to reach to—their bodies are too gross for such high elevation—but
from which height I can make her descend by a word from my mouth, which she both knows and
obeys; to accept of meat from my hand; to own me for her master; to go home with me ; and be
willing the next day to afford me like recreation.” - *
Edmund Bert, in his “Treatise of Hawks and Hawking,” says:–“I have heard of some who
watched and kept their hawks awake seven nights and as many days, and yet they would be wild,
rammish, and disorderly.” His own experience must have been considerable, for he reared these birds
himself, and boasted that he had sold a simple goshawk and tercel of his training for one hundred
marks. Indeed, nearly all his time, except when he slept, must have been occupied by his birds;
and wisely he seems to have thought, for he naively remarks:—“I feel it most burdensome to spend
my time idly.” In the reign of James I., Sir Thomas Monson is said to have given £1,000 for a cast
of hawks: a cast denoting two, as a lese did three.
The sports of those times, as of later date, were not without their difficulties and perils. Old
Hall relates, indeed, that Henry VIII., on one occasion, nearly lost his life when engaged in hawking.
It was the custom, not only to cast off the falcon and follow it on horseback, but also, where the
ground was broken, covered with wood, or intersected by marshes or water, to pursue the pastime
on foot ; in the latter case, each sportsman carried a long pole, to aid him in jumping over rivulets
and ditches. Vaulting over a ditch at Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, Henry's pole broke, and he fell
head downward into the deep mud, which almost smothered him; and there he would have died, but
THE FALCONS. 55
for one John Moody, a serving-man, who, happening to be near, leaped into the ditch, and rescued
the king. “And so,” says the chronicler, “God in his goodnesse preserved hym.”
Of falconry there are many traces in our choicest literature. Boccacio, in one of his most
touching stories, relates that a reduced gentleman long wooed a lady unsuccessfully, but, at length,
on her visiting him, having no other means of entertaining her, Sacrificed his falcon for her meal, and
thereby, though without design, gained her affections. Dante and Spenser, as well as Chaucer, allude
to this royal, princely, and noble pastime. Shakespeare, thinking of setting off the hawk on her
flights, makes Othello exclaim, respecting the suspected Desdemona—
“I’ll whistle her off, and let her down the wind,
To prey at fortune;”
as the poet, dwelling on the bird descending on its prey, puts the frantic question into the lips
of Macduff—
“What! all my pretty ones, all ?”
Not less clearly are many of our words to be traced to falconry. George Turbervile, in his
“Booke of Falconrie or Hawking,” has a chapter “of accidents that happen and light uppom a hawkes
feathers, and first how to use the matter when a feather cannot be ymped.” And then he proceeds
to tell “the way and manner how to ympe a hawkes feather, howsoever it be broken or bruised;”
and four modes of operating, according to circumstances, are described. And, singularly enough,
Milton speaks of “imping his wing for a bolder flight.” In like manner, Sir Philip Sidney says, in
praise of Edward IV—
“Not for his fair outside, nor well-ſilled brain,
Although less gifts imp feathers oft on Fame.”
As hawks were kept hooded till they were ready to fly, we have the word hood-wink, meaning to
blind by covering the eyes. Thus, Shakespeare says—
“We will blind and hood-wink him.”
And again–
“For the prize I'll bring thee to,
Shall hood-wink this mischance.”
The lure has also become an image of any enticement, as that of beauty or gain. Bacon speaks of
“standing by one that lured loud and shrill ;” Temple, of being “lured on by the pleasures of the
bait;” while Gay says–
“And various science lures the learmed eye.”
The term hawker is traced by some to the persons who reared these birds, and carried them
about for sale. But of the origin of the word mews there can be no doubt. In falconers’ language,
it meant strictly a place where hawks mewed—from mew, or shedding of feathers, which occurred at
their moulting season. Henry VIII. removed the royal hawks from the mews at Charing Cross,
where they had been kept during many reigns, and converted that place into stables. The name,
however, confirmed by usage during so long a period, remained to the building, close to, if not on
the very site of the National Gallery, as will be remembered by many of the fathers of the present
generation, which continued to be called the “King's Mews,” though long since Henry VIII. had
so changed its distinction as to render the name wholly inapplicable. Nor is another fact less
remarkable, when, in times after those of that monarch, the people of London began to build ranges
of stabling at the back of their streets and houses, they called those places “mews,” after the old
stabling at Charing Cross, which, as we have shown, was mis-named from the time that the royal
hawks ceased to find there a domicile.
Some of the sayings of country people have, doubtless, originated in the practice of falconry.
Thus, a stupid fellow has often been described as one “that can't tell a hawk from a handsaw.” Here
the word “hawk” leads us at once back to the practice; but this is done still more fully by the other
word, which should be “hernsaw,” or “hernshaw;” these being, for ages, popular names of the heron,
very frequently the game of the falcon, and so used by Spenser and other English writers. The
56 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
proverb is as old as the time of Shakespeare, who puts it into the mouth of Hamlet. John Shaw,
in his curious book, “Speculum Mundi"—The World's Looking Glass—informs us that “the heron,
are or hernsaw, is a large fowle that liveth about waters,” and that hath a
º marvellous hatred to the hawk, which hatred is duly returned. “When
they fight above in the air," he says, “they labour both especially for
this one thing, that one may ascend and be above the other. Now, if
the hawk getteth the upper place, he overthroweth and vanquisheth the
heron with a marvellous earnest flight.” The contrary, however, was
- sometimes the case, for the heron received the hawk on its long, sharp
FOOT OF THE FALCON. bill, and so transfixed and killed her.
James I., in his book of advice to his eldest son, Henry, Prince of Wales, after commending
certain manly exercises, thus wrote:-"As for hawking, I condemn it not, but I must praise it more
sparingly, because it neither resembleth the warres so neere as hunting doeth, in making a man hardie
and skilfully ridden in all grounds, and is more -
uncertain and subject to mischances; and, which
is worst of all, is there through an extreme
stirrer-up of the passions.” Such passions,
however, it has long ceased to stir in our
country. The invention of gunpowder, and
the gradual improvement of fowling-pieces, and
more than all, the enclosure of land, have been
fatal to hawking as a frequent sport; while
books and pictures, intellectual employments
and amusements of various kinds, offer their
advantages to the many, instead of being re-
stricted, like falconry in former times, to the
practice of the few.
The greatest falconer of modern times was
one of the Lord Orfords, who died towards the
close of the last century. He is said to have
incurred an expense of £100 per annum for
every hawk he kept, for it had its separate
attendant, and was sent, like its fellows, on
occasional voyages to the continent, for the pre-
servation of its plumage and courage. The Grand
Falconer was one of the most illustrious officers
of the royal courts of Europe, from whom we,
probably, borrowed the idea, and with us the
distinction became hereditary. In the year 1828,
the Duke of St. Albans, the hereditary Grand THE FALCON.
Falconer of England, gave a display of this practice at Redbourne, near St. Albans. The birds,
eight fine falcons, were each chained to a section of a cone of wood, about fifteen inches in height,
and ten inches in diameter at the base. They were unhooded, but belled, and mostly sat at the top
of their posts.
Six of them were taken for the sport of the day. A dog having pointed, a hawk was unhooded
and loosed; it rose, wheeling over the heads of the party, sweeping to the right and left; now
ascending into the mid-air in the distance, and now obeying the hawker's call. The partridge was
flushed, and flew with the wind towards the company, when the hawk suddenly crossed its line of
flight, and, seizing it at a height of thirty or forty yards, bore it in his beak, screaming and bleeding,
over the heads of the company, conveying it down to the belt of an adjoining plantation. The falcon
was recovered. Other flights, which it is needless to describe, were not so successful, and some of the
falcons flew off, and could not be recovered to the hand of the falconer. We now meet with hawking
occasionally, as varying the sports which are still kept up in our country.



THE ICELAND FALCON."
BRED in the crags of the Polar rocks, this fine bird is well prepared for the fitful and furious blasts
which occasionally rage in countries near the ice; and, though its neighbouring prey might seem to be
scanty, yet for this it is amply compensated, as it surpasses all the falcons in its command of the air.
Though the distance from Iceland to those parts of Scotland and the isles where it is seen is
about five hundred miles, this is said to be merely a morning's journey for this falcon, from which it
can easily return the same evening. When in mature plumage, it is white, with bars and barb-shaped
dashes of brown, which become less and less with age, though they are seldom or never lost. It is
found only in the wilds, and, therefore, its habits, in a state of nature, are much less known than
those of many of the tribe.
Its names are numerous, for, in different
stages of its plumage, it has been taken for as ,
many species. It has often been called the Ger-
Falcon, and yet there is said to be a difference
in flight, and in the mode of making the stoop,
between this bird and the Iceland Falcon. It
is also stated that the ger-falcon is commonly
obtained in Norway, where the true Iceland
falcon is never met with ; that the measure-
ments of the tail and wings differ; that they
require different modes of training; and that
the Iceland bird is more intractable than the
ger-falcon of Norway, but of higher courage,
and of more bold and rapid flight.
Sir John Richardson states that it is a
constant resident in the Hudson's Bay terri-
tories, and mentions the following incident:- -
“In the middle of June, a pair of these :
birds attacked me as I was climbing in the
vicinity of their nest, which was built on a lofty ºf
precipice on the borders of Point Lake, in -
latitude 65!”. They flew in circles, uttering
loud and harsh screams, and alternately
stooping with such velocity that their motion
through the air produced a loud, rushing noise; "
they struck their claws within an inch or two
of my head. I endeavoured, by keeping the
barrel of my gun close to my cheek, and sud-
denly elevating its muzzle when they were in
the act of striking, to ascertain whether they had the power of instantaneously changing the direction
of their rapid course, and found that they invariably rose above the obstacle with the quickness of
thought, showing equal acuteness of vision and power of motion. Although their flight was much
more rapid, they bore considerable resemblance to the snowy owl.”
THE ICELAND FALCON."
THE PEREGRINE FALCON,+
It is only to look at a male bird of this species, when in full plumage, to see, in its compact muscu.
larity of form, and in its openness and boldness of expression, an example of perfect adaptation to
swiftness of wing and a life of rapine.
The Peregrine is only met with in certain localities in England, as the cliff near Freshwater, in the
* Falco Islandicus: Hanc. + Falco peregrinus; Gmel,
WOL. II*, 104.



58 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Isle of Wight, the Devonshire and Cornish coasts, Holyhead, and Great Orme's Head. It was more
common when used in falconry. On entering the Scottish frontier, it is still found; it is rarer in the
lower and richer valley of the Forth or Mid-Lothian, but on rising to the Highland ranges it again
prevails. In Ireland, it occurs in all suitable localities. Though it appears in America, it is of more
rare occurrence than the hawks, which delight in wooded tracts, and is scarce, therefore, in the wooded
parts of the fir countries. It is migratory in Louisiana, and seldom occurs in the middle and southern
States, while, in some parts of America, Audubon thinks these birds may breed; and the Falls of
Niagara, mentioned as one station, would quite accord with the habits of the Peregrine Falcon. It -
seems, also, to have been observed in Africa, and it is supposed to occur in the Alpine regions of India.
The nest, composed of a considerable mass of sticks and coarse stems of grasses or ferns, is usually
placed on the face of some precipitous cliff, resting on a shelve of the rock, on the tuft of vegetation, or
the peregrine Falcox."
in a horizontal cleft. But an eyrie has been observed, placed in such a cleft, while the eggs were laid
on the bare surface, among the refuse of plane-roots, the spot being rendered slightly hollow by a
little working with the breast of the bird.
The variations of plumage which occur in the different ages of the peregrine has greatly confused
descriptions of this species. In the first year it is generally of a light brown on the upper parts, with
an ash-coloured tinge on the middle of the feathers; its head and neck are whitish, tinged with red,
and numerous dark-brown spots; its throat and under parts are dirty white, with longitudinal spots of
brown; its cere is of a blueish horn-colour, and its legs are yellow. It is only at the third or fourth
moulting that the peregrine assumes any settled character; and, even after that time, the bird gradu-
ally becomes lighter as it advances in age.
The peregrine falcon has a peculiarity of character which is not very distinct in the young male,
and is more faintly marked in the female. It consists of a broad black streak passing downward

THE PEREGRINE FALCON. 59.
obliquely over the cheeks from the inner angle of each eye, and giving to the bird a very singular
expression of countenance. When full grown, the beak is lead-coloured, with a darker tip; the cere
has a greenishtinge; theirides are yellow; the upper parts of the head and neck are of a blueish-black;
the back has a lighter tinge of lead-colour, crossed by scarcely perceptible blackish bars; and the black -
whiskers are strongly developed. The quill-feathers of the wings and tail are of a dusky black—the
latter being crossed by numerous ash-coloured bars, and yellowish-white at the tip; all the under parts
are white; a series of transverse brownish bars begin on the lower part of the breast and extend to
the tail; the upper part of the breast is marked by a few longitudinal streaks, but the throat is
entirely free.
The flight of the peregrine is amazingly rapid. Unless disappointed in its chase of prey, it is
rarely seen sailing; and even then it rises with
a broad, spiral circuit, to a sufficient height to
reconnoitre a certain space below. Its search i.
often made with a flight resembling that of a
tame pigeon, until, catching sight of an object, it
redoubles its flappings, and nears the timorous
quarry at every turn and back-cutting which it
attempts. Arriving within a few feet of it, the
peregrine protrudes its powerful legs and talons:
to their full stretch. Its wings are, for a moment,
almost closed; the next, it seizes the prize, which, -
if too weighty to be instantly carried off, it forces
obliquely towards the ground, sometimes a hun-
dred yards from where it was captured, to kill or
devour it on the spot.
“The peregrine,” says Sir John Sebright,
“seems often to strike down birds for his amuse-
ment; and I have seen one knock down and
kill two rooks, who were unlucky enough to
cross his flight, without taking the trouble to
look at them after they fell. In the plain
country, near the sea-shore, the peregrine fre-ºs
quently pursues the peewits and other birds.
that frequent the coast. The golden plover,
too, is a favourite prey, and affords the hawk a
severe chase before he is caught. I have seen
a pursuit of this kind last for nearly ten min-
utes, the plover turning and doubling, like a hare is
before greyhounds, at one moment darting like
an arrow into the air, high above the falcon's
head; at the next, sweeping round some bush MERLINs. *
or headland, but in vain. The hawk, with
steady, relentless flight, without seeming to hurry herself, never gives up the chase till the poºr
plover, seemingly quite exhausted, slackens her pace, and is caught by the hawk's talons in mid-air
and carried off to a convenient hillock, or stone, to be quietly devoured.” -
THE MERLIN.”
THIs beautiful bird is one of the smallest of our falcons, but its form is perfect in symmetry,
and its colours, though distributed somewhat similarly, are more brilliant and better marked. Nor
does it, like that falcon, often rise above its prey, and then rush down; but it instantly gives chase
closely following the victim through all its turns and windings, and is generally successful, unless cover
* Falco assalon: Willoughby, -





30 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
i. at hand. When passing from one part of an inclosed country to another, it flies with arrow-like
rapidity.
The Merlin is found in various parts of the United Kingdom, and also in America. Its nest is
generally placed on a projecting rock, bank, or tuft of heath, and is usually very accessible. It is
composed of a few sticks or stalks of heather, loosely and coarsely laid together, and has no lining. The
eggs are from three to five in number, of a dark reddish-brown, with darker spots and blotches—the
colour, form, and markings, with the variations of the different specimens, resembling those of the
peregrine. The female is easily approached at first ; but, if disturbed more than once, or fired at, it
becomes extremely shy. Her mate is generally near at hand, perched on some rising ground or rocky
height, and gives notice of the approach of any intruder by very shrill cries and rapid flight around.
“The merlin,” says Mr. Lloyd, “is a very bold bird, and seems afraid of nothing. I one day
TILE 110EEY.
winged one as he was passing over my head at a great height. The little fellow, small as he was,
flung himself on his back when I went to pick him up, and gave battle most furiously, darting out his
talons (which were as hard and sharp as needles) at everything that approached him. We took him
home, however, and I put him into the walled garden, where he lived for more than a year. He very
soon became quite tame, and came on being called to receive his food, which consisted of birds, mice,
&c. So fearless was he, that he flew instantly at the largest kind of sea-gull or crow that we gave
him. When hungry, and no other food was at hand, he would attend the gardener when digging, and
swallow the large earth-worms when turned up. To my great regret, we found the little bird lying
dead under the tree in which he usually roosted; and, though I examined him carefully, I could not
find out the cause of his death.
“Although all these small hawks which frequent this country destroy a certain quantity of game,
their principal food consists of thrushes, blackbirds, and other small birds. In the winter, when the



THE MERLIN. 61
greenfinches collect in large flocks on the stubble fields, I have frequently seen themerlin and sparrow.
hawk, suddenly glide round the angle of some hedge-row or plantation, and, taking up a bird from the
middle of the flock, carry it off almost before his presence is observed by the rest of the greenfinches.”
THE HOBBy."
THIS falcon, with wings longer in proportion than those of the peregrine, and of great power, occurs
chiefly in the richer and more enclosed districts of our country, and evidently delights in woods, from
whence it can sally forth to prey in an open tract. It breeds on trees, sometimes among the forsaken
nests of the crow or magpie ; the eggs are said to be of a blueish-white, with blotches of yellow or
olive-green.
Montagu and Selby have witnessed the Hobby's chase of the lark, and, like other naturalists,
have noticed its strong predilection for this prey. It is a very active bird; was formerly trained to
“hawk;” quails and larks were its principal game, but partridges were sometimes attempted. The
hobby is common in France, Germany, and other countries of Europe, and has been met with even
in the deserts of Tartary and Siberia.
THE KESTREL.f.
****
'EHIs is a common bird in many parts of Europe. Its colour is red, spotted with black above; under-
neath it is white, spotted with pale brown; the head and tail of the male are ashy. It frequents the
open country, woods, and old barns. It destroys a great number of small birds, and frequently darts
on partridges and field-mice, while common mice, frogs, and even insects, are often seized as its food.
The female is bolder and less wild than the male, and will enter gardens and come close to habi-
tations. The nest consists of twigs and roots intermingled; sometimes these birds will content
themselves with the old nests of crows. The female lays five or six eggs, of a ferruginous colour,
pale, but marked with deeper spots, irregularly distributed, and of different forms and sizes. The
young are, at first, fed with insects, and afterwards with flesh, brought also by their parents.
The Kestrels hover at great heights, describe a circle, and sustain themselves in the air for a long
time, by beating the air with their wings, in an almost insensible motion. They repeat frequently,
and with a sharp sound, a cry resembling the syllables, pri, pri, pri. On catching sight of prey, they
dart on it with the greatest directness and rapidity; but, should the first attack fail, they pursue it
with extreme velocity and the utmost perseverance.
f
THE GOSHAWK.t
THE colour of the plumage of this bird, in its maturity, is hair-brown, of different shades, generally
darker on the crown, and with the base of the feathers on the back of the neck having so much white
as to be seen in almost any position, and to give this part a spotted appearance. The quills are
darkerjowards the tips, and are barred on the inner webs with a still deeper shade; the tail is barred
with liver-brown, and is tipped with white; the terminal band is broadest, the others decreasing
gradually in their depth of shade upwards; the base of the inner webs is nearly white, clouded with
hair-brown; a streak over the eye, cheeks, and lower parts, white; on the eye, cheeks, throat, and
sides of the neck, it is streaked along the centre of the feathers with clove-brown; on the throat, belly,
and flanks, it is broadly barred with the same colour, the shafts of each feather being of the same tint ;
the plumes of the lower extremities have the bars narrower and of a paler tint; the under-tail coverts
are of pure white; the tarsi and toes are yellow ; the claws black, sharp, and pointed.
The Goshawk prefers for its dwelling-place the wooded dells of the mountains, or the wild cliffs of
the sea-shore; for there it can nestle undisturbed, and easily reach the spots which abound with birds
and small quadrupeds, its usual prey. It flies, however, as civilization advances, and hence is seldom
seen in the lowlands of Scotland, and still more rarely in England.
* Falco subbuteo : Lath. + Falco tinnunculus ; Linn. # Falco palumbarius: Linn,
62 . . . . - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Where it abounds, it is very destructive to mountain game, as it kills the old birds, and the broods
perish. Its eggs seldom exceed four. It formerly was much esteemed among falconers, and flown at
hares, rabbits, &c.
A bird of this kind is found in Syria, of an
extraordinarily courageous and even fierce dis-
position. Dr. Russell says, when describing
Aleppo —“Were there not several gentlemen
now in England to bear witness to the fact, I
should hardly venture to assert that, with this
bird, which is about the size of a pigeon, the in-
habitants sometimes take large eagles. The
hawk, in former times, was taught to seize the
eagle under the pinion, and thus, depriving him
of the use of one wing, both birds fell to the
ground together; but I am informed that the
present mode is to teach the hawk to fix on the
back, between the wings, which has the same
effect, only that, the bird tumbling down more
slowly, the falconer has more time to come to
his hawk's assistance; but, in either case, if he
be not very expeditious, the falcon is inevitably
destroyed.
“I never saw the shaheen fly at eagles, that
sport being disused in my time; but I have often
seen him take herons and storks. The hawk,
when thrown off, flies for some time in a hori-
zontal line, not six feet from the ground, then,
mounting perpendicularly with astonishing swift-
ness, he seizes his prey under the wing, and both
together come tumbling to the ground. If the falconer, however, is not very expeditious, the prey soon
disengages itself.”
º
# S.
º
º
-
.- &
-
THE GOSHAWK,
THE SPARROW-HAWK.3%
NEXT to the kestrel, this is the most abundant of the British birds of prey. It chooses extensive woods
for its retreat, for there it can make excursions, and return, at pleasure, to its roosting-place or its nest.
With a form adapted to pass rapidly among the trunks of trees and in thickets, and with its ample and
rudder-like tail, it has a gliding flight in the open country, skimming at a short distance from the
ground, along the back of hedges or the skirts of some cover, while it passes easily and exactly, with a
bound, any obstacle that appears in its way. With the same rapidity and ease the prey is sized, and
the stoop to the ground is made, and the capture effected so instantaneously as almost to elude
the eye.
The male Sparrow-Hawk preys on smaller birds, his weight not allowing him to carry off a heavy
quarry; but his more powerful mate can easily kill a partridge or a pigeon. Except in peculiar
districts, a wood is chosen as a breeding-place; the nest is composed of sticks and twigs, loosely put
together on a straggling base ; and there are from three to five eggs, of a blueish-white, with large
brown blotches. When incubation begins, the female is shy, but after a time will allow a near approach;
but the male does not watch, like the tree falcons, much less does he trouble himself to imitate their
violent perturbations and vehement screams.
Mr. Ross Cox, in his “Adventures on the Colombia River,” describes a curious adventure with a
hawk. He and his party stopped, one very sultry day, about noon, to rest their horses and enjoy the
cooling shade afforded by a clump of sycamore trees, with a refreshing draught from a neighbouring spring.
* Falco nisus: Linn,










THE AMERICAN SPARROW-HAWK.
35

THE SPARROW-HAWK. 63
Several large hawks were flying about the spot, two of which were brought down; and, from their
great size, huge claws, and large hooked beaks, it was clear they could easily have carried off a common-
sized duck or goose.
Close to the resting-place was a low hill, round the top of which Mr. Cox saw the hawks assemble;
and, judging that a nest was there, he determined, by himself to find it out. He, therefore, cautiously
ascended the eminence, on the summit of which he perceived a nest, larger than a common-sized
market-basket, formed of branches of trees—one being laid regularly over the other, and the least of
them being an inch in circumference. Around it were scattered skeletons, bones, and half-mangled
bodies of pigeons, sparrows, humming and other birds. Next to a rattle-snake and a shark, his greatest
aversion is to a hawk, and this was not diminished by observing the remains of the feathered tribes,
which had, from time to time, been greedily devoured. “I therefore determined,” he says, “to destroy
the nest and disperse its inhabitants; but I had scarcely commenced the work of demolition with my
dagger, when old and young flew out and attacked me in every direction, but particularly about my face
and eyes—the latter of which, as a punishment formy temerity, they seemed determined to separate from
THE SPARROW-HAWK.
their sockets. In the meantime, I roared out lustily for assistance, and laid about me with the dagger.
Three men promptly ran up the hill, and called out to me to shut my eyes and throw myself on the
ground, otherwise I should be shortly blinded, promising, in the meantime, to assist me. I obeyed their
directions; and, just as I began to kiss the earth, a bullet from one of their rifles brought down a large
hawk, apparently the father of the gang. He fell close to my neck, and, in his expiring agonies, made
a desperate bite at my left ear, which I escaped, and in return gave him the coup-de-grace, by thrusting
about four inches of my dagger down his throat. The death of their chieftain was followed by that of
two others, which completely dispersed them, and we retired after breaking up their den.”
THE COMMON. KITE.”
A PECULIAR and graceful mode of flight distinguishes this bird from every British hawk: hence its
provincial name of gled, or glede, from a Saxon verb, whence our modern word to glide, from its gliding
along on pinions outspread, but motionless. The Kite is now rare in England, but to be met with
frequently in most parts of Europe, and the neighbouring districts of Africa.
The male and female differ little in colour or size. The entire upper surface is of a reddish-brown,
each feather being edged with a lighter tint. The feathers of the head and neck are long and pointed,
of a dull grayish-white, with longitudinal streaks of dusky-brown; the under surface is rust colour,
inclining to yellow, with longitudinal dusky spots; the tail is twelve inches long, and much forked;
* Falco milvus: Linn.












64. CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
it is of a bright reddish-brown, with obscure dusky bands. The feathers of the thighs are long and
loose, and the toes of a bright yellow.
The kite prefers open downs and hilly districts, skirted with woods. Its nest, built in the forked
branches of a tall tree, is made of sticks and twigs, and lined with wool, rags, or other soft materials.
There are three eggs, of a blueish-white, with a few brown blotches.
No sooner do the poultry of a farm-yard perceive a kite, than they set up a general scream.
Should, however, the farmer be aroused in defence of his fowls and ducks, and bring forth his gun, the
wary bird will wheel off, in widening circles, until out of danger. But, as soon as the coast is clear,
after a few gyrations, down it sweeps, scattering confusion all around, and then bearing away one of the
terrified broods, screaming in its claws. If once successful, it will repeat the visit.
THE COMMON RITE.
Nºr can a greater enemy be found to the young grouse; even black game and hares are carried
by the kite to its nest. During the season when she has no young ones to provide for, carrion of all
kinds forms her principal food. In consequence of her greed, however, the kite is very easily trapped.
As this bird follows the course of streams, and hunts along the shores of a loch in search of dead fish, or
any kind of drowned animals, one practice is, to peg down the entrails of some creature in the shallow
Qart of the water, and then to place the trap, either on the adjoining shore or on a small artificial
promontory close to the bait.
THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE.”
THIS Kite, SO like. in one respect, the bird with which we are familiar—having a white body, and
the wings and tail black—appears to be peculiar to the American Continent. Its habits and habitats
are thus graphically portrayed by Audubon —
* Falco furcatus: Linn.

THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITÉ. 65
“A solitary individual of this species has once or twice been seen in Pennsylvania. Farther
to the westward the swallow-tailed hawk has never, I believe, been observed. Travelling southward,
along the Atlantic coast, we find it in Virginia, although in very small numbers. Beyond that state
it becomes more abundant. Near the falls of the Ohio a pair had a nest, and reared four young ones,
in 1820. In the lower parts of Kentucky it begins to become numerous; but in the states farther
to the south, and particularly in parts near the sea, it is abundant. In the large prairies of the
Attacapas and Oppelloursas it is extremely common. &
“In the states of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are abundant, they arrive in large
companies in the beginning of April, and are heard uttering a sharp, plaintive note. At this period,
I generally remarked that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of a hundred,
in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly course. At that season, and in the
beginning of September, when they all return from the United States, they are easily approached
when they have alighted, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged in preparing themselves
for continuing their journey, by dressing and oiling their feathers. At all other times, however,
it is extremely difficult to get near them, as they are generally on the wing through the day, and rest at
night on the higher pines and cypresses bordering the river-bluffs, the lakes, or the swamps of that
district of country. º
ſº
A. -
- 2%
ºfflº
gº.” =º %2. -- Ż -
jº
THE SWALLOW. T.AILED KITE,
“They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather, they soar to an immense height,
pursuing the large insects called musquito hawks, and performing the most singular evolutions that
can be conceived, using their tails with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their principal
food, however, is large grasshoppers, green caterpillars, small snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep
close over the fields, sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a snake, and, holding it fast
by the neck, they carry it off, and devour it in the air. When searching for grasshoppers and cater-
pillars, it is not difficult to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one of them is then
and there killed, and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead bird, as if intent on
carrying it off. An excellent opportunity is thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted; and
I have killed several of these hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could load my gun.
“The swallow-tailed hawk pairs immediately after its arrival in the southern states; and, as its
courtships take place on the wing, its motions are then more beautiful than ever. The nest is usually
placed on the top branches of the tallest oak or pine tree, situated on the margin of a stream or pond.
It resembles that of a common crow extremely, being formed of dry sticks, intermixed with Spanish
moss, and is lined with coarse grasses and a few feathers. The eggs are from four to six, of a greenish
white colour, with a few irregular blotches of dark brown at the larger end. ' The male and the female
sit alternately, the one feeding the other. The young are at first covered with a buff-coloured down;
their next covering exhibits the pure white and black of the old birds, but without any of the glossy
WOL. III, 105

68 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
purplish tints of the latter. The tail, which, at first, is but slightly forked, becomes more so in a few
weeks, and, at the approach of autumn, exhibits but little difference from that of the adult birds. The
plumage is completed the first spring.” - -
A. bird of this kind was killed in Argyleshire in 1772, and another was captured alive in
Yorkshire in 1805, but speedily escaped. *-
HEAD OF FAI.CO BIDIENTATUS, FOOT OF FALCO RIDENTATUS.
Another falcon” inhabits Brazil and Guiana. It is gray above, and brighter on the head and
cheeks; beneath it is reddish, rayed with white; the throat and lower coverts are white; the bill
is ash-gray; the feet and cere are yellow. Its length is fourteen inches. º
The last to be noticed t is common from Egypt to the Cape; it is also found in America, India,
and New Holland. Its plumage is soft, silky, and whitish, with the small curvature of the wings
blackish. -
Passing from the kites to the tribe of Buzzards, we find birds of considerable bodily power, but
very inactive. Theirs is neither the bold deportment nor daring energy of the falcons or hawks of
an equal, or even inferior size. Their spirit is not merely subdued, but timid. Instead of soaring
HEAD OF FALCO MENALOPTER US. FOOT OF FALCO MIENALOPTERUS.
aloft, sweeping down with resistless force on their prey, dashing at it obliquely with the greatest
precision, or eagerly hunting for it as they sail over wide tracts of country, they sit patiently on their
perch in the dense shade of the wood. There, however, they look out for the beetle on the wing,
or the rat or the frog, the snake or the lizard, as it passes on the ground; and then, gliding towards
it, on swift but steady pinions, they capture the victim, and bear it to their perch.
THE COMMON BUZZARDt
THERE is great variety in the colouring of this bird, scarcely two specimens being similar in plumage,
The differences chiefly consist in the depth of the shade of brown on the upper parts, and in a greater
or less degree of marking below. The tail is barred, the beak of a lead colour, and the cere, iris, and
feet yellow. º -
The Buzzard is a fine accompaniment to the landscape, whether wild, rocky, or sylvan. It rises
often to an immense height, but its flight is slow and majestic, and it utters occasionally a shrill and
melancholy whistle. To an observer beneath, and in particular lights, these birds appear of great
size; the motions of the tail, when directing the circles they make, may be easily perceived, as well
as the beautiful markings on it and the wings, which are sometimes rendered very distinct by the
body being thrown upwards, and the light being cast on the clear and silvery tints of the base of
the feathers. - -
The buzzard seldom takes the trouble to make a nest, but contents itself with one deserted
by a crow or a magpie, which, if necessary, it enlarges. The eggs are three in number, of a dull
* Falco bidentatus : Latham. ºf F. Menalopterus, £ Buteo vulgaris.



THE COMMON BUZZARD. 67
white, slightly blotched with brown. If ever furious, it is in defending its young; and it is no
common assailant, as its size and strength are very considerable.
A buzzard was brought to M. Fontaine, in 1763, that had been taken in a snare. At first, it
THE COMMON BUZZARD,
was exceedingly wild, but he undertook to tame it, by leaving it to fast, and constraining it to approach
him and eat out of his hand. In this way he brought it to be very familiar, and, after having shut it
up for about six weeks, he began to allow it a little liberty, taking the precaution, however, to tie both
pinions of its wings, when it walked out into the garden, and returned on being called to feed. After

68 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
some time, from the idea that its fidelity could be trusted, the ligatures were removed, a small bell was
fastened above its talons, and there was attached to its breast a piece of copper, bearing its owner's
name. It received now its entire liberty, but this it abused, by its flight from St. Pierre to the
forest of Belesme; it was even given up for lost, but, four hours after, it rushed into the hall, which
was open, pursued by five other buzzards, who had constrained it to seek again its asylum.
Its fidelity was now no further disturbed ; it came every night to sleep on its owner's window,
and grew so familiar as to seem to take singular pleasure in his company. It attended constantly at
dinner; sat on a corner of the table, and very often caressed him with its head and bill, emitting a
weak, sharp cry, which, however, it sometimes softened. This privilege was peculiarly its master's; and
one day it followed him when he was on horseback, more than two leagues, flying above his head.
Although not the least afraid of dogs and cats, it had to them a strong aversion, and often had
tough battles with them, in which it always came off victorious. “I had,” says M. Fontaine, “four very
strong cats, which I collected into my garden with my buzzard; I threw to them a bit of raw flesh; the
nimblest cat seized it, the rest pursued; but the bird darted upon her body, bit her ears with his bill,
and squeezed her sides with his talons, so forcibly, that the cat was obliged to relinquish her prize.
After another cat snatched it, the instant it dropped, but she suffered the same treatment, till the
buzzard got entire possession of the plunder. He was so dexterous in his defence, that, when he
perceived himself assailed at once by the four cats, he took wing, and uttered a cry of exultation. At
last, the cats, chagrined with their repeated disappointment, would no longer contend.”
This buzzard had a singular antipathy to all covered heads. He would not suffer a red cap to be
worn by any of the peasants; and so alert was he in whipping it off, that they found their heads
unaccountably bare. He also snatched away wigs, but without doing any injury ; and he carried these
HEAD OF ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD. FOOT OF ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD.
caps and wigs to the tallest tree in the neighbouring park, which was the usual depository of his booty.
He would suffer no other rapacious birds to enter his domain, but, attacking them boldly, put
them to flight. He did no mischief in the court-yard; and the poultry, which, at first, dreaded him,
became gradually reconciled to his presence. Even the chickens and ducklings received no injury,
though he bathed with the latter. But, strange to say, he was not equally gentle to the neighbouring
poultry, and his owner had often to announce that he would pay for any damage the buzzard did.
However, he was frequently fired at, and, at different times, received fifteen musket shots, without
suffering any fracture. But once, early in the morning, hovering over the skirts of a forest, he dared
to attack a fox, which, when the keeper observed, he fired two shots at him; the fox was killed, and the
buzzard had his wing broken; yet, notwithstanding this fracture, he escaped from the keeper, and was
lost for seven days. The man having discovered, from the noise of the bell, that he was M. Fontaine's
bird, went the next morning to tell him what had happened. A search was now made near the spot,
but he could not be found, nor did he return till seven days afterwards.
M. Fontaine had been used to call him every evening with a whistle, which he did not answer
for six days; but on the seventh he heard a feeble cry at a distance, which he judged to be that of
his buzzard; he repeated the whistle, and heard the same cry. He now went to the place from whence
the sound came ; and, at last, found the poor bird with its wing broken. It was found that he had
travelled more than half a league on foot to regain his asylum, from which he was then distant about a
hundred and twenty paces. Though he was greatly reduced, he gave his owner many caresses. Six
weeks elapsed before his wounds were healed and his strength recruited; after which he began to fly
as before, and followed his old habits for about a year, when he disappeared and was seen no more.

THE BUZZARDS. 69
Of buzzards there are many kinds: we give engravings of the head and foot of one of them.*
The last tribe of the present family consists of the Harriers, which are distinguished from the
buzzards by their thin, elongated tarsi, the slenderness of the body, and the length of the tail. The third
quill-feather is the longest; the plumage is soft and loose, and it is especially full around the face; it
forms, indeed, a sort of ruff, approaching to the disc so conspicuous in the owls; the beak is small
and compressed. - *
THE MARSH HARRIER.H
THIS, the largest British bird of the family, varies in length from twenty-one to twenty-three
inches. It is found not only in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, but also in many parts of
northern and southern Europe ; and has been observed in Smyrna, Trebizond, Egypt, and Tripoli, and
even in the Himalayan Mountains.
Its favourite haunts are heaths and wild, marshy lands. When on the wing it skims the ground,
and then drops suddenly on its prey. Moles, mice, rabbits, and various small quadrupeds, together
with frogs and other reptiles, become, therefore, its easy spoil. There is often a considerable variety in
the tints of this species, and of the predominance or want of white on the head and throat,
THE HEN HARRIER t
Not only does age produce a difference in the plumage of the Harriers, but, so great is this difference
of plumage in the sexes, as to have caused them, till of late years, to be regarded as distinct species.
The female, indeed, obtained the name of the Hen Harrier, while the male was called the Ringtail.
The bird which has retained the former name is spread throughout Europe, it occurs also in
some parts of Africa and North America; but everywhere restricts itself to low, flat lands, moors, and
heaths. -
The full-grown female is about twenty inches long, and three feet and a half in the expanse of its
wings. The naked parts are of a yellow hue, but the prevailing colours are brown and dusky white,
and the upper part of the head is mottled brown. The concha around the eyes is brown, but terminates
on a white eyebrow, which reaches to the cere of the beak, which is white below, but terminates in a
brown border, giving to the eye an expression perfectly distinct from that of any other tribe. The
feathers below are brown, with pale margins, passing into white at the tale coverts; the upper part is
brown, lighter in the scapulars and lesser coverts, and the margins of the feathers are lighter. The
tail is brown, with dusky bars, and the quills of the wing of a very deep brown, inclining to black.
The breast, head, and all the upper part of the male are of a fine gray; lighter on those parts of the
concha which are white in the female, and also where the brown is lighter on the upper part of that
bird. The remainder of the under part is white, with very faint markings; yet, notwithstanding these
differences, and those of the size and expression of the eyes, the birds exactly correspond in shape and air.
* The nest of this species of harrier consists of small sticks and coarse grass, and is placed on the
ground. There are four or five eggs, which are either white or of a light blue. There is little or no
difficulty in observing this bird in its humble home. Its flight is low, but smooth, graceful, and very swift.
A gentleman, who was shooting in Hampshire, accidentally sprang a pheasant in a wheat-stubble,
and shot at it ; when, notwithstanding the report of the gun, it was pursued by a hen harrier, but
escaped into some covert. He then sprang a second and a third in the same field, and these likewise
got away, the harrier hovering around him all the while he was beating the field, conscious, no doubt,
of the game that lurked in the stubble. It appears, therefore, that this bird of prey was rendered
very daring and bold by hunger, and that harriers are not always in a condition to strike their game.
It may also be observed that they cannot pounce on their quarry when it is on the ground, as it
might be able to make a stout resistance; since so large a fowl as a pheasant could not but be visible
to the piercing eye of a harrier, when hovering over it. Hence that propensity in game to cowering
and squatting till they are almost trodden on, which is evidently designed as one means for their safety.
The last family of the rapacious birds comprehends the Owls. § They perform, during the night,
the same offices which the bolder hunting falcons do in the open day, and serve to keep in check the
* Buteo lagopus: Linnaeus. + Circus rufus: Selby. † Circus cyaneus. . § Strigidae.
70 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
small quadrupeds, which, like themselves, prowl about in darkness. For this purpose, their vision,
though not suited to the glare of noon-day, is acute; their ears readily catch any sound; while their
plumage is so soft as to fall gently on the air. Independent of soft and downy feathers, the wings have
the webs with plumules disunited at the tips, and are either remarkably
pliable, or separated like the teeth of a saw, allowing either a free passage
to the air, or so pliable as to yield to its pressure; thus to insure a
light, buoyant, and noiseless flight. Yet the proportion of the quills
is similar to that belonging to birds of powerful wing, and its use is
obvious in the easy, light skimming or sailing near the surface of the
ground or cover, which is capable of being for a long time sustained.
Another provision is equally important in the colours of the plu-
mage, which exhibit a union of tints best adapted to concealment. There
is nothing marked or obtrusive; so that there are no bright or gaudy
hues to catch the eye of an otherwise unwarned prey, but a blending
of the more sombre colours, mingling into a neutral tint, yet showing, on close inspection, pencillings
the most minute and delicate. The tarsi and feet are, moreover, finely formed for grasping, for the
external toe is versatile; so that the foot can be used in scrambling in the interior of some rent or
chimney, or in the hollow of a tree, while it also becomes more complete as an organ of prehension.
EAR OF THE OWL.
THE BARN OWL. *
As the peasant “homeward plods his weary way,” it may be that
“All the air a solemn stillness holds; * * *
Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled tower,
The moping owl doth to the moon complain
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient solitary reign.”
In such old buildings this bird generally places its
rudely-formed nest, and deposits in it its three or four
white eggs. The young, who remain there a long time
—as long, indeed, as the old
ones will bring them mice—
are, at first, covered with a
white down. Sometimes three
different hatches may be found
in the same nest, and not un-
frequently, eggs also. White,
of Selborne, says: “Ever since
I Call remember, 8, pair of FOOT OF THE BARN owl,
white owls constantly bred under the eaves of this
church. As I have paid good attention to the manner
of life of these birds during their season of breeding,
which lasts the summer through, the following re-
marks may not, perhaps, be unacceptable.
“About an hour before sunset, for then the mice
begin to run, they sally forth in quest of prey, and
hunt all round the hedges of meadows and small
inclosures for them, which seem to be their only food.
In this irregular country, we can stand on an emi-
nence, and see them beat the fields over like a setting-dog, and often drop down in the grass and
corn. I have minuted these birds by my watch for an hour together, and have found that they return
to their nest, the one or other of them, about once in five minutes; reflecting, at the same time, on
the adroitness that every animal is possessed of, as far as regards the well-being of itself and offspring.
* Strix flammea : Linn.
THE BARN owl.





- THE EAGLE owi. 7i.
But a piece of address which they show when they return loaded, should not, I think, be passed over
in silence. As they take their prey with their claws, so they carry it in their claws to their nest;
but as the feet are necessary in their ascent under the tiles, they constantly perch first on the roof of
the chancel, and shift the mouse from their claws to their bill, that the feet may be at liberty to
take hold of the plate on the wall as they are rising under the eaves.”
THE GRAND DURE OWL.
The Owl we have been describing has its head smooth and round; but the noble bird of which
we give an illustration above is a type of a second group, who have on their heads two tufts, which
are called variously horns or ears. Those who have been in Sussex will at once remember the
fine specimens of this species confined in Arundel Castle.
THE EAGLE OWL.:
THIs species is about two feet in length; the upper surface is waved, barred, and dashcd with
black, on a mingled brown and yellow ground. The throat is white; the under surface yellow, with
longitudinal streaks of black on the chest, and fine transverse bars below. The tarsi are feathered to
the toes, the iris is bright orange, and the beak and claws black. This splendid bird builds a large
nest of sticks, in the crevices of rocks, in old ruined castles, or in hollow trees. The eggs are three in
number, and white. This bird is of rare occurrence in England and France, but it dwells among the
deep recesses of vast forests in Norway, Sweden, Russia, or Hungary, or in the clefts of rocks, or the
desolate ruins of ancient towers. Temminck says it is found at the Cape of Good Hope. Willoughby
observes that about Bologna, and elsewhere in Italy, it is frequent. Bonaparte notes it as rare in the
neighbourhood of Rome, and says that it is seen only in mountainous situations. It is stated to
extend eastward as far as Kamschatka.
As evening comes on, it skims through the wood on silent wing, and marks the fawn, the hare, or
* Bubo Europaeus, f Bubo maximus,
---








72 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
the rabbit, nibbling the herbage, as, concealed by the broad shadows, it skirts the line of black, dark
foliage. Suddenly wheeling, it sweeps on the unsuspecting victim, and bears it off, if not too large,
eagle-like, in its talons. Smaller prey, such as rats, mice, squirrels, and frogs, it crushes with its bill
into a mass, swallows them entire, and ejects pellets, called “castings,” the rolled skin, bones, feathers,
or hair.
THE SNOWY OWL.º.
-
The forlorn mountains of Greenland, covered with eternal ice and snow, furnish food and shel
to this hardy adventurer, whence he is only driven by the extreme severity of the weather towards tº
TIE SNowy owl.
sea-shore. He is found in Lapland, Norway, and the country near Hudson's Bay, during the whole
year; is said to be common in Siberia, and numerous in Kamschatka. He is often seen in Canada and
the northern districts of the United States, and sometimes visits the borders of Florida.
So secure is this bird rendered by the Creator from the attacks of cold, that no one point is left
exposed. The bill is almost hidden in a mass of feathers that cover the face; the legs are clothed
with such long, thick, hair-like plumage, as to appear nearly as large as those of a middle-sized dog,
the claws only being visible; these are large, black, much hooked, and extremely sharp. The entire
plumage below the surface is of the most exquisitely soft, warm, and elastic kind, and so closely matted
together as to make it a difficult matter to penetrate to the skin.
* Strix nyctea: Linn,

º
27
|EAGLE OWLS.
º
-
%
º
---
>
ry. %
3.




THE BURROWING OWL.” - -
Paisce Boxarante has described this bird, which is a native of “the Trans-Mississippian territories
of the United States, and which resides exclusively in the villages of the marmot or prairie-dog"
(Viscacha), “whose excavations are so commodious as to render it unnecessary that our bird should dig
for himself, as he is said to do in other parts of the world, where no burrowing animals exist. These
villages are very numerous, sometimes covering only a few acres, and at others spreading over the
surface of the country for miles together. They are composed of slightly elevated mounds, having the
form of a truncated cone, about two feet in width at the base, and seldom rising so high as eighteen
DOVES AND O-L.
inches above the surface of the soil. The entrance is placed either at the top or on the side, and the
whole mount is beaten down externally, especially at the summit, resembling a much-used footpath.
“In all these prairie-dog villages, the burrowing owl is seen moving briskly about, or else in small
flocks scattered among the mounds, and at a distance it may be mistaken for the marmot itself, when
sitting erect. They manifest but little timidity, and allow themselves to be approached sufficiently
close for shooting; but if alarmed, some or all of them soar away again and settle down at a short
distance; if further disturbed, their flight is continued until they are no longer in view, or they
descend into their dwellings, whence they are difficult to dislodge. The burrows into which these owls
have been seen to descend, on the plains of the river Platte (Plata), where they are most numerous,
were evidently excavated by the marmot; whence it has been inferred by Sury, that they were either
* Strix cunicularia: C. L. Bonaparte.
WOL, 111, 106

CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
common, though unfriendly, residents of the same habitation, or that our owl was the sole occupant of
what it had acquired by the right of conquest. The evidence of this was clearly presented by the ruinous
condition of burrows tenanted by the owl, which were frequently caved in and their sides channelled by
the rains; while the meat and well-preserved mansion of the marmot showed the active care of a
skilful and industrious owner. We have no evidence that the owl and marmot habitually resort to one
burrow; yet we are well assured by Pike and others, that a common danger often drives them into the
same excavation, where lizards and rattlesnakes also enter for concealment and safety.” It appears,
however, from recent observations, that the prairie-dog is the prey of the so-called barrowing owl,"
THE VIRGINIAN HORNED OWL.f.
SIR John Richampson thinks that this night bird, peculiar to America, inhabits that continent
from end to end. Wilson thus describes its haunts and habits : “His favourite residence is in the
Tiiº wing INIAN HORNED owl.
dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered with a growth
of gigantic timber; and here, as soon as evening draws
on, and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such
sounds as seem scarcely to belong to this world, start-
ling the solitary pilgrim as he slumbers by his forest
fire,
“Making night hideous.”
“Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and
amidst the deep forests of Indiana, alone, and reposing
in the woods, this ghostly watchman has frequently
warned me of the approach of morning, and amused
me with his singular exclamations, sometimes sweeping
down and around my fire, uttering a loud and solemn
Waugh O ! Waugh O !" sufficient to have alarmed a
whole garrison.”
Early in February, the great horned owls are seen
to pair. The curious evolutions of the male on the
wing it is impossible to describe. Extremely ludi-
crous are his bowings and the snappings of his bill;
but no sooner is the female assured that his attentions
are sincere and affectionate, than she joins in his
emotions and becomes his mate.
The length of the male is twenty inches; the
bill is large, black, and strong, covered at the base
with a cere; the eyes golden yellow ; the horns are three inches in length and very broad, their
webs black, broadly-edged with bright tawny; the face rusty, bounded on each side by a band of
black; the whole lower parts elegantly marked with numerous transverse bars of a dusky colour on a
bright tawny ground, thinly interspersed with white. The female is full two feet in length, and
the white on her throat is not so pure as on that of the male. She has also less of the bright
ferruginous or tawny tint below, but is principally distinguished by her superior size.
The nest, which is very bulky, is usually fixed on a large horizontal branch, and far from the
It is formed externally of crooked sticks, and is lined with coarse grasses and
There are from three to six eggs, almost globular in form, and of a dull white colour.
trunk of the tree.
* See Mammalia, Vol. II.-The Prairie Dog. + Bubo Virginianus. -


PER C H IN G B IF D S.;
The scientific name assigned to these birds is, as Cuvier observed, of a negative kind. They are not
rapacious, like those that have just been considered, nor are they like those that will follow, gallina-
ceous, nor to be described as waders, climbers, or swimmers. And though it is difficult to establish
rigid sub-divisions, yet a general similarity of structure, and an insensible melting of one group into
another, may be easily traced. Exceedingly numerous, they have been divided into four tribes, each
of which we shall now proceed to examine.
The name of the First Tribet alludes to the wide gape of the bill, a remarkable feature in all the
subjects of this section, so that, with other provisions of structure, they can take their food on the wing.
Goat-sucker is the English name of these Night-swallows, commonly called Nightjars; whence
the name by which the first family is generally known among naturalists, f -
THE COMMON GOAT-SUCKER. §
THIS is a bird of nocturnal habits. Its eyes are large; its plumage full, soft, and downy ; its
gape enormous ; its wings long ; its tarsi very short and generally feathered ; three of its toes are
before, and there is one behind, but this can be brought forward; and the nail of the middle, in most
species, is pectinated on its internal edge. The female has the plumage of the male generally, but she
wants the white spots he has on the quills and tail-feathers.
Aristotle speaks of “a mountain-bird, a little larger than the blackbird, and a little less than the
cuckoo. It lays eggs to the number of two or three at most, and is of a slothful nature. Flying upon
the goats, it sucks them, whence it has its name. They say, that when it has sucked the teat it
becomes dry, and that the goat becomes blind. It is not sharp-sighted by day; but it sees by night.”
AElian also refers to the absurd story of the goat-sucking habits of this bird, which may probably be
referred to a still earlier date.
Gilbert White alludes to the prejudice of his own time, that this bird was very injurious to
weanling calves, by inflicting, as it strikes at them, the fatal distemper known to cow-leeches by the
* Passeres: Linnaeus. Insessores: Vigors. f Fissirostres. f Caprimulgida. § Caprimulgus Europaeus: Linn,

CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
name of “puckeridge.” “But the truth of the matter is,” he says, “the malady is occasioned by the
(Estrus bovis, a dipterous insect, which lays its eggs along the chines of kine, where the maggots, when
hatched, eat their way through the hide of the beast into the flesh, and grow to a very large size.”
The birds live in solitary retreats, whence they emerge on noiseless wing, chasing the insects
TILE FORK-TAILED GO-T-SUCI E1.
which, like themselves, sport in the murky twilight. The blended hues of gray and brown, which
decorate their plumage, well accord with the shades of evening, and thus favour their concealment.
So wide is their gape, that they cannot miss their prey; and, to prevent its struggles, the edges of the
mandibles are provided with a row of stiff bristles, and the middle toe with a serrated edge.
The following is a very remarkable specimen of the family now under consideration.


THE WHIP-POOR-WILL.”
A stranger must be conscious of a novel sensation, as, walking in Pennsylvania towards the close of
April, as the dusk commences or as the day breaks, he hears these words clearly articulated for the first
Tºllº. WI-112-1-U-UR-WILL.
time. The notes of this solitary bird first issue from some retired part of the woods, the glen, or the
mountain; in a few evenings, perhaps, they are heard from the adjoining coppice, the garden-fence, the
* Caprimulgus vociferus.

78 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
road before the door, and even from the roof of the dwelling-house, long after the family have retired
to rest. Some of the superstitious consider these visits to forebode no good to the household ; but, as
they continue to take place without the slightest injury arising, this ignorant dread is on the decline.
In due time this bird becomes a regular acquaintance. Every morning and evening his
shrill and rapid repetitions are heard from the neighbouring woods; and when two or more are calling
out at the same time, as frequently occurs in the pairing season, and at no great distance from one
another, the noise, mingling with the echoes from the mountains, is truly surprising. Strangers in
Parts of the country where these birds are numerous, find it, for a time, almost impossible to sleep;
while to those long acquainted with them, the sound often serves as a lullaby to assist their repose.
The first and last syllables of the words “whip-poor-will” are uttered with great emphasis, and the
whole in about a second to each repetition; but when two or more males meet, their “whip-poor-will”
altercations become much more rapid and incessant, as if each were striving to overpower or silence
the other. When near, an introductory cluck may be heard between the notes. They generally fly
low, not more than a few feet from the surface, skimming about the house and before the door, alighting
on the wood pile, or settling on the roof. Towards midnight they generally become silent, unless in
clear moonlight, when they may be heard, with little intermission, till morning. If there be a creek
near, with high, precipitous, bushy banks, they are sure to be found in such situations. -
During the day they sit in the most retired, solitary, and deeply-shaded parts of the woods, gene-
rally on high ground, where they repose in silence. When disturbed, they rise within a few feet, sail
low and slowly through the woods for thirty or forty yards, and generally settle on a low branch or
on the ground. Their sight appears deficient during the day, as, like owls, they seem to want that
vivacity for which they are distinguished in the morning and evening twilight. They are rarely shot
at or molested; and, from being thus transiently seen in the obscurity of dusk, or the deep shadows
of the woods, no wonder that the particular markings of their plumage should be so little known, or
that they should be confounded with the night-hawk, which, in general appearance, they so much
resemble. e
The female begins to lay about the second week in May, selecting, for this purpose, the most
unfrequented part of the wood, often where some brush, old logs, or heaps of leaves had been lying,
and always in a dry situation. The eggs are deposited on the ground, or on the leaves; not the
slightest appearance of a nest being visible. These are usually two in number, having a dark ground-
colour, and thickly mottled with dark olive. *
We add only one other specimen of this interesting family: it is the Fork-tailed Goatsucker, a
native of the Brazils, distinguishable at once from others by the extent and forked termination of the
tail, which it opens and shuts during its flight.
The genus podargus differs from that of caprimulgus in some important respects. The beak is larger
and longer, having a wider gape ; the head is considerably larger, and the whole bird is of Superior size.
Thus the Horned Podargus of Sumatra" might, from the shape of the head, the large, staring eyes, and
the plumelets into which the ear-coverts are elongated, be easily mistaken for an owl, especially also
as its nocturnal habits would countenance and confirm the presumption. The podargus cinereus of
Vieillot is a good illustration of the genus. It is found chiefly in New Holland and Tasmania. It is
nocturnal in its habits, finding its haunts in the forest retreats, where, seated on the lower branches of
a tree, not far from the trunk, and with its feathers raised, it passes the day. So profound is its
immovability and apparent insensibility, that it may almost be taken by the hand; but as soon as the
twilight of evening returns, it goes forth in pursuit of prey, which it continues till about two hours
before sunrise the following morning. The nest is roughly built of small sticks and grass, and the
female lays from two to four eggs.
The Wyctibius grandist of Vieillot is a remarkable specimen of this race. Its plumage is red, and
is divided by oblique and irregular black bands, partially marked with white marks; the feet are flesh-
colour. -
The Steatornis caripensist was discovered in America by Humboldt and Bonpland, on their
excursions to the mountains of Caripe, in Cumana. Here they entered an immense cavern, where
* Podargus cornutus. t Nyctibius grandis; Vieillot. t Humboldt.
THE WHIP-POOR-WILL. - 79
a curious sight and still more strange sounds awaited them. We are assured that it is, indeed, very
difficult to form an adequate conception of the frightful noise which smote upon their ears, from the
thousands of birds who dwelt in this dark abode, and the sounds they uttered were re-echoed in
the caverns around. The Indians, who guided the visitors, fixed their torches at the end of long
poles, and thus showed the nests of the birds, which were fifteen or sixteen feet overhead. The noise
of the terrified inmates increased as the intruders advanced; and when, at length, it ceased for some
minutes around the travellers, the same doleful cries might be heard sounding through the other
caverns, which extended in various directions. The Indians enter these caves once a-year, armed with
poles, with which they destroy the greater part of the nests. They also kill many thousands of the
birds; and the old ones, as they defend their broods, hover around the heads of the assailants, and
utter the most melancholy cries.
The Second Family of this tribe” has the same kind of beak, and the same width of gape, as the
goatsuckers, but the beak is broader at the base and more compressed; nor is it provided along the
edges with such a row of bristles. The tarsi are extremely short and small, and the toes have sharp
hooked nails, for the purpose of clinging to walls or the sides of rocks. In the swifts, for example, all
four toes are directed forwards: in the true swallows only the hind toe is reversible.
THE SWIFT, #
THIs bird, which usually comes to this country from Africa early in May, and leaves us, generally, by
the middle of August, is the largest of our swallows. Its weight, however, appears disproportionately
- ſº º ſº -
, - - # i: º i.
i '' t
|
l i" Uſ)
º
THC SYYIFF.
small to its extent of wing: the former being scarcely one ounce, the latter eighteen inches: the
length is nearly eight inches. The feet are so small, that the action of walking and rising from the
ground is extremely difficult, but it is furnished with ample means for an easy and continual flight.
It is more on the wing than any other swallow ; its flight is more rapid, and it is attended with a
shrill scream. -
It breeds under the eaves of houses, in steeples, and other lofty buildings; makes its nest of
grasses and feathers, and lays only two eggs, of a white colour. It is entirely of a glossy dark, sooty
colour, only the chin is marked with a white spot. It rests by clinging against Some wall or other
suitable body. The fabulous history of the Bird of Paradise is greatly verified in this species. The
Bird of Paradise was believed to have no feet; to live on the celestial dews; to float perpetually in the
Indian air and to perform all its functions in that element. The Swift actually performs what has
* Hirundinidae.
º:


80 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
now been disproved of the former; for, except the small time it takes in sleeping, and what it devotes
to incubation, every other act is done on the wing,
The materials of its nest it collects either as they are carried about by the wind, or picks them up
from the ground in its sweeping flight. The insects that fill the air are, undeniably, its food. Its
drink is taken in transient sips from the water's surface. Often are they seen, on a fine summer's
morning, making their aerial course at a great height, encircling a certain space with an easy, steady
motion; then, on a sudden, falling into each other's embraces, and dropping precipitately, with a loud
shriek, for numbers of yards. These birds and swallows are inveterate enemies to hawks. The instant
one appears, they begin their attack; the swifts soon desist, but the swallows pursue and persecute
the rapacious bird till it is entirely driven away.
Swifts appear to be spread over Europe in the breeding season. They visit Lapland, Norway
Denmark, and Sweden. Mr. Yarrell states that he has never seen the swift in any collection brought
from India. Montague extends its southward range in Africa as far as the Cape. It has been
noticed at Madeira. Temminck limits it to the tropics, *:
THE SWALLOW.4 ---- * - - - - -
MANY lovers of Nature will find the expression of feelings, often entertained, in the following verses:
“Welcome, welcome, feather'd stranger What makes thee seek a milder clime?
Now the sun bids Nature smile; What makes thee shun thy wintry gale P
Safe arrived, and free from danger, How know'st thou thy departing time?
Welcome to our blooming islel Hail! wondrous bird! hail, swallow, hail'
Still twitter on my lonely roof,
And hail me at the dawn of day, “Sure something more to thee is given
Each morn the recollected proof Than myriads of the feather'd race,
Of Time that ever fleets away. Some gift divine, some spark from Heaven,
That guides thy flight from place to place.
Fond of sunshine, fond of shade, Still freely come, still freely go,
Fond of skies serene and clear; And blessings crown thy vigorous wing;
E’en transient storms thy joy invade May thy rude flight meet no rude foe,
In fairest seasons of the year. Delightful messenger of spring!”
“The swallow,” says Sir H. Davy, in his “Salmonia,” “is one of my favourite birds, and a rival of
the nightingale; for he glads my sense of seeing as much as any other does my sense of hearing.
He is the joyous prophet of the year—the harbinger of the best season; he lives a life of enjoyment
among the loveliest forms of Nature; winter is unknown to him ; and he leaves the green meadows
of England in autumn for the myrtle and orange groves of Italy, and for the palms of Africa; he has
always objects of pursuit, and his success is secure. Even the beings selected for his prey are poetical,
beautiful, and transient. The ephemerae are saved by his means from a slow and lingering death in
the evening, and killed in a moment, when they had known nothing of life but pleasure. He is the
constant destroyer of insects—the friend of man ; and, with the stork and the ibis, may be regarded as
a sacred bird. The instinct which gives him his appointed seasons, and which teaches him always
when and where to move, may be regarded as flowing from a Divine source; and he belongs to the
oracles of Nature, which speak the awful and intelligible language of a present Deity.”
Though the flight of this bird is low, it is extremely rapid, while the observer is often astonished
by its sudden turns and evolutions. All the day long, as if absolutely unwearied, does the swallow
skim over fields and meadows, and the surface of pools and sheets of water. There, indeed, is a pro-
fusion of food, and most skilfully does it dip beneath, emerge with its #eet prey, and then shake the
spray from its burnished plumage; feeding, drinking, and bathing alike on the wing. #".
Its nest is formed of clay, rendered tenacious and plastic by its saliva, for which it is provided with
salivary glands of an unusual size. The dwelling is lined with fine grass and feathers, and firmly
fixed at some depth inside a chimney, or against the rafters of barns and out-houses. Many a nest has
been thus built in some out-buildings of the house where the writer lives, and often has he watched
the parent birds rushing suddenly through some aperture in the wall, which has been purposely *
* Hirundo rustica: Linn.
*Xº,
THE SWALLOW. 81
in its erection, and having fed their young with the prey borne in their beaks, as suddenly and hastily
bound away in pursuit of more.
With deep interest, too, has he watched, as summer is about to close, the preparations for the early
departure of the parents with their young. It is as if some signal had been given for the congre-
gating of multitudes of swallows. Flocking in from all quarters, they perch at night in clusters on
barns or the branches of trees; and followed to the reeds of marshes and fens, they may be seen to
wheel, and sink, and rise again, before they finally settle, all the time twitting vociferously.
“Five or six of these birds,” says Bewick, “were taken about the latter end of August, 1784, in
a bat fowling-net at night; they were put separately into small cages, and fed with nightingale's food;
in about a week or ten days they took food of themselves, and seemed much strengthened by it; they
CHIMNET SWALLOWS.
were then put all together into a deep cage, four feet long, with gravel at the bottom; a broad shallow
pan was placed in it, in which they sometimes washed themselves. One day Mr. Pearson observed that
they went into the water with unusual eagerness, hurrying in and out again repeatedly with as much
swiftness as if they had been suddenly seized with a frenzy. Being anxious to see the result, he left
them to themselves about half an hour, and, going to the cage, found them all huddled together in a
corner, apparently dead; the cage was then placed at a proper distance from the fire, when only two of
them recovered, and were as healthy as before; the rest died. The two remaining were allowed
to wash themselves occasionally for a short time only, but their feet soon after became swelled and
inflamed, which Mr. Pearson attributed to their perching, and they died about Christmas; thus the
first year's experiment was in some measure lost. Not discouraged by the failure of this, Mr. Pearson
determined to make a second trial the succeeding year, from a strong desire of being convinced of the
WOL. III. 107
- - --

82 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
truth respecting their going into a state of torpidity. Accordingly, the next season, having taken
some birds, he put them into the cage, and in every respect pursued the same method as with the last ;
but, to guard their feet from the bad effects of the damp and cold, he covered the perches with flannel,
and had the pleasure to observe that the birds throve extremely well; they sung their song during
the winter, and soon after Christmas began to moult, which they got through without any difficulty,
and lived three or four years, regularly moulting every year at the usual time. On the renewal of
their feathers, it appeared that their tails were forked exactly the same as in those birds which return
hither in the spring, and in every respect their appearance was the same.”
It has been, however, sagaciously conjectured by Dr. Foster, that those birds which have been
found in a state of torpidity—in the crevices of rocks, in holes of old decayed trees, in ruined towers,
and under the thatch of houses—had, owing to some accident, been hatched later in the year than
ordinarily, and consequently had not acquired sufficient strength to undergo the fatigue of a long
journey on the wing, at the time when the migration of the rest of their species took place; and that,
to shelter themselves from the inclemency of the weather, they had sought retreats wherein, from cold
and hunger, they had sunk into a state of torpidity.
Burns pathetically asks—
“Ilk happing bird, wee helpless thing,
Which, in the merry months of spring,
Delighted me to hear thee sing,
What comes o' thee ?
Where wilt thou cower thy chittering wing,
And close thy e'e P”
The answer to this question may be given with tolerable certainty in the case of the swallows and
other birds of their family. They start in autumn, some due north and south, over the Continent of
Europe to Africa, crossing where the strait is narrowest; others take a more easterly course, by Malta,
Sicily, and Italy, and so on to Egypt. The winter is spent by them in these warmer climates. Mr.
Yarrell says that the 10th of April may be taken as the average date of their return to this country.
With reference to the state of exhaustion in which they arrive here, Sir Charles Wager gives the
following account —“As I came into soundings in our Channel, a great flock of swallows settled on
my rigging; every rope was covered. They seemed almost famished and spent, and were only
feathers and bone; but being recruited with a night's rest, took their flight in the morning.”
It appears likely, however, that the great object of migration is the same : to find food in other
climes for the young broods, which the season of autumn denies them in ours.
An interesting fact may conclude this account. The young tutor of the children of Coun-
Héricy, residing in an old château in the Pays de Caus, at Fiquainville, was accustomed early in the
morning to inhale the fresh air of the garden into which his window opened. One morning he
observed two swallows building a nest in the outer angle of his small casement; the male bringing
moist clay in his beak, which the hen kneaded together, and with straws and bits of hay formed their
cozy home. As soon as the framework was completed, the pair hastened to line the interior with
feathers, wool, and dried leaves; and then, winging their flight to a neighbouring wood, they continued
absent for several days. *
As, however, the nest was in the course of building, two sparrows looked on with great curiosity,
and no sooner had the swallows departed, than they took possession of the vacant domicile, always
leaving one on the watch with his sturdy bill protruded through the entrance.
At length the swallows returned, when the cock made an indignant attack on the intruders, only,
alas ! to endure a bleeding head and ruffled feathers; and so, after a short colloquy with his mate
perched on a green bough, they withdrew again together. On the return of the hen-sparrow, the
young tutor thought that her husband gave her an account of the attack and the repulse, over which
they chuckled; and then he saw them sally forth and store up a large stock of provisions, with two
beaks ready to defend the entrance.
But now cries resounded in the air; crowds of swallows began to assemble on the roof; in the
midst he perceived the expelled builders, recounting their wrongs to each fresh arrival ; and before
long two hundred of these birds were assembled. Suddenly a host of them flew against the nest—
still defended by the two sturdy beaks—each having his bill filled with mud, which he discharged
THE SWALLOW. 83
against the entrance, and then gave place to another to follow up the assault; while this they so
managed to accomplish as to keep at a short distance from the nest, and be out of the reach of the
besieged sparrows. The swallows now heaped mud on the nest till it was completely covered, and but
for the desperate efforts of the sparrows, who contrived to shake off some of the pellets, the opening
would have been soon quite choked up. But brief indeed was the interval; for a party of the swallows
perched on the nest, smoothed and pressed down the clay over the opening, and soon hermetically
closed it; when loud cries arose of vengeance and victory.
Another work was yet to be done. The swallows hurried away for fresh materials; of these they
constructed a nest over the blocked-up entrance, and in two hours it was occupied by the ejected
swallows. No wonder the young tutor looked on with increasing interest: he observed the develop-
ment of the young brood; the male bird teaching them how to seize their prey in the air; how to fly
high when all was still, and the flies sported aloft; and how to keep near the ground when a storm
was coming, for then all insects seek a shelter. So passed the summer, and autumn came. Crowds
of swallows once more assembled on the roof of the château; the little birds were placed with other
little birds in the midst of the troop ; and ere long they all took a flight towards the east.
Spring came, and two swallows, lean and with ruffled feathers, came with it, and were recognised
|
THE SAND MARTIN.
as the parents of the last year's brood; they repaired and re-lined the nest, and then set out on an
excursion as in the previous season. The morning after their return, a hawk pounced suddenly on the
cock, and would have borne him away had not the young tutor mortally wounded the assailant with a
fowling-piece. The swallow was seriously wounded by the talons of the hawk, and a grain or two of
shot had grazed his breast and broken one wing, but the kind young man dressed his wounds, and
replaced him in the nest, while the poor hen fluttered sadly around her mate, uttering piercing cries of
distress. In spite of every attention, he soon died; from that moment the hen never left her nest,
refused the food that was constantly offered her, and expired five days after her beloved mate. These
passages in a bird's history awakened in the mind of that young man an inextinguishable interest in
Natural History; and often did he relate them when he had attained a world-wide fame as Baron Cuvier.
THE SAND-MARTIN.”
In the banks of rivers, and in the perpendicular sides of sand-pits, these birds dig themselves round
and regular holes, about two feet in depth, which run horizontally, and in a somewhat serpentine
direction. At the farther end of these burrows they construct a rude nest of grass and feathers.
“Though no one,” says Gilbert White, “would be disinclined to believe that this weak bird, with
* Hirundo riparia: Linnaeus.

84 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
her soft, tender bill and claws, should ever be able to bore the stubborn sand-bank without entirely
disabling herself, yet with these feeble instruments have I seen a pair of them make great dispatch,
and could remark how much they had scooped in a day, by the fresh sand which ran down the bank,
and which was of a different colour from what lay loose and had been bleached in the sun. In what
space of time these little artists are able to mine and finish these cavities, I have never been able to
discover; but it would be a matter worthy of observation, where it falls in the way of any naturalist
to make such remarks.
“This I have often taken notice of, that several holes of different depths are left unfinished at the
end of the summer. To imagine that these beginnings were intentionally made, in order to be in the
greater forwardness for the ensuing spring, is allowing perhaps too much foresight to a simple bird.
May not the cause of these being left unfinished arise from the birds meeting in those places with
strata too hard, harsh, and solid, for their purpose; which they relinquish, and go to a fresh spot that
works more freely? Or may they not in other places fall in with a soil as much too loose and moulder-
ing, liable to flounder, and threatening to overwhelm them and their labours? One thing is remark-
able—that, after some years, the old holes are forsaken, and new ones bored; perhaps because the
former habitations were become foul and foetid from long use, or because they so abounded with fleas as
to become untenable.”
The only tool with which this bird is provided is its beak, which, however, is peculiarly hard, and
tapers suddenly to a point from a broad base. With this it proceeds to work, picking away from the
centre to the circumference of the opening, which is nearly circular; thus it moves round and round,
the gallery being more or less curved in its course, and having a narrow funnel-shaped termination.
Clinging with its sharp claws to the face of a sand-bank, it plies its bill as a miner does his pickaxe,
till it has loosened a considerable portion of the sand and thrown it down among the rubbish below.
THE ESCULENT SWATILOW.3%
A SMALL swallow—a small species, not unlike the sand martin—makes his nest from several kinds of
moss, and among them it is said from the Ceylon moss, in the highest and most inaccessible rocks, in
deep, damp caves. Craufurd states, that none but those accustomed to the dangers it offers can pursue
the occupation of collecting these nests; for they are only approachable by a particular descent of many
hundred feet, by ladders of bamboo and ratan, over a sea rolling violently against the rocks. When
the mouth of the cave is attained, the perilous task of taking the nests must be performed by torch-
light, by penetrating into the recesses of the rock, where the slightest slip would instantly be fatal to
the adventurers, who can see nothing below them but the turbulent surf making its way into the
chasms of the rocks. The high price given for these delicacies is, however, a sufficient inducement for
the gatherers to follow this dreadful trade.
The nests, formed of a mucilaginous substance, resemble ill-concocted fibrous isinglass, and are of a
white colour, inclining to red ; their thickness little more than that of a silver spoon, and the weight
from a quarter to half an ounce. When dry, they are brittle and wrinkled, the size being nearly that
of a goose's egg. The qualities of the nest vary, according to the situation and extent of the caves in
which they are found, and the time at which they are taken; if procured before the eggs have been
laid, the nests are of the best kind; if they contain eggs only, they are still valuable; but if the young
are in the nest or have just left it, they are nearly worthless, being dark-coloured, streaked with blood,
and intermixed with feathers and dirt.
After they are procured, they are separated from feathers and dirt, are carefully dried and packed,
and are then fit for the market. The best sort in China are sent to Pekin, for the use of the Emperor.
The labour bestowed upon them to fit them for the table is enormous; every stick, every feather, every
impurity, whatever is its kind, is carefully removed, and then, after undergoing many washings and
preparations, they are made into a soft, delicious jelly, and they are likewise served up in broths and
soups. They have the reputation of being nutritious and gently stimulating. The extravagant
prices given for these nests by the Chinese make them a most expensive article of diet. Meyen, in his
“Voyage Round the World,” states that the Japanese had long ago discovered that these costly birds'
* Hirundo esculenta.
THE FSCULENT SWALLOW. --- 85
nests were nothing more than softened sea-weed, and that they prepare the substance itself in an artist-
like manner.
THE MARTIN.”
In its general habits, this bird, sometimes called the Martlet, resembles the swallow. It is, however,
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several days later in its appearance, nor is it either so active or vigorous on the wing, but skims
along more smoothly, and its evolutions are fewer and less rapid, yet it glances over sheets of water,
into which it dipsin its progress.
* Hirundo urbica: Linnaeus,








- 86 -
CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The Martin fixes its nest under the eaves of houses and barns, and sometimes among the carved
work of Gothic buildings and towers, or against the precipitous sides of rocks. Rows of these little
dwellings are often observable, and in some instances they are found forming a continuous series. This
bird is, therefore, manifestly more gregarious than the swallow; multitudes generally forming a colony,
occupying their old dwellings year after year, and uniting in expelling and driving away sparrows and
other intruders.
This bird may be known by having a tail less forked than others, and by the pure white of
the rump, breast, and under-surface, while the head and back are of a purplish black. The tarsi are
covered with white down to the very claws. The crust of the nest is made of clay moistened with
saliva, and lined with feathers. A small aperture allows of the exits and entrances of the parent birds;
THE MARTIN.
and the fledged young, too weak to fly, may often be seen—for they are of a race favoured by man—
eagerly stretching forth their heads for the coming food. The martin often breeds thrice in a season,
having four or five young each time of incubation; it leaves our island about the beginning of October,
but a few sometimes remain over the first week in November.
Another species,” the Linchi of the Javanese, constructs its nests of mosses and lichens, connected
by the same glutinous substance which composes the nest of the swallow just described.
THE PURPLE MARTIN.t
The male bird is of a dark bluish glossy purple; the wings and forked tail are brownish black. The
female and young are bluish brown, and have the belly whitish. The tail is considerably forked.
* Hirundo fucifºga. + Hirundo purpurea: Linn.
-







THE PURPLE MARTIN. 87
This beautiful species, found in the United States and Canada, like many others of the family,
seeks out the dwellings of man, associating himself equally with the aboriginal and the colonist, the
master and the slave. To the Purple Martin it is indifferent whether his mansion be carved and
painted, or humbled into the hospitable shed of a calabash or gourd. Secure of an asylum for his
mate and his young, while under the care of man, he twitters forth his gratitude, and is everywhere
welcome to a home. So eager is he to claim such protection, that sometimes he ventures on hostilities
with the blue birds and domestic pigeons, often forcing them to abandon their hereditary claims. The
purple martins, satisfied with their reception and success, return year after year to the same station.
THE SORDID THRUSH.4
THIS species is a native of Australia, and the situation of the nest is very much varied. Mr. Gould
describes it as rather shallow, of a rounded form, about five inches in diameter, and composed of fine
twigs neatly lined with fibrous roots. He saw one placed in a thickly-leaved bough near the ground,
while others were in a naked fork, in the side of the bole of a tree, in a niche formed by a portion of
the bark having been separated from the trunk. The eggs, which are generally four in number, differ
in the disposition of their markings. º
Mr. Gould mentions an extraordinary habit of this bird. He says, “This feature was not seen by
me, but by my assistant, Mr. Gilbert, during his residence at Swan River; and I have here given his
account in his own words:—‘The greatest peculiarity in the habits of this bird is, its manner of
suspending itself in perfect clusters, like a swarm of bees; a few birds suspending themselves on the
under side of a dead branch, while others of the flock attach themselves one to the other, in such
numbers, that they have been observed nearly the size of a bushel measure.’ It was very numerous
in the town of Perth, until about the middle of April, when I missed it suddenly ; nor did I observe
it again until near the end of May, when I saw it in countless numbers, flying in company with the
common swallows and martins, over a lake about ten miles north of the town ; so numerous, in fact,
were they, that they darkened the water as they flew over it.”
Another family is formed of the Todies,t of which there is, however, no European representative.
They are characterised by a peculiar flatness or depression of the bill, which is more or less garnished
with a row of hairs at its base. They frequent the borders of marshes and rivers, and feed on the softer
kinds of insects, which they take on the wing.
THE GREEN TODY.t
ScARCELY exceeding in size an English wren, this very beautiful little bird has a bill which is nearly
three-quarters of an inch in length, is very flat, but has a slightly raised ridge running down its whole
length. A beautiful green adorns the upper surface of the body, the lower part is yellowish white, the
sides over the thighs are rose-colour, and on the throat there is a fine spot of red.
While perched upon a branch, with its feathers ruffled, and its beak in the air, it has an attitude
which appears anything but indicative of activity or grace; but it is, at the same time, quietly on the
alert, and, should an insect come within sight, it sweeps after it with unerring certainty. Its nest is
formed on the ground, in which the female deposits four bluish-coloured eggs. The song of the male
is very pleasant during the pairing season ; at other times, it is only a sad cry, often repeated.
In the island of Jamaica, the Tody is a very common bird. On the summit of Bluefields Moun-
tain, about 3,000 feet from the level of the sea, and particularly where the deserted provision grounds
are overgrown with an almost impenetrable thicket of jointer, or jointwood, Mr. Gosse tells us it is
especially abundant. Always conspicuous from its bright grass-green coat and crimson velvet gorget,
it is still a very tame bird, allowing a person to approach very near, and, if disturbed, alighting on
another twig a few yards distant. That eminent naturalist says, “I have never seen the tody on the
ground; but it hops about the twigs of low trees searching for minute insects, occasionally uttering
a querulous sibilant note. It is instructive to observe how various are the means by which the
* Turdus sordidus: Latham. Ocypterus alborittatus: Cuvier Gould. + Todidae: Vigors. # Todus viridis.
88 CASSELL’s POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
º
*
wisdom of God has ordained that a given end should be attained. The swallow and the tody live on
the same prey, insects on the wing ; and the short, hollow, and feeble wings of the latter are as
effectual to him as the long and powerful pinions are to the swallow. He has no powers to employ
in pursuing insects, but he waits till they come within his circumscribed range, and no less certainly
secures his meal.” We give an engraving of the finely-crested bird, the King Tody.
Another family of the tribe is formed of the Kingfishers, of which there are several genera.
They are characterised by a straight, lengthened, and pointed beak, having an angular ridge and
edges; by the extreme shortness of the tarsi, the outer and middle toes being united as far as the first
joint ; and by the short tail and rounded wings. They have generally a metallic surface, resplendent
with brilliant hues. Tenanting the banks of secluded streams and rivers, they dart up and down the
THE KING TODY.
stream, or rest on some overhanging branch, watching for fish, at which they dart with arrow-like
swiftness, and seize transversely with their sharp and powerful beak.
THE COMMON KINGFISHER."
A BIRD, of which so many marvellous stories have been told, from the notion of its being the Halcyon
of the ancients, whose so-called nest, the Halcyoneum, was supposed to be endowed with medical pro-
perties, was likely to awaken superstitious regard in later times. Barrabas, in the “Jew of Malta,”
alluding to the practice of suspending it by a thread from the ceiling of the room, with doors and
windows closed, that it might show the direction of the wind, says—
- “But now, how stands the wind?
Into what corner peers my halcyon's bill?
Ha! to the east? yes!”
Kent also, in “King Lear,” when rebuking such “slaves” as the “steward,” declares that they
“Renege, affirm, and turn their halcyon beaks
With every gale and vary of their masters.”
Mrs. Charlotte Smith states that she once or twice saw a stuffed bird of this species hanging from
the beam of a cottage-room as a weather-vane, to show the way of the wind; and similar facts are
stated on various authorities.
The Kingfisher inhabits holes or burrows on the banks of streams, spending much time in the air
near the water, or perched on the neighbouring bushes. It partly lives by fishing, but it catches also
dragon-flies and other water insects, swallowing all its prey entire, and casting up, like owls, whatever
is indigestible,
* Alcedo ispida ; Linn.

THE COMMON KINGFISHER. 89
Perched on some slender twig, overhanging the water, it might be mistaken for the gay flower
of some beautiful water-plant, and so sure is it of instant escape, if desirable, that it will allow the
observer a tolerably near approach, and, if he does not offer violence or make any noise—for the king-
fisher specially loves silence—he Inay watch its movements on the surface of the brook.
But startle it, and few sights in some quiet spot are more pleasing than the first glance of this
bird as it darts, in its rainbow hues, along some reach of a clear and placid stream, gliding between
soft banks, richly fringed with reeds and bushes. Keen indeed must be the eye that follows it in its
course; for rapidly will it fly, halt, and hover for a time, and then darting downwards, seize a little fish,
a leech, or even a worm or a slug, and instantly bring it to land.
We have heard of “halcyon days,” regarded ordinarily as seven days before and as many after the
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THE COMMON. KING FISHER.
winter solstice, and we picture to ourselves those of brightness, and, when all invites to calm enjoyment,
undisturbed by falling showers or even threatening clouds. But these are not among the choicest days
of the beautiful kingfisher, halcyon as it is called. As it fishes entirely by sight, and its prey is often
small, and it requires to see very clearly, its piscatory movements can continue only at particular spots
and in peculiar states of the weather. But the water must be clear and the surface smooth, and that
is why it is not found on turbulent or branching streams, or where the wind curls, the rain dimples, or
the mud darkens the waters. As, however, on the days when evaporation has ceased, and there is
an impending storm, the atmosphere is most transparent and the surface of the stream most glassy,
these are the most fitted of all for the kingfisher's movements, and for the employment of that bill
which is, in fact, a fishing spear, in the waters it frequents.
Its nest, whether made for it or not, like that formed in banks by martins and other creatures,
Y.OL III. 108

90 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
slopes downwards, and for this special reason, that, should it ever be accidentally filled with water,
it may soon become dry again. There are about six eggs, and as the young are helpless until able to
fly, they continue a considerable time in the nest, when, as their plumage has to grow, they are very
clamorous for food. In due time they are able to fish for themselves. When winter drives their prey
to deep and sheltered bottoms, the kingfishers leave the shallow inland streams and pass towards the
coast, frequenting dykes and the mouths of rivers, especially on our southern coasts, and retire inland
on the return of spring. -
The species are very numerous, and are spread through every part of the world. They agree so
closely, that to describe our native species will suffice for all. The crown of the head, cheeks, and
wing-coverts are of a deep green, each feather being margined with a lighter metallic hue; the rest
of the upper surface is of a brilliant azure, the ear-coverts rufous; the throat and back of the neck
white; and the under surface fine rufous. The length of the bird is seven inches.
Another family” contains the Bee-eaters, a species which has the external toe nearly as long as
the middle one, and both joined together up to the penultimate articulation.
The birds of this genus, like the swallow, take their prey on the wing ; it consists of wasps,
bees, &c., and, as Cuvier says, it is remarkable that the birds are not stung by them. They are distri-
THE BLACK.-HEADED KINGrisher. º
buted over the warmer regions of the old continent, Java, &c., and Australia, none of the genus
having been found in America, where their place is supplied by the motmots. The prevalent hues of
their plumes being azures and greens, remind us of the gorgeous dress of the kingfishers.
The Meropst of the Greeks, the Merops Apiaster of Linnaeus, the Guépier Vulgaire of the French,
may be taken as an example. This bee-eater is frequent in the south of Europe in the summer;
Sicily, Sardinia, Italy, the south of France, and Germany possess it, and in the southern border of
Russia it is numerous. It is found in Turkey and in the Grecian Islands, and in autumn migrates
towards Egypt. It breeds in holes in the banks of the Don and the Volga, laying from five to seven
white eggs in a nest composed of moss and other materials. Hasselquist says that it is found in the
plains of Galilee, and that it is called Varuar by the Arabs; and Temminck, that the individuals
found at the Cape of Good Hope differ in nothing from those killed in Europe.
Ray observes: “It is not unfrequent in the Campagna of Rome; for that we saw it there to be
sold in the market more than once. It is not found in England that we know of Bellonius writes
that it is so common in Candy as to be seen everywhere in that island. Aristotle tells us that it feeds
upon bees, whom all other writers of the history of animals do therein follow. But it feeds not only
upon bees, but also upon Cicada, beetles, and other insects; yea, as Bellonius relates, upon the seeds of
the nipplewort, bastard parsley, turnip, &c., not abstaining from wheat and other grain. From its
* Meropidae + Megow.



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THE BEE-EATERS. 91
exact agreement in the shape and make of its body, bill, and feet with the kingfisher, we suspect that
it likewise preys upon fish.” -
These birds of the tribe through which we have now passed, depending so much on the power on
their wings, exhibit a proportionate deficiency in the strength of their legs. These members are not
only shorter and weaker than in the other perchers—certain families being excepted—but they have
their external toes, in general, so united with the internal, for the most part as far as to the second
phalanx, or joint, that they are deprived of its free play; and the bird is thus rendered nearly
incapable of using its legs in walking, or for any purpose besides that of mere perching.
The second tribe" is distinguished, as the name indicates, by a notch, or slight tooth, on each
side of the upper mandible of the bill, near its point. In some genera this tooth is scarcely perceptible,
while, in others, it is well defined and tolerably strong, and, where it is so, the birds approach those
of prey in spirit and in fierceness. The beak, also, varies in shape, strength, and size. In the
shrikes it is strong and laterally compressed; in the fly-catchers, it is depressed, but the gradations
are scarcely to be observed. Most of them are insect-eaters, but many add berries and fruits to their
repast.
THE YELLOW S11-1E-E.
One family't includes the Shrikes, or Butcher Birds. Alluding to their rapacious habits, Mr.
Swainson observes, that the comparisons which have been drawn between them and the falcons are no
less true in fact than beautiful in analogy, remarking that many of the Falconidae sit on a tree for
hours, watching for such little birds as come within reach of a sudden swoop, when these birds of prey
pounce on the quarry, seize it in their talons, bear it to their roost, and devour it piecemeal. These,
he says, are precisely the manners of the true shrikes; yet, with all this, the structure of the falcons
and shrikes, and their more intimate relations, are so different, that they cannot be classed in the
same order.
The short and strong bill is abruptly hooked at the end, and the notch is so deep as to form a
small tooth, more or less prominent, on each side. This projection is analogous to the teeth of quad-
rupeds, so far as it enables the bird to take a firm grasp of its food, and is used to divide it into pieces;
the claws, also, as instruments of capture, are peculiarly fine and sharp in the typical group, and this
character pervades, more or less, the whole family. The mode of darting suddenly on their prey,
rather than hunting or searching for it, is most prevalent in those groups which are nearest related to
the fly-catchers, whose general weakness, however, confines their depredations to the smaller insects—
larger and more powerful tribes being the food of the typical shrikes.
* Dentirostres. + Laniadae.

92 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE GREAT SHRIKE.”
This bird is a native both of Europe and America, and is generally about ten inches in length. The
upper parts of the plumage are of a pale ash-colour; and the wings and tail are black, varied with
white. The throat, breast, and belly are of a dirty-white, and the legs are black. The female differs
very little in appearance from the male.
The most remarkable part of the Great Shrike is the bill: it is black, and about an inch long;
it is moved by very thick and strong muscles, and is an instrument peculiarly necessary to a species
whose mode of killing, and also of devouring, its prey is so extraordinary. It preys chiefly on beetles,
dragon-flies, and other large insects, and, as is also the case with others of this family, it impales them
on thorns or sharp spikes, leaving them to be devoured at leisure; or, if hungry, immediately tearing
them in pieces: hence they have received the name of Butcher Birds. In addition, however, to
insects, the great shrike preys on frogs, mice, and small birds, which it does not strike like the hawk,
THE RED-BACKED SHIRIKE.
but attacks with great ferocity, destroying them by piercing the brain, or by crushing in the skull
with its strong bill, grasping them, at the same time, with its toes, which, though slender, are armed
with sharp claws, and capable of being very firmly compressed. In spring and summer, it imitates
the voices of other birds, by way of decoying them within its reach, that it may devour them; except-
ing this, its natural note is the same throughout all seasons.
Mr. Bell, who travelled from Moscow, through Siberia, to Pekin, says that, in Russia, these birds
are often kept tame in the houses. He had one given him, which he taught to perch on a sharpened
stick, fixed in the wall of his apartment. Whenever a small bird was let loose in the room, the
shrike would immediately fly from his perch, and seize it by the throat, so as almost instantly to
suffocate it. He would then carry it to his perch, and spit it on the sharpened end, drawing it on
carefully and forcibly with his bill and claws. If several birds were given him, he would treat them
all, one after another, in the same manner. These were so fixed, that they hung by the neck until he
was at leisure to devour them.
A gentleman in America, observing that several grasshoppers were stuck upon the sharp, thorny
branches of the trees, inquired the cause, and was told they were thus spitted by the great shrike. On
further inquiry, he was led to suppose that this was an instinctive stratagem adopted by the shrike, in
oruer to decoy the smaller birds, which feed on insects, into a situation from whence he could dart aud
* Lanius excubitor : Linn.











THE GREAT SHRIKE. 93
seize them. He is called, in America, “Nine-Killer,” from the notion that he thus sticks up nine
grasshoppers in succession. That the insects are placed there as a bait is said to appear from their
being frequently left untouched for a considerable time. Wilson, however, calls this “a very pretty,
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THE GREAT SHE-Ike.
fanciful theory,” and maintains that the shrike can seize on small birds by mere force of flight. “I have
seen him,” he says, “in an open field, dart after one of our small sparrows with the rapidity of an arrow,
and kill it almost instantly.”
This bird frequents the deepest forests, builds a large and compact nest in the upright fork of a


94 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
small tree, composed outwardly of dry grass and moss, and warmly lined with feathers. The female
lays six eggs, of a pale cinereous colour, thickly marked at the greater end with rufous spots and
streaks.
The second family is formed of the Fly-catchers.” Allied, in some degree, to the shrikes in habit,
they differ in having the bill depressed horizontally, and garnished at its base with bristly hairs. The
wings are more or less rounded. Some of the larger kinds surpass the shrikes in intrepidity, driving
away birds larger and stronger than themselves; but they are less terrestrial in their habits, less
inclined to move about among underwood and the foliage of bushes, and, also, are more rapid in
their flight. The larger species add to their banquet small birds and quadrupeds; the smaller live
exclusively on insects, which they take on the wing. They are mostly sedentary, and only dart on such
insects as come within a sudden swoop, without attempting to pursue their game further; if unsuccessful
in the first instance, they return, in fact, to the spot they left, or to another very near, and there wait
patiently until another insect passes within the proper distance. This habit of feeding at once explains
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the reason of their feet being so small and weak, by showing that they are merely used to support the
body; or, at least, that they are not employed in constant exercise or exertion, as in the generality
of other birds.
THE PIED FLY-CATCHER..f
THESE birds are found farther to the north than the shrikes, chiefly beyond the heights on the confines
of Stafford and Derby, where the principal locality of the latter terminates. They are traced thence
along the hills between York and Lancashire, and so into the hilly parts of Westmoreland and Cumber-
land; but there is no account of them in Scotland, and they are very rare in those champaign parts
of England over which they must pass to reach the interior and hilly districts.
The Pied Fly-catcher has a moulting in autumn and again in spring. The forehead of the male, a
large band across each wing, occupying the secondaries, and the edge of the outer tail-feathers, on each
side, are pure white ; the rest of the upper surface is jet-black; the under surface is white. The
female, as also the young, are destitute of white, and have the upper surface of an ashy-brown. In
autumn the male assumes an attire like that of the female ; but, in spring, he is seen in his character-
istic plumage. The birds breed in holes, or in thick and close bushes, forming their nests of dry
vegetables, and lining them with hair or feathers. The eggs seldom exceed five ; they are of a pale
greenish-blue.
* Muscicapidae. + Muscicapa atricapilla: Linn.










THE PIED FLY-CATCHER. 95
In the morning, before the flies come out, the males are generally perched and singing; and,
though their song has mot much compass or variety, it is soft, and not without sweetness. For their
peculiar habits they are constantly ready, so acute is their sight, so agile their motions; and, in the
bright and sultry hours, they are continually hopping out and in the bushes, in chase of the flies. Well
fitted as their wings are for the leaping flight, in which they catch their food, they are not so well
adapted to long journeys, especially if they have to contend with gales of wind, blowing them to
leeward in the pauses during which the strokes of their pinions are exhausted. Sometimes they are
so wearied as to be obliged to alight and rest, for a time, near the coasts, but they do not nestle there.
It has been noticed of the Spotted Fly-catcher, that it is remarkable for the singularity of
the places in which it builds its nest. One pair chose the head of a garden-rake; another, a bird-cage,
whose door stood open ; a third, a lamp-post, near Portland Place, in London. Under this term is
also included a closely-allied species,” well known on the Continent as.
THE COLLARED FLY-CATCHER..+
THIs bird is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. It is black and white beneath ; the primary quills
are white at the base; the tail and middle feathérs are black, and the rest white. The male, in his
summer plumage, has his neck arrayed in a white collar.
THE COLLARED FLY-CATCHER.
White tells us that the common fly-catcher is, of all our summer birds, the most mute and the
most familiar; it also appears last of any. It builds in a vine or sweet-briar against the wall of a
house, or in the hole of a wall, or on the end of a beam or plate, and often close to the post of a door,
where people are going in and out all day long.
¥ “The spotted fly-catcher,”f says Mr. Broderip, “can hardly be said to be a song-bird, for a chirping
call-note forms its whole musical stock; but it is one of the most welcome and constant of our migra-
tory birds; and the untiring zeal with which it clears the neighbourhood of small insects, such as gnats,
makes it a cherished guest, Perched on the top of a stake or a post, or an upper gate-bar, or ans
outlying branch, the bird remains motionless, till some luckless insect, humming his lay as carelessly
as his brother ‘water-fly, the dandy, hums the favourite air of the last new opera, comes within his
range; off darts the fly-catcher, finishing the song and the life of the performer at the same instant,
and returns to his station to repeat the exterminating process through the whole day. He is one of
our latest visitors, seldom arriving till late in May; and his quiet hair-brown coat and his dull-white
waistcoat, spotted and streaked with dark brown, are rarely seen till the oak-leaf has well burst the
bud. As soon as the bird arrives, it sets about the work of incubation.”
* Muscicapa albicollis. + Lanius collaris, : Muscicapa grisola: Linn.

96 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Of the PARADise FLY-CATCHER* there are several varieties, if not species. In some cases, the
males are distinguished by the extraordinary elongation of the middle tail-feathers.
THE PARADISE FLY-CATCHER.
THE TYRANT FLY-CATCHER+
This bird is one of the migratory visitors of the United States, and often bears the name of a King,” as
well as “Tyrant.” According to Wilson, he does so from the extraordinary authority he assumes overall
others during the time of breeding. So great is his affection for his mate, his young, and his nest, that,
* Muscicapa Paradisi. + Muscicapa tyrannus: Brisson.



THE TYRANT FLY-CATCHER. 97
suspicious of every bird that approaches it, he violently attacks all intruders. In the month of May,
June, and part of July, his life is one continued scene of broils and battles, in which, however, he
generally comes off conqueror.
Strange to tell, hawks and crows, the bald eagle, and the great black eagle, all equally dread an
encounter with him, who, as soon as he perceives any one of them approaching, launches into the air,
mounts to a considerable height above him, darts down on his back, and sometimes fixes himself there,
to the great annoyance of the assailed, who, if no convenient retreat or resting-place be near, strives, by
various evolutions, to free himself from his merciless adversary. But the king bird is not easily
dismounted. He teases the eagle incessantly, sweeps upon him from right to left, rises, that he may
descend on his back with the greater violence, all the while keeping up a shrill and rapid twittering,
and continuing the attack, sometimes for more than a mile, till he is relieved by some other of his
tribe equally eager for the fray.
“There is one bird, however,” says Wilson, “which, by its superior rapidity of flight, is sometimes
more than a match for him; and I have several times witnessed his precipitate retreat before this active
antagonist. This is the purple martin, one whose food and disposition are pretty similar to his own,
but who has greatly the advantage of him on the wing, in eluding all his attacks, and teasing him as
he pleases. I have also seen the red-headed woodpecker, while clinging on a rail of the fence, amuse
himself with the violence of the king bird, and play ‘bo-peep’ with him round the rail, while the
latter, highly irritated, made every attempt, as he swept from side to side, to strike him—but in vain.
All this turbulence, however, subsides as soon as his young are able to shift for themselves; and he is
then as mild and peaceable as any other bird.”
One of his habits often proves fatal. He loves bees, and is often on the look-out for these indus-
trious insects. Planting himself on a post of the fence, or on a small tree in the garden, near the
hives, he makes sad havoc among them as they pass and repass. But his shrill twitter, so near the
house, tells the farmer what is going on, who, with his gun, brings to a close the career of the king
bird for ever. **
These birds have no power of song. They arrive in Pennsylvania, about the 20th of April,
sometimes in small bodies of five or six, and are at first very silent, until hey begin to pair and build
their nests. This generally occurs about the first week in May. The nest is frequently built on the
horizontal branch of an apple-tree in the orchard, or on a Sassafras-tree, at no great height from the
ground. The outside consists of small, slender twigs, tops of withered flowers of the yarrow and
others, well woven together with tow and wool. It is made large, and remarkably firm and compact:
it is usually lined with fine, dry, fibrous grass and horse-hair. The eggs are five, of a very pale cream-
colour, or dull-white, marked with a few large spots of deep-purple, and other smaller ones of light-
brown. These birds generally build twice in the season.
The third family” consists of a great multitude of birds, about the true arrangement of which
much is still undetermined. We shall be able, however, to select sufficient examples of their variety
for our present purpose. To some of these we owe it, that
“Every copse
Deep tangled, tree irregular, and bush
. Bending with dewy moisture o'er the heads
Of the coy quiristers that lodge within,
Are prodigal of harmony.”
Cheering is the invitation:-
“Anna-Marie, love, up is the sun;
Anna-Marie, love, morn is begun;
Mists are dispersing, love, birds singing free;
Up in the morning, love, Anna-Marie.”
And truly does Wordsworth say, as he thinks of clouds that have been gathering and obscuring
the radiance of that orb :—
* Sylviadae.
WOL. III, 109
CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
* Glad moment is it when the throng
Of warblers, in full concert strong,
Strive—and not vainly strive—to rout
The lagging shower, and force coy Phoebus out;
Met by the rainbow's form divine,
Issuing from her cloudy shrine.”
-
In this family it will be well to notice several genera. One genus,” according to the eminent
ornithologist, Mr. Yarrell, has the following characters:—The beak is straight and slender, with a few
stiff hairs at the base; the nostrils basal, lateral, oval, half-closed by a membrane; the first quill-
feather of the wing about half as long as the second, the second shorter than the third or fourth, which
are the longest in the wing. As to the feet, the tarsus is rather long; there are three toes in front,
and one behind the outer toe connected by a membrane with the middle toe; the claw of the hind
toe short, strong, and curved.
THE STONE-CHAT+
This bird has a very extensive and varied range, being found in France, Germany, Russia, Provence,
Italy, Smyrna, Japan, the Deccan, the banks of the Ganges, the mountain-chain of Upper Hindustan,
TILE STONE-CIIAT.
Senegal, and South Africa, as well as England, Ireland, and Scotland; hence it bears a variety of
IlāIIles,
Dressed in its summer plumage, the male has the head, throat, back, and small coverts of the
wings black, but each feather is finely bordered with ruddy brown; a great white spot on the sides of
the neck, on the upper part of the wings, and on the rump. The breast is deep ruddy, the lower parts
very bright ruddy; the wings brown, bordered with brighter brown; the base of all the tail-feathers
white, the rest of a blackish brown. The female has the white spaces less extended, and the ruddy
colour less vivid.
* Saxicola. * Saxicola rubicola: Lath.










THE STONE CHAT. 99.
These birds seldom appear on our heaths and commons, dappled with furze and bushes, before the
end of March, but when its winds blow roughly, they quit the open spots for a shelter in the smug
lanes and groves. As the season becomes genial they return, and the black, white, and brown of º
stone-chat contrasts beautifully with the green and gold of the furze, as he sits on the topmost branch
and takes his pleasure; springing a few feet into the air, hovering over the bushes or the stones
darting hither and thither, like a dragon-fly over the margin of a brook, in chase of insects, ...
* his little song, which, though low, is sweet and cheering to his mate, nestling in her little
Ower'.
That bower is either on the ground or some dwarf bush. Outwardly it is a fabric of moss and
grass; and within there is a lining of a few fine bents, hairs, and feathers. The eggs are pale-blue,
with somewhat of a grayish tint, finely dotted with obscure reddish-brown at the large end.
THE WHIN-CHAT."
This is one of our feathered visitors in summer; it is also found in Norway, Sweden, temperate
- - º
Russia, and all southern Europe to the Mediterranean; and in winter it is common in Smyrna
THE WHIN-CILAT.
The upper surface of the Whin-chat is of a yellowish brown, with a central dash of brownish-
black, and a large spot of white in the centre of each wing. A broad streak of white passes above
the eyes, while the cheeks and ear-coverts are black; the throat, the sides of the neck, and the basal
half of all the tail-feathers, except the two middle ones, are also white; the rest of the tail is black;
the chest is of a fine light rufous. The female is inferior in appearance to the male; having no black
on the cheeks or white on the wing, the white streak over the eye is smaller, and the general colours of
the plumage are less pure and distinct.
The flight of the Whin-chat is undulating; furze commons are its favourite haunts; there it may
* Saxicola rubetra: Lath.








100 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
be seen flitting from bush to bush, and perching on one of the topmost twigs. The ear, too, catches its
well known cry of w—tick, w-tick, which it sends forth from the bushes and hedgerows it frequents, with
a singular jerk of the tail, repeating the last syllable two or three times in succession, and the next
moment flitting to a distant spray and reiterating its curious cry as before. It may be, however, its
expression of fear or distress.
Its nest is made of dry grass and vegetable fibres, and is placed in a bank among the roots of
tangled shrubs, or at the foot of some thick bush, where it can hide successfully. The Whin-chat is
peculiarly attentive to its mate in the nest. Its song is very pleasing, and resembles that of the gold-
finch, and not only will it sing during the day, but in the evening, and sometimes at night.
THE WHEATEAR.3%
So wide is the geographical distribution of this bird, that it includes Lapland, Denmark, Sweden,
Norway, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. In Europe it is abundant, particularly on the northern
shores of the Mediterranean. It is found in Dalmatia and the Morea. It was noticed at Smyrna by
Mr. Strickland, and procured by Mr. Keith Abbott at Trebizond.
The upper parts of the body of the male are a sky-gray; the forehead, the band above the eyes
and throat are white; black passes from the root of the bill below the eye, and covers the orifice of the
ears; the wings are black; the rump and tail are white, for two-thirds of the length of the latter;
the rest, towards the end, black, excepting the two middle feathers, which are entirely black; the front
of the neck and breast are of buff-colour, the rest of the lower parts buffy white.
The upper parts of the female are ashy-brown; the forehead rusty-gray; deep brown is above the
eye, and covers the orifice of the ears; the wings are blackish brown, bordered with bright brown;
the white at the origin of the tail less extended, the neck and breast ruddy, the rest ruddy white.
The Wheatear generally sits on the watch, upon an elevated clod or stone, for insects, which in
great numbers it captures on the wing. Its flight is low, but smooth and rapid. Its song, though
heard with difficulty in the open air, is soft and sweet; it is often poured forth, as the male hovers
over his mate, expanding the feathers of his tail.
They construct their nest of dried roots and feathers, as well as other materials, and deposit it in
a place where it cannot easily be detected. It is stated that, in Norfolk or Suffolk, a deserted rabbit-
burrow is usually chosen, and the nest is placed near the entrance. Mr. Salmon says, in such situations
it is sure to be discovered by the accumulation of a number of small pieces of the Pteris aquilina, which
the old birds amass outside the entrance. Mr. Yarrell found a nest in a fallow field, under a large clod,
to which his attention was drawn by a portion of its materials appearing outside the hole, through
which the bird passed to the hollow space within.
In the north the wheatear is generally found on heaps of stones, and in the early season it sings
sweetly. Its common alarm note is not unlike the sound made by breaking stones with a hammer,
and often it utters it from the top of the heap, beneath which its nest is often found.
About the middle of September these birds visit the downs of Kent and Sussex in great numbers,
which seem daily to increase. At this season they are caught in snares and in traps for the table,
being highly esteemed as delicacies. A shepherd has been known to take eighty-four dozens in a single
day. About Eastbourne they especially abound, and are taken, Latham states, to the number of more
than one thousand eight hundred dozens annually, in snares of horse-hair. In a visit to the Isle of
Portland, where the people do all that is practicable with the produce of the quarries—piling up
stones, for instance, to serve instead of a gate, and pulling them down when it is wanted to pass out or
in—the writer saw traps of stone, somewhat resembling oyster-shell grottoes, placed on numerous spots,
for the wheatear.
THE REDBREAST+
THIS bird, with its “scarlet stomacher,” is too well known to require any particular description. The
female has the breast of a dull yellowish browa; while the young ones are of a dull yellowish green,
without the orange red on the breast.
* Saxicola aerianthe. Lath. + Sylvia rubecula. Hath
THE REDBREAST. 101
In the bright days of summer the robin is shy and unobtrusive, it is therefore but little noticed,
and its song is lost in the strains of that season. At first it is busy in preparing its nest, which is
placed on the ground, at the roots of trees, and in other retired spots. Should the foliage here not
afford a natural concealment, the birds form an artificial one of dry leaves, so that they may reach the
mest without disclosing its site. The strewing of leaves on “the Babes of the Wood” was, doubtless,
suggested to the minstrel by the female covering her eggs when she has to leave them. Like wrens,
the redbreasts often nestle near houses, but so cautious are they in leaving and returning home, that
the nests are seldom seen. The eggs are yellowish gray, mottled with chestnut colour, and rarely
exceed seven in number. • * ,
In due time the young have to be reared, and the robin provides for them and its mate with
exemplary activity. In these excursions he will seize upon anything that comes in his way. Insects
are his favourite food, but he will pick up grain, crumbs, and anything else that is eatable. Myriads
of insects are captured by these birds where they alight to deposit their eggs on the embryo buds; the
robins continue the chase as long as a fly can be found, and then the next spoil is the eggs.
On the coming of autumn the robin loses the shyness of earlier months; he now traverses the
grass-plat in search of insects, hops complacently up and down the gravelled walks of the garden, and
leaves an unfortunate worm, only intent on looking out of its aperture in the soil, no chance of escape.
As the season advances, the words of Thomson are verified :
“The redbreast, sacred to the household gods, On the warm hearth; then hopping o'er the floor
Wisely regardful of the embroiling sky, Eyes all the family askance, t
In joyless fields and thorny thickets leaves - And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is ;
His shivering mates, and pays to trusty man Till more familiar grown, the table crumbs
His annual visit. Half-afraid, he first Attract his slender feet.”
- Against the window beats; then brisk alights
The writer has accounted it a special rural pleasure to make the acquaintance of many a robin :
watching him in his garden, as if the sagacious bird knew that worms were being turned up and he
might have an easy banquet; perching on the neighbouring wall, when the fowls and the pigeons were
fed, that he might alight and share in the regale; or gathering gaily the crumbs placed for him, as he
seemed well to know, on the window-sill. And no wonder the robin is a general favourite: his
personal beauty, his sprightly movements, his cheerful carol, his near approach to observe anything
man is doing, and the special familiarity he may at length attain, all unite to render him engaging.
Dr. Jenner only expressed the feelings of thousands as he said:–
“Come, sweetest of the feather'd throng! Thy cup, sweet bird, I'll daily fill
And soothe me with thy plaintive song: At yonder cressy, bubbling rill;
Come to my cot, devoid of fear, Thy board shall plenteously be spread
No danger shall await thee here : - With crumblets of the nicest bread;
No prowling cat, with whiskered face, r And when rude winter comes and shows
Approaches this sequestered place: His icicles and shivering snows,
No schoolboy with his willow-bow IIop o'er my cheering hearth and be
Shall aim at thee a murderous blow : One of my peaceful family:
3. No wily lim'd twig ere molest Then soothe me with thy plaintive song,
Thy olive wing or crimson breast: Thou sweetest of the feathered throng!"
THE NIGHTINGALE."
THE name of this bird is derived from the Saxon—night, and galan, to sing; or, the might-singer
Antony calls Cleopatra his “nightingale,” and says —
“The nightingale, if she should sing by day,
When every goose is cackling, would be thought
No better a musician than the wron.” -
This charming bird may be traced from England, through Germany, Poland, France, Italy, and
Palestine.
It is the largest of all the warblers, being about seven inches in length, and between ten and
eleven in the extent of its wings. The upper parts are of a deep yellowish brown, inclining to reddish
* Sylvia luscinia ; Lath.
102 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
brown; the quills and greater coverts are dusky brown, with reddish brown margins; the tail deep
reddish brown, and very slightly forked; the sides of the neck, ear-coverts, breast and flanks, pale ash-
gray, passing into grayish white on the throat and lower parts; an obscure dusky streak going from
the gape down the side of the neck, and into the gray of the breast. The colours of the female are
like those of the male. The bill is wood brown, with the basal end of the lower mandible pale
yellowish brown; the tarsi, which are long, and the toes, are of the same colour.
Though this warbler is plentiful in some localities, it is never found in others. The writer has
frequently heard the nightingale in different places in the neighbourhood of London; and in its finest
voice in the Isle of Wight, near St. Lawrence. It is found in Sussex, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire,
and the eastern part of Devonshire, but not in Cornwall. It frequents a great part of Yorkshire, but
it is unknown in Lancashire, though it has been heard in Carlisle. Eos is its Welsh name, but Wales
is not known to possess it. Leyden asks— -
“Sweet bird! how long shall Teviot's maids deplore
Thy song unheard along her woodland shore ?”
and the same lament may arise for the daughters of Erin. Sir J. Sinclair endeavoured to introduce
this delightful songster into the groves of Scotland, exchanging the eggs of robins for those of nightin-
gales. The young birds were hatched and brought up by their foster parents; they migrated in
September, their usual time, but never returned to the place of their birth. A similar experiment
was made at Swansea, with the same result. -
The males first venture across the channel, disperse themselves over the country, resort to thick
hedges, copses, and plantations, pour forth their songs at eve, and await the arrival of their mates,
which is sometimes delayed beyond a few days, by cold and ungenial weather. Most artfully contrived
and carefully concealed are the nests they build, Composed externally of dried leaves or grass, or of the
skeleton leaves which strew the banks and thick bottoms of hedges, the little dwelling is lined with hair
and soft fibres. Calculated to deceive the eye, it is placed low down in a thick bush or luxuriant
hedge, among intertangled stems. The eggs, of a greenish brown, are five in number.
“Can there be a man,” says Belon, an old French writer, “so deprived of judgment as not to
take admiration in hearing such melody come out of the throat of a little bird?” Crashaw has the
same idea in his “Music Duel,” where he describes the nightingale as trailing, *
“Through the sleek passage of her open throat,
A clear unwrinkled song: then doth she point it
By short diminutions,
That from so small a channel should be raised
The torrent of a voice, whose melody
Could melt into such sweet variety.”
Hurdis says:—
“Now I steal along a woody lane, And marked thy varied note, and frequent pause,
To hear thy song so various, gentle bird, Thy brisk and melancholy mood, with soul
Sweet queen of night, transporting Philomel. Sincerely pleased. And oh, methought no note
Iname thee not to give my feeble line Can equal thine, sweet bird, of all that sing
A grace else wanted, for I love thy song, How easily the chief 1 Yet have I heard
And often have I stood to hear it sung, What pleases me still more—the human voice
When the clear moon, with Cytherean smile In serious sweetness flowing from the heart
Emerging from an eastern cloud, has shot Of unaffected woman. I could hark
A look of pure benevolence and joy Till the round world dissolved to the pure strain
Into the heart of night. Yes, I have stood Love teaches, gentle modesty inspires.”
“The nightingale,” it has been truly said, “passes from grave to gay; from a simple song to a
warble the most varied; and from the softest trillings and swells to languishing and lamentable sighs,
which he as quickly abandons to return to his natural sprightliness.”
Milton has said— t -
- “Sweet bird l that shunn'st the noise of folly,
Most musical, most melancholy;
Thee, chantress, oft the woods among
I woo, to hearthy evening song.”
To this Coleridge replies:
f
THE NIGHTINGALE.
“And, hark! the nightingale begins its song,
“Most musical, most melancholy’ bird.
A melancholy bird? oh! idle thought !
In nature there is nothing melancholy.
—"Tis the merry nightingale
That crowds, and hurries, and precipitates
With fast, thick warble, his delicious notes,
As he were fearful that an April night
Would be too short for him to utter forth
His love-chant, and disburden his full soul
Of all its music!
“And I know a grove
Of large extent, hard by a castle huge,
Which the great lord inhabits not; and so
This grove is wild with tangling underwood,
And the trim walks are broken up, and grass,
Thin grass and kingcups, grow within the paths;
But never, elsewhere, in one place I knew
So many nightingales; and far and near,
In wood and thicket, over the wide grove,
With skirmishes and capricious passagings,
And murmurs musical and swift, jug, jug,
And one low piping sound more sweet than all-
Stirring the air with such an harmony,
That should you close your eyes, you might almost
Forget it was not day! On moonlit bushes,
Whose dewy leaflets are but half disclosed,
You may perchance behold them on the twigs,
Their bright, bright eyes, their eyes both bright-
and full,
Glistening, while many a glow-worm in the shade
Lights up her love-torch.
“And oft a moment's space,
What time the moon was lost behind a cloud,
Hath heard a pause of silence; till the moon
Emerging, hath awakened earth and sky
With one sensation, and these wakeful birds
Have all burst forth in choral minstrelsy,
As if some sudden gale had swept at once
A hundred airy harps!”
103
They answer and provoke each other's song
No wonder that our rustic poet Clare remarks:
The nightingale's pure song I could not try,
“I’ve often tried, when tending sheep or cow,
And when the thrush would mock her song, she paused,
With bits of grass and peels of oaten straw,
To whistle like the birds. The thrush would start And sang another song no bird could do.
To hear her song of praise and fly away; She sang when all were done, and beat them all.”
The blackbird never cared, but sang again; *
According to Bechstein, “The first good quality of a nightingale is undoubtedly its fine voice.”
He then states that this bird expresses his different emotions by suitable cries and particular intona-
tions. The most unmeaning cry when he is alone appears to be the simple whistle, “fitt ;” but if the
syllable “cre” be added, it is then the call of the male to the female. The sign of displeasure, or fear,
is “fitt,” repeated rapidly and loudly before adding the terminating “cre;” while that of satisfaction,
pleasure, and complacency is a deep “tack,” which may be imitated by Smacking the tongue. In
anger, jealousy, rivalry, or any extraordinary event, he utters hoarse, disagreeable sounds, somewhat
like a jay, or a cat. Lastly, in the season of pairing, during their playful gambols, a gentle, subdued
warbling is all that is heard. But when their young are hatched, their song ceases.
“Nature,” he continues, “has granted these tones to both sexes; but the male is endowed with so
very striking a musical talent, that, in this respect, he surpasses all birds, and has acquired the name
of the king of songsters. The strength of his vocal organ is, indeed, wonderful; and it has been
found that the muscles of his larynx are (proportionately) much more powerful than those of any
other bird. But it is less the strength than the compass, flexibility, prodigious variety, and harmony
of his voice, which make it so admired by all lovers of the beautiful. Sometimes dwelling for
minutes on a strain composed of only two or three melancholy tones, he begins in an under voice, and
swelling it gradually by the most superb crescendo to the highest point of strength, he ends it by a
dying cadence; or, it consists of a rapid succession of more brilliant sounds, terminated, like many
other strains of his song, by some detached ascending notes. Twenty-four different strains or couplets
may be reckoned in the song of a fine nightingale, without including its delicate little variations; for
among these, as among other musicians, there are some great performers and many middling ones.
This song is so articulate that it may be very well written. -
“The nightingales of all countries, the south as well as the north, appear to sing in the same
manner; but there is, as has been observed, so great a difference, that we cannot help acknowledging
that one has a great superiority over another. On points of beauty, however, where the senses are the
judges, each has his own peculiar taste. If one nightingale has the talent of dwelling agreeably on
his notes, another utters his with peculiar brilliancy; a third lengthens out his strain in a peculiar
manner; and a fourth excels in the silveriness of his voice. All four may excel in their style, and
each will find his admirer; and it is very difficult to decide which merits the palm of victory. There
are, however, individuals so very superior as to unite all the beauties of power and melody; these are
104. cassell's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
generally birds which, having been hatched with the necessary qualifications, in a district well supplied
with nightingales, appropriate whatever is most striking in the song of each. As the return of the
males in spring always precedes that of the females by seven or eight days, they sing before and after
midnight, in order to attract their companions on their journey during the fine nights. If their aims
succeed, they then keep silence during the night, and salute the dawn with their first accents, which
are continued through the day. Some persist, in their first season, in singing before and after
midnight; whence they have obtained the name of nocturnal nightingales. After repeated experi-
ments for many successive years, I think I am authorised in affirming that the nocturnal and diurnal
nightingales form distinct varieties which propagate regularly ; for if a young bird be taken out of the
nest of a night-singer, he will in turn sing at the same hours as his father, not the first year, but
THE NIGHTING ALE.
certainly in the following; while, on the other hand, the young of a day-nightingale will never sing in
the night, even when it is surrounded by nocturnal nightingales. I have also remarked that the night-
singers prefer mountainous countries, and even mountains themselves, whilst the others prefer plains,
valleys, and the neighbourhood of water. I will also venture to affirm that all the night-singers found
in the plains have strayed from the mountains. Thus, in my neighbourhood (Walterhausen, Saxony),
inclosed in the first chains of the mountains of Thuringia, we hear only night-singers; on the plains
of Gotha they know only the day-nightingale.”
Isaac Walton observes of this noted song-bird: “He that, at midnight, when the very labourers
sleep securely, should hear, as I have heard, the clear air, the sweet descants, the natural rising and
falling, the doubling and redoubling, of her voice, might well be lifted above the earth, and say, Lord!
what music hast thou provided for thy saints in heaven, when thou affordest bad men such music on
earth "







-
THE NIGHTINGALE. 105
Dr. Latham states that, “as is usual with the migrating warblers, the male bird remains on the spot
to which it first resorts, attracting the female by its song; and if by accident the female is killed, the
male, which had become silent, resumes his song, and willeontinue to sing late in the summer, till he
finds another mate, in which case they will breed at a later season.”
The nightingale is capable of forming attachments to individuals. When once the bird has
become acquainted with the person who takes care of it, it distinguishes his step before it comes within
sight, welcomes him with a cry of joy, and during the moulting season, makes efforts, though vainly,
to sing, and shows its emotions in the gaiety of his movements, and the expression of its looks, when it
cannot give them a vocal utterance. Should it lose its benefactor, it has been known to pine to death;
and should it survive, it is long before it becomes accustomed to another. Its attachments are long,
because they are not hasty, which is the case with all mild and timid dispositions.
A white nightingale, valued at six thousand sesterces, was once presented by the Empress
Agrippina to one of her friends. Pliny tells that some nightingales belonging to the two sons of
the Emperor Claudius spoke Greek and Latin, and made new phrases every day to divert their
masters. Gesner describes two others, belonging to an innkeeper at Ratisbon, which—more
wonderful still—conversed all night on the politics of Europe; but he adds, they did no more–
enough certainly—than repeat at night the conversation they had heard during the day.
THE REDSTART.º.
Copses, the borders of woods, orchards, and gardens, where insect food is abundant, are frequented by
this visitor of ours during the spring and summer. It is very quick and animated in its movements,
often catching its prey very skilfully on the wing. On the ground, it trips along lightly and quickly,
accompanying every action with a singular vibrating motion of the tail, which, in the male, is of a
bright flame colour, in striking contrast with the rest of his plumage.
THE BLACK REDSTART. -
The nest is rather loosely constructed; it is formed of moss and stalks of grass, and lined with
feathers. The eggs, five or six in number, are of a fine greenish blue. Various are the places chosen
for the nest. For two years in succession, a pair built in an ornamental vase in a garden; but holes in
garden walls, ledges in out-buildings, bowers of ivy, and similar sites, are commonly selected.
The redstart is, in form and colour, a very elegant bird; its upper surface being of a fine bluish
gray. The general plumage of the female is one uniform grayish brown. The song is low, soft, and
sweet, and generally uttered while the bird is perched on the topmost branch of a low tree. It imi-
tates the notes of other species, and often, with excellent effect, mingles their strains with its own.
* Phoenicura raticilla.
WOL. III. 110



106 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
This species is very extensively diffused on the Continent. It is abundant in France, Italy, and
Spain; it also visits Germany, and extends its migration to Russia, Sweden, and Norway. The
Black Redstart, an allied species, is common in the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, but only
occasionally visits our island,
a THE FAN-TAIL WARBLER.3%
THE plumage of this interesting little bird is of a dead leaf colour, or reddish-yellow above each
feather, having a sprinkling in the middle of longitudinal spots, except on the lower portion of the
back, which is plain, as is also the whole of the under surface, which is of a reddish white. The tail
is short, graduated, and of a blackish brown, each feather having a deep black spot near the end. The
Fantail Warbler is peculiar to the southern provinces of Europe, as Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and
Italy.
T{{12 º'AN-TAIL WA1:BLER.
Truly amazing is the structure of its nest ; it is placed in a tuft of tall grass, and raised from the
ground. Of the grass many blades are very nicely drawn together, or rather sewn with a kind of
cotton thread, which the bird manufactures. The blades of grass, thus secured, form an outer case and
support to a long barrel-shaped nest, which is open at the top, and closely concealed from view. What
a wonderful display of instinct is there in this beautiful structure ; the choice of a place where it may
be reared, the thread by which the materials may be made fast, and then the interlacing, or sewing
them together! Who but God could be the teacher of this little bird, and, indeed, of every other?
* Sylvia cisticola.

THE TAILOR. BIRD.º.
DR. DARwn appears to have been the first of our countrymen to remark, “The tailor bird will not trust
its nest to the extremity of a tender twig, but makes one more advance to safety by fixing it to the leaf
itself. It picks up a dead leaf, and sews it to the side of a living one, its slender bill being its needle,
and its thread some fine fibres; the lining consists of feathers, gossamer, and down; its eggs are
white; the colour of the bird light yellow; its length three inches; its weight three-sixteenths of an
ounce; so that the materials of the nest are not likely to draw down a habitation so slightly suspended.
A nest of this bird is preserved in the British Museum.”
--> 1 Oº 1-- T-ILOR 111-12.
Others have since been added to that most interesting and valuable collection. But Forbes,
who observed the bird in India, says nothing of the “dead leaf.” Having referred to the baya, he
says, “Equally curious in the structure of its nest, and far superior in the variety and elegance of its
plumage, is the tailor-bird of Hindostan, so called from its instinctive ingenuity in forming its nest;
it first selects a plant with large leaves, and then gathers cotton from the shrub, spins it to a thread by
means of its long bill and slender feet, and then, as with a needle, sews the leaves neatly together to
conceal its nest. The tailor-bird resembles some of the humming-birds at the Brazil, in shape and
colour; the hen is clothed in brown; but the plumage of the cock displays the varied tints of azure,
purple, green, and gold, so common in those American birds. Often have I watched the progress
of an industrious pair of tailor-birds, in my garden, from their first choice of a plant, until the com-
* Sylvia sutoria.











108 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
pletion of the nest, and the full growth of the young. How applicable are the following lines, in the
Musae Seatonianae, to the nidification of the tailor-birds, and the pensile nests of the baya:—
* Behold a bird's nest!
Mark it well, within, without!
No tool had he that wrought; no knife to cut,
No nail to fix, no bodkin to insert,
No glue to join; his little beak was all:
And yet how neatly finished! What nice hand,
With every implement and means of art,
Could compass such another?'"
THE HEDGE-SPARROW.”
THE nest of this well-known bird abounds in the hedges of our fields and gardens. Its eggs are of a
beautiful azure blue. In summer the hedge-sparrow feeds eagerly on caterpillars, and hence checks
the number of perfect insects, and unlike most of the warblers, this little bird braves our wintry
rigours, finds caterpillars hidden in the bark of trees, and adds to its meal berries and seeds.
A nestling nightingale learnt the notes of a hedge-sparrow that sang near to it, for want of other
sounds to imitate; and it was extraordinary to hear the gentle, although agreeable warble of the latter
attuned to the full compass and power of the nightingale. The effect was most pleasing, although, of
course, not equal to the natural notes of this bird, not one of which he retained. Indeed, many birds
are almost entirely imitative, and in default of hearing the parent bird, they borrow notes of others:
soft-billed birds always preferring the song of soft-billed birds, and vice versa.
THE GRASSHOPPER WARBLER.H.
THIs bird is by no means common, and appears to be local in its distribution. Its favourite haunts are
low, damp places, overgrown with furze, bramble, and underwood; and in the very densest parts of it
it remains shrouded from observation.
THE GRASSHOPPER WARBLER.
According to Mr. Selby, who could tell by its sounds that it was near, but who had to wait long
before he could see it, its note consists of a sibiline ringing cry, repeated for many minutes without
intermission, and resembles so exactly the note of the mole-cricket as to render it a difficult task to
distinguish between the two. In the utterance of this note, it seems to possess a kind of ventriloquism,
as it can cause the sound at one moment to proceed from the immediate neighbourhood of the listener,
and at the next, to sound as if removed to some distance, without any actual change of place in the bird.
* Accentor modularis: Bechst. + Sylvia locustella: Lath.

THE GRASSHOPPER, WARBLER. - 109
The grasshopper-warbler builds its nest, which is thick and compact, of moss and the stems of
grass, in the most dense and secluded spot of the thicket. The male and female are alike in colouring.
The eggs are of a pinkish gray, speckled with a deeper tint.
THE REED-WREN OR REED-WARBLER."
The nest of this bird is a very beautiful structure; it is of an elongated form and very deep, so as
entirely to conceal the bird when sitting. It is formed of the seed-tops of reeds and long grass, and is
attached to the growing stalks of three or four adjoining reeds, to which it is bound by long strips of
grass, interwoven with the structure of the nest.
Thus suspended, it is liable to be swung to and fro as the reeds bend to the wind; indeed,
Montagu states that he has seen this bird sitting on her nest, when the wind blew so hard that every
gust forced it almost to the surface of the water. Under such circumstances, neither the eggs nor
THE REED-WARELEr.
the bird could keep their place in a shallow nest; and hence the nest is made unusually deep. The
eggs are greenish white, spotted with olive and brown.
In Holland the Reed Wren is very abundant; but it is principally to the south-eastern portions of
our island that its summer visits are extended. Its song is varied and pleasing, and though delivered
hurriedly, has few harsh, wiry sounds.
THE BLACKCAP.+
THIs migrating species, arriving here about the middle of April, and leaving in September, derives its
name from its black hood. The French call it the Fauvette à tête noire; the Germans, the Monk or
Moor. It frequents groves, the borders of woods, parks, and orchards, where it conceals itself amidst the
foliage. It is quick and alert in its manners, and searches the leaves with singular address for insects
and caterpillars. It is very partial to berries, and, on its first arrival, resorts to those of the ivy, on
which it chiefly feeds, till the caterpillars of various moths are abundant. Afterwards it attacks
currants, cherries, and strawberries, and last of all, the berries of the elder. -
The blackcap builds its nest amidst thick intertwined bushes of white thorn, or amidst dense
brambles; it is a well-built structure, composed externally of the stems of grasses, wool, moss, and the
deserted cocoons of insects; internally, it is lined with fibre and hair. There are from four to six eggs,
of a yellowish brown, with marks of ash gray, and brown spots.
The blackcap likes a high place for its song; choosing, where the tree is not very lofty, an elevated
branch, or the top twig. As it holds up its head, and the throat is much inflated, the axis of the body
* Sylvia arundinacea: Lath. + Sylvia atricapilla: Lath









110 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL IIISTORY.
is very oblique. “While the bird is trilling,” says Mudie, “in which it excels every songster of the
grove in rapidity and clearness, and in the swells and cadences which it gives to the same trill, the
throat has a very strong convulsive motion, and the whole bird appears to be worked into a high state
of excitement. It has, indeed, the wildest and most witching notes of all our warblers; it has not,
certainly, the volume and variety of the nightingale, neither has it the ineffably sweet chant of the
garden-warbler; but its notes take one by surprise, and the changes, and especially the trills, are finer
than those of any other bird. The notes, when the bird is at rest, appear to be, by turns, like those of
several birds; but it transposes them into a lower or rather a minor key, and finishes off with varia-
tions of its own; and as is the case with some of the more impassioned musical composers, the very
genius (so to speak) of the bird interferes with the melody, and a sort of indescribable wildness is the
character of the whole.”
The next genus is formed of the Pipits,” of which there are four British species. They build
on the ground, near marshy places, in tufts of grass or rushes, or among loose clods and stones. They
have all a clear loud note.
THE MEADOW PIPIT.:
THIs bird is seen on the barren hills of Northumberland and in the highlands of Scotland, as well as
in the richer and warmer parts of the country. The Pipit Lark has sometimes been described, but
this is only the Meadow Pipit after its autumnal moult and in its winter's dress.
1111. MEALOW I-1-1-1T.
This species often perches on low branches. It runs along the ground and catches insects in the
manner of the wagtails. Its nest is made of dried grasses and fibres, and, generally lined with
hair, is concealed on the ground by a bush or a tuft of herbage. The eggs are usually of a pale brown,
thickly speckled with purplish brown.
The ordinary flight of the meadow pipit consists of a series of jerking undulations, at no great
height, and is very different from its song-flight. During the pairing season, the male ascends to a
great altitude by a rapid, tremulous movement of its wings, and when at the highest point commences
his song; it then gradually descends, on motionless wings and outspread tail, obliquely to the earth.
- THE TREE PIPIT, OR TIT-LARK.
THIs bird may be distinguished from the rest of the genus by having the hind claw short and curved.
Its nest, formed of grasses, vegetable fibre, hair, and moss, is generally concealed under herbage.
There are four or five eggs, of a grayish white, mottled with brown. There are two broods in the
Summer.
The Tree Pipit searches on the ground for insects with ease and celerity, but when disturbed,
* Anthus. + Anthus pratensis: Bechst. † Anthus arboreus: Bechst.



THE TIT-LARK. 111
betakes itself to the upper part of a neighbouring tree, preparatory to a further flight. A simple
pit-pit is the call-note of this bird.
The males, preceding the females by a week or ten days in their arrival here, repair to their
respective situations, and commence their songs of invitation. Often are these sº. uttered from
the topmost branch of a tree where the bird is perched; but most frequently when it is on the wing
or rather poised in the air above its perch. It first rises uttering a simple twitter; when, hº
- º
---
THE TREE PLP11.
attained the due elevation, it commences a trilling warble, and, on expanded wings, slowly descends
to the perch from which it had previously risen. During this descent, the tail is raised perpendicularly.
THE WILLOW WARBLER."
THIs bird, called also the Yellow Wren, or Willow Wren, visits our island about the beginning of
April, and leaves it in September. Well may we say on its departure —
-- Farewell, sweet bird I thou still hast been -- Oh, may that warning voice be heard,
Companion of our Summer scene, Howe'er revealed! To thee, sweet bird,
Lov’d inmate of our meadows green, The tongue that speaks the instructive word,
And rural home: Within thee dwells:
The music of thy cheerful song To us, where'er around we look,
We've lov'd to hear; and all day long Each passing wing, the field, the brook,
See thee on pinion, fleet and strong, But most his own unerring Book
About us roam. God's wisdom tells.
*And dost thou no wise lore impart? “That Book directs our mental sight
Yes, still thou biddºtus act our part - To mark the migratory flight,
With body prompt and willing heart, With power surpassing human might
While Summer lasts: On thee impress'd:–
Prepar'd the course to take, that He And trains, by thy observant kind,
For us appoints, who summons thee Man's wilful and reluctant mind,
To climes of grateful warmth to flee Its refuge in God's laws to find,
From wintry blasts. And there to rest.”
The Willow Wren is an admirable songster, uttering a clear, loud, piercing strain, which may be
heard in the woods and groves of every part of our island, excepting Cornwall and the west of
Devonshire. Very animated are its actions, and it catches insects on the wing with great address.
In May it builds an oval nest, composed of grasses, mosses, and dried leaves, lined with feathers,
and with a small opening at the top. The eggs are six or seven, white, with reddish-brown spots,
numerous at the larger end. The plumage of the upper surface of the willow wren is of a greenish-
yellow brown; the under parts are white, tinged with yellow, especially on the cheeks, throat, and
under tail coverts; an obscure streak of yellow runs over each eye.
* Sylvia trochilus: Lath.

112 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
A lady was walking, in the spring, through an orchard, when her attention was attracted by
something on the ground in the form of a large ball, composed of dried grass. She took it up, and
found it was a nest of the willow wren. Regretting her haste, she restored it, as nearly as she could,
to the place where it had been found, but with little hope that after such an attack it would be claimed
by the owner.
TILE W.A.E.I. WAGTAIL.
To her agreeable surprise, the willow wren was, on the next day, proceeding with its work. Two
eggs were speedily laid, and the kind lady now hoped that her little protégé was safe from harm, when
alas! an invading army of splay-footed ducks marched straight upon the nest, which was conspicuous
—for the grass had not grown high enough to hide it—and with their broad bills spread it quite open,
lisplaced the eggs, and left the cosey little domicile in utter ruin. The lady now despaired; but having
THE GRAY WAGTAIL.
chased away the intruders, she did her best to restore the nest to its proper form, and placed the eggs
inside. Her attention and perseverance gained a reward; for that very day she was astonished to
find an additional egg, and, in about a week, four more. The bird sat, and ultimately brought forth
Seven young Ones.
Another genus of the present family is formed of the Wagtails," their names being derived from
* Motacillidae,







THE WATER, WAGTAILS, 113
the relmarkable, rapid, and almost incessant motion of their tails. They accompany the elevation by
a jerking spread, which relaxes when it is depressed, so that the tail appears to have two simultaneous
motions. &
As Mudie remarks, “The tarsi are long in proportion to the size of the birds; but the neck and
bill, instead of being so long as to enable the latter to reach the ground, while the axis of the body is
horizontal, are so short that the shoulders must dip much when the bill is brought to a level with the feet.
A bird so formed would be very apt to tumble forwards, if it had not some means of working a counter-
poise, and that counterpoise is the tail. When that is expanded and struck forward against the air, it
acts in nearly the same manner as a wing, and pulls the body of the bird backwards, so that the head
is raised with comparatively little effort. All birds that have the same length of tarsi in proportion
to that of the neck and bill have a similar action of the tail; but as that structure, and also the habit
of picking up food on a level with the feet, is more remarkable in the wagtails than in any other
British birds, the motion of the tail is more powerful in them, and the tail is also longer in proportion.
But the habit may be seen in very many birds, both in enabling them to raise the head and to retain
it in an erect posture. The magpie is a familiar instance, and so is the peacock—which would tumble
backwards, if he were to raise the body in the same manner when the tail is down as he does when
it is erected and spread.” *
Of these birds there are several species, as the Pied Wagtail,” a very generally dispersed bird; the
Gray Wagtail,t not so common as the last species; and the Yellow Wagtail, f which is frequently
observable. The wagtails sing early and sweetly, but the song is neither very loud nor very long.
THE GOLDEN-CRESTED REGULUS.S
THIS is not merely the smallest but one of the most beautiful of British birds, and yet, though
abounding in most places, its active and restless habits and the silence of its movements lead to its
being but little noticed.
The oak, the yew, and the various species of the fir and pine, are the usual haunts of the Golden-
Crested Wren. In these tall trees it builds its nest, not merely neatly but elegantly, the shape
varying according to the situation in which it is placed. It is generally like that of the chaffinch, open
at the top, but sometimes, even under the sheltering boughs of a Norway fir, it is covered with a dome,
and has an opening on one side. It is always ingeniously suspended beneath the branch, like those of
many tropical birds, and is the only instance of the kind among our birds. The eggs, small, round,
and cream coloured, are nine or ten in number.
The golden-crested regulus is not a shy bird. Though it abounds in forests, it equally frequents
gardens, occasionally even in the suburbs of large towns, and very often builds close to the house. It will
visit the plants trained round windows; and has been known, when pursued by a hawk, to seek refuge
in a room where people were sitting, and alight on the top of the bell-rope, whence it suffered itself to
be taken by the hand.
This bird remains with us all the year round. During the greater part of it, it never alights on
the earth; but in the winter it is often seen pecking for insects in the grass, or among dead leaves, and
even on a heath at some little distance from any tree; and when thus engaged it may be approached
sufficiently near for the observer to hear the snap of its little beak in seizing its prey.
In the spring and summer it sings regularly, beginning about the middle of March, and continu-
ing till the end of July. Its song is very soft and low, like a whisper, and, like that of the grass-
hopper-lark, is no louder at the distance of one yard than of twenty.
Perhaps the best time for watching it is a hot sunny day in summer or autumn. Pleasant, indeed,
are its shape and plumage, surpassing, as they do, those of most of the feathered inhabitants of our woods
and gardens. The plumage is a beautiful mixture of green and yellow, with white bars on its wings;
and on its head is the golden crest, bordered with black, from which it takes its name.
While the golden-crested regulus never migrates with us, and never attempts on common occasions
any greater flight than from tree to tree, yet it traverses the vast distance from the Orkneys to the
* Motacilla Yarrellii: Gould. + M, boarula: Linn. + M, flava: Lian. § Regulus christatus: Flem.
WOL. III, 111
114 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Shetland Isles, over stormy seas, allowing no possible rest during a long passage of more than fifty miles.
There it breeds, but this one object being accomplished, it leaves those isles, dares again this tedious
flight, and seeks a milder clime.
Another genus” contains one of our favourite birds,
TEIE WREN,+
THIs well-known bird frequents gardens, hedges, and groves, near human dwellings, and rears its nest
in a hay-stack, an old thorn-bush, or a hole in any old wall or building. It lays from eight to twelve
eggs.
º *U-
---. º
ſº
--
º
THE GOLDEN CRESTED REGULUS.
A wren, which for many years built her nest behind an oak tree, which overhung the writer's
garden, was thus addressed :—
“Little warbler! long hast thou
Perch'd beneath yon spreading bough;-
Sung beneath yon ivied tree,_
Thy mossy nest I yearly see,
Safe from all thy peace annoys—
Claws of cats and cruel boys.
We often hearthy chit-chat song
Call thy tiny brood along;
While, in her nest, or on a spray,
The throstle charms us with her lay!
Little warbler 1 cheerful Wren I
Spring-time's come, and thou again:
Little warblerſ thou, like me,
Delight'stin home and harmless glee;
* Troglodytes.
What of peace is to be found
Circles all thy dwelling round;
Here with love beneath the shade,
Thy tranquil happiness is made:
With thy tiny, faithful mate,
Here meet'st resign'd the frowns of fate;
While prouder birds fly high or far,
Or mix them in the strife of war,
Or restless, through the wide world range
And restless, still delight in change,
Thou mak'st thy home, a place of rest,
Affection, love, and that is best!
Then welcome, welcome, faithful Wren,
Thrice welcome to thy home again!”
+ T. Furnnºns. T. vulgaris.

THE WREN. 115
Clare thus sang :-
“Why is the Cuckoo's melody preferred, Whosesong hathcrowds of happy memoriesbrought:
And Nightingale's rich song so fondly praised, Such the wood Robin singing in the dell,
In poet's rhymes? Is there no other bird And little Wren, that many a time hath sought
of Nature's minstrelsy, that oft hath rais'd Shelter from showers in huts where I may dwell,
One's heart to ecstacy and mirth so well? In early spring, the tenant of the plain,
I judge not how another's taste is caught; Tending my sheep; and still they come to tell
With mine are other birds that bear the bell, The happy stories of the past again.”
At no very distant time it was the practice of the young men in Cork, in their holiday attire, and
decorated with gay and diverse coloured ribbons, to parade the city and neighbourhood on St.
TILE wººl-N.
Stephen's day. A furze-bush in which a wren was secured was borne along, when, as they stopped
before the principal houses, one of them recited the following lines:-
“The wren, the wren, the king of all birds,
Was caught St. Stephen's day in the furze;
Although he's little, his family's great,
Then pray, kind gentlefolks, give him a trate.”
Open flew the gates, and the attendants, if not the bird, were received with the utmost hospitality.
This practice was founded on two singular traditions. One was that when the birds wished for a
king, it was resolved that royalty should be conferred on the one that rose highest in the air; when a
wren rose aloft while an eagle was descending, perched on his back, and thus bore off the prize. The
other was, that in one of the rebellions a party of royalists, worn out with fatigue, were sleeping one
might in a secluded valley, and just when the enemy had come within gun-shot, a wren tapped with its
bill three times on the drum, and startled the sentinel, who aroused the rest to a determined and vic-
torious repulse!
Faber pictures pleasantly a very grave-looking wren, who seemed to be living like an anchorite,
and yet he subsequently describes the bird as a “deceitful thing,” thus giving his reason for so doing,
and his judgment thereon –

116 CASSELL’s POPULAR
NATURAL HISTORY.
“Ah! yes, for long his nest has been
Behind yon alder's leafy screen,
By Rothay's chiming waters;
Two rapid years are run, and now
This monk hath peopled every bough
With little sons and daughters.
“I will not blame thee, Friar Wren,
Because among stout-hearted men
Some truant monks there be;
And if you could their names collect,
I rather more than half suspect
That I should not be free.
“Ere while I dreamed of cloistered cells,
Of gloomy courts and mutin bells,
And painted windows rare;
But common life's less real gleams
Shone warm on my monastic dreams,
And melted them in air.
“My captive heart's more altered now;
And, had I but one little bough
Of thy green alder tree,
I would not live too long alone,
Orlanguish there for want of one
To share the nest with me!”
The fourth family” comprehends a variety of birds, among which are the thrushes, the orioles, the
ouzels, and the ant-thrushes.
THE THRUSH:
INDIGENous to our island, this bird remains with us throughout the year; and in winter its numbers
are increased by arrivals from the more northern parts of Europe. Of thrushes there are several kinds.
TIE COMMON THI-Usit.
The common thrush is one of the early songsters. Hence a poet says:–
Salutes the opening year,
Renew those melting notes again,
And soothe my ravish'd ear.
* Merulidº.
“Sweet Thrush! whose wild untutor'd strain
tº Turdus musicus: Linn.
“Though in no gaudy plumage dress'd,
With glowing colours bright,
Nor gold, nor scarlet, on thy breast
Attracts our wondering sight;










THE THRUSH. 117
* Yet not the pheasant, or the jay, * While evening spreads her shadowy veil,
Thy brothers of the grove, With pensive steps I'll stray,
Can boast superior worth to thee, And soft on tiptoe gently steal
Or sooner claim our love. Beneath thy favourite spray.
* How could we transient beauty prize “Thy charming strain shall doubly please,
Above melodious art And more my bosom move,
Their plumage may seduce our eyes, Since Innocence attunes those lays
Thy song affects our heart. Inspir’d by Joy and Love.”
A lady, accustomed to observation, states that the little musicians of the grove do not attain their
wild and delicate modulations without practice. When lying in bed, unable to speak or move for many
hours in the day, the songs of the birds supplied her with an inexhaustiblesource of pleasure. Numbers
of blackbirds and thrushes built their nests in the garden, and the wood-pigeons which had been silent
the year before, renewed their soft notes in the high trees. However, they were shy, and she thought
herself fortunate if their gentle cooing found its way to her ear once or twice a day.
But there was one thrush whose notes she soon learned to distinguish from all the other thrushes.
Every morning its voice was sure to precede the matins of all the other birds. In the day-time its
brilliant tones were mingled and almost lost in the general melody, but as soon as the sun was
Tºº, GOLDEN THRUS-11.
preparing to set, when the blackbirds had either sung themselves to sleep, or were flown off to keep
their festivities elsewhere, then came its practising time. It selected a tree not far from the window
of the invalid, while the other thrushes placed themselves at a respectful distance, and edged in a note
here or there, as they could. It opened the rehearsal with a number of wild trills and calls which the
listener could not understand, only she found them very sweet and cheering, and it would pause
between each till it heard a soft response from a distant bough.
But when it had fixed on a little cadence pleasing to the songster, the thrush would chant it over
in a low tone, two or three times, as if to make itself sure of the strain, and then it was poured forth
with triumphant glee; when the bird would stop on a sudden, as if to say to its rivals, “Which of you
can imitate my strains?” “Their notes sounded,” says the listener, “most sweet at various distances
during these little intervals; but they seemed conscious of their inferiority to my favourite, who would
suddenly break out into the very same melody, upon which, doubtless, the songster had been musing
all the while, enriching it by some little note or trill, the wildest and most touching that ever came
into a thrush's heart. I needed neither concert nor music master, while I could listen to the untaught,
but not unpremeditated harmony of this original professor; nor could I quarrel with the sickness
which had been the means of developing another link in that mysterious chain which binds me to the
rest of creation, by opening my ear and my heart more than ever to the language of universal
nature.”

118 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Clare charmingly says:-
“Within a thick and spreading hawthorn bush And modelled it within with wood and clay.
That overhung a molehill large and round, And by-and-by, like heath-bells gilt with dew,
I heard, from morn to morn, a merry thrush There lay her shining eggs, as bright as flowers.
*ing hymns to sunrise, while I drank the sound Ink-spotted over shells of green and blue,
With joy: and often an intruding guest, And there I witnessed, in the summer hours,
watched her secret toils, from day to day, A brood of nature's minstrels chirp and fly,
How true she warped the moss to form her nest, Glad as the sunshine and the laughing sky.”
THE MISSEL THRUSH.”
A NATrve of our island and the continent of Europe, this bird is closely allied to the Song Thrush,
exceeding it in size, but greatly inferior to it in melody and richness of voice. It is also much rarer,
though in some districts, as Northumberland, and particularly in the southern counties of Ireland, it
is on the increase. It is a bold, pugnacious bird, and perched on the top of a tree, will pour forth its
melancholy yet musical cadences, even amidst the cold and winds of February. The Missel Thrush
hails them when they blow loudest and strongest, with notes of no ordinary power, and so remarkable
is this habit, as to lead to it being called “the Storm Cock.”
T 11. Iruck T-11 tº USI+.
No bird must approach this one during the time of incubation. The Welsh call it Pen y llwyn,
the head, or master of the coppice, for it drives the magpie, jay, or crow away with vehement cries.
The hen has been known, when disturbed in her sitting, to fly at the face of man. “In general,” says
White, “it is very successful in the defence of its family; but once I observed in my garden, that
several magpies came determined to storm the nest of a missel thrush. The dams defended their
mansion with great vigour, and fought resolutely; but numbers at last prevailed : they tore the nest
to pieces, and swallowed the young alive.”
This bird derives its name from the mistletoe, of the berries of which it is very fond; its other
food consists of slugs, worms, and insects. The nest is generally placed in the fork of a tree; it
appears outwardly a mass of coarse stems of plants, moss, withered grasses, and lichens; but within it
is stuccoed with mud and clay, which is again lined with delicate grasses. Here are laid four or five
eggs, generally of a greenish white spotted with ruddy brown, but the colour occasionally varies to
pinkish or reddish white, mottled with dark red-brown hues.
The missel thrush is apt to avail itself of any suitable materials in building its nest. In one
instance, a lady lost a lace cap in spring, when out drying; in autumn, when the leaves began to fall,
* Turdus viscivorus: Linn.







THE MISSEL THRUSH. 119
something white appeared in one of the trees, and, on inspection, proved to be the cap that had been
used by one of these birds in constructing its nest. In another case, a smaller offence was committed:
a narrow piece of net, a yard in length, having been carried off, when bleaching, and afterwards found
composing part of the nest of a missel thrush.
The mistletoe, greatly extended by this bird, is generally found, as a parasite, on large aged apple-
trees, and in the long lines of these trees, bordering the roads in various parts of France, the mistletoe
grows very luxuriantly, sometimes so much as to shroud the apple-tree itself. The white berries of
this shrub are eaten by the missel thrush ; and the seeds passing in a state fit for germination through
the alimentary canal, begin to grow, when the locality on which they fall is favourable. Very rarely
does the mistletoe grow on the oak.
“Like all powerful song-birds,” says Mr. Broderip, “this thrush often seems to articulate words
distinctly. We have heard one express in the course of its singing sounds which fell on the ear as if
it were repeating the words—‘My dear—my pretty dear—my pretty little dear.’ These accents were
not caught up by one listener alone, who might, perhaps, have been deemed a little imaginative; but
all who heard them were struck by the resemblance.”
The Rock Thrush,” Merle de Roche of the French, is a native of Europe, inhabiting rocky and
mountainous countries. It is found on the Uralean mountains, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. It
also inhabits Germany, France, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, Spain, Sicily, Turkey, the Grecian Archi-
pelago, and Algeria. It has occasionally been shot in England. We give engravings of the Rock and
the Golden Thrush on pages 117 and 118. Af
The Ant Thrushest follow the more typical thrushes, a race of birds strictly terrestrial, having
strong elevated tarsi, abbreviated tails, and short rounded wings; and feeding on insects, particularly
ants and termites. The genera are numerous; some confined to the Old and others to the New
World. Their colours are gaudy, many of the tints having a metallic lustre. They stand very high
on the limbs, but have feeble powers of flight. *.
THE MOCKING BIRD,t
THE bird who is thus not happily named, has a well-proportioned and handsome figure, but nothing
brilliant in its plumage. Its celebrity arises from the extent and variety of its vocal powers,
Southey describes it as :-
“That cheerful one, who knoweth all
The songs of all the winged choristers;
And in one sequence of melodious sounds,
Pours all its music.”
According to Wilson, the ease, elegance, and rapidity of his movements, the animation of his eye,
and the intelligence he displays in listening, and laying up lessons from almost every species of bird
within his hearing, are truly astonishing, and indicate the peculiarity of his genius. His voice, full,
strong, and musical, is capable of almost every modulation, from the clear, mellow tones of the wood
thrush, to the savage scream of the bald eagle. In measure and accent he faithfully follows his
originals, but he greatly surpasses them in sweetness and force of expression. Mounted on the top of
a tall bush or low-growing tree, in the dawn of a dewy morning, he exceeds every competitor, though
the woods are vocal with a multitude of warblers. It is as if he sang alone, and the music of others
were a mere accompaniment.
Not that his strain is altogether imitative. He has native notes, easily distinguishable by those
who are well acquainted with the songs of birds, bold, full, and exceedingly varied. They consist of
short expressions, of two, three, or, at the most, five or six syllables, generally interspersed with
imitations, all of them uttered with great emphasis and rapidity, and continued with undiminished
ardour, for half an hour or an hour at a time; his expanded wings and tail, glistening with white, and
the buoyant gaiety of his action arresting the eye, as his song irresistibly does the ear. Sweeping
round with enthusiastic ecstacy, he mounts far aloft, and descends as his song swells or dies away. A
by-stander, with closed eyes, might suppose that the feathered tribes were engaged in a trial of skill,
* Turdus saxatilis: Gmel. + Myothera. :: Orpheus polyglottus: Swainson.
120 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
each aiming at the utmost effect, so perfect are his imitations. Often does he deceive the sportsman;
sending him away in chase of birds, not perhaps within miles of him, but whose notes he exactly
imitates. Even birds are frequently imposed on by this extraordinary mimic, and are decoyed by the
fancied calls of their mates, or hastily dive into the thickets, alarmed at what they suppose to be the
scream of the sparrow-hawk.
The exact time at which this bird begin to build depends on the latitude in which it is found.
Great discretion is always displayed in selecting a spot for its nest, a solitary thorn-bush, an almost
impenetrable thicket, an orange-tree, a cedar or holly-bush being preferred, but if any of these cannot
be obtained, except within a short distance from a house, it does not hesitate to build there, often
TIE MOCKING BIRD.
choosing an apple or a pear-tree. The nests vary with the materials that may be within reach. A
very complete one is described by Wilson, as consisting, first, of a quantity of dry twigs and sticks,
then withered tops of weeds of the preceding year, intermixed with fine straws, hay, pieces of wool and
tow, and lined with a thick layer of fine fibrous roots, of a light brown colour.
The eggs are of a cinereous blue, marked with large patches of brown, and there are sometimes
four or five. The female usually produces two broods in a season, and, if robbed of her eggs, will even
build and lay a third time, though she is apt to forsake the nest, if disturbed. During the period of
incubation, neither man nor animal can approach the nest without being attacked, and cats are speedily
made to fly. But the bird is especially enraged by the black snake; no sooner is this reptile discovered,
than the male darts on it with the rapidity of an arrow, and dextrously eluding its bite, strikes it
ºncessantly and violently on the head, where it is very vulnerable. As the snake becomes sensible of
* danger, it tries to escape, but the mocking bird is thus encouraged to redouble its exertions, and,
unless its antagonist be very large, it often succeeds in destroying the foe. As the strength of the snake

121
THE MOCKING BIRD.
|-
，
}
№
\!
THE FEI-RUGINº US MoCRING BIRD,
*OL. III.

12% CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
begins to flag, the bird seizes it and lifts it up partly from the ground, beating it with its wings; and
when the work is completed, the bird returns to the nest, and pours forth a song in token of victory.
- In a state of domestication, the movements and sounds of the mocking bird are very amusing. It
loses little of its native energy of song, and its talent is modified according as its circumstances
favour or not its development. The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, and the creaking of
a wheelbarrow, are exactly imitated. It whistles for the dog, and Caesar starts up, wags his tail, and
runs to meet his master. It squeaks like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about with hanging
wings and bristling feathers, clucking, to protect her injured brood. It runs over the quaverings of the
canary and the clear whistlings of the Virginia nightingale, or the Red-bird, with such superior execution
and effect, that the songsters seem mortified, and soon become silent. The love of variety which it
manifests tends, however, to impair its song. Thus, its imitations of the brown thrush are frequently
interrupted by the crowing of cocks, the exquisite warblings of the blue-bird, and the cackling of hens, or
the screaming of swallows, and the shrill reiterations of whip-poor-will mingle strangely with the
simple melody of the robin. It may be, however, that the notes of the marten, the baltimore,
and twenty others, succeed with such surprising accuracy, that the uninitiated look round for the
originals, and find that the sounds, which seemed to be that of an orchestra, were those of a single
bird. In its native and in its domesticated condition, it is during the solemn stillness of night, as
soon as the moon rises in silent majesty, that it begins its charming solo, while through the night it is
perseveringly continued until the neighbourhood rings with the inimitable melody.
THE FERRUGINOUS MOCKING BIRD.3%
THE admirer of woodland prowess may well look on the engraving given on page 121 with the liveliest
interest. A snake has attacked the inmates of the nest, while it is defended with a courageous spirit by
the male bird, as he exerts all his powers to extricate his beloved mate from the coils of the reptile, which
has almost deprived her of life. At the call of the male, another bird of the same species has come with a
rapid flight, and with his bright eyes fired with deadly hate, he is prepared to attack the snake; while
a third is grappling with the reptile, and intent on tearing its skin from its body. Who will not wish
the birds to be victorious, and their united assault fatal to the invader? The desire was happily
realised, for Audubon, who relates the fact, says: “The snake was finally conquered, and a jubilee held
over his carcase by a crowd of thrushes and other birds, until the woods resounded with their notes of
exultation. I was happy in contributing my share to the general joy, for, on taking the almost expiring
bird into my hand for a few minutes, she recovered in some degree, and Irestored her to her anxious mate.”
The Brown Thrush, or Thrasher, as this bird is sometimes called, is a constant resident in the
United States. It is the most numerous species found there, except the robin, or migratory thrush,
These birds migrate by day, and singly—never congregating, notwithstanding their abundance. They
fly low, or skip from one bush to another, their longest flight seldom exceeding the breadth of a field
or river. They seem to move rather heavily, on account of the shortness of their wings, the concavity
of which usually produces a rustling sound; and they travel very silently, -
The actions of this species during the period of their courtship are very curious, the male often
strutting before the female, with his tail trailing on the ground, after the manner of some pigeons, and
while perched and singing in her presence, vibrating his body with vehemence. The nest is placed,
without much care, in a briar-bush, a sumach, or the thickest parts of a low tree—never in the interior
of the forest, but most commonly in the bramble patches which are everywhere to be met with along
the fences or the abandoned old fields. Sometimes it is laid on the flat ground. The eggs are from
four to six, of a pale dull buff colour, thickly sprinkled with dots of brown.
Audubon says: “No sooner has the bird reached its destined abode, than, whenever a fair morn-
ing occurs, it mounts the topmost twig of a detached tree, and pours forth its loud, richly-varied, and
highly melodious song. It scarcely possesses the faculty of imitation, but is a steady performer; and,
although it sings for hours at a time, seldom, if ever, commits errors while repeating the beautiful
lessons set it by Nature, all of which it studies for months during spring and summer. Ah !
reader, that I could repeat to you its several cadences, all so full of sweetness and melody, that one
* Orpheus rufus: Linnaeus.
- THE FERRUGINOUS MOCKING-BIRD. 123
might imagine each last trill as it dies on the ear, the careful lullaby of some blessed mother chanting
her babe to repose; that I could imitate its loudest notes, surpassed only by those of that unrivalled
vocalist, the mocking-bird! But, alas! it is impossible for me to convey to you the charms of the
full song of the brown thrush; you must go to its own woods and there listen to it."
->
S.
ºs —º
sº
THE WATER OUZEL,
THE WATER OUZEL, OR DIPPER."
Cosspicuous for his snowy breast and russet dress, and remarkable for his attitudes, this bird may well
arrest the attention. He may be seen on some gray limestone mass, rising a foot or two out of the water,
* Cinelus aquaticus.

124 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
and placed in the centre or at the margin of the stream, jerking his head, dipping it down, and at the
same time flirting up his short tail ; then, in an instant, plunging into the water and disappearing,
suddenly to rise at some distance, and settling again on some jutting crag or stone, he repeats the
aquatic performance.
Nor is this bird of rare occurrence. It graces the rapid sparkling streams which flow through
the romantic parts of our island. It is common in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and also in various
parts of the Continent, -particularly Switzerland, wherever rocks and mountain rivulets offer it a
congenial abode.
A poet truly says:—
“The bird Through all the summer morn—the summer cye -
Is here—the solitary bird that makes He has no fellowship with waving woods,-
The rock his sole companion. Leafy vale, He joins not in their merry minstrelsy,
Green bower, and hedge-row fair, and garden rich But flits from ledge to ledge, and through the day
With bud and bloom, delight him not;-he bonds Sings to the highland waterfall, that speaks
No spray, nor roams the wilderness of boughs, To him in strains he loves, and lists
Where love and song detain a million wings For ever.”
The nest of the Water Ouzel is composed of moss or rºck-weeds, and is of a domed form, with a
lateral entrance. Its food consists of small crustacea, and aquatic insects, but not of fish, as used to be
erroneously supposed. The young, before they are able to fly, are capable of diving with great address;
indeed, when disturbed, they take to the water instantly, although but half-fledged.
The ear is startled by the sonorous song of this singular bird as it mingles with the hoarse tones
of the torrent, or the rushing of the wintry water-fall, sometimes when there is a storm of snow.
Mr. Rennie, who remarks “that it is one of the few birds that are vocal so early in the year as the
months of January and February,” heard it on the 11th of the latter month, when the thermometer
in the morning had been at 26°, sing incessantly, not only elegantly, but powerfully, with much variety
in the notes, many of which were peculiar to itself, intermingled with a little of the piping of the
Woodlark. The day was bright whilst it was singing, but it was freezing in the shade; and the sun,
which had considerably passed the meridian, was obscured from the songster by the lofty surrounding
hills.
THE GOLDEN ORIOLE."
BELON supposes, in common with others, that this is the XXoptov of the Greeks; the Galyulos, Vireo
and Oriolus, of the Romans; and the Picus which Pliny describes as suspending its nest on a twig of
the topmost branches of a tree, after the manner of a cup. It is the Fwyalchen Felen of the Welch,
and on the continent of Europe it bears a great variety of names.
The male is of a golden yellow, with a blackish brown spot between the eye and the bill; the
wings and tail are black; there is a yellow spot on the quills not far from the middle of the wing when
closed, and the tail feathers terminate with yellow ; the bill is reddish maroon; the iris is red; the
feet are of a bluish gray. It is in the third year that the male acquires his brilliant black and yellow
plumage.
The female is of a greenish olive above, and of a grayish white with a yellowish tint below, where
the plumage is marked by somewhat distant grayish brown short stripes or dashes disposed longitudi-
nally; the wings are brown, bordered with olive gray, the tail is of the same hue, tinged with black;
the body is yellowish beneath, with a brownish black mark, somewhat in the form of an irregular Y ;
she has no dark streak behind the bill and the eye.
There are generally four or five eggs, of a purplish white, with a few ash-gray and claret spots.
So tenderly does the female watch over them, that it is said she will suffer herself to be captured rather
than abandon them. The young of the year resemble the female, but the stripes of the lower parts
are more numerous and deeper in colour.
The Golden Oriole haunts lonely groves and thickets on the skirts of woods, except in the fruit
Season, when it visits orchards and commits there serious ravages. The sportsman, if very clever in his
imitative whistle, may so beguile the bird as to approach it, but so exquisite is its power of hearing,
that one false note will make it take wing. It is very fond of figs, grapes, and cherries, but these
* Oriolus Galbula: Linn.
THE Golden ortotº. 125
failing, it feeds on caterpillars and insects, as well as berries. Bechstein thinks that the word pullo
expresses the sound it emits; others state that its whistle is loud and flute-like. Its cup, or rather
saucer-shaped nest, is formed of slender grass, stems, and wool; it is placed in the fork of a branch, and
usually towards its extremity.
TILE GOLDEN ORIOLE.
Of Britain it is only an occasional visitant, appearing in April, but returning in September. It
has been seen in various parts of our country, rarely in Ireland, and never, it seems, in Scotland.
THE LYRE BIRD."
THE magnificence and peculiar structure of the beautiful tail of the male, having the form of an
ancient Grecian lyre, obtained for the bird, very naturally, its singular name. Its habitat is New
South Wales, chiefly in the forests which cover the Blue Mountains, and in their rocky and retired
avenues. The size of the first brought into the colony was that of a common hen. Only one species
is yet known.
The bill is straight, having the nostrils in the centre of the beak. The base of the uppermandible
is furnished with hairs like feathers turning down; the upper mandible is, at its base, somewhat like
that of a pigeon. The eye is a dark hazel, with a bare space around it. The throat and chin are of a
dark rufous colour; the rest, with the body, of a dusky gray. The feathers on the rump are longer
than those of the body, and more divided. The colour of the wings, which are concave, is dark rufous.
The legs, and particularly the claws, are large in proportion to the bird. The outward toe is connected
* Ignura superba. M. Lyra or lyrata.











126 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
with the middle one as far as the first joint. The tail is composed of three different sorts of feathers,
of which the upper side is a dark gray, with ferruginous spots. The first two lower feathers, which
are a little curved in two directions, are, beneath, of a pearly colour, enriched with several crescent-
shaped spaces, of a rich rufous and black colour. The laminae are unwebbed, turned round toward
the extremity, and ornamented with a black bar, the breadth of an inch, and fringed at the end.
The shaft of the second, which is likewise long, is fringed with long hair-like filaments; and the third,
a - -
º: º |---
THE LYRE BIRD,
--
which is also long and curved, is plumed on the inner side only, except at the extremity, where there
are a few separated filaments of a dark gray colour.
The tail of the female is simply brown, and composed of long uniform feathers, which are straight
and graduated.
“It is much to be regretted,” Mr. Bennett justly remarks, “that human beings are so eager to
destroy, even to extermination, the races of animals, useful or dangerous, which may be found in a new
country. In the settled parts of a colony, the harmless kangaroos and emus are rarely seen, when







THE LYRE BIRD. 127
they might be easily domesticated about the habitations. The same remark applies to the lyre
pheasant. Why are they not domesticated before, by extermination, they are lost to us for ever ?”
The tail-feathers are detached entire from the bird, and are sold in the shops in Sydney in pairs.
The price was formerly low, but as the bird has, from being destroyed, as it was not aforetime, become
rare, the tails fetch from 20s, to 30s, the pair. About the ranges of the Tumal country, where the
gun has seldom been carried, they are more frequently seen. Mr. Bennett is our authority for the
following particulars:—
This bird has its young, like all the wild animals, in the country, and can there be most easily
procured. It is heavy in flight, but swift of foot. On catching a glimpse of the sportsman, it runs
rapidly, aided by the wings, in getting over logs of wood, rocks, or any obstruction to its progress; it
seldom flies into trees, except to roost, and then rises only from branch to branch. These birds build
in old hollow trunks of trees which are lying on the ground or in the holes of rocks. The nest is
formed merely of dried grass or dried leaves, scraped together. The female lays from twelve to sixteen
eggs, of a white colour, with a few scattered blue spots. The young are difficult to catch, as they run
with rapidity, concealing themselves among the rocks and bushes. The lyre bird, on descending
from high trees, on which it perches, has been seen to fly some distance. It is more frequently observed
during the early hours of the morning, and in the evenings, than during the heat of the day. It
scratches about the ground and the roots of trees, to pick up seeds and insects. The aborigines deck
their greasy locks with the splendid tail-feathers of this bird, when they can procure them. -
THE BLACKBIRD.3%
Those who live in the country, and who are apt to wake early on spring mornings, when all around is
still, and the lark himself is yet on the ground, must often have been charmed with the solitary song of
º º | º º º $º N
§ N *> . *
. SSº º - º
• - “..."a
º
THE BLACKBIRD.
the Blackbird, a brief stave of six or seven notes only, followed by an interlude of silence, during
which the ear listens eagerly for its repetition.
This warbler loves to hide itself in “darkling covert,” and there, shrouded among foliage, to pour
forth its songs. It frequents shrubberies, large gardens, thick hedgerows, and the borders of woods.
A bower of ivy, a thick laurel hedge, or a solitary bush of some luxuriant evergreen, is a favourite
site for its nest. It often builds close to the house, and in places where it is constantly passed and
repassed, as near a garden-walk. It has been scon in the laurel hedge, bordering the play-ground of
a ladies' school, and though the inmates often took a peep at “the pretty birds,” yet they there brought
& Turdus merula: Linn,

128 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
up their brood. The blackbird is more recluse than the thrush, and more suddenly flits, when
disturbed, to its covert. The nest, formed of fibres, moss, and small twigs, is lined with mud, over
which is spread a layer of fine dry grass. There are four or five eggs, of a fine bluish-green, with
spots of pale reddish-brown. Sometimes they are of a uniform blue, without spots.
--
s
s
º











\º
º
---
THE WHITE-SHAFTED FANTAIL.


THE BLACKBTRI). Yº
The Blackbird is distributed generally through the British Islands. It is found also in Wales,
and in Ireland and Scotland, where it inhabits the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland. Blackbirds
are entitled to an honourable place among birds for displaying affection towards each other in a
remarkable degree. The male and female are constantly seen together in winter, and it is
believed, says Mr. Morris, that they frequently pair for life. The care that they evince for their
young while in the nest is most touching. An accurate observer told Mr. Macgillivray that, having
watched a pair of blackbirds who had a nest with four young ones in it, from a quarter past three in
the morning till a quarter before nine at night, he found that during that period the male fed the
young forty-four times, and the female sixty-nine times |
Mr. Jesse vouches for the accuracy of the following story :—A number of school-boys were
wandering about the Great Park of Windsor, when one of them discovered a blackbird's nest, with
young ones in it, at some distance beyond the top of the Long Walk. He immediately made prize of
it, and was conveying it homewards, when the cries of their young were heard by the old birds. .
Notwithstanding the presence and noise of so many boys, they did not desert their helpless offspring,
but kept near them, for a distance of about three miles, flying from tree to tree, and uttering those
distressed and wailing notes which are so peculiar in the blackbird. This circumstance induced the
boy to place the young birds in a cage, and he hung it outside of the house, which was close to the
town of Windsor. Here they were fed regularly by their parents. As they grew up, the boy sold
first one and then another, as he was able to procure customers for them, until they were all disposed
of. The morning after the last bird was sold, the female blackbird was found dead beneath the cage
in which her beloved offspring had been confined, as if she had been unable to survive their loss.
The blackbird is a capital imitator, and it is the opinion of Some that he is nothing else than a
mocking-bird, who borrows his notes from his neighbours, and turns them to his own account. There
is a curious instance on record of his having been heard, says Mr. Morris, crowing like a cock, even in
the wild state; and when the cocks in the neighbouring farm-yard answered his challenge, he seemed
delighted, and even flapped his wings when he crowed, to keep up the mimic rivalry. One has
successfully imitated the song of the nightingale ; another, the cawing of a crow ; and another
attempted the chuckling of a hen.
The male bird is of a uniform deep black over the whole body, with the legs and claws of a
dusky-brown. The bill, the eyelids, and the mouth are of a bright orange. The female has all the
plumage of the upper surface of an umber-brown; the chin, throat, and upper part of the breast are
reddish-yellow-brown, with a few darker spots; the belly, sides, and under tail-covert are hair-brown.
It is not uncommon to meet with varieties more or less pied with white.
In the spring, summer, and autumn, says the Rev. F. O. Morris, the blackbird feeds on moths,
beetles, and other insects and their larvae, worms, snails, fruits, and seeds, such as cherries, currants,
gooseberries, peas, and pears; their place being supplied in winter by wheat, oats, and other grain
and seeds, and the berries of the hawthorn, mountain ash, holly, and others. It sometimes does some
damage by pulling up plants in search of insects. The shells of snails it breaks against any hard spot,
as the thrush does. In the autumn it frequents turnip fields in search of insect-food. Doubtless, as
in so many similar cases, the evil that it may do is counterbalanced by a proportionate amount of good.
We now come to the Paridae, or Titmice. The genus Parus contains various species, remarkable
for the beautiful colours of their plumage, while the markings are very clearly defined.
“Every species of titmouse,” says White, “winters with us: they have what I call an intermediate
bill between the hard and the soft.”
The tits are unfavourably regarded by the cultivator, and therefore a few words are required in
their defence. It is true they come on the ground in gardens, when the small seeds are newly sown,
and they may sometimes twitter about the sprays in spring ; but as, in the one case, they do not devour
the seeds, so, in the other, the buds are not their prey. Their look-out is for insects, and the number
of the eggs and caterpillars they pick up would, if left, be quite sufficient to ruin the crops.
The caterpillars not only do much mischief themselves, but, battening in the very cores of the
young buds, they bring on a languid action of the trees. The rays of the sun, therefore, which in
healthy plants call forth a rich and luxuriant foliage, induce a saccharine condition of the sap, which
fosters the congregating caterpillars. These now appear swarming on the trees, secure, during the
WOL. III. 113
130 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
day, in their silken tents, but eating voraciously at night, till not a particle of green is left, so that, if
the tree does not perish, it remains inactive during the year.
Nor is this all. Without the action of the leaves thus destroyed, the sap does not change into a
healthy cambium, fit to yield new layers of wood and bark, which, when a tree ceases to produce, its
decay is begun. Hosts of insects, from the saccharine surface of the tree, lay siege to it, even to its
root; so that the bole and branches become full of sores; half the top dies, branch after branch ; and
unsightly and unproductive are the miserable remains of a tree, once ornamental and fruitful in its
Season.
Such would be the natural course with most trees, and with all those bearing the finer fruits
especially, if the buds were not cleared by birds, and among these the tits render eminent service.
Though greatly differing in size, they resemble the crows, not merely in the form of their bills, but in
THE CRESTED TITMOUSE-
the firmness and strongly-contrasted tints of their plumage, as well as in their indiscriminate feeding
and their disposition to kill and eat young and weakly birds.
The bills of the tits are small, short, compressed, very firm and strong, and pointed at the tip.
The birds have a very free and, considering their size, powerful action of the neck, and they strike with
the point of the bill as with a chisel or pickaxe. By this action of the beak, they dig very successfully
into the crevices of bark or the folds of buds, and extract thence the caterpillars, of which they are such
general and incessant destroyers. When they eat seeds with hard coats, they do not crush them, but
tear them in pieces by repeated strokes or the bill. They capture prey, also, by the snap of the bill;
and they kill young and weak birds by striking them on the head till they have broken the skull, the
contents of which they immediately devour. -
Mudie says, with great truth and force :-"The microscopic power of the eyes of these little birds,




THE TITMICE, 131
which seek for minute prey on the bark of trees, is as wonderful as the telescopic range of the eyes of
eagles and other birds which soar aloft, and scan a horizon of miles; and not the least wonderful part
of the whole matter is, the ease with which the eye changes from telescope to microscope.
“The eye of the eagle, which can discern the motion of a small quadruped at the distance of more
than a mile, can shorten its focus, so as to be keen and perfect at the distance of a few inches; and
the tit, to whose near vision the eggs of flies must appear as large as musket-bullets do to us, feels no
difficulty in seeing a bush at the distance of more than a hundred yards. We may admire, but we
cannot imitate, that wonderful mechanical skill which can, in an organ not altogether larger than a
pepper-corn, produce so many focal lengths in the same crystalline lens, instantly adapt the retina, or
sentient tissue, to all of them, manage the admission of the proper light by the iris, and remove the
colours and correct the aberrations by the other humours—all, as it were, in an instant, without effort.
We leave the subject, with our warmest recommendation of it, to the general reader; to the scientific
it needs no recommendation.”
THE CRESTED TITMOUSE.”
In the temperate parts of Russia this bird is said to remain throughout the year, and it is also found
in Denmark and Sweden. It builds its nest in a tree of the pine forests, and lives on small seeds
and insects. It also frequents the forests of Germany, and the tree-covered mountains of Switzer-
land. Colonel Montagu says: “The crested tit has not been found in South Britain, but it is not
uncommon amongst the large tracts of pines in the north of Scotland, particularly in the forest of
Glenmoor, the property of the Dukes of Gordon, from -
whence we have seen it.”
The weight of this bird is about two drams and a
half. The nest is built in one that the crow or squirrel
has deserted. The eggs are white, with small red spots.
THE GREAT TITMOUSE-i
THIs bird does not migrate, but remains throughout
the year in the same district. It is found in very
different climates, as in the genial region of Italy, and
among the snows and ice of Russia. With us, it
inhabits woods, the neighbourhood of gardens, and
other inclosed spots in summer, and in winter it ap-
proaches the dwellings of men. It forms a nest of
moss, which it lines with hair and feathers, and places in
a hole of a wall or the hollow of a tree; but sometimes
chooses the deserted abode of a crow or a magpie. The
eggs vary from six to nine in number; they are white,
spotted and speckled with pale red.
THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE-i
Axmpst woods, shrubberies, and tall hedges this bird
may be frequently seen, as it remains in England THE GREAT TITMOUSE-
throughout the year. Our distinguished naturalist, Mr. Yarrell, says: —“The nest of this species
is an example of ingenious construction, combining beauty of appearance with security and warmth.
In shape it is nearly oval, with one small hole in the upper part, through which the bird enters. I
have never seen more than one hole. The outside of this nest sparkles with silver-coloured lichens
adhering to a firm texture of moss and wool, the inside is profusely lined with soft feathers. The nest
is generally placed in the middle of a thick bush, and so firmly fixed, that it is mostly found necessary
to cut out the portion of the bush containing it, if you are desirous of preserving the natural
appearance and form of the nest.
* Parus cristatus: Linn. + Parus major: Linn. + Parus caudatus: Linn.

132 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“In this species the female is known to be the nest-maker, and to have been occupied for a
fortnight or three weeks in completing her habitation. In this she deposits from ten to twelve eggs;
but a larger number are occasionally found; they are small and white, with a few pale red specks,
frequently quite plain. The young family of the year keep company with the parent birds during their
first autumn and winter, and generally crowd close together on the same branch at roosting-time,
looking, when thus huddled up, like a shapeless lump of feathers only. These birds have several notes,
on the sound of which they assemble together. One of these call-notes is soft and scarcely audible; a
second is a loud chirp or twitter; and a third is of a hoarser kind.”
THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.
The tits are fond of placing their nests about the habitations of man, in various situations that
appear singularly inconvenient and ill-chosen. They have been found building in hollow trees and the
holes of walls; others choose the deserted nest of a crow or magpie. The Great Tit has been frequently
observed to build in or near an old unused wooden pump; and it is said, although we cannot vouch
for the literal accuracy of the story, to persist in remaining there, even after the pump has been
repaired and used again. Mr. Yarrell mentions a Blue Tit, who had fixed upon a small wooden box
hung against an out-building. She allowed herself and eggs to be carried in the box into the house
for examination, and seemed wholly devoid of fear.
THE COLE-TITMOUSE.”
THE patches of white on this bird render it easily distinguishable from others. Its favourite locality
appears to be the fir plantations, on plains that are rather high and dry, while the trees are so young
* Parus ater: Linn.

THE COLE-TITMOUSE 133
as to be branched near the ground; or on the outskirts of forests, where the trees are more apart than
in the centre, and never so completely lose their natural branches, and where the young have space
and air.
This bird has a song; little else, indeed, than the same note repeated four or five times; but it
has so much variety of pitch and tune as to form a sort of cadence, “which,” it has been said, “would
make a good variety anywhere, as it is shrill and clear; and which is particularly welcome and cheering
in those mountain woods which the summer warblers but rarely visit. The bird sings in the noon-tide
heat, when most birds—and especially those on the open wastes, with which the haunts of this species
are usually interspersed—are silent. While the Cole-tit is singing away in the plantation of half-
-- ---
---
-
TIE, LONG-T-ILED THT AND ITS NEST.
grown pines, often heard, but seldom seen, the marsh species may be seen flitting about among the
long and fragrant bloom which often grows thick in the neighbourhood; but, as the one is heard while
the other is seen, this causes them to be confounded.”
THE BLUE TITMOUSE.”
THIs is a beautiful and lively little bird, and is sometimes called the Tom-tit. The forehead, sides of
the head, and cheek, are white, divided by a black line across the eye; the crown of the head is blue ;
the nape and collar round the neck, bright azure; the back, a mixed tint of azure, gray, and green.
The female is a little paler in the tints than the male, has less blue on the head, and is rather smaller
111 SIZe.
The bill of the Blue-tit, though short, is exceedingly strong; and Montagu supposes that, when
it cannot find a hole suitable for its nest, it either hews out one or enlarges it to its mind. “In one
of these nests, which I lately examined,” he says, “in the hole of an oak, at Shooter's Hill, in Kent,
the wood, which was, indeed, decayed and soft, had evidently been cut away, so as to give an upward
winding entrance to the nest; and I have remarked a similar winding, either upwards or on one side,
in the nests of this bird, built in old stone walls, mortar, or small stones, having, probably, been
removed with this design. The power of its bill, in such cases, I had an opportunity of witnessing, ir
* Parus cæruleus: Linn.


151.
CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
one which was kept in a cage. In a common wire cage it could not be confined for many minutes, as
it always warped the wires aside, first with its bill, and then with its body, till it got out; but it did
- º
Q
Triº LLUE TITMOUSE.
not find it so easy to escape from a cage made with netted
wax-thread; upon finding which unmanageable, it attacked
the wood-work, and into one of the dove-tailings of which
it thrust its bill, acting with it in the manner of a wedge.
It was unsuccessful, indeed, in unhinging this, but I have
no doubt that half the force and skill which it exhibited
would have proved sufficient to hew out a nest-hole in a
decayed tree.”
The eggs of the blue-tit are six or seven in number,
rarely eight, white, speckled with rust-colour at the larger
end. The female is tenacious of her nest, and will often
suffer herself to be taken rather than quit it, and will fre-
quently return again after being taken out. On such an
occasion it menaces the invader in a singular manner,
erecting all its feathers, and hissing like a snake, or uttering
a noise like the spitting of a cat; and, if handled, bites
severely. It has no song, but makes a shrill chirping noise,
quickly repeated. The blue-tit is found in every part of
Europe.
THE BEARDED TITMOUSE.”
THE male bird is very remarkable, having a black whisker, about three-quarters of an inch in length,
hanging down from the space between the eye and the base of the beak. In the female bird the
feathers in the same position are equally long, but are of the same colour as the rest of the cheek.
This bird is nowhere so abundant as in Holland;
but it is found in England, in the north of Europe, and
in Asia, on the shores of the Caspian Sea.
THE BLACK-CAP TITMOUSE.4
IN America and Canada, during autumn, families of these
birds are seen roving and chattering as they go through
the woods, busily engaged in gleaning their multifarious
food, along with nuthatches and creepers, the whole
forming a busy, active, and noisy group, whose manners,
food, and habits bring them together in a common pur-
suit. Their diet varies with the season; for, besides
insects, their larvae and eggs, of which they are more
particularly fond, in the month of September they leave
the woods, and assemble familiarly in the orchards and
gardens, and even enter the thronging cities in quest of
that support which their native forests now deny them.
Large seeds of many kinds, particularly those which
are oily, as the sun-flower, pine, and spruce kernels, are
now sought after. These seeds, in the usual manner of
the genus, are seized in the claws and held against the
branch until picked open by the bill to obtain their
contents. Fat of various kinds is also greedily eaten, and they regularly watch the retreat of the hog-
killers in the country, to glean up the fragments of meat which adhere to the places where the
* Parus biarmicus: Linn.
+ Parus atricanillus.







THE BLACK.-CAP TITMOUSE. 135
carcases have been suspended. At times they feed on the wax of the candle-berry;” they likewise
pick up crumbs near the houses, and search the weather-boards, and even the window-sills, familiarly,
for their lurking prey, and are particularly fond of spiders and the eggs of destructive moths,
especially those of the canker-worm, which they destroy in all the stages of its existence. The song
of these birds is very peculiar. In all cases the first syllable is very high and clear, the second drops
low, and ends like a feeble plaint.
The next family of the dentirostral tribe consists of the Manakinst These birds form an exten-
sive family; Latham enumerates some forty of them. They appear to be a restless class of birds,
like some found in our own country, who seem ever to be on the alert in pursuit of knowledge under
difficulties, of the organisation and tenantry of every spray of every bush which they can visit.
- THE ROCK MANAKIN.I.
THE Rock Manakin is one of the most elegant birds of the present family. It is about the size of a
small pigeon : the general colour of the plumage is rich saffron-yellow, with a tinge of orange; the
THE ROCK MANARIN.
head is adorned with a beautiful crest, flattened at the sides, and rising like a fan. It is a native of
south America, inhabiting the rocky and mountainous districts along the rivers of Surinam, Cayenne,
and Guiana; and probably it may be found along the whole range of the river Amazoº, with its
tributary branches. According to Latham, it is nowhere so frequent as in the mountain. Luca, near
the river Aprouack, where it builds in the cavernous hollows and dark recesses. The nest is composed
of a few dry sticks, and the eggs are two in number, of the size of those of a pigeon, and equally-
white. -
The rock manakin is a shy and solitary bird, preferring silent and secluded glens, and rocky
ravines, to all other spots; and there it seems to pass an undisturbed existence. Wharton states that
it is a native of the woody mountains of Macoushia, a tract on the Apoura-poura, a tributary river
* Myrica cerifera. t Piprinae: Swainson. t Rupicola CIOCºa.









156 CASSEELPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
falling into the Essequibo from the south, inhabited by the Macoushi Indians, so celebrated for their
skill in preparing the deadly vegetable poison wourali, with which they smear the points of their
arrows. In the day-time it retires among the darkest rocks, and only comes out to feed a little before
sunrise and at sunset. So gloomy is its disposition, that it never associates with the other birds of
the forest,
THE GREEN MANAKIN.”
IN Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the East, this bird is found. Its plumage is of a beautiful
emerald-green; and its wings are traversed by three
black bands. This bird is not easily seen, its colour so
fully blending with that of the tree on which it lives.
THE FORK-TAILED MANAIKIN.t
The Fork-tailed Manakin is one of the birds which
represents this family in America. Its beak is short
and bent; its tail, as the name of the bird implies, is
greatly forked.
Great numbers of the true manakins, forming the
restricted genus Pipra, are discovered in caverns, where
one cannot enter except with torches. The male and
female are equally lively and extremely wild. It is
impossible to shoot them, except by remaining concealed
behind a rock for some hours; for the instant they
perceive the hunter, they fly off very rapidly; but their
flight is short and low. The males issue from the
caverns more frequently than the females, which seldom
show themselves, and probably only come out during
the night. They have the habit of scratching the
ground, and clapping and shaking their wings like
cocks and hens; but this is the only point of relation
between them and the latter birds, for they neither have
the crowing of the cock nor the crying of the hen. They are easily tamed, and sometimes left at
liberty to live and run about with the poultry.
- The manakins, which have been principally observed in Guiana, prefer humid and cool woods to
the hot and dry lands. They do not, however, frequent marshes, or the borders of streams. They
only perch on the middle branches of trees in the woods, which they never quit to proceed into the
open plains or to the neighbourhood of habitations. They assemble in the morning, in small troops of
from eight to ten in number of the same species, and frequently join company with other small
birds. At such times their chirping is rather agreeable. But about nine o'clock they separate, and
retire alone, until the following day, into the most shady recesses of the forests. Their food consists
of little wild fruits; they also eat insects.
THE GREEN MANAKIN.
THE CRESTED PARDALOTUS.:
This is a bird of South America. The occipital crest is red; the body beneath yellow, and above
olive green; the base and tip of the bill are black, the middle horny; the feet are black.
One genus is known by its thick, short beak, inflated on every side, slightly compressed
towards the end. The forms and colours of one species resemble those of our common pies. To this
must be added the Falcunculus of Vieillot, which is peculiar for the lower and upper jaw, both being
incurved. This bird is found only in the Oceanic Islands.
* Rupicola viridis: Temminck. + Ampelis garrulus. † Pardalotus cristatus. § Bethylus: Cuvier.







THE COTINGAS. 137
Another genus" contains the Cotingas, which, having a weak bill, seek insects, berries, and tender
fruits. They reside in the humid places of America, and are remarkable for the purple and azure
colours of the plumage of the males during the breeding season. During the rest of the year both
sexes are tinted gray-brown.
The Scarlet Cotinga is found, Mr. Waterton states, in the deepest recesses of the forest: its
crown is flaming red; to this abruptly succeeds a dark shining brown, reaching half way down the
back. The remainder of the back, the rump, the tail, the extremity of which is edged with black, are
of a lively red; the breast reddish-black; the wings brown. This bird has no song: it is solitary, and
utters a monotonous whistle, which sounds like “quet.” It is fond of the seeds of the hitea tree, and
TIE CRESTED PARDALOTUS. THE FALCUNCULUS,
those of the siloabali, which ripen in December, and continue on the trees for above two months. It
is found throughout the year in Demerara; but nothing is known of its incubation.
THE CEDAR-BIRD."
This bird has a graceful crest, which can be so lowered and contracted close to the neck as not to be
observed, but which, when erected, gives it a gay and elegant appearance. Its plumage is of an
exquisitely fine and silky texture, and extremely smooth and glossy. It is often regarded as one of
the “chatterers,” yet it makes only a feeble lisping sound, chiefly when it rises or alights.
The cedar-birds fly in compact bodies, of from twenty to fifty; and usually alight so closely
together on one tree, that the half of them are frequently shot down at one time. In the months of
July and August they collect together in flocks, and retire to the Blue Mountains, and other collateral
ridges of the Alleghany, to enjoy the fruit of the whortle-berries, which grow there in the greatest
Profusion. In October, they descend to the lower and cultivated parts of the country, to feed on the
berries of the sour gum and red cedar, of which last they are immoderately fond. Thirty or forty of
these birds may sometimes be seen fluttering among the branches of one small cedar-tree, and eagerly
plucking off its fruit. They are also found as far south as Mexico.
The nest is large for the size of the bird, and is fixed in the forked or horizontal branch of an
* Coracina: Vieillot. + Ampelis Americana.
WOL. III. 1.

138 CASSELLPS POPULAR, NATURAL HISTORY.
apple-tree, ten or twelve feet from the ground. Its exterior and its lower part are formed of a mass
of coarse, dry stalks of grass; the inside is entirely lined with very fine stalks of the same material.
There are three or four eggs of a dingy bluish-white, thick at the great end, tapering suddenly, and
becoming very narrow at the other. They are marked with small, roundish spots, of various sizes
and shades of black, and the great end is of a dull pale-purple tinge, marked likewise with various
shades of purple and black. The female, if disturbed, darts from the nest in silence to a considerable
distance; but no notes of wailing are heard from either parent, nor are they even seen, though the
cause of the alarm be in the tree, examining the nest and the young. “The season of love,” says
Wilson, “which makes almost every other small bird musical, has no such effect on them ; for they
continue, at that interesting period, as silent as before.”
Audubon states that these birds are excellent fly-catchers, spending much of their time in the
pursuit of winged insects, but having little vivacity or energy of action. They start from the branches
and give chase to the insects, ascending after them for a few yards, or moving horizontally towards them,
perhaps rather further than when ascending, and as soon as the prey is secured, they return to the
spot, where they continue watching with slow motions of the head. Towards evening this amusement
is carried on for half an hour or an hour at a time, and is continued longer at the approach of autumn,
the berries then becoming scarcer.
This species is peculiar to America. Very few of them, however, remain the whole winter in the
Middle States.
Intimately connected with the genus Ampelis, to which these birds belong, is that of Procnias,
which includes the Campanero, or Bell-bird of South America. This bird is about the size of the jay,
and its plumage is white. A spiral tube rises from its forehead, extending, as Waterton assures us,
to no less than three inches in length, and communicating with the palate in such a way that, when
filled with air, it looks like a spire. At other times it hangs down. The note of this bird is loud
and clear, like the sound of the tolling of a bell, and we are assured that it falls upon the ear so suddenly
and solemnly that it is often very startling. The toll of its voice sounds through the far-stretching wood,
and then there is a silence; again the toll is repeated, and so distinctly is it uttered that it may some-
times be heard at the distance of three miles.
THE UMBRELLA. ISIRD.”
THIs singular-looking bird is brought from the country bordering the river Amazon. Outspreading
plumes tower above the head, like the horse-tail crest of a Grecian hero's helmet. The bird is
about the size of a jay; from the upper part of the chest depends a sort of apron or screen, of square-
edged feathers, which is very graceful; and the tail is graduated. The whole of the plumage is
jet-black, with rich violet reflexions, particularly on the crest and the chest plumes. Several specimens
of it may be seen in the splendid ornithological gallery of the British Museum.
We have now reached the last genust of the second tribe, the birds of which are known by the
English names of Wax-Wings or Waxen Chatterers. Only three species have been recorded. One is
Oriental; the second is confined to North America ; and the third is now to be described.
THE BOHEMIAN WAX-WING.'t
THE name of this bird, as associating it with Bohemia in particular, is not strictly accurate ; for, in
the central and southern parts of the European continent it is only, as it is in England, an accidental
visitor in winter. Still it has a very extensive geographical range, east and west. Of these birds the
Prince of Canino says:–“It seems probable that their chief place of abode is the oriental parts of
the old continent; and, if we may hazard an opinion, we should not be surprised if the extensive and
elevated table-land of Central Asia were found to be their principal rendezvous, whence, like the Tartars
in former times, they make their irregular excursions.”
“This elegant bird,” says Sir John Richardson, “has only lately been detected in America, having
been discovered in the spring of 1826, near the sources of the Athabasca, or Elk River, by Mr.
* Cephalopterus ornatus. ‘i Bombycilla. : Bombycilla garrula : Flem.
THE BOHEMIAN WAX-WING. 139
Drummond, and by myself, the same season, at Great Bear Lake, in latitude 65°. In its autumn
migration southward, this bird must cross the territory of the United States, if it does not actually
winter within it; but I have not heard of its having been hitherto seen in America to the southward
of the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude. The mountainous nature of the country skirting the Northern
Pacific Ocean being congenial to the habits of this species, it is probably more generally diffused in
New Caledonia and Russian-American territories, than to the eastward of the Rocky Mountain
chain. It appears in flocks at Great Bear Lake about the 24th of May, when the spring thaw has
exposed the berries of the Alpine arbutus, marsh vaccinium, &c., that have been frozen and covered
THE UMBRELLA BIRD.
during winter. It stays only for a few days; and none of the Indians of that quarter, with whom
I conversed, had seen its nest; but I have reason to believe that it retires in the breeding season to
the rugged and secluded mountain-limestone districts, in the sixty-seventh and sixty-eighth parallels,
where it feeds on the fruit of the common juniper, which abounds in these places."
Sir J. Richardson adds:– “I observed a large flock, consisting of at least three or four hundred
individuals, on the banks of the Saskatchewan, at Carlton House, early in May, 1827. They
alighted in a grove of poplars, settling all on one or two trees, and making a loud twittering noise.








140 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
They stayed only about an hour in the morning, and were too shy to allow me to approach within
gun-shot.”
The whole plumage of this bird is soft and silky, and the feathers on the top of the head are
elongated, so as to form a crest. The head and upper parts of the body are reddish ash-colour,
inclining to gray at the lower part; and a black stripe passes from the nostrils over each eye to the back
of the head. The feet are black, and so are the few feathers; the third and fourth are tipped with white,
the five following with yellow on the outer plume; and, besides this, in many of their feathers the shafts
end in a smooth, horny, oval tip, of the colour of red sealing wax. Of these the female has never more
than five, the male sometimes as many as nine on each side.
This bird generally makes its appearance in Great Britain in large flocks, when it betakes itself to
the hedges and rowan trees, to feed on their berries. It has been met with frequently in Scotland, and
yet at such irregular and often distant periods, that it must be considered there a very rare bird. In Eng-
land, if we except the northern counties, it is of still less frequent occurrence, although specimens have
been obtained as far south as Devonshire and Cornwall. With us it is of active habits, but generally
shy, and easily put to flight. It is said to feed not only on the berries of the ivy, rowan, whitethorn,
and wild rose but also on insects, which it pursues in the same manner as shrikes and fly-catchers, though
THE BOHEMIAN WAx-WING.
not with equal dexterity. It is often called the Bohemian Chatterer, although a remarkably silent bird.
As the black patch on its throat is one of its principal distinctive characteristics, black-throated would
be a better specific name than Bohemian. It has no song, except a few low, twittering notes, like those
of the red-wing, though still more soft; and while singing, alternately erects and depresses its crest, and
so squats in a heap, as to conceal all motion in the throat. This song, which the bystander might
imagine to be produced with a painful effort on the part of the bird, continues throughout the year.
We pass now to a third tribe” of Perching Birds; those which have, as their name denotes, cone-
like beaks. The more decidedly conical the beak is, the more exclusively does their diet consist of hard
seeds and grains; while, when the beak is more elongated, and, though strong, less truly conical, the
food consists principally of animal substances.
The first family to be noticed is that of the Larks.t
THE SKYLARK.:
ONE of the amusing fancies of rural life is, that he who would know what the lark says must lie down
in the fields on his back, when his wish will be gratified by the following stanza:-
* I', iniraetºr. -
Cunirostres. † Alaudidae. † Alauda arvens's.

THE SKYLAIRK.
* Up in the lift we go,
Te-hee, te-hee, te-hee, te-hee!
There's not a shoemaker on the earth
Can make a shoe to me !
Why so, why so, why so?
Because my heel is as long as my toe!"
The length of the hind toe is a special provision for a bird which builds its nest on the ground,
sheltered by a clod of earth, or in any little recess it can find, to enable it to walk through the grass.
It is decidedly the most peculiar feature of the lark's external figure, terminating, as it does, in a claw
three-quarters of an inch in length, straight at first near the base, and then slightly curved. -
Mudie justly remarks:—“The song of the lark, besides being a most accessible and delightful
º
º
º
sº YLARKs,
subject for common observation, is a very curious one for the physiologist. Every one, in the least
conversant with the structure of birds, must be aware that, with them, the organs of intonation and
modulation are inward, deriving little assistance from the tongue, and none, or next to none, from the
mandibles of the bill. The windpipe is the musical organ, and it is often very curiously formed. Birds
require that organ less for breathing than other animals having a windpipe and lungs, because of the
air-cells and breathing-tubes with which all parts of their bodies, and even the bones, are furnished.
But those diffused breathing-organs must act with least freedom when the bird is making the greatest
efforts in motion—that is, when ascending or descending; and, in proportion as these cease to act, the
trachea is the more required for the purposes of breathing. The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere
into a musical instrument of many stops, and so produces an exceedingly wild and varied song—a song
which is perhaps, not equal either in power or compass, in the single stave, to that of many of the





142 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
warblers, but one which is more varied in the whole succession. All bird; that sing ascending or
descending, have similar power, but the sky-lark has it in a degree superior to every other.”
Grahame truly addresses it when he says:–
“Thou, simple bird, dwellest in a home
The humblest; yet thy morning song ascends
Nearest to heaven!”
Mudie has graphically described its serenade, as he says:–“The lark rises, not like most birds,
which climb the air upon one slope, by a succession of leaps, as if a heavy body were raised by a
succession of efforts, or steps, with pauses between ; it twines upward like a vapour, borne lightly on
the atmosphere, and yielding to the motions of that as other vapours do. Its course is a spiral,
gradually enlarging ; and, seen on the side, it is as if it were keeping the boundary of a pillar of
ascending smoke, always on the surface of that logarithmic column (or funnel, rather), which is the
only figure, on a narrow base, and spreading as it ascends, which satisfies the eye with its stability and
self-balancing in the thin and invisible fluid. Nor can it seem otherwise, for it is true to nature. In the
case of smoke or vapour, it diffuses itself in the exact proportion as the density, or power of support in
the air diminishes; and the lark widens the volutions of its spiral in the very same proportion: of
course, it does so only when perfectly free from disturbance or alarm, because either of these is a new
element in the cause, and, as such, it must modify the effect. When equally undisturbed, the descent
is by a reversal of the same spiral ; and, when that is the case, the song is continued during the whole
time that the bird is in the air.
“The accordance of the song with the mode of ascent and descent, is also worthy of notice. When
the volutions of the spiral are narrow, and the bird changing its attitude rapidly in proportion to the
whole quantity of flight, the song is partially suppressed, but it swells as the spiral widens, and sinks as it
contracts; so that, though the notes may be the same, it is only when the lark sings poised at the same
height, that it sings in a uniform key. It gives a swelling song as it ascends, and a sinking one as it
comes down ; and even if it take but one wheel in the air, as that wheel always includes an ascent or a
descent, it varies the pitch of the song.”
Old Chaucer indulges in a beautiful fancy:— -
“The merry lark, messenger of day, e.
Saleweth in her song the morrow gray,
And fiery Phoebus riseth up so bright,
That all the orient laugheth at the sight.”
The melody of the lark is peculiarly that of spring. Shakespeare describes this bird as the “herald
of the morn,” and truly so, as it rises in the air and begins its song before day. Ere the snow-drop,
“first pale promise of the year,” peeps above the ground, the lark, singly or in pairs, is scattered over
the face of the country. Its melody, too, is that of love, for as his mate broods on her nest while the
corn is springing,
“Invisible in flecked sky
The lark sends down his minstrelsy :”
but, presently, he descends, still trilling out his carol, gradually sinking on wings which quiver with
transport ; for his mate is there, for whose sake it was poured forth, and on whom he looked, even
while he soared so far aloft.
The upper part of the body of the sky-lark is brown, disposed in three shades, the darkest occupying
the middle line of each feather, and the lightest forming the edge. The throat and upper part of the
breast are pale wood-brown, spotted with dark brown; the belly and the under side of the tail are pale
yellowish-white, tinged with brown on the thighs and flanks.
The sky-lark is universally distributed over the British Islands. It is said to be only a summer
visitor to Orkney and Shetland; as it is to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Over the whole of the
European Continent down to the Mediterranean it is a common bird.
The sky-lark pairs in April, and constructs its nest of withered grass. Some sheltered spot is
chosen ; and a curious instance is related of an attempt on the part of a female bird, who had built
her nest among some tall grass, to reproduce the shelter artificially, when the field was mown for hay.
---,
THE SHORE-LARIX.”
GREAT is the range of this bird from north to south. Sir James Ross mentions that one was shot
near Felix Harbour, and Captain F. P. King brought another from the straits of Magalhaens,
discovered by a Portuguese of that name, in the service of Spain, and affording a passage from the
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, between the island of Terra del Fuego and the mainland of America.
Audubon found it in Labrador, a hilly country of North America, on the east side of Hudson's
Bay,
“Where, under the moon, in mounts of frost,
Full many a mariner's bones are tost;”
where the ice begins to disappear in May, and, about the middle of June, such hot weather prevails
as, at times, to scorch the faces of the hunters.
“Although,” says that eloquent naturalist, “in the course of our previous rambles along the coast,
and among the numberless islands that guard its shores, I had already seen this lark while breeding,
never before that day did I so much enjoy its song, and never, before I reached this singular spot, had
I to add to my pleasures that of finding its nest. Here I found the bird in the full perfection of
plumage and song, and here I had an opportunity of studying its habits, which I will now endeavour
to describe.
THE SHORE-LARK-
“The shore-lark breeds on the high and desolate tracts of Labrador, in the vicinity of the sea.
The face of the country appears as if formed of one undulated expanse of granite, covered with mosses
and lichens, varying in size and colour, some green, others as white as snow, and others again of every
tint, and disposed in large patches or tufts. It is on the latter that this lark places her nest, which is
disposed with so much care, while the moss so resembles the bird in its hue, that, unless you almost
tread upon her as she sits, she seems to feel secure, and remains unmoved. Should you, however,
approach so near, she flutters away, feigning lameness so cunningly, that none but one accustomed to
the sight can refrain from pursuing her. The male immediately joins her in mimic wretchedness,
uttering a note so soft and plaintive, that it requires a strong stimulus to force the naturalist to rob
the poor birds of their treasure.
“The nest around is imbedded in the moss to its edges, which is composed of fine grasses, circularly
disposed, and forming a bed about two inches thick, with a lining of grouse feathers, and those of other
birds. In the beginning of July the eggs are deposited. They are four or five in number, large,
grayish, and covered with numerous pale-blue and brown spots. The young leave the nest before they
are able to fly, and follow their parents over the moss, where they are fed about a week. They run
* Alauda alpestris: Linn.

144. CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
nimbly, emit a soft peep, and squat closely at the first appearance of danger. If observed and pursued,
they open their wings to aid them in their escape, and, separating, make off with great celerity. On
such occasions it is difficult to secure more than one of them, unless several persons be present, when
each can pursue a bird. The parents all this time are following the enemy overhead, lamenting the
danger to which the young are exposed. In several instances the old bird followed us almost to our
boat, alighting occasionally on a projecting crag before us, and entreating us, as it were, to restore its
offspring.”
THE SHORT-TOED LARK.”
THERE is some resemblance between the woodlark and this bird, but its breast is unspotted, and its hind
toes and claws are comparatively short, and from this peculiarity it derives its name.
According to Mr. Gould, the top of the head and all the upper parts are of a yellowish or sandy
brown, with the centre of each feather darker; the quills and tail are of a dusky brown. The tints of
THE SHORT-TOED. I.A.L.E.
the female are somewhat duller than those of the male. The young during the first autumn have the
outer edges of each feather margined with buff.
Large flocks of this bird are seen at Erzeroum, in spring; it is found also in Greece, along the
shores of the Mediterranean, and in the southern and central parts of France.
THE MEADOW LARK.4
THIs name has been given to the bird by Latham, but Lewin calls it “The Dusky Lark.” It is a native
of Europe and America. Its upper surface is gray-brown; the feathers are darker in the centre; the
smaller wing-coverts are tipped with white, the chest and flanks are ash-streaked, and the lower part
of the body is white. -
THE CRESTED LARK.t
THIs bird has only been shot a few times in Britain. This is the more remarkable, as it might
pass from Calais, where it is very common, at will. Mr. Gould thinks it a much more solitary bird
than the sky-lark, to which, in its general aspect, it bears a close resemblance. The crest of the
male is generally erect. The female is less than the male, and has not so long a crest. The nest is
constructed on the ground. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a pale ashy-brown, spotted with
* Alauda brachydactyla. † Alauda spinoletta † Alauda cristata: Linn.









THE CRESTED LARK. 145
dark brown. The Crested lark frequently sings as it. flies, sometimes soaring to a great height; its song
is varied, but inferior to that of the sky-lark. -
The second genus” to be considered is characterised by a rather short, straight, conical bill, and
the curved form of the gape, produced by a narrowing of the sides of the upper mandible, and a
corresponding enlargement of the under one. Instead of being, as usual, concave within, the upper
mandible has a hard rounded knob
in the inside, or what is called a sºvº.
tuberculous patch. --- N N º
A sub-genust of these birds
has been formed by Meyer, and
the place of these species is agreed
to be between the true larks and
the true buntings. While they
have several characters allying
them to the buntings, the differ-
ence in the structure of the wing,
their straight hind claw, their ter-
restrial habits, and their mode of
progression on the ground—not
byhopping, but by steps—indicate,
as Yarrell says, their connection
with the larks.
TIME MEAD. W. L.A.R.R.
THE LAPLAND BUNTING:
THE name shows that this bird is a native of the Northern parts of Europe. Pennant says it is found
in Siberia, and near the Uralian chain. It inhabits the Faroe Islands, Spitzbergen, Greenland, and
Iceland in summer, and from thence westward to Hudson's Bay. Sir J. Richardson says: “I never
met this species in the interior of the fur countries during winter, and I suspect that its principal
retreats in that season are on the
borders of Lakes Huron and
Superior, and the country ex-
tending to the westward on the
same parallel. In the year 1827
it appeared on the plains at Carl-
ton House, about the middle of
May, in very large flocks, amongst
which were many shore larks
(Alauda alpestris), and a few indi-
viduals of Plectrophanes picta.
During their stay of ten or twelve
days they frequented open spots,
where recent fires had destroyed
the grass. They came to Cum-
berland House a few days laterin
the same season, and there kept
constantly in the furrows of a
newly-ploughed field. In the pre-
ceding year many were seen, though in smaller flocks, in the vicinity of Fort Franklin, latitude
65% in the beginning of May; and the crops of those that were then killed were filled with the seeds of
Arbutus Alpina. They breed in moist meadows, on the shores of the Arctic Sea. The nest, placed on
THE CRESTED LARE.
* Emberiz Liumacus. + Plectrophanes. Emberiza calcarata: Tem.
WOL. III, 115
|






146 - CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
a small hillock, among moss and stones, is composed externally of the dry stems of grass, Interwoven
to a considerable thickness, and lined very neatly and compactly with deer's hair. The eggs, usually
seven, are pale ochre-yellow, spotted with brown.”
Little as it might be expected, the Lapland Bunting has been several times taken in this
country.
THE SNOW BUNTING.4
THIS bird, sometimes called the Snow Flake, inhabits, during the breeding season, the Arctic regions
and the islands of the Polar Sea. In removing some drift timber, lying on the beach of Cape Parry,
Sir J. Richardson found a nest on the ground containing four young snow birds; and Captain Lyons
discovered one placed in the bosom of the corpse of an Esquimaux child. The nest is composed of
dry grass, neatly lined with deer's hair and a few feathers, and is generally fixed in the crevice of a
rock, or in a loose pile of timber or stones. The eggs are greenish-white, with a circle of irregular
umber-brown spots round the thick end, and numerous blotches of subdued lavender-purple. Of the
young discovered by Sir J. Richardson, he says, “Care was taken not to injure them; and while we
were seated at breakfast, at the distance of only two or three feet, the parent birds made frequent
visits to their offspring; at first timidly, but at length with the greatest confidence, and every time
bringing grubs in their bills.”
During the months of December and January the Snow Bunting retires to the southward of the
Saskatchewan. It usually reaches that river again about the middle of February; two months
afterwards it attains the sixty-fifth parallel of latitude, and in the beginning of May it is found on the
coast of the Polar Sea. At this period it feeds on the buds of the Saarifraga appositifolia, one of the
earliest of the Arctic plants; during winter its crop is generally filled with grass seeds. In the month
of October, Wilson found a large flock running over a bed of water plants, and feeding, not
only on their seeds, but on the shelly molluscs which adhered to the leaves; and he states that the
long hind claws of these birds afford them. much support when so engaged. The young are fed with
insects.
The Snow Bunting is only a winter visitor to this country, and to the other temperate parts of
Europe. Mr. Macgillivray, in a note dated Luachar, in Harris, says: “This bird is frequently met
on the hills in small flocks. I am told they are never seen in summer, nor have I ever met with
them there beyond the end of April; yet the little flocks which I have often observed were apparently
family groups. Nor do these birds appear in large congregations, such as we often see along the
shores of Scotland or England. On the 4th of August, 1830, being on the summit of Ben-na-muid dui,
the highest mountain in Scotland, I observed a beautiful male flitting about in the neighbourhood of a
great patch of snow; it was also seen by Dr. Greville at the same place. Some days after, having
descended from the top of Lochnagar, to its corry, along with Dr. Martin Barry, in quest of plants,
I met with a flock of eight individuals, flying about among the blocks of granite. They were evidently
a family, the male and female being easily distinguishable from the young. It is, therefore, very
probable that the Snow Flake breeds on the higher Grampians, and perhaps in considerable numbers,
although it is not likely that the vast flocks seen on the lower grounds in winter are exclusively of
Scottish origin.”
Mr. Knapp states that “out of nearly forty which were captured by one bird-catcher during a
single winter on the downs near Brighton, only two had the white head characteristic of the adult
snow bunting.” Mr. Foljambe, an excellent ornithologist, wrote also to his friend Colonel Montagu :
“A few years ago I shot forty from the same flock, during severe weather in the month of January,
hardly any two of which exhibited precisely the same plumage, but varied from the perfect tawny to
the snow bunting in its whitest state; the feathers of those of the intermediate state being more or
less charged with white.”
* Emberiza glacialis,
THE COMMON BUNTING.'s
Of frequent occurrence in many of our cultivated districts, and remaining in the country throughout
the year, this is really a common bird. As it is often seen about corn-fields, one of its provincial
names is that of Corn Bunting, by which, too, it is also known in Scotland. Not so
elegant in form or so gay in its plumage as the yellow ammer, it is a larger, and appears to be a
hardier bird. - -
The centres of the feathers on the whole upper part are blackish-brown, margined with olive
colour on the body, and yellowish-brown on the coverts and quills. The tail is dusky, less produced
and more forked than that of the yellow bunting. The bill, which is very conical, and has the palatial
knob large, is of a bluish-black on the upper ridge, while the rest is straw colour. The colours of the
female differ little from those of the male, but the general tint of both is various, being in some
instances nearly black, and in others inclining to gray.
THE CºMMux I; UNTING.
The nest, usually placed on or very near the ground, is often sustained a few inches above it by
the strong, coarse herbage or tangled briers amidst which it is concealed. It is composed of straw
and fibrous roots, mixed with dry grass, and lined with hair. There are four or five eggs, of a reddish-
white, or pale purple-red ground, streaked and spotted with dark purple-brown. “The adult birds,”
says Yarrell, “feed principally on grain and seeds, for the breaking down or shelling of which the
palatial knob of the upper mandible, and the elevated cutting edges of the lower one, are admirably
adapted.”
Mr. Knapp remarks: “It could hardly be supposed that this bird, not larger than a lark, is
capable of doing serious injury; yet I this morning witnessed a rick of barley, standing in a detached
field, entirely stripped of its thatching, which this bunting effected by seizing the end of the straw
and deliberately drawing it out, to search for any grain the ear might contain.”
THE YELLOW BUNTING, OR YELLOW AMMER.f
This is a beautiful little bird, which may be seen darting in spring and summer from the hedges,
bushes, and copses it frequents, loving, as it does, the richer parts of the country.
The fine lemon-yellow colour of the male's head and breast, and the rich chestnut and brown of
the back, invest him, indeed, with a brilliant plumage. But to this his song is not equal, attracting no
* Emberiza miliaria. + Emberiza citrinella.

118 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
human ear; while so common is this beautiful bird, being indigenous to England, Wales, Ireland, and
Scotland, as often to be unnoticed when flying from one low tree to another, or from bush to bush, as
the pedestrian proceeds on his way. The head of the
female has much less yellow, and her general colour is
inferior in vividness to that of the male.
THE BLACK.-HEADED BUNTING."
THIs bird, often called the Reed Bunting, is about the
size of the yellow ammer. Its nest is generally placed
in a tuft or under a low bush, and when reeds are se-
lected, it is made where they form a dry tuft or yield
other support. The eggs are of a grayish white, with
a tinge of pale pink, lined and dropped with chocolate
red.
Mr. Neville Wood mentions a pleasing instance of
this bird's sagacity:—“Some years ago, when walking
with a friend, I remember seeing two black-headed
buntings in an osier bed, the male perched erect at the
summit of a willow stem, and his mate remaining
beneath, or only occasionally coming within view. On
our entering the osiers, they both flew around us in
great alarm, mostly in silence, but sometimes uttering a
low, mournful kind of note, at the same time darting
suddenly about the hedge and willow stems, as if im-
- patient for our immediate departure; and their manners
THE YELLOW AMMER. were so different from those commonly observed in the
species, that we were convinced that there must be a nest thereabouts. I was well aware of the
difficulty of finding its little tenement in a situation of that kind, and accordingly we both of us began
to move in different directions, in order to discover by the actions of the birds where their treasure
lay.
“My friend traversed one side of the osier bed, and myself the other; but still the loving and
faithful couple remained in precisely the same spot, where the junction of two hedge-rows formed a
corner, and we therefore concluded, naturally enough, that in that spot all their hopes were centered.
But a close and minute investigation of the whole corner, during which we laid the ground completely
bare, revealed nothing to us. At length, a full hour after the commencement of our labours, I hit upon
the nest by mere chance, at exactly the opposite end to that at which the reed buntings had been, and
still were, prosecuting their whinings and manoeuvres, which now proved beyond a doubt, what I had
never before suspected, that the birds had been all the time endeavouring to attract our attention
towards them, instead of towards the nest.”
The male bird, no less than the female, tries to allure intruders from the little domicile. Mr.
Salmon, of Thetford, tells the following tale in reference to the latter:—“Walking in spring in some
rushes near a river, my attention was arrested by observing a black-headed bunting shuffling through
the rushes, and trailing along the ground, as if one of her legs or wings was broken. I followed her
to see the result, and she, having led me to some considerable distance, took wing, no doubt much
rejoiced, on returning, to find her stratagem had been successful in preserving her young brood, although
not in preventing the discovery of her nest, containing five young ones, which I found was placed, as
usual, on the side of a hassock, or clump of grass, almost screened from view by overhanging dead
grass. I have invariably found it in such a situation, and never suspended between reeds, as is some-
times stated; it was composed of dead grass, and lined sparingly with hair.”
This bird, with its black head pleasingly contrasted with its white neck-collar, and the varied
colours of the back, remains in this country during the year. It dwells in marshy places, the sides of
* Emberiza schoºniclus.

THE BUNTINGS, 149
lakes and large ponds, banks of rivers or canals, beds of osiers, and rush-grown water-meadows In
suitable localities, the male may be observed, during the breeding season, perched on some conspicuous
% %. -
2
tº -
THE BLACK-IIEALED BUNTING.
spray, and for an hour together, cheering his mate, and doubtless gratifying himself, with his simple
Song.
This bird is found in all the southern counties of
England, where the localities are suited to its habits,
and so it may be said of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.
THE CIRL BUNTING."
THESE birds are rather smaller than the yellow am-
mers, their colours are more varied, but there is a
resemblance in their manners, and they freely associate
together. The voice, too, is more agreeable, and the
chirp of the female is very soft.
- Colonel Montagu was the first to discover the
Cirl Bunting to be a British bird. He soon found
its nest, which is generally built in furze or some low
bush. A little moss and some dry stalks compose
its nest, which is lined with long hair and fibrous
roots. There are four or five eggs, of a dull white,
tinged with blue, streaked and speckled with dark
liver-brown. The young are hatched in thirteen or
fourteen days, and are supplied with insects by the
parent birds. Colonel Montagu found grasshoppers
most serviceable, with uncooked meat, finely divided,
when they were reared by hand.
THE CIRI, BUNTING.
THE COW BUNTING:
THIs bird, a native of America, is of a violet-black; its head and neck are gray-brown. It lives in
flocks near cattle; hence its name; but the most remarkable trait in its habits is, that, like the
cuckoo, it deposits its eggs in strange nests, as in that of the blue-eyed warbler,
* Emberiza cirlus. f Emberiza pecoris.


150 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“When,” says Nuttall, “the female is disposed to lay, she appears restless and dejected, and
separates from the unregarding flock. Stealing through woods and thickets, she pries into the bushes
and branches for the nest that suits her, into which she darts in the absence of the owner, and in a few
minutes is seen to rise on the wing, cheerful and relieved from the anxiety that oppressed her, and
proceeds back to the flock she had so reluctantly forsaken. If the egg be deposited in the nest alone,
it is uniformly forsaken; but if the nursing parent have any of her own, she immediately begins to sit.
The red-eyed fly-catcher, in whose beautiful basket-like nests I have observed these eggs, proves avery
affectionate and assiduous mother to the uncouth foundling. In one of these I found an egg of each
bird, and the hen already sitting. I took her own egg, and left the strange one. She soon
Male and FEMALE cow busting occupying the nest of THE BLUE-Eyed warbleR."
about, then sat upon it, but soon moved off; again renewed her observation; and it was a considerable
time before she seemed willing to take her seat; but at length. I left her on the nest. Two or three
days after, I found that she had relinquished her attention to the strange egg, and had forsaken the
premises. Another of these birds, however, forsook the nest on taking out the cow-bird's egg, although
she had still two of her own left. The only example, perhaps, to the contrary, of deserting the nest
when solely occupied by the stray egg, is in the blue-bird, who, attached strongly to the breeding places,
in which it often continues for several years, has been known to lay, though with apparent reluctance
after the deposition of the cow-bird's egg.”
The third and varied family of the Cone-Beaked birds is commonly known by the name of the
Finches,t Among these is a bird with which all are acquainted.
* Sylvia ſestiva: Latham. * Fringillidae.





THE HOUSE SPARROW.*
THE dingy bird of a London square is but a poor representative of the tribe of sparrows so familiar in
every country spot, and for which Barry Cornwall thus pathetically pleads:—
“Touch not the little sparrow who doth build
His home so near us. He doth follow us
From spot to spot, amidst the turbulent town,
And ne'er deserts us. To all other birds
The woods suffice, the rivers, the sweet fields,
And nature in her aspect mute and fair;
But he doth herd with man. Blithe servant! live,
Feed and grow cheerful! On my window's ledge
I'll leave thee every morning some fit food,
In payment of thy service. Doth he serve?
Aye, serves and teaches. His familiar voice,
His look of love, his sure fidelity,
Bid us begentle with so small a friend;
And much we learn from acts of gentleness.
Doth he not teach? Aye, and doth serve us too,
Who clears our homes from many a toilsome thing,
Insect or reptile; and when we do mark
With what nice care he builds his nest, and guards
His offspring from all harm, and how he goes,
A persevering, bold adventurer,
Midst hostile tribes, twenty times as big as he,
Skill, perseverance, courage, parent's love,
In our own lives, perhaps, when need doth ask,
To imitate the little household bird.
Untiring follower: what doth chain thee here?
What bonds 'tween thee and man? Thy food the same
As theirs who wing the woods,-thy voice as wild,
Thy wants, thy power, the same; we nothing do
To serve thee, and few love thee; yet thou hang'st
About our dwellings, like some humble friend,
Whom custom and kind thoughts do link to us,
And no neglect can banish."
“We have scarcely,” says Mr. Knapp, “another bird the appetite of which is so accommodating
in all respects as that of the house sparrow.
ºſſ/غ
sº ºº
THE HOUSE SPARROW.
It is, I believe, the only bird that is a voluntary in-
habitant with man, lives in his society, and is his constant attendant, following him wherever he fixes
his residence. It becomes immediately an inhabitant of the new farm-house, in a lonely place or
recent inclosure, or even in an island; will accompany him in the crowded city, and build and feed
there in content, unmindful of noise, the smoke of the furnace, or the steam-engine, where even the
swallow and the martin, that flock around him in the country, are scared by the tumult and leave him;
but the sparrow, though begrimed with soot, does not forsake him; feeds on his food, rice, potatoes,
and almost any other extraneous substance he may find in the street; looks to him for his support,
and is maintained almost entirely by the industry and providence of man. It is not known in a
solitary and independent state.”
Like most prolific birds, sparrows contend violently for choice or possession. Nor is this done
singly, for five or six birds may be seen attacking, buffeting, and biting each other with the utmost
rage; but on some ground, mutually satisfactory, perhaps, the battle at length comes to an end, and
the combatants engage in their other affairs.
Their nests are found under the eaves of tiles, in holes or crevices in walls, in the orifices of old
water pipes, or in any cavity where the collected hay and feathers may be properly placed. Sometimes
* Fringilla domestica. Passer domesticus.


152 * * CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
they build among the higher branches of apple or plum trees in a garden; sometimes in other trees,
but seldom choosing one that is far from a house. The nest, formed with a dome, is composed of a
mass of hay, lined with numerous feathers, and allowing entrance by a hole in the side; it is very
large as compared with the bird. The eggs are white, spotted and streaked with ash colour and
dusky-brown. * - .
As Mr. Broderip was passing one day along the footway that borders the Nationai Gallery, he
saw a sparrow fly down to the neighbouring hackney-carriage stand and pick up a very long straw,
with which it flew, with some labour, towards the building. The long, streaming straw attracted the
attention of some of the pedestrians, who stopped and looked at the little loaded bird, who was
directing its flight toward the portico of the gallery; but, finding its motions watched, it turned short
round and pitched with its straw on one of the window-sills, and the people then passed on. Presently
it flew again towards the portico; but, the people again stopping and looking—for if one passenger
stops and looks up in a great London thoroughfare, you have in a very few moments an increasing
crowd—it flew back to another window, and the second lot of gazers went their way. The little bird
then started again with its straw towards one of the same pillars, and, cutting round it, so as to avoid
prying eyes as much as possible, bore it to the capital of one of the pilasters and disappeared, straw
and all, into the snug nook, made by a part of the projecting ornament, which it had chosen as the
place for building its nest. “The wary bird,” adds Mr. Broderip, “was not disposed to let an
inquisitive public know the way to its home. On many other occasions I have observed these and
other birds remain waiting about for a long time with nest-materials and food in their bills, when they
have perceived that I was watching them; but the moment I turned my head, they were off with
their burden to the nest. This would not be worth mentioning, were it not so difficult to find persons
who will use their eyes to some purpose.” - -
Again, in the words of Barry Cornwall, we say:-
“So, long live Or tyrant doom'd him, who had done no wrong,
The household sparrowl may he thrive for ever: To pains or sudden death. Then let him think,
For ever twitter forth his morning song, And he will spare this little trustful bird;
A brief, but sweet domestic melody! - And his one act of clemency will teach
Long may he live! and he who aims to kill His heart a lesson that shall widen it;
Qur small companion, let him think how he - For nothing makes so bright the soul, as wher.
Would feel, if great men spurned him from their hearths, Pity doth temper wisdom.”
Rindly wishes for this bird, however, like others for very different objects, are not always
realised; of which the following fact is a proof:-The principal external ornament of the Rotunda,
in Sackville Street, Dublin, is a richly-carved frieze, representing the heads of oxen, with festoons of
flowers pendant from the horns; the frieze running round the entire building at a great elevation.
In the hollow of the eye of one of these heads a sparrow built its nest. But amongst the materials
it employed for that purpose, there unhappily chanced to be a woollen thread, with a noose at one end.
By some accident the poor little bird got his own neck inserted in the noose, and in his efforts to
extricate himself fell from his nest, and hung suspended below it. He was observed for some time
making prodigious efforts to escape, but in vain; and his remains were unhappily to be seen gibbeted
at his own door, and fluttering in the wind, whilst the straws of his nest projected from the eye-hole
above his head.
fiTIE TREE SPARROW,+
THIS is an active, lively bird, often taken for the house sparrow, which it resembles in appearance and
many of its peculiarities. It is, however, more local in distribution and less numerous as a species,
but in various countries small colonies of them may be found. On the Continent it abounds in
Holland and France, and it extends its range southwards to Spain and Italy. ... " f
The Tree Sparrow is shorter than the common sparrow, and perches with the axis of its body
more erect. The top of its head and nape are dark reddish-brown, the black of the chin less in
proportion; there is a conspicuous black patch on the ear coverts; the sides of the neck and breast
are white, the white being produced till it forms a narrow collar round the neck; there is a bar on the
* Passer montanus, Fringilla montana.
THE TREE SPARROW. 153
closed wing, white with black spots on the anterior edge; and there are two white bars on the
expanded wings. The female is more similar in colour to the male than is that of the house sparrow.
These birds frequently build in the thatch of a barn, in company with the house sparrow; not,
however, entering the thatch, like that bird, from the inside of the building, but from the outside.
They build, too, in other places, and even in the deserted abodes of magpies and crows. Their nests
are formed of hay, and lined with feathers. The eggs, from four to six in number, are of a dull-white,
speckled all over with light ash-brown. The young are supplied with insects and soft vegetables,
which are the principal food of the old birds during spring and summer; at other times of the year
they feed on grain and seeds.
In America the migrations of these birds are made on an extensive scale. Wilson tells us, “They
extend from the arctic circle, and probably beyond it, to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, spreading
over the whole breadth of the United States, from the Atlantic Ocean to Louisiana; how much farther
I am unable to say.
“About the 20th of October they make their first appearance in those parts of Pennsylvania east
of the Alleghany mountains. At first they are most generally seen on the borders of woods, among
the fallen and decayed leaves, in loose flocks of thirty or forty together, always taking to the trees
THE TREE SPARROW.
when disturbed. As the winter sets in colder, they approach near the farm-houses and villages; and,
on the appearance of what is usually called falling weather, assemble in larger flocks, and seem doubly
diligent in searching for food: this increased activity is generally the sure prognostic of a storm.
“When deep snow covers the ground, they become almost half domesticated; they collect about
the barns, stables, and other out-houses, spread over the ground, and even round the steps of the door,
not only in the country and villages, but in the midst of our large cities, crowding round the thresh-
old early in the morning, gleaning up the crumbs, and appearing very lively and familiar. They have
also recourse at this severe season, when the face of the earth is shut up from them, to the seeds of
many kinds of weeds that still rise above the snow,in corners of fields, and low, sheltered situations.”
They may now be seen associated with several species of their congeners, all engaged in the same
assiduous search for food. The nest of these birds is said to be placed on the ground among the grass,
several being clustered together within a little distance of each other.
THE GOLDFINCH."
No wonder that one of our poets should address this bird in kindly and animated terms:-
* Fringilla carduelis: Linn.
Wol, III, - 116

CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“Goldfinch, pride of woodland glade, Perch'd thousipp'st the dewy gem.
In thy jet and gold arrayed; Fickle bird, for ever roving,
Gentle bird, that lov'st to feed Endless changes ever loving;
On the thistle's downy seed; Now in orchards gaily sporting,
Freely frolic, lightly sing, Now in flowery fields resorting;
In the sunbeam spread thy wing! Chasing now the thistle's down,
Spread thy plumage, trim and gay, By the gentle zephyr blown;
Glittering in the noontide ray! Lightly on thou wing'st thy way,
As upon the thorn-tree's stem Always happy, always gay."
The pleasing form, gay attire, lively habits, cheerful song, and strong disposition to personal
attachment, render this one of the most favourite cage-birds. Well, too, do the goldfinches bear
confinement; living, as they have done, ten years in captivity, and singing the greater part of each year.
- -
T-I- GOLLF1-C11.
It has been truly said:—
“The goldfinch weaves with willow down inlaid,
And Cannach tufts, his wonderful abode;
Sometimes suspended at the timber end
Of plane-tree spray among the broad-leaved shoots,
The tiny hammock swings to every gale;
Sometimes in closest thickets 'tis concealed,
Sometimes in hedge luxuriant, where the briar,
The bramble, and the plum-tree branch:
Warp through the thorn, surmounted by the flowers
Of climbing vetch and honeysuckle wild.”
The flight of the goldfinch is straightforward and smooth, without any undulations or jerks,
though it never flies at any great elevation above the ground. The tits have a sort of irritable expres-
sion which this bird has not; yet, from its strength, its sharply-pointed bill, and its power of wing,
few birds of its size can combat with it on equal terms. In the air, however, such combats are few,
excepting those of the males in pairing time. The goldfinchis very generally distributed over Britain,
wherever the nature of the soil is such as to afford it a supply of food, in the early season, when the
first broods are hatched. -
The Sieur Roman, some years ago, had an exhibition of goldfinches and linnets wonderfully
trained. One appeared dead, and was held up by the tail or claw, without exhibiting any signs of life.
This, however, was by no means a solitary instance. The writer well remembers a man who used to
stand from day to day in the shadow of the high wall of Burlington House, Piccadilly, to sell goldfinches
that would perform this feat, and did so frequently for the attraction of purchasers. A second bird of
the Sieur Roman stood on its head, with its claws in the air; a third imitated a Dutch milkmaid going
to market, with pails on its shoulders; a fourth imitated a Venetian girl looking out of window; a fifth,





THE GOLDFINCII. 155
appearing as a soldier, mounted guard as a sentinel; the sixth acted as a cannoneer, with a cap on its
head, a firelock on its shoulder, and a match in its claw, with which it discharged a small cannon. The
same bird also acted as if it had been wounded. It was wheeled in a barrow, as if to convey it to an
hospital; after which it flew away before the company. The seventh turned a kind of windmill; and
the last bird stood in the midst of some fireworks which were discharged all round it, without its
exhibiting the slightest symptom of fear. -
The writer saw the exhibition of Mademoiselle Vandermeersch's trained birds, a few years ago, at
Willis's Rooms; there were canaries, goldfinches, bullfinches, and other birds, all evidently fond of their
mistress, and ready to perform at her will many curious feats with numbers and letters, printed on
cards.
THE MOUNTAIN FINCH."
The feathers of the head and throat of this bird are bright black, with a border of dark reddish yellow,
which becomes less marked as the bird advances in age. The belly is mottled with white; the feathers
triº Muuº IAIN 1 is CII.
of the back are black, with a broad margin of dark yellow. The top of the neck and breast, as well as
the lesser wing coverts, are orange; the larger wing coverts are black, tipped with white. The tail is
somewhat forked and black. The colours of the female are less diversified.
This bird is common throughout Europe, but in summer chiefly inhabits the extreme north. In
spring, autumn, and winter, it may be found in all the German forests, and has been seen in immense
flocks in Thuringia, in seasons when beechmast was abundant. It visits England in the winter.
THE POY BIRD.
THIs curious bird was noticed by Captain Cook on his visit to Tahiti. The feathers are of a fine
mazarine blue, except those of its neck, which are of a beautiful silver gray, and two or three short
white ones, which are on the pinion-joint of the wing. Under its throat hang two little tufts of curled
snow-white feathers, called its poies—the Tahitian name for ear-rings, which led to that name being
given to the bird. The song of this bird is very sweet.
* Fringilla mºntifringilla. -


156 cassºil's PopULAR NATURAL HIStory
THE COMMON LINNET,”
“Within the bush, her covert nest
A little linnet fondly prest;
The dew sat chilly on her breast,
Sae early in the morning.”
So said Burns. Various are the names given to this bird, by different ornithologists. Among these are
the Red-headed Finch, the Linnet Finch, the Brown Linnet, and the Greater Redpole; the French call
it Gros-bec Linotte.
It was long supposed that there were two species included vader this name, but it has since been
found that the same bird passes through seasonal changes, and thus has a summer and a winter plumage.
Its name is traced, as Yarrell states, to the fondness of the linnets for the seeds of the various species
of flax—linum, linaria, limota, la linotte, linnet.
This linnet is very common in Britain, and extends as far as the Orkneys, where it is abundant.
THE POY BIRD.
During the summer it resorts to waste land and commons, in the upper parts of the country, where
it breeds. Furzy commons seem to be the favourite resorts of these birds during that season, the bushy
furze being admirably adapted to conceal the nest from the prying eye, and sometimes a quickset or
gooseberry bush answers the purpose. The nest is composed of moss, woven with wool, and lined with
wool and hair, very neatly put together; there are four eggs, of a bluish white, with a few purplish
specks and short lines. If the nest should be destroyed, they will build another as late as the month
of August, as if dissatisfied until the object of their visit is accomplished.
Selby states that he repeatedly verified the fact of this linnet never acquiring in confinement the
brilliant tints which distinguish it at a particular season of the year, when it is at liberty. “For some
purpose of observation,” he says, “a linnet was shot, towards the close of summer, when the plumage
showed its mo perfect nuptial tint, and, happening to be only winged, was put into a cage. It soon
became familiaised to its situation, and still continues so. About the usual time in the autumn of that
* Fringilla cannabina: Linn.

THE COMMON LINNET, 157
year it moulted, and acquired the winter dress of the common linnet, which it has retained ever since,
without displaying, at the accustomed season, any of the brilliant red that adorned it in the wild
state.” -
In summer the back, wings, and upper tail coverts of the male linnet are of a rich chestnut
brown, the chin and throat brownish gray, and the breast and head vermilion. In winter the brown
and gray deepen in tint, and the vermilion disappears, to be replaced by a brown tint.
During the time of nidification, and until the young are hatched, the song of the linnet, though
short, possesses much sweetness. “At once brilliant and soft,” says Bechstein, “it consists of many
irregular notes, tastefully put together in a clear and sonorous tone, which continues during the whole
year, except at the moulting season. Besides its own natural note, it will soon acquire the notes of
other birds, particularly the nightingale; and may be taught in a very short time to imitate any of our
tunes, if they are whistled to it."
Thatingeniousand genial writer, Mr. Mogridge, so well known throughout Great Britain and America
as “Old Humphrey,” tells an amusing and suggestive story of his pet linnet. He thus meets an objection
at the outset: “But, perhaps, it may be said, ‘You, who talk so glibly of kindness to dumb creatures, and
prate with your pen so freely about humanity; you to keep a bird pent up in a narrow cage 1' He
TILE COMMON LINNET.
was not, gentle reader, he was not always mine. I took care of him for another, until he became
legally, really, and truly my own bird. He who left him with me would not take him away again,
believing that he could not make him so comfortable and happy as I did. And then, again, so far from
being pent up in a narrow cage, he has the door of his wiry habitation open almost the whole of the
day when in the house, going out and in as he pleases, to say nothing of the free revel he now and then
has on the beds and gravel walks of the garden. If old Chuffy could speak for himself, he would not
complain of his master, I know :
“I love my bird, and when I give
His measure free
Of meat and drink, I try to think
That he loves me.
“I know Chuffy must be ten or twelve years old, and for this very sufficient reason, that for so long
a period he has been under my care. Twelve months ago, about the time when I sprained my ankle,
one of his legs having caught in the wire of his cage, his thigh was put out of joint, so that we have
been fellow-sufferers. You may be sure I do not value him the less on this account. As he is now
pecking at the mould of the flower-pot before me, I may as well draw his picture.
“When old Chuffy was young, his plumage was ruddy; but now it has lost much of its warmth
of colouring. His back is light brown, mixed, blotched, mottled, or streaked (for I hardly know which)
with darker brown. His breast and the quills of his feathers are lighter; his legs and claws of a flesh-










158 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
colour, and when the sun shines on them they look transparent. One of his wings is a little rueful,
for it does not sit close to his body, and his poor lame leg sticks out in a rather unsightly manner,
-Hardly has he any tail; his blue beak is strong, pointed, and sharp ; and his eye is black as ebony, and
almost as bright as a diamond.
“Though old Chuffy seems to lead the life of a pensioner on my bounty, I feel quite sue that if
I were to keep a debtor and creditor account with him, the balance would be sadly against me. I
give him rape, flax, and now and then a little hemp-seed; and occasionally he has water-cress, chick-
weed, and groundsel, besides water to drink and to wash in. He lives in his cage rent free, pays no
taxes, and I charge him nothing for attendance. This is a tolerably fair statement of what I do for
poor old Chuffy. But does Chuffy do nothing for me? Oh, yes, indeed he does. Why, the hopping
about his cage is worth something; his very chirp is cheerfulness, and his song is melody.
“Old Chuffy gives me a useful lesson, and sets me an example of cheerfulness and thankfulness
worth my closest imitation; for without hands, clothes, or books, pen, ink, or paper, he can be happy.
He has neither a purse, nor a pocket to put it in, if he had one ; nor has he, as I have, the gift of
speech, or the still greater gift of reason and understanding; and yet, give him the range of a few
flower-pots within doors, or hang him up in the sun without, and he will make the neighbourhood
ring again with his note.
“Sometimes I talk jocosely to Chuffy on this wise, fancifully putting such words into his mouth as
I suppose he would use had he the gift of speech, and was conversing with me.
“‘Chuſly,' I say to him, ‘you are not an eagle, winging your flight upwards towards the sun; but
a poor caged linnet, with a lame leg; so you must not give yourself airs.”
“Chuffy chirps his reply, which is to this effect: ‘I know that I am not an eagle ; but if that is a
fault, it is not mine; and if I am a poor caged linnet with a lame leg, I have more need of your pity
than your reproach.” -- -
“This reply is just what it ought to be; but Chuffy has not done with me yet, for he goes on thus
with his chirping: ‘If I am not a king among birds, neither are you a king among men. True, my leg
is lame, but yours is little better, for a sad hobble you make of it, either when walking without a stick
or with one. You can hardly, I think, blame me without reproaching yourself.”
“While I am noting down these remarks, old Chuffy is sitting at the opened door of his cage,
placed on the table before me, pulling away at a great bunch of grass, groundsel, and chickweed, so
close to him that he seems to be almost in the middle of it. Linnets are seen in the lanes and the
fields; but they like better to frequent the wild broken ground of the common, and get among the
furze-bushes; and if I thought that Chuffy could live there, and be happier than he is now, he should
be among them to-morrow. But he could never get his own living now ; a cat, a weasel, or a hawk,
would be sure to lay hold of him. .
“Should any reader churlishly say that what I have written is trifling, my reply is, that as
nothing call be altogether trifling and unworthy which makes me feel more kindly to my poor injured
and aged bird, and that may influence others to practise more humanity to theirs, it is my intention to
amuse myself, and even to continue my playful conversations with my feathered pet. I do not, how-
ever, really believe that any reader is opposed to me, either as it regards my principle or my practice.
Humanity is a precious jewel, which ought to be worn in every bosom; nor are the lower creatures too
insignificant to be treated with kindness. God careth for oxen; his tender mercies are over all his
works, and without his permission not a sparrow falleth to the ground.”
THE MOUNTAIN LINNET."
THIs bird, also called the Tivite and the Tivite Finch, and by the French, Gros-bec de Montagne, has a
longer tail than either the common or the red-pole linnets. It has also a reddish tawny throat, but
has no red colour on the breast. A tinge of red appears, however, on the rump of the male in summer,
and the general plumage of both sexes greatly resembles that of the other species of the genus.
The Mountain Linnet, as its name implies, prefers an interchange of moor and fell. It breeds in
* Frngilla montium: Gmel.
THE MOUNTAIN LINNET. 159
the northern parts of England, in Scotland, and in the western as well as the northern Scottish islands,
every season; but it is a winter visitor only to the southern parts of England, where it is generally
seen in small flocks, with other linnets.
Mr. Macgillivray states that this bird “is plentiful in the Hebrides, and in winter frequents the
corn-yards in large flocks, clinging to the stacks of oats, and picking out the seeds. Its flight is rapid
and undulated, and it whirls over the fields previous to alighting, uttering a soft twitter at intervals.
When disturbed, it betakes itself to small trees, or to a distant field; but is not shy, and may, therefore,
be easily approached when feeding. In spring it forsakes its winter haunts, and disperses over the hill y
tracks, where it forms its nest on the ground, among short heath, or on the grassy slopes of Craggy
spots. It is neatly constructed, being composed externally of fine dry grass, fragments of heath, and a
little moss; internally of fibrous roots, wool, and hair. The eggs are bluish white, marked towards the
larger end with light brown and purplish red, sometimes with a few blackish dots.”
THE LESSER RED POLE.”
THIs species is very generally diffused throughout Europe, but the northern parts seem to be its native
regions. It is not uncommon in the southern counties of England during the winter months; at this
season it is gregarious, and numbers are frequently taken about London and other parts by birdcatchers.
THE MEALY"1:ELPULE,
“It is a bird,” says Bechstein, “more pleasing to the eye than the ear; its warble being feeble and
weak, and consisting of a continued chinking note. It is impossible to see without pleasure the
affection which seems to exist between the male and female of this species, who fondle and caress each
other without ceasing. They will do the same even with the goldfinch, linnet, and canary, with any of
which it will readily pair.”
According to Mr. Selby, this bird returns, during the summer, to the underwood that covers the
bases of our mountains and hills, and that often fringes the banks of our precipitous streams, in which
sequestered situation it breeds. The nest is built in a bush or low tree, such as the willow, alder, or
hazel, of moss and the stalks of dry grass, intermixed with down from the catkin of the willow, which
also forms the lining, and renders it a particularly soft and warm receptacle for the eggs and young.
From this substance being a constant material of the nest, it follows that the young are produced late
in the season, and are seldom able to fly before the end of June or the beginning of July. The
eggs are four or five in number; the colour pale bluish-green, and spotted with orange-brown, prin-
cipally towards the larger end.
THE MEALY REDPOLE.}
MR. Gould says:– “Whether this species is truly a native of Europe, or whether those which occur
in our island are arrivals from the northern portions of the American continent, is a matter of doubt;
* Fringillalinaria: Linn. + Fringilla borealis,

160 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
true it is, that the specimens brought home by Dr. Richardson, which furnished the descriptions given
in the “Fauna Boreali-Americana, are strictly identical with the bird before us.”
THE CHAFFINCH."
This delightful songster of spring, famed for the sprightliness of its warbling—this favourite bird of
most of our bird-fanciers, is generally known. The passion for this bird is carried to such an extent in
Thuringia, and those which sing well are so much sought after, that scarcely a single chaffinch that
warbles tolerably can befound throughout the province. As soon as one arrives from the neighbouring
country, whose notes appear good, all the bird-catchers seek it, and do not give up the pursuit until
they have taken it. Linnaeus gave the name of coelebs, or bachelor, to the chaffinch, because he thought
that the females alone migrated from Sweden in winter,
leaving their husbands in a bachelor state behind them.
This bird is six inches and one-third in length, of
which the tail measures two and three-quarters. The
beak is conical, pointed, and white in winter; but as
soon as spring, the season of pairing and song, arrives,
and till the time of moulting, it is of a deep blue; and
one may know by this whether it has sung or not. The
iris is chesnut-brown; the legs, nine lines high, are
| dusky; the claws are very sharp, and grow so fast in a
cage, that it is necessary to cut them every six weeks,
if it is not wished to see the poor bird some day caught
by them, and perish miserably unless rescued. The
forehead is black, the top of the head and nape of the
neck are grayish-blue; in very old males deep blue, and
then thick downy hairs are perceived; the back and
rump are a linnet-green, the upper part chesnut with an
olive tint; the cheeks, throat, breast, and all the under
part of the body, in fact, are of a reddish chesnut-brown,
which becomes white towards the extremity; the thighs
gray; the quill-feathers black-edged, with white on the
outer side; the lesser wing-coverts white, the greater
black, with the tips white, which form two white lines on
- -> the top of the wings; the tail feathers black, with a
THE CHAFFINCHL gray tint on the two middle ones, and a large wedge-
shaped white spot on the two outer; the third is some-
times marked with a small spot; all are slightly green on the edges. After moulting, at the
beginning of winter, the colours become lighter; the front of the head only is deep brown; the top
and the nape of the neck a changeable grayish and olive-brown; the red-brown of the breast is
brighter: this is also the plumage of the young ones in the second year, particularly if of the last
brood; they are called gray-heads by bird-catchers, who can easily distinguish, in the spring, the young
from the old males, and very much prefer them, because, if properly caught, they may be taught to
improve their song when confined in the house ; whilst the others never learn, or change very little, at
least rarely, the song they have acquired in their wild state.
The female is very different, being smaller, while the head, neck, and upper part of the back are
grayish-brown, and all the under part of the body is a dusky white, rather reddish-gray on the breast;
and the beak, grayish-brown in spring, becomes grayish-white in winter.
There are some remarkable varieties of this species; one quite white; another with a white
collar; a third streaked, or spotted. There is no distinction between the wood chaffinches and those
of the gardens and orchards, as has been alleged. -
* Fringilla Cºlebs.

THE CHAFFINCH. 161
The nest of the chaffinch is one of the most beautiful of birds' nests, and formed in the most
skilful manner. It is the shape of a half-globe flattened on the upper part, and so perfectly rounded
that it has the appearance of having been turned in a lathe. Cobwebs and wool fasten it to the
branch, bits of moss with small twigs entwined form the ground-work; the lining is composed of
feathers, thistle-down, the hair of horses and other animals, whilst the outer covering is formed of the
different lichens that grow on the tree in which it is placed; the whole firmly united and well
cemented. This outer finish is no doubt intended to deceive an enemy's eye; in fact, it is very
difficult, even with great attention, to distinguish the nest from the bark of the branch on which it is
fixed.
Wild chaffinches, on their return in spring, do not delay to sing; those in the house soon learn,
but they are obliged to exercise themselves for nearly two months before they can execute their song
to perfection. The singing season does not generally extend beyond June, but young chaffinches
brought up in a room, prolong it to October, and sometimes later.
THE SISKIN.”
The Siskin is lesser than the goldfinch, and in appearance not so firm and compact. Its prominent
colours are black, bright yellow, sulphur-yellow, and a peculiar sort of green, approachingtosage-green,
ºw. º º % s -
W. |-
THE SISRIN-
but so peculiar as to give rise to the name of “siskin-green.” The bill, though hard and conical, is
not, by any means, so powerful as that of the goldfinch, and the bird is altogether of softer manners,
and more resembles the canary, except in colour and in being smaller.
The wooded parts of the Continent appear to be its principal haunts; but it is rather confined to
the middle latitudes than extended either to the extreme north or south; and when it visits England,
its haunts agree with such a locality, as it percheson shrubs and trees, and feeds on the seeds and buds
of these, rather than on the seeds of herbaceous plants. In its wild state it is very common in
Germany, where it remains all the year, but in winter it wanders about in search of food, and most
frequents the parts well planted with alders. In the house, whether in cage or not, it soon becomes
very familiar.
When wild, its food varies according to the season; in summer it eats in the woods the seeds of
the pine and fir; in autumn, of hops, thistles, burdock; in winter, of the alder and the buds of trees.
In the house its food is poppy-seed and a little hempseed bruised. It is a complete glutton, and,
though so small, eats more than the chaffinch; it is at the seed-drawer from morning till night,
* Fringilla spinus.
WOL. III. 117











162 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
constantly eating, and driving off all its companions. It does not drink less, and requires abundance of
fresh water, yet it bathes but little, only plunging the beak in the water, and thus scattering it over
its feathers, but it is very assiduous in arranging them ; it may be called a fop always engaged with
finery.
The siskin rarely builds its nest among the alders, but generally in the pine forests, placing it at
the extremity of the highest branches, and fixing it there with cobwebs, the threads of insects, and
lichens. The outer part is well constructed of small twigs, and the lining is formed of finely divided
roots. It has two broods in the year, each of five or six eggs, of a light gray, strongly spotted with
purplish brown, particularly at the large end. The young males become finer each year till the fourth.
Their plumage and song are both attractive, and it is recorded that the siskin is in some request
with London bird-dealers, who pair it with a canary, and so obtain a bird whose song is not too loud
for a room.
THE CANARY BIRD.º.
THIS pleasing bird had its origin in the pleasant climate and delightful valleys of the Canary Islands,
and is now spread throughout Europe, part of Asia, and as far as Siberia. The beauty of its form,
its plumage, and its song, united with its great docility, soon gained it admittance into the most
magnificent abodes, where every one delights in rearing and preserving it, whilst the fairest hands are
often eager to present it with the most delicate food.
It was brought into our climate as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century. The arrival
of the Canary in Europe is thus described :-A vessel which, besides its merchandise, was bringing a
number of these birds to Leghorn, was shipwrecked on the coast of Italy, opposite the island of Elba,
where these little birds, having been set at liberty, took refuge. The climate being favourable, they
increased, and would certainly have become naturalised, had not the wish to possess them occasioned
their being caught in such numbers, that at last they were extirpated from their new country. From
this cause Italy was the first European country where the canary was reared. At first their education
was difficult, as the proper manner of treating them was unknown ; and what tended to render them
scarce was, that only the male birds were brought over ; there were no females.
The original colour of the canary was gray, inclining to green on the under part of the body, and,
on the whole, not unlike that of the linnet. But this has undergone so complete a change from
domestication, difference of climate, and hybridising with birds allied in species, that we now have
canaries of almost every colour. The prevailing hues, however, are gray, yellow, white, blackish, and
reddish-brown; the mixture of which again rises to innumerable varieties. . In Italy the canary has bred
chiefly with the citril finch and the serin; in Northern Europe, with the linnet, greenfinch, and siskin.
“Were it not, indeed,” says Bechstein, “a well-established fact, that the canary is a native of the islands
of the same name, we might reasonably suppose that it descended from some one or more of the species
above mentioned. I have seen a mule, between a siskin and a serin, which exactly resembled a green
canary, and also the offspring of a female gray canary, in which no trace of their real parentage was
discernible.”
Those canaries, which are blackish-gray or grayish-brown, on the upper part of the body, like a
linnet, and at the lower part greenish-yellow, like a greenfinch, are the commonest and healthiest birds,
and have deviated less from the colour of the original stock. Their eyes are dark brown. Yellow
and white canaries have often red eyes, and are not so strong. The reddish-brown canaries, with
grayish-brown eyes, are the rarest, and, as to strength and longevity, occupy an intermediate position
between the two varieties.
But, as the plumage of the canary generally displays more than one of these colours, the bird is
valuable according to the regularity with which it is marked. Those, however, in which the body is
yellow or white, and the wings, tail, and head—particularly if crested—yellowish-dun, are now considered
the handsomest birds. Next to these are the golden-yellow canaries, with black, blue, or blackish-
gray head, wings, and tail; then, the blackish bird, with gray or yellow head and collar; next, the
yellow canaries, with black or greenish-yellow head, which, in this case, should have a crest. The
* Fringilla Canaria: Linnaeus.
THE CANARY BIRD 163
gray or almost black canaries, with the yellow breast, and white head and tail, are held in peculiar
estimation. Such birds as are irregularly mottled or spotted, as well as those which are uniform in
colour, are considered of but little value.
The female is hardly distinguishable from the male, except that the plumage of the latter is
generally brighter in colour. His head, also, is rather larger and longer; the body more slender; the
neck not so short; and the legs longer and straighter. Another special characteristic is, that the
yellow of the temples, and round the eyes, is always brighter than in any other part of the body.
Those which introduce into their melody some passages of the nightingale's song are the most
esteemed of all canaries; they are called Tyrolean canaries, because they are considered natives of the
Tyrol, where they breed many of these birds. The second are the English canaries, which imitate the
song of the woodlark. But in Thuringia, the preference is generally given to those which, instead of
a succession of noisy bursts, know how, with a silvery sonorous voice, to descend regularly through all
the tones of the octave, introducing from time to time the sound of a trumpet. There are some
males which, especially in the pairing season, sing with so much strength and ardour, that they burst
the delicate vessels of the lungs, and die suddenly.
Bechstein thus points out the best rules for obtaining and preserving good singers:—“The most
essential is to choose from among the young that which promises a fine tone, and to seclude it from all
other birds, that it may learn and remember nothing bad. The same precaution is necessary during
the first and second moulting; for, being likely to re-learn (if I may say so) its song, it would introduce
into it, with equal ease, foreign parts. It must be observed whether the bird likes to sing alone, or
in company with others; for there are some which appear to have such whims, liking to hear only
themselves, and which pout for whole years if they are not humoured on this point. Others sing
faintly and display their powers only when they can try their strength against a rival. It is very
important to distribute regularly to singing birds the simple allowance of fresh food which is intended
for the day. By this means they will sing every day equally, because they will eat uniformly, and not
pick the best one day, and be obliged to put up with the refuse the next.
“About two spoonfuls of dry food is sufficient for the daily nourishment of a canary; what he
leaves may be thrown to the birds which are free in the room, and will serve as a variety to those
which have only the universal paste to satisfy their appetite.”
About twenty years ago, the writer went to what was then the Cosmorama, in Regent Street, for
the purpose of seeing and hearing the first talking canary of which any mention is made. It was an
exceedingly fine bird, of beautiful plumage, and the history of its singular power was given by the
exhibitor. The canary had been, as usual, in the family room, when it was suddenly heard to
speak, and to repeat what it had uttered, and it was not long before its vocabulary was considerably
increased ; the words being distinctly articulated in the midst of its song. There appeared to have
been no teaching of the bird; its power of imitation was spontaneously exercised. At the time the
writer heard it, it distinctly uttered the words, Mary, dicky dear, O pretty dicky dear, and pretty
queen. Five hundred guineas were said to have been offered for the canary, but in a few weeks it
was dead.
Mr. Leigh Sotheby has recently described another talking canary. Its parents had previously
and successfully reared many young ones; but, about five years ago, they hatched only one out of four
eggs, the which they immediately neglected, by commencing the rebuilding of a nest upon the top of it.
Upon this discovery, the unfledged and forsaken bird, all but dead, was taken away, and placed in
flannel by the fire, when, after much attention, it was restored, and then brought up by hand. Thus
treated, and away from all other birds, it became familiarised only with those who fed it ; and, conse-
quently, its first singing notes were of a character totally different to those usual with the canary.
Constantly being talked to, the bird, when about three months old, astonished its mistress by
repeating the endearing terms used in talking to it, such as “Kissie, kissie,” with its significant sounds.
This went on, and from time to time the little bird repeated other words; and now, it is said, for hours
together, except during the moulting season, it astonishes by ringing the changes, according to its own
fancy, and as plain as any human voice can articulate them, on the several words—“Dear, sweet
Titchie” (its name), “Kiss Minnie,” “ Kiss me, then, dear Minnie,” “Sweet, pretty little Titchie,” “Kissie,
kissie, kissie,” “Dear Titchie,” “Titchie wee, gee, gee, gee,” “Titchie, Titchie.”
164 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The usual singing notes of the bird are more of the character of the nightingale, mingled occasion-
ally with the sound of the dog-whistle used about the house. It whistles, also, very clearly, the first
bar of “God save the Queen.” It is hardly necessary to add that the bird is by nature remarkably
tame.
THE GREENFINCH."
THIs bird, called also the Green Linnet and the Green Grosbeak, has a thicker and more convex bill
than that of the sparrow, and much less conical than that of the finches. But in the texture of its
plumage, the place and structure of the nest, its mode of perching, its air, as well as in other respects,
it much more nearly resembles the finches than the sparrows.
The upper part of this bird is olive-green, rather warm and bright in the tint, passing into a
yellowish hue, and relieved by gray on the margins of some of the feathers; the top of the head of a
rather browner green than the back; the breast is grayish-yellow ; the lower parts and under tail-
coverts the same. The female has the green and yellow less bright, and is altogether of a browner
tint than the male.
Wordsworth has thus skilfully pictured this one of the feathered tribes:—
“Beneath these fruit-tree boughs, that shed A life, a presence like the air,
Their snow-white blossoms on my head, Scattering thy blessings without care,
With brightest sunshine round me spread Too bless'd with any one to pair,
Of Spring's unclouded weather; Thyself thy own enjoyment.
In this sequestered nook how sweet 66
To sit upon my orchard seat Upon yon tuft of hazel trees,
And birds and flowers once more to greet, That twinkle to the gusty breeze,
My last year's friends together. Behold him perched in ecstasies,
Yet seeming still to hover;
* One have I marked, the happiest guest There where the flutter of his wings
In all this covert of the bless'd; Upon his back and body flings
Hail to thee, far above the rest Shadows and sunny glimmerings,
In joy of love and pinion, That cover him all over.
Thou, Linnet, in thy green arra e
Presiding spirit º: * day, y My sight he dazzles, half deceives,
Dost lead the revels of the May, A bird so like the dancing leaves,
And this is thy dominion. Then flits, aud from the cottage eaves
Pours forth his song in gushes;
* While birds and butterflies and flowers As if by that exulting strain,
Make all one band of paramours, He mocked and treated with disdain
Thou, ranging up and down the bowers, The voiceless form he chose to feign
Art sole in thy employment; While fluttering in the bushes.”
A lady thus wrote to our late eminent ornithologist, Mr. Yarrell:—“You ask for an account
of my bird. It was a greenfinch: our acquaintance commienced whilst walking close to House.
A young bird flew on my shoulder; I drove it away, and it returned a second and a third time. It
having shown such a determined wish for my protection, induced me to take it into the house and
feed it, intending to let it fly as soon as it was able to provide for itself; but it became in a few days
very familiar, perching on our hands, heads, &c., and restless unless sitting on my finger, where it
would remain for hours, pecking and playing with my cuff, if permitted.
“It had perfect liberty to go out of doors, and occasionally flew out of the window and returned;
sometimes sitting on my finger when I walked in the garden. On one occasion it remained out all
night, returning at break of day to my room, the window of which was open to receive it; and, after
waiting to be noticed on my awaking, took another flight of some hours. It was his delight, whilst I
was dressing, to play with my hair, and he has often fallen into the hand-basin whilst I was washing.
I regularly went into my sister's room after breakfast with the bird, and it would often fly before me
to her room, as if conscious where it was to go. It was impatient in a cage, and troublesome out, as
it was impossible to work or read in quiet. A needle or ring was a very favourite plaything; as soon
as it obtained either of them, it would fly round and round the room in triumph. It attached itself,
I think, more particularly to me, although my sister was equally fond of it. It was perfectly
tractable, and would go anywhere, even into its prison-house, if taken on the finger.
* Loxia chloris.
THE GREENFINCH. 165
“It took a dislike to mamma, I believe, because she often caught it and put it in the cage, while
it would go in voluntarily for me at any time. On my return from France, it seemed to have
forgotten its old mistress; and on my opening the cage, instead of flying instantly on my finger, it sat
still for a long time, and when urged out, flew immediately out of the window to a tree, and all our
calling, contrary to former custom, was disregarded. It was Sunday, and the tree stood close to the
church. I fear some boys hunted it, and as the cat came from under the same tree in the evening, I
fear she surprised our interesting favourite. I have but one thing more to add: it was most
destructive to plants in the room, not pulling off the leaves, but applying its bill to the stems, and
THE GREENFINCH.
dividing a heliotrope or geranium stem in an instant. I had it about five months, and took no pains
to tame it. I am not fond of birds—compassion was the origin of our acquaintance, and attachment
and confidence on the part of the bird won my favour.”
THE BULLFINCH."
THE Bullfinch is found in most parts of Europe, frequenting woods and gardens; it builds its nest
either in the fork of a tree, not very high, or in a bush, generally the white-thorn. About the end of
April, or in May, these birds begin the affair of midification. The nest is composed of small branches
interlaced on the outside, and the fibres of roots within. The female lays from four to six bluish-
white eggs, with red or brownish spots, particularly towards the greater end. Besides the buds of trees,
on which these birds feed, they take also in summer grain and berries, and, it has been said, sometimes
insects. Some of them migrate, but others remain during the winter, and then approach nearer to
human habitations. They live five or six years.
This species, which possesses many pleasing qualities when caged, is very destructive in a state
of nature, by feeding on the buds of fruit-trees, especially pears, apples, and plums. They appear
to associate in families of the parents and their young of the same season, an association not determined
by the approach of winter, but which continues until the ensuing spring, when the young pair and
breed. A woody country, in the vicinity of hills, is their favourite resort. They are usually seen on
the upper branches of trees; but should a hawk or anything else alarm them, they descend rapidly into
* Loxia pyrrhula.












166 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
the middle of the thickest bush at hand, and remain there without uttering the slightest noise. In
spring, on the contrary, when the family disperses, and the young males select their mates, they are
no longer to be found on the tops of trees, but concealed in the thickest bushes, where they would escape
all observation, but for the continued call they make use of to one another. The lateness in the Season,
compared with other birds, of the breeding time of the bullfinch is remarkable; but even this circum-
stance, trifling and unimportant as it may seem, of their economy is not without a substantial cause.
The young are fed, in all probability, on grain, to the exclusion of insects and chrysalises, the usual food
of other young birds of this order; and if they were hatched early in the season, it is obvious that grain
would neither be so plentiful nor so fit as at a later period.
The bullfinch is a very docile bird, and though the natural song of both sexes is harsh and dis-
agreeable—resembling the creaking of a door or wheelbarrow—they may be trained, as in England,
Germany, and Holland, to whistle many airs and songs
in a soft, pure, flute-like tone, which is highly prized
by amateurs. The bird is generally capable of re-
taining in its memory three different tunes. Bull-
finches are best instructed by a flute, or the whistling
of a teacher. They sing at command, make many very
elegant gestures, moving now the body and now the
tail to the right and left, and spreading out the latter
like a fan. To obtain the perfection of whistling, a
bird should only be taught one air, together with the
usual short flourish or prelude.
A great number of piping bullfinches are an-
nually sent to this country, after going through the
usual course of instruction. No school can be more
diligently attended by its master, and no scholars more
effectually trained to their own calling, than a seminary
of bullfinches. As a general rule, they are formed
into classes of about six in each, and kept in a dark
room, when food and music are administered at the
same time; so that when the meal is ended, if the
birds feel disposed to tune up, they are naturally in-
clined to copy the sounds which are so familiar to
them. As soon as they begin to imitate a few notes,
the light is admitted into the room, which still further
THE BULLFINCH. exhilarates their spirits and inclines them to sing.
In some establishments the starving system is adopted, and the birds are not allowed food or light
until they sing.
When they have been under this course of instruction for some time, they are committed singly to
the care of boys, whose sole business is to go on with their education. Each boy assiduously plays his
organ from morning till night, for the instruction of the bird committed to his care, while the class-
teacher goes his regular rounds, superintending the progress of his feathered pupils, and scolding or
rewarding them in a manner which they perfectly understand, and strictly in accordance with the
attention or disregard they have shown to the instructions of the monitor.
This round of teaching goes on unintermittingly for no less a period than nine months, by which
time the bird has acquired firmness, and is less likely to forget or spoil the air by leaving out passages,
or giving them in the wrong place. At the time of moulting, the best instructed birds are liable to
lose the recollection of their tunes, and therefore require to have them frequently repeated at that time,
otherwise all the previous labour will be thrown away. There are celebrated schools for these birds at
Hesse and Fulda, from whence all England, Germany, and Holland receive supplies of the little musicians.
The bullfinch may also be brought to articulate words, and the female is equally capable of their
acquirement with the male. They show also more attachment than other small birds in general, and
can distinguish strangers from those who have the care of them, or are their teachers.

THE BULLFINCH. 167
Mr. Kidd, who has written so much that is deeply interesting about birds, after an acquaintance
with them and an attachment to them which are extremely rare, pleasantly says:–"Now let me say
a kind word for the bullfinch. Talking of attachments, what can equal the attachment of one of these
sweet little creatures to his master or mistress? One that lived with me a number of years always
had its liberty during spring and summer. It would follow me all about the house; and in the morn-
ing, perched on my pillow, it would guard me with the fondest affection—flying at, fighting, and
scolding any one who ventured into my apartment.
“My little champion was a bachelor. Wishing to please him, I procured him a mate; but
thinking me, perhaps, over-officious, he declined making himself agreeable, and the match never came
off. I confess his principles were very orthodox, and very proper. It is not right, as a general rule,
to interfere in matters of this kind; and when we lay any such “plans, we can hardly wonder if they
fail of their intended aim. This by the way. Certain it is that he preferred a life of celibacy, and
was happiest by himself. Yet was the partner I had assigned to him a charming little creature, and
very tame. Her temper, too, was excellent, and her disposition most amiable. In no way offended at
the slight put upon her, she listened to the bachelor's song, and learned it perfectly. The only
difference was, that she sung his note in a softer tone. I ought to have given him “a choice.”
THE PINE GROSBEAK.”
This bird, sometimes called the Pine Bullfinch, is more abundant in the northern parts of Europe and
America than elsewhere.
THE L*1-E Glºus BEA-
According to Audubon, its flight is undulating and smooth, performed in a direct line when it is
migrating, at a considerable height above the forests, and in groups of from five to ten individuals. They
alight frequently during the day, on such trees as are opening their buds or blossoms. At such times
they are extremely gentle, and easily approached. They are exceedingly fond of bathing, and whether
on the ground or on branches, move by short leaps. “I have been surprised,” says Audubon, “to ses,
on my having fired, those that were untouched fly directly towards me until within a few feet, and then
slide off, and alight on the lower branches of the nearest tree, where, standing as erect as little hawks,
they gazed upon me as if I were an object quite new, and of whose nature they were ignorant. They
are easily caught under snow-shoes put up with a figure of four, around the wood-cutters' camps, in
the state of Maine, and are said to afford good eating. Their food consists of the buds and seeds of
almost all sorts of trees; occasionally also, they seize a passing insect. I once knew one of these sweet
songsters, which, in the evening, as soon as the lamp was lighted in the room where its cage was hung,
would instantly tune its voice anew.”
* Pyrrhula enucleator.




168 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The nest of this species is built of small sticks, lined with feathers, and usually placed on a branch
of a tree, a few feet only above the ground. It lays four or five eggs, of a pale green, with a few spots
and streaks of purplish brown.
Another genus, a sub-family of Fringillidae,” the Weavers—Tisserines of the French—is thus
described by Mr. Swainson –Size small; bill conic; but with the culmen slightly bent and the tip
entire; under mandible less thick than the upper; claws large, very long; wings pointed, but the first
quill remarkably short and spurious. It inhabits the Old World only.
THE BROAD-SHAFTED WHIDAH FINCH.4
THE bill of the Weavers is robust, advancing on the forehead in the form of an acute angle; it is
convex above, a little compressed on the sides, entire, nearly straight, sharp, and sometimes a little
THE Blºo AL-SHAFTED WHIDAH FINCH.
gibbous. The lower mandible has its edges bent inwards; the tongue is cartilaginous and fringed at
the point; the nostrils are oblong and covered with a membrane.
Most of these birds are found in India or Africa. Their generic name is derived from the wonderful
art with which they construct their nests, interlacing them with blades of grass; in which talent they
resemble some other birds, the inhabitants of far-distant lands.
Of one of these we have given an engraving, the Dicaean Swallow, which is found in nearly
every part of Australia in which colonies have been established. This bird selects the place of its nest
in close proximity to a river or stream, in shrubs or bushes, as loranthus or acacia, and forms it like a
purse, of the leaves of different sorts of plants.
Another bird of that country is the Malurus cyaneus, which chiefly inhabits sterilé places, on the
borders of rivers and torrents. The nest, constructed of similar materials, is in the form of a sphere,
with an opening at the side, and is interlaced with feathers and hairs. There are usually four eggs of
a delicate whiteness. These birds have, like many others, a summer and a winter attire, and become
in the rigorous season very familiar.
Of Cuvier's genus vidua, the Whidah-bird is one of the most elegant species. In organisation and in
manners they are true linnets. In captivity, which they endure without much appearance of constraint,
they are lively and active, jumping from perch to perch, and alternately raising and depressing their
long tails with much vivacity. They are usually fed upon grain, with the occasional addition of green
herbs; and are fond of bathing in the water which is placed in their cage. Twice a year they are
* Ploceimae, + Vidua paradisea.

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170 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
subject to changes of plumage, which alter the appearance—of the male especially—to such an extent,
that it would be difficult to recognise in him the same bird. The long feathers, which are his peculiar
attribute, fall off towards the end of autumn, and, with the other changes that take place in his
plumage, leave him little to distinguish him, during the winter months, from his plainer mate. But in
spring he recovers his long feathers, his more brilliant hues, and his sharp, but agreeable and varied
note; the change being usually completed by the beginning of June. It is said that they live for
twelve or fifteen years. -
Of all the genera composing the family of weavers, the Broad-shafted Whidah Finch is the most
striking. It is composed of very small birds, mostly not larger than canaries. The males, during the
breeding season, are decorated with exceedingly long tail-feathers, often four times the length of the
bird itself, and which, however ornamental, must rather impede the action of flight. Little or nothing
is known of the habits and manners of the whidah finches in a state of nature, but they have always
been among the most favourite cage-birds; and although not very frequent in the aviaries and horses
of this country, they are common in those of France and other parts of the Continent.
Numbers of these, and the other pretty finches of the same country, are imported into France by
the Senegal traders, and sold to the marchands des oiseaua of Paris. A resident in that city states
that he was not a little surprised to find between a hundred and fifty and two hundred of these
inhabitants of the torrid zone flying and sporting about in a small, dark, dirty room, transformed into
a sort of aviary in one of the meanest houses on the Quai Voltaire, two rooms only of which were
tenanted by a marchand des oiseaua–his birds living in one, and himself and his family living in the
other. He adds:—“We have been assured that these ingenious people, who are really practical
ornithologists, contrive to breed several of these African natives in these dingy quarters.”
THE PIHILIPPINE GROSBEAK. #
THE Philippine Grosbeak is one of the best known of the genus; its general colour is dull-yellow,
blotched with brown ; the throat is black. It is said to be very common in Dukhun; and there are
four wells, overhung by a tree, where their nests are now seen pendent. The nest is woven in the
shape of an inverted flask—the entrance being at the extremity of a prolonged neck, through which
is a passage to a snug little chamber in the round body of the nest itself. These birds live in small
communities, and are very noisy in their labours. They associate so readily with the common sparrow
that, at the season of the grass seeds, Colonel Sykes, in firing into a flock of sparrows on the grass-
plots in his own ground, killed as many weaver-birds as sparrows.
The peculiar position of the nest of the weaver-bird protects them, to a great extent, from their
enemies, the monkeys, but more especially from the deadly attacks of the snake tribes, which abound
in these regions. Dr. Smith, in his “Zoology of South Africa,” expresses his decided opinion, that the
fear of injury from small quadrupeds and snakes operates upon the birds of that country in their
selection of the trees on which they shall build. The influence which smakes produce upon these birds,
when they come in contact with them, is very singular. The boom-slange, which, however, is not
considered poisonous, is one of its most common foes; and it is generally found upon trees, to which it
resorts for the purpose of catching birds, upon which it delights to feed. The presence of a specimen
in a tree is generally soon discovered by the birds of the neighbourhood, who collect around it, and
fly to and fro, uttering the most fearful sounds, until some one, more terror-stricken than the rest,
actually skims along so as to touch its lips, and, as a fly will destroy itself in the flame of a candle,
becomes, almost without resistance, a prey to its enemy. During these proceedings, the snake may
usually be observed with its head raised about ten or twelve inches above the branch round which its
body and tail are entwined, with its mouth open, and its neck inflated, as if anxiously endeavouring to
increase the terror which it would almost appear it was aware would, sooner or later, bring within its
grasp one of the feathered group.
THE BOTTLE-NESTED SPARROW.
FoRBEs describes another interesting species, under the name of Baya, or Bottle-nested Sparrow,
“which,” he says, “is remarkable for its pendent nest, brilliant plumage, and uncommon sagacity.
* Ploceus Philippensis: Cuvier.
THE BOTTLE-NESTED SPARROW. 171-
These birds are found in most parts of Hindostan; in shape they resemble the sparrow, as also in the
brown feathers of the back and wings; the head and breast are of a bright yellow, and, in the rays of
a tropical sun, have a splendid appearance when flying by thousands in the same grove. They make
a chirping noise, but have no song ; they associate in large communities, and cover extensive clumps
of palmyras, acacias, and date trees with their nests. The nest is formed in a very ingenious manner,
by long grass woven together in the shape of a bottle, and suspended by the other end to the extremity
of a flexible branch, the more effectually to secure the eggs and young brood from serpents, monkeys,
squirrels, and birds of prey. These nests contain several apartments appropriated to different purposes;
in one the hen performs the office of incubation; another, consisting of a little thatched roof, and
covering a perch, without a bottom, is occupied by the male, who, with his chirping note, cheers the
female during her maternal duties.
THE SOCIABLE GROSBEAK.4
THE Sociable Grosbeak, of Southern Africa, excels any of its feathered race in the extent, if not
in the beauty, of its habitation. Usually selecting a large and lofty tree, often of the mimosa or
sensitive plant species, these birds find under its ample top and strong wide-spreading branches a good
shelter and support for their erection. Having chosen the site, the framework is constructed by the com-
bined efforts of the fraternity at large, who will derive from it a common advantage. The nest is firmly
interwoven with the branches of the tree on which it rests, and often a large part of a principal branch
is included within its substance. This part of the work being completed, each pair proceeds to the
construction of its own nest, which, like the roof, consists of grass.
The best description we have of these birds is that by LeVaillant, in his “Travels in Africa.” His
narrative is as follows:—“I observed, on the way, a tree with an enormous nest of these birds, to
which I have given the appellation of republicans; and, as soon as I arrived at my camp, I dispatched
a few men with a wagon to bring it to me, that I might open the hive and examine its structure in its
minutest parts. When it arrived, I cut it to pieces with a hatchet, and saw that the chief portion of
the structure consisted of a mass of Bushman's grass, without any mixture, but so compact and firmly
basketed together as to be impenetrable to the rain. This is the commencement of the structure; and
each bird builds its particular nest under this canopy, the upper surface remaining void ; without,
however, being useless; for as it has a projecting rim and is a little inclined, it serves to let the rain
water run off, and preserve each little dwelling from the rain. Figure to yourself a huge, irregular,
sloping roof, all the eaves of which are completely covered with nests crowded one against another, and
you will have a tolerably accurate idea of these singular edifices. Each individual nest is three or four
inches in diameter, which is sufficient for the bird. But as they are all in contact with one another
around the eaves, they appear to the eye to form but one building, and are distinguishable from each
other only by a little external aperture which serves as an entrance to the nest ; and even this is some-
times common to three different nests, one of which is situated at the bottom and the other two at the
sides.” According to Patterson, the number of cells increasing in proportion to the increase of inha-
bitants, the old ones become streets of communication formed by line and level. No doubt, as the
republic increases, the cells must be multiplied also ; but it is easy to imagine that, as the augmentation
can take place only at the surface, the new buildings will necessarily cover the old ones, which must
therefore be abandoned. Should these even, contrary to all probability, be able to subsist, it may be
presumed that the depths of their situation, by preventing any circulation and renewal of the air,
would render them so extremely hot as to be uninhabitable. But while they would thus become useless,
they would remain what they were before—real nests—and change neither into streets nor sleeping
TOOIOS,
“The largest nest that I examined,” says Patterson, “was one of the most considerable I had any-
where seen in the course of my journey, and contained 320 inhabited cells, which, supposing a male
and a female to each, would form a society of 640 individuals. Such a calculation, however, would not
be exact.” It appears that in every flock the females are more numerous by far than the males; many
cells, therefore, would contain only a single bird. Still, the aggregate would be considerable; and,
* Ploceus socius. Loxia Socia of Latham.
172 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
when undisturbed, they might go on to increase, the structure increasing in a like ratio, till a storm,
sweeping through the wood, laid the tree and the overwhelming edifice it sustained in one common
I'll 111.
The industry of these birds seems almost to equal that of the bee. Throughout the day they
appear busily employed in carrying a fine species of grass, which is the principal material they employ
for the purpose of erecting their extraordinary work, as well as for additions and repairs.
“Though,” adds Patterson, “my short stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me by
ocular proof that they added to their nests as they annually increased in their numbers, still, from the
THE SOCIABLE GROSBEAK.
many trees which I have seen borne down by the weight, and others that I have seen with their boughs
completely covered over, it would appear that this is really the case. When the tree that is the
support of this aérial city is obliged to give way to the increase of weight, it is obvious that they are
no longer protected, and are under the necessity of building in other trees. One of these deserted
nests I had the curiosity to break down, to inform myself of the internal structure of it, and found it
equally ingenious with that of the external. There are many entrances, each of which forms a regular
street, with nests on both sides, at about two inches' distance from each other. The grass with which
they build is called the Boshman's grass, and I believe the seed of it to be their principal food; though,
on examining the nests, I found the legs and wings of different insects. From every appearance, the
nest which I dissected had been inhabited for many years, and some parts were much more complete
than others. This, therefore, I conceive to amount nearly to a proof that the birds added to it at
different times, as they found it necessary, from the increase of their family, or, rather, of the nation
and community.”

THE LOXIA BENGALENSIS.*
THIs species inhabits India. The bird constructs its
nest of vegetable fibres, which it interlaces in such
a manner as to form a sort of purse, of which the en-
graving gives an exact representation. It suspends
its nest on the higher branches of trees overhanging
THE BEN GAL. Loxia.
rivers; and the entrance is observable at the lower end.
The first year the nest is a simple purse; but in the
following one, the bird attaches to this a second, and
proceeds annually with a similar addition to the
curious fabric.
THE ABYSSINIAN GROSBEAK.
THIs bird has been represented as a variety of the Philippine
Grosbeak, but it more probably constitutes a distinct species.
It is a native, as its name denotes, of Abyssinia, and gives to its
nest a different form from that of the bird just mentioned, and
displays rather more industry in its precautions for sheltering
its offspring from the humidity of the weather and the voracity
of its enemies. It rolls its nest in a spiral form, not unlike the
shell of the nautilus, suspends it to the extremity of some little
branch over a placid stream, and fixes the entrance in the
lower part; but the aperture is always on the eastern side, in
opposition to the direction of the rain.
* Coccothraustes chrysocephala: Vieillot.
west of the Loxia Bengalexsis.
|


174 CASSELL’S POPULAR NASTURAL HISTORY.
THE CAP-MORE,%
TIIIs weaver-bird is a native of Senegal, and also of the kingdoms of Congo and Cacoucongo. Like
most of the birds inhabiting these burning regions of Africa, its livery varies according to the season.
In spring, for instance, its head is covered with a sort of capouche, of a reddish-brown, which, in the
after season, changes to a yellow ; its song is peculiar and very lively. Some of these birds, when seen
in France, evinced a disposition to nestle, though unexcited by the presence of the female; they,
constructed nests with blades of grass or reeds, interlaced in the wires of their cage. It is probable
that, with care, and the production of a proper degree of warmth, they might be made to multiply
even in these climates.
THE PENSILE GROSBEAK.4
THE nest of this bird is said to be inferior to some of the fabrics already described, yet it is unques-
tionably a very curious structure. The bird composes it of straw and reeds, interlaced with much
dexterity, and suspends it to a flexible branch, on the edge of a rivulet; it forms a pouch in the upper
part, in which the eggs are deposited, and fits to this an elongated tunnel, leading downwards, at the
end of which the entrance is situated. When the second brood takes place, the bird attaches a new
nest to the former, and so on successively; five or six hundred of these nests may be sometimes seen
thus suspended to a single tree. The female lays only three eggs.
If, however, Africa and India have these birds so remarkable as weavers, there are some in
America well entitled to notice.
THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.t
“THIS bird,” says Audubon, “arrives from the south, perhaps from a more distant region, and enters
Louisiana as soon as spring commences there. It approaches the planter's house, and searches among
the surrounding trees for a suitable place in which to settle for the season. It prefers, I believe, the
trees that grow on the sides of a gentle declivity. The choice of a twig being made, the male oriole
becomes extremely conspicuous. He flies to the ground, searches for the longest and driest filaments of
moss, which in that state is known by the name of Spanish beard, and whenever he finds one fit for his
purpose, ascends to the favourite spot where the nest is to be, uttering all the while a continued chirrup,
which seems to imply that he knows no fear, but, on the contrary, fancies himself the acknowledged
king of the woods. No sooner does he reach the branches, than with bill and claws, aided by an
astonishing sagacity, he fastens one end of the moss to a twig with as much art as a tailor might do,
and takes up the other end, which he secures also, but to another twig a few inches off, leaving the
thread floating in the air, like a swing, the curve of which is, perhaps, seven or eight inches from the
twigs. The female comes to his assistance with another filament of moss, or perhaps some cotton thread,
or other fibrous substance, inspects the work which her mate has done, and immediately commences
her operations, placing each thread in a contrary direction to those arranged by her lordly mate, and
making the whole cross and re-cross, so as to form an irregular network. The nest has now been
woven from the bottom to the top, and so secured that no tempest can carry it off without breaking
the branch to which it is suspended. Remark what follows. This nest contains no warming substance,
such as wool, cotton, or cloth, but is almost entirely composed of the Spanish moss, interwoven in such
a manner that the air can easily pass through it. The parents are, no doubt, aware of the intense
heat which will exist ere long in this part of the world, and moreover take especial care to place their
nest on the north-east side of the trees. On the contrary, had they gone as far as Pennsylvania or New
York, they would have formed it of the warmest and softest materials, and have placed it in a positior.
which would have left it exposed to the sun's rays; the changes of the weather during the early period
of incubation being so great there, that the bird looks on these precautions as necessary to insure the
life of its brood against intense cold, should it come; while it knows that the heat in these northern
latitudes will not be so great as to incommode them.”
* Ploceus textor. + Ploceus pensilis. : Wilson.
THE BALTIMORE ORIoLE. 175
In confirmation of this statement, Wilson, speaking of this bird, which he says arrives in Pennsyl-
vania in May, observes of a nest before him : “The materials are flax, hemp, tan, hair, and wool,
woven into a complete cloth; the whole tightly sewed through and through with long horse-hairs,
several of which measure two feet in length. The bottom is composed of thick tufts of cow-hair,
sewed also with strong horse-hair. So solicitous is the baltimore to procure proper materials for his nest,
that in the season of building, the women in the country are under the necessity of watching their
thread that may chance to be out bleaching, and the farmer to secure his young grafts; as the balti-
more finding the former, and the strings which tie the latter, so well adapted for his purpose, frequently
carries off both ; or should the one be too heavy, and the other too firmly tied, he will tug at them a
considerable time before he gives up the attempt. Skeins of silk and hanks of thread have often been
found, after the leaves were fallen, hanging round the baltimore's nest, but so woven up and entangled
as to be entirely irreclaimable.” -
THE ORCHARD ORIOLE.3%
THE Orchard Oriole is another of this genus, which visits the United States in spring, and fixes his pendent
nest to the extremity of the twigs of spreading trees. Wilson says, “These birds are so particularly
fond of frequenting orchards, that scarcely one orchard in summer is without them. They usually
suspend their nest from the twigs of the apple-tree, and often from the extremities of the outward
branches. It is formed exteriorly of a particular species of long, tough, and flexible grass, knit or
sewed through and through in a thousand directions, as if actually done with a needle. An old lady
of my acquaintance, to whom I was one day showing this curious fabrication, asked me, in a tone
between joke and earnest, whether I did not think it possible to teach these birds to darn stockings?
The nest is hemispherical, three inches deep by four in breadth; the concavity scarcely two inches deep
by two in diameter. I had the curiosity to detach one of the fibres or stalks of dried grass from the
nest, and found it to measure thirteen inches in length, and in that distance it was thirty-four times
hooked through and returned, winding round and round the nest The inside is usually composed of
the light downy appendages attached to the seeds of the platanus accidentalis, or button wood, which
form a very soft and commodious bed. Here and there the outward work is extended to an adjoining
twig, round which it is strongly twisted, to give more stability to the whole, and prevent it from being
overset by the wind. When they choose the long pendent branches of the weeping willow to build
in, as they frequently do, the nest, though formed of the same materials, is made much deeper, and of
lighter texture. The circumference is marked out by a number of these pensile twigs that descend on
each other, like ribs, supporting the whole; their thick foliage, at the same time. completely concealing
the nest from view. These long pendent branches, being sometimes twelve and even fifteen feet in
length, have a large sweep in the wind, and render the first of these precautions necessary to prevent
the eggs or young from being thrown out; and the close shelter afforded by the remarkable thickness
of the foliage is, no doubt, the cause of the latter.” The orchard oriole is a lively, active, restless bird,
never idle, never inanimate, but perpetually on the alert, his shrill and rapid carol being maintained
with little intermission. He keeps up a system of destruction among the insect tribes and caterpillars
which infest the leaves and buds of fruit-trees, thereby rendering man no little service, for hundreds of
these pests to the farmer are not sufficient for the daily consumption of himself, his mate, and their
young. The multitudes thus destroyed by a single pair of birds must be prodigious.
THE MALIMBIC TANAGER.?
THIS bird is so called by Latham, because it inhabits Malimba, a country on the eastern coast of
Africa, in the kingdom of Congo, where it was first observed by Perrein. These birds usually
sojourn on trees bearing figs, which exactly resemble those of Europe, and place their nests on such
of the branches as form a triangle. The nest is of a round form, with the aperture worked on the
side; the exterior is composed of fine plants, arranged ingeniously, and the interior is furnished with
cotton. The eggs are from three to five, of a grayish colour, and the male and female partake of the
* Icterus mutatus: Wilson. + Ploceus Cristatus.
176 CASSELL’S POPULAR, NATURAL HISTORY.
incubation. It is in the months of October and November that these birds are found in Malimba; they
remain on the fig-trees only while they are laden with fruit; and when that disappears, the birds are
gone, and do not return until the following year.
THE BLACK.-COLLARED FINCH.
THIs bird exhibits wonderful industry in the making of its nest, and great foresight in protecting its
young from rain, and from the attacks of little animals. The form of its abode is pyramidal. It is
always suspended above the water, and at the extremity of a little branch. The aperture is on one of
the faces of the pyramid, and usually turned towards the east. The cavity of this pyramid is separated
into two parts by a partition, thus forming, as it were, two chambers. The first, in which is the
entrance to the nest, is a sort of vestibule, where the bird first introduces itself; then he climbs up the
intermediate partition, and descends to the bottom of the second chamber; where the eggs are deposited.
This species is a native of Senegal and Abyssinia.
Another tribe of birds,” belonging to the same family,t is characterised by Cuvier as having a
conical bill, triangular at its base, slightly arched at its arête, and notched towards the end. the wings
and flight are short. .
The Tanagers live on berries, insects, and small grains; they seek their food in thickets, among
brushwood, on plants and trees, many of them hopping about on all the branches, in search of insects.
Most of them are remarkable for the richness and brilliancy of their colours; accordingly M. d’Azara
gives them a Spanish name expressive of this attribute, Lindo, which, both in Italian and Spanish,
means spruce, neat, elegant.
As we find it to be frequently the case in the feathered kingdom, this extermal beauty is not
accompanied by any corresponding melody or power of voice: very few indeed of the tanagers possess
agreeable notes. Their movements are rapid and abrupt, their flight lively, and their natural dis-
position active. They rarely descend to the earth, and when they do, instead of walking they proceed
by jumps.
Some frequent the interior of large forests, where they are attracted by certain berries of which
they are extremely fond. Others usually sojourn on the borders of woods, and others on the dry
grounds, where they conceal themselves in bushes and briars; others again prefer the summits of trees,
and many visit rural habitations, where they frequent the gardens and the meadows. Such species
love the society of their fellows, and unite in flocks more or less numerous; others live in families,
some in pairs, and some even solitarily. The tanagers, stationed in the torrid zone, hatch at different
seasons; but they lay a smaller number of eggs than the natives of temperate climates.
America is the country of the tanagers; and the greater number of species are found in the
equinoctial part of that vast continent. The form of the bill is somewhat conical, but inflated at the
sides, the edge of the upper mandible being irregular, as if slightly toothed.
THE SCARLET TANAGER.f
“AMONG all other birds,” says Wilson, “that inhabit our woods, there is none that strikes the eye of
a stranger, or even a native, with so much brilliancy as this. Seen among the green leaves, with the
light falling strongly on nis plumage, he really appears beautiful. If he has little melody in his notes
to charm us, he has nothing in them to disgust. His manners are modest, easy, and inoffensive ; he
commits no depredations on the property of the husbandman, but rather benefits him by the daily
destruction in spring of many noxious insects; and when winter approaches he is no plundering
dependent, but seeks in a distant country for that sustenance which the severity of the season denies to
his industry in this. He is a striking ornament to our rural scenery, and none of the meanest of our
rural songsters. Such being the true traits of his character, we shall always with pleasure welcome
this beautiful inoffensive stranger to our orchards, groves, and forests.” In length the Scarlet Tanager
is six inches and a half; the tail is forked.
* Tanagrinae. + Fringillidae. † Tanagra tatus.
THE SCARLET TANAGER. 177
The nest of the scarlet tanager is built about the middle of May, on the horizontal branch of some
shady forest tree, commonly in an oak, but sometimes in an orchard tree, as but slightly put together,
and usually framed of broken rigid stalks of dry weeds or slender fir-twigs, loosely interlaced, and
partly tied with narrow strips of Indian hemp, some slender grass-leaves, and pea-vine runners, or
other frail materials; the interior being sometimes lined with the slender wiry brown stalks of the
Canadian cistus, or with slender pine-leaves; the whole so thinly plaited as to admit the light through
the interstices. The three or four eggs are dull blue, spotted with two or three shades of brown, or
purple, most numerous towards the larger end. As soon as their single brood, which is fledged early
in July, is reared, these birds leave for the south, generally about the middle or end of August.
THE CROSSIBILL-
The female shows great solicitude for the safety of her only brood; and on an approach to the
nest, appears to be in great distress and apprehension. When they are released from her more
immediate protection, the male, at first cautious and distant, now attends and feeds them with activity,
being altogether indifferent to that concealment which his gaudy dress seems to require from his
natural enemies. So attached to his interesting brood is now the scarlet tanager, that he has been
known, at all hazards, to follow for half a mile one of the young, submitting to feed it attentively
through the bars of a cage, and, with a devotion which despair could not damp, roost by it in the
branches of the same tree with its prison.
Another family is formed of the Crossbills.” The bill of these birds is moderate, strong, and very
much compressed; the two mandibles equally curved, hooked, and the elongated points crossing each
* Loxiadae: Vigors.
*OL. III. 119
- -*.

178 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
other. The nostrils are basal, lateral, rounded, and concealed by hairs directed forwards. The feet
have three toes before and one behind; the anterior toes are divided. The wings are moderate, the
first quill longest. The tail is forked.
THE CROSSBILL.º
“THE beak of the crossbill,” says Yarrell, “is altogether unique in its form; the mandibles do not lie
upon each other, with their lateral edges in opposition, as in other birds, but curve to the right and left,
and always in opposite directions to each other. In some specimens the upper mandible is turned to
the right, the lower mandible curved to the left; in others, the position of the mandible is reversed as
to their direction. In the specimen I examined the upper mandible curved downwards, and to the left,
the under portion turned upwards, and to the right. When holding the head of this bird in my fingers, I
found I could bring the point of the under mandible in a line underneath and touching the point of the
upper, but not beyond it towards the left side, while on its own side the point passed with ease to the
distance of three-eighths of an inch. The upper mandible has a limited degree of motion on the
cranium, the superior maxillary and nasal bones being united to the frontal by flexible bony laminae.”
The great pine-forests, such as the Hartz in Germany, are the natural places of residence of the
crossbills, and the seed of the cones of these trees their food; and it is to pull out the seeds from
between the scales of the cones that this structure has been given them by the great Creator. Their
mode of operation is as follows:—they first fix themselves across the cone, then bring the points of the
maxillae from their crossed or lateral position to be immediately over each other. In this reduced
compass they insinuate their beaks between the scales, and then opening them, not in the usual
manner, but in drawing the inferior maxilla sideways, the scales are forced open. At this stage of the
proceeding the aid of the tongue is needed, and this member is as perfectly adapted to render it as the
beak is to accomplish its purpose.
Another family is that of the Starlings,t embracing a considerable number of groups, approaching
each other in their gregarious and migratory habits. They are found in every part of the globe, united
in large flocks, carrying destruction among the cultivated fields, and following herds of cattle for the
sake of the insects or grains that may be picked off from their bodies, or in their neighbourhood. The
whole of the family are united by their manners, and the straight and conical form of the beak, the
ridge of which passes back to some extent over the forehead.
THE COMMON STARLING.'t
THE length of this bird is eight inches and a half, two and a half of which belong to the tail, and one
to the beak, which is awl-shaped, angular, flattish, and rather blunt, yellow, brown towards the end, and
the tip blue. The iris is nut-brown; the claws an inch long, and deep flesh-coloured. All the plumage
is of a blackish hue, changing to purple towards the front of the body, and to green towards the hind
part, and on the wing coverts; the quill-feathers and tail are black, edged with light rust-red; the tips
of the head-feathers, and under the neck, are reddish-white, those of the back light rust-red, and those
of the under part of the body whitish, which gives the bird a speckled appearance. The old males are
darker, having no white tips to the feathers of the head, cheeks, throat, or belly. The beak of the
female is rather brown than yellow ; the light spots on the head, neck, and breast, are larger, and the
edge of the feathers is wider, which gives it a lighter and more speckled appearance.
The Starling, like other species' has its varieties; such are the white, the streaked or variegated,
the white-headed, that whose body is white with a black head, and the ash-gray.
When wild the starling is found all over the old world. It prefers forests and little thickets,
surrounded by fields and meadows; it is often seen, especially in spring, on towers, steeples, and
churches; but it is never found either on high mountains or ridges. In Britain it departs in October
in great flights for the south, and returns in like manner in the beginning of March. During the
journey, these birds pass the night among the rushes, where, on the least alarm, they make a great
tumult.
* Loxia curvirostra, ºf Sturnidae. # Sturnus Vulgaris: Linnaeus,
THE COMMON STARLING. -- - 179
In confinement it would be very amusing to let them run free; but let them be ever so neat
themselves, they would render the room dirty. When captured, they must be furnished with a cage at
least two feet long, and one and a half both in height and width. Very restless and always in motion,
they require sufficient space to take exercise and keep their plumage uninjured.
When wild they eat not only caterpillars, snails, worms, insects, and the flies which torment the
cattle in the field, but also cherries, grapes, berries of all sorts, and different sorts of grain, as millet
and hemp-seed.
THE COMMON STARLING-
In confinement they eat meat, worms, bread, cheese, the universal paste—indeed, any food,
provided it is not sour. When first caught, they are supplied with earth and meal-worms, and they
soon become as tame as if they had been brought up from the nest; but as there is no rule without
exceptions, we sometimes meet with individuals who obstimately refuse to eat, whatever pains may be
taken to induce them, and which die of hunger. This bird delights in bathing often; it must therefore
never be left without fresh water in a proper vessel.
The starling builds in the holes of trees, and even in boxes, or pots with long necks, suspended to
trees, or under the roof, or in pigeon houses. Its simple nest is composed of dry leaves, hay, and
feathers. Like the swallow, it returns to the same nest every year, only taking care to clear it out.
It lays twice in the year, seven eggs each time, whose colour is pale blue. The young, before
moulting, are of rather a yellowish soot colour than pure black. The beak is dark-brown; those which
are bred from the nest, and which are easily reared on white bread soaked in milk, repeat the airs they
are taught in a stronger and more distinct manner than bullfinches and linnets. They can, indeed.
repeat a succession of couplets without changing or mixing them. In Voigtlande, the peasants use ºne










180 cassell's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY,
starling like domestic pigeons; they eat the young, which they take before they can fly: by this
means they obtain three broods, but they do not touch the last, both in order not to discourage and
drive away the father and mother, and not to diminish this branch of economy. Starlings have been
seen to build in dwelling-houses, in an earthen vase with a long neck, appropriated to the purpose.
It is principally in autumn, and in places filled with reeds, that the bird-catchers take great
numbers of starlings in nets prepared for the purpose. They may also be procured by means of an
osier fish-net placed among the reeds which they frequent in the evening, and baited with cherries.
Though this means is limited, as many as a hundred have been procured in one night.
In Thuringia it is never attempted to catch them for the house, except in the month of March,
when snowfalls after their arrival. For this purpose, limed twigs are put in places cleared from snow,
and beside swampy ditches, with some earth-worms for a snare, into which they fall as easily as chickens.
BTARLINGS,
The starling becomes wonderfully familiar in the house; as docile and cunning as a dog, he is always
gay, wakeful, soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts
himself to their humours. In his solemn tottering step, he appears to go stupidly forward; but
nothing escapes his eye. He learns to pronounce words without having his tongue cut, which proves
the uselessness of this cruel operation. He repeats correctly the airs which are taught him, as does
also the female, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the room with
him. It must be owned that his acquirements are very uncertain; he forgets as fast as he learns, or
he mixes up the old and the new in utter confusion; therefore, if it is wished to teach him an air,
or to pronounce some words clearly and distinctly, it is absolutely necessary to separate him from other
birds and animals, in a room where he can hear nothing else. Not only are the young susceptible of
these instructions, but even the oldest show astonishing docility.

tº
Preſ
º
- RED-win GED STARLINGs.

182 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE RED-WINGED STARLING.'s
THESE birds are found in immense flocks throughout the lower parts of Virginia, both Carolinas,
Georgia, and Louisiana—particularly near the sea-coast, and in the vicinity of large rice and corn-
fields.
The aërial evolutions of large numbers of these birds are very curious. Sometimes they appear
like a large black cloud driving before the wind, varying its shape every moment; sometimes rising
suddenly from the fields with a noise said to resemble thunder, while the glittering of innumerable
wings of the brightest vermilion amid the black cloud, they form, produces, on such occasions, a very
splendid effect. Then, descending like a torrent, and covering the branches of some detached grove or
clump of trees, the whole congregated multitude will commence a general concert or chorus, which
-may sometimes be plainly distinguished at the distance of more than two miles; and which, if heard at
an interval of about a quarter of a mile, with a slight breeze to swell and soften the flow of the cadences,
is stated to be grand, if not sublime. The entire winter season, which, with most birds, is spent in
struggling to maintain life in silent melancholy, is, with the red-wings, a continual carnival; for as
soon as the profuse gleanings of the old rice, corn, and buck-wheat fields have supplied them with food,
of which there is abundance, they rise to their ačrial manoeuvres, or to rehearse their grand vocal
entertainments.
About the middle of March they begin to enter Pennsylvania. They appear in Small but
numerous parties, and from daybreak to eight or nine o'clock in the evening, chattering to each other
as they fly along, and, despite the destructive character of their visit, their presence gives cheerful
promise of returning spring and beauty. They select their old haunts, preferring meadows, creeks,
swamps, and ponds, till about the middle of April, when they separate into pairs, and in two or three
weeks begin to build their nests. A favourite spot for this purpose is a thicket of alder bushes, a detached
bush in a meadow of high grass, or a tuft of rankrushes or grass, especial regard being paid to such neigh-
bourhoods as have swamps, meadows, or other watering-places. When the nest is built in a bush, it is
generally composed outwardly of wet rushes, picked from the swamp, and long, tough grass in large
quantities, the whole being lined with very fine bent. The rushes forming the exterior are generally
extended to several of the adjoining twigs, round which they are repeatedly and securely twisted—an
indispensable precaution, on account of the flexible nature of the bushes in which it is placed. The
same precaution is observed when a tuft of grass or rushes is selected, the tops being fastened together
and intertwined with the materials of which the nest is formed, with the stalks of rushes around.
When placed upon the ground, less care and fewer materials are necessary. It is not uncommon to
find several nests in the same thicket, within a few feet of each other.
As is the case with most other birds which build in low situations, the males exhibit the most
violent apprehension on the approach of an intruder, and this is especially the case after the young are
hatched. Like the lapwings of Europe, they fly to meet the invader, hovering at a slight elevation
above him, and uttering loud cries of distress; and while in this position, displaying to great advantage
the rich glowing scarlet of their wings, which is heightened by the jetty-black of their general plumage.
Dut while the devastation committed by these birds is very great, the services which they render
must not be overlooked. Half a truth is no more the truth in natural history than it is in morals ;
and those who utterly denounce and would entirely extirpate the Red-winged Starling, overlook some
important considerations. For a considerable period the food of these birds consists of various kinds
of caterpillars, which, though silent and unostentatious in their movements, are yet the fatal
enemies of all vegetation. For these the starlings search with great diligence, not only in the ground,
but at the roots of plants, in meadows, and among buds and blossoms; and the multitudes which they
destroy of these is immense. Wilson makes the computation that, supposing each bird, on an average,
devours fifty of these larvae in a day—a very moderate estimate—a single pair, in the four months
during which they seek them, will consume upwards of twelve thousand. Now it is believed that not
less than a million pair of these birds are distributed over the whole extent of the United States in
summer, whose food, being noarly the same, would swell the amount of vermin destroyed to twelve
* Stürmus Predatorius; Wilson.
THE RED-WINGED STARLING. 183
thousand millions. But the number of young birds may be fairly estimated at double that of their parents;
and, as these are constantly fed on larvae for at least three weeks, making only the same allowance for
them as for the old ones, their share would amount to four thousand two hundred millions; making a
grand total of sixteen thousand two hundred millions of noxious insects destroyed in the space of four
months by this single species. The ravages of such a host of the enemies of vegetation, if permitted to
go forth unchecked, would soon spread famine and desolation over the most fruitful and best cultivated
country on earth: and yet these data are founded on the best authenticated facts.
Towards the middle of August the young birds begin to fly in flocks, and at that age very much
resemble the female, with the exception of some reddish or orange which marks the shoulders of the
male. It is also frequently found that at this time the young birds chiefly associate by themselves,
there being sometimes not more than two or three old males in a flock of many thousands. By the
end of the second week of the following month the flocks of birds have become very numerous and
formidable; and they make most destructive assaults on the soft, succulent young ears of Indian corn;
and, reinforced by constantly-increasing hosts from all parts of the interior, they pour down on the low
countries in prodigious multitudes. Here they are seen, like vast clouds, wheeling and driving over
the meadows and devoted corn-fields, darkening the air with their numbers. Then commences the
work of destruction on the corn, the husks of which, though composed of numerous envelopes of closely-
wrapped leaves, are soon completely or partially torn off; while from all quarters myriads continue to
pour down like a tempest, blackening half an acre at a time; and if not disturbed, repeat their depre-
dations, till little remains but the cob and the shrivelled skins of the grain : what little is left of the
tender ear, being exposed to the rains and weather, is generally much injured. All the attacks and
havoc made among them at this time with the gun, and by the hawks—several species of which are
their constant attendants—have little effect on the remainder. When the hawks make a sweep among
them, they suddenly open on all sides, but rarely in time to disappoint them of their victims; and,
though repeatedly fired at, with mortal effect, they only remove from one field to an adjoining one, or
to another quarter of the same inclosure. From dawn to nearly sunset, this open and daring devas-
tation is carried on, under the eye of the proprietor; and a farmer, who has any considerable extent
of corn, would require half-a-dozen men, at least, with guns, to guard it ; and even then, all their
vigilance and activity would not prevent a good tithe from becoming the prey of the marauders. The
Indians, who usually plant their corn in one general field, keep all the young boys of the village
all day patrolling round and among it ; and each being furnished with bow and arrows, with which
they are very expert, they generally contrive to destroy great numbers of them.
This scene of pillage is, however, principally confined to the low countries on the sea-board, or
near the extensive flats which border the larger rivers. By the end of September, too, the corn has
acquired its hard shelly coat, and the seeds of the reeds or wild oats, with many other plants that
abound along the river shores, being now ripe, and in great abundance, they present a new and more
extensive field for these marauding multitudes. The reeds, also, being often in almost inapproachable
morasses, supply them with convenient roosting-places, and thither they repair every evening. In some
places, where the reeds become dry, advantage is taken of this circumstance to destroy these birds, by
a party secretly approaching the place under cover of a dark night, and setting fire to the reeds in
several places at once, which, being soon enveloped in a general flame, the uproar among these birds
becomes universal; and, by the light of the conflagration, they are shot down in vast numbers, while
hovering and screaming about the place. Sometimes straw is used for the same purpose, which is
previously strewed near the reeds and alder-bushes where they are known to roost ; this being set on
fire, the havoc among the birds from their foes is enormous; the party returns at day to pick up the
slaughtered game.
THE SATIN BOWER BIRD.4
THIS very remarkable bird, about the size of our jay or jackdaw, is placed among the Sturmuda.
The adult male has the whole of the plumage of a deep, shining, blue-black, closely resembling satin,
with the exception of the primary feathers, which are of a deep velvety-black, and the wing coverts,
* Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus. ."
184 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
*
secondaries, and tail-feathers, which are also velvety-black, tipped with a shining blue-black lustre.
The female is of a grayish-green above, with the wings and tail dark Sulphur-brown; the under parts
are lighter, with a wash of yellow, and variegated with crescent-shaped marks of brown.
It is to Mr. Gould, of rare eminence as a naturalist, that we are indebted for our knowledge of
this bird. Independently of numerous berry-bearing plants and shrubs, the brushes it inhabits in
Australia are studded with enormous fig-trees, some of them towering to the height of two hundred
feet. Among the lofty branches of these giants of the forest the satin bower bird, and several species
of pigeons, find, in the small wild fig with which the branches are laden, an abundant supply of a
favourite food. This species, however, commits considerable depredations on any ripening corn, near
the localities it frequents.
The most singular point in the history of this bird is, that it constructs on the ground a bower or
arbour, which is not used as a nest, but as a playing ground. These bowers are usually placed under
the shelter of the branches of some overhanging tree, in the most retired part of the forest. Their
* -----º
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THE SATIN BOWER BIRD,
structure is as follows: An extensive and rather convex floor or base is laid, composed of sticks firmly
interwoven together. About the centre of the floor the bower is built, in the form of two parallel
walls, at a little distance apart, consisting of slender, flexible twigs and stems, so arranged as to curve
inwards, and nearly meet at the top, forming an avenue arched overhead. The arrangement of the
arched twigs is such that the forks and projections are always presented outwardly, the interior being
free from any obstruction to the passage of the birds through the avenue. The interest of this curious
bower is much enhanced by the manner in which it is decorated, at and near the entrance, with the
most gaily-coloured articles that can be collected, such as the blue tail-feathers of the Rosehill and
Pennanteau parrots, and the shells of snails. The structure is adorned with beautiful feathers;
Some of them are stuck in among the twigs, while others, together with bleached bones and shells,
are strewed about near the entrance. Mr. Gould has also described the bowers of other birds having
the same remarkable instinct. ------- y
Mr. Gould obtained his specimens most readily by watching at the water-holes where the birds
*~~ /

THE BOWER BIRD. t 185
came to drink; and on one occasion, near the termination of a long drought, he was guided by a native
to a deep basin in a rock where water, the produce of many antecedent months, still remained.
Numbers of the spotted bower birds, honeysuckers, and parrots sought this welcome reservoir, which
had seldom, if ever before, reflected a white face. Mr. Gould's presence was regarded with suspicion
by the winged frequenters of this attractive spot; but while he remained lying on the ground, per-
fectly motionless, though close to the water, their wants overpowered their misgivings, and they would
dash down past him and eagerly take their fill, although an enormous black snake was lying coiled upon
a piece of wood near the edge of the pool. At this interesting spot Mr. Gould remained for three days.
The spotted bower birds were the most numerous of the thirsty assemblage there congregated, and the
most shy, and yet he had the satisfaction of frequently seeing six or eight of them displaying their
beautiful necks as they were perched within a few feet of him. He states that the scanty supply of
water remaining in the cavity must soon have been exhausted by the thousands of birds that daily
resorted to it, if the rains which had so long been suspended had not descended in torrents.
Some of these birds, as well as their bowers, have been, for years, submitted to public inspection
in the Zoological Gardens and also in the British Museum.
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THE DEAD RAVEN,
Another family is that of the Crows,” having the bill strong, slightly cultirostral, or more or less
compressed; the gape or commissure is straight ; the nostrils are covered with stiff, oristle-like feathers,
directed forwards. Of these we shall give several examples.
THE RAWEN.h
THE Raven, which is the largest species of its order, is black, but there are purplish reflection,' on the
upper part of the body, and greenish tints underneath. The female is distinguished by a colour less
deep, by a weaker bill, and by being rather smaller than the male. The plumage of the young, also, is
not so decided a black, and it is without reflections. The tongue is black, cylindrical at the base,
flatted and forked at the extremity; the oesophagus is dilated at the point of its junction with the
* Corvidae. f Corvus corax: Linn.
WOL. III,
120

186 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
stomach, and forms a sort of gizzard, of which this bird is otherwise destitute. The stomach of the
raven is neither muscular, like that of the gallinaceous and other birds, nor is it like that of the birds
of prey and of quadrupeds, but, in point of solidity of its coats, is intermediate between the two.
Thus, a small tinned tube will not be altered in shape in the stomach of this bird, though it will be in
that of a pigeon ; but a tube of lead, being a softer metal, will be flatted in the stomach of a raven,
though an ordinary membranaceous stomach will have no such effect upon it. In accordance with this
comparative weakness of stomach in these birds, we find that when they take grain, they break it by
means of the bill or feet before they swallow it. - -
Carrion and putrid animal matter, which they can smell at a great distance, forms the basis of
the food of these birds; when such, however, is not forthcoming, they live on fruits, grain, insects,
dead fish, and molluscous animals, whose shells they break against stones. It is said that they will at
times attack living animals, as rats, partridges, and frogs, and that falling on the back of the larger
sort, as asses and buffaloes, they will seriously injure them by repeated strokes of the bill. The foetid
nature of their food renders these birds unfit for the table. They were unclean to the Jews, and are
generally considered in a similar light by most savage nations. * -
Ravens, when threatened or attacked, fear neither cats nor dogs; and render themselves formidable,
not merely to children, but even to men, whose legs they will peck at and wound, with some effect.
Notwithstanding their courage, however, they may be brought to associate with man ; and they have
been employed for purposes of falconry.
They are also greatly attached to one another, and live, in general, in pairs, each pair remaining
connected for several years, probably for the whole period of their lives. They make their nests in
the crevices of rocks, in holes towards the tops of deserted towers, and sometimes on the summit of an
isolated tree. This nest, which is very large, is composed exteriorly of branches and roots; bones of
quadrupeds, or fragments of hard substances, form the second coat ; and the interior is lined with
moss, &c. The female lays, about the month of March, five or six pale greenish and bluish eggs, lined
and spotted with a neutral tint; both the male and female sit, and the incubation lasts about twenty
days. There may be generally found in the vicinity of these nests a considerable accumulation of
grains, nuts, fruits, and other things, though it appears these hoards are rather made by the
instinctive impulse of the bird, than for the use of the young. These at their birth are whitish.
It is said that the mother leaves the young for some time after their birth without nourishment,
and that she prepares the first food they have for them in her stomach, in the manner of pigeons. As
is generally the case with animals of a sort of domestic inclination, the male defends his young family
with great courage and address, and will succeed in repelling the attacks of the kite.
The young are ready about the month of May to quit the nest. So long as they are but partially
able to provide for themselves, the parents bring them food during the day, and every evening the
family re-assemble in the nest, and this practice continues the whole summer, which has led to the
presumption that they breed more than once in the year. Though not quick breeders, however, these
birds are very long-lived. When the young have attained strength enough to provide altogether for
themselves, the old birds drive them from their own adopted vicinity to seek an asylum elsewhere.
Some birds sit so close on their eggs, that no approach of danger can induce them to quit their
nest. The ingenious author of the “Natural History of Selborne” gives a very interesting anecdote
of this in the case of a raven —“In a centre of a grove there stood an oak, which, though shapely and
tall on the whole, bulged out into a large excrescence about the middle of the stem. On this a pair of
ravens had fixed their residence for such a series of years, that the oak was distinguished by the title
of the raven-tree. Many were the attempts of the neighbouring youth to get at this eyrie; the
difficulty whetted their inclinations, and each was ambitious of surmounting the arduous task. But
when they arrived at the swelling, it jutted out so in their way, and was so far beyond their grasp,
that the most daring lads were awed, and acknowledged the undertaking to be too hazardous. So the
ravens built on, nest upon nest, in perfect security, till the fatal day arrived in which the wood was to
be levelled. It was in the month of February, when these birds usually sit. The saw was applied to
the butt, the wedges were inserted into the opening, the woods echoed to the heavy blows of the beetle
or mallet ; the tree nodded to its fall; but still the dam sat on. At last, when it gave way, the bird
THE RAWEN. 187
was flung from her nest ; and, though her parental affection deserved a better fate, was whipped down
by the twigs, which brought her dead to the ground.”
Ravens abound in the fur countries, and visit the remotest islands of the Polar Seas. They
frequent the barren grounds even in the most intense winter colds, their movements being chiefly
directed by those of the herds of reindeer, musk oxen, and bison, which they follow, ready to assist in
devouring such as are killed by beasts of prey or by accident. No sooner has a hunter slaughtered an
animal, than they are seen coming from various quarters to feast on the offal; and considerable numbers
constantly attend the fishing stations, where they show equal boldness and rapacity. The experienced
native, when he sees from afar a flock of ravens wheeling in small circles, knows that a party of his
countrymen, well provided with venison, are encamped on the spot, or that a band of wolves is preying
on the carcase of some of the larger quadrupeds, and pushes on briskly, in the certain prospect of having
his wants supplied.
The thievish habits of a tame raven are well known; but it is remarkable that, inhabiting in a
wild state the most secluded and most peopled districts of America, it should exhibit the same dispo-
sition to carry off shining metallic bodies and other articles totally unfit for food, or to be used in the
construction of its nest. Mr. Kendall, in crossing the height of land which divides the waters that
flow towards Hudson's Bay from those which fall into the Arctic Sea, saw a raven flying off with
something in its claws, pursued by a number of its clamorous companions. The bird being fired at,
dropped the object of contention, which proved to be the lock of a chest.
The power which the raven has of clear articulation is well known. Mr. Swainson says, “One
belonging to Mr. Henslow, of St. Albans, speaks so distinctly, that when first we heard it, we were
actually deceived in thinking it was a human voice; and there is another at Chatham which has made
equal proficiency, for, living in the vicinity of a guard-house, it has more than once turned out the
guard, who thought they were called by the sentinel on duty.”
THE ROOK. &
“WHo,” asks William Howitt, “that has been brought up in the country has not been accustomed
from his infancy to hear the cawing of the rookery; to witness the active labour, and cares, and
schemes of these birds in spring has not stood by his father or any other old friend, while the young
have been fetched down from the lofty elm by the cross-bow has not run to fetch it as it fell? has
not clambered into the green tree in which it has, perhaps, lodged in falling, and hooked it down! has
not helped the keeper to carry to the house the black feathery bunch of young rooks thus shot, for the
cook to convert into the most savoury of country pies; or to be dispatched in different directions as
presents to friends? Who has not, on bright summer days, when the young have got abroad, seen
them in almost every green oak, or on the tuft of every green meadow, when the country was all
flowers and sweetness, with fluttering wings, demanding food from their busy parents? and in the still,
broad, quiet sunshine of summer evenings, as he sat in garden arbour, or at open window, with the
dear old friends of his youth, has not often seen them come soberly homewards from their day's
wanderings in a rustling and jetty array, from whose wings the light of the setting sun glanced, seeking
those ancient and towering trees, which had overspread the hall for ages? Who, in the days of warm
feeling and expanding affections, when life was a long summer of happiness and gaiety—when, perhaps,
the attachment of a life was growing—as he has ridden home in the sweet dusk of a June midnight,
has not heard them in their lofty nest, half roused by the horse's tread, give a rustle, a caw, and then
all quiet again? . . . . In short, what Englishman recalls the dear old home of his birth and his youth,
with all its affections, and delights, and transactions; who recalls its garden-nooks, its bee-hives by the
sunny wall, its fields, its woods, its friends, its favourite animals, its sorrows and its merriments, its
gay meetings and its partings to meet there no more, everything that makes that spot what no other
spot on earth besides ever can be by any magic, even the most powerful magic of love—and does not
find the English rook a part of his retrospect, uttering its joyous, rough, John Bullish caw, or his
laughable midnight muttering, insignificant as he is in himself, an indispensable dweller in the paradise
of the past?”
* Corvus frugilegus.
188 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
*
The Rook has a great analogy to the carrion crow, and, at first sight, it is difficult to distinguish
the one from the other. The principal distinctive character consists in the nudity of the base of the
bill and of the forehead, and upper part of the throat in the rook, which parts are covered with
feathers in the carrion crow; but this is not observable in the young bild, who has feathers at the
base of the beak, projecting forward over the nostrils. These disappear after the first month. The
voice, too, is quite different in the crow and the rook; the croak of the crow is much the harsher of
the two. Crows are solitary in their habits, while rooks are not only gregarious, but seem to prefer a
habitation near the dwellings of man. The birds of the genus we are now describing all breed early in
the year. The rooks set about repairing their old nests early in March, and the young birds are
hatched in April.
The rook feeds chiefly upon grubs. Prince Buonaparte says that he eats grain also ; and that so
great was the mischief done by him to the first settlers in North America, that a reward was given for
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THE ROOK.
every bird that was killed. It was soon, however, discovered that the worms and insects were so
much more formidable than the bird, that he was no longer molested. The same is probably the case
in England. The rook is said to be peculiarly fond of the larva of the cockchafer, whence these
destructive grubs are in some places called rook-worms.
These birds seem partial to our island, as they remain here the whole year; but in France, and
most parts of Europe, especially to the south, they are birds of passage; and in Spain, it is said, are not
known. Their gregarious disposition, particularly during incubation, on the tops of lofty trees, is a
familiar fact. After the breeding season they disperse, and in a great measure abandon the trees in
which they bred their young. The eggs, five in number, a little smaller than those of the crow, are
bluish green, with dark blotches; they begin to build early in March, and the male and female sit by
turns. White and pied varieties are sometimes seen.

THE ROOK. 189
Some years ago there were several large elm trees in the college garden behind the Ecclesiastical
Court, in Doctors' Commons, in which a number of rooks had taken up their abode, forming, in
appearance, a sort of convocation of aerial ecclesiastics. A young gentleman who lodged in an attic,
and was their close neighbour, frequently entertained himself with thinning this covey of black game
by means of a cross-bow. On the opposite side lived a curious old civilian, who, observing from his
study that the rooks often dropped senseless from their perch, making no sign, nor any sign being made
to his vision to account for the phenomenon, set his wits to work to discover the cause. It was,
probably, during a profitless time of peace, and the doctor having plenty of leisure, weighed the matter
over and over, till he was at length fully satisfied that he had made a great ornithological discovery,
that its promulgation would give wings to his fame—a distinction which he seems to have highly
appreciated.
His goose-quill and foolscap were quickly in requisition, and he actually wrote a treatise, stating
circumstantially what he himself had seen, and in conclusion, giving it as the settled conviction of his
mind, that rooks were subject to the falling sickness /
THE CARRION CROW.
THE CARRION CROW:
“Say, weary bird, whose level flight - “The wren within her mossy nest
Thus, at the dusky hour of night, Has hushed her little brood to rest;
Tends through the midway air, The wild wood-pigeon, rock'd on high,
Why yet beyond the verge of day Has coo'd his last soft note of love,
Islengthen'd out thy dark delay, And fondly nestles by his dove,
Adding another to the hours of care? | To guard their downy young from an inclement sky.
* Corvus corone: Linnaeus.




190 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“Each twittering bill and busy wing, “Haste, bird, and nurse thy callow brood,
That flits through morning's humid spring, They call on Heaven and thee for food,
Is still—listening perhaps so late - Bleak—on some cliff's neglected tree;
To Philomel's enchanting lay, Haste, weary bird, thy lagging flight—
Who now, asham'd to sing by day, - It is the chilling hour of night,
Trills the sweet sorrows of her fate. Fit hour of rest for thee!”
THE Crow, or, as it is most frequently called, the Carrion Crow, may be described as a small raven.
Its differences from the rook we have already stated. The crow lives in pairs all the year, and it is a
rare thing to see more than two together in any place. They are omnivorous in the fullest sense of
the term, and will poke their beaks into everything they can find, from a boiled potato to a dead
horse. - *
The Carrion Crow, which is spread over both the old and new continents, feeds, like the
ravens, on putrid flesh; to which, however, it adds insects, worms, fine grain, fruit, and eggs. In
winter it associates with the rooks and hooded crows, and may be seen with them on fresh-turned
earth, searching for worms, insects, and other larvae. At the approach of night, they assemble in
considerable flocks, and retire to the highest trees of the forest. Early in the spring, when the
rooks quit the south of Europe in flocks, to build their elevated cities in the high trees in the north,
the carrion crows separate into pairs, and proceed alone in the great work of nidification. The
nest, like that of the rook, is constructed at the summit of a tree of slender branches, matted
with clay and horse-dung, and lined within with fibres. The female lays four or five eggs of a
palish green, with obscure spots and bars.
The old birds have great affection for their young, which remain a long time under their
fostering care, and to which the parents have the address to carry the eggs of partridges in their
bills. They lay but once in the year, unless the eggs or young be destroyed by accident. They
will engage with the rapacious birds in defence of their young and eggs. It is said that the
conjugal union of these birds continues during life. -
The carrion crow will learn, when domesticated, to speak like the raven, and displays in its general
habits no small sagacity. It will sometimes seize chickens from the poultry-yard, and will also destroy
such small birds as it can find in the fowler's snare, which it escapes falling into itself, probably by the
perfection of its sense of smell; bird-lime, or glue, and meat infused with nux-vomica, are used there-
fore to take them instead of the net.
White and other varieties are sometimes met with, especially in high latitudes, as in the
ravens; indeed, a general analogy prevails between these species, in nearly all their characters, essential
and indifferent. . .
The carrion crow is, perhaps, the most generally known and least beloved, of all our land birds;
having neither melody of song, nor beauty of plumage, nor civility of manners to recommend him; on
the contrary, he is branded as a thief and a plunderer. Hated as he is by the farmer, watched and
persecuted by almost every bearer of a gun, who all triumph in his destruction, had not Heaven
bestowed on him more than common intelligence and sagacity, there is reason to believe that the
whole tribe would long ago have ceased to exist. The myriads of worms, moles, mice, caterpillars, grubs,
and beetles, which he destroys, are altogether overlooked; but on account of his depredations among
the poultry and game, no mercy is shown him. -
A gentleman who resided on the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had reared a crow, with
whose tricks and society he used frequently to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, but
at length disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot by some vagrant gunner, or destroyed
by accident. About eleven months after this, as the gentleman one morning, in company with several
others, was standing on the river shore, a number of crows happening to pass by, one of them left the
flock, and flying directly towards the company, alighted on the gentleman's shoulder, and began to
gabble away with great volubility, as one long absent friend naturally enough does on meeting with
another. On recovering from his surprise, the gentleman instantly recognised his old acquaintance, and
endeavoured, by several civil but sly manoeuvres, to lay hold of him; but the crow, not altogether
relishing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the sweets of liberty, cautiously eluded
all his attempts; and suddenly glancing his eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after
them, soon overtook and mingled with them, and was never afterwards seen to return.
THE HOODED CROW.º
Like the rook, this bird associates in numerous flocks, but there the resemblance ends; for the
Hooded or Royston Crow is a bird that shuns the habitations of man, and chooses waste and open
places, like the sea-shore, or Royston or Newmarket heaths. Like the rooks also in several countries,
it changes its abode twice a year, appearing in flocks in the middle or at the end of autumn, and
departing in a northerly direction about the beginning of spring. It visits the south of England in
October, or the beginning of winter, arriving and departing with the woodcock, and retiring north, to
breed, in the beginning of April. In the northern parts of the island it is more frequent than in the
south ; and in the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Shetland Islands, it is the only genuine crow, the rook and
carrion being there unknown. In these districts, and in some parts of Scotland and Ireland, it is
resident throughout the year. Where opportunities offer, it breeds in the pines and other large trees,
in default of which it nestles in the cavities of rocks.
The female, which is rather smaller than the male, and of less lively hues, usually lays four, five,
or six eggs, of a greenish blue, marked with many spots of blackish-brown. It pairs during the whole
of the breeding season; and both parents are much attached to their offspring. They are remarked
for their double cry, of which one is hollow, and well known, and the other shrill, and somewhat
resembling the crowing of a cock. When other food is wanting, they will eat cranberries and other
mountain fruits; in open fertile countries, they live much on grain, worms, and carrion; but they often
resort to the sea-shores, and prey on the various animal matters thrown up by the tide. Frisch
observes, that they are expert at picking fish-bones, and that, when water is discharged from ponds, they
quickly perceive the fish which are left in them, and lose no time in darting on them. They npt only
attack the eyes of lambs and diseased sheep, but of horses that have got entangled in bogs. In the
Faroe Islands, where they abound, they are particularly mischievous, picking the seed from the fields,
digging up the newly-planted potatoes, destroying the barley before it is ripe, and carrying off goslings
and ducklings, or the fish which is hung up to dry, to their young. In some parts of these islands,
they assemble to about the number of twelve hundred in one place, and at one time, as if by concert.
A few of the congregation sit with drooping heads, others seem as grave as judges, and others again are
very bustling and noisy. The meeting breaks up in the course of an hour; and it is not uncommon to
find one or two dead on the spot. These, according to the insinuation of Landt, are either criminals
punished for their offences, or invalids that have died of some disorder. Low observes, that in the
Orkneys, they meet together in spring, as if to deliberate on the important concerns of summer, and,
after flying about in this collected state for eight or ten days, separate into pairs, and betake themselves
to the mountains.
THE JACKDAW.?
THE Jackdaw is a frequenter of the haunts of man, active, noisy, and familiar almost to impudence,
but it is a lively bird; and though at times it may take a little grain, that is far more than compensated
by the number of insects and worms that it destroys in the course of the year.
The jackdaw is the smallest of the tribe, being only about half the weight of the rook; but the
wings are larger in proportion. It is about fourteen inches long, twenty-nine broad, and weighs between
nine and ten ounces. The bill, feet, top of the head, and wing coverts, and secondary quills, are black;
the back of the head and nape smoke-gray, and the irides the same, but much lighter; the remaining
parts black with a grayish tinge on the upper side, and a bluish on the under. The black is variously
glossed with blue and violet reflections. These are the ordinary colours; but like all birds that inhabit
cultivated lands, and are of course affected by the differences to which cultivation gives rise, jackdaws
vary considerably in colour, partly from age, partly not; sometimes the gray is nearly white, at other
times the bird is black all over; and there are many slighter and intermediate variations.
Holes and chinks are the immediate places in which jackdaws nestle; but these must be elevated
above the level ground, and the higher they are the bird likes them the better. It is probable that the
original instinct is the protection of its eggs and young from the weasels. Rocks, the edges of neglected
* Corvus cornix: Linnaeus. + Corvus monedula.
192 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
quarries, the projecting parapets of bridges, towers, steeples, ruins, and various other places, are the
haunts of this bird. -
Another genus,” considered by Cuvier to belong to the shrikes, Vigors places among the crows.
The following are its characters:—Bill hard, long, and strong, convex above, slightly hooked at the
extremity, near which both mandibles are notched; nostrils lateral and longitudinal near the base;
legs stout; outer toe joined to the middle one as far as the first joint; inner toe entirely free; hind
toe elongated; claws strong and curved.
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One of these birds is the Piping Crow,t common in New South Wales. M.M. Quoy and
Gaimard, the able naturalists attached to Freycinet's expedition, saw numbers of them on the Blue
Mountains, living gregariously in small troops. The bird brought home by Freycinet reached France
alive, and, by its good-natured and amusing manners, became a great favourite on ship-board. It was
a skilful mimic, and clucked and cackled like a hen; but its imitation of a young cock was complete.
It had been trained to whistle airs, at Port Jackson, and some of these it appeared to forget, but
recollected them on being prompted.
**
THE ALPINE CROW.;
THE Chocards, as they are called in France, have the compressed, arched, and sloped beak of the
blackbirds, but their nostrils are covered with feathers, like those of the crows, to which they have
been annexed. Such is the Alpine Chocard. Its hue is black, with the beak yellow, the feet at
first brown, then yellow, and, in the adult state, red. It builds in the clefts of rocks of the higher
* Barita, ºf Barita tibicen. it Pyrrhocorax Alpinus. § Pyrrhocorax.






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THE ALPINE CROW. 193
mountains, from whence these birds descend in large flocks into the valleys. They live on insects,
Snails, and fruits, and do not disdain carrion. - -
In India there is another bird of this kind, the
Sicrim, distinguished by the barbless stalks, as long
as the body, on each side, among the feathers which
cover the ears.
THE BLUE JAY.*
THIS bird is believed to be peculiar to North America,
and is regarded with great interest on account of the
brilliancy of his plumage, the address of his tones and
gestures, and his strange loquacity. He is an almost
universal inhabitant of the woods, frequenting the
deepest recesses of the forest, where, in the spring, he
pours forth his harmony in every thicket, and where
his squalling voice often alarms the deer, to the great
indignation of the hunter. He has great variety of
undulations of voice, according to the humour of the
moment, while there is scarcely a bird to whose pe-
culiarities of Song he cannot tune his note. Sometimes
he indulges in soft chatterings like those of the duck,
but no sooner does he discover the approach of a stran-
ger, than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry,
flying off from the thick foliage of the cedar where he
has been concealed, and screaming with all his might,
as if calling all the feathered tribes of the neighbour- * THIE PIPING CROW".
hood to witness some outrageous usage he had received. The call-note which he utters to the female
has been described by Wilson as easily mistaken by a stranger for the repeated “screakings” of an
ungreased wheelbarrow.
This jay measures seven inches
in length, the head being ornamented
with a crest of light-blue or purple
feathers, which he can elevate or de-
press, while a narrow line of black
runs along the frontlet, rising on each
side higher than the eye. A collar
of black proceeding from the hind
head, passes with a graceful curve
down each side of the neck to the
upper part of the breast, where it
§ forms a crescent ; the throat and
, " . , . " . belly are white; the greater wing-
º º %'º. º,..., §s. § s coverts are a rich blue ; the in-
2. *ś -- º % Nº terior sides of the wing-feathers are
Ş - §§ §§§ § § º gº dusky-black ; the tail is long and
º º % cuneiform; the breast and sides, under
TIII: ...ALPINE CROW. the wings, are a dirty-white, and the
tongue, bill, legs, and claws are black.
This bird builds a large nest, usually in the cedar or apple-tree, and lines the interior with dry,
fibrous roots. The male is especially careful not to be seen near the spot, that he may not betray the
locality, and pays his visits as silently and secretly as possible.
* Garrulus cristatus : Vieillot.
WOL. III. - 121






194 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY:
The Blue Jay is a most determined enemy of the owl, whom he seems to have peculiar gratification
in tormenting. Let him discover the retreat of one of these birds, and at once summoning the whole
feathered fraternity to his assistance, they attack him most vigorously on all sides, and make a noise
which, on a still day, may be heard more than half a mile away; while the owl acknowledges every
expression of opinion in reference to himself with a broad, goggling stare. At length, a sufficient
number of assailants are collected to make it inconvenient to stay longer, and, followed by the entire
retinue of his foes, the owl retreats beyond their jurisdiction.
The jay is by no means always a peaceable neighbour. Sometimes he may be seen prowling
along the woods and among the thickets and hedgerows, plundering the eggs, and tearing the young
piecemeal, to the consternation and grief of their parents and the spectators who approach the scene of
desecration and slaughter. When pressed with hunger, he assaults little birds, and will even eat
any fragment of animal matter or carrion he may be able to secure. In some cases, however, he is far
from showing this ferocity of disposition. Mr. Wilson obtained one, and placed him in a cage with a
female orchard oriole, who put on airs of alarm, as if she felt endangered and insulted by such intrusion;
but, as the jay conducted himself in the most humble and condescending way, her ceremonious jealousy
vanished, and they lived on terms of perfect harmony and good humour. But the eminent naturalist
must tell the story in his own words:–“When the jay goes to drink, his messmate very imprudently
jumps into the water to wash herself, throwing the water in showers over her companion, who bears it
all patiently, venturing now and then to take a sip between every splash, without betraying the smallest
token of irritation. On the contrary, he seems to take pleasure in his little fellow-prisoner, allowing
her to pick (which she does very gently) about his whiskers, and to clean his claws from the minute
fragments of chestnuts which happen to adhere to them. This attachment on the one part, and mild
condescension on the other, may, perhaps, be partly the effect of mutual misfortunes, which are found
not only to knit mankind, but many species of inferior animals, more closely together, and show
that the disposition of the blue jay may be humanised, and rendered susceptible of affectionate
impressions, even for those birds which, in a state of nature, he would have no hesitation in making
a meal of.” - - -
This bird has a decided talent for mimicking, and also for teasing others of its feathered com-
panions, from which it appears to derive no common satisfaction. One of the birds that is especially
annoyed in this way is the little-hawk, whose cry the jay imitates when it meets him, and feigns
the shrieks of a bird which has been captured and wounded. This noise brings other jays to the
scene of action, and they all join in their annoyances of the hawk. The hawk, however, is not
to be outdone, and at length singling out one of the more prominent of its tormentors, seizes it
in an unguarded moment, and sacrifices it to his hunger and resentment. Instantly the tone of the
other birds is changed, and with loud cries they proclaim the tragical conclusion of the sport. -
The jays perform important functions in the economy of nature. Their chief employment in the
autumnal season is foraging for the supply of their winter stores; and, in pèrforming this necessary
duty, they drop a great number of seeds over hedges and fields in their flight, where they alight to
deposit them in nests, holes, and other places which they use as store-houses. These birds alone are
able, in a few years, as we are emphatically assured, to replant all the cleared lands. -
The bluejays associate together in considerable numbers in the months of September and October,
when they may be found in groups of forty or fifty, hovering about the oaks in pursuit of their
favourite food—the acorn. They seldom exceed this number, and even these are usually scattered
with great irregularity over a considerable part of the wood; yet it is stated by Dr. Latham, that “the
bluejays of North America often unite into flocks of 20,000 at least, which, alighting on a field of ten
or twelve acres, soon lay waste the whole.” Wilson positively affirms that a flock of blue jays of
20,000 would be as extraordinary an appearance in America, as the same number of magpies or cuckoos
would be in Britain; and he states his firm conviction that the red-winged blackbirds,” in the environs
of the river Delaware, alone devour and destroy more Indian corn than all the blue jays of North
America.
* Oriolus phaeniceus.
THE COMMON JAY.”
THE British species is one of the most ornamental of our indigenous birds. It dwells in woods,
beyond the outskirts of which it seldom wanders. Its food consists of insects, fruits, and forest seeds.
Species of this little group are found in every quarter of the known world, except New Holland.
The Jay builds its basket-like nest in trees or high coppice-wood and hedges, and lays five or six
eggs of a dull whitish-olive, mottled very obscurely with pale brown. Towards the large end there are
usually two or three black lines.
The jays rarely come into the open country, but make great havoc in gardens and cultivated
grounds in the neighbourhood of woodlands. Their food is much less varied than that of the true
crows, but they may still be styled omnivorous. Their plumage is generally gray and even brilliant;
and there is a beautiful speculum on the wing: But showy as the jay is, it is much more frequently
THE COMMON JAY.
heard than seen; nor is it easy to observe it at all, for the more it is followed, the deeper does it
plunge into the thick of the coppice. The best place for a full view of it is where peas or cherries
grow near its haunts, as while it greedily feeds on these its wary habits will allow of its being longer
watched than it may be under other circumstances.
Jays neither flock nor have meetings similar to those of the magpies, and some of those crows
that breed apart from each other; nor—though it has been observed in some instances—has it been
fully proved that the young remain with the old birds after they are completely fledged and capable of
finding their own food. They are, indeed, much more predatory than the magpies, though considerably
smaller. They occasionally pounce on birds, and kill and devour them; they are very destructive to
the eggs of small birds, and they will eagerly catch mice.
* Garrulus glandarius.

196 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
One of the most remarkable peculiarities of the jays is the volubility of their sounds. The alarm-
note the bird utters on the appearance of danger, or even of a stranger in its haunts, is extremely
harsh, but it has a love-note singularly soft, “yet so low and apparently cautious, that it seems
whispering to its mate, as if to hide their affections and labours from the other tenants of the grove.
Even then it is very imitative, and though it does not attempt the songs of the warblers, it is very
adroit at bleating, screaming, neighing, and, in short, imitating all the harsher sounds.” Bewick
says:—“We have heard one imitate the sound made by the action of a saw so exactly, that, though
it was on a Sunday, we could hardly be persuaded that the person who kept it had not a carpenter at
work in the house. Another, at the approach of cattle, had learned to hound a cur dog upon them,
by whistling and calling upon him by his name. At last, during a severe frost, the dog was by that
means excited to attack a cow big with calf, when the poor animal fell on the ice, and was much hurt;
the jay was complained of as a nuisance, and its owner was obliged to destroy it.” -
Mudie, another careful observer, remarks:– “Words in which the letter r occurs are soonest
learned, not only by the jay, but by most birds that can be taught to articulate. That is easily
accounted for by the unyielding nature of the mandible, which forces the air to come out between the
upper part of the tongue and the palate, on which that trills. A man cannot easily pronounce the r
in any but Northumberland fashion, if he grins the while ; and those who use the tongue simpering
and softly, merely touch, but do not pronounce it.”
Mr. Gould, who gives three figures of foreign jays in his “Century of Birds,” justly remarks,
that “the close affinity which the Garrulus lanceolatus bears to some species inhabiting the United
States and Mexico is worthy of remark, as a corroboration of the fact so often insisted on, that similar
forms of ornithology are found in countries widely separated from each other, whose temperatures are
alike.” Indeed, we are reminded by the last-mentioned bird of the Garrulus cristatus, the bluejay of
America; while another, the Garrulus bispecularis, recalls the idea of the common jay.
Another very ornamental species—
“Proud of caerulean stains
From heaven's unsullied arch purloined”—
is that mentioned by Pallas as having been shot by Steller when Behring's crew landed upon the coast
of America. It is the Corvus Stelleri, of Latham, by whom it was first described from a specimen in
Sir Joseph Banks' collection from Nootka Sound. A larger and most magnificent bird is the Columbia
jay (Garrulus Bullokii, Wagler; Garrulus gubernatria, Temminck), figured in M. Audubon's splendid
work; the colour is bright-blue, with a lofty crest of separate plumes, the throat and breast black, the
abdomen whitish, and two of the central tail-feathers extending far beyond the others. It occurs
chiefly in Mexico and California.
º THE NUTCRACKER.
OF the birds* known by the name of Nutcracker, one speciest is a rare native of Britain. The
manners of this bird are said to resemble those of the jay, but other circumstances connected with its
food and organisation bring it into alliance with the crows, to which family it is sometimes referred
by ornithologists, though its precise place is a matter of doubt. Like the jay, it feeds on nuts and
berries, as well as on the seeds of the pine, of which it appears to be very fond; but, like the wood-
pecker, it climbs the trunks and branches of trees, tapping the bark with its bill, to start the insects
and their larvae that may lurk beneath, and devour them. It is said to crack nuts much in the same
way as the nuthatch. The nest is formed in the hollows of trees which the bird is supposed to
enlarge after the manner of the wood-pecker. The eggs are five or six in number, of a yellowish-
white or gray, with a few spots of bright gray-brown.
THE CHOUGH:f
THIS very handsome bird is locally distributed, but is, perhaps, not so rare as has been generally
believed. In Britain it only frequents sea-coasts, never venturing far inland; and, in this respect,
seems to differ considerably from the birds on the continent, where Alpine inland districts are in part
* Nucifraga. + Nucifraga caryocatactes. # Fregilus graculus: Selby.
197
THE CHOUGEI.
In Britain, the rocky coasts of Devon and Cornwall, various parts of Wales, and
some of the adjacent isles, are its southern localities; in Scotland, St. Abb's Head on the eastern side,
inhabited by them.
and we learn that it has
—“The Chough frequents the sea-coast
J
tonshire and Galloway on the western, are frequented
Of
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and the shores of W
In Ireland, Mr. Thompson writes
reached even the Hebrides.
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But that part where
chiefly, and occurs in certain localities in the north, South, and east of Ireland.”
it appears to be most abundant is the Isle of Man—an island of considerable extent, and having
Round these shores it is so common,
that nearly thirty specimens were once procured in a forenoon.” The habits of the bird, as well as the
tous coasts for at least two-thirds of its circumference.
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derably resemble those of the
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ight and manner of alighting among the rocks and fissures, very cons










198 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
N
jackdaw, so much so, that when Mudie first enjoyed the Satisfaction of seeing this bird on a part of
the mainland where they were not so frequent, he mistook their flight for that of the last-named
bird, and missed some opportunities of procuring what he then considered a very rare bird; a
glimpse of their red legs first undeceived him. “I)uring the breeding season,” he says, “when we
have chiefly seen these birds, we found them almost constantly on the coast, near the caves and fissures
where the nests were placed; and they were very seldom seen more than a quarter of a mile inland;
but they made excursions so far, alighting among the rocky parts of the upland sheep-pasture, and
occasionally feeding and walking on the dry pasture itself, where they appeared to procure insects,
their stomachs being chiefly at this time filled with coleoptera. It is also said to feed on grains and
berries; and we are not aware of any particular food afforded by the rocky British coasts, which in
that country so peculiarly attracts them to such localities, while on the Continent the Alpine ranges on
the borders of the snow-lines are their usual haunts.” *
When the situation of the nests was approached, no great restlessness or anxiety was exhibited.
They were placed in rents of the rocks, in the entrances of the caves, or in overhanging ledges of rock,
built much in the same manner as those of the true crows. The eggs, from five to seven in number,
are of a verditer or bluish-green, spotted and blotched with blackish-brown—some specimens nearly
rèsembling those of the jackdaw, and apparently subject to nearly the same variation.
This beautiful species is entirely of a deep glossy-black above, with steel-blue and green reflections;
the plumage on the head and neck is rather loose and tinted with purple; underneath, it is of a deep
and uniform tint with less lustre. The bill is of a brilliant vermillion-red, strong, bending for the
whole length, and without any trace of a notch; the plumes covering the nostrils are close and stiff,
and appear as if rounded off with scissors on the bill. The legs and feet are of the same brilliant tint
with the bill, and are strongly formed; the claws brownish-black, crooked, and strong; the develop-
ment of the wings and tail large and powerful, the flight consequently light and buoyant ; the length
about fifteen inches. The bill and legs of the young do not show for sometime the brilliant red colour.
One of these birds was kept by Colonel Montague in his garden for some years, and of it he has
given the following interesting account:-‘‘His curiosity is beyond bounds, never failing to examine
anything new to him. If the gardener is pruning, he examines the nail-box, carries off the nails, and
scatters the shreds about. Should a ladder be left against the wall, he instantly mounts, and goes all
round the top of the wall; and, if hungry, descends at a convenient place, and immediately travels to
the kitchen window, where he makes an incessant knocking with his bill till he is fed and let in ; if
allowed to enter, his first endeavour is to get up-stairs; and, if not interrupted, goes as high as he
can, and gets into my room in the attic storey; but his intention is to get upon the top of the house.
He is excessively fond of being caressed, and would stand quietly for an hour to be smoothed ; but
resents an affront with violence and effect, by both bill and claws, and will hold so fast by the latter
that he is with difficulty disengaged. He is extremely attached to one lady, upon the back of whose
chair he will sit for hours; and is particularly fond of making one in a party at breakfast, or in a
summer's evening at the tea-table in the shrubbery. His natural food is evidently the smallest insects;
even the minute species he picks out of the crevices of the walls, and searches for them in summer
with diligence. The common grasshopper is a great dainty, and the fern-chafer is another favourite
morsel; these are swallowed whole : but if the great chafer be given to him, he places it under one
foot, pulls it to pieces, and eats it piecemeal. Worms are wholly rejected; but flesh, raw or dressed,
and bread, he eats greedily; and sometimes barley with the pheasants, and other granivorous birds
occasionally turned into the gardens, and never refuses hemp-seed. He seldom attempts to hide the
remainder of a meal. With a very considerable share of attachment, he is naturally pugnacious, and
the hand that, a moment before had tendered him food and caresses, will repent an attempt to take him
up. To children he has an utter aversion, and will scarcely suffer them to enter the garden. Even
strangers of any age are challenged vociferously; he approaches all with daring impudence ; and so
completely does the sight of strangers change his affection for the time, that even his favourites and
best benefactors cannot touch him with impunity in these moments of evident displeasure.”
“The Cornish chough is,” says Pennant, “active, restless, and thieving; much taken with glitter,
and so meddling as not to be trusted where things of consequence lie. It is very apt to catch up bits
of lighted sticks, so that there are instances of houses being set on fire by its means, which is the
reason why Camden calls it Incendiaria avis.” -
THE MAGPIE.3%
THE Magpies are of smaller dimensions than the crows, properly so called, and their tails, instead of
being either round or square, are long and graduated. Their dispositions, however, are equally
omnivorous, and they are distinguished by the same sly and furtive cunning. There is only a single
European species, our common British kind (Corvus Pica : Linnaeus), which occurs all over Europe,
and is well known in North America and in some parts of Asia. Many beautiful species occur in
China, and other eastern countries; such, for example, as the red-billed pie (Pica erythrorhyncha :
Gould). Its size exceeds that of our common kind, and the great length of its tail bestows upon it a
still more slender and elegant aspect. The prevailing colours are blue, with bars of black and white.
It is often kept in aviaries, where it is highly esteemed on account both of its docility and beauty.
This species, likewise, inhabits the Himalaya mountains, and there is reason to believe that it is fierce
and tyrannical in a state of nature. Mr. Shore states, that one which he kept in captivity, although
it refused other food, pounced ferociously upon living birds, which were presented by way of experi-
ment, and eagerly devoured them. When seen amid the foliage of trees, it forms an ornamental and
conspicuous object, flitting from bough to bough, its long and flowing tail waving in the wind, and its
whole form full of vivacity and grage. The Chinese magpie (Pica sinensis), made -known by the
researches of General Hardwicke, seems widely extended over tracts of land of very various character
as to height and situation. It inhabits the higher portions of the Himalayas, the plains of their base,
and a great part of the Chinese empire.
“This bird,” says Sir J. Richardson, “so common in Europe, is equally plentiful in the prairie-lands
of America ; but it is singular, that though it abounds on the shores of Sweden, and other maritime
parts of the Old World, it is very rare on the Atlantic coasts of America, or near Hudson's Bay; only
stray individuals passing to the eastward of the Mississippi or Lake Winnipeg. Mr. Say informs us
that it winters on the Missouri, and takes its departure northward on the 23rd of March. It does not
entirely quit the banks of the Saskatchewan even in winter, but is much more frequent in summer.
On comparing its eggs with those of the European bird, they are found to be larger and narrower;
and though the colours are the same, the blotches are larger and more diffused. The manners of the
American bird are precisely the same as those we are accustomed to observe in the English one.” Mr.
Swainson adds, that he has been able to compare English and Arctic specimens with one from the
interior of China, communicated to him by Dr. Gray, so eminent in zoology and botany, and that he
cannot perceive the slightest difference to indicate a variety, much less a species.
The common magpie is the type of Cuvier's sub-genus of Pica, distinguished by the convex upper
mandible, and the long and cuneiform tail. This, in the magpie, has the two middle feathers of the
same length, but the side feathers decrease rapidly in succession; about the neck the feathers are loose,
It is one of the most beautiful species of this country, but loses much of its lustre in a state of
captivity. The magpie is very common in England, and feeds both on animal and vegetable substances,
frequently killing young ducks and chickens. It is said also occasionally to pick out the eyes of
lambs, hares, &c., if weak; it also eats insects, fruits, and even grain.
No birds display more industry in the construction of their nests; they generally select the
summit of the highest trees, especially if standing alone or in a row ; but in forests or very retired
situations, they sometimes choose a mere bush for the purpose. The male and female begin this work
together in February, placing the nest not, like the rook, in full sight of all from the ground, but so
enveloped and surrounded with branches, that when the leaves appear the nest is concealed. Thus—
“The thievish pie, in two-fold colours clad,
Roofs o'er her curious nest with fern-wreath'd twigs,
And side-long forms her curious door: she dreads
The talon'd kite, or pouncing hawk: savage
Herself—with craft suspicion ever dwells.”
The nest is made of small branches well interlaced together, leaving an aperture only in the side.
The bottom of the nest is furnished with a matting of soft and flexible roots; and although the
* Corvus pica: Linn.
200 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
diameter of the inside of the nest does not much exceed six inches, it is upwards of two feet on the
outside. It is said to occupy the birds two months to build this nest, and M. Vieillot has observed,
that if the nest is destroyed, or the birds are prevented-from finishing it, they either content themselves
with an old nest of their own species, or take to an old crow's nest after repairing the outside. The
same gentleman has also noticed that, at the early part of the breeding season, each pair of these birds
begin more nests than one, though they finish that only in which the eggs are deposited.
Ordinarily they have but one brood in a year; but if their young be destroyed, they will some-
times have a second and even a third. The eggs, seven or eight in number, are yellowish-white
spotted with brown or gray. The male and female sit alternately, and the incubation continues about
fourteen days. The young are born blind, and remain so several days. The parents display great care
of them, and continue their attentions a considerable time.
“Whilst I was travelling in Scotland,” says the Rev. John Hall, “as I was one day amusing
myself with the objects within my view, on the road between Huntley and Portsoy, I observed two
magpies hopping round a gooseberry bush, in a small garden, near a poor-looking house, in a peculiar
manner, and flying out and into the bush. I stepped aside to see what they were doing, and found,
from the poor man and his wife, that as there are no trees all around for some miles, these magpies,
during several succeeding years, had built their nest, and brought up their young, in this bush; and
that foxes, cats, hawks, and other creatures might not interrupt them, they had barricaded, not only
their nest, but had encircled the bush with briers and thorns in a formidable manner; nay, so
completely, that it would have cost even a fox, cunning as he is, some days’ labour to get into
the nest.
“The materials in the inside of the nest were soft, warm, and comfortable ; but all on the outside
so rough, so strong, and firmly entwined with the bush, that without a hedge-knife, hatch-bill, or
something of the kind, even a man could not, without much pain and trouble, get at their young; for
from the outside to the inside of the nest extended as long as my arm.
“They fed the young brood with frogs, mice, worms, or anything living within their power to
subdue. It once happened that one of the magpies having seized a rat, which it was not able to kill,
one of the young ones came out of the nest to its mother and the rat, while they were fighting on the
outside of the bush, and assisted her to kill it, which they were not able to accomplish, till the father,
arriving with a dead mouse, also lent his aid. * * º
“These magpies had been faithful to one another for several summers, and drove off their young,
as well as every one else that attempted to take possession of their nest. This they carefully repaired
and fortified in the spring, with strong, rough, prickly sticks, that they sometimes brought to it by
uniting their force, one at each end pulling it along, when they were not able to lift it from the
ground.” * -
Many of the poets allude to the noisy and pert habits of this bird. Thus Gisborne says, in his
“Walks in a Forest"—
“From bough to bough the restless magpie roves,
And chatters as she flies; ” -
* º º - f º e e e
and Chaucer, in his “Canterbury Tales,” thus gives two traits of the miller's wife—
Y.
“And she was proud and pert as is a pie.”
It is related that an eminent physician attended a sick child in a very humble family, until she was
restored to health, when a domestic conference took place as to what acknowledgment could be offered
for his kindness. It was determined at length that the mother should present to him their favourite
bird—a magpie-which was indeed all she had to give. She therefore promptly undertook the task,
and duly expressing their sense of obligation, expatiated on the qualities of the wonderful bird, and on
the affection they, all had for him. Here, however, was a difficulty: to accept the bird would be
to admit a pest into the doctor's quiet home; to refuse it would, under the circumstances, inflict pain;
but the difficulty was at once surmounted by the physician's shrewdness and kindness. “I am much
obliged to you, my good woman,” he said; “he is certainly a very handsome and Sagacious bird, and
you shall have a shilling a week for keeping it for me.”
Alluding to the use of magpies in hawking, Sir John Sebright says: “Nothing can be more
w
201
THE MAGPIE.
ºº！®.
TIL E MAGPIE.
1-2
WOL. III,

202 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
animating than this sport ; it is, in my opinion, far superior to every other kind of hawking. The
object of the chase is fully a match for its pursuers—a requisite absolutely necessary to give an interest
to any sport of this kind; and it has the advantage of giving full employment to the company, which
is not the case in partridge hawking. A down or common, where low trees or thorn bushes are
dispersed at the distance of from thirty to fifty yards apart, is the place best calculated for this
diversion. When a magpie is seen at a distance, a hawk is immediately to be cast off. The
magpie will take refuge in a bush the moment he sees the falcon, and will remain there until
the falcon arrives, with the hawk waiting on in the air. The magpie is to be driven from his
retreat ; and the hawk, if at a good pitch, will stoop at him as he passes to another bush,
from whence he is to be driven in the same way, another hawk having been previously cast
off, so that one or the other may always be so situated as to attack him to advantage. The second
hawk is necessary, for the magpie shifts with great cunning and dexterity to avoid the stoop; and when
hard pressed, owing to the bushes being rather far apart, will pass under the bellies of the horses,
flutter along a cart-rut, and avail himself of every little inequality of the ground in order to escape.
Four or five assistants, besides the falconer, who should attend solely to his hawks, are required for this
sport. They should be well mounted, and provided with whips; for the magpie cannot be driven from
a bush by a stick; but the crack of a whip will force him to leave it, even when he is so tired as hardly
to be able to fly. The magpie will always endeavour to make his way to some strong cover; care,
therefore, must be taken to counteract him, and to drive him to that part of the ground where the
bushes are furthest from each other. It is not easy to take a magpie in a hedge. Some of the
horsemen must be on each side of it; some must ride behind, and
some before him; for unless compelled to rise, by being surrounded on
all sides, he will flutter along the hedge, so as to shelter himself from
the stoop of the falcon. Many requisites are necessary to afford
this sport in perfection :-a favourable country, good hawks, and able
assistants.”
With the Pies is usually placed the Pisa vagabunda, a species
found in the East.
The Ternia have, with the carriage and tail of the Pies, an elevated bill, with the upper mandible
gibbous, and the base furnished with velvety feathers, almost like the Birds of Paradise.
PICA WAGAIBUNDA.—VIEILLOT.
THE RICE-BIRD.”
THIs well-known bird, called also the Paddy Bird, Paddee Bird, or Java Sparrow, whose plumage is
well described by Buffon as being so well arranged that no one feather passes another, whilst all
appear covered with that kind of bloom which is visible on plums, giving them a beautiful tint, has
the bill very much developed.
Its plumage is bloomy lead-coloured; the head and tail are black;sthe bill is red; the cheeks in
the male, snowy ; and the legs of a flesh colour. In Java and other parts of Asia it is in bad repute,
on account of the ravages it commits in the rice-fields, with its powerful and sharp bill. It is often
brought alive to this country, and confined in aviaries, for the sake of its elegant shape and graceful
hues; but its song is short and Inonotonous. •
One family of Tenuirostral birds consists of the Honey-Suckers. They are chiefly confined to
Australia, where they abound in every variety of form, and in an apparently inexhaustible multitude of
species, finding, as they do, a sufficiºpt and never-failing support in the luxuriant vegetation of that
country.
THE HONEY-SUCKER OF NEW HOLLAND.t
“THIs bird,” says Mr. Caley, “is most frequently met with in the trees growing in scrubs, where
the different species of Banksia are found, the flowers of which, I have reason to think, afford it a
sustenance during winter. In the summer I have shot it when sucking the flowers of Leptospermum
Jiavesceus. In the scrubs about Paramatta it is very common.”
* Loxia oryzivora: Linnaeus. f Meliphagidae. f Meliphaga Novae Hollardiae.

THE GREAT EMERALD DIRD OF PARADISE.4
THE genus Paradisea contains the famous Birds of Paradise, so noted during our early intercourse with
Eastern countries. The bill is straight, compressed, rather strong, unnotched, the nostrils surrounded
THE RICE BIRD.
by a close tissue of feathers of a velvet texture, sometimes resplendent with metallic lustre. The birds
are native to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, and in consequence of the delicately graceful
structure of their plumage, and the pure and beautifully blended colours by which they are adorned,
* Paradisea major.

204 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
the species in general may be regarded as the most highly prized of all the feathered race. Their
history was long obscure as night, and even now we have but few features of their character developed
by the actual observation of trustworthy witnesses. *
In the second edition of Pennant’s “Indian Zoology,” there is a general description of the genus
from Valentyn and other writers, by Dr. J. R. Forster, preceded by a learned disquisition on the
fabulous phoenix of antiquity, a bird of the size of an eagle, decorated with gold and purple plumes,
and more particularly described by Pliny as being characterised by the splendour of gold around the
neck, with the rest of the body purple, the tail blue, varied with rose colour, the face adorned with
combs or wattles, and the head furnished with a crest. This excellently adorned phoenix Dr. Forster
very properly supposes to have been no other than a symbolical Egyptian illustration of the annual
revolution of the sun, and the conversion of the great year, which, according to Manilius, corresponds
with the supposed life of the phoenix, and from which period the same course of seasons and position of
the heavenly bodies is renewed. Now, though it is certain, as Dr. Forster observes, that the bird of
paradise was never known to ancient writers, and that whatever the Egyptian priests delivered
concerning their fabulous phoenix has no apparent agreement with the birds in question, yet it is
remarkable enough that the names applied to them, both by Indian and European nations, attributes
something of a supposed celestial origin. Dr. Shaw, however, thinks that this notion has, in all
probability, arisen merely from their transcendent beauty, and the singular and delicate disposition of
their plumage. The Portuguese who navigated to the Indian islands called them Passaros da Sol, in
like manner as the Egyptians regarded their imaginary bird as symbolising the annual revolution of
that great luminary. The inhabitants of the island of Ternate call them Manuco Dewata, or the birds
Df God. --- *
The birds of paradise have great diversity of beauty. Some of them have thinly-barbed feathers
to cover the closed wing, so prolonged as to form immense tufts, and extending far backward beyond
the body. There are, also, in general, barbless filaments attached, which are even more elongated than
the airy lateral plumes. Some, also, have thinly-webbed feathers on the flanks, but they are short ;
while another class have neither elongated filaments nor lateral tufts.
The most fanciful conjectures have been entertained in reference to the habits of these birds. By
some they have been regarded as inhabitants of the air, living only on the dew of heaven, and never
touching the surface of this terrestrial sphere; and others, while believing they never rested on the
ground, have considered that they subsisted on insects. Some have ranked them among the birds of
prey, and others—including Buffon—asserted that they had no feet, and could neither walk nor swim,
and were incapable of any other means of progression except by flight.
Some little mystery beclouded the views of many, in consequence of the fact that the people of the
islands from whence the bird of paradise was first obtained have paid little regard to the study of
natural history. The fact is, that its legs being large and strong, and neither ornamental nor required
in the skins made up for general commerce, were cut off; while the natives, thus concealing what they
regarded as a deformity, considered themselves entitled to augment their demands when they offered
the bird for sale. The purchaser of it in Europe naturally inquired for the legs of which it was
destitute, and the seller began to think that it could have none. Having arrived at this satisfactory
conclusion, it was a necessary inference that a bird without legs must live in the air, which would
render them unnecessary ; the extraordinary beauty of the plumage added to the deception, and as it
was considered to have “heavenly beauty,” it was thought also to have a “heavenly residence.” In
accordance with this view its name was given, and the false reports which have been propagated on
the subject have thus arisen. Henceºl innaeus and the older writers styled the bird apoda, or footless,
although the man who introduced the bird to scientific observation in Europe distinctly stated that it
was in no prominent respect different from other birds.
The true residence, or breeding-place, of these birds seems to be Papua, or New Guinea, from
whence they make occasional excursions to some smaller neighbouring islands. They fly in flocks of
about thirty or forty, led, it is alleged, by a single bird, which the natives call their king, but which is
said to be of a different species. It is further pretended, that when this bird settles the whole flight
settle also, in consequence of which they sometimes perish, being unable to rise again, owing to the
peculiar structure of their win gs. They also always fly against the wind, lest their plumage should be
*
THE GREAT EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE. 205
discomposed. While flying they make a noise like starlings, but their common cry rather resembles
that of a raven, and is very audible in windy weather, when they dread the chance of being thrown
upon the ground. In the Aru Islands they are seen to perch on lofty trees, and are variously captured
by the inhabitants, with bird-lime snares and blunted arrows. Though many are taken alive, they
THE HONEY SUCRER.
are always killed immediately, embowelled, the feet cut off, the plumed skins fumigated with sulphur
and then dried for sale. The Dutch ships frequenting the sea between New Guinea and Aru, a
distance of about twenty miles, not unfrequently observe flocks of paradise birds crossing from one to
the other of these places, but constantly against the wind. Should a gale arise, they ascend to a great

206 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
height, into the regions of perpetual calm, and there pursue their journey. With respect to their food,
we have little certain information from the older authors, some of whom assert they prey on small
birds, a supposition which Dr. Shaw inclines to think is favoured by their strength of bills and legs,
and the vigour with which they act in self-defence. They are said also to feed on fruits and berries;
and Linnaeus says they devour the larger butterflies.
A recent account of these birds in a state of nature is given by M. Lesson, who, though he deeply
laments his short stay at New Guinea, only thirteen days, appears to have turned his visit to singular
advantage.
“The birds of paradise,” he says, “ or at least the emerald (Paradisaea apoda, Linn.), the only
species concerning which we possess authentic intelligence, live in troops in the vast forests of the
Papuans, a group of islands situated under the equator, and which is composed of the islands Arou,
Wagiou, and the great island called New Guinea. They are birds of passage, changing their quarters
according to the monsoons. The females congregate in troops, assemble upon the tops of the highest
trees in the forest, and all cry together to call the males. These last are always alone in the midst of
some fifteen females, which compose their seraglio, after the manner of the gallinaceous birds.” M.
Lesson then gives the following extract from his journal written on the spot. After observing that
the birds of paradise, with the exception of two species, were brought to the corvette, La Coquille, by
the Papuans, and that the quantity afforded reason for supposing that these birds, so esteemed in
Europe, were singularly multiplied in these countries, he thus continues:–“The manucode presented
1tself twice in our shooting excursions, and we killed the male and female. This species would seem to
be monogamous, or perhaps it is only separated into pairs at the period of laying. In the woods, this
bird has no brilliancy; its fine coloured plumage is not discovered, and the tints of the female are dull.
It loves to take its station on the teak-trees (arbres de teck), whose ample foliage shelters it, and whose
Small fruit forms its nourishment. Its irides are brown, and the feet are a delicate azure. The
Papuans call it ‘saya.”
“Soon after our arrival at this land of promise (New Guinea) for the naturalist, I was on a shoot-
ing excursion. Scarcely had I walked some hundred paces in those ancient forests, the daughters of
time, whose sombre depth was perhaps the most magnificent and stately sight that I had ever seen,
when a bird of paradise struck my view : it flew gracefully and in undulations; the feathers of its
sides formed an elegant and aerial plume, which, without exaggeration, bore no remote resemblance to
a brilliant meteor. Surprised, astounded, enjoying an inexpressible gratification, I devoured this
splendid bird with my eyes; but my emotion was so great that I forgot to shoot at it, and did not
recollect that I had a gun in my hand till it was far away. One scarcely has a just idea of the paradise
birds from the skins which the Papuans sell to the Malays, and which come to us in Europe. The
people formerly hunted the birds to decorate the turbans of their chiefs. They call them mambéfore
in their tongue, and kill them during the night by climbing the trees where they perch, and shooting
them with arrows made for the purpose, and very short, which they make with the stem (rachis) of the
leaves of a palm (latanier). The campongs, or villages of Mappia and of Emberbakène are celebrated
for the quantity of birds which they prepare, and all the art of the inhabitants is directed to taking off
their feet, skinning, thrusting a little stick through the body, and drying it in the smoke. Some more
adroit, at the solicitation of the Chinese merchants, dry them with the feet on. The price of a bird of
paradise among the Papuans of the coast is a piastre at least. We killed during our stay at New
Guinea a score of these birds, which I prepared for the most part. The emerald, when alive, is of the
size of a common jay ; its beak and its feet are bluish ; the irides are of a brilliant yellow ; its motions
are lively and agile ; and, in general, it never perches except upon the summit of the most lofty trees.
When it descends, it is for the purpose of eating the fruits of the lesser trees, or when the sun in full
power compels it to seek the shade. It has a fancy for certain trees, and makes the neighbourhood
re-echo with its piercing voice. The cry became fatal, because it indicated to us the movements of the
bird. We were on the watch for it, and it was thus that we came to kill these birds; for when a male
bird of paradise has perched, and hears a rustling in the silence of the forest, he is silent, and does not
move. His call is voike, voike, voike, voiko, strongly articulated. The cry of the female is the same,
but she raises it much more feebly. The latter, deprived of the brilliant plumage of the male, is clad
in sombre attire. We met with them, assembled in scores, on every tree, while the males, always
solitary appeared but rarely. .
THE GREAT EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE. 207
“It is at the rising and setting of the sun that the bird of paradise goes to seek its food. In the
middle of the day it remains hidden under the ample foliage of the teak-tree, and comes not forth.
He seems to dread the scorching rays of the sun, and to be unwilling to expose himself to the attacks
of a rival. - -
“In order to shoot birds of paradise, travellers who visit New Guinea should remember that it is
necessary to leave the ship early in the morning, to arrive at the foot of a teak-tree or fig-tree, which
these birds frequent for the sake of their fruit (our stay was from the 26th of July to the 9th of
August) before half-past four, and to remain motionless till some of the males, urged by hunger, light
upon the branches within range. It is indispensably requisite to have a gun which will carry very far
ºº
º
S.
THE GREAT EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE.
with effect, and that the grains of shot should be large; for it is very difficult to kill an emerald out-
right, and if he be only wounded it is very seldom that he is not lost in thickets so dense that there
is no finding the way without a compass.
“The little emerald paradise bird feeds, no doubt, on many substances in a state of liberty.
I can affirm that it lives on the seeds of the teak-tree, and on a fruit called amihow, of a rosy-white hue,
* and mucilaginous, of the size of a small European fig, and which belongs to a tree of the genus
cus.”
M. Lesson then goes on to state, that he saw two birds of paradise which had been kept in a cage
for more than six months by the principal Chinese merchant at Amboyna. They were always in
motion, and were fed with boiled rice, but they had a special fondness for cockroaches (blata).













208 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Bennett, in his “Wanderings,” gives the following account of a bird of paradise” which he found in
Mr. Beale's aviary at Macao, where it had been confined nine years, exhibiting no appearance of age —
“This elegant creature has a light, playful, and graceful manner, with an arch and impudent look;.
dances about when a visitor approaches the cage, and seems delighted at being made an object of
admiration ; its notes are very peculiar, resembling the cawing of the raven, but its tones are by far
more varied. During four months of the year, from May to August, it moults. It washes itself
regularly twice daily, and, after having performed its ablutions, throws its delicate feathers up nearly
over the head, the quills of which feathers have a peculiar structure, so as to enable the bird to effect
this object. Its food during confinement is boiled rice mixed up with soft egg, together with plan-
tains, and living insects of the grasshopper tribe; these insects when thrown to him the bird contrives
to catch in his beak with great celerity; it will eat insects in a living state, but will not touch them
when dead.
“I observed the bird, previously to eating a grasshopper given him in an entire and unmutilated
state, place the insect upon the perch, keep it firmly fixed with the claws, and, divesting it of the legs,
wings, &c., devour it, with the head always placed first. The servant who attends upon him to clean
the cage gives him food, &c., strips off the legs, wings, &c., of the insects when alive, giving them to the
bird as fast as he can devour them. It rarely alights upon the ground, and so proud is the creature of
its elegant dress, that it never permits a soil to remain upon it, and it may frequently be seen spreading
out its wings and feathers, and regarding its splendid self in every direction, to observe whether the
whole of its plumage is in an unsullied condition. It does not suffer from the cold weather during the
winter season at Macao, though exposing the elegant bird to the bleak northerly winds is always very
particularly avoided. Mr. Beale is very desirous of procuring a living female, if possible, to breed them
in his aviary.
“The sounds uttered by this bird are very peculiar; that which appears to be a note of congratu-
lation resembles somewhat the cawing of the raven, but changes to a varied scale of musical gradations,
as, he, hi, ho, haw, repeated rapidly and frequently, as lively and playfully he hops round and along
his perch, descending to the second perch to be admired, and congratulate the stranger who has made
a visit to inspect him ; he frequently raises his voice, sending forth notes of such power as to be heard
at a long distance, and as it could scarcely be supposed so delicate a bird could utter; these notes are,
whock, whock, whock, whock, uttered in a barking tone, the last being uttered in a low tone as a
conclusion.
“A drawing of the bird, of the natural size, was made by a Chinese artist. The bird advanced
steadily towards the picture, uttering at the same time its cawing, congratulatory notes; it did not appear
excited by rage, but pecked gently at the representation, jumping about the perch, knocking its man-
dibles together with a clattering noise, and cleaning them against the perch, as if welcoming the arrival
of a companion. After the trial of the picture, a looking-glass was brought, to see what effect it would
produce upon the bird, and the effect was nearly the same ; he regarded the reflection of himself most
steadfastly in the mirror, never quitting it during the time it remained before him. When the glass
was removed from the lower to the upper perch, he instantly followed, but would not descend upon the
floor of the cage when placed so low.
“One of the best opportunities of seeing this splendid bird in all the beauty of action, as well as
display of plumage, is early in the morning, when he makes his toilet; the beautiful sub-alar plumage
is then thrown out, and cleaned from any spot that may sully its purity by being passed gently through
the bill; the short chocolate-coloured wings are extended to the utmost, and he keeps them in a steady
flapping motion, as if in imitation of their use in flight, at the same time raising up the delicate long
‘eathers over the back, which are spread in a chaste and elegant manner, floating like films in the
ambient air. *
“I never yet beheld a soil on its feathers. After expanding its wings, it would bring them
together so as to conceal the head, then bending it gracefully, it would inspect the state of its plumage
underneath. This action it repeats in quick succession, uttering at the time its croaking notes; it
then pecks and cleans its plumage in every part within reach, and throwing out the elegant and delicate
* Paradisaea apoda.
THE GREAT EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE. 209
tuft of feathers underneath the wings, seemingly with much care, and with not a little pride, they are
cleaned in succession, if required, by throwing them abroad, elevating them, and passing them in
succession through the bill. Then turning its back to the spectator, the actions above-mentioned are
repeated, but not in so careful a man-
ner; elevating its tail and long shaft-
feathers, it raises the delicate plumage
of a similar character to the sub-alar,
forming a beautiful dorsal crest, and
throwing its feathers up with much
grace, appears as proud as a lady
dressed in herfull ball-dress. Having
e { ISAEA REGIA. & F AST LARIs.”
C ompl eted the toilet, he utters the HEAD OF PARAD REGIA HEAD OF ASTRAPIA GULARIS
usual cawing notes, at the same time looking archly at the spectators, as if ready to receive all the
admiration that it considers its elegant form and display of plumage demand; it then takes exercise
by hopping, in a rapid but graceful manner, from one end of the upper perch to the other, and
descends suddenly upon the second perch close to the bars of the cage, looking out for the grass-
hoppers which it is accustomed to receive at this time.
“His prehensile power in the feet is very strong, and still retaining his hold, the bird will turn
T himself round upon the perch. He
delights to be sheltered from the glare
of the Sun, as that luminary is a great
Source of annoyance to him if per-
mitted to dart its ferventrays directly
upon the cage. The iris frequently,
* * * *t by expanding and contracting, adds
to the arch look of this animated bird, as he throws the head on one side to glance at visitors, uttering
the cawing notes or barking aloud. . . . . . Having concluded, he jumps down to the lower
perch in search of donations of living grasshoppers. * {.
“This bird is not at all ravenous in its habits of feeding, but it eats rice leisurely, almost grain by
grain. Should any of the insects thrown into his cage fall upon the floor, he will not descend to them,
appearing to be fearful that in so doing he should soil his delicate plumage; he therefore seldom or
ever descends, except to perform his ablutions in the pan of water placed at the bottom of the cage
expressly for his use.”
HEAD OF PARADISAEA VIRIDIS.
THE GREATER BIRD OF PARADISE.f
THIS is an exceedingly graceful bird. The long plumes with which it is ornamented prevents its flying
except against the wind; for this, if blowing in the course of the bird, would not only disorder these
feathers, but, acting on them like sails, they would drive the bird along with irresistible rapidity.
These birds abstain altogether from flight during a storm, which would inevitably hurl them to the
ground. When on the wing they are noisy, like starlings; but their common cry is said rather to
resemble the croaking of ravens, and is particularly audible when, in somewhat windy weather, the
incumbrance of their long feathers brings them into imminent danger of falling.
In the Aru Islands they are said to perch on the highest trees, and are taken by the inhabitants
with bird-lime or blunt arrows. When taken alive, they defend themselves with their bills, pecking
and biting with great resolution. In size this bird is larger than a thrush. The general colour is a
deep cinnamon, with the exception of the top of the head and the back of the neck, which are yellow ;
the feathers which encircle the base of the beak as far as the eyes, and cover the whole of the throat,
are like velvet, and of a deep emerald-green. In the male, there springs from each side of the chest a
full plume, from sixteen to eighteen inches long, composed of slender shafts, with fine, loose, delicate
webs; in some specimens they are bright yellow at the base, fading gradually into straw-colour; in
others they are paler. From the tail-coverts spring two slender, naked shafts of great length, which
* Wieillot. + Lesson, : Par.d.saea major.
WOL. III, 123


210 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
taper gradually to a point, and are of a deep cinnamon-brown. These elegant appendages are said to
be lost during four months of the year. In all probability, as in the instance of the whidah-birds and
others, these feathers are the decorations of the breeding season—the period in which all birds put on
their gayest and most brilliant attire.
THE MAGNIFICENT BIRD OF PARADISE."
THIS is a richly-coloured species; it is of an orange-chestnut colour above, the top of the head and the
back being deeper than the rest. The former, in some species, inclines to purple; the tips of the wings
and tail are brown; the throat is blackish, with a purple gloss. The breast and under parts are covered
with scale-shaped feathers, of a deep, changeable, golden-green colour, having down the breast a blue
reflection. A double ruff, composed of slender plumes, with slightly-detached extremities, springs from
the back of the neck. *
The first series are short and orange-coloured, with a black spot at the end of each; the others are
larger and pale yellow. The wing-coverts are orange-coloured, with transverse blackish crescents.
From the tail-coverts spring two long, slender shafts of golden-green. In size this bird is somewhat
inferior to the greater bird of Paradise.
THE KING BIRD OF PARADISE.}
• THIS is one of the smallest and rarest of this delightful group. It is about the size of a sparrow.
Above, it is of an intense purplish-chestnut, and beneath it is white. A zone of golden-green extends
across the chest ; from the sides spring two fan-like plumes, consisting of six or seven dusky feathers,
with the richest golden green. From the tail-coverts spring two long, slender shafts, each elegantly
terminating in a broad emerald web, rising from one side only of the shaft, and disposed into a flat
spiral curl. The beak and legs are yellowish-brown.
We give, in addition to the birds now described, representations of the heads of a few others
which, with the whole of the species, will reward all the attention they receive.
THE HORNBILLS.f
ANOTHER family comprises the Buceridae, or the Hornbills, birds of extraordinary appearance, confined
to India and Africa. The species are characterised by their enormous bills, toothed along their edges,
and frequently surmounted by an additional horny structure, which bestows on them a very striking
and peculiar physiognomy. These excrescences vary considerably with the age of the individual, and are
scarcely perceptible in the very young birds. The hornbills may be said to resemble the toucans in their
heads, the crows in their general habits, and other of the feathered tribes in the form of their feet. Their
tongue is very small. These birds may be regarded as omnivorous, as they feed indifferently on fruits,
mice, small birds, reptiles, and even carcases. . They exhibit an awkward and uncommon aspect
while in the act of flying, in consequence of the great size of their beaks and lengthened tails; and
altogether their appearance is extremely uncouth. Perhaps one of the most singular features in their
economy consists in their feeding greedily, and without injury, on the seeds of nua, vomica.
The large bills of these birds are not solid, but of a cancellated internal structure. As the process
or appendage to this instrument does not exhibit its genuine form till the full growth of the bird, and
the difference between the males and females is very considerable, the determination of the species has
been attended with no small degree of difficulty. Buffon has not failed to descant on the mal-conforma-
tion of the bill, and on its liability to bruises and fractures; but he was not aware of the fact that these
injuries are annually repaired by an inherent reproductive power, so that even the missing serratures
are replaced at every moulting. These birds walk little and awkwardly, and generally perch on trees,
especially such as are dead, in the hollows of which they breed.
* Paradisaea magnifica. f Paradisaea regia. † Buceridae.
*.
THE RHINOCEROS HORNBILL.”
THIs bird is black; the tail is tipped with white; the beak yellowish and recurved, the casque is red
above; the general size is that of a hen turkey, but more slender in proportion; the extent of wing is
nearly four feet; the neck is of moderate length; and the tail is slightly cuneated. The plumage is
black, but exhibiting, when exposed to a strong light, a slight bluish gloss; but the lower part of the
abdomen and the tail are white. The bill measures about ten inches in length, and is of a slightly
curved form, sharp pointed, serrated in a somewhat irregular manner on the edges, and furnished at the
base of the upper mandible with an extremely large process, continued for a considerable space in a
parallel direction with the bill, and then turned upwards in a contrary direction, in the style of a
reverted horn. This appendage, which is eight inches long and four in width at the base, is divided
into two portions by a longitudinal black line. Though apparently a formidable weapon, this singular
bill is by no means so in reality; for LeVaillant assures us, that he often put his hand into it without
feeling the slightest pain, though the bird exerted all its endeavours to wound him. The young is
destitute of the horn-like excrescence on the bill. *
This species occurs in the Philippine islands, in Java, Sumatra, and various countries of India.
The individuals belonging to it have a melancholy, wild air, a heavy gait, hop instead of walking, and
are of a timid and stupid disposition. In a wild state they live on flesh and carrion, and are known to
accompany the hunters of bears, wild cows, and stags, to pick up the intestines, and other refuse of
these animals, which are assigned to them. In Sumatra, when kept in confinement, they are fed on rice
and soft meats; and in various parts of India they are domesticated for the purpose of catching rats
and mice. When they have got one of the latter, they squeeze it in their bill to soften it, throw it up
in the air, and then receive it entire into their capacious gullet. That described by Le Vaillant never
manifested anything like sprightliness, but when its food was presented, it advanced with extended
wings, and uttered a slight scream of joy. It was fed with biscuits steeped in water, flesh either raw
or dressed, rice, &c. When presented with some newly-killed small birds, it readily swallowed them
entire, after bruising them for some time in its bill.
THE UNICORN HORNBILL.f
THIS bird is slightly crested; the abdomen is black, and the sides of the tail-feathers white ; the bill is
yellowish, with compressed casque, black above, and pointed in front. The Unicorn Hornbill is about
the size of a raven, and its outstretched wings measure nearly three feet. The female is rather smaller
than the male, and has the casque less elevated, and its point less prominent.
These birds frequent high woods, perching on large trees, especially on the dead boughs. They
nestle in the hollows of decayed trunks, and lay about four eggs, of a dirty white. The young are at
first quite naked, and their bills have merely a slight ridge, three or four lines high, and which is not
clearly defined till the space of three months, when they take their flight, and the point does not project
till they are fully grown and have assumed their mature plumage. This part, it has been remarked, is
subject to frequent accidents from striking against the branches of trees, when the bird is endea-
vouring to detach the bark, in order to obtain the insects, small lizards, and tree-frogs which lurk
beneath. The individual described by Buffon hopped with both feet at once, forwards and sideways,
like a magpie or jay. When at rest, its head seemed to recline on its shoulders; when molested, it
swelled, and raised itself with an air of boldness, but its general gait was dull and heavy. It swallowed
raw flesh, and would also eat lettuces, which it first bruised with its bill. It caught rats, and devoured
a small bird that was thrown to it alive. Its ordinary voice was a short, hoarse croak : and it likewise
uttered at intervals a sound exactly similar to the clucking of a hen. It was fond of warmth, spread:
its wings to the sun, and shivered at a passing cloud or gale. It lived only three months, dying before.
the end of the summer.
THE CRESCENT HORNBILL.I.
THIS hornbill is black; the tip of the tail is white; the bill is yellowish, and the casque is lunated
upwards. It is about the size of the preceding bird, which it considerably resembles; but the casque
* Buceros rhinoceros; Linnaeus, + Buceros monoceros: Shaw.—Buceros Malabaricus. Latham.
f Buceros Niger; Vieillot.
212 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
of the bill is shaped like a crescent or boat, longitudinally affixed by its bottom to the ridge of the upper
mandible. It is not concave at the top, but flattened, and the two ends rise up, the one before the
other, behind the base of the mandible; that in front somewhat exceeding the length of the other. It
is a native of Java, where it is said to frequent large woods, uniting in troops, in order to devour
carrion. The female wants the patch of red-brown between the shoulders which characterises the male,
and is besides somewhat smaller than the latter.
THE CONCAWE HORNBILL.º.
This is a most remarkable bird, the largest of the species. The beak, from the eye to the tip, measures
one foot; the distance from the eye to the end of the tail is three feet four inches. Of this we give, in
a large engraving, a very striking and accurate
representation. Active and alert, notwithstanding
the magnitude of its beak, this bird lightly traverses
the trees of the forest, which resounds with its roar.
The body is muscular and vigorous; the tail is large ;
the wings rounded; the colour is black and white;
the feathers about the cheeks and back of the neck are
loose and hair-like ; and the bill is yellowish, with a
tinge of scarlet.
The African hornbill (Buceros Africanus) is en-
tirely black, and nearly as large as a turkey. The
crowned species (Buceros coronatus) is a much smaller
bird, scarcely equalling the size of a magpie. Le
Vaillant saw a flock of more than five hundred of
these birds, in company with crows and vultures,
preying on the remains of slaughtered elephants. It
is here accurately represented. A large and re-
markable Indian species has been of late years
described by Mr. Hodgson. It measures four
feet five inches from tip to tip of the wings, and
is three feet six inches in length. Its body exceeds
that of the largest raven, but is very lean and
incompact. It is believed to feed chiefly on fruits,
although it will seize upon reptiles when pressed
by hunger. Its freedom from any offensive smell,
and the excellence of its flesh, which is much
THE CROWNED IIorº B II.L. esteemed as an article of food, go far to prove
that its habits are chiefly frugivorous. In a domestic state it will eat meat either raw or dressed.
Mr. Hodgson's specimen, however, was fed mostly on boiled rice mixed with ghee, and made into large
balls. It was never observed to take any water. Whenever it swallowed a mouthful which, on second
thoughts, it considered as somewhat too large, it immediately disgorged it for the sake of a little
additional mastication. -
f
|
º
º
THE violactious Hornbill.i.
This bird is of a violaceous black; the sides of the wing and tail-feathers are white; the billis whitish ;
the casque is compressed, obtuse in front, and marked by a black spot. It nearly resembles the unicorn
species, but is of a smaller size. When viewed in a full light, it is very richly glossed with violet,
green, and purple reflections; though, when viewed in the shade, it appears of a greenish-black. It is
a native of Ceylon. Le Vaillant mentions that he saw one which had been brought to the Cape of
Good Hope. It showed much attachment and docility to its keeper, was fed with meat, either raw or
* Buceros cavatus, + Buceros violaceus: Le Vaillant.

THE WIOLACEOUS HORNBILL, 213
dressed, and with various kinds of vegetables. It pursued, and readily caught, both rats and mice,
which it swallowed entire, after having rubbed them in its bill. Whenever * quarrel arose among
ºther birds, it immediately ran to them, and, by the strokes of its bill, enforced a suspension of
TIE CONCAVE HORNBILL.
hostilities. It even kept the larger birds in awe, and would make an ostrich take to its heels, pursuing
it half flying and half running. It imposed, in short, on the whole menagerie, more, we may presume,
by the size of its enormous bill than by any intrinsic strength or courage.

214 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE ABYSSINIAN HORNBILL.”
This bird is black, with white primary quills, the secondaries ferruginous; the bill is black, and casque
abruptly orbicular. According to Mr. Bruce, who has distinctly described this species, it is of a blackish
fuliginous hue, measuring three feet ten inches in length, and six feet in extent of wing. On the neck
are several protuberances, as in the turkey, of a light blue, changing on various occasions to red. It is
found in Abyssinia, generally among the fields of taff, feeding on the green beetles that frequent that
plant. As it has a foetid smell, it has been erroneously supposed to subsist on carrion. It usually runs
on the ground, and does not hop like most of its congeners; but, when raised, it flies both strong and
far. It is supposed to be very prolific, as it has been seen with eighteen young ones attending it. It
builds in large, thick trees, making a curious nest like that of the magpie, but four times larger than
that of the eagle, placed firm on the trunk, at no great distance from the ground, and with the entrance
always on the east side. The young, according to Le Vaillant, are of a brownish-black colour, with
the larger wing-feathers rufous-white; and such seems to have been the specimen described by Buffon.
Of the species which want the horn-like appendage, we shall notice only one.
THE RED-BILLED HORNBILL.F
BLACK and white, with a simple red bill and red legs. Size, not superior to that of a magpie ; length
rather more than twenty inches. Common in Senegal, where it is known by the name of Tock. When
young it is very simple and unsuspicious, and will suffer itself to be approached and taken; but it
gradually becomes shy as it advances in age. It frequents woods, the old birds perching on the summits
of the trees, and soaring with rapid flight, while the young generally remain in the lower parts of the
trees, sitting motionless, with the
head contracted between the shoul-
ders. In their native state they
live on wild fruits, and in confine-
ment on almost anything that is
presented to them.
TIE EURY CEROS PREVOSTII.:
THIs bird is a species inhabiting
Madagascar, and has been placed by
Lesson in a separate family.
THE CREEPERS.$
THE fourth tribe, Tenuirostres, em-
braces several groups of beautiful
and interesting birds, the greater
part of which are peculiar to the warmer regions of the globe. They are all distinguished by long
slender bills, and hence their name. They are adapted to those parts of the earth where flowers appear
in constant succession; from these they obtain their nectar, and an endless supply of the smaller insects
designed for their subsistence. We shall, therefore, proceed to trace the outline of the principal families
of the tenuirostral birds, and point out their character by some of the most prominent and interesting
examples.
The old genus, Certhia of Linnaeus, was characterised by an arched bill, yet the species possessed
but little else in common, and have been therefore formed into several minor groups. The true or
restricted creepers (Certhia: Cuvier), so called from their habit of running round the trunks of trees,
have the bill of medium length, curved, compressed, slender, sharp pointed. The tail is wedge-shaped
* Buceros Abyssinicus: Latham. + Bucerosmasatus: Linnaeus, &c. + Lesson, § Certhiadae.
EURYCEROS PIREWOSTII.

THE CREEPERS. 215
and composed of stiff deflected feathers. The British species (Certhia familiaris) is one of the smallest
of our birds. It is generally distributed over England, and is also found in Germany, Sweden,
Denmark, and the south of Europe. The North American creeper seems identical, but the numerous
other birds described as creepers do not belong to the genus Certhia. Our species is a retired inhabi-
tant of the woods, in no way conspicuous in colour, though pleasingly mottled above with black, brown,
and grayish-white; and being of small size, and seldom showing itself, is deemed rarer than it really is.
In the greater number the tail is equal. Of these we may name the superb creeper (Certhia
superba), described and figured in the magnificent work of M. Vieillot. Its length is six inches; the
crown of the head, upper part of the neck, smaller wing-coverts, back, and rump, are bright greenish-
gold; across the upper part of the breast runs a bar of bright gilded-yellow, beneath which the whole
º-
ſº
º
º
*
\
º
THE COMMON CREEPER.
under parts are deep brownish-crimson; the wings and tail are blackish-brown; the legs are also
brown; the bill is black. This beautiful species was discovered at Malimba, in Africa, by M. Perrein.
Another highly adorned species, such as limmers love to paint, and ladies to look upon, is the Certhia
splendida of Shaw (Certhia afra and loſenia: Linneus). It usually occurs in woody places, and, in
addition to its splendid plumage, is said to be worthy of admiration for its musical powers—its song
being by some esteemed equal to that of the nightingale. The spotted-breasted cinnyris (Certhia
maculata) also dwells in the forests of Malimba, and frequently approaches the habitations of the
natives, allured by the flowers of the cytisus cajan, commonly called the congo pea, which, according to
Dr. Shaw, is much cultured by the negroes. -
In some of these birds the central feathers of the tail are lengthened in the males. Such is
Certhia violacea, a Cape species, which likewise dwells in woods, and is said to build a nest of a

216 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
singularly elegant construction. In a few the bill is almost straight, as in Certhia rectirostris, Vieillot.
Our restricted limits will not admit of our expatiating on this delightful group.
THE COMMON CREEPER.3%
The Common Creeper, though of a somewhat lengthened form, is probably, with the exception of the
yellow-crested wren, the smallest-bodied British bird. It is said to feed entirely upon insects, although,
as a winter resident in many frost-bound regions, we cannot aver that it never swallows seeds. It
builds in the hollows of trees, and may be often seen during the delightful autumn, when the rustling
woods are fragrant with fallen leaves, flitting from the top of one trunk to the bottom of another,
which it ascends by a kind of spiral progression, and then darting downwards to a neighbouring tree,
it thus busily pursues from time to time its uninterrupted flight. This bird chiefly shows itself in our
shrubberies and wooded pleasure-grounds in winter. *
It inhabits not only Britain, but the Continent of Europe. It is said to migrate to Italy in
September and October. It has been particularly noticed in various parts of Germany, and is described
as inhabiting North America. Prince Musignano states that it is common and permanent near Rome
and rare near Philadelphia. # s
The creeper is a most active and restless little bird, ever on the alert, intent on picking up its food,
which it finds on the trunks and branches of trees. A constant resident in Britain, it is not easily seen
there, for its activity in shifting its position makes it very difficult to follow with the eye. One instant
it is before the spectator, and the next, from the rapidity of its passage, the intervening branch or
trunk hides the bird from his view. The form of its tail, and the structure of its feet, are exquisitely
adapted to its rapid locomotion. Its oft-repeated note is monotonous.
This bird provides a nest in the hole or behind the bark of decayed trees, formed of dry grass, and
the inner part of the bark is lined with small feathers. Here six or eight eggs are deposited. While
the female sits on these she is regularly fed by the male bird. .
THE WALL-CREEPER.f
THE habitat of this bird is the south of Europe. It is tolerably abundant in Spain and Italy, always,
however, on the most elevated rocks, and very rare on mountains of moderate height. According to
Temminck, it is never found in the north. This bird is common in
Provence, and may be seen creeping on the outer walls of St. Peter's at
Rome.
This bird does against the vertical faces of rocks what the common
creeper does on trees. To these surfaces it adheres firmly, without,
however, mounting or descending by creeping. Clefts and crevices of
rocks are its favourite haunts, and sometimes, but very rarely, the trunks of trees. It feeds on insects,
their caterpillars and chrysalises, and is particularly fond of spiders and their eggs.
The Wall-creepers moult twice in the year. In the spring only the throat of the bird is attired
in black; this ornament disappears before the other feathers fall. It is impossible to distinguish the
sexes after pairing and breeding-time. The young may be distinguished from their parents before their
first moult but in winter no difference is observable.
HEAD OF THE WALL-CREEPER.
THE BAKER.f *
THIs bird inhabits the Malouine islands. It lives on the beach, where its familiarity and fearless'
disposition permits approach till it may almost be touched with the hand. A naturalist, who sojurned
in these islands, remarks —“This bird is so tame that it will almost fly upon the finger; in less than
half an hour I killed ten with a small switch, and almost without changing my position. It scratches
in the goëmons (fucus) which the sea throws on the beach, and there eats worms and small shrimps,
which they call sea-fleas (puces de mer). Its flight is short. When disturbed, it contents itself with
flying two or three paces further off. Its habits are solitary.”
* Certhia familiaris. f Certhia muraria: Linnaeus. # Fulnarius fugilinosus

THE BAKER. . 217
The entire plumage of the bird is a clear fuliginous brown. The neck above exhibits yellow and
brown ill-defined striae. The under side of the tail is a bright gray-brown. It constructs its nest in
the form of an oven.
This bird may properly be classed among the masons, of which there are many in Britain and
America. The blackbird, the wood-robin of America, the pewit fly-catcher, and some others, employ a
portion of masonry, either on the outside or in the middle of their nests; but the material used being
chiefly mud or clay, the structure is rude and unfinished. But the Fulnarius, called “the Baker,” from
its oven-like structure, is a mason of no ordinary skill. Its nest is composed of earth, and though it
is of considerable size, it is often completed in two days labour—the male and female engaging equally
in the task, each carrying alternately a ball of mortar about the size of a filbert. It is six inches and
a half in diameter, and an inch thick. The opening, which is lateral, is twice as high as it is wide; and
THE BARER.
the interior is divided into two chambers, by a partition beginning at the entrance, and carried circularly
backwards.
THE SUN-BIRDS.*
Of this race of the feathered tribes it has been truly said:–
“Each spangled back bright sprinkled specks adorn,
Each plume imbibes the rosy tinctured morn;
Spread on each wing the florid season's glow,
Shaded and verged with the celestial bow;
Where colours blend an ever-varying dye,
And wanton in their gay exchanges vie.”
Hence it is that they are called “Sun-birds,” appearing, as they do, in extraordinary resplendence
among their generally dull-plumaged companions. It was, indeed, to be expected that some portions of
the Old World, and more particularly those under the tropics, would present forms bearing a close
alliance in their habits, and exhibiting some of the resplendent colouring which so conspicuously mark
* Soui-mangas. Cinnyris: Cuvier, Cinnyridae. Nectariniada. -
WOL. III. 124

218 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY
the plumage of the humming-birds. And these expectations, commenced by theory as a general law,
have been verified in this instance by facts, for the continents of Asia and Africa are the strongholds of
this race of fairy birds, which vie with the Trochilidae in brilliancy; and though they differ in many of
the essential parts of their structure, they still agree by holding the same place in the Ornithological
economy of the countries they inhabit.
The sun-birds are peculiarly restricted to the tropics of Asia and Africa ; but when we take the
form as a family, we shall find it extending far beyond that range, and reaching, on the one hand, to
the numerous islands in the Pacific Ocean, while, in another direction, a few members occur in South
America and the adjacent islands, in both instances forming the exception in the amount of numbers;
the form in the first being the one peculiarly taken up by the Meliphagidae, or honey-suckers; in the
latter, by numerous and abundam't species of humming-birds.
The humming-birds, although they want the wide gape and other accessories around the mouth
provisional for capturing insects in flight, in form most closely resemble the fissirostral genera, being
deficient in the members particularly adapted for perching, while they possess an extraordinary deve-
lopment of those proper for flight. The want of adaptation, however, in other members prevents the
wings being used to pursue an insect prey, though their great development is as necessary to the
manner in which they feed, by hovering above the beautiful blossoms which afford a sustenance in part
alike to them and to a host of minute insects, and also to perform the lengthened migrations which these
species are known to undertake annually. In the sun-birds, or Nectariniadae, we see no such extra-
ordinary development of wing, and their legs and feet, or, in other words, their provisions for perching,
are equal to those of the majority of the Insessores, and show at once a marked difference between the
structure of the same parts in truly fissirostral birds, where they are always extremely weak, com-
paratively unfitted for perching or settling on the ground, and where, in fact, they are constructed upon
that model which will be least incommodious to the bird in pursuing its prey with rapidity through
the air, or in performing very long migrations. The nectariferous juices of flowers have also been
considered as the chief food of the sun-birds, at least during certain seasons of the year; but we find
the manner of seeking for these to be very different from the hovering flight of the humming-birds;
the Wectariniadae always perching first, and exhibiting more similarity, in passing from blossom to
blossom, to the activity of some of our small warblers, rapidly examining the flowers of one plant, and
immediately passing off to another, uttering, during the while, a shrill and impatient call. Neither
do the species perform extensive migrations, at least where a continued flight has to be maintained.
In the Old World the change of station is chiefly from the town and coast districts to the more exalted
regions where it is possible a succession of food may be acquired; or, if the range is more extensive,
it is performed over tracts, or coastwise, where resting-places may be found during its continuance. In
both groups the bill and the tongue are inserted into the tubes, and withdraw from them the honey
and the small insects which are attracted by it. In both the mechanism of the tongue is in different
manners adapted for this mode of deriving nourishment, and in both are the members of the family
extremely numerous, social in their habits, and probably intended in their respective countries as one
of the means for the fructification of plants.
In their nidification, the sun-birds present some difference from the humming-birds, though we,
perhaps, know less about the nests and the places where their fabric is reared ; the exquisite structure
and curious small size of those of the latter being objects of request or curiosity even to many who do not
generally take an interest in such productions. Many of the sun-birds breed in the clefts and hollows
of worm-eaten trunks of trees, where no nest possessing external interest is found;" others place the
nest among thick bushes, and form it of the down of plants, covering it externally with lichens or
fine mosses.t Of the nest of an Indian species Dr. Latham thus writes, upon the authority of General
Hardwicke:–“The nest, composed of fine downy materials, mixed with a few dead leaves, is in shape
nearly globular, about three inches in diameter, and at bottom runs to a point at least four inches
beyond it ; the entrance at the top, and on one side, next to the branch to which it is attached, has a
kind of head or cover over the entrance.” In most cases where we have any notice of them, the eggs
are described as of a pale colour, bluish-gray, or reddish, with brown or greenish spots; in the humming-
* Vaillant, Sucrier eblanisant: S. Welour, f S. Oranga: Waillant,
HUMMING-BIRDS,

220 CAsseil's popular NATURAL. History.
birds they are generally white. The nest of the Nectarinia Goalparensis is represented by Professor
Royle as suspended, and having the hole or entrance near the upper part, the materials of which it is
constructed being rather coarse. From these descriptions, the character of the nests of the Indian species
partakes more of those of the Arthotomi and tailor-warblers. Mr. Jerdon writes of the Cinnyridae
Mahrattensis :—“I have seen the nest of this pretty little bird close to a house at Jaulnah. It was
commenced on a thick spider's web, by attaching to it various fragments of paper, cloth, straw, grass,
and other substances, till it had secured a firm hold of the twigs to which the web adhered, and the
nest suspended on this was then completed by adding other fragments of the same materials; the hole
is at the one side, near the top, and has a slight projecting roof or awning over it.”
THE SPLENDID SUN-BIRD."
This is a large species, and certainly when the male is seen in his full breeding-dress, one of the most
gorgeously-dressed of the whole tribe. Le Vaillant found this bird in the country of the Great
*
º
|/
THE SPLENDID SUN DIRD.
Namaqua, near the Fish River, but only during the season of incubation; so that it is probable that a
more western locality may be its true and continuous habitation. It is introduced by Mr. Swainson
in his “Birds of Western Africa,” and specimens have been received, by the attention of Dr. W.
Fergusson, from the vicinity of Sierra Leone. In the country of the Namaquas the nest was placed in
the worm-eaten trunks of mimosa trees, and contained from four to five entirely white eggs.
The total length of the adult male, measured from Sierra Leone specimens, is from five inches and
a half to five and three-quarters, being nearly an inch longer than the measurement given by Mr.
Swainson. The back of the neck, back, shoulders, and upper and under tail-coverts, are brilliant
golden-green, varying with every change of light; the head and throat are steel-blue, in some lights
appearing as black, in others as rich violet; across the breast there appears in most lights a band of
scarlet, but in some positions it appears as if banded with steel-blue, golden-green, or violet, and at
times to be almost entirely composed of one of these tints; this is occasioned by the structure of the
feathers; near the base the colour is of the metallic tints alluded to, but the tips of the plumules are
* Nectarinia splendida: Shaw.












THE SPLENDID SUN-BIRD. 221
lengthened into fine vermilion tips without barbs, which are so slender as sometimes to be entirely
lost when seen against the dark tint of the feather lying beneath. On the sides of this beautiful bird
spring two auxiliary tufts of pale lemon colour. The breast, belly, and flanks, wings and tail, are deep
black, the latter edged with golden-green. In this species also the tail-coverts are of an unusual form,
very nearly as long as the feathers of the tail, the webs very ample, loose, and unconnected. The legs,
feet, and bill are black. The female, according to Le Vaillant, is entirely of an “earthy brown,” paler
beneath, tinted with olive on the wings and tail, the last having the lateral feathers bordered
exteriorly with dirty white; the bill and feet blackish, brown. The young resemble the female.
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HUMMING-BIRDS,
Another family,” the Humming-birds, have been fairly characterised as fairy-like, and may be
truly designated “the jewels of ornithology.” They are the
“Least of the winged vagrants of the sky.”
How sweetly has Mary Howitt sung — r - ...”
“The humming-bird! the humming-bird!
So fairy-like and bright;
It lives among the sunny flowers,
A creature of delight !
“In the radiant islands of the East,
Where fragrant spices grow,
A thousand, thousand humming-birds
Are glancing to and fro.
“Like living fires they flit about,
Scarce larger than a bee,
Among the dusk palmetto leaves,
And through the fan-palm tree.
“And in the wild and verdant woods,
Where stately moras tower,
Where hangs from branching tree to tree
The Scarlet passion flower.
“Where, on the mighty river banks,
La Plate or Amazon, -
The cayman, like a forest tree,
Lies basking in the sun.
“There builds her nest the humming-bird
Within the ancient wood,
Her nest of silky cotton down,
And rears her tiny brood.
“She hangs it to a slender twig,
Where waves it light and free,
As the campanero f tolls his song,
And rocks the mighty tree.
“All crimson is her shining breast,
Like to the red, red rose;
Her wing the changeful green and blue
That the neck of the peacock shows.
* Trochilidae. -- ~ * -- . . -
* In the extensive wilds of Demerara, at a distance of nearly three miles, you may hear this snow-white bird tolling every
four or five minutes, like the distant convent bell. It is generally to be seen resting on the dried top of an aged mora tree. . . .



222 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“Thou happy, happy humming-bird, “Among the rainbow butterflies,
No winter round thee lowers, - Before the rainbow shone,
Thou never saw'st a leafless tree, One moment glancing in her sight,
Nor land without sweet flowers! Another moment gone!
“A reign of summer joyfulness “Thou little shining creature,
To thee for life is given; God sav'd thee from the flood,
Thy food, the honey in the flower, With eagle of the mountain land,
Thy drink, the dew from heaven. And tiger of the wood!
“How glad the heart of Eve would be, “Who cared to save the elephant,
In Eden's glorious bowers, * He also cared for thee,
When she saw the first, first humming-bird And gave those broad lands for thy home.
Among the spicy flowers; Where grows the cedar-tree!”
“Of all animated beings,” says Buffon, “the humming-bird is the most elegant in form and most
splendid in colouring. Precious stones and metals artificially polished, can never be compared to this
jewel of Nature, which has placed it in the order of birds at the bottom of the scale of magnitude—
maximë miranda in minimis—while all the gifts which are only shared among others—nimbleness,
rapidity, sprightliness, grâce, and rich decoration—have been profusely bestowed upon this little
favourite. The emerald, the ruby, the topaz, sparkle in its plumage, which is never soiled by the dust
of the ground, for its whole life being aerial, it rarely lights on the turf. It dwells in the air, and
flitting from flower to flower, it seems to be itself a flower in freshness and splendour; it feeds on their
nectar, and resides in climates where they glow in perpetual succession; for the few which migrate
out of the tropics during the summer make but a transitory stay in the temperate zones. They follow
the course of the sun, advancing or retiring with him, and flying on the wings of the zephyrs, wanton
in eternal spring.” t
The humming-bird has indeed been universally beloved and admired by every lover of Nature.
Audubon compares it to the glittering fragment of a rainbow; the American Indians give it a name
signifying a sunbeam, expressive of its brilliancy and rapidity of motion, and frequently wear it in their
ears as a pendant; and the enthusiastic Alexander Wilson, in his history of its habits, makes it the
subject of a poem, from which we cannot refrain extracting a few lines:–
“When the morning dawns, and the blest sun again While richest roses, though in crimson drest,
Lifts his red glories from the eastern main, Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast.
Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews, What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly!
The flower-fed humming-bird his round pursues; Each rapid movement gives a different dye;
Sips, with inserted tube, the honey'd blooms, Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,
And chirps his gratitude as round he roams; Now sink to shade—now like a furnace glow.”
No sooner, indeed, has the returning sun again introduced the vernal season, and caused millions
of plants to expand their leaves and blossoms to his genial beams, than the little humming-bird is seen
advancing on fairy wings, carefully visiting every opening flower-cup, and, like a curious florist,
removing from each the injurious insects that would otherwise ere long cause their beautiful petals to
droop and decay. Poised in the air, it is observed peeping cautiously and with sparkling eye into their
innermost recesses, while the ethereal motion of its pinions, so rapid and so light, appear to fan and
cool the flower without injuring its delicate texture, and produce a delightful murmuring sound well
adapted for lulling the insects to repose. This, then, is the moment for the humming-bird to secure
them. Its long delicate bill enters the cup of the flower, and the protruded double-tubed tongue,
delicately sensible, and imbued with a glutinous saliva, touches each insect in succession, and draws it
from its lurking-place, to be instantly swallowed. All this is done in a moment, and the bird, as it
leaves the flower, sips so small a portion of its liquid honey, that the theft, we might almost suppose,
is looked upon with a grateful feeling by the flower, which is thus kindly relieved from the attacks of
her destroyers. The prairies, the fields, the orchards and gardens, nay, the deepest shades of the
forest, are all visited in their turn, and everywhere the little bird meets with pleasure and food. Its
gorgeous throat, in beauty and brilliancy, baffles all competition. Now it glows with a fiery hue, and
again it is changed to the deepest velvety black. The upper parts of its body are of resplendent
changing green, and it throws itself through the air with a swiftness and vivacity hardly conceivable.
It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, downwards, to the right, and to
THE HUMMING BIRDS. 223
the left. In this manner it searches the extreme northern portions of America, following with great
precaution the advances of the season, and retreats with equal care at the approach of autumn.
These birds do not alight on the ground, but easily settle on twigs and branches, where they move
sideways in prettily-measured steps, frequently opening and closing their wings, pluming, shaking, and
arranging the whole of their apparel with neatness and activity. They are particularly fond of
spreading one wing at a time, and passing each of their quill-feathers through the bill, in its whole
length, when, if the sun is shining, the wing thus plumed is rendered extremely transparent and
light. They leave the twig, without the least difficulty, in an instant, and appear to be possessed of
superior powers of vision, making directly towards a martin or a blue-bird, when fifty or sixty yards
from them, and reaching them before they are aware of their approach. No bird seems to resist their
attacks; but they are sometimes chased by the larger kinds of humble-bees, of which they seldom take
the least notice, as their superiority of flight is sufficient to leave these slow-moving insects far behind
them in the short space of a minute.
“Where,” says Audubon, “is the person who, on seeing one of these lovely little creatures moving
on humming winglets through the air, suspended as if by magic in it, fitting from one flower to another
with motions as graceful as they are light and airy, pursuing its course over our extensive continent,
and yielding new delights wherever it is seen;–where is the person, I ask of you, kind reader, who,
on observing this glittering fragment of the rainbow, would not pause, admire, and instantly turn his
mind with reverence to the Almighty Creator, the wonders of whose hand we at every step discover,
and of whose sublime conceptions we everywhere observe the manifestations in his admirable system
of creation?” & * ^,
Humming-birds in general may be said to inhabit chiefly the intra-tropical regions of America,
including the West Indies; but that they are capable of sustaining a considerable reduction of
temperature, and of spreading themselves into comparatively rigorous climes, is evident from the
observations of Captain King, who, in his survey of the southern coasts, met with numerous examples
of these diminutive creatures flying about in a snow-storm, near the straits of Magellan; and discovered
two species in the remote island of Juan Fernandez. Two other hardy species have been long known
to migrate during summer far into the interior of North America—viz, the ruff-necked humming-bird
(T. rufus), discovered during Cook's voyage in Nootka Sound, and since traced by Kotzebue to the
61st degree of north latitude, along the western shores; and the ruby-throated humming-bird
(T. colubris), which was found breeding, by Mr. Drummond, near the sources of the Elk River, and is
known to reach at least as far north as the 57th parallel.
The best and most ample history of these “feathered gems” may be gathered from the pages of
Audubon and Wilson, while the superb adornment of their beautifully pencilled plumage, so rich in
its varied combinations of lustrous green and gold, may be studied with advantage in the sumptuous
pages of M. Lesson and Mr. Gould. They are of a most lively and active disposition, almost perpetu-
ally upon the wing, and darting from flower to flower with the busy rapidity rather of a bee than a
bird. In the uncultivated districts of the country, they inhabit the forests, but in peopled regions they
flock without fear into the gardens, poising themselves in the air, while they thrust their long extensile
tongues into every flower in search of food.
According to Bullock, they will remain suspended in a space so small, that they have scarcely
room to move their wings, and the humming poise which they produce proceeds entirely from the pro-
digious velocity with which they vibrate those tiny organs, by means of which they will remain in the
air almost motionless for hours together. An old writer, Firmin, a physician of Surinam, compares
this action to that of the bee-like flies, which in still and sultry weather we often see hovering in the
vicinity of still waters; and Wilson says, that when a humming-bird arrives before a thicket of trumpet
flowers in bloom, he suspends himself so steadily that his wings become “invisible or like a mist.”
They often enter windows, and after examining any fresh bouquets with which fair hands may have
decked the table, they will dart like sunbeams out by an opposite door or window. During the
breeding season, they become jealous of encroachments, and exhibit great boldness in defence of their
supposed rights. When any one approaches their nest, they will dart around with a humming noise,
frequently passing within a few inches of the intruder's head. A small species, called the Mexican star
(T. cyanapogon), is described by Mr. Bullock as exhibiting great intrepidity while under the influence
224 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
of anger. It will attack the eyes of the larger birds, striking at them with its sharp, needle-like bill;
and when invaded by one of its own kind during the breeding season, their mutual wrath becomes
immeasurable, their throats swell, their crests, tails, and wings expand, and they fight in the air till
one or other falls exhausted to the ground. Indeed, old Fernando Oviedo gives a still more alarming
account of their fiery temper. “When they see a man climb ye tree where they have their nests, they
flee at his face, and stryke him in the eyes, commying, goying, and returnyng with such swiftness, that
no man would ryghtly believe it that hath not seen it.”
Various attempts have been made, with more or less success, to rear these beautiful little birds in
confinement. One which was captured by Wilson, though quite young, refused to take food, and in a
- few hours it could only just be detected
that life remained. A lady, however,
undertaking to be its nurse, placed it
in her bosom, and as it began to revive,
dissolved a little sugar in her mouth,
into which she thrust its bill, and it
sucked with avidity. In this manner
it was brought up till just fit for the
cage, and it lived for upwards of three
months. It was supplied with loaf-sugar
dissolved in water, which it preferred
to diluted honey; and every morning
it had fresh flowers sprinkled with the
liquid, from one to another of which it
hovered with great activity and spirit,
| as if in its native wilds; always ex-
º/ pressing by its motions and voice great
pleasure when fresh flowers were intro-
duced to the cage. The space in which
it was kept was surrounded with gauze,
so as to prevent the bird injuring itself,
and every precaution was adopted in
order to keep it during the winter; but,
unfortunately, it got at large into the
room, and flying about, so injured itself
that it soon afterwards died.
The humming-bird is extremely
susceptible to cold, and if exposed to it
death speedily ensues. A beautiful
male specimen was preserved by Wilson
in 1809, which he put into a wire cage,
and placed in a retired and shaded part
of a room. “After fluttering about
- for some time,” he says, “the weather
being uncommonly cool, it clung by the wires, and hung in a seemingly torpid state for a
whole forenoon. No motion whatever of the lungs could be perceived, on the closest inspection,
though, at other times, this is remarkably observable; the eyes were shut ; and when touched by the
finger, it gave no signs of life or motion. I carried it out to the open air, and placed it directly in the
rays of the sun, in a sheltered situation. In a few seconds respiration became very apparent: the bird
breathed faster and faster, opened its eyes, and began to look about, with as much seeming vivacity
as ever. After it had completely recovered, I restored it to liberty; and it flew off to the withered
top of a pear-tree, where it sat for some time dressing its disordered plumage, and then shot off like a
meteor.” - - - - - -
TLIE TOPAZ-THROATED HUMMINº-B1Rn.

THE TOPAZ-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD. #
SUCH is a representation of the male and female of one kind of these beautiful birds. The nest is
usually attached to the upper side of some horizontal branch; but sometimes the branch is inclined,
as in the present instance. The nest is about an inch in diameter, and as much in depth, and is formed
externally of a species of gray lichen, the portions of which are said to be glued together by the saliva
of the bird. Within this outer coat is a padding of the cottom or down of plants, smoothly arranged,
and lined with a yet finer layer of silky fibres; the eggs are two, and of a transparent fineness, The
young ones take their food by putting their bills into the mouths of the parent birds.
This is a large species, and, without exception, one of the most splendid of the whole race. In
every part the plumage is composed of the scaly-formed feathers which are always present where a
metallic lustre prevails; and in every position its brilliant colours receive a variation of tint, differing
from that last seen, and superior in splendour to anything with which we could compare it.
The length of this bird, not including the long centre tail-feathers, is five inches and a half; these
exceed the others by nearly three inches; the colours of the whole plumage of the body may be said
to be of a rich brownish-orange, in some lights appearing of the deepest crimson, and in others of a
brilliant ruby colour, tinted with gold; on the lower surface the golden lustre is most prevalent
above the deep shade and ruby tint; the gorget is alternately of a topaz yellow or emerald-green, and
it is surrounded by a shade of nearly velvet-black, which gradually assumes a purple tint, and shades
into the colour of the body: the wings are very long and powerful; the tail is above of a golden-green,
shaded with red, below of a bright chestnut; in form it is rather rounded, and the two centre feathers
make it appear sometimes very lengthened, sometimes forked, according to their position; the tarsi
are feathered to the division of the toes.
The female is smaller than the young males; the centre tail-feathers are slightly larger; the
prevailing colour of the plumage is bright emerald-green, with metallic lustre, but which is some-
what diminished by a gray tint which pervades the whole; the gorget is marked by brown feathers,
which have a golden lustre when placed in the light, but is not very distinctly defined ; the outer tail-
feathers are of a dull green, the next pair are of a brilliant violet, the others of a bright chestnut.
The young have not the long feathers in the tail, the two centre plumes of which exceed the
others by about one-eighth of an inch; the plumage of the upper part is of a bright green, with the
rubytints appearing at intervals; the under part has more of the red colour, and is shaded with greem
and bright orange; the gorget is not yet apparent, but the space for it is clearly seen.
THE RUBY-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD.;
MR. ABBOT, of Savannah, in Georgia, whose observations in reference to natural history subjects in that
country have been careful and long continued, states that the humming-bird of the United States makes
its first appearance there from the south towards the close of March. As it passes on to the north, and
to the interior of Canada, where it is found in great numbers, it traverses extensive regions of lakes
and forests, which are thronged with enemies, far its superior in magnitude and strength; yet it finds
protection in its very minuteness, in the rapidity of its flight, which almost eludes the eye, and in that
admirable instinct and daring courage by which it is characterised. In these we perceive the reason
why an all-wise Providence has made this little hero an exception to the rule which prevails most
generally—that the smallest species of a tribe is the most prolific. The eagle lays one and sometimes
two eggs; the crow five; the small European wren fifteen; and the humming-bird only two; and yet
it is immeasurably more numerous in America than is the wren in Europe.
Towards the close of April the humming-bird usually arrives in Pennsylvania, and about the 10th
of May proceeds to build its nest. This is generally fixed on the upper side of a horizontal branch,
though cases are recorded in which it has been attached to the side of an old moss-grown trunk, or to
a strong rank stalk or weed in a garden; but such cases are rare. If it builds in the woods, it very
often chooses a white oak sapling on which to rest the nest; while in the orchard or garden a pear-tree
* Trochilus pella: Linnaeus. + Trochilus colubris; Wilson.
WOL. III,
125
226 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
answers the same purpose. The nest is about an inch wide and deep. In one which has been
completely finished with the best materials, it will probably be found that the outward coat is formed
of small pieces of the lichen that grows on old trees and fences, glued together with a saliva which the
bird exudes, which gives firmness and consistency to the whole, and serves also to exclude moisture.
Within this are thick matted layers of the wings of certain flying seeds, which is, perhaps, lined with
some downy materials supplied by other plants. The base of the nest is continued round the stem of
the branch to which it closely adheres; and, when viewed from below, appears as a mere mossy knot,
or accidental protuberance. The eggs are two in number, of a pure white colour, and of equal thickness
at both ends. Should any one approach the vicinity of the nest, the parent birds dart around, with a
humming sound, passing frequently within a few inches of the head of the intruder; and should the
young be newly hatched, the female will resume her place on the nest, even while the visitor stands
within a yard or two of the spot. A short time before the young leave the nest, they may often be
seen thrusting their bills into the mouths of their parents, and sucking what they may have brought
them to eat.
This humming-bird manifests great partiality for tubular flowers, and its manoeuvres among the
blossoms of the trumpet-flower are very interesting. Wilson, who has often watched them, states,
that when they have arrived before a thicket of these plants, which are, perhaps, in full bloom, he
poises himself in the air for the space of two or three seconds, and the observer can plainly detect the
pupil of his eye looking round with great quickness and circumspection, while the glossy golden-green
of his back, and the fire-like hue of his throat dazzling in the sun, form altogether a most interesting
appearance. The position into which his body is thrown while in the act of thrusting his slender tubular
tongue into the flower to extract its sweets, is also very curious. When he alights, which he does
frequently, he always prefers the small dead twigs of a tree or bush, where he arranges his plumage
with great dexterity.
Some of the humming-birds are not only remarkable for the brilliancy of their colours, but for
the tufts and plumes by which they are adorned. Of these, therefore, we shall give some instances.
, THE TUFTED-NECKED HUMMING-BIRD."
THIs exquisite little creature is a native of Cayenne, Brazil, and Guiana. It prefers dry arid plains
clothed with a seanty and bushy vegetation. Its head is ornamented with a crest of red feathers, and
from the sides of the neck proceeds a tuft composed of twelve or fourteen feathers of the same colour,
ending each in a broad tip of clear shining green. The chest is dotted with scaly feathers of a bright
emerald-green, paler at its edges. The upper parts are golden-green, the lower greenish-brown; the
tail is large, having the centre feathers green, the others red, with a purple gloss. The female wants
both crest and throat-plumes, but in the metallic richness of her tints is hardly inferior to her mate,
GOULD’S TROCHILUS.f
THIS is a most elegant species, named after the justly-celebrated naturalist to whom we owe so many
delightful specimens of humming-birds, an acquaintance with numbers previously unknown to ornitho-
logists, and numerous descriptions of great clearness and accuracy. He says:–“The native district
of this splendid species is unknown. The forehead, throat, and upper part of the breast are of the
most brilliant green, the feathers of a sealy form ; from the crown springs a beautiful crest of bright
chestnut feathers, of a lengthened form, and capable of being raised at pleasure; the back and upper
parts are golden-green, crossed upon the rump with a whitish band; the wings and tail are brownish-
purple, the latter having the centre feathers tinged with green. The neck-tufts are of the most
splendid kind, and have a chaste but brilliant effect : they are composed of narrow feathers of a snowy
whiteness, the tips of each having a round spot of bright emerald-green, surmounted by a dark border.”
*
* Trochilus ornatus. * t Trochilus Gouldii.
THE SUPERCILIOUS HUMMING-BIRD.4
THIs species is found both in Guiana and Brazil. The bill is long and bent, considerably dilated
at the base, and, as in all the genus, has the under mandible entering, when closed, within the upper
one; the base is of a bright orange. The upper plumage of the bird is of a bronzed-green; two reddish-
white lines mark the cheeks; the one more in the shape of a spot above the eye, the other in a line
from the corner of the mouth; all the lower parts are of a brownish-white.
The tail, without the long feathers, is wedge-shaped, each feather widening towards the tip, and
then ending in a triangular sharp point; the long feathers keep the breadth of the others for the same
length, when they suddenly become narrow, and form the distinguishing marks of the male. The
colour of the tail is bronzed-green, shaded nearly to a rich black at the ends, which terminate in a
narrow border of white ; the projecting ends of the long feathers are also white.
On presenting a humming-bird to an ordinary observer, the first exclamation is, “What a
beautiful creature I” “But what large wings it has 1” usually follows. Such, indeed, is the case, and
HEAD OF ORNISMLA ANGELAE. HEAD OF ORNISMLA SUPERBA, HEAD OF TROCHILUS ENSIFERUS: BOISSONNEAU,
in most instances, the size of the wings and strength of the quills are entirely disproportioned to our
ideas of symmetry in a creature clothed with feathers; but on comparing them with other parts of its
frame and its necessities, their design and utility are at once apparent.
The form of the wings is very similar to those of the swift, whose power of flight is well known.
In general they exceed the tail in length, unless when that member is extraordinarily developed.
HEAD OF ORNISMIA LATIPENNIS. WING OF ORNISMIA LATIPENNIS : LESSON.
The exterior outline of the wing is very much curved, as will be observed in the figure of one of the
Ornismia latipennis, and the first quill is always longest, the others gradually shortening. The
secondaries are very short, and the lesser wing-coverts occupy very little room. The plumelets of the
quills are narrow and compact, firmly united together, forming a substance, when used, almost like a
thin plate of whalebone, and which, by presenting resistance to the air when struck, and allowing no
part to pass through the webs, as in nocturnal feeding birds, produces that humming sound which is
heard during their suspension, and whence their common name has been derived. In all, the shafts are
remarkably strong and elastic ; but in a few species, called “sickle or sabre-winged humming-birds,”
they are developed to an extraordinary degree at the base, and nearly equal the breadth of the
plume.
The reason for such a structure is obvious. Its great purpose is the power of vigorous and
sustained flight. Hence all the other parts not then called into action are very slender, almost frail;
the tarsi are short, and the feet small. Here the wisdom and benevolence of the great Creator are
manifest; for the food of these birds is derived from the sweet nectar of flowers, or from insects which
must either be taken during a rapid flight, or withdrawn from the deep tube or cup-shaped recesses of
blossoms which grow and hang in every direction, and which it would be impossible to reach except by
suspension above or under them.
But this is not all. Another great reason for their possessing organs of such power is, to enable
them to pass safely through the migrations and the long flights which are sometimes necessary for their
* Trochilus superciliosus.


228 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
preservation, and during which they have often to withstand a passing gale, showers, or even the rigour
of a snow-storm. The beautiful climes which they inhabit are, at certain seasons, subject to perpetual
rains, which drench and almost inundate their abodes; or to hurricanes that, in a few minutes, leave only
a wreck of all that was before so magnificent and luxuriant; and they pass, by these means, before the
dangerous season, to districts where the reparation of a previous wreck is proceeding with all the
magical rapidity of tropical vegetation.
The billis always an important organ in birds. This family presents great modifications inits form,
as shown in the figures which are given on the preceding page. In a few species the edges of the
mandibles are toothed; and, in one, this member is furnished with recurved, saw-like teeth—a manifest
provision for more effectually securing some peculiar prey. Thus, when Swainson is describing the
recurved-billed humming-bird, he
says —“The extraordinary forma-
tion in the bill of this beautiful
little greature is without parallel in
any land-bird yet described. It is
almost impossible to conjecture
rightly the use of this singular
formation; but it appears to me
not improbable, that the principal
sustenance of the bird may be drawn
from the pendant bignonaceae, and
other similar plants, so common in
South America, whose corollae are
long, and generally bent in their
tube; and so, the nectar being at
the bottom, could not be reached
either by a straight or a curved bill,
though very easily by one corre-
sponding to the shape of the flower.”
The tongue of humming-birds
is very long, retractile, and capable
of being darted out with consider-
able force. It is said, by Brisson
and Lesson, to be composed of two
muscular tubes joined together for
the greater part of their length,
towards the tip broadened or swel-
ling, and terminating in a spoon-like
point on the upper surface.
We have alluded to some of
the forms and decorations of these
exquisite creatures, but the diver-
sities are too numerous for parti-
cular description. As a contrast to the ruby-throated and topaz-throated, for example, some have
a throat of brilliant white, descending a little like a lady's tucker, but, as if to compensate for
this simplicity of colour, there is on each side an emerald sheen, and all around is set, as it
were, with gems of the same splendid hue. In some instances this radiant tint adorns the
stomacher, and is heightened in effect by the richest ultramarine, which is profusely scattered over
the head and the long feathers of the tail. Other cases there are in which the same part of the
body is arrayed in feathers having the form of a lady's ruff or tippet, set off, at the sides, by the most
brilliant hue. But there is an almost endless diversity: thus, the head and wings are sometimes plain
in hue, while the body is of the brightest mingled dyes; at other times, the tails are especially
resplendent, the vivid colours passing over the whole surface, or broadly edging them, and leaving in
Till supertull-lous Humiviling-bird.












º
º
-
HUMMING IBIRDS.

HUMMING-BIRDS. 229
the centre a streak or space of white ; tufts of dazzling brilliancy not unfrequently adorn the head, or
fall downwards from the beak; while the legs are like those of other small birds, except that they are
unusually short, or emerge from little bushes of small feathers, technically called “boots,” which are
either white, black, or of various hues. To this brief and general description, it may be added, that
no fewer than three hundred and twenty-five species of humming-birds are now known, although the
celebrated Linnaeus was acquainted with extremely few ; that the bills vary in different individuals,
those of the young being longer than those of adult birds; and that the plumage of the sexes is often
widely different, the female being devoid of the rich lustrous green on the throat, and having only a
rudiment of white boots, which are both so conspicuous in the males.
To see these “winged gems” in all their beauty and splendour, the great archipelago of islands
between Florida and the mouths of the Orinoco should be visited, as well as the mainland of the
southern continent until it passes the tropic of Capricorn. That, indeed, is no ordinary region for
natural beauties. As the voyager approaches the land, he beholds, perhaps, immense ridges of primitive
mountains, traversed by deep ravines, and rising in succession to the very boundary of his vision. His
eye may be delighted, too, by the brilliant tints of the foliage which covers these lofty heights, and by
the dazzling insects which flutter about his ship, indicating the stores of animated Nature. As he lands,
and bends his way to the rocky woods, he may well be overwhelmed by his first sensations on beholding
the productions of a tropical climate in their native soil. Plants, reared in England only at great
expense, and which even then attain but a puny and uncharacteristic form, flourish around him in all
the vigour and luxuriance of their perfect existence. Surrounded by lofty airy cassias; broad-leaved,
thick-stemmed cecropias; thick-ermined myrtles, large-blossomed bignomias, climbing tufts of the
honey-bearing paullinias, far-spreading tendrils of the passion flower, and of the richly-flowering
coronilla, above which rise the waving summits of Macauber palms, he seems to realise the fable of the
garden of the Hesperides. The glory of these southern forests, the endless variety of forms, the
contrasts of colour and size, the brilliant blossoms of even the largest trees; the scarlet, purple, blue,
rose-colour, and golden-yellow, blending profusely with every possible shade of green, language is
altogether unequal to describe. Here branches may be observed covered on the under side with a hoary
down, which, in the heat of the day, they turm up to the sun, so that whole patches of the surface seem
covered with rich white blossoms; while, strikingly contrasted, there appears the coral tree, whose spikes
of rich scarlet blossoms stand erect, rivalling in size those of the horse-chestnut of our own spring-time,
and giving to the surface a glow of the brightest red; or the yucca, with its tulip-like flowers of the
most vivid hues. There, moreover, are all the varieties of the cactus tribe, of which one of the most
splendid is the night-blowing cereus—a flower of surpassing beauty; for its blossoms are nearly a foot
in diameter, and the outer petals of a dark brown, while the inner ones are of a splendid yellow, which
gradually shades off to the most brilliant white.
“Soft roll your incense, herbs, and fruit, and flowers,
In mingled clouds to Him whose sun exalts,
Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints.”
One season, too, is peculiarly favourable. In the months of July and August, when the tree
denominated bois immortel yields an abundance of bright red blossoms, which stay on its branches for
several weeks, the different species of humming-birds are very plentiful; then, too, they buzz like bees
around the rich blossoms of the wallaba tree; indeed, there is scarcely a flower in the interior, or on
the sea-coast of the isles they inhabit, which is not frequently visited by these radiant beings. They
may be observed, as soon as the sun is risen, fluttering about the brilliant petals, but without ever
lighting upon them. So rapid, however, is the motion of their wings, that only the glittering, and not
the colours, of them can possibly be discerned. And as they pass onwards, now perhaps within a yard
of the observer's face, yet gone in an instant, they look indeed like winged, but changing, gems—now
a ruby, now an amethyst, now an emerald, and anon like glowing and burnished gold.
One species alone never shows its beauty to the sun; and, were it not for his lovely colours, the
naturalist would be almost disposed to remove him from the tribe of humming-birds, and to class him
with the goat-suckers, because of his habits. He is the largest and longest of the humming-birds, and
is of mingled red and a changing gold green, except the head, which is black, as are also two long tail-
feathers, which cross each other. He is never found on the sea-coast or where the water is salt, or
230 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
about the trees of a forest, except fresh water be there. He keeps by the side of the woody fresh-water
rivers and dark and lonely creeks, leaving his retreat before sunrise to feed on the insects hovering
over the water, returning to it as soon as the rays of the solar orb cause a glare of light, continuing
sedentary all day long, and only emerging again a short time after sunset. What a singular exception
does he present to the general habits of his race
We conclude our account of this interesting tribe with one more fact. A young man, a few
days before his departure from Jamaica, surprised a female humming-bird in the act of incubation,
caught it, removed the branch on which the nest was, and carried them very carefully on board the
ship. The little creature became sufficiently tame, during the passage, to suffer herself to be fed with
honey and water, and actually hatched her offspring; but she died at the close of the voyage. Two
young ones, however, survived it, and came into the possession of Lady Hammond and Sir Henry
Englefield. These birds were sufficiently tame to take honey with their bills from the lady's lips;
but one of them speedily died, and the other only lived two months after its arrival.
THE NUTHATCH."
THE weight of this bird is nearly an ounce; the length, five inches and three-quarters, and the expanse
of the wings nine inches. The tints of the female are weaker than those of the male, especially about
the sides and thighs. -
This species inhabits Europe and Asia, and seems to be little
affected by the influence of climate. In Britain, as in most other
countries, it is stationary, but local, and chiefly prefers wooded
and inclosed situations, frequently selecting the deserted habita-
tion of a woodpecker for its nest. In this case the entrance to
the hole is first contracted by a plaster of clay or mud, to exclude
larger birds, and leaving only sufficient room for itself to pass in
and out. The male and female jointly labour at the construction
of the nest, which usually consists of dead leaves and moss heaped
together without much order, and sometimes lined with the dust
of the decayed tree in which the nest is placed. The number of
the eggs is generally six or seven, and they are of a dirty white
with dusky spots, being scarcely distinguishable from those of the
greater titmouse. If the plaster at the entrance be destroyed
when there are eggs in the nest, it is speedily replaced.
During incubation, the female is assiduously attended by
the male, who regularly supplies her with food. Though easily
driven from her nest at other times, she sits on her eggs with
great pertinacity, striking the invader with her bill and wings,
and hissing like a snake; and after every effort has been practised
in vain, she will rather suffer herself to be taken than desert her
charge. The eggs are hatched in May; and there is rarely more
THIE NUTHATCH. than one brood in the season. After the young can provide for
themselves the family separates, and all seek retirement, though they are occasionally observed to
mingle with titmice and woodpeckers.
Although the nuthatch spends much of its time in climbing or creeping on trees, its motions are
nimbler than those of the sparrow, as well as smoother and more connected, for it makes less noise in
flying. In climbing it is more expert than the woodpecker, for it runs up and down the tree in all
directions. When employed in breaking a nut, its favourite position is with the head down. In the
autumn it is no uncommon thing to find in the crevices of the bark of an old tree a great many broken
nutshells, the work of this bird, which repeatedly returns to the same spot for this purpose. When it
has fixed the nut firm in a chink, it turns on all sides to strike it with the most advantage. This, with
*Sitta Europaea.

THE NUTHATCH. 231
the common hazel-nut, is a work of some labour, but it strikes a filbert with ease. Whilst at work it
makes a rapping noise, which may be heard at some distance. In default of nuts and seeds, this bird
searches for insects and their larvae among moss or old trees, or walls, thatch, &c. In winter it picks
the larvae of beetles from under the bark of trees, and has recourse to the magazine of nuts, and the
seeds of sun-flower.
The general colours of the bird are slate-grey above, and buff beneath. The uniformity of these
is broken by a dark streak extending from the base of the beak to the shoulder, by the pied
appearance of the tail, whose feathers are black at the base, gray at the end, and white in the middle,
and by the white hue of the chin.
Mr. Yarrell mentions that the Nuthatch is to be seen in the neighbourhood of London, in
Kensington Gardens. If it be still there, it gives another proof of how we overlook the curious
objects Nature places at our doors to search for those that are afar off.
We shall next describe a
very strange and remarkable
bird, the Hoopoe, the last of
the present group.
THE HOOPOE
THIs bird is the Epopst of the
Greeks; and the Upupa and
Epops of the Romans. Ovid
describes it to the life as he
thus pictures the metamor-
phosis of Tereus:–
* Tereus, through grief, and haste to
be reveng'd,
Shares the like fate, and to a bird is
changed.
Fixed on his head the crested plumes
appear,
Long is his beak, and sharpen'd as a
spear.”
The arched crest upon the
head is formed by two parallel
rows of long feathers, of a
ruddy buff colour, terminated
with black. The female is less
than the male, her crest shorter,
and the tints of her plumage
less vivid. The only European
species (U. epops—Linn.) is a
summer bird of passage on the
continent, where it travels northward as far as Sweden. It never breeds in Britain, though it
sometimes accidentally occurs there. One was sent to London a few years ago from the county of
Fife. This bird is called bubbola by the Italians, most likely from its peculiar cry. It keeps itself
concealed among the trees; but is constantly heard repeating the syllable bu, bu, bu, bu, bu, with such
a strong, sonorous voice, that it may be heard at a great distance. Its song, properly so called, is only
uttered during the honeymoon. Although the hoopoe lives and builds in woods, it may be often seen
in search of insect food, in fields and pastures. The nest is generally placed either in the natural
hollow of a tree, or in the deserted excavation of a woodpecker. It is composed outwardly of feathers,
and is lined with the hair of cows and horses. The eggs are grayish-white, finely spotted with brown.
This bird is very common in Egypt. A nearly allied species (U. Capensis) is found at the Cape, and
THE HOOPOE.
* Upupa epops. Emº.


232 CASSELL’s POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY. . .
-*rs
occurs also in the East Indies; but we presume M. Savi is in error when he says the genus is likewise
known in America. In this bird the frontal plumes are developed very remarkably; its plumage is
white, with a grey tinge.
White remarks, in his “Natural History of Selborne:” “The most unusual birds I ever observed
in these parts"Were a pair of hoopoes, which came several years ago in the summer, and frequented an
ornamented piece of ground, which joins to my garden, for several weeks. They used to march about
in a stately manner, feeding on the walks, many times in the day, and
seemed disposed to breed in my outlet, but were frightened and persecuted
by idle boys, who would never let them be at rest.”
Mr. Bartlett, a preserver of birds, in Museum-street, London, had a
hoopoe. It was quite tame, and, when
unexcited, the high crest fell over the
top of the head and covered the occi-
put ; it "took a meal-worm from the
ºf . hand very readily, nibbled and pinched
THE CAPE HOOPOE. The CAPE PROMEROPS. it between the ends of the mandibles,
then put it on the ground, and struck it several blows with the point of its beak; when the insect
was apparently disabled or dead it was again taken up, and, by a particular motion of the head, which
was thrown backwards, and the beak being opened, the meal-worm dropped into the gape of the mouth
and was swallowed. The call for another was a sharp note; but the hoopoe also uttered at times a
sound closely resembling the word hoop, hoop, hoop, yet breathed out so softly and rapidly as to
remind the hearer of the note of the dove. This bird constantly rubbed itself in the sand with which
the bottom of its large cage was supplied, dusting itself like the larks, but taking great care to shake
off any sand or gravel that might adhere to its food, which was raw meat chopped, and boiled eggs.
At the moment of settling on the floor of the room, this bird bent its head downwards till the
point of the beak touched the floor, after which, as well as occasionally at other times, the long
feathers forming the crest were alternately elevated and depressed, in a slow and graceful manner, the
bird assuming an appearance of great vivacity, running on the ground with a very quick step.
One genus” has also an elongated, slender bill, finely pointed, laterally compressed, somewhat
convex above, with the nostrils open and cleft longitudinally. The tail is very long and graduated,
and the tongue is extensile and bifurcated, so that the species are enabled to absorb the nectarous
juices of flowers. The title seems now restricted to the African species, of which the only one distinctly"
known is the Cape promerops,t of a grayish-brown above, with a white throat, bordered by two dark
lines, the breast reddish, the abdomen yellow. The tail is of great length during the completed
plumage; but the long, ribbon-like feathers are often absent, which greatly alters the external
characters of the bird. t
Another genust was found by Mr. Gould in New Zealand, abounding on the hills around Port
Nicholson, and indigenous to the island. They subsist on insects and fruits, and are exceedingly
familiar, approaching so closely to strangers as to be readily captured or killed. Wo give an engraving
of one of the species.S
* Promerops: Brisson. + Promerops Capensis, Merops Caffir: Gmelin. + Neomorpha.
§ Neomorpha Gouldii,

GOULD'S NEOMORPHA.
70L. III.
Gould's NeoMorpha.
126
233

CLIMIBIN G B II* D S. *
THIS Order may be pronounced somewhat heterogeneous, and considerable time will yet most probably
elapse before an arrangement will be made of strictly allied groups. The great majority of the species of
which it is composed, however, have two toes before and two behind; that is, one of the three anterior toes,
commonly so called, is either reversible at pleasure or is permanently thrown backwards, so as to give
great power and tenacity of grasp during their infinitely varied movements
over the rugged bark or smoother branches of the forest trees on which they
chiefly dwell. By this peculiar structure many species are enabled not only
to ascend with ease a perpendicular bank, but to suspend themselves from
the lower surface of a branch while searching for their favourite food, which
consists of fruits or insects, according to the form of the bill, so greatly
diversified in the present order. In the parrot tribe the foot is also used in
the conveyance of food to the mouth, and, generally, as a very perfect pre-
hensile organ.
The birds of this order generally build in holes of trees; their power of flight is not considerable;
their food, like that of birds in the preceding order, consists of insects and fruits, accordingly as their
bill is more or less strong. Some, as the woodpeckers, have peculiar means of obtaining food.
FOOT OF PARRAKEET.
THE JACAMARS.*
THESE birds are nearly allied to the kingfishers in certain respects, as in their elongated, sharp, quad-
rangular bill, and in their short feet, whose anterior toes are, for the most part, united. But these toes
have not exactly the same formation as in the kingfishers; the plumage is not so smooth as that of
those birds, and has always a metallic lustre. They live solitarily in humid woods, feed on insects, and
build their nests on low branches. -
The American species have the bill larger than the others, and quite straight,
THE CUCKOOS.
IN one genus f were originally placed a number of different insectivorous birds, commonly called
cuckoos, which agreed in the general form of the feet, the lengthened tail, the bill of medium size,
* Scansores. Zygodactyli, or, Yoke-footed. + Galbula: Bress. : Cuculus: Linnaeus.


THE CUCKOO. 235
rather deeply cleft, somewhat compressed and slightly curved. But they have since been formed
into numerous minor groups, the most marked and conspicuous of which we shall here briefly
notice. -
The true cuckoos” have the bill of moderate strength, the tarsi short, and the tail often feathers.
As an example, we name our British species, C. canorus, so remarkable for its singular and somewhat
anomalous habit of depositing its eggs in the nests of other birds, a fact now well known, but to which
we shall briefly refer. The nest of the hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis) is that most usually chosen
in the south of England; that of the yellow-ammer, the wagtail, and the meadow titlark being, how-
ever, likewise devoted to the purpose. “In Northumberland,” says Mr. Selby, “constant experience
tells me, that the nest of the last-mentioned bird is the one almost always chosen. Taking advantage
of the absence of its dupe during the time of laying (which generally occupies four or five days), the
cuckoo deposits its egg among the rest, abandoning it from that moment to the care of the foster-parent.
As the same period of incubation is common to - ~~~ * - *
both birds, the eggs are hatched nearly together,
which no sooner takes place than the young
cuckoo proceeds instinctively to eject its young
companions, and any remaining eggs, from the
nest. To effect this object, it contrives to work
itself under its burden (the back at this early
age being provided with a peculiar depression
between the shoulders), and shuffling backwards
to the edge of the nest, by a jerkrids itself of the
incumbrance; and this operation is repeated till,
the whole being thrown over, it remains sole
possessor. This particular tendency remains for
about twelve days, after which the hollow place
between the shoulders is filled up; and when
prevented from accomplishing its purpose till the
expiration of that time, as if conscious of in-
ability, it suffers its companions to remain un-
molested.” -
Various supposed reasons have been assigned
for this anomalous, and we might almost say
unnatural instinct. Some have attributed it to
the displacement of certain viscera (the gizzar
is said to be situate further back than in most -
other birds), which unfits the cuckoos for the
purpose of incubation, while others imagine that
the early period at which they migrate from this
country (they are generally off by the beginning
of July) makes it necessary that they should THE CUCR.O.O.
leave their offspring to the care of foster-parents.
But anatomical investigation has not proved anything sufficiently peculiar in their structure to
warrant the first conclusion; and as to the second, it seems to us not so much a deduction from
a regulating and causative fact in their history, as the statement of an additional circumstance
which renders that history still more singular, and which naturally leads to the - question not
easily answered, of why do they migrate so early? In short, we know nothing at all about the
matter, further than that the cuckoo of Europe, like the cow-bunting of America,t always lays eggs,
but never hatches them. It may be a practice common to several species, but the rare black and white
spotted cuckoo,f an odd name for an African bird which happened once upon a time to visit Tuscany,
is stated by the authors of the Storia degli Uccelli to have built a nest in the woods of Pisa, and reared
four young ones. This species is extremely rare in Europe. It is known, however, in the Genoese
* Cuculus: Cuvier. + See page 150. f Cuculus pisanus: Gmelin.


















236 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
territory, and the young have been occasionally killed in the South of France. Many beautiful cuckoos
are found in foreign countries. -
According to Aristotle and Pliny, and with them Linnaeus appears to have concurred, the young
cuckoo, when it had attained a sufficient size, would sometimes kill and eat its foster-mother. Hence
Shakespeare makes the Fool, in “Lear,” say, alluding to the unnatural conduct of the unhappy king's
daughters:— -
“The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long,
That it had its head bit off by its young.”
“I had an opportunity,” says a naturalist, “of witnessing a singular fact in the case of a young
cuckoo which was hatched in the nest of a water-wagtail, who had built in some ivy on a wall close
to my house. It required the united efforts of both the old birds, from morning to night, to satisfy
his hunger, and I never saw birds more indefatigable than they were. When the young cuckoo had
nearly arrived at his full size, he appeared on the little nest of the water-wagtail, ‘like a giant in a
cock-boat.’ Just before he could fly he was put into a cage, in which situation the old birds continued
to feed him, till, by some accident, he made his escape, and remained in a high elm-tree near the house.
Here the water-wagtails were observed to feed him with the same assiduity for at least a fortnight
afterwards.” t
The following circumstances occurred at Arbury, in Warwickshire, the seat of Francis Newdigate,
Esq., and were witnessed by several persons residing in his house. The particulars were written down
at the time by a lady, who bestowed much time in watching the young cuckoo, and the fact is given in
her own words:—“In the early part of the summer of 1828, a cuckoo, having previously turned out
the eggs from a water-wagtail's nest, which was built in a small hole in a garden wall at Arbury,
deposited her own egg in their place. When the egg was hatched, the young intruder was fed by the
water-wagtails, till he became too bulky for his confined and narrow quarters, and in a fidgety fit he
fell to the ground. In this predicament he was found by the gardener, who picked him up, and put
him into a wire cage, which was placed on the top of a wall, not far from the place of its birth. Here
it was expected that the wagtails would have followed their supposititious offspring with food to
support it in its imprisonment—a mode of procedure which would have had nothing very uncommon
to recommend it to notice. But the odd part of the story is, that the bird which hatched the cuckoo
never came near it; but her place was supplied by a hedge-sparrow, who performed her part diligently
and punctually, by bringing food at very short intervals from morning till evening, till its uncouth
foster-child grew large, and became full feathered, when it was suffered to escape, and was seen no
more—gone, perhaps, to the country to which he migrates, to tell his kindred cuckoos (if he was as
ungrateful as he was ugly when I saw him in the nest) what fools hedge-sparrows and water-wagtails
are in England.” It may possibly be suggested, that a mistake has been made with regard to the sort
of bird which hatched the cuckoo, and that the same bird which fed it—namely, the hedge-sparrow—
hatched the egg. If this had been the case, there would have been nothing extraordinary in the
circumstance; but the wagtail was too often seen on her nest, both before the egg was hatched, and
afterwards feeding the young bird, to leave room for any scepticism on that point; and the sparrow
was observed feeding it in the cage afterwards by many members of the family daily.
“In April the cuckoo shows his bill;
In May he sings both night and day;
In June he altereth his tune;
In July away he'll fly:
In August go he must.”
This bird has long been one of the favourites of the poets. Thus Wordsworth sings:–
“O blithe new comer! I have heard,
I hear thee and rejoice;
O Cuckoo! shall I call thee bird,
Or but a wandering voice?
“When I am lying on the grass,
Thy two-fold shout I hear,
That seems to fill the whole air's space,
As loud far off as near.
“Though babbling only to the vale
Of sunshine and of flowers,
Thou bringest unto me a tale
Of visionary hours.
“Thrice welcome, darling of the Spring:
Ev’n yet thou art to me
No bird; but an invisible thing,
A voice, a mystery.
3. THE CUCKOOS. 237
“The same whom in my schoolboy days And thou wert still a hope, a love;
I listened to: that ery Still longed for, never seen.
Which made me look a thousand ways,
In bush, and tree, and sky. “And I can listen to thee yet.
Can lie upon the plain,
“To seek thee did I often rove And listen till I do beget
Through woods and on the green: That golden time again.”
THE GILDED CUCKOO.*
THIS beautiful bird inhabits the country above the Cape of Good Hope, being extremely common in
Caffraria and Namaqua-land. The male utters a cry similar to the word di-di-di-dric, whence has
arisen one of its names. Vaillant states that his servant, Klaas, shot 210 males, 130 females, and
103 young ones—in all, 443—and that numbers more might easily have been procured ; adding,
“besides which, eighty-three of their eggs in as many nests belonging to insectivorous birds were
obtained. Although this bird (the didric) be so common, if not in the immediate environs, yet about one
hundred leagues from Cape Town, it was scarcely known in Europe before my voyage, and in France
there was only one mutilated and badly-preserved specimen of it to be seen in the Royal Museum at
Paris. I myself brought over one hundred and fifty males and females, as well as young ones, which
are now exhibiting in the chief cabinets of Europe. To this beautiful species, also, I am indebted for
my chief knowledge of the cuckoo family. From the facility I had of leisurely and successfully observing
its manners, I always entertained the hope that I should one day surprise a female didric in the act of
depositing its eggs in the nest of another bird; but having been disappointed in this respect, I began
to imägine that my ignorance on this point would never be removed, when one day, having killed a
female of this species, and wishing to introduce into its throat a plug of hemp, according to my custom,
after bringing down a bird, in order to prevent the blood from staining its plumage, I was not a
little surprised, on opening its bill for that purpose, to find in its throat an entire egg, which I knew
immediately, from its form, size, and beautiful whiteness, to belong to the didric. Delighted at length,
after so many useless efforts, at having obtained a confirmation of my suspicions, I loudly called my
faithful Klaas, who was only a few paces distant from me, to whom I imparted my discovery with much
pleasure, as he had used his best exertions to second my views. Klaas, on seeing the egg in the bird's
gullet, told me, that after killing female cuckoos, he had frequently observed a newly-broken egg lying
upon the ground, near where they had fallen, which, he supposed, they had dropped in their fall, being
at that moment ready to lay. I recollect very well that when this good Hottentot brought me the
fruits of his sports, he frequently remarked, as he pointed to the cuckoos, “This one laid her egg as she
fell from the tree.” Although I was convinced from this circumstance, that the female cuckoo deposits
her egg in the nests of other birds, by conveying it in her beak, I was desirous to collect what facts
I could on the subject. Klaas and I, therefore, began to shoot as many cuckoos as we could meet
with, which accounts for the great number of this species we procured. However, among all the
specimens, there occurred only one instance similar to that which I just mentioned — namely, that
of a second female, which was transporting her egg in her mouth like the former.” 24
In length the gilded cuckoo is about seven inches; the plumage above is rich glossy-green, with
golden reflexions; the head is marked with fine small stripes of white, with which the secondary quills
and many of the wing-coverts are tipped; the under parts are white ; the tarsi yellow. In the female,
the golden-green is changed for a reddish-gold colour, and the stripes on the head are more obscurely
marked. Besides the present species, Africa produces several others, some of which are even more rich
and intense in the metallic hues of their plumage.
THE EASTERN BLACK CUCKOO.f
THE plumage of the male bird is black, with metallic lustre. The bill is yellow. The female is shining
greenish-brown above, spotted with white; the tail-feathers banded with white; whitish beneath,
transversely undulated with greenish-brown.
Another genus, the Trogons, f forming a group of richly-coloured birds, abound in South America,
* Cuculus auratus. f Cuculus Orientalis: Linnaeus. Eudynamys Orientalis. † Trogonidae couroucouis.
238 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
where they conceal themselves in the central solitudes of umbrageous forests, and, except during the
breeding season, dwell insulated and alone. They will sit motionless for half a summer's day, often
upon a withered branch, and if not concealed by some accidental intervening mass of foliage, they fall
an easy prey to the keen-eyed hunter, who eagerly searches for birds not less remarkable for the delicacy
of their flesh than the beauty of their plumage. During the morning and evening hours, Mr. Swainson
informs us, they become more active; venturing at these times into the open parts of the forest, and
taking a shady station, dart upon winged insects, particularly beetles. At other times they feed upon
fruits, especially the rich purple berries of the different Melastomat, “at which,” he says, “they
invariably dart, precisely as if they were insects capable of getting away.” It has been remarked by
the woodland hunters, that the skin of these birds is of such delicate texture as to be with difficulty
preserved in a natural or complete condition. It is probable, for this reason, that in museums they
exhibit a heavy, shapeless aspect, redeemed, it is true, by the gorgeous colours,
or metallic splendour, of their plumage.
º The trogons" are described as solitary birds, extremely jealous of their
* , a freedom, never frequenting inhabited or open tracts, and delighting in the
silence of deserts. The interior of the thickest forests is their chosen abode
º 7 for the entire year. They are sometimes seen on the summit of trees, but in
general they prefer the centre, where they remain a portion of the day without
descending to the ground, or even to the lower branches. Here they lie in
--- ambush for the insects which pass within reach, and seize them with address
Head or a raogos. and dexterity. Their flight is lively, short, vertical, and undulating.
Though they thus conceal themselves in the thick foliage, it is not through distrust, for when they are
in an open space, they may be approached so nearly as to be struck with a stick. They are rarely
heard to utter any cries, except during the season of reproduction, and then their voice is strong,
Sonorous, monotonous, and melancholy. They have many cries, from the Sound of one of which their
name is derived. All those whose habits are known nestle in the hollows of worm-eaten trees, which
they enlarge with their bills, so as to form a comfortable and roomy residence. The number of eggs is
from two to four, and the young are born totally naked, but their feathers begin to start two or three
days after their birth. The occupation of the male during incubation consists in watching for the safety
of his companion, bringing her food, and amusing her with a song, which, though we should call it
insipid, is to her without doubt the expression of sensibility. Some of the trogons express the
syllable pio, repeated many times in succession, with a powerful, yet plaintive tone. Their accent
almost reminds one of the wailings of a child who has lost its way, and it is thus that they cry to each
other amidst the silence of the forests. As soon as the young are able to provide for themselves, they
separate from their parents to enjoy that solitude and isolation which appear to constitute the supreme
happiness of the species. Their aliments are composed of larvae, small worms, caterpillars, coleoptera,
and berries, which they swallow entire. The male at various ages, the female, and the young,
differ in their plumage, which has given rise to the institution of more species than are really in
existence.
The remarkable plumage and shy habits of the trogons did not escape the observation of the
ancient Mexicans, in whose mythology one of the species, at least (Trogon pavoninus), was celebrated.
Another species, the Tzinitzcan of the Mexicans (Trogon curucci, Linn.), was employed by them,
according to Hernandez, in the fabrication of the figures and pictures (imagines) used on festivals, in
war, and in their temples. They were probably kept in one of the two houses which formed the royal
menagerie of ancient Mexico, one of these houses being appointed to birds which did not live by prey,
the other to birds of prey, quadrupeds, and reptiles. Three hundred men, according to Cortes, were
employed to take care of these birds, besides their physicians, who watched their diseases and applied
timely remedies. Of the three hundred attendants, some procured their food, others distributed it, others
took care of the eggs at the time of incubation; whilst others, at certain seasons, picked their plumage;
for the king not only delighted in the sight of so many species, but was very careful of their feathers,
for the sake of the famous mosaic images and pictures, as well as of the other works which were made
of them.
* Trogonidae.

THE GOLDEN TROGON.”
The most magnificent of the genus is the bird thus named, a rare and remar
kable species, of which
neither delineation nor description can convey an adequate idea.
The greater proportion of the
THE EASTERN BLACK CUCR00.
plumage is apparently composed of burnished gold. The head ornamented by a brilliant crest, the
wing-coverts falling in flakes of golden-green over the deep purplish-black of the primary and secondary
quill feathers, the rich carmine of the lower parts bestowing a warmth and depth of effect which no
* Trogon (Calurus) resplendens,

240 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Venetian painter ever equalled, and the long waving and highly metallic feathers of the tail-coverts,
extending about three times the length of the whole body, present a combination of beauty almost
unexampled in the feathered tribes. The first specimens seen in this country were brought, we believe,
by Mr. Schenley, from Vera Paez, in Central America. They are very much sought after as head-
gear by the Peruvian damsels.
Another group of the order now under consideration is constituted of the Malcohas. These feathered
creatures appear, as yet, to be almost exclusively confined to India and the adjacent islands. The
generic characters consist in the bill being stout, longer than the head, and generally curved at the
base ; and in the side of the head, for a large space round the eye, being destitute of feathers, and
exhibiting a naked granulated skin. The wings are short ; the tail is long and graduated.
THE RED-HEADED MALCOHA.3%
THE island of Ceylon, so famous for its profuse vegetation, especially for its aromatic trees, and no less
so for its animals of various kinds, among which the pearl-bearing oyster is peculiarly conspicuous, is
- the habitat of the Red-headed Malcoha. This bird is
about sixteen inches in length; the general plumage above
is shining greenish-black; the tail is tipped with white
and very graduated; the under surface is white; the
large naked space around the edges is orange-red, bor-
dered along its under margin with a rim of white. It
frequents the deep woods, and is said to live chiefly on
fruits. But of its habits, as of those of the rest of the
group, naturalists have at present much to learn.
THE PARTI-COLOURED BARBET.f
WE now come to another family, which includes the
& barbets, the woodpeckers, and the wrynečks, birds of
T. true scansorial habits, climbing about the trunks and
iſ larger branches of trees with great facility, and feeding
j chiefly on such insects as Secrete themselves either in the
crevices, beneath the bark, or in the soft wood of decayed
trees. -
The Barbets are distinguished by their large conical
beak, which appears, as it were, swollen or puffed out at
the sides of the base, and is bearded, from whence the
name of these birds is derived. The beak has five tufts
of bristles, directed forwards. One of these tufts is
behind each nostril, one on either side of the lower man-
dible, and the fifth is under the symphysis.
Their short wings and heavy proportions do not admit of swift flight; and their prey consists of
insects and young birds, which they surprise, and also of fruits. Their nests are generally built in
the holes of trees.
The sub-genus Bucco, Cuvier, Capito, Vieillot, embraces the true barbets, which have the conical
bill slightly compressed and a little elevated in the middle. Their plumage is, generally speaking,
gay ; and they are to be found both in Africa and Asia. During the breeding season, they go in
pairs, but they congregate in small flocks during the remainder of the year. The buff-faced barbet $
affords an example of the true barbets. It may be observed in the British Museum; its native
place is uncertain. . . -
THE PARTI-COLOURED BARBET,
* Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. t Bucco versicolor. ; Picidae. § Bucco Lathami.

THE SPOTTED-BELLIED TAMATIA.*
Of the Barbets, there is a sub-genus.f. The great head, short tail, and large bill of these puff-birds, as
they are called, give them, as Cuvier observes, an air of stupidity, which their melancholy and solitary
habits do not lessen. They are said to feed entirely on insects. All the recorded species are American.
Swainson obtained one of them from Southern Brazil. ---
This naturalist, who had good opportunities of observing these birds, gives the following interesting
account of their habits:—“There is something very grotesque in the appearance of all the puff birds;
and their habits in a state of nature are no less singular. They frequent open cultivated spots near
habitations, always perching on the withered branches of a low tree, where they will sit nearly
motionless for hours, unless, indeed, they descry some luckless insect passing near them, at which they
immediately dart, returning again to the identical twig they had just left, and which they will
sometimes frequent for months. At such times the dispro- -
portionate size of the head is rendered more conspicuous
by the bird raising the feathers, so as to appear not unlike
a puff-ball; hence the general name they have received
from the English residents in Brazil, of which vast country
all the species, I believe, are natives. When frightened, tº
this form is suddenly changed by all the feathers lying \
quite flat. They are very confiding, and will often take
their station within a few yards of the window. The two
sexes are generally near each other, and often on the
same tree.”
The length of this species is about eight inches.
Plumage black and white, except the belly and vent,
which are tinged with buff.
These birds lead off gradually to the true wood-
peckers, a group of birds full of interest, in whatever
point of view they are examined, and particularly exhibit-
ing those marks of design which illustrate the wonders
of the Great Creator.
The Woodpeckers, wherever they are found, are
exactly adapted to the circumstances in which they are placed. The tarsi are short and strong, and .
the toes large and armed with short hooked claws, which pierce the surface of the bark, or catch the
slightest inequalities. In addition to the advantages thus derived from the powers of the feet, no bird
is more indebted to the structure of its tail than the woodpecker. This part is, in fact, an essential
support, and even a propelling instrument, calculated to aid the bird as it climbs. It is composed of
ten feathers, the central ones having the shafts long, elastic, slightly bent inwards, and gradually
narrowing to a point, which projects beyond the web. Thus pressed against a tree, these points being
driven inwards, and catching every projecting roughness, the tail acts as a springy support or prop.
Nor less perfectly adapted to its purposes of splitting and chipping trees, is the bill of the wood-
pecker. At its base it is strong and thick, narrowing as it proceeds, till it ends in a hard wedge-
shaped tip, compressed at its sides. The tongue is equally admirable as a flexible probe: long and
worm-like, it is capable, by a peculiar muscular apparatus, of being protruded to a great extent, and is
armed at its tip with a series of short spines, directed backwards, in addition to which it is covered
with a viscid saliva. This organ, endued with great latitude of motion, the bird inserts into the
crevices of the bark, into the fissures it makes with its beak, or into any aperture, in search of insects
and their larvae, and withdraws it; the prey adhering to it by means of the saliva, and being prevented
from rubbing off by the retroverted bristles which barb the tip.
It is not to be wondered at that America, so rich in deep forests, as it once must have been, and
indeed is now where the axe of the woodman has not yet penetrated, should produce many specimens
of woodpeckers. Lawson thus enumerates those in Carolina known to him:—
THE SPOTTED-BELLIED TAMATIA,
* Tamatia maculata. + Tamatia: Cuvier. † Picidae.
WOL. III. 127

242 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“Of woodpeckers we have four sorts. The first is as big as a pigeon, being of a dark brown colour,
with a white cross on his back, his eyes circled with white, and on his head stands a tuft of beautiful
scarlet feathers. His cry is heard a long way; and he flies from one rotten tree to another, to get
grubs, which is the food he lives on. *
“The second sort are of an olive colour striped with yellow. They eat worms as well as grubs,
and are about the bigness of those in Europe.
“The third is the same bigness as the last ; he is pied with black and white, has a crimson head
without a topping, and is a plague to the corn and fruit, especially the apples. He opens the covering
of the young corn so that the rain gets in and rots it. ~
“The fourth sort of these woodpeckers is a black and white speckled or mottled; the finest I ever
saw. The cock has a red crown; he is not near So
big as the others; grubs, corn, and other creeping
insects are his food. He is not very wild, but will
let one come up to him ; then shifts on the other
side of the tree from your sight, and so dodges
you for a long time together. He is about the
size of an English lark.” *
Catesby notices the same species as Lawson,
and adds others; some of which, in connection
with the woodpeckers of other lands, we shall
now proceed particularly to notice.
THE GREEN WOODPECKER."
THIs bird, generally observed either climbing the
bark of trees in search of insects, or passing by
a short and undulating flight from one tree to
another, is found throughout the greater portion
of the wooded districts both of England and Scot-
land. It bears various names: thus the people of
Surrey and Sussex call it the yaffle or yaffil, from
its repeated notes, which are compared to the
sound of a laugh; in Northumberland it is styled
rain-fowl, from its being more loud and noisy
before a shower; while other terms, which are
modifications of its name, as, woodwall, woodpie,
and woodnacker, are in use in the New Forest,
in Hampshire.
The Green Woodpecker obtains its food both upon trees and on the ground; its flight is short,
undulating, and rather laborious. “When seen moving upon a tree,” says Mr. Yarrell, “the bird is
mostly ascending in a direction more or less oblique, and is believed to be incapable of descending,
unless this action is performed backwards. On flying to a tree to make a new search, the bird settles
low down on the bole or body of the tree, but a few feet above the ground, and generally below the
lowest large branch, as if to have all its work above it, and proceeds from thence upwards, alternately
tapping, to induce any hidden insect to change its place, pecking holes in a decayed branch, that it may
be able to reach any insects that are lodged within, or protruding its long, extensible tongue to take up
any insect on the surface; but the summit of the tree once obtained, the bird does not descend over
the examined part, but flies off to another tree, or to another part of the same tree, to re-commence its
search lower down nearer the ground.”
A very large proportion of the food of this species is derived from ants and their eggs. Every
person who has lived in the country must frequently have seen this gay-coloured woodpecker feeding
THE GREEN WOODPECKER.
* Picus viridis.

THE WOODPECKERS. 243
at some ant-hill. Mr. Yarrell states that he has seldom had an opportunity of examining a recently
killed specimen, the beak of which did not indicate, by the earth adhering to the base and to the
feathers about the nostrils, that the bird had been so at work. Bechstein says that, in the winter, it
will take bees from the hive, and that in the house it is fed on nuts, ants' eggs, and meat. Of its
manners in captivity the German ornithologist states that the beauty of its plumage is all that can be
said of it, for it is so fierce, quick, and stubborn, that it can only be kept chained. It is curious, he
adds, to see it crack nuts.
THE GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER,+
According to the editor of “Pennant's British Zoology,” this species puts the point of the bill into a
crack or the limb of a large tree, and makes a quick tremulous motion with its head, thereby occasioning
a sound as if the tree was splitting, which alarms the insects, and induces them to quit their recesses.
This action it repeats during the spring in the same
spot, every minute or two for half an hour, and the
bird will then fly to another tree, generally fixing itself
near the top, for the same purpose.
The noise thus made, the writer says, may be dis-
tinctly heard for half a mile; and he remarks that the
bird will also keep its head in very quick motion while
moving about the tree for food, jarring the bark, and
shading it at the same time it is seeking for insects.
Bechstein says that the food of this species consists of
insects, beech-mast, acorns, nuts, and the seed of pines
and firs, and that, in order to crack nuts, it fixes them
in the clefts of the trees.
The eggs, which are glossy white, and from four
to six in number, are deposited at the bottom of the
hole in a tree upon the decayed wood. On one occa-
sion it was with difficulty the bird was made to quit
her eggs; for notwithstanding a chisel and mallet were
used to enlarge the hole, she did not attempt to fly out
till the hand was intruded, when she quitted the tree
at another opening. This species more frequently
makes that jarring noise for which the woodpeckers
are distinguished than any of the others, especially
when disturbed from the nest.
Mr. Gould says they are sometimes observed to
alight upon rails, old posts, and decayed pollards, where, among the moss and other vegetable matter,
they find a plentiful harvest of spiders, ants, and other insects; nor are they free from the charge of
committing great havoc among cherries, plums, and wall-fruit in general.
THE GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.
THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER+
Woods, orchards, nursery gardens, and well-timbered parks are the haunts of this pretty little bird.
“In England,” says Mr. Gould, “it is far more abundant than is generally supposed; we have seldom
sought for it in vain wherever large trees, particularly the elm, grow in sufficient numbers to invite its
abode : its security from sight is to be attributed more to its habit of frequenting the topmost branches
than to its rarity. Near London it is very common, and may be seen by an attentive observer in
Kensington Gardens, and in any of the parks of the neighbourhood. Like many other birds whose
habits are of an arboreal character, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker appears to perform a certain daily
round, traversing a given extent of district, and returning to the same spot whence it began its route.
Besides the elm, to which it is especially partial, it not unfrequently visits orchard trees of large growth,
* Picus major. + Picus minor.


244 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
running over their moss-grown branches in quest of the larvae of insects, which abound in such situations.
In its actions it is very lively and alert. Unlike the large woodpecker, which prefers the trunks of
trees, it naturally frequents the smaller and more elevated branches, which it traverses with the utmost
ease and celerity. Should it perceive itself noticed, it becomes shy, and retires from observation by
concealing itself behind the branch on which it rests; if, however, earnestly engaged in the extraction
of its food, its attention appears to be so absorbed that it will allow itself to be closely approached
without suspending its operations.
When spring approaches, it be-
comes clamorous and noisy, its call
being an oft-repeated note, so
closely resembling that of the wry-
neck as to be scarcely distinguish-
able from it. At other times of
the year it is mute, and its presence
is only betrayed by the reiterated
strokes which it makes against the
bark of trees.”
THE GREAT BLACK WOOD-
PECKER."
Mr. Gould thus describes the
habits of the Great Black Wood-
--- pecker: —“We need hardly say
THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. that it is on the bark of trees more
exclusively that the woodpecker
finds its food, and to this end are its powers and organs adapted. If we examine the toes of the
present species, which are to be taken as illustrative of form in the whole of the family (with the
exception of a single limited group), we find them long and powerful, furnished with strong claws,
admirably adapted for grasping or clinging to the rough inequalities of the bark; besides this they are
placed in pairs, but not, as often stated, two before and two behind ; for one pair is lateral, and diverges
from the other at an acute angle, so as to be applied to the convexity of the tree, and thus render the
grasp firm and close. The tail is composed of stiff feathers, the shafts of which tapergradually from the base
of the extremities, which, curving inward when pressed against a tree, not only form a fulcrum for the
support of the body, but, by their elasticity, aid the progress of the bird. This provision, the more
needed from the posterior situation of the legs, is admirably calculated for ascending; and having
explored the bark by a spiral course, the woodpecker flies off to the next tree to repeat the same
process. The flight of the present species is undulating, seldom protracted to any extent, but limited
to a transit from tree to tree, in the seclusion of its native woods. Its food consists of the larvae of
wasps, bees, and other insects; in addition, however, it devours fruits, berries, and nuts with avidity.
The female selects the hollows of old trees, in which she deposits two or three eggs of a snowy
whiteness.”
Mr. Hewitson saw this species in two instances only in Norway, and at a distance. The birds
were so wild that to approach them was impossible. The same observing ornithologist says, that on
the wing the black woodpecker looks like a crow, and that its note resembles a loud hoarse laugh.
Mr. Yarrell, in his interesting work on “British Birds,” states, that the great black woodpecker
was added to the catalogue of the birds of Britain by Dr. Latham, who said that he had been informed
that the species had occasionally been seen in Devonshire and the southern parts of the kingdom.
Mr. Yarrell refers also to Dr. Pulteney's catalogue of the Dorsetshire birds, where the great black
woodpecker is noticed as having been more than once killed in that county—one, in particular, is said
to have been shot in a nursery at Blandford, and another at Whitechurch; and he then quotes
Montagu's supplement for the following passage, which to every one who is aware of the great
* Picus martius.



THE WOODPECKERS. 245
ornithological knowledge of the Earl of Derby, will be conclusive:–" Lord Stanley assures us that
he shot a Picus martius in Lancashire; and we have heard that another was shot, in the winter of
1805, on the trunk of a tree in Battersea Fields.” Mr. Yarrell then goes on to state that the specimen
of the black woodpecker, formerly in the collection of Mr. Donovan (who was well known to give very
high prices for rare British-killed birds, for his own use in his “History of British Ornithology”), was
affirmed to have been shot in this country; and at the sale of Mr. Donovan's collection this specimen
was purchased by the Earl of Derby. Mr. Yarrell further states that he had been told of
two instances of the black woodpecker having been killed in Yorkshire, and that it is also
recorded to have been killed in Lincolnshire. “A few years since,” says Mr. Yarrell in con-
tinuation, “a communication was made to the Zoological Society of London, that two examples of
the great black woodpecker had been at that time killed in a small wood, near Scale Inn, in Norfolk;
and, still more recently, a pair were frequently seen in a small preserved wood near Christchurch,
in Hampshire. It was hoped that they would have
remained to go to nest; but the birds, disturbed by
being too frequently watched, left the wood. Lastly,
I may add, that Sir Robert Sibbald, in his Scotia.
Illustrata, claims Picus martius as a bird of Scotland,
including it in his Historia Animalium in Scotia.”
Willoughby does not declare that this bird is
not found in England. He procured his specimen in
the market at Ratisbon, in Germany, and it was
killed in the neighbourhood of that city; but touching
its absence in England, he only says, “It is not found
in England that we know of." Lewin figures the
species in his “Birds of Great Britain,” and writes
thus:—“We believe this one to be exceedingly scarce in
England; but as we have sufficient authority to say
that it has been met with more than once in the
southern and western parts of this kingdom, it may
not be amiss to figure it among the British species.”
That the bird has occurred in this country in a
natural state, even of late years, no one, we apprehend,
can doubt, after the perusal of the evidence above
collected; and the probability is, that this fine species
was comparatively abundant in the vast forests which
formerly covered so great a portion of Britain, espe-
cially in the northern parts of the country. THE GREAT BLACE WOODPECE ER.
THE GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER,+
“No sooner,” says Audubon, “has spring called these birds to the pleasant duty of making love, than
their voice, which, by the way, is not at all disagreeable to the ear of man, is heard from the tops of
high decayed trees, proclaiming with delight the opening of the welcome season. Their mote at this
period is merriment itself, as it imitates a prolonged and jovial laugh, heard at a considerable distance.
Several males pursue a female, reach her, and, to prove the force and truth of their love, bow their
heads, spread their tails, and move sideways, backwards, and forwards, performing such antics as might
induce any one witnessing them, if not of a morose temper, to join his laugh to theirs. The female
flies to another tree, where she is instantly followed by one, two, or even half a dozen of these gay
suitors, and where again the same ceremonials are gone through. No fighting occurs, no jealousies
exist among these beaux, until a marked preference is shown to some individual, when the rejected
proceed in search of another female. In this manner all the Golden-winged Woodpeckers are soon
happily mated. Each pair immediately proceed to excavate the trunk of a tree, and finish a hole in it
* Colaptus auratus.





246 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
sufficient to contain themselves and their young. They both work with great industry and apparent
pleasure. Should the male, for instance, be employed, the female is close to him, and congratulates
him on the removal of every chip which his bill sends through the air. While he rests, he appears to
be speaking to her on the most tender subjects, and when fatigued is at once assisted by her. In this
manner, by the alternate exertions of each, the hole is dug and finished. They caress each other on
the branches, climb about and around the tree with apparent delight, rattle with their bill against the
tops of the dead branches, chase all their cousins, the red-heads, defy the purple-grakles to enter their
nest, feed plentifully on beetles and larvae, cackling at intervals, and ere two weeks have elapsed the
female lays either four or six eggs, the whiteness or transparency of which are, doubtless, the delight
of her heart.
“If to raise a numerous progeny may contribute to happiness, these woodpeckers may be happy
enough, for they have two broods each season. Even in confinement, the golden-winged woodpecker
never suffers his naturally lively spirit to droop. It feeds well, and by way of amusement will contrive
to destroy as much furniture in a day as can well be mended by a different kind of workman in two.
Therefore, kind reader, do not any longer believe that woodpeckers—I mean those of America—are
such stupid, forlorn, dejected, and unprovided-for beings as they have hitherto been represented.”
Another bird of the same country is of remarkable interest; it is the largest white-bill woodpecker of
Catesby; and the large log-cock and ivory-billed woodpecker of the Anglo-Americans.
THE IVORY-IBILLED WOODPECKER.
THE broad extent of this bird's dark and glossy plumage, with the well-defined snowy markings of the
neck and wings, relieved by the rich tracery of the carmine crest and brilliant yellow eye, in some way
so reminded the enthusiastic Audubon of the noble productions of a great Flemish painter, that when-
ever he saw one of these gorgeous birds flying from tree to tree, he would exclaim, “There goes a
Vandyke l’” The Ivory-billed Woodpecker confines its rambles to a comparatively small portion of the
United States, and is never observed in the middle portions of the Union, where the nature of the
wood does not appear to suit its habits. “I)escending the Ohio,” says M. Audubon, “we meet with
this splendid bird for the first time near the confluence of that beautiful river and the Mississippi;
after which, following the windings of the latter, either downwards towards the sea, or upwards in the
direction of the Missouri, we frequently observe it. On the Atlantic coast, North Carolina may be
taken as the limits of its distribution, although now and then an individual of the species may be seen
in Maryland. To the westward of the Mississippi it is found in all the dense forests bordering the
streams which empty their waters into that majestic river from the declivities of the Rocky Mountains.
The lower parts of the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi are, however, the
most favourite resorts of this bird, and in these States it constantly resides, breeds, and passes a
life of peaceful enjoyment, finding a profusion of food in all the deep, dark, and gloomy swamps
dispersed throughout them.
“I wish, kind reader, it were in my power to present to your mind's eye the favourite resort
of the ivory-billed woodpecker. Would that I could describe the extent of those deep morasses,
overshadowed by millions of dark, gigantic cypresses, spreading their sturdy, moss-covered branches
as if to admonish man to pause and reflect on the many difficulties which he must encounter
should he persist in venturing farther into their almost inaccessible recesses, extending for miles before
him, where he would be interrupted by huge projecting branches, here and there the mossy trunk
of a fallen and decaying tree, and thousands of creeping and twining plants of numberless species 1
Would that I could represent to you the dangerous nature of the ground, its oozing, spongy, and
miry disposition, although covered with a beautiful but treacherous carpeting, composed of the
richest mosses, flags, and water-lilies, no sooner receiving the pressure of the foot than it yields,
and endangers the very life of the adventurer; whilst here and there, as he approaches an opening,
that proves merely a lake of black, muddy water, his ear is assailed by the dismal croaking of
innumerable frogs, the hissing of serpents, or the bellowing of alligators! Would that I could give
you an idea of the sultry, pestiferous atmosphere that nearly suffocates the intruder during the
meridian heat of our dog-days in those gloomy and horrible swamps | But the attempt to picture
THE woodpeckers. 247
these scenes would be vain; nothing short of ocular demonstration can impress any adequate idea
of them. - -
“The flight of this bird is graceful in the extreme, although seldom prolonged to more than a few
hundred yards at a time, unless when it has to cross a large river, which it does in deep undulations,
opening its wings at first to their full extent, and nearly closing them to renew the propelling impulse.
The transit from one tree to another, even should the distance be as much as a hundred yards, is
performed by a single sweep, and the bird appears as if merely swinging itself from the top of the one
tree to that of the other, forming an elegantly-curved line. At this moment all the beauty of the
THE WARIED WOODIPECKER.
plumage is exhibited, and strikes the beholder with pleasure. It never utters any sound whilst on the
wing, unless during the love season; but at all other times, no sooner has this bird alighted, than its
remarkable voice is heard, at almost every leap which it makes, whilst ascending against the upper
parts of the trunk of a tree, or its highest branches. Its notes are clear, loud, and yet rather plaintive.
They are heard at a considerable distance, perhaps a mile, and resemble the false high note of a clarionet.
They are usually repeated three times in succession, and may be represented by the monosyllable pait,
pait, pait. These are heard so frequently as to induce me to say that the bird spends few minutes of
the day without uttering them; and this circumstance leads to its destruction, which is aimed at, not
because (as is supposed by some) this species is a destroyer of trees, but more because it is a beautiful

248 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
bird, and its rich scalp, attached to the upper mandible, is used for an ornament for the war-dress of most
of our Indians, or for the short pouch of our squatters and hunters, by all of whom the bird is shot merely
for that purpose. Travellers of all nations are also fond of possessing the upper part of the head and
the bill of the male ; and I have frequently remarked, that on a steam-boat's reaching what we call a
wooding-place, the strangers were very ready to pay a quarter of a dollar for two or three heads of this
woodpecker. I have seen entire belts of Indian chiefs closely ornamented with the tufts and bills of
this species, and have observed that a great value is frequently put upon them. The food of this
species consists principally of beetles, larvae, and large grubs. No sooner, however, are the grapes of
our forests ripe than they are eaten by the ivory-billed woodpecker with the greatest avidity. I have
seen this bird hang by its claws to the vines, in the position so often assumed by a titmouse, and,
reaching downwards, help itself to a bunch of grapes with much apparent pleasure. Persimons are
also sought for by them as soon as the fruit becomes quite mellow, as are hay-berries. The ivory-bill
is never seen attacking the corn or the fruit of the orchards, although it is sometimes observed working
upon and chipping off the bark from the belted trees of the newly-cleared plantations. It seldom comes
near the ground, but prefers at all times the tops of the tallest trees. Should it, however, discover the
half-standing broken shaft of a large dead and rotten tree, it attacks it in such a manner as nearly to
demolish it in the course of a few days. I have seen the remains of some of these ancient monarchs of
our forest so excavated, and that so singularly, that the tottering fragments of the front appeared to be
merely supported by the great pile of chips by which its base was surrounded. The strength of this
woodpecker is such, that I have seen it detach pieces of bark seven or eight inches in length at a single
blow of its powerful bill, and by beginning at the top branch of a dead tree, tear off the bark to an
extent of twenty or thirty feet in the course of a few hours, leaping downwards with its body in an
upward position, tossing its head to the right and left, or leaning it against the bark to ascertain the
precise spot where the grubs were concealed, and immediately after renewing its blows with fresh
vigour, all the while sounding its loud notes as if highly delighted.
“When wounded and brought to the ground, the ivory-bill immediately makes for the nearest
tree, and ascends it with great rapidity and perseverance, until it reaches the top branches, when it
squats and hides, generally with great effect. Whilst ascending, it moves spirally round the tree,
utters its loud pait, pait, pait, at almost every hop, but becomes silent the moment it reaches a place
where it conceives itself secure. They sometimes cling to the bark with their claws so firmly as to
remain cramped to the spot for several hours after death. When taken by the hand, which is rather a
hazardous undertaking, they strike with great violence, and inflict very severe wounds with their bill,
as well as claws, which are extremely sharp and strong. On such occasions this bird utters a mournful
and very piteous cry.”
Nuttall states that this bird is a constant resident in the countries where it is found, in the warmer
regions breeding in the rainy season, and that the pair are believed to be united for life. “More
vagrant,” says Nuttall, in continuation, “and independent than the rest of his family, he is never found
in the precincts of cultivated tracts; the scene of his dominion is the lonely forest, amidst trees of the
greatest magnitude. His reiterated trumpeting note, somewhat similar to the high tones of the
clarionet (pait, pait, pait, pait), is heard soon after day and until a late morning hour, echoing loudly
from the recesses of the dark cypress swamps, where he dwells in domestic security, without showing
any impertinent or unnecessary desire to quit his native solitary abodes. Upon the giant trunk and
moss-grown arms of this colossus of the forest, and amidst inaccessible and almost ruinous piles of
mouldering logs, the high, rattling clarion, and repeated strokes of this princely woodpecker are often
the only sounds which vibrate through, and communicate an air of life to, these dismal wilds. His
stridulous interrupted call and loud industrious blows may often be heard for more than half a mile,
and become audible at various distances, as the elevated mechanic raises or depresses his voice, or
as he flags or exerts himself at his laborious employment. His retiring habits, loud notes, and
singular occupation, amidst scenes so savage, yet majestic, afford withal a peculiar scene of solemn
grandeur, on which the mind dwells for a moment with sublime contemplation, convinced that there
is no scene in Nature devoid of harmonious consistence. Nor is the performance of this industrious
hermit less remarkable than the peals of his sonorous voice, or the loud choppings of his powerful
bill. He is soon surrounded with striking monuments of his industry; like a real carpenter (a nick-
THE WOODPECKERS. 249
name given him by the Spaniards), he is seen surrounded with cart-loads of chips and broad flakes
of bark, which rapidly accumulate round the roots of the tall pine and cypress where he has been a
few hours empioyed; the work of half a dozen men, felling trees for a whole morning, would scarcely
exceed the pile he has produced in quest of a single breakfast upon these insect larvae, which have
already, perhaps, succeeded in deadening the tree preparatory to the repast. Many thousand acres
of pine-trees in the Southern States have been destroyed in a single season by the insidious attacks
of insects, which, in the dormant state, are not larger than a grain of rice. It is in quest of these
enemies of the most in posing part of the vegetable creation that the industrious and indefatigable
woodpecker exercises his peculiar labour. In the sound and healthy tree he finds nothing which
serves him for food.” Another remarkable bird of America is the Varied Woodpecker.
THE LARGER RED-CRESTED WOODPECKER.3%
THESE birds are not unfrequent in the well-timbered forests, from Mexico to Canada, at least to the
fiftieth degree north. They are resident all the year in the interior of the fur countries up to the
sixty-second or sixty-third parallels; rarely appearing near Hudson's Bay, but numerous in the
gloomiest recesses of the forests that skirt the Rocky Mountains, in all the United States, particularly
in the Gennesee country, in the state of New York.
Catesby says that these birds (besides insects which they get from rotten trees, their usual food)
are destructive to “maize” by pecking holes through the husks that inclose the grain, and letting in
the wet. Sir John Richardson states that the stillness of the primeval shades which this woodpecker
frequents is often invaded by the strokes of its powerful bill, which excels the woodman's axe in the
loudness of its sound, and still more in the rapidity with which its blows are urged ; “nor does it,” he
adds, “fall far short in the quantity of chips it produces. Like other woodpeckers, he is extremely
industrious, seemingly never a moment idle, flying from tree to tree, and plying his head like a hammer
the instant that he alights.” A few strokes of the bill suffice to indicate the state of the tree; and
Sir John concludes his observations on this species by remarking, that if the bird judges that he
would explore the interior in vain, he instantly quits that tree for another.
From the tall trees which cast their giant arms over all the uncleared river lands may often be
heard his loud, echoing, and incessant cackle, as he flies restlessly from tree to tree, presaging the
approach of rainy weather. These notes resemble ekerek rek rek rek, rek, rek, rek, uttered in a loud
cadence, which gradually rises and falls. The marks of his industry are also abundantly visible on the
decaying trees, which he probes and chisels with great dexterity, chipping off wide flakes of loosened
bark, to come at the burrowing insects which chiefly compose his food. In whatever engaged,
haste and wildness seem to govern all his motions, and by flying from place to place as soon as
observed, he continues to escape every appearance of danger. Even in the event of a fatal wound, he
still struggles with unconquerable resolution to maintain his grasp on the trunk, to which he trusts for
his safety, to the very instant of death. When caught by a disabling wound, he still holds his
ground against a tree, and strikes with bitterness the hand which attempts to grasp him, and,
resolute for his native liberty, rarely submits to live in confinement. Nuttall states that this species
is, without much foundation, charged at times with tasting maize ; but in winter he observes the bird
in South Carolina occasionally making a hearty repast on holly and similar berries.
The female lays about six snow-white eggs, in the cavity of a tree. Two broods are said to be
produced in a season.
THE WRYNECK.f
THE Greeks were acquainted with this bird.: Aristotle has well described it, its long tongue, its power
of protruding and retracting it, and the writhing, snake-like motion which it can impart to its neck
without moving the rest of the body. It was also the Iynx of the Romans. It bears various names in
England, as Long-tongue, Emmet-hunter, Snake-bird, Cuckoo's Mate, Cuckoo's Maid, and Cuckoo Fool
(the two last common in Gloucestershire); in Wales it is called Gwas y Góg and Gwddfro; the countries
of Europe assign to it various appellations; and among the Japanese it is the Arizui.
* Catesby. The Pileated Woodpecker of Pennant, &c. + Yunx torquilla. £ "Ivyš.
WOL. III. 32
250 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
2
The male has the ground-colour of the plumage of the upper parts rusty-ash colour, irregularly
spotted and speckled with brown and black; a large brown streak extends from the occiput to between
the scapulars; on the external barbs of the wing-feathers are rusty squared spots; the tail-feathers
are bounded with black zig-zags; and the throat and front of the neck are pale rusty, with small
transverse black lines.
When the note of the cuckoo is heard, the Wryneck may be looked for ; coming and departing, too,
about the same time. The latter, when found in its retreat in the hole of a tree, makes a loud hissing,
sets up its crest, and writhing its head and neck towards each shoulder with grotesque contortions
(whence its name, Snake-bird), becomes an object of terror to a timid intruder, when the bird, taking
advantage of a moment of indecision, darts with the rapidity of lightning from a situation whence
escape seemed impossible.
Caterpillars and a variety of insects form the food of the wryneck, and it is a great devourer of
ants and their eggs. Elder-berries have been mentioned as being a part of its diet.
Mr. Yarrell thus describes the construction of
the tongue and its appendages in this species:—
“By an elongation of the two posterior branches
# of the bones of the tongue, and the exercise of the
} º% ; , i.e. a muscles attached to them, this bird is able to ex-
ź à. ;: tend the tongue a very considerable distance beyond
a sº the point of the beak; the end of the tongue is
horny and hard ; a large and long gland is situated
at the under edge of the lower jaw on each side,
which secretes a glutinous mucus, and transfers it
to the inside of the mouth by a slender duct. With
this glutinous mucus the end of the tongue is
always covered, for the especial purpose of convey-
ing food into the mouth by contact. So unerring
is the aim by which the tongue is darted out, and
so certain the effect of the adhesive moisture,
that the bird never fails in attaining its object at
every attempt. So rapid, also, is the action
of the tongue, in thus conveying food into the
mouth, that the eye is unable distinctly to follow
it.”
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Colonel Montagu says:–“We were enabled
to examine the manners of this bird minutely, by
taking a female from the nest, and confining her in
a cage for some days. A quantity of mould, with
emmets and their eggs, was given it; and it was curious to observe the tongue darted forward and
retracted with such velocity, and with such unerring aim, that it never returned without an ant or an
egg adhering to it, not transfixed by the horny point, as some have imagined, but retained by a peculiar
tenacious moisture by nature provided for that purpose. While it is feeding the body is motionless,
the head only is turned to every side, and the motion of the tongue is so rapid that an ant's egg, which
is of a light colour, and more conspicuous than the tongue, has somewhat the appearance of moving
towards the mouth by attraction, as a needle flies to a magnet. The bill is rarely used except to remove
the mould in order to get more readily at these insects: where the earth is hollow the tongue is thrust
into all the cavities to rouse the ants; for this purpose the horny appendage is extremely serviceable
as a guide to the tongue. We have seen the green woodpecker take its food in a similar manner.”
The smooth, shining white eggs—from six to ten in number—are generally deposited in a hole of
a tree or the decayed wood. The birds are remarkable for local attachment, as the following anecdote,
related by Mr. Salmon, will prove —“I wished,” writes that gentleman, “last spring to obtain the
eggs of a wryneck to place in my cabinet, and, accordingly, watched very closely a pair that had
resorted to a garden for the purpose of incubation; I soon ascertained that they had selected a hole in
* The above Cut is used by permission from Yarrell’s “British Birds.”
THE WRYNECR #

THE WRYNECK. 251
an old decayed apple-tree for that purpose, the entrance of which was so small as not to admit my
hand. The tree being hollow and decayed at the bottom, near the ground, I was enabled to reach the
nest by putting my arm upwards, and I found, on withdrawing the nest, that the underneath part of it
was composed of moss, hair, &c., having every appearance of an old nest of the redstart of the preceding
summer, which I suspect was the case : the upper part was made of dried roots. The nest did not
contain any eggs, and I returned it by thrusting it up in the inside of the tree. On passing by the
same tree about a week afterwards, my attention was arrested by observing one or two birds leaving
the hole, upon which I gently withdrew the nest, and was much gratified at finding it contained five
most beautiful glossy eggs, the shells of which were perfectly white, and so transparent that the yolks
shone through, giving them a delicate pink colour, but which is lost in the blowing. I replaced the
nest, and visited it during the ensuing week, and was induced, out of curiosity, to examine it again,
when, to my astonishment, I found the birds had not deserted the hole, she having laid six more eggs
since. I took these away, and was obliged to keep them, as I was only able to replace the nest by again
thrusting it up in the inside of the tree as before, which I did. I again visited the spot in the following
week, and found that they had still pertinaciously adhered to their domicile, having further laid four
more eggs. I repeated the experiment, but not having an opportunity of visiting the tree until ten
days afterwards, I thought at the time that the nest was abandoned, and was not undeceived until I
had again withdrawn the nest, having taken the precaution of endeavouring to frighten the old bird off,
should she be on the nest, which I found was the case; she suffered me to pull the nest to the bottom
of the tree before she attempted to escape: there were seven eggs, which were slightly sat upon. What
appears to me extraordinary is, that the bird should suffer her nest to be disturbed five times, and the
eggs (amounting altogether to twenty-two) to be taken away at four different periods within the month,
before she finally abandoned the spot she had selected.” $
Colonel Montagu says that the wryneck makes a noise very like the smaller species of hawks,
frequently repeating it in spring. Mr. Yarrell describes the note as a sharp sound, repeated several
times, and not unlike the whistle of a kestrel.
In captivity the wryneck is a favourite; and the bird soon becomes reconciled to the half-reclaimed
state in which English and French boys are fond of keeping it, taking it out to the woods with a long
string tied to its leg, and suffering it to ascend trees and forage for food generally, within the length of
its tether, and letting it climb at intervals about their dress.
Another family of the order now under consideration is that of Parrots.”
The birds of this genus possess, in an eminent degree, the character of the order in which they are
placed. They are climbers in the fullest sense of the word. Their toes, constantly four in number,
are opposed two to two, and armed with solid and crooked claws—less so, however, than the claws of
birds of prey. The two anterior toes are united at their base by a small membrane; the hinder are
completely separated. The tarsi, in the majority of species, are very short, but in some they are
elongated in a proportion nearly equal to that of the insessores in general. Their skin is scaly as is that
of the toes; the wings are usually shut ; the tail is more or less long, and assumes a variety of forms;
the colours of the plumage are almost always brilliant. g
In the majority of this family, we find a plumage which, for richness and variety of colour, yields
to few of the feathered race; and though, like the tulip among flowers, it may be thought gaudy, and
composed of colours too violently and abruptly contrasted to give that satisfaction to the eye which a
more chastened, or rather less abrupt, intermixture of tints is wont to produce, still we think no one
can examine or look at some of the gorgeously-decked maccaws, the splendid and effulgent lories, or the
diversified tints of the Australian parakeets, without acknowledging them to be among the most
beautiful and striking of the feathered race.
The upper mandible, which is immovable in mammals, has more or less motion in birds. Some
birds, indeed—for instance the capercailzie and rhinoceros birds—are not gifted with this motion ; but
mobility of the upper mandible is the rule in this class, and the want of it the exception. In the
parrots this power is highly developed; for the upper mandible is not connected into one piece with
the skull, by yielding and elastic bony plates, as is the case with birds in general, but constitutes a
particular bone, distinct from the rest of the cranium, and articulated to it.
* Psittacidae.
252 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The advantages derived to the animal from this conformation are obvious to any one who watches
a parrot taking its food, or using its bill as a third extremity to assist it in climbing about its cage. In
most birds there is a progressive increase in the number of joints of the toes; thus the great toe has
three, the next three, the middle toe four, and the outer toe five. The parrots possess a peculiar cross-
bone belonging to the great toe. In common with the pigeon and some other birds, they are destitute
of a gall-bladder. Their intestines are long, and without caeca. The soft, thick tongue, so characteristic
of this tribe, must be a highly sensitive organ of taste. It is covered with papillae, and moistened with
a salivary secretion, so that the parrots are able to select and to taste different articles of food. In
some of the forms,” the birds feeding on the nectar of flowers, the brush-like tongue is fringed with
tubular processes, in conformity with their suctorial mode of feeding. One of them, kept by Mr.
Caley, on seeing the coloured drawing of a plant, made an attempt to, suck the flowers, and showed
the same disposition towards a piece of cotton furniture. The accurate observer last mentioned supplied
a speciest of the same genus with honey and moistened sugar, which it sucked with ease and apparent
pleasure, by means of its brush-like tongue. In the museum of the College of Surgeons there is one
of these tubular tongues. The tongue is short, thick, and fleshy, as it is in most of the parrot tribe ;
but it is further distinguished as terminating in a number of very delicate and close-set filaments,
which can be protruded and expanded like a brush.
The eyes of the parrots are moderately large, and situated laterally. The upper and lower lids
form a rounded orifice, edged with small tubercles supporting the lashes in its entire circumference.
The upper is evidently mobile ; the third lid, or nictitating membrane, is very small, and the parrots
are never seen to make use of it. The pupil is round, and not situated exactly at the centre of the
iris, but more inward; so that the iris is a little broader at its external than its internal side. The
colour of this last varies according to the species, but it is generally remarked to grow deeper with
increasing age. A peculiar character of the parrots is the ability of contracting the pupil, more or less,
independently of the action of the light, when they turn their attention to any object, when they feel
any fear or anger, or even when they are in a sportive mood. These birds are evidently diurnal.
The large, hard, and solid bill, rounded throughout, and surrounded at its base with a membrane
wherein the nostrils are pierced, together with the thick, fleshy, and rounded tongue, gives the parrots,
as Cuvier observes, the greatest facility in imitating the human voice—a facility to which the com-
plicated lower larynx, with its three peculiar muscles on each side, contributes. Their strong mandibles,
formed for shelling and cracking the hardest fruits, are worked by more numerous muscles than those
of other birds. - º
In certain birds of this genus, the cheeks are naked of feathers, and covered with a white
farinaceous powder, as is remarked in the maccaws. The circumference round the eye in others is
more or less divested of feathers, and also covered with a white sort of farina. This appears to be an
epidemic production, and is very abundant on other parts of the skin of these birds, whose plumage,
when they shake it, gives out a considerable quantity of white dust. The quantity of mealy dust
discharged from the skin by the cockatoos, and other species of parrots, particularly at pairing time, is
remarkable ; though the separation of this peculiar matter from the skin is not confined to this family,
but is effected by many birds of different orders—eagles and herons, for instance. The cockatoos and
others have the head ornamented with long and slender plumes, which can be elevated in the form of a
tuft or crest, according to the inclination of the bird, but which, in general, are inclined along the neck.
The neck is usually but of moderate length, sometimes it is even short, and tolerably thick; still, when
the parrots wish to reach an object without changing their place, they are able to elongate the neck to
a certain extent.
The body varies in size and elegance according to the species. In the parrots proper, it seems
thicker than in the others, which, perhaps, is only the effect produced by the shortness and the strength
and solidity of the tibia, toes, and tarsi. Some long-tailed parakeets, on the contrary, are distinguished
by the fineness of their form and the elegance of their proportions. The breast of these birds is
usually broad and rounded.
The wings are shout, and their point rarely exceeds one-half the length of the tail, even in species
* Trichoglossi. f Psittacus pusillus: Latham. † Lorius domicella: Vigors.
Parrants.

254 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
in which the tail is shortest. The first three remiges are the largest of all, and pretty nearly equal
with each other. - -
There are differences in the tail as to the greater and less extent of the various quills which
compose it, and which are twelve in number. As to its total size, it is either shorter than, equal in
length to, or larger than the body, comprising the head and neck. In form it is sometimes straight or
squared, when all the quills are of equal length; sometimes round, sometimes graduated, and sometimes
arrow or spear-headed. Sometimes it is peculiarly broad at the end; some species have the caudal
quills sharp at their terminations; and sometimes the tail is very short, and at the same time graduated.
Though the feet of the parrots are robust, and the toes well adapted for climbing, there are to this
some exceptions. In such instances, the birds remain constantly on the ground, where they walk with
swiftness, which the other birds cannot do. The legs of parrots are usually feathered to the heel, but
TAIL OF THE MICROPSITTA PYGMAEA : LESSON. TAIL OF LORIUS : BRISSON. TAII, OF vazA: LESSON,
there are instances in which the body of the leg is bare. The colour of the feet is usually gray, but it
is in some roseous, brown, or black.
The colours of the plumage of the parrots are exceedingly varied, and almost always pure and
brilliant. In this respect the adult females often differ from the males, while the young in their first
or second livery, and even after the third moulting, present characters peculiar to themselves. Green
is, in general, the predominating colour, then comes red then blue, and finally yellow. This last colour
appears among the parrots to be the general substitute for the white Soserved in other birds; and it is
remarkable that in many of the species there are varieties uniformly yellow. Very often, when the
feathers are plucked, red and yellow ones will shoot forth, whatever may have been the colour of the
former. There are some species violet, purple, brown, or lilac-coloured. Some are known whose
plumage is entirely gray; some have it black; and some, in fine, entirely white. The plumage of this
extensive family is of the most rich and varied description, embracing almost every colour and gradation
of tint. The Zoological Society of London possesses, most probably, the finest living collection of these
birds in the world.
America, Brazil, and Guiana are the countries which contain the greatest number of species of
parrots, all of them belonging to the division of parakeets; that of the parrots proper, and that of the
psittaculi. The maccaws are exclusively confined to these countries. It does not appear that any birds
of this genus are found on the chain of the Cordilleras; they are not yery numerous even in Paraguay.
Some species belong to the islands in the Gulf of Mexico; and it is not improbable that some may exist
in the Floridas. On the other side of the Andes, from Chili to California, more appear to have been
noticed ; but many exist in Chili, on the shores of the Southern Ocean.
Many birds of this genus belong to the African continent, from Senegal as far as the forests which
are near to the Cape of Good Hope. They are, however, fewer in number than those of India and
America. The Barbary coasts, from Morocco as far as Egypt—that is, the entire chain of Atlas, and
the northern reverse of that chain—are destitute of them. There are some in Madagascar, but none
in the Canary Isles. &
In Asia, parrots are found in Hindostan and its dependent islands, in Cochin China, in China, and
in the eastern Archipelago. There the handsomest and largest species, and those most remarkable
for their forms, are in abundance.

PARROTS. 255'
In Polynesia, this genus is considerably extended. Australia has species peculiar to itself. These
birds are also numerous in New Zealand, the Macquarrie Islands, and in the groups of the Friendly and
Society Islands. The lories are peculiar to the Philippines and New Guinea, and the psittaculi, with
the tongue terminated by a pencil of cartilaginous filaments, belong to the countries which extend from
New Holland to the Friendly Islands.
Europe, all the northern and central regions of Asia, the polar countries, Greenland, Iceland, the
northern and temperate parts of America, Kerguelin's Land, and the South Shetlands are almost the
only portions of the globe in which the family of the parrots has no representative.
As the wings of the parrots are generally short, and their bodies bulky, they have some difficulty
in rising to a certain point of elevation; but that once attained, they fly very well, and often with
much rapidity, and through a considerable extent of space. The majority confine themselves to lofty
and thickly-tufted woods, frequently on the borders of cultivated lands, the productions of which they
plunder and destroy. Their ordinary mode of flight is from one branch to another; and it frequently
happens that they will not fly continuously, except when pursued. Many of them emigrate according
to the season, and, in particular, the Carolina parrots. Such travel away for some hundreds of leagues,
differing in this respect from the habits of others; but they are comparatively few in number. The
difficulty of flight with many is the cause of their restriction within narrow limits, and their concen-
tration in certain islands, while they are not found in others which closely border upon the former.
This is peculiarly the case with many of the island groups of Polynesia.
The food of the parrots consists principally of the pulps of fruit, such as those of the banana, the
coffee-tree, the palm, and the lemon. They are especially fond of almonds; generally they attack the
pulp only to get at the kernel; this, when once seized, is fixed on the under wrinkled surface of the
upper mandible; they turn it repeatedly until it is placed on the tongue in the proper direction for
the introduction of the trenchant edge of the lower mandible; then the bird soon forcibly separates the
valves of the almond-shell, and getting the almond into its bill, soon divides it, so that all its envelopes
are rejected. The fragments are finally swallowed in succession. Some of this family are said to live
on roots, and others to seek their aliment in herbs.
When domesticated, the parrots, maccaws, parakeets, and cockatoos show the same partiality for
vegetable seeds, and are generally fed very well on hemp-seed, the skins or husks of which they detach
with astonishing skill. Some that receive bones to gnaw acquire a very determined taste for animal
substances, and especially for the tendons, ligaments, and other less succulent parts. From this kind of
feeding, some parrots contract the habit of plucking out their own feathers, that they may suck the
stems; and this becomes so urgent a want, that instances have been known of their stripping their
bodies absolutely naked, not leaving a vestige of down wherever the bill could reach. They spared,
however, the quills of the wings and tail, the plucking out of which would have caused them too much
pain. M. Desmarest states that the body of one of these birds, belonging to M. Latreille, thus became
as naked as a pullet plucked for roasting. Yet this bird supported the rigour of two very severe
winters without the slightest alteration of health and appetite. M. Vieillot observes that this habit
of deplumation is produced, in many parrots, by an itching of the skin, and not in consequence of their
being accustomed to eat animal substances.
The parrots drink little, but often, and do so raising up the head, but less strongly than in other
birds. They all use, with great dexterity, one of their feet to carry their food to their bills, while they
stand perched on the other. They sojourn much on the borders of streams and rivers, and in marshy
places. They are fond of the water, and seem to take the greatest delight in bathing themselves—an
operation which they perform several times a day when in a natural state. When they have bathed
they shake their plumage until the greater portion of the water is expelled, and then expose themselves
to the sun until the feathers are completely dried. In captivity, and even during the most rigorous
seasons, they seek to bathe, and at all events plunge the head repeatedly into Water.
With the exception of the time of incubation, the parrots live in flocks, more or less numerous;
go to sleep at the setting, and awake at the rising of the sun. In sleep, they turn the head upon the
back. Their sleep is light, and they are not unfrequently heard to utter some cries during the night.
In a state of domestication, after they go to rest is said to be the most suitable time for repeating to
them such words as they are intended to learn, because they then experience no distraction.
.*
*
256 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Their life is very long, and the mean duration of it, among the parrots properly so called, is
calculated at forty years. Instances have, however, been known of individuals who lived in a state
of domestication for ninety or a hundred years, or even more. The parakeets live, generally, about
five-and-twenty years. An effect of captivity, in some species, is, according to M. Vaillant, to change
the colour of their plumage ; and to this cause he attributes the frequent varieties observable among
these birds. -
The birds of this genus are monogamous. They make their nests in the trunks of rotten trees,
or in the cavities of rocks; and compose them, in the first instance, of the detritus, or dust, of the
. º
jºy
HEAD OF MASCARINUS : HEAD OF PSITTACUS ACCIPITRINUS : HEAD OF MACROCERCUS HYA-
LESSON. G.M.E.L.I.N. CINTHIN US : VIEILLOT.
worm-eaten wood, and of dry leaves in the second. The eggs are not numerous; usually only three or
four each time ; but there are broods several times in the year. The young, when born, are totally
naked ; and the head is so large, that the body seems to be merely an appendage to it. They remain
some time without having sufficient strength to move it. They are subsequently covered with down,
but are not completely invested with feathers for two or three months. They remain with their
parents till after the first moulting, and then leave them for the purpose of pairing. The eggs are
ovoid, short, as thick at one end as the other, and those which are known are of a white colour.
Some of them are nearly equal in size to those of a pigeon.
It was for a long time supposed that the increase of these birds could take place only in their
native country. Many parrots, however, were born in Europe so far back as 1740 and 1741. In 1801
some Amazon parrots were born at Rome. M. Lamouroux has given us considerable details respecting
ſ º º l
- º
\, º
w
º
N
W
HEAD OF ENICOGNATHUS LEPTO- HEAD OF PSITTACULA PULLARIA: HEAD OF NESTOR OF NEW
RHYNCH US : KING. LESSON. ZEALAND : LESSON,
the broods of two blue maccaws that were at Caen some years ago. In four years and a half these
birds laid sixty-two eggs in nineteen broods. Of this number, twenty-five eggs produced young ones,
of which ten only died. The others lived, and became perfectly accustomed to the climate. They laid
eggs at all seasons; and the broods became more frequent and more productive in the course of time,
and in the end much fewer were lost.
The number of the eggs in the nest used to vary, six having been together at a time ; and these
maccaws were seen to bring up four young ones at once. These eggs took from twenty to twenty-five
days to be hatched, like those of our common hens. Their form was that of a pear, a little flattened,
and their length equal to that of a pigeon's egg. It was only between the fifteenth and five-and-
twentieth day that the young ones became covered with a very thick down, soft, and of a whitish slaty-
gray. The feathers did not begin to make their appearance until towards the thirtieth day, and took
two months to acquire their full growth. It was twelve before the young arrived at the state of their
Parents, but their plumage had all its beauty from six months old. At three months old they



PARROTS, 257
abandoned the nest, and could eat alone; up to this period they had been fed by the father and mother,
who disgorged the food from the bill in the same manner as the pigeons do.
It is probable that the success of this education was owing to the care which was taken in
providing these birds with a suitable nest. This consisted of a small barrel, pierced towards a third of
THE PARROT. FROM A PAINTING BY JAN STEEN,
its height with a hole of about six inches in diameter, and the bottom of which contained a bed of
sawdust three inches thick, on which the eggs were laid and hatched. Since the time now referred to,
collared parakeets of Senegal, and Pavonian parrakeets, have been hatched in Paris, in hollows made
in large billets of wood, where the parent birds had fixed their nests.
Parrots, parrakeets, and other birds of the same family, which are imported into Europe, are
WOL. III. 123)

258 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
generally taken young in the nest, and brought up in their native country. Some are taken adult ;
they are caught when inebriated by eating the seeds of the cotton-tree, which they are very subject to
become; or they are brought down by arrows, which, having a button on the end, stun without killing
them. M. D'Azara states that the natives of Paraguay take them in a manner which appears very
singular, if not incredible. They attach one or two pieces of wood to a tree frequented by these birds
for the sake of its fruit. They put a stick or two across from these pieces of wood as far as the tree,
and construct with palm leaves a sort of cabin, sufficiently large to conceal the fowler. He has with
him a tame parrot, which by its cries attracts the wild ones of the forest, and the last never fail to
come at the voice of the prisoner. The hunter, without loss of time, passes round their necks a
running knot, attached to the end of a long wand, which he moves from within his cabin. If he has
five or six of these wands, he can take as many parrots, for they will not attempt to escape, unless the
cord presses tightly on their necks. º
All these birds are susceptible of education, but the young are more so than the old. The means
employed consist in imposing certain punishments upon them, such as immersing them in very cold
water, of which they are greatly afraid, or puffing at them with tobacco smoke. Rewards are also used,
and when they perform what is desired, such things are given them as they prefer, more especially sugar
and sweet wine. They are tamed and kept obedient by taking them with boldness, and speaking to
them with authority, and in a loud tone of voice. - - .* -
They may thus be taught to perform various gestures and assume different postures. Some will
lie down on their backs, and rise only at the master's command; others will perform exercises with a
stick, or dance in a manner more or less grotesque. They are taught by constantly repeating closé to
them such words as they are wished to learn. Success, however, does not always depend on such
endeavours. Some species are better disposed than others for this kind of education, and the same is
the case with different individuals of the same species.
In no case should the greatest attainments of these birds be ranked too highly. Their imitative
powers do not themselves entitle them to any marked superiority over others, and still less to the
possession of anything approaching to human intelligence. The imitation is nothing but an organic
mimicry, depending, certainly, on the conformation of the voice, and, probably, on some peculiar
aptitude of the ears. Nor should it be overlooked that the capacity of articulating words is not
exclusively confined to this genus. Pies, jays, blackbirds, stares, and others, and even small birds, can
imitate human speech, more or less, from organic facility, rather than the possession of any superior
intelligence. The ear of such animals, though different from ours, has the power of delicately appre-
ciating sounds. This faculty is observable among certain individuals of our own species, and it is
scarcely necessary to remark, that neither that power, nor a facility of mimicking sounds in general,
is always accompanied by a marked intellectual superiority. The reverse, indeed, is often strikingly
remarkable. . . . . -
It is admitted, however, that the parrots have a great superiority over birds in general in their
relation to man. . They attach themselves to those who tame them, display aversion to those who
have ill-treated them, and that with marked discrimination. It has been said that the males attach
themselves to women in preference to men, and exhibit much ill-temper towards the latter; while
exactly the reverse takes place with the females. M. Vieillot declares the assertion to be well founded,
and instances the case of a male ash-coloured parrot, in his own possession, which he never could
approach without being provided with thick leather gloves; and yet the bird was perfectly obedient,
in all respects, to Madame Vieillot, and exhibited the greatest fondness towards that lady; while, on
the other hand, a female of the same species showed great attachment to the naturalist.
THE ASH-COLOURED, OR GRAY PARROT.”
THIs well-known species, though not conspicuous for the brilliancy and variety of plumage which
distinguish the great majority of the tribe, is remarkable for its docility and mimicry, the faculty it
possesses of imitating the human voice, as well as any other sound, its never-ceasing garrulity, and its
* Psittacus erythacus: Linnaeus,
THE ASH-COLOURED, OR GRAY PARROT. 259
clear and distinct articulation. In most of these particulars it surpasses the rest of its congeners, on
which account it has always been held in high estimation by the bird-fancier and lover of living
curiosities. This we learn from the large sums which have, at all times, been offered and paid for
highly-gifted or well-taught individuals. Even as early as A.D. 1500, we read of a parrot at Rome,
supposed to be of this species, for which one hundred pieces of gold were given by a cardinal, it having
had, it is said, the power of repeating, with clearness and without hesitation, the whole of the
Apostles' Creed. - -
Parrots of singular powers are still to be met with. A friend of the writer's was in Edinburgh
at the time of the great Peel demonstration, and in a morning call was shown into the drawing-room
where a parrot was in its cage. Fond of animals, he went at once to the bird, who, looking very
knowingly, instantly inquired, “What do you think of Sir Robert Peel, now %" Another, advanced
in life, and with hair of a snowy whiteness, had the still more strange question put to him by a
parrot in a room into which he was shown in the City-road, London, “Who kissed the cook " " But
another bird, an ash-coloured or gray parrot, the property of a friend of the writer's, is exceedingly
Sagacious. & -
Unlike the birds which questioned a stranger at once, she has a strong aversion to visitors, refusing
usually to speak in their presence, and always expressing, in her own way, her hatred or contempt.
She is now about twelve years old, and for some days after her arrival did not utter a single word.
Her first words were, “Pretty cockatoo,” but she soon uttered others, until she became very loquacious,
and is still picking up quickly all she hears.
As soon as her mistress comes down-stairs in the morning, the bird says, “Mother, how do you
do? Good morning !” As breakfast is being prepared, she watches attentively every movement.
Should that frequent domestic incident occur, she makes the house ring with, “The kettle boils l the
kettle boils tº bustling about the cage with restless activity. Observing the cutting of a round of
bread, she quietly says, “Polly likes a bit;” if asked, “What does Polly like *.* the answer is, “Toast
—just one little bit;” on receiving which, she adds, “Polly likes two bits.” As soon as the milk is
taken in, she calls, “Puss puss " it being the practice to give the cat some; but if the basin is about
to be set down without her own portion being given, she calls, “Come ! come ! come !” until she is
supplied and has drank of the milk very heartily. If the door bell is rung without being attended to,
she raps loudly on her perch, and calls, “Mother l mother Mrs. P ! Mrs. P !” the name of
her mistress, nor does she stop until the bell is answered. - -
In the winter her cage is often hung in the kitchen, but in fine days of other seasons it is
suspended from the ceiling of a lower front room, looking out on a much frequented country road. At the
approach of harvest, Irish labourers pass by, seeking employment in the neighbourhood, and no sooner
does the parrot observe one of them, than she cries out, “Hooroo, Pat, are you all right !” adding,
perhaps, the singular question, “Does your mother like fish " A strange gentleman passing the
window one day, heard these sounds; he looked round, but could see no one ; when, suddenly, he
caught sight of the parrot, and saying, with a smile, “Oh, my lady, you are there, are you?” passed
onwards. But so well known is the bird to the particular class in whom she takes so much interest,
that twos, and threes, and even groups will stop before the window, express their concern if she is not
there, and say, if they see her, “Aye, there she is,” when she never fails to make her usual inquiries
about themselves, and the piscivorous propensities of their respective mothers.
A visitor coming down in the morning before the rest, took up something that was lying on the
mantelpiece, when instantly she heard the question, “Ho! what are you about !” and thinking it was
the master of the house, for she knew nothing of the bird, she put down what she had displaced, with
the feeling that, though unintentionally, she must have done wrong. As, however, the parrot sees a
lady or gentleman preparing to leave the house, she courteously says, “Good bye; good bye.” Her
special regard is reserved for her mistress, whom she will allow, at any time, to play with her, but no
such freedoms are granted to her master; she would even, if urged, peck out a piece of flesh from his
finger. The writer saw him, one day, attempting to induce her to talk, but she knew a stranger was
present, and so she only turned her head from side to side, played with the wires of her cage, and
seemed to say by her cunning glances at him, now and then, “Don’t you wish I may talk!—I
260 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY
know all you say is about me—but I have a will of my own, and I don't mean to say a word, I can
tell you !” -
... This bird can vary her voice from that of an aged man to the cry of a child. When she supposes
herself to be in danger, as one day when her cage tipped over, she called, “Mother mother tº just
like a child, until she was set right. For a little dog, named Peg, she was accustomed to whistle, and
to call, “Peg | Peg 1" but only for him to hear her say, “Ah! ah!—Get out with you !” To
a green parrot, which was in the house for a time, she was thoroughly unkind, calling out,
“Hold your noise ! Get out ;” and in consequence, the bird was given away. Whenever, she is
offended, she says, “I’ll kick up a row ;” and she keeps her word, the house forthwith resounding
with her screams.
On behaving ill, she makes her amende with “Naughty Poll 1 naughty Poll l’” but her tune is
soon changed into “Pretty Poll pretty Polly P !”—the name of her mistress—“Polly is a great
beauty 1"
She imitates many sounds she hears, as those of lambs and sheep; whistles tunes, as “Buy a
Broom,” and “Charley over the Water,” and sings nicely, one of her favourites being “The Vesper
Bell,” but passing rapidly from one to the other. At night, thougl. she has not spoken for hours, she
notices the preparation for retiring to rest, and says, “Good bye, good bye,” till the light is gone.
A person named O'Kelly gave fifty guineas for a parrot at Bristol, and paid the expenses of the
woman who brought it up to town. It is reported not only to have uttered what is usually termed
“everything,” but to have sang with great correctness a variety of tunes, and beat time as he sang;
and if perchance he mistook a note in the tune, he returned to the bar wherein the mistake arose, and
corrected himself, still beating the time with the utmost exactness. He sang, it is said, any tune
desired, fully understanding the request made.
There is one, however, which is occasionally brought from Brighton to Hampton Court, that
appears to equal it in intelligence and power of imitation. Mr. Jesse says:—“I have seen and heard
so much of this bird, that I requested the sister of its owner to furnish me with some particulars
respecting it, and I now give the account in her own agreeable manner of stating it. I will only add,
that its accuracy need not be doubted.
“‘As you wished me to write down whatever I could collect about my sister's wonderful parrot, I
proceed to do so, only promising that I will tell you nothing but what I can vouch for having myself
heard. Her laugh is quite extraordinary, and it is impossible not to help joining in it oneself, more
especially when in the midst of it she cries out, “Don’t make me laugh so ; I shall die, I shall die;”
and then continues laughing more violently than before. Her crying and sobbing are curious, and if
you say, “Poor Poll, what is the matter?” she says, “So bad, so bad; got such a cold; ” and after
crying for some time, will gradually cease, and making a noise like drawing a long breath, say, “Better
now,” and begin to laugh.
“‘The first time I ever heard her speak was one day when I was talking to the maid at the bottom
of the stairs, and heard what I then considered to be a child call out, “Payne (the maid's name), I
am not well, I am not well;” and on my saying, “What is the matter with that child?” she replied,
“It is only the parrot ; she always does so when I leave her alone, to make me come back;” and so it
proved, for on her going into the room the parrot stopped, and then began laughing quite in a jeering
way. -
“‘It is singular enough, that whenever she is affronted in any way she begins to cry, and when
pleased, to laugh. If any one happens to cough or sneeze, she says, “What a bad cold.” One day,
when the children were playing with her, the maid came into the room, and on their repeating to her
several times things which the parrot had said, Poll looked up and said quite plainly, “No, I didn't.”
Sometimes, when she is inclined to be mischievous, the maid threatens to beat her, and she often says,
“No, you won't.” She calls the cat very plainly, saying, “Puss, puss,” and then answers, “Mew ; ” but
the most amusing part is, that whenever I want to make her call it, and to that purpose say, “Puss,
puss,” myself, she always answers, “Mew,” till I begin mewing ; and then she begins calling “Puss” as
quick as possible. She imitates every kind of noise, and barks so naturally that I have known her to
set all the dogs on the parade at Hampton Court barking; and I dare say, if the truth was known,
wondering what was barking at them; and the consternation I have seen her cause in a party of cocks
THE ASH-COLOURED, OR GRAY PARROT. 261
and hens, by her crowing and chuckling, has been the most ludicrous thing possible. She sings just
like a child, and I have more than once thought it was a human being; and it is most ludicrous to hear
her make what one should call a false note, and then say, “Oh, la,” and burst out laughing at herself,
beginning again quite in another key. She is very fond of singing, “Buy a broom,” which she says
quite plainly; but in the same spirit as in calling the cat, if we say, with a view to make her repeat
it, “Buy a broom,” she always says, “Buy a brush,” and then laughs as a child might do when mis-
chievous. She often performs a kind of exercise which I do not know how to describe, except by
saying, that it is like the lance exercise. She puts her claw behind her, first on one side and then on
the other, then in front, and round over her head, and whilst doing so keeps saying, “Come on, come
on ;” and when finished, says, “Bravo, beautiful l’’ and drawsherself up. Before I was as well acquainted
with her as I am now, she would stare in my face, and then say, “How d'ye do, ma'am!” This she
invariably does to strangers. One day I went into the room where she was, and said, to try her, “Poll,
where is Payne gone º’’ and to my astonishment, and almost dismay, she said, “Down stairs.” I cannot
at this moment recollect anything more that I can vouch for myself, and I do not choose to trust to
what I am told ; but from what I have myself seen and heard, she has almost made me a believer in
transmigration.’
“In addition to this account, I may mention, that the Rev. Dr. Hooker, of Rottingdean, near
Brighton, has a parrot which evinces almost equal sagacity. If a piece of tape is given it, it weaves it
into a sort of basket, and will tie a knot with its beak and foot.”
The imitative propensity of the parrot, amusing as it in general may be, is, however, sometimes to
be guarded against, from its being productive of untoward accidents, as the following instance will
show. A parrot, which was kept upon a quay in a seaport town, had learned the term, with its
appropriate enunciation, used by carters in backing—that is, making the horse, by a retrograde motion,
place the cart or wagon in the most convenient station for loading or unloading. This term the bird
one day made use of when a horse and cart had imprudently been left unattended for a short time, and
the horse, obeying the mandate of the bird, continued to keep moving backwards till both were
precipitated over the quay, and the unfortunate animal was drowned.
The gray parrot is a native of Western Africa, from whence it appears to have been imported at
a very early period; but common and well known as it is in a state of captivity, with its peculiar
habits and economy in a state of nature we are still but little and imperfectly acquainted. Like most
of its kind, it is said to breed in the hollows of decayed trees; and the instinctive propensity for such
situations does not appear to desert it even in a state of captivity, for Buffon mentions a pair in France
that, for five or six years successively, produced and brought up their young, and that the place they
selected for this purpose was a cask partly filled with sawdust. Its eggs are stated to be generally four
in number, their colour white, and in size equal to those of a pigeon. In its native state, the food of
this parrot consists of the kernels of various fruits, and the seeds of other vegetables; but when
domesticated or kept caged, its principal diet is generally milk and bread, varied with nuts, almonds,
&c., and even pieces of dressed meat. When feeding, it often holds the food clasped in the foot, and
before swallowing, masticates or reduces it to small pieces by its powerful bill and palatial cutters.
This member, so unlike that of other frugivorous birds, is admirably calculated for the principal
offices it has to perform, in breaking the shells of the hardest fruit and seeds, and as a strong and
powerful organ of prehension and support; for few of our readers but must have observed that the bill
is always first used, and chiefly depended upon, when a parrot is caged, in climbing or moving from
one position to another.
The longevity of the feathered race, we believe, in general far exceeds what is commonly
supposed; at least, if we may judge from the age attained by various birds, even when subjected
to captivity and confinement. Thus, we have instances of eagles living for half a century; the
same of ravens, geese, and other large birds, as well as among the smaller kinds usually kept caged.
The gray parrot, like many others of its tribe, often lives to a great age, and we are told of individuals
attaining to fifty, sixty, or even a hundred years. According to Le Vaillant, one which lived in the
family of Mr. Meninck Huyser, at Amsterdam, for thirty-two years, had previously passed forty-one
with that gentleman's uncle, who bequeathed it to his nephew; and there can be no doubt it must
have been at least two or three years old at the time of its arrival in Europe. When Le Vaillant saw
262 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
it, the bird was in a state of entire decrepitude, and in a kind of lethargic condition, its sight and
memory being both gone, and it was fed at intervals with biscuits soaked in Madeira wine. In the
time of its youth and vigour, it had been distinguished for its colloquial powers and distinct enunciation,
and was of so docile and obedient a disposition, as to fetch its master's slippers when required, as well
as to call the servants. At the age of sixty its memory began to fail, and instead of acquiring any new
phrase, it began to lose those it had before attained, and to intermix in a discordant manner the words
of its former language. It moulted regularly every year till the age of sixty-five, when this process
grew irregular, and the tail became yellow, after which no further change of plumage took place. The
gray parrot is subject to variety, as shown in the figure of Edwards, where the ground colour is mixed
with red. It measures about twelve inches in length. The bill is black, strong, and much hooked,
and the orbits and space between them and the eyes covered with a naked and white skin. The whole
of the plumage, with the exception of the tail, which is of a bright deep scarlet, is of an ash-gray colour,
deepest upon the back, and the feathers finely relieved and margined with paler gray. The irides are
of a yellowish white; the feet and toes are gray, tinged with flesh-red.
The intelligence of the parrot has often, we conceive, been greatly exaggerated. It is certainly
true that these birds exhibit the most perfect brain which is found among the feathered race. But the
parrot's imitation seems purely mechanical; it articulates words indeed, but this cannot be regarded
as a true language. In the same manner that an air is taught to a linnet with a bird-organ, so are
words taught to a parrot, and he repeats them without knowing wherefore. He does not understand
* their meaning, and though he may repeat them on
certain occasions, because he has learned them, he sees
no reason for doing so, like man. He utters in-
differently an entreaty or an insult, and those invol-
untary substitutions which really prove his want of
intelligence pass, with unreflecting persons, for wit, or
some other mental quality, of which the bird is totally
destitute, and which, in fact, it has no ability to
acquire.
THE INDIAN PARROT.
THE birds distinguished by Vaillant as the parrots
with a trunk, have characters sufficiently peculiar by
which they may be detached from others.
Their short and square tail, and crest composed
of long and narrow feathers, assimilate them to the
cockatoos. They have the cheeks naked, like the
aras; but their bill with an enormous upper mandible,
and the lower very short, which cannot, therefore,
be entirely closed; their cylindrical tongue, termi-
nated by a little concave gland cleft at the end, and
capable of being protruded out of the mouth ; their
R_--_º_- legs naked a little above the talons; their tarsi short
THE INDIAN PARROT. ------ and flat, on which they frequently support themselves
- in walking, distinguish them from all other parrots.
THE GREAT SCARLET MACCAW.3%
ANOTHER genus is formed of the gorgeous Maccaws.t. The face is either naked, or merely striped with
feathery lines. The tail is very long, wedge-shaped, and sharp-pointed. These birds, the largest and
most magnificent of the parrot tribe, inhabit South America. The Great Scarlet Maccaw, when in perfect
plumage, sometimes measures about three feet in length, the tail, of course, included. The prevailing
plumage is scarlet, as its name implies, the wings blue, the wing-coverts varied with yellow, the cheeks
* Psittacus aracanga: Latham. + Macrocercus: Vieillot.

THE GREAT SCARLET MACCAW. 263
white and wrinkled. It is, certainly, a very sumptuous creature, but, after all, rather too like a richly-
liveried footman—an association somewhat strengthened by its being so often seen as an inhabitant of
lordly mansions, and surrounded by other menial bipeds, almost as gorgeous as itself. Our feelings
would no doubt have been different had we ever witnessed their natural evolutions. “It is a grand
sight in ornithology,” says Waterton, “to see thousands of aras flying over your heads, low enough to let
you have a full view of their flowing mantle.” How delightful would it have been, on some bright
and dewy morning, to have accompanied Lord Anson to view a magnificent rapid in the island of Quibo.
A fine river of transparent water there precipitates itself along a rocky channel, forming numerous falls,
and the great disrupted rocks which form its boundary on either side are crowned with lofty forest trees.
“While the commodore and those who were with him,” he says, “were attentively viewing the place, and
were remarking the different blending of the waters, the rocks, and the woods, there came in sight, as
it were still more to heighten and animate the prospect, a prodigious flight of maccaws, which, hovering
over the spot, and often whirling and playing on the wing about it, afforded a most brilliant appearance
the daeat scattlet Maccaw.
by the glittering of the sum upon their varied plumage; so that some of the spectators could not refrain
from a kind of transport when they recounted the complicated beauties which occurred at this extraor-
dinary waterfall.” The blue and yellow species” is little inferior to the preceding, either in size or
sumptuousness. It is less common, and seems to have been first described by Aldrovandus, from a
specimen which he saw in the palace of the Duke of Mantua. It is said to be also less easily reclaimed
as a domestic bird; yet, says a naturalist, “We have not seldom enjoyed the society of a very fine
example which makes its way familiarly (such is its custom in the afternoon) amid the varied horticul-
tural produce which graces the dessert of Mr. Neill.” Many other splendid species are described and
figured in the works of naturalists.
THE BLUE AND YELLOW MACCA.W.?
THIs beautiful species is rather inferior in size to the great scarlet maccaw. In length, it measures
about thirty-nine inches, the tail alone being about twenty-four. The bill is entirely black, very large
and strong; the upper mandible measuring, from the forehead to the tip, three inches and a quarter;
it is greatly deflected, and bends immediately from the base; the upper mandible is short and massive:
rapidly ascending, and describing when closed a right angle with the upper. The cheeks are white
and nearly naked, with three fine narrow striae of small black plumes beneath the eyes. The irides
* Psittacus ararauna: Linnaeus. # Macrocercus ararauna.



264 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
are yellowish white. Immediately beneath the under mandible is a broad black band, extending
upwards to the ears, and encompassing the greater part of the naked white space. The whole of the
upper plumage is of a beautiful rich blue, passing into green upon the forehead, crown, rump, and some
of the smaller wing-coverts. The greater quills and tail are of a deeper tint, approaching to violet.
The under surfaces of the wings and tail are yellow. The sides of the neck, breast, and inferior parts
of the body are rich saffron yellow. The legs and feet are blackish-gray, the scales defined by whitish
lines.
Like all the other members of the genus, it is a native of tropical America, and is met with in
the Brazils, particularly upon the banks of the river Amazon, in Guiana, and Surinam. It prefers
the woods, particularly such as occupy swampy grounds, and which abound in a species of palm, upon
whose fruit it principally subsists. It is said generally to keep in pairs, though occasionally to assemble
in large flocks, and when this is the case, their united screams are heard to a great distance. The
dimensions and form of their wings and long cuneiform tail indicate a powerful and vigorous flight,
and, accordingly, we are informed that in this respect they are inferior to none of the tribe; they fly
often at a high elevation, and accompanied by a variety of aerial evolutions, particularly before alight-
ing, which is always upon the summits of the highest trees. They deposit their eggs, which never
exceed two in number, in the hollow trunks of decayed trees, and generally have two broods in the
year. Both sexes are reported to sit alternately upon the eggs, and to be equally assiduous in
cherishing and conveying food to the young. When taken at an early age, they are easily tamed,
but their imitative powers are not equal to those of the gray parrot, and it is seldom that they can be
taught to articulate clearly, or more than a few words. Their natural notes are very unpleasant to
the ear, consisting of loud and piercing screams, interrupted with hoarse, croaking murmurs. Living
specimens of this species are sometimes seen caged in England. A very fine one was recently com-
pletely domesticated at Dr. Neill's, Canonmills, near Edinburgh, and allowed the freedom of several
apartments: when desirous of being noticed, it called out “Robert,” the name of its earliest master,
very distinctly ; but it did not acquire more than one other conventional sound.
*
THE ROSE-CRESTED COCKATOO.*
THE Cockatoo are natives of Australia and the Indian islands, inhabiting the woods, and feeding upon
seeds and soft stony fruits, which last their powerful bill enables them to break with ease. Like others
of their congeners, they make their nests in decayed trees, and are easily tamed when taken at an early
age. They become familiar, and even attached, but their imitative powers seldom go beyond a few
words added to their own cry of “Cockatoo.”
In the depth of their bills, the strength and curvature of the upper mandible, and the dispropor-
tionate shortness and thickness of the lower, the cockatoos vie with the more gorgeous maccaws, which
they also emulate in size, habits, and behaviour. The naked space-in their cheeks is, however, reduced
to a small circle surrounding each of the eyes; and their tail is short, and perfectly square at the
extremity. *
Their most remarkable character consists in a tuft of elongated feathers, rising from the back of
the head, and capable of being raised or depressed at pleasure. By this crest they are at once distin-
guished from all the other groups of the parrot family, with the exception of a New Holland genus,
differing from the other cockatoos in the greater elevation and comparative shortness of its bill, the
increased dilatation of its lower mandible, and several other characters of inferior moment. In the
latter group, the ground colour of nearly all the species is black; while in the common cockatoos, it is
almost uniformly white.
The species of this genus naturally arrange themselves into two sub-divisions; in the one of which
the crest assumes a rounded form, and falls backward over the neck; while in the other it is lengthened
into a point, folded together, and curved upwards. The Rose-crested species belongs to the first sub-
division. Its length is sixteen or eighteen inches; and its plumage white, with an occasional tinge of
rose. The crest is formed of feathers for the most part of a bright orange-red beneath, and the inferior
*Plyctolophus rosaceus: Wicillot.
THE ROSE-CRESTED COCK-ATOO. 265
wing and tail coverts have a shade of yellow. The bill is bluish-black, and the legs are of a leaden
gray.
The Rose-crested Cockatoois a native of Sumatra and the Moluccas. It is said to be less intelligent
CoCKATOOS AND PARROTS.
than the rest of the group, and is particularly fond of making a noise and assuming a variety of antic
postures.
THE GREATER SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO.º
WE give this bird as an example of the second division of the genus Plyctolophus, or that in which the
feathers are folded on themselves, curved upwards, and elongated into a sharp point. The ground of
its plumage is purely white, with a tinge of light yellow on the crest, the inner barbs of the wing and
lateral tail-feathers, and the inferior tail-coverts. The iris is dusky brown, and the bill and legs
grayish-black. In size, the bird is somewhat less than the species last described, but the longer feathers
of the crest measure as much as seven inches in length. Mr. Caley says: —“I have met with this bird
in large flocks at the conflux of the Grose and Haukesberg rivers, and in the long meadow near the
*Plyctolophus galeritus: Vieillet
WQI. III. 130



266 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Nepean river in New Holland. They are shy, and not easily approached. I have heard from the
natives that this bird makes its nest, in the rotten limbs of trees, of nothing more than the vegetable
mould formed by the decayed parts of the bough ; that it has no more than two young ones at a time;
and that the eggs are white without spots.” - -
THE LESSER, SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO.*
THIS species we frequently see in confinement; for though rarely able to articulate more than a few
words, its handsome appearance, docile disposition, and amusing habits, render it a great favourite
with those who delight in feathered pets. It is kind and affectionate to those it is accustomed to see,
and who feed and take care of it; but suspicious of strangers, whose căresses it rarely admits of with
impunity. When alarmed or irritated, it erects the crest to the fullest extent, making a peculiar
noise; at other times it is kept depressed, and hanging over the nape of the neck. -
The general plumage of the body is white, slightly tinted upon the breast, sides, and inner wing-
coverts with pale sulphur-yellow. The crest, in form like that of the other species, and auricular
spot, are fine sulphur-yellow. The legs and toes are gray, the irides red. It is a native of the
Moluccas and other. Indian islands; but of its natural habits we have again to report deficiency of
information. In captivity the female sometimes produces eggs; “and,” says Mr. Selby, “we have now
specimens by us, which were laid by one at rather peculiar periods, viz., the 21st of June, 21st of
September, and 21st of December; but whether this resulted from the peculiar economy of the bird,
as acted upon by the seasons, or was the effect of the confinement, we are unable to determine.”
Our able and eloquent naturalist, Professor T. R. Jones, describes himself as, some years ago,
strolling into the parrot-house in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, as he thought, very quietly
and inoffensively, and certainly without the remotest idea of giving umbrage to any of its pretty
feathered occupants, when, to his great surprise, his entrance seemed to be the signal for a wild and
general disturbance. - - -
“The sound of the tocsin,” he says, “could not have roused an insurrection more uproarious than
that produced by the appearance of our (pardon us, gentle reader, if we flatter ourselves) by no means
repulsive physiognomy; dire was the screaming, fierce the gesticulation of every scansorial biped
among them, Parrots, macaws, and cockatoos seemed equally indignant at our intrusion; and such a
clamour as they raised, such a whirlwind of discordant sounds, would certainly have done credit to
Babel. . Overwhelmed with noise, deafened with the terrible cacophony, we beat a retreat, and right
gladly escaped into the quiet glades of the gardens. - -
“On our return, after the lapse of an hour or so, finding that all was tranquil within, we again
entered the parrot-house, and again were greeted with a concert, beating marrow-bones and cleavers,
and a'l rough music imaginable. . &
“Wondering what could be the cause of a reception so uncourteous, where before we had always
been a welcome visitor, we approached an old favourite cockatoo, and, reproachfully holding up a little
walking-cane before her face, began to expostulate with her on such behaviour. We could scarcely
have imagined the picture of rage and terror that the bird presented : with crest erected to the utter-
most, staring eyes, and limbs trembling all over, she retreated to the extreme limits of her chain, and
struck with her wings at my cane, as if fighting for very life; and so indeed she was, or thought sho
was, for, on my attention being thus directed to my little cane, I appreciated at once the cause of her
fury: the head of the walking-stick was carved in imitation of that of a serpent, with brilliant eyes,
and a most grim and threatening aspect. The supposed appearance of so terrible a foe amongst their
peaceful party had, by an instinct true and natural, roused them to self-defence, affording at once a
proof of the carver's skill who had so ornamented my rattan, and an illustration of instinctive horror
of a very interesting character.”
Another genust has the bill rather thick, the culmen of the upper mandible rounded, the lower
broad and short. The middle feathers of the tail are greatly lengthened. The most anciently known
of the parrot race belong to this genus, such as the Alexandrine parrakeet and other long-tailed species,
distinguished by their elegance of form, their ruby-coloured bills, their semi-circled necks, and the rich
* Cacatua cristata: Vieillot. + Palaeornis: Vigors.
PARAKEETS. 267
verdure of their plumage. The one just named is a native of India and Ceylon, and derives its desig-
nation from the fact, real or supposed, of its having been first transported from Asiatic countries by
Alexander the Great. Its most distinguishing characters consist in the broad black patch which
occupies the fore-part of the throat, and extends laterally in two narrow processes on each side of
the neck; a black line stretches from the base of the beak to the eyes, and there is a deep purplish-red
patch at the base of the wings. Its bill is larger than that of the rose-coloured parrakeet,” which
however, it greatly resembles in its general aspect.
The last-named species is widely spread over India, and as far eastward as Manilla. It appears,
THE CRESTED Cocº AToo.
indeed, to be identical with another species extremely abundant on the African coasts, and well known
in France under the title of perruche de Senegal. In so far as any conclusions can be drawn from the
vague and brief descriptions handed down by ancient writers, it would appear that this species was, as
it still continues to be, more frequent in the days of antiquity than any of its congeners. No allusion
is made by these authors to those specific marks by which the Alexandrine parrakeet is so clearly
distinguished, and the general description applies very closely to the rose-necked kind. That the latter
was extensively known, and held in highesteem on account of the brilliancy of its plumage, the docility
of its manners, and its successful imitative powers, is proved by innumerable passages in the classical
* Ps, torquatus.
















268 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
writers of antiquity, more especially from the earliest times of the Roman empire to a very late period
of its annals. * - -
The Alexandrine parrot is generally supposed to have been brought to Europe from the island of
Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane. In the reign of Nero, the Romans introduced other species from different.
quarters of Africa. They were highly prized by that luxurious people, who lodged them in superb
cages of silver, ivory, and-tortoiseshell; and the price of a parrot in those days frequently exceeded that
of a slave. Nor did Ovid think it beneath him to write a lengthened elegy on the death of Corinna's
favourite, a bird which, in the love it bore its mistress, seems to have emulated that of the dying Greek
for his country:
“Clamavit moriens lingua, Corinna, vale.”
Its dying tongue cried, “Corinna, farewell.” f
“I have seen,” says Mr. Layard, “at Chilan, such vast flights of parrakeets coming to roost in the
cocoa-nut trees which overhang the bazaar, that their noise drowned the Babel of tongues bargaining
for the evening provisions. Hearing of the swarms which resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a
bridge some half mile distant, and attempted to count the flocks which came from a single direction to
the eastward. About four o'clock in the afternoon, straggling parties began to wend towards home,
and in the course of half an hour the current fairly set in. But I soon found that I had no longer
distinct flocks to count; it became one living, screaming stream. Some flew high in the air till right
above their homes, and dived abruptly downward with many evolutions, till on a level with the trees;
others kept along the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of thought, their brilliant
plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in the sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening
closed, when I could hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting for their perches; and on
firing a shot they rose with a noise like the “rushing of a mighty wind,” but soon settled again, and
such a din commenced as I shall never forget: the shrill screams of the birds, the fluttering of their
innumerable wings, and the rustling of the leaves of the palm-trees, was almost deafening, and I was
glad at last to escape to the Government Rest House.”
THE BLUE-BELLIED PARRAKEET.”
THIS beautiful and richly-varied species inhabits the Molucca Islands. Its tongue, in common with
that of several New Holland parrakeets, is finely ciliated at the tip on either side. Vaillant, during
his residence at the Cape, had an opportunity of studying the manners of a pair of these birds, which
had been imported from Amboyna. They bred during their confinement in the menagerie of M. Van
Bletemberg, then Governor of the Cape. The female deplumed her beautiful breast, and, after having
collected the feathers into a heap, deposited two round white eggs, on which she sat most assiduously—
the male feeding her at intervals, by disinterestedly disgorging what he had swallowed, and presenting
the same to his spouse. The young were produced at the end of nineteen days, and, in the space of a
few more, became covered with a gray cinereous down, which was, by degrees, succeeded by green
feathers on the body, and by blue ones on the head. At the end of three weeks they left the nest
and perched upon the neighbouring sticks, where the male and female fed them in concert, as above
described, after the manner of pigeons. The parent birds continued to attend them in this manner for
six months, and often afforded a very interesting scene—the young being frequently seated beyond the
female, and the male, not being able to reach them, first presented the food to his mate, who imme-
diately delivered it to her young. These, though of different sexes, were perfectly alike till the first
moulting, at which time red feathers, bordered with green, began to appear on the breast, and the
male became distinguished by the blue patch upon the abdomen.
THE CAROLINA PARRAEEET."f
THE great body of the Psittacidae, as already observed, are natives of the intertropical climates; but the
species now under consideration is one of the few that occurs in the temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere. It is a native of the North American Continent, inhabiting the United States to a lati-
tude as high as 42°. Such, at least, was the case some twenty or twenty-five years ago, when Alexander
* Psittacara cyanogaster: Shaw. # Arara Carolinensis.
PARAKEETS. 269
&
Wilson was engaged in tracing out the history of the birds inhabiting the States; for we find, on
turning to his delightful pages, that then it not only prevailed throughout Louisiana and the shores of
the Mississippi and Ohio, but also those of their tributary waters as high as Lake Michigan, in latitude
42° N. We learn, however, from Audubon—not less graphic or original in his descriptive powers—
that of late years these birds have rapidly diminished in number, and that they are now almost banished
from districts where formerly they used to abound. “At that period,” he Says—speaking of five-and-
twenty years ago—“they could be procured as far up the tributary waters of the Ohio as the great
Kenhawa, the Scioto, the heads of the Miami, the mouth of the Manimee at its junction with Lake
Erie, on the Illinois river, and sometimes as far north-east as Lake Ontario, and along the eastern
districts as far as the boundary line between Virginia and Maryland. At the present day few are
to be found higher than Cincinnati; nor is it until you reach the mouth of the Ohio that parrakeets
are met with in considerable numbers. I should think that along the Mississippi there is not now
half the number that existed fifteen years ago.”
The Carolina parrakeets in all their movements, which are uniformly gregariqus, show a peculiar
predilection for the alluvial, rich, and dark forests bordering the principal rivers and larger streams, in
which the towering cypress and gigantic Sycamore spread their vast summits, or stretch their innu-
merable arms over a wide waste of moving or stagnant waters. From these, the beech, and the hack-
berry, they derive an important supply of food. The flocks, moving in the manner of wild pigeons,
dart in swift and airy phalanx through the green boughs of the forest ; screaming in a general concert,
they wheel in wide and descending circles round the tall button-wood, and all alight in the same
instant, their green lustre, like the fairy mantle, rendering them nearly invisible beneath the shady
branches, where they sit, perhaps arranging their plumage, and shuffling side by side, seem to caress and
scratch each other's heads with all the fondness and unvarying friendship of affectionate doves. -
Audubon, in his account of the Carolina parrakeets, says:–“Their flight is rapid, straight, and
continued through the forests, or over fields and rivers, and is accompanied by inclinations of the body,
which enable the observer to see alternately their upper and under parts. They deviate from a direct
course only when impediments occur, such as trunks of trees or houses, in which case they glance aside
in a very graceful manner, as much as may be necessary. A general cry is kept up by the party, and
it is seldom that one of these birds is on the wing, for ever so short a space, without uttering its cry.
On reaching a spot which affords a supply of food, instead of alighting at once, as many birds do, the
parrakeets take a good survey of the neighbourhood, passing over it in circles of great extent, first
above the trees, and then gradually lowering, until they almost touch the ground, when, suddenly
re-ascending, they all settle on the tree that bears the fruit of which they are in quest, or on one close
to the field in which they expect to regale themselves.”
If the gun thin their ranks, they hover over the screaming, wounded, or dying, and returning and
flying around the place where they miss their companions, in their sympathy seem to lose all idea of
their impending danger. More fortunate in their excursions, they next proceed to gratify the calls of
hunger, and descend to the banks of the river or the neighbouring fields, in quest of the inviting kernels
of the cockle-burr,” and probably of the bitter-weed,t which they extract from their husks with great
dexterity *-
In the depth of winter, when other resources begin to fail, they, in common with some of the
finches, assemble among the tall sycamores, and, hanging from the extreme twigs, in the most airy and
graceful postures, scatter around them a cloud of down from the pendent balls, in quest of the seeds
which now afford them an ample repast. Out of mere wantonness, they often frequent the orchards,
and appear delighted with the fruitless frolic of plucking apples from the trees, and strewing them on
the ground untasted. They are also fond of some sorts of berries, and particularly of mulberries,
which they eat piecemeal, in their usual manner, as they hold them by the foot. Peculiarity of food
appears wholly to influence the visits and residence of this bird, and in plain, champaign, or mountainous
countries, they are wholly strangers, though common along the banks of the intermediate water-courses
and lagoons.
* Xanthium strumarium. f Ambrosia, species.
270 - CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE PAWOUAN PARRAKEET.;
THIS species is a native of Cayenne and the Antilles, where it is not uncommon, often flying about in
flocks, and frequenting the wooded savannahs. Its prevailing plumage is green; the cheeks and sides
of the neck are speckled with bright red, which becomes more conspicuous as the bird advances in age;
the smaller wing-coverts are bright red, the greater yellow, and both the quill and tail-feathers are
dusky-yellow beneath; the bill is whitish, the legs and feet gray.
- M. Gabriac has described a pair of these birds in their domestic state. Two cages were prepared
for their reception in the month of April. They were placed contiguous, but communicating only by
a small door; and the one enjoyed “the blessed light of day,” while the other was kept covered, so
that no light could enter but by the mutual door. The latter also contained an abundant supply of
saw-dust. The birds were placed in the open apartment, which was the larger of the two, and they
speedily showed symptoms of tender attachment to each other. They long declined, however, to enter
the darkened dweſſºng, although the female put in her head, withdrew it again, advanced part of her
body, then returned tail foremost ; but, finally, after several days of hesitation, she entered the mysterious
chamber. There she expressed her satisfaction by little kindly, cheerful cries, and often called in the
male, who exhibited every proof of affection. .
She soon began to scrape about and arrange a kind of nest, and, on the 18th of May, she laid her
first egg, succeeded, at intervals of three days, by a second, third, and fourth; after which she sat
assiduously. The male took no share in the hatching, but he kept constantly close by the nest, as if to
cheer her sedentary hours. He did not, however, allow his affection to his wife to interfere with his
duty towards his hoped-for family. If the female, who never left the nest but to solace herself with
meat and drink, appeared to devote too much time to that indulgence, he remanded her back by a little
blow with his beak, which occasionally produced something approaching to a quarrel. The young
were first covered with a grayish down, and were cherished with the tenderest solicitude by the
parents, who, on the approach of any threatened danger, defended them with the greatest courage. It
was, in truth, a curious sight to see two creatures, before so kind and tenderly affectionate to those
around them, so grateful for their food, and so solicitous of human kindness, changed, by this new passion,
into little tigers, and so intractable as to attend no longer to fair hands or gentle voices. This natural
wildness showed itself, also, strongly in the young ones, who recognised alone their parents, and bit and
scratched at all the world besides. -
THE PAPUAN LORY,+
ANOTHER sub-family of the Psittacidae is that of the Loriana, so named from the beautiful scarlet-
coloured Lories, natives of Continental India and its islands, and which appear to constitute one of its
typical forms. A difference of structure is apparent in the shape of the bill and theºtongue—the
former member being weaker and slenderer in its proportions than in the other parrots, especially as
regards the under mandible, which is lengthened and less convex in its contour, with the tip contracted
and narrow, and the cutting edges straight, and without emargination. The tongue, also, is not so
thick or fleshy, and the tip, instead of being smooth and soft, is rough, and, in some instances, furnished
with a pencil of setaceous bristles. This structure is bestowed upon them for the purpose of extracting
the nectar of flowers, and sucking the juices of tender fruits, which, it appears, constitute the principal
support of the members of this beautiful division.
To great elegance of form this species unites a plumage of the richest description, the ground
colour of the body being of a deep, but brilliant scarlet, relieved in parts with deep azure blue, yellow,
and green. The tail, or at least the two narrow central feathers, greatly exceed the rest of the body
in length, as they measure upwards of eleven inches, while the former does not exceed six; the lateral
feathers are regularly graduated, as in the other lories, the longest measuring about four inches, or one-
third the length of the two intermediate plumes. The bill is of an orange-red colour; the upper mandible
is long, with the tip or hooked part projecting far beyond the under one, which is conic and narrow
The tongue is similar in structure and appearance to that of the other members of the group—the tip
* Psittacara Guianensis: Latham. - f Charmosyna Papuensis.
THE TOUCANS. - - 2%l
being furnished with delicate papillae. Upon the vertex and nape are two irregular bars of azure,
margined with purplish-black. The lower parts of the tibiae, lower back, and rump, are also of a deep
azure. Upon the sides of the breast and thighs are patches of rich yellow. The wings are green; the
interior webs of the quills blackish. The elongated tail-feathers are pale grass-green, passing towards
the tips into yellow ; the lateral have their basal half dark green, the remainder deep saffron-yellow.
This lovely specimen is an inhabitant of Papua, and other parts of New Guinea, and, as might be
expected in countries rarely visited by the naturalist, little is known of its history or peculiar habits.
Its remains, like those of the birds of paradise, frequently reach us in a mutilated state, being deprived
of the legs, and often wanting the long feathers of the tail; and from such specimens have been
derived the imperfect descriptions of various authors.
Passing now to birds of a somewhat different structure, we arrive at another family.” There are
three species of Toucans in Demerara, and three diminutives, which Mr. Waterton calls “Toucanets.”
The largest of the first species frequents the mangrove trees on the sea-coast. The other two species
are very common. “They feed entirely on the fruits of the forest,” the same naturalist says, “and
though of the pie kind, never kill the young of other birds, or touch carrion. The larger is called
Bouradi by the Indians. They seem partial to each other's company, and often resort to the same
feeding tree, and retire together to the same shady noon-day retreat. They are very noisy in rainy
weather, at morn and eve. The sound which the bouradi makes is like the clear yelping of a puppy
dog, and you fancy he says, “Pia-po-o-co, and thus the South American Spaniards call him Piapoco.
“All the toucanets feed on the same trees on which the toucan feeds, and every species of this
family of enormous bill lays its eggs in the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregarious. You
may sometimes see eight or ten in company, but you will find it has only been a dinner party, which
breaks up and disperses towards roosting time.” - :
“The bill of the toucan,” says Mr. Jesse, “is out of all proportion to the size of the body of the
bird. In fact, it appears an enormous excrescence, equally unwieldy and useless. This, however, is
not the case. In endeavouring to ascertain the utility of the long beak of the toucan, we must refer
to its food, the means of procuring it, the enemies it has to encounter, and the peculiar habits of the
various animals of the country in which it is found. The toucan, like the woodpecker, deposits its
eggs in the holes of trees. The bird itself, as well as its eggs, would become the prey of the numerous
monkeys which inhabit the country if it had not so large a bill to defend itself. The toucan feeds
much on the eggs of other birds. By means of its long bill, it is enabled to search for and reach them
in the holes of trees, and also in the pendent nests of tropical birds. These nests are suspended from
the extremity of branches of trees, as a security against monkeys, and have a hole in the side, into
which the toucan is enabled to thrust its long bill. It is evident that this powerful bill is not required
to break the food, since the bird seizes fruit or eggs at the extremity of it, and, by throwing back the
head, deposits the food in its throat at once. We thus see that what at first appears a deformity is, on
the contrary, a kind and useful provision of Nature to enable the bird both to feed and defend itself.”
Other naturalists have been led to differ from Mr. Jesse, as to the food of these remarkable birds.
Mr. Swainson, who had seen the toucans in their native forests, informed Mr. Broderip that he had
frequently observed them perched on the tops of lofty trees, where they remained as if watching.
This circumstance, joined to others connected with the remains of food found in the stomachs of such as
were dissected, led to the suspicion that these birds were partly carnivorous, feeding on eggs and young
birds, as well as fruits and berries; and that while perched upon these high trees, the toucans were,
in fact, busily employed in watching the departure of the parent birds from the nest. Mr. Swainson
could never catch the toucans in the fact, nor did anything appear in his dissections to determine with
certainty on what they fed. Mr. Such informed Mr. Broderip that he had seen these birds in Brazil
feed on the toucan-berry; that he had frequently observed them in quarrels with the monkeys; and
that he was certain that the toucans fed on eggs and nestlings.
In the year 1824 a living toucan was exhibited in St. Martin's Lane, London. Mr. Vigors stated
at a zoological club, that the bird had been fed on a vegetable diet; but that the proprietor had told
him, that on the occasion of a young canary bird having escaped and gone near the toucan, the latter
instantly seized and devoured the canary bird.
* Ramphastidae.
272 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Mr. Broderip determined to bring the matter to the test on a visit to this bird, which was,
apparently, in the highest state of health. A goldfinch, introduced. into the toucan's cage, was seized
and compressed so suddenly, that the poor little songster had only time to utter a short squeak before
it was dead, with its bowels protruding. The toucan then hopped with it to another perch, and began
to strip off its feathers. When it was nearly naked, it broke the bones of the wings and legs, taking
them in its bill, and giving them a strong lateral wrench. Having reduced the little victim to a
shapeless mass, it first swallowed the viscera, and then the remaining parts, piece after piece, not even
rejecting the legs and bill. Mr. Broderip adds that he has sometimes observed it return its food from
its crop, and swallow it again after a second mastication. “The food on which I observed him so
employed,” he says, “ was a piece of beef, which had evidently been macerated for some time in the
crop. While masticating it, he made the same hollow clattering noise as he made over the remains
of the goldfinch. Previous to this operation, he had examined his feeding-trough, in which there was
nothing but bread, which I saw him take up and reject;
ºść” and it appeared to me that he was thus reduced from
º; * necessity to the above mode of solacing his palate with
animal food. His food consists of bread, boiled vege-
tables, eggs, and flesh, to which a little bird is now
added about every second or third day. He shows a
decided preference for animal food, picking out all
morsels of that description, and not resorting to the
vegetable diet till all the former was exhausted.
“It is said that the nerves are very much ex-
panded within the internal surface of the bill in these
birds; and independently of -the sensual enjoyment
which the toucan above mentioned appeared to derive
from palating his prey, I have observed him frequently
scratching his bill with his foot, which may be observed
as furnishing additional evidence of the sensibility of
this organ. While taking his prey, he never used his
foot for the purpose of conveying it either to his bill
or elsewhere. The bill was the sole vehicle, and the
organ actively employed ; the foot merely confined the
prey on the perch.”
Among the peculiarities of the bird exhibited
in St. Martin's Lane, there was one that cannot be
passed over in silence. When he settled himself to
roost, he sat a short time with his tail retroverted,
so as to make an acute angle with the line of his
back; he then turned his tail over the right shoulder,
nestling it on the soft plumage of the back—on which last the under mandible rested—till the bill was
so entirely covered that no trace of it was visible. When disturbed, he did not drop his tail, but almost
immediately returned his bill to the comfortable nidus from which, on being disturbed, he had withdrawn
it. He broke some of his tail-feathers, but, before that accident, the toucan, when at roost, retroverted
his tail so entirely, that the upper surface of the tail-feathers lay over and came in contact with the
plumage of the back; so that the bird had the appearance of a ball of feathers. It appears that he
always roosted in the same way. & tº
Mr. Vigors kept a toucan in a state of domestication for many years, and of it he has given many
interesting particulars. It was not allowed to be indulged in that disposition to animal food which SO
strikingly belongs to its family. Mr. Vigors found it thrive sufficiently well,on a vegetable diet, and
feared that if it were ever allowed any other, it would be difficult to restrain its inclination for it
within moderate limits. Eggs were the only animal food with which it was supplied. Of these it was
*
K
\;=
eq\
*}=-
*
&
§§§*AN
THE SAFFRON-COLOURED HILL TOUCAN.”
* Andigena bailloni; Gould.

THE TOUCANS. 273
particularly fond, and they were generally mixed up in its ordinary food, consisting of bread, rice,
potatoes, German paste, and similar substances. r
It delighted in fruits of all kinds. During the period when these were fresh, it fed almost
exclusively on them. Even in winter it exhibited great gratification in being offered pieces of apples,
oranges, or preserved fruits of any description. These it generally held, for a short time, at the
extremity of its bill, touching them with apparent delight with its slender and feathered tongue, and
then conveying them by a sudden jerk to its throat, where they were caught and instantly swallowed.
Its natural propensity to preying upon animals, though not indulged, was still strongly conspicuous.
When another bird approached its cage, or even a skin or preserved specimen were presented to it,
considerable excitement was exhibited. It raised itself up, erected its feathers, and uttered the hollow
clattering sound which seemed to be the usual expression of delight in these birds; at the same time,
the irides of the eyes expanded, and the toucan seemed ready to dart at its prey, if the bars of its cage
permitted its approach. On one occasion, when a small bird was placed by chance over its cage at
night, it showed great restlessness, as if aware of the neighbourhood of the bird; and it would not be
composed till the cause of its disquietude was discovered and removed.
When in its cage, the toucan was peculiarly gentle and tractable, suffered itself to be played with,
and fed from the hand. Out of its cage it was wild and timid. In general it was active and lively;
and, contrary to what might be expected, from the apparent disproportion of the bill, and the
seemingly clumsy shape of birds of this genus, as they are usually set up or represented in figures, its
appearance was not only graceful, but its movements, as it glided from perch to perch, were light and
sylph-like; so much so, indeed, as to lead to this bird being called Ramphastos Ariel. This toucan
kept itself in beautiful plumage, its lighter colours being strikingly vivid, and the deep hue of its
upper body in particular being always black and glossy. For this fine condition it seemed to be
much indebted to its fondness for bathing. Every day it immersed itself in cold water, with apparent
pleasure, even in severe weather, and in no respect did it seem to suffer by the transition from its own
warm climate to an uncongénial atmosphere. .*
Besides the usual sounds of these birds, it uttered, at times, a hoarse and somewhat discordant
cry when it happened to be hungry, and to see its food about to be presented to it. On such occasions
it stood erect, raising its head in the air, and half opening its bill, as this cry was emitted. “These,”
says Mr. Vigors, “are the only sounds I have heard him utter; and in neither can I say that I have
detected any similarity, or even approach, to the word ‘toucan, as has sometimes been asserted, and
from whence the trivial name of the genus has been supposed to originate. Neither have I been able
to verify another observation which has been advanced respecting these birds, that the bill is com-
pressible between the fingers in the living bird. The bill, notwithstanding the lightness of its
substance, is firm, and capable of grasping an object with much strength.”
Mr. Vigors generally observed that this bird took what was offered rather by the sides than the
point of the bill, and he suspected that much of the power of that member was centered in this lateral
motion. On the cold weather commencing, it was brought into a room with a fire, and the unusual
light seemed to interfere with its general habits; it did not then go to rest so early as had been its
custom, and it sometimes even fed at a later hour. Turing the summer months, however, when more
free from interruption, its habits were singularly regular. As the dusk of evening approached, the
toucan finished its last meal for the day, took a few turns, as if for exercise after its food, round the
perches of its cage, and then settling on the highest perch, disposed itself, almost at the moment of
alighting, with its head drawn in between its shoulders, and its tail turned vertically over its back.
In this posture it generally remained for about two hours, in a state between sleeping and waking,
its eyes for the most part closed, but opening on the slightest interruption. At such times it would
allow itself to be handled, and would even take any favourite food that was offered, without altering its
posture further than by a gentle turn of the head. It would also suffer its tail to be replaced by the
hand in its natural downward posture, and would then immediately return it again to its vertical
position. In these movements the tail seemed to turn as if on a hinge that was acted on by a spring.
At the end of about two hours it began gradually to turn its bill over its right shoulder, and to nestle
it among the feathers of its back, sometimes concealing it completely within the plumage, at other
times leaving a slight portion of the culmen exposed. At the same time it dropped the feathers of its
WOL. III. gº
131
274 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
*
wings and those of the thigh-coverts, so as to encompass the legs and feet; and thus nearly assuming
the appearance of an oval ball of feathers, secured itself against all exposure to cold.
Mr. Waterton was the earliest naturalist, with whom the writer is acquainted, that gave an
accurate account of the appearance of the bill of the living toucan. He says, “Were a specimen of
each species presented to you, you would pronounce the bill of the bouradi the most rich and
beautiful; on the ridge of the upper mandible a broad stripe of most lovely yellow extends from the
head to the point; a stripe of the same breadth, though somewhat deeper yellow, falls from it at right
angles next the head down to the edge of the mandible ; then follows a black stripe, half as broad,
falling at right angles from the ridge, and running narrower along the edge to within half an inch of the
point. The rest of the mandible is a deep bright red. The lower mandible has no yellow ; its black
and red are distributed in the same manner as on the upper one, with this difference, that there is
black about an inch from the point. The stripe corresponding to the deep yellow stripe of the upper
mandible is sky-blue. It is worthy of remark, that all these brilliant colours of the bill are to be found
in the plumage of the body and the bare skin round the eye.
“All these colours, except the blue, are inherent in the horn; that part which appears blue is, in
reality, transparent white, and receives its colour from a thin piece of blue skin inside. This superb
bill fades in death, and in three or four days' time has quite lost its original colours.
“Till within these few years, no idea of the true colours of the bill could be formed-from the
stuffed toucans brought to Europe. About eight years ago” (we may now add to this time about
twenty-eight years), “while eating a broiled toucan, the thought struck me that the colours in the bill
of a preserved specimen might be kept as bright as those in life. A series of experiments proved
this beyond doubt. If you take your penknife and cut away the roof of the upper mandible, you will
find that the space betwixt it and the outer shell contains a large collection of veins and small osseous
fibres, running in all directions through the whole extent of the bill. Clear away all these with your
knife, and you will come to a substance more firm than skin, but not of so strong a texture as the horn
itself; cut this away also, and behind it is discovered a thin and tender membrane, yellow where it
has touched the yellow part of the horn, blue where it has touched the red part, and black towards the
edge and point ; when dried, this thin and tender membrane becomes nearly black; as soon as it is
cut away, nothing remains but the outer horn, red and yellow, and now become transparent. The
under mandible must undergo the same operation. Great care must be taken, and the knife used very
cautiously, when you are butting through the different parts close to where the bill joins the head; if
you cut away too much, the bill drops off; if you press too hard, the knife comes through the horn;
if you leave too great a portion of the membrane, it appears through the horn, and by becoming black
when dried, makes the horn appear black also, and has a bad effect ; judgment, caution, skill, and
practice, will ensure success.
“You have now cleared the bill of all those bodies which are the cause of its apparent fading;
for these bodies dry in death, and become. quite discoloured, and appear so through the horn; and
reviewing the bill in this state, you conclude that its former bright colours are lost.
“Something still remains to be done. You have rendered the bill transparent by the operation,
and that transparency must be done away to make it appear perfectly natural. Pound some clean
chalk, and give it enough water till it be of the consistency of tar; add a preparation of gum arabic to
make it adhesive, then take a camel-hair brush, and give the insides of both mandibles a coat ; apply
a second when the first is dry, then another, and a fourth to finish all. The gum arabic will prevent
the chalk from cracking and falling off. If you remember, there is a little space of transparent white in
the lower mandible, which originally appeared blue, but which became transparent white as soon as the
thin piece of blue skin was cut away; this must be painted blue inside. When all this is accomplished,
the bill will please you ; it will appear in its original colours.”
THE DOUBLE-COLLARED ARA GAR.I.4
IN reference to the Double-collared Araçari, of which we give an engraving, Mr. Gould says, “The
Messrs. Sturm state that the yellow crescent is only found on the breast of the females, and that the
* Pteroglossus bitorquatus: Vigors,
THE DOUBLE-COLLARED ARACARI. 275
male is entirely devoid of it ; but I suspect that this is not always the case, as it is very conspicuous in
one of the specimens of the British Museum, which I have no doubt is that of a male.” We give an
engraving, also, of the Saffron-coloured Hill Toucan.
THE PLANTAIN EATERS.* ©
MR. Swanson raises this group of birds to the rank of a family. Their food is entirely vegetable, and
of the most tender and delicate description. Their bill is short and compressed; the tongue is short
and pointed ; the wings are moderate; so also is the tail; the feet are strong; the lateral toes are
unequal, the inner shortest ; the claws are slender and slightly curved.
º s sº
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THE DOUBLE-COLLARED ARASARI.
The Chilian Plant-cutter is nearly the size of a quail. The colour is an obscure gray on the
back, rather brighter on the belly; the points of the quills and of the tail are black. The sound of its
voice is hoarse and interrupted. It feeds on plants, but previously has the destructive habit of cutting
them off close to the root, and often cuts off capriciously a quantity of them, without touching them any
further. For this reason the peasants persecute this species, and carry on against it a continual war;
While the children who destroy the eggs of these birds are rewarded. A defence is provided in the nest
being built in obscure and but little frequented places; but notwithstanding this, the numbers of this
plant-destroyer are considerably diminished. “I do not know,” says Molina, “whether this is because
a price is set on its head, or on account of its naturally small degree of fecundity.”
* Musophagidae.










276 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
- The Colies” should also be noticed. The plumage of the species is soft and silky, and the colour
generally sombre, whence they are called, at the Cape, mouse-birds. Africa and the East Indies are
the localities in which they are found: the Colius viridis of Latham, said to be from New Holland,
belongs probably to another genus. The colies are gregarious, live upon fruits, and are the Scourges of
gardens. They walk badly, but they climb almost continually on the branches of trees, where they
-hold on, assisting themselves with their bills, like the parrakeets. They build their nests, which are
spacious and round, in little groups; and Le Vaillant affirms that they sleep suspended with their
heads downwards, and that, when it is cold, they are found so benumbed in the morning, that they
may be taken one after the other. The number of eggs is generally five or six; and Lesson says that
the flesh of the birds is delicate.
To the Colies must be added, as belonging to the same family, the Touracos. They are most
elegant birds, and feed principally on soft fruits. Their prevailing colour is green, varied, in some
species, with purple on the wings and tail. They are natives of Africa, where they perch on the
highest branches of the forest trees, and thus keep out of gun-shot. Le Vaillant, after many vain
attempts, succeeded in bringing one to the ground, but he could not find it; and, stamping in his rage
at the loss, he broke through into one of the covered pits which the Hottentots employed to catch
ferocious animals, particularly elephants. This accident might have proved fatal. “When I recovered
my first surprise,” he says, “I began to consider how I should extricate myself from this embarrass-
ment, extremely happy that I had not been impaled on the sharp-pointed stake placed in the bottom
of the pit, and still happier that I found in it no company. I was, however, apprehensive that some
might arrive every moment, especially if I should be obliged to remain there during the night.” In this
dilemma he fired his fusee at intervals; the shots, at last, were answered, and he was rescued by his
Hottentots. But he did not forget his touraco; and now, by the aid of his dogs, which had followed
the Hottentots, found it squatted under a tufted bush. He afterwards laid snares for these birds on
the fruit trees to which they resorted to feed, and took them alive. With these birds we close our
account of the ZzGoDACTYLI, and proceed to the RASORIAL, or GALLINACEOUS.
*Colinae.
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-
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G. A. L LIN A C E O U S IB I R D S.*
THE general character of the Gallinaceous birds is sufficiently clear and distinct. They are all
granivorous, feeding principally, and almost exclusively, on vegetable diet. In some species the young
are fed on the larvae of ants, in addition to grains or berries. Some are exclusively terrestrial in their
habits, being incapable of rising from the ground, from the rudimentary condition of their wings.
The body is stout, plump, and heavy, and, with some exceptions, the wings are round and concave,
rendering flight slow and laborious. The limbs are generally strong and muscular, and the hind toe,
instead of being placed on a level with the anterior portion of the foot, as in the case with birds of the
Insessorial order, is more or less elevated on the tarsus, so that in many examples its point only touches
the ground, and sometimes not even that ; while in others it is wanting entirely. In accordance with
the nature of the food, the beak is strong and horny; but at its base there is a space covered with a
tough membrane, and in which the nostrils are situated.
From the muscularity of the limbs and the strength of the claws, the birds of this group are, for
the most part, capable of scratching up the surface of the ground in quest of insects or grains. Many
delight to throw the dust over their plumage, and wallow in the dry gravel or sandy earth. Swampy,
humid situations are their aversion, and a continuation of heavy rains renders them dull and spiritless,
In some, as in the grouse tribe, the wings are pointed ; but even in these, flight is not performed
without considerable exertion and a rapid vibration of the wings, accompanied by a loud whirring.
This almost startling sound to an ordinary ear is familiar to those who have “put up” pheasants and
coveys of partridges.
One peculiarity appears in the internal structure of the present group of birds—it is a strong
muscular gizzard, lined with a tough, leathery membrane. By the action of its two muscular sides on
each other, the seeds and grains, previously macerated in the crop, and there softened by a peculiar
secretion oozing from glandular pores, and then swallowed, are ground up and triturated, in order that
their digestion may take place.
The gallinaceous birds are very prolific, and most are polygamous. As a rule, the nest is generally
placed on the ground ; the young are hatched covered with down, and, in a few hours, are capable of
running about and following their parent. They pick up the food to which the mother conducts
them, without having to be fed like the young of the finches and warblers in their snug nests
* Gallinae.


278 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
till they acquire the power of flitting alone. At night they find repose huddled up beneath their
mother's wing. º
The males of the species are extremely pugnacious, and will often fight till the death of one of the
rivals. The females are devoted to their broods, and lose all sense of eersonal danger in their defence.
Of none of the gallinaceous birds is the flesh unfit for food. That of many is a delicacy, and at the
same time easily digestible and highly nutritious. The qualities of pheasants, partridges, quails, and
grouse certainly need no recommendation, º
The first family of the present order is that of the Pigeons.”
THE CROWNED GOURA PIGEON,+
This magnificent and beautiful bird is a native of many of the islands of the great Indian Archipelago,
being by no means rate in Java and Banda. In New Guinea it is abundant, as well as in most of the
Molucca Islands. It inhabits the forests, and feeds upon berries, seeds, and grain. It exceeds in size
all the other Columbine species, being from twenty-seven to twenty-eight indhes in extreme length.
The bill, which is two inches long, is black; the tips of the mandibles are thidkäned, and that of the
upper one moderately deflected. The head is adorned with a large, elevated, semi-circular, and
compressed crest, composed of narrow, straight feathers, furnished with disconnected silky barbules,
and always carried erect. This, as well as the head, the neck, and all the inferior parts of the body,
are of a pure grayish-blue colour. Its nest is built upon a tree.
These birds are easily rendered tame; and in the East Indies they are frequently kept in court
yards, as poultry. They have all the habits of the common pigeons—billing, inflating the breast, and
cooing. The sounds which they emit, however, are far from being so gentle as those to which we apply that
term ; they rather become a loud noise. It is said that M. Bougainville's sailors were greatly alarmed
on hearing it for the first time, in the wild and unfrequented spots of some of the islands they visited ;
and no wonder, when they considered it to proceed from the Savage cries of hostile natives in their
ambush about to break forth upon them. Fear, when once excited, as is well known, strangely
exaggerates what is seen, as well as what is heard.
THE CARRIER PIGEON.
SUCH is the name given to one species of this numerous family, from the circumstance of the birds
belonging to it carrying letters and small packets from one place to another. The Carrier pigeon is
easily distinguished from the other varieties by a broad circle of naked white skin round the eyes, and
by its dark blue or blackish colour. -
Sandys traces the use of these birds to a remote antiquity. He states that Thomostones gave
notice to his father in AEgina, of his victory at the Olympian games the same day, by means of a pigeon
stained with purple.
When, during the Crusades, Acre was besieged by the Christian forces, Saladin kept open a
correspondence for some time with the besieged by means of these winged messengers; but one having
been accidentally brought to the ground, by means of an arrow, before it reached the city, the stratagem
was discovered, and the communication which would have animated the courage of those to whom it
was addressed, by the announcement of speedy succour, being thus betrayed to the Christians, such
measures were taken as compelled the surrender of Acre before Saladin could arrive to relieve it.
In former times the pigeon was employed in the English factory to convey intelligence from
Scanderoon to Aleppo of the arrival of the company's ships in that port. The name of the ship, the
hour of her arrival, and whatever else could be comprised in a small compass, was written on a slip of
paper, and secured under the pigeon's wing, so as not to impede her flight; while her feet were bathed
in vinegar to keep them cool, and prevent her being tempted by the sight of water to alight, whereby
delay might have been occasioned, and the billet lost. *
The pigeons have been known to perform the journey in two hours and a half, the distance being
betwixt sixty and seventy miles in a straight line. The messenger-bird had a young brood at Aleppo,
* Columbidae. t Lophyrus coronatus: Vieillot.
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280 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
and was sent in an uncovered cage to Scanderoon, from whence, as soon as set at liberty, she returned
with all speed to her nest. It was then usual, when the season had come for the arrival of the ships,
to send pigeons to be ready at the port, but if the bird remained more than a fortnight she would
forget her young, and could not safely be trusted. The pigeons, when let fly from Scanderoon, instead
of bending their course towards the high mountains surrounding the plain, mounted at once directly
up, soaring almost perpendicularly till out of sight, as if to surmount at once all obstacles intercepting
their view of the place of their destination.
The rapidity of the flight of these birds is truly astonishing. Lithgow states that one of them
would carry a letter from Babylon to Aleppo-which was usually to a man a thirty days’ journey—in
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THE CROWNED GOURA PIGEON.
the space of forty-eight hours. A wager was laid, some years ago, to determine the speed of these
birds with some approach to exactness. A gentleman sent a carrier-pigeon from London, by the coach,
to a friend in Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk, and with it a note, desiring that the pigeon, two days
after its arrival there, might be thrown up precisely when the town clock struck nine in the morning.
Accordingly, this was done, and the pigeon arrived in London, and flew into the Bull Inn, in Bishops-
gate-street, at half an hour past eleven o'clock on the same morning, having accomplished a flight of
Seventy-two miles in two hours and a half.
The attachment of the bird to its native place, and particularly to the spot where it has brought
up, or is bringing up its young, was thus rendered useful to mankind. The bird was conveyed from
its home to the place whence the information was intended to be sent, with the letter attached to its




















TELE CARRIER PIGEON. 281
wing. At the instant of being let loose, its flight was directed, at an amazing height, to its home.
By a remarkable instinct it darted onwards in a straight line to the very spot from whence it was
taken ; but how it could direct its flight so exactly is a problem which we shall find it not very easy
to solve.
“It must not be supposed,” says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, “that this peculiar breed of pigeons is
exclusively fitted for the purposes above described; any breed of good powers of flight will do, but this
bird, from its swiftness on the wing, and its muscular energy, is doubtless superior ; nevertheless, old
birds, if not kept in active training, are heavy, and disinclined to very long flights. We once
purchased a very young pair of black carriers, and having shut them up for a few weeks, gave them
their liberty; after several circles high in the air, they started off in one direction, straight as an
arrow, far out of sight.
“We gave them up for lost, and having paid a considerable sum for them, were not a little
§§ {
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TIIE CARUNCUIATED GROUND PIGEON.
annoyed. This happened about eleven A.M. At about 4 P.M., while on the look-out, we heard a
whirring of wings, and immediately the two birds settled on their dove-cote, and were eager for food
and drink. Let it be remembered that they had never been previously at liberty, and yet, after a
voluntary excursion of many miles, they returned with unerring precision to their home. This was
repeated so often till they began to breed, that it gave us no concern respecting their safety, the more
especially as they flew above gun-shot reach.
“Is it by the eye that these birds travel from long distances to their homes? We cannot doubt
it. Hence, if very long distances are to be achieved, training is requisite; they must be accustomed,
by a graduated series of removals, to at least the greater part of the road ; and even then, if a fog
obscures their waymarks, they are apt to wander and be lost.
“Short distances, however, will easily be performed without much training. Our theory is as
WOL. III. 132

2S2 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
follows: A carrier pigeon is taken to a distance, say a hundred miles from home ; it is turned 'loose, it
mounts to a great elevation, and performs a series of circles, wider and wider still. At home it has
performed the same. Now, from any part of the circle let it perceive an object which, while perform-
ing its circles at home, has caught its eye, it has at once a clue to the right direction: that object
attained, a succession of others familiar to it are rapidly passed, till its home greets its keen and long-
surveying powers of vision.” - .*
THE CARUNCULATED GROUND PIGEON.*
WE have selected this bird from the decided analogy, or rather affinity, it shows to the true gallinaceous
tribes—a likeness which is rendered still more striking by the accessory appendages which ornament
the face and throat, and bear-so direct an analogy to the wattles of the common domestic fowl. "
. This bird is a native of South Africa, and was first discovered by LeVaillant in the Namaqua country.
It builds its nest on the ground in some slight depression, making it of twigs and the stems of dried
grasses, upon which the female deposits from six to eight reddish-white eggs, which are incubated
alternately by both sexes. t
In size it about equals the common turtle, but is thicker and rounder in the body. The base of
the bill and forehead is covered with a naked red skin, and the chin is ornamented with a large wattle,
which turns upwards on each side toward the ears. The head, the cheeks, the neck, and the breast,
are of a purplish-gray; the mantle, the scapulars, and the wing-coverts are pale-gray; the feathers are
finely margined with white. *
These pigeons inhabit the forests of India, the Moluccas, Celebes, Australia, and the Pacific Isles.
Their food consists of fruits and berries. That of the precious nutmeg, or rather its soft covering,
known to us by the name of mace, affords at certain seasons a favourable repast to some species, and
upon this luxurious diet they become so loaded with fat as frequently, when shot, to burst asunder
when they fall to the ground. And here we may observe the remarkable provision Nature has made for
the propagation, as well as dissemination, of this valuable spice; for the nutmeg itself, which is
generally swallowed with the whole of its pulpy covering, passes uninjured through the digestive
organs of the birds, and is thus dispersed throughout the group of the Moluccas and other islands of
the East. Indeed, from repeated experiments, it appears that an artificial preparation, analogous to
that which it undergoes in its passage through the bird, is necessary to insure the growth and fertility
of the nut ; and it was not till after many unsuccessful attempts had been made that a lixivium of
lime, in which the nuts were steeped for a certain time, was found to have the wished-for effect, and
to induce the germinating tendency. . The fruit of the banyan,’t the sacred tree of the Hindoos, is also
a favourite repast of many pigeons.
Pigeons, it may be remarked, constitute a large and varied tribe. They are naturally birds of a
wild and timid disposition, though one species has been partly reclaimed, and usually lives congregated
in extensive flocks, except during the season of reproduction, when they pair. Most of the species
seek their food upon the ground. This consists of the different cerealia, as also acorns, beech-mast, and
other seeds, and occasionally of the green and tender leaves of peculiar plants. They drink much—
not at intervals like other birds, but by a continued draught, like the quadrupeds. Their flesh is sapid
and nutritious, being of a warm and invigorating nature. Their flight is powerful, very rapid, and can
-be long sustained, and many species are in the habit of making distant periodical migrations. They are
widely disseminated, species of the genus being found in every quarter of the globe, and in all climates,
except the frozen regions of the two hemispheres. They build in trees or holes of rocks, making a
shallow nest of small twigs loosely put together. Their eggs are never more than two in number, their
colour a pure white; they are incubated alternately by both sexes, and are hatched after being sat
upon from eighteen to twenty-one days. The young, upon exclusion, are thinly covered with down,
which is rapidly-succeeded by the proper feathers, *
In no tribe of the feathered race do we meet with a plumage better adapted to gratify and
delight the eye than that of the pigeons, for among the numerous species of which it is composed
* Geophilus carunculatus. + Ficus Indica.
THE PIGEONS, 283
there exists a diversity as well as a brilliancy of effect that cannot be contemplated without admir-
ation. In some the plumage shines with a dazzling and metallic gloss, varying in tint with every
motion of the bird, and which vies in lustre with that of the diminutive and sparkling humming-
bird. Such is that of the Carpophaga amea, Oceanica, and many other species. In other genera,
as Winago and Ptilinopus, the plumage is admirably assimilated to the arboreal habits of the pigeons,
consisting of delicate shades of yellows and vivid greens, just sufficiently contrasted with smaller masses
of richer or more resplendent hues to produce the happiest effect. In the typical groups again, a
modest, yet chaste assortment of colours generally prevails, and which, though less striking at first
sight, never fails to give permanent satisfaction to the eye. As the species approach the true Rasorial
tribes, the colours become more uniform in tint, but still in certain lights are encircled by glossy
reflections, which especially prevail upon the region of the neck and breast.
In texture the plumage is generally close and compressed, and the feathers feel hard and firm to
the touch, from the thickness and strength of the rachis or shaft. Upon the neck they assume a
variety of forms, in some species being rounded and stiff, and disposed in a scale-like fashion ; in
others they are of an open, disunited texture, or with the tips divided and curiously notched; and in
the hackled and Wicobar pigeons they are long and acuminate, like those of the domestic cock; and we
may add, that in nearly all they are so constituted as to reflect prismatic colours when held at various
angles to the light.
In all the species of the genus Winago submitted to examination, the third quill has the central
Sess w
> §§ § §ºe
º - *
FEATHER OF PTILINOPUS, FEATHIER OF WIXAGO.
part of the web deeply notched, as if a piece had been cut out, as represented in the annexed
engraving.
The genus Ptilinopus presents another peculiarity. Here the first quill feather of the wings is
considerably shorter than the second, and suddenly narrowed towards the tips, as the engraving will
show. This peculiarity is also possessed by several pigeons belonging to other distinct groups, and by
which means a connection is thus kept up between them.
One of the tricks practised on the 1st of April in former days was, to send those on whom it
was to be played for half a pint of pigeon’s milk; but as a black swan, long deemed an impossibility,
has actually been found, so has the substance for which many have been sent on a fool's chase.
Alluding to a provision that exists very similar to that of the milk in quadrupeds, the celebrated John
Hunter makes the following statement:—
“I have, in my inquiries concerning the various modes in which young animals are mous ished,
discovered that all the dove kind are endowed with a similar power. The young pigeon, like the
young quadruped, till it is capable of digesting the common food of its kind, is fed with a substance
secreted for that purpose by the parent animal—not, as in the mammalia, by the female alone, but also
by the male, which perhaps furnishes this nutriment in a degree still more abundant. It is a common
property of birds, that both male and female are equally employed in hatching and in feeding their
young in the second stage; but this particular mode of nourishment, by means of a substance secreted
in their own bodies, is peculiar to certain kisds, and is carried on in the crop.
“Whatever may be the consistence of this substance when just secreted, it most probably very
Soon coagulates into a granulated white curd, for in such a form I have always found it in the crop;
and if an old pigeon is killed just as the young ones are hatching, the crop will be found as above
described, and in its cavity pieces of white curd mixed with some of the Common food of the



284 “, CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
pigeon. If we allow either of the parents to feed the young, its crop, when examined, will be
discovered to contain the same curdled substance, which passes thence into the stomach, where it
is to be digested. -
“The young pigeon is fed for some time with this substance alone, and about the third day some
of the common food is found mingled with it ; and, as the pigeon grows older, the proportion of
common food is increased, so that by the time it is seven, eight, or nine days old, the secretion of
the curd ceases in the old ones. It is a curious fact that the parent pigeon has at first the power
to throw up this curd without any mixture of common food, although afterwards both are thrown
up according to the proportion required for the young ones. I have called this substance curd, not
as being literally so, but as resembling that more than anything I know. It may, however, have a
greater resemblance to curd than we are, perhaps, aware of, for neither this secretion, nor curd from
which the whey has been pressed, seems to contain any sugar, and does not run into the acetous
fermentation. The property of coagulating is confined to the substance itself, as it produces no such
effect when mixed with milk.” - -
THE AROMATIC VINAGO.*
THIS bird may be taken as a specimen of the genus Winago. They are of a mild and timorous
disposition, and are generally seen in flocks and societies, except during the period of reproduction,
when they pair, and retire to the recesses of the forest. The nest is simple, and composed of a few
twigs loosely put together, and the eggs are two. The base, or softer part of the bill, is a blackish-
gray, the tip yellowish-white, strong, much hooked, and bulging on the side. The forehead is a
bright siskin-green, the crown greenish-gray, the chin and throat gamboge-yellow, the remainder of
the neck, the breast, belly, lower back and rump, yellowish-green. The upper back or mantle, and
a part of the lesser wing-coverts, are of a rich brownish-red, and exhibit a purplish tinge in certain
lights. The legs and toes are red, the claws pale gray, strong, sharp, and semi-circular.
“This beautiful bird,” says Mr. Selby, “has brilliant red eyes. Its feet are something like the
parrots, and it climbs in the same way as that breed. It is very difficult to find, for although a flock
is marked into a tree, yet its colour is so similar to the leaf of the banyan, on the small red fig of which
it feeds, that if a bird does not move, you may look for many minutes before you can see one, although
there are fifty in the tree.” ;
THE MAGNIFICENT PIGEON,
THE rich assemblage of colours exhibited in this bird induced M. Temminck, its first describer, to give
it the appropriate name of magnificent. It is a native of the eastern parts of Australia—a country
whose productions present so much of what is new and interesting in every department of zoology. It
is said to feed chiefly upon the fruit of one of the palms, in that country called the cabbage-tree, from
the culinary use made of the top, or cmbryo leaves. In size it equals, or rather surpasses, the common
ring pigeon—the tail being longer in proportion. The bill, which is rather slender, has the soft or
membranous part of a brownish-orange; the horny top, which is yellowish-white, is slightly arched,
but hard and compressed; the nostrils are open, and their covering but little swollen, and not
projecting to the same extent as in the common pigeon; the forehead, as in other members of this
restricted genus, is low and flat, and some of the feathers cover a considerable portion of the soft part
of the bill. The head, the cheeks, and the upper part of the neck, are of a fine, pale bluish-gray, which
passes into pale green towards the lower part of the neck and back. The upper parts of the body are
of a rich golden-green, assuming various shades of intensity as viewed in different lights; the wing-
coverts are spotted with rich king's yellow, forming an oblique bar across the wings. The quills and
tail are of the richest shining green, changing in effect with every motion of the bird. From the chin
downwards proceeds a streak of the finest auricular purple (the base of the feathers being of a deep
sapphire-green); this line gradually expands as it descends and covers the whole breast and abdomen.
The lower belly, thighs, and under wing-coverts are of the richest king's yellow. The feet are bluish-
black, the tarsi short and clothed with yellow feathers half-way down their fronts and sides; the claws
* Columba aromatica: Latham.
THE PIGEONS, - 285
strong, much hooked, and formed for prehension. Nearly allied to this species, if not a small variety
of it, is the Columba amarantha of Lesson, which inhabits the islands of New Zealand and New
Guinea.
.*
THE NICOBAR PIGEON.3% *
TIIIs beautiful bird, though of a heavy form and ungraceful carriage, yields to none of its tribe in
splendour of plumage, of which the prevailing hue is rich metallic green, with various reflections of
copper and purplish-red. It is generally described as residing habitually upon the ground, where it
HEAD OF NICOBAR PIGEON, FOOT OF NICOBAR PIGEON.
runs with great celerity, perching on the lower limbs of trees at night. Yet Mr. Bennet alludes to
this species as usually seen perched on trees, even on the loftiest branches, “where,” he adds, “it rears
its young similar to all the pigeon tribe.” It inhabits Nicobar, Java, Sumatra, and other eastern
islands.
THE RING-DOVE, OR, CUSHAT.t
TIIIs is a bird widely disseminated throughout Europe, either as a permanent resident, or as a periodical
visitant ; in the first state, in all those countries where the climate and temperature are such as to
insure a constant supply of food; and in the latter, in those high latitudes where the rigour of winter
is severely felt, and the ground for a long period remains covered with snow. Of its geographical
distribution in other quarters of the globe, we can only speak with uncertainty, as it is evident that
species, bearing a resemblance in form and colour, have been mistaken for it, and as such recorded in the
relations of various travellers. Temminck mentions it in his “History of the Pigeons,” as inhabiting
parts of Northern Asia and Africa, and it is known to be a native of Madeira, as well as another
nearly allied species, lately described in the “Illustrations of Ornithology,” under the title of the
Columba Trocaz. In America it has not yet been recognised, neither does it appear among the species
which abound within the tropical latitudes of the ancient world. In Britain, it is distributed from
one extremity of the kingdom to the other, residing permanently with us; for, though subject to a
partial movement upon the approach of winter, when the various individuals scattered over the country
collect together and form extensive flocks, no actual migration takes place, but these congregated
masses still keep within their respective districts. The magnitude of these winter flocks has, no doubt,
suggested the idea that a migration from distant climes to this country annually takes place at this
season of the year, and that the numbers of our native stock are thus augmented. We see no necessity,
however, for supposing his to be the case, nor is it authorised by any observed or established fact.
The species in districts favourable to its increase appears to be sufficiently numerous to account for the
largest bodies ever seen assembled together.
This congregating of the ring-pigeons takes place towards the end of October or beginning of
November, at which time all the autumnal broods have become fully fledged, and they remain thus
united till the beginning of February, when the first mild days and the genial influence of the ascending
sun again call forth those instinctive feelings which urge them to separate and pair, and each to seek
an appropriate retreat for the rearing of a future brood. At first, when thus congregated, they haunt
the stubbles, or, in districts producing an abundance of beech-mast or acorns, the woods and trees; but as
these resources become exhausted, they resort to the turnip-fields, the leaves and tops of which root they
greedily devour. This food now constitutes their principal support during the winter and early spring
* Columba Nicobariea • Latham. + Columba palumbus: Linnaeus.

286 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
months, or until the clover begins to sprout and the seed-corn is committed to the earth; and it has
been observed that the increase of the species has been progressive with that of the culture of this
valuable root. The numerous and extensive plantations that of late years have been so generally made
throughout the island, and which, in a young and close-growing state, are peculiarly favourable to its
habits, must also be taken into account, and perhaps these tend, in an equal degree, to the cause above
assigned—the rapid increase of its numbers. When thus united, they repair to their feeding ground
early in the morning, and again in the afternoon before they retire to roost, the middle of the day
being passed in repose or digesting their first meal, upon the nearest trees. When thus perched, some
are always on the watch; and so great is their vigilance, that it is almost impossible by any device to
get within gun-shot. In the evening they retire to the woods to roost, preferring those of the fir tribe
and ash to any other; and in these nocturnal retreats great slaughter is sometimes committed, by
waiting in concealment their arrival, which regularly takes place immediately after sunset.
. The first mild weather in February produces an immediate effect upon these congregated pigeons,
and we may almost calculate to a day when their cooing and plaintive murmurs will again be heard in
their wonted summer haunts. The flocks are now seen daily to decrease in magnitude, and in a short
time every wood and copse becomes peopled with the numerous pairs of this lovely bird. The male
soon after commences a flight peculiar to the season of courtship and love; this is a rising and falling
in the air, by alternate movements, in which flight, and when at the greatest elevation, the upper
surfaces of the wings are brought so forcibly into contact, as to be heard at a considerable distance.
Nidification soon follows this well-known signal, and by the end of April, the young in many instances
are fully fledged and ready to quit the nest. Few, however, of the early brood, comparatively speaking,
attain maturity, as the eggs at this season, from the naked state of the woods, are early discovered by
the prying eye and inquisitive habits of the cunning magpie and predacious carrion crow.
The nest of the cushat is a flimsy fabric, being a mere platform of Small twigs loosely interwoven,
so open; indeed, that the eggs, in one newly built, and before it bećomes thickened by the droppings
of the brood, may be seen through it from beneath; and so slight is the central depression that it
frequently happens, where the incubating bird is suddenly disturbed, the eggs, in the hurry to escape,
are tumbled from the nest, and perish upon the ground. The site selected for nidification is various,
and no tree or bush seems to come amiss at certain periods of the year. In early spring, however, and
before the deciduous trees acquire their umbrageous and leafy covering, firs and other evergreens are
preferred, on account of the better concealment and protection they afford. From this diversity of site,
the nest is necessarily placed at various elevations, at one time being far removed from the ground, as
when it is built near the summit of a lofty spruce, or in the thick foliage of a beech or sycamore ; at
another, scarcely out of reach, and but a few feet from the earth, as we find it in the holly, the young
fir, the thorn, or other bushy trees. The eggs, always two in nnmber, are white, of an oblong form,
and rounded nearly equal at both ends. Incubation lasts from eighteen to twenty days, and both
sexes sit alternately, the male taking the place of his mate when hunger compels her to quit the nest,
and so vice versa. When first extruded, the young are blind, and their skin, of a blue or livid colour,
thinly covered with a harsh yellow down. In this tender state, they are long and assiduously brooded
over by the parent birds, and are fed with a milky pulp, ejected from the crop, where the food undergoes
a partial digestion, preparatory to its being given to them. As they gain strength and become fledged,
food is more frequently supplied, and, consequently, from its not remaining sc long in the craw of the
old bird, in a less and less comminuted form, till at length, previous to their finally quitting the
nest, it is administered in a state but little altered from that in which it is first swallowed by the old
birds.
The cushat is a wary bird, of powerful wing, not easily approached even in the forest glades, yet
not seldom building in groves or groups of trees in the immediate vicinity of human dwellings; and a
gentle pair has been observed sitting for hours upon the branches of an almost leafless sycamore in
early spring, preening their feathers in assured confidence, within a few footsteps of the cottage door.
Indeed, we have often noticed, as others must have also done, what may be called the discrimination of
birds, in relation both to persons and to places. We allude to what we should call their accommodating
rather than their natural instincts; how, for example, after a season or two of observation or experience,
they will congregate around a spot where no rude hands disturb their mossy dwellings, nor climbing
THE RING-DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 287
urchin disturbs their peaceful nests. This is beautifully exemplified (and on a larger scale than in a
cottage garden) among the gladsome palace groves of the Tuileries and Luxembourg in Paris, where,
notwithstanding the gay and giddy stream of life which constantly flows through those royal walks,
the wood pigeon frequently builds her nest, though distant is her flight to rural solitudes for every
offering which she brings her much-loved young. -
The ring pigeon breeds twice in the year, viz., in spring, and again in autumn, a cessation taking
place during the greater part of June and July, being a period of comparative scarcity, the seeds of
such plants as they principally subsist on having then ripened or attained perfection. The autumnal
brood, on account of the more effectual concealment of the nests by the now matured and thick foliage
of the woods, is always more abundant than that of spring, and, in favourable districts, great numbers
annually escape. In certain seasons, the young produced in autumn are subject to a peculiar disease,
which destroys many of them even after they have quitted the nest. It appears in the form of large
swellings, or imposthumes, upon the feet and head, which, rapidly increasing, at length deprive them of
sight and the power of perching, and they perish upon the ground, emaciated by hunger and disease.
This complaint, for many years past, has been observed in the northern districts of the kingdom, but
THE LING-L-E.
whether it prevails to an equal extent in other parts we have had no opportunity of ascertaining. The
flesh of both old and young is of good flavour, that of the latter being little inferior to the moor game
or grouse, which it is thought by many to resemble in taste. This, however, can only be said of it so
long as the bird derives its support from the stubbles, or the produce of the forest; for as soon as a
deficiency of other food compels it to resort to the turnip-field, the flesh becomes imbued so thoroughly
with the strong flavour of the plant, as no longer to be fit for the table.
Though the ring pigeon frequently approaches our habitations during the breeding season in
search of a site for its nest, and almost seems to court the vicinity of man, it always evinces a timorous
disposition, and is startled and alarmed by the slightest motion or noise. In the winter, and when
congregated, it becomes still more impatient of approach, and is then one of the most wary and watchful
of the feathered race. -
Various attempts have been made to domesticate the ring pigeon, but hitherto without success,
for, although these birds may be rendered very tame when in confinement, they show no disposition to
breed even by themselves, much less with the common pigeons, and upon being set at liberty, soon lose
any little attachment they may have shown to the place in which they were reared, and betake them-
selves to their natural haunts to return no more,
Taking the species as a typical example of the restricted genus Columba, we find the bill of






288 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
moderate strength, the tip without emargination, and gently arched, the nostril protected by a soft
inflated membrane; the wings calculated for vigorous flight, the second and third quills being the
longest, and nearly equal; the tail is square or even at the end; the tarsi short, and the feet adapted
THE TIGEON Hull SE.
either for perching or walking; the outer and inner toes are of equal length, the hinder rather shorter
than the tarsus, and not provided with so broad and flat a sole as that of the true arboreal pigeons.
In size it is superior to the majority of the Columbidae, measuring from sixteen to seventeen inches in
length. The horny part of the bill is orange-yellow, the basal or soft part impending the nostrils

THE RING-DOVE, OR CUSHAT. 2C9
covered with a white mealy substance. The head, cheeks, throat, neck, lower back, and rump, are
bluish-gray, those of the side of the neck glossed with green, and bounded with a patch of white, which
nearly meets behind, and forms an imperfect demi-collar round the lower and back part of the neck.
The mantle, scapulars, and wing-coverts are deep bluish-gray; the breast and belly purplish-red,
THE PAssºng ER PIGEON.
passing towards the vent and under tail-coverts into pale bluish-gray. The ºuter ridge of the wing
and a few of the greater coverts are white. The quills are blackish-gray, their anterior webs con-
spicuously margined with white. The upper surface of the tail is of a bluish-gray at the base, passing
gradually into black towards the tip. The legs and feet are purplish-red; the irides, yellowish-
white.
WOL. III.







290 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE PASSENGER PIGEON.3%
WILSON's account of this remarkable bird is very graphic and striking, and to it we shall be indebted
for our present description. Its roosting-places are always in the woods, which sometimes occupy a
large extent of forest. When these birds have frequented one of those places for some time, the
appearance it exhibits is surprising. The ground is covered to the depth of several inches with their
dung; all the tender grass and underwood are destroyed; the surface is strewed with large limbs of
trees, broken down by the weight of the birds collecting one above another; and the trees themselves,
for thousands of acres, killed as completely as if girdled with an axe. The marks of their desolation
remain for many years on the spot ; and numerous places could be pointed out where, for several years
after, scarcely a single vegetable made its appearance. When these roosts are first discovered, the
inhabitants, from considerable distances, visit them in the night with guns, clubs, long poles, pots of
sulphur, and various other engines of destruction. In a few hours they fill many sacks, and load horses
with them. By the Indians, a pigeon-roost or breeding-place is considered an important source of national
profit and dependence for that season, and all their active ingenuity is exercised on the occasion. The
breeding-places differ from the roosting-places in their greater extent. In the western countries, as the
states of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, these are generally in back woods, and often extend in nearly
a straight lime across the country for a great way. Not far from Shelbyville, in the state of Kentucky,
Some years ago, there was one of these breeding-places, which stretched through the woods in nearly a
north and south direction, was several miles in breadth, and was said to be upwards of forty miles in
extent. In this tract almost every tree was furnished with nests, wherever the branches could
accommodate them.
The pigeons made their first appearance there about the 10th of April, and left it altogether with
their young before the 25th of May. As soon as the young were fully grown, and before they left the
nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants, from all parts of the adjacent country, came with wagons,
axes, beds, and cooking utensils; many of them accom-
panied by the greater part of their families, and
encamped for several days at this immense nursery.
Several of them stated that the noise was so great
as to terrify their horses, and that it was difficult for
any person to hear another speak without bawling
in his ear. The ground was strewed with broken
limbs of trees, eggs, and young squab pigeons, which
had been precipitated from above, and on which
herds of hogs were fattening. Hawks, buzzards, and
eagles were sailing about in great numbers, and seiz-
ing the squabs from the nests at pleasure, while,
from twenty feet upwards to the top of the trees,
the view through the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and fluttering multitudes of
pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with the frequent crash of falling timber: for now
the axemen were at work cutting down those trees that seemed to be most crowded with nests, and
contriving to fell them in such a manner, that in their descent they might bring down several others;
by which means the falling of one large tree sometimes produced two hundred squabs, little inferior in
size to the old ones, and almost one heap of fat. On some single trees upwards of one hundred nests
were found, each containing one squab only—a circumstance in the history of this bird not generally
known to naturalists. It was dangerous to walk under these flying and fluttering millions, from the
frequent fall of large branches, broken down by the weight of the multitudes above, and which,
in their descent, often destroyed numbers of the birds themselves; whilst the clothes of those
engaged in traversing the woods were completely covered with the excrements of the pigeons.
These circumstances were related to Wilson by many of the most respectable portion of the
community in that quarter, and were confirmed in part by what he himself witnessed. “I
Passed,” he says, “for several miles through this same breeding-place, where every tree was
HEAD OF COLUMBA CORONATA,
* Columba migratoria.

THE CAPE TURTLE, 291
spotted with nests, the remains of those above described. In many instances I counted upwards
of ninety nests on a single tree; but the pigeons had abandoned this place for another, sixty or eighty
- miles off towards Green River, where they were said at that time to be equally numerous. From the
great numbers that were constantly passing over our heads to and from that quarter, I had no doubt
of the truth of this statement. The mast had been chiefly consumed in Kentucky; and the pigeoſis
every morning, a little before sunrise, set out for the Indiana territory, the nearest part of which was
about sixty miles distant. Many of these returned before ten o'clock, and the great body generally
appeared on their return a little after moon. I had left the public road to visit the remains of the
breeding-place near Shelbyville, and was traversing the woods with my gun on my way to Frankfort
when, about ten o’clock, the pigeons which I had observed flying the greater part of the morning
northerly, began to return in such immense numbers as I never before had witnessed.
“Coming to an opening by the side of a creek called the Benson, where I had a more uninterrupted
view, I was astonished at their appearance; they were flying with great steadiness and rapidity, and at
a height beyond gun-shot, in several strata deep, and so close together that, could shot have reached
them, one discharge could not have failed of bringing down several individuals. From right to left, as
far as the eye could reach, the breadth of this vast procession extended, seeming everywhere equally
crowded. Curious to determine how long this appearance would continue, I took out my watch to
note the time, and sat down to observe them. It was then half-past one; I sat for more than an hour;
but, instead of a diminution of this prodigious procession, it seemed rather to increase both in numbers
and rapidity; and, anxious to reach Frankfort before night, I rose and went on. About four o'clock
in the afternoon I crossed Kentucky river, at the town of Frankfort, at which time the living torrent
above my head seemed as numerous and as extensive as ever, Long after this I observed them in large
bodies that continued to pass for six or eight minutes, and these again were followed by other detached
bodies, all moving in the same south-east direction till after six in the evening. The great breadth of
front which this mighty multitude preserved would seem to intimate a corresponding breadth of their
breeding-place, which, by several gentlemen, who had lately passed through part of it, was stated to me
at several miles.”
Wilson then enters into a rough calculation of the numbers of this mass, and he comes to the
conclusion that its whole length was 240 miles, and that the numbers composing it amounted to
2,230,272,000 pigeons, observing that this is probably far below the actual amount. He adds, that
allowing each pigeon to consume half a pint of food daily, the whole quantity would equal 17,424,000
bushels daily. Audubon confirms Wilson in every point, excepting that he very properly corrects that
part of the narrative which would lead to the conclusion that a single one only is hatched each time.
The latter observes, that the bird lays two eggs of a pure white, and that each brood generally consists
of a male and female. “It is,” he remarks, “extremely interesting to see flock after flock performing
exactly the same evolutions which had been traced, as it were, in the air by a preceding flock. Thus,
should a hawk have charged on a group at a certain spot, the angles, curves, and undulations that have
been described by the birds in their efforts to escape from the dreaded talons of the plunderer, are
undeviatingly followed by the next group that comes up. Should the bystander happen to witness one
of these affrays, and, struck with the rapidity and elegance of the motions, feel desirous of seeing them
repeated, his wishes will be gratified if he only remain in the place till the next group comes up.”
THE CAPE TURTLE,%
THIS pretty species measures six inches, but the great length of the tail gives it an appearance of bulk
which it does not really possess, as the body scarcely exceeds in size that of the common lark. Its
wings are moderately long, and reach, when closed, to about the third of the length of the tail; the
second quill-feather rather exceeds the first, and is the longest in the wing. The tail, like that of the
passenger turtle, consists of twelve feathers, the tips of which are rounded, except the two middle ones,
which are generally worn to a point. The bill is very slender, without emargination, and the upper
mandible very gently deflected towards the tip. The tarsi and toes are short, the claws blunt and but
little hooked, showing it to be partly ambulatory in its habits.
* Columba Capensis: Auct.
292 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
As the name given to this bird implies, it is common around the Cape of Good Hope, and it is also
met with in Senegal, Senegambia, and Nubia. Of its habits and manners we have no detailed account,
except that it makes its nest in low trees and shrubs, and lays two white, pellucid-looking eggs, very
fragile and easily broken. The male, of which we give an engraving, has the forehead, the region
Nºyº
NY. Yº º
º
º
º
ſº º º *
º
º
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A. (). Tº -
º º
THE CAPE TURTLE,
around the base of the bill, the chin, throat, and part of the breast, intense black. The colours of the
female are more sordid. -
THE TURTLE-DOWE."
In the male, the head and nape are of a vinous ash on the sides of the neck there is a space composed
of black feathers, terminated with white; the front of the neck, breast, and upper part of the belly,
light vinous; the back brown-ash; the border of the wings bluish-ash; the other coverts rusty with a
black spot at the centre of the feathers; the abdomen and lower parts of the tail pure white. The
tail-feathers are blackish-ash; all, with the exception of the two intermediate ones, terminated with
white; the lateral feather is white externally; the spaces round the eyes and the feet are red; the
iris is a yellowish-red. The length of the bird is about eleven inches and a half. The female has not
the white front, nor the colour of the wings so bright; her quills are brownish, whereas they are
blackish in the males. Bechstein states that these birds are found throughout the temperate parts of
Europe and Asia, and also in many parts of the South Sea Islands.
* Turtur communis, Columba turtur,






THE TURTLE-DOVE. 293
The dove is associated with far-distant times, and particularly with the catastrophe of the Deluge.
Thus it has been regarded by the Rev. W. L. Bowles, in strains of great sweetness —
“Ride on :-the ark, majestic and alone “So the bird flew to her who cherished it.
On the wide waste of the careering deep, She sent it forth again out of the ark;
Its hull scarce peering through the night of clouds, Again it came at evening fall, and, lo!
Is seen. But, lo! the mighty deep has shrunk An olive-leaf pluck'd off, and in its bill.
The ark from its terrific voyage rests And Shem's wife took the green leaf from its bul,
On Ararat the raven is sent forth,< And kiss'd its wings again, and smilingly
Send out the dove, and as her wings far off Dropp'd on its neck one silent tear for joy.
Shine in the light, that streaks the severing clouds, She sent it forth once more, and watched its flight,
Bid her speed on, and greet her with a song:— Till it was lost amid the clouds of heaven;
{{ { º Then, gazing on the clouds where it was lost,
Go, beautiful and gentle dove- Its mournful mistress sung this last farewell:—
But whither wilt thou go?
For though the clouds ride high above, “‘Go, beautiful and gentle dove,
How sad and waste is all below!' And greet the morning ray;
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THE GAL.EATED CURASSOW.
“The wife of Shen, a moment to her breast For, lo!, the sun shines bright above,
Held the poor bird and kissed it. Many a night, And night and storm are passed away :
When she was listening to the hollow wind -
She press'd it to her bosom, with a tear; “‘No longer drooping, here confined,
And when it murmur'd in her hand, forgot In this cold prison dwell;
The long, loud tumult of the storm without. Go, free to sunshine and to wind,
She kisses it, and, at her father's word, Sweet bird, go forth, and fare-thee-well.
Bids it go forth.
“‘Oh! beautiful and gentle dove,
Thy welcome sad will be,
When thou shalt hear mo voice of love
In murmurs from the leafy tree :
“The dove flies on 1 In lonely flight
She flies from dawn to dark;
And now, amid the gloom of night,
Comes weary to the ark.
“‘Oh, let me in,’—she seems to say, “Yet freedom, freedom shalt thou find,
“For long and lone has been my way; From this cold prison cell;
Oh! once more, gentle mistress, let me rest, & Go, then, to sunshine and to wind,
And dry my dripping plumage on thy breast.’ Sweet bird, go forth, and fare-thee-well.’”
Many of our varieties of pigeons are very beautiful, and they all present peculiarities of manner and
flight, well known to those who take pleasure in these birds. The tumbler is remarkable for flying in circles,
and throwing itself over backwards, so as to perform a somersault in the air; this evolution is often
performed several times in succession before settling. The fantail has sixteen or eighteen tail-feathers,
and it is distinguished by their being peculiarly arranged, like those of a fowl. This variety is usually









294 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
white. The pouter is conspicuous, though not elegant, from its elevated figure, feathered legs, and
distended crop. The jacobin is a small pigeon, commonly of a rusty-yellow, with a frill of reverted
feathers down each side of the neck to the chest. The nun is a beautiful variety, of a pure white,
excepting the head, quill feathers, and tail, which are black.
Sir E. Tennent describes a pigeon, called by the natives of Ceylon Neela-cobeya,” strikingly
elegant in shape and colour, as very remarkable for the singularly soothing effect of its low and
harmonious voice. “A gentleman,” he says, “who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to
me of this bird, and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that “its soft and melancholy notes, as
they came from some solitary place in the forest, were the most gentle sounds I ever listened to.”
Some sentimental smokers assert that the influence of the propensity is to make them feel as if they
could freely forgive all who had ever offended them, and I can say, with truth, such has been the effect
on my own nerves of the plaintive murmurs of the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and
not without reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, the feeling has almost instantly
subsided into placidity on suddenly hearing the loving tones of these beautiful birds.” -
Another family has the following characters:–Three toes before, one behind, the latter touching
the ground throughout. The head feathered, generally crested; and there is often a cere or naked
skin, at the base of the bill. Of this family the following is an example:–
THE GALEATED CURASSOW.t
A PROTUBERANCE may be observed rising from the upper mandible of this bird, with the base of which
it is continuous. When fully developed, it is more than two inches long, and of a livid slate-colour.
Externally it is hard and bony, but internally it is cellular—the cells communicating with the cavity
of the mouth. It is much larger in the male than in the female. - - -
These birds are natives of Mexico. Their head and neck are covered with short, black, velvety
feathers, and the remainder of the plumage is of a brilliant black, exhibiting, in certain lights, a tinge
of green, with the exception of the abdomen and under tail-coverts, which are white.
They live in large bands, commonly building their nests on the ground, but perching on trees.
Like the hen pheasant, or the common hen, the females lead their young about in search of food, which
consists at first of worms and insects, and to these are afterwards added fruits and seeds.
THE PEACOCK.t
THE Peacock, belonging to another family, § was originally brought from India, and thence into Persia
and Media. Aristophanes mentions. “Persian peacocks,” and Suidas calls the peacock “the Median
bird.” In the Scriptures it is enumerated among the costly articles imported by the ships of Tarshish,
employed by Solomon to enrich his country with the remarkable products of foreign nations. The fleet
of the Hebrew monarch might easily procure it either from India or Persia. From Persia, it was
gradually diffused through India, Egypt, Greece, and Europe. º º
The cradle of the peacock has long since been determined. It is in the countries of Southern Asia
and the vast archipelago of the Eastern Ocean that this bird appears to have fixed its dwelling, and to
live in a state of freedom. Such is the testimony of numerous travellers who are worthy of implicit
confidence. The chase of the peacock is well known to form one of the chief amusements in Bengal,
and in the islands of Java and Sumatra; but this is a somewhat dangerous sport, as the proximity of
the tiger in those places where the peacocks most abound obliges the hunter to use much circumspection,
for this dreaded beast of prey shows a peculiar predilection for the flesh of these birds.
Colonel Williamson, in his account of peacock shooting, states that he had seen, about the passes
of the Jungletery district, surprising quantities of wild pea-fowls. Whole woods were covered with
their beautiful plumage, to which the rising sun imparted additional brilliancy. Small patches of plain
among the long grass, most of them cultivated, and with mustard then in bloom, which induced the
birds to feed, increased the beauty of the scene. “I speak within bounds,” continues the Colonel,
* Chalcophaps Indicus: Linnaeus, t Ourax pauxi : Cuvier. : Pavo cristatus, § Pavonidae.
-
THE PEACOCK. 295
“when I assert that there could not be less than twelve or fifteen hundred pea-fowls, of various sizes,
within sight of the spot where I stood for near an hour.” -
According to the same authority, it is easy to get a shot in a jungle; but when the birds flock
*together—which they do to the amount of forty or fifty—there was greater difficulty. Then they are
not easily raised, and run very fast—so fast, indeed, that the Colonel doubts whether a slow spaniel
THE PEACUCR.
could make them take wing. They fly heavy and strong, generally within an easy shot; if winged
only, they usually escape, from their swiftness of foot. They roost on high trees, into which they fly
towards dusk.
M. Temminck had an opportunity of examining two males of the wild peacock: these birds
resembled each other perfectly, and were as familiar as the domestic peacocks. In brilliancy of
plumage the wild peacock stands unrivalled among the feathered race. In his incomparable robe we

296 *.
CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
find united all the brilliant colours which we admire separately in other birds—all that glistens in the
rainbow, and sparkles in the mine—the azure tints of the sky, and the richest emerald of the fields.
The wild peacock is almost the size of a hen-turkey. The length from the end of the bill to the
extremity of the tail is four feet five inches; the tail alone is nineteen inches. It is the richly-assorted.
colours of the alar-coverts that constitute one of the principal differences between this bird and the
domestic peacock. The wild pea-hen has but one brood in the year; she lays from twenty-five to thirty
eggs, which she deposits on the ground in well-sheltered places, where they are secure from the assaults
of the tiger.
If the cmpire of the feathered tribes were claimed by beauty, and not by power, the peacock
would be regarded by the multitude as the king of birds. The elegance of its form, and the brilliancy
of its plumage, are exceeded by none of the feathered race. Its large size, imposing manner, firm tread,
and noble figure; the rich crest upon its head adorned with the most brilliant colours; its matchless
plumage, appearing to combine everything that can delight the eye—all unite to give it a peculiarly
distinguished place. The Romans were well acquainted with this gorgeous bird. It was called the
“Bird of Juno" by the poets, who feigned that with the eyes of Argus she adorned its tail, and thus
bestudded it with gems—“et gemmis caudam stellantibus implet.”
The peacocks constitute the great ornament of menageries. During summer they are fond of
living in an extensive space, where they can choose elevated situations for perching. But in winter it is
necessary to place them under shelter against the inclemency of the weather. The preferable habitation
for them is one in which they can perch. The season of reproduction with the peacocks commences
at the end of March or the beginning of April. There is an interval of one day between the laying of
each egg. When they are taken away, according as they have been laid, the entire brood will amount
to eight or twelve. The eggs are of the bulk and form of goose-eggs, of a fulvous white, with spots or
points of a deeper hue. The pea-hens are not very assiduous in hatching, and often quit their eggs to
fly to some elevated place. The young pea-chicks rarely follow the mother to elevated situations until
four weeks have elapsed. About this time the aigrette begins to appear.
Until the second year the male and female have the same plumage. In the third year, the long
dorsal plumes of the male begin to appear, and it is then that these birds begin to whirl about the tail,
and to court the attention of the females. The pea-hen does not begin to lay till the third year. From
the small extent of the wings, it would appear that the flight of the peacocks must be low and heavy;
still they can make tolerably long passages in the air. AElian extends their life to one hundred years
—an opinion to which Willughby assents—but it does not continue more than a quarter of that space.
THE CHINESE PEACOCK PHEASANT.
THE peacocks are valued in all countries where they are known for their beauty. Thus, they are great
favourites in Persia, and are more common there than in England as an ornament in grounds and
gardens. The King of Persia has a throne which is called “the throne of the peacock,” from two
representations of peacocks, which are placed on square pillars on each side of the seat. These
sculptured birds are studded with precious stones, and each of them holds a large ruby in its beak. In
China, beautiful fire-screens, and other ornamental articles, are made of peacocks' feathers, tastefully
arranged, and mounted on ivory handles. Many Hindoo temples in the Dukhun have considerable
flocks of peacocks. On comparison with the bird domesticated in Europe, the latter is found, both
male and female, to be absolutely identical with the wild bird of India. Solomon, doubtless, constituted
the peacock one of the ornaments of his pleasure-gardens. It was introduced into ancient Greece at
a date far anterior to the time of Aristotle, who was born nearly four hundred years before the Christian
era, that philosopher speaking of it as well known. It is also mentioned by Aristophanes, the celebrated
comic poet of Greece, whose birth preceded that of Aristotle. - ... •
The Black-shouldered Peacock,” commonly called the Japan Peacock, has no such origin, and may
prove to be a variety of the common peacock. The Javan Peacock,t points out the island from
whence it is derived : it is found also in the Malay peninsula. . 2.
On the borders, if we may so speak, of the genus of peacocks, we find the bird of which our engraving
* Pavo cristatus. f Pavo spicifer
THE CHINESE PEACOCK PHEASANT. 297
is an accurate representation. The name given to it by Edwards sufficiently indicates its general
character. This bird does not elevate its tail like the peacocks. It has neither the large dorsal plumes,
nor the plumes of the tail, with which the peacock forms his wheel. Its tail is of a totally different
form, not only from that of the peacock and the pheasant, but from that of all the gallinae. It is formed
of two ranges or tiers of feathers, the upper range lying over the lower, which is the true tail. This
bird differs again from the pheasant by having a broad and rounded tail, the feathers of which are not
vaulted like those of the true pheasants; and also in its cheeks, which are not covered with a tissue of
velvety red. The character of its having constantly several spurs also removes it from the peacocks
and pheasants.
- *~~~
w º * ... Yº = . ---, *- * 4: .3--> Ya
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THE CHINESE PEACOCK PHEASANT.
This beautiful form was raised to the rank of a genus by M. Temminck. Cuvier placed it among
the peacocks properly so called; but other species have since been discovered, which, throwing further
light on the modifications of form, will justify its genuine separation. e
. Under the same name* are placed the Turkeys.
THE WILD TURKEY:
MUCH has been written, and more thought, as to the origin of these birds. “In England,” says
Willughby, “they are called turkeys, because they are supposed to have been first brought to us out of
Turkey.” Ray, his friend and companion in science, however, knew better. In a “Perfect Description
of Virginia,” now some two hundred years old, we read that the colonists there have “wilde turkies,
some weighing sixtie pound weight.” And to that country we must assuredly look as the one from
whence we obtained the domestic bird.
They derived their name from the popular habit of calling every foreign trader a Turkey
merchant, no matter what country he traded with. Consequently, the bird was called a Turkey,
simply because it came to England from abroad. -
The head of the wild male is small in proportion to the body; it is covered with a naked bluish
skin, continued over the upper half of the neck, and uneven with warty elevations, changeable red on
the upper portion and whitish below, and interspersed with a few scattered black hairs. The flaccid
and membraneous naked skin, also changeable on the lower part of the neck, extends downwards into
large wattles. A wrinkled conical fleshy protuberance, capable of elongation, and with a pencil of
hairs at the tip, takes its rise from the base of the bill, where the latter joins the front. When this
excrescence is elongated under excitement, it covers the bill, and extends several inches below it. A
* Pavonidae. t Meleagris gallo-pavo: Linnaeus.
WOL. III 134












298 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
tuft of long rigid black hair springs from the lower part of the neck at its junction with the breast,
shooting out among the plumage to the length of nine inches. - -
The base of the feathers of the body, which are long and truncated, consist of a light fuliginous
down; this part of the feather is succeeded by a dusky portion, which is again followed by a broad
shining metallic band, varying from copper colour, or bronze, to violet, or purple, according to the play
of the light; and the tip is a broad velvety band; but the last is absent in the feathers of the neck and
breast. *
The general plumage presents a glancing metallic lustre, which is, however, least glossy on the
lower part of the back and tail-coverts. The wings are concave and rounded, not extending much, if
at all, beyond the base of the tail. The tail is, at least, fifteen inches in length, rounded at the
extremity; the feathers are eighteen inches broad, and capable of expansion and elevation with a
fan-shape. The general colour of these feathers is brown mottled with black, crossed by numerous
narrow undulating lines of the same. The bird stands high on its robust red legs, the scales of which
THE WILD TURE EYs
have blackish margins; and the blunt spurs are about an inch long. The bill is reddish, but
brown-coloured at the tip. The length of the bird is nearly four feet; the expanse of the wings more
than five. *
The female wild turkey has less of naked skin on the head and neck; they are partially covered
with dirty feathers. The short caruncle on the front is incapable of elongation; and the tuft on
the breast, which is not present in young birds, is in the older ones highly developed. The whole
plumage is much more sombre than that of the male; but the colour of the tail is much the same.
The length of the bird does not exceed three feet and a quarter. -
† THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.
IN a domesticated state the plumage of the turkey varies as much or more than it does in the common
poultry. White is far from uncommon; buff is more rare. But the most curious variety is that
mentioned by M. Temminck, which was in Madame Backer's aviary at the Hague. This bird had a
top-knot springing from the crown of the head; and a flock of a pale reddish tint, with an ample crest
of pure white, were reared by the same lady. The disposition of the female is, generally, much more
mild and gentle than that of the male. ,

THE DOMESTIC TURREY. t 299
The author of “Tabella Cibaria” says that the bird is “so stupid or timorous, that if you balance
a bit of straw on his head, or draw a line of chalk on the ground from his beak, he fancies himself so
loaded, or so bound, that he will remain in the same position till hunger forces him to move. We
made the experiment.” To this statement Mr. Broderip adds: “We never did, but we doubt it not,
though we cannot accept it as a proof of stupidity. How much wit may be necessary to balance a straw
may be doubtful; but gallant chanticleer has never been charged either with fear or folly, and yet you
have only to take him from his perch, place him on the table by candlelight, hold his beak down to the
table, and draw a line with chalk from it, so as to catch his eye, and there the bird will remain spell-
bound, till a bystander rubbing out the line, or diverting his attention from it, breaks the charm.
Many a fowl have we thus fascinated in our boyish days.” .."
Gay, long since, in the name of this part of the feathered race, poured forth this piteous lamenta-
tion : “Man, cursed man, on turkeys preys,
And Christmas shortens all our days.
Sometimes with oysters we combine,
Sometimes assist the sav'ry chine;
From the low peasant to the lord,
The turkey smokes on every board.”
The complaint of this bird may still be uttered ; for so far from the ravages on its race being
diminished, they must rather be greatly increased since the time when the poet gave it utterance. A
visit to Leadenhall Market, just before Christmas, would astonish any of our readers who have not yet
looked on its multitude of turkeys.
THE TALEGALLA, OR BRUSH TURKEY.”
A VERY remarkable bird was originally described by Latham under the name of the New Holland
vulture; but subsequently he removed it from the vultures, and placed it among the birds of the
gallinaceous order, to which it really belongs. º
The Brush Turkey, or, as Mr. Gould terms it, the Wattled Talegalla, inhabits various districts of
New South Wales, from Cape Howe on the south to Moreton Bay on the north. In some places
where it was once common, it has now become rare; and we learn that the cedar-cutters, and others,
who are in the constant habit of hunting through the brushes of Illawara and Maitland, have nearly
extirpated it from these localities. It is, however, still abundant in the dense brushes of the Manning
and Clarence, and along the sides of the lower hills that branch off from the great range into the
interior; on the Brezi range to the north of the Liverpool plains, and also on the hills on each side of
the Samoi.
In its habits, the brush turkey is gregarious, associating in small flocks, which wander among the
dense covert of the brushwood; and it is shy and distrustful. It runs with great facility, and, from
the nature of the localities it frequents, easily eludes pursuit. One of its greatest enemies is the dingo,
or wild dog; and when hard pressed by this ferocious beast of prey, it springs to the lower branch of a
tree, and, by a succession of leaps from branch to branch, ascends to the top. The whole flock act in
concert, and, having ascended as high as they can, they either remain perched in security, or fly to a
distant spot, where the tangled brushwood promises a more effectual concealment. They are also in
the habit of resorting to the branches of trees, as a shelter from the mid-day sun; and while thus
reposing, they offer a sure mark to the sportsman, who may kill the whole flock, for they will allow a
succession of shots to be fired without moving, or being roused from their lethargy. It is by taking
advantage of their mid-day repose that the colonists destroy them in great numbers for the sake of
their flesh, which is extremely delicate and tender, and is consequently in high esteem.
While wandering through the brush, these birds utter a clucking noise; their food consists
principally of berries and various seeds; and, like our common poultry, they dust themselves in the
soft ground, making bare depressions in the spots which they frequent.
The most interesting and remarkable circumstance connected with the economy of the brush
turkey is, that it does not hatch its eggs by incubation; it does not sit upon them like other birds, not
* Talegalla Lathami : Gould.
300 CASSELL’S POPULAR, NATURAL HISTORY.
even occasionally, or during the night, but forms for them an “eccaleobion,” in which they are hatched
without the weary duties to which other birds are called by the laws of Nature. “The brush turkey,”
says Mr. Gould, “collects together an immense heap of decaying vegetable matter, as a depository for
the eggs, and trusts to the heat engendered by the process of decomposition for the development of the
young. The heap employed for this purpose is collected by the birds during several weeks previous to
the period of laying; it varies in size from two to four cart-loads, and is of a perfectly pyramidal
form. The construction of the work is not the task of one pair of birds, but is effected by the united
labours of several; the same site appears to me, from the great size, and the entire decomposition of
the lower part, to be resorted to for several years in succession, the birds adding a fresh supply of
materials previously to laying.
“The mode in which the materials composing these mounds are accumulated is equally singular ;
the bird never using its beak, but always grasping a quantity in its foot, throwing it backwards to one
common centre, and thus clearing the surface of the ground for a considerable distance so completely,
that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left.
“The heap being accumulated, and time allowed for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the eggs are
deposited, not side by side, as is ordinarily the case, but planted at the distance of nine to twelve inches
from each other, and buried at nearly an arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upwards.
They are covered up as they are laid, and allowed to remain until hatched. I have been credibly
informed, both by natives and settlers living near their haunts, that it is not unusual to obtain nearly
a bushel of eggs at one time from a single heap; and as they are delicious eating, they are eagerly
sought after.”
Some of the natives assured Mr. Gould that the females are constantly in the neighbourhood of
the heap, waiting for the time at which the hatching of the eggs takes place; and that they frequently
uncover and cover again the eggs, as if for the purpose of ascertaining their progress, or of assisting
the young to liberate themselves from their imprisonment. Others, however, denied this, and stated
that the eggs were altogether forsaken, the young being left to liberate themselves. Unfortunately,
Mr. Gould was not in the districts inhabited by these birds during the breeding season; but he inclines
to the latter statement, and thinks that, from the great size of the egg, there is room for the young to
become more fully developed than in ordinary cases, and that they are hatched capable of taking care
of themselves. In confirmation of this, he observes that, in searching for eggs in one of the mounds,
he discovered the remains of a young bird, apparently just escaped from the shell. It was clothed, not
with down, as is usual, but with feathers—a proof, if indeed the bird died when just escaped from the
shell, that it was more advanced than is the young of the common fowl, or any kind of poultry, at the
same crisis.
Mr. Gould also thinks the opinion that the eggs, once deposited, are never disturbed afterwards,
to be corroborated by the fact that they are always found upright. But it may here be remarked, that
though the parent birds may occasionally uncover the eggs, it does not follow that they alter the
position of them. Nor is the discovery of a young bird feathered, which appeared as if newly hatched,
a proof either that the parents neglect the eggs or the young. These points yet remain to be
determined. *
Mr. Gould saw several of the mounds formed by these birds, both in the interior of the country
and at Illawara. “In every instance, they were placed in the most retired and shady glens, and on
the slope of a hill.” The ground above the nest was always scratched clean, while that below the nest
appeared to be untouched; as if the birds had found it more convenient to bring the materials for its
construction down the hill, than to throw them up.
The eggs are perfectly white, of a long, oval figure, and three inches and three quarters in length
The wattled talegalla is about the size of a common turkey, three parts grown. The adults have
the whole of the upper surface of a blackish brown. The feathers of the chest are edged with silvery
gray. The skin of the head and neck is of a deep red, and thinly sprinkled with short hair-like
feathers; the sides of the neck, at its lower part, are ornamented with a bright yellow wattle, or fleshy
excrescence, capable of being expanded or contracted at will, as in the common turkey. The female is
rather less than the male, and the wattſes are not so much developed ; her colour is the same. One of
the inclosures of the Zoological Gardens is appropriated to this very remarkable bird.
THE GUINEA-FOWL # AND OTHER GALLINAE.
THE Pintado is the bird formerly known to the ancients under the name of Meleagris, or Numidian
owl. The common name employed in this country is the Guinea-Fowl. The wild birds inhabit the
western coasts of Africa, and principally towards the south, from the Cape of Good Hope as far as the
coast of Guinea. Many broods unite together, forming a large flock, flying in bands, and returning at
fixed hours to the springs or neighbouring rivers to drink. At sunset they retire into the woods, and
perch themselves on trees to pass the night.
In the poultry-yard they pursue all the species of fowl with which they happen to be placed, and
maintain with them an obstinate and continual war. They are lively, restless, and impetuous. M.
Temminck frequently and vainly tried to make them mix with the pheasants in the woods, but always
without success. The pheasants invariably gave way to these new and troublesome guests, and some-
times they would quit the neighbourhood altogether. The pintados are clamorous and troublesome
birds. Their monotonous and disagreeable cry has been compared to a door grating on rusty hinges.
It may be represented by the syllables ceuk, ceuk, pronounced forcibly, and with a rough voice. When
this wretched noise becomes wearisome to themselves, they then change it for a little cry which may be
indicated by the syllables chi-wi. *
The female lays usually at the end of May, or in the early days of June, and the eggs are gene-
rally from sixteen to twenty-four in number. The shell is very hard, of a yellowish white, spotted with
small brown points. They are deposited in a retired place under some bush. The incubation lasts three
weeks and four days. The female seldom sits with any assiduity, nor when the young are disclosed does
she display for them any great affection. The casque on the top of the head, and the barbles of the
lower jaw, are not to be distinguished before the birds are six months old.
Some of the members of another familyt are equally familiar with several of those just noticed.
To adopt the words of Buffon : “It is sufficient to name the pheasant to remind us of the place of its
origin. The pheasant—that is, the bird of the Phasis—was, it is said, exclusively confined to Colchis
before the expedition of the Argonauts: those Greeks, ascending the Phasis, to arrive at Colchis beheld
these fine birds spread along the banks of the river; and by bringing them back to their own country,
bestowed upon it a gift more precious than the golden fleece. At the present day, the pheasants of
Colchis, or Mingrelia, and some other of the neighbouring countries, are the finest and largest in the
known world.” ---
From these countries they have been extended in almost all the regions of the known world.
They are found in the greater part of Europe; they are very abundant in Spain, in Italy, in some parts
of Germany, particularly in Bohemia, and in the south of France. In the north they are less common.
The common pheasant does not appear to inhabit Africa; but it is greatly multiplied in China, where
it lives in the woods, without mixing with the other species, which are also equally abundant in this
vast empire. Pallas describes pheasants as found in Siberia. They are very common among the
Firghis, who ornament their bonnets with the plumes of this bird.
THE COMMON PHEASANT.:
* Close by the borders of the fringed lake, Receiving now his colours from the skies,
And on the oak's expanded bough, is seen, And now reflecting back the watery bow.
What time the leaves the passing zephyrs shake, He flaps his wings, erects his spotted crest;
And gently murmur through the sylvan scene, His flaming eyes dart forth a piercing ray;
The gaudy pheasant, rich with varying dyes, He swells the lovely plumage of his breast,
That fade alternate, and alternate glow, And glares a wonder of the orient day.”
THE generic character of the Common Pheasant has thus been given :—Bill of mean length, strong;
upper mandible convex, naked at the base, and with the tip bent downwards. Nostrils basal, lateral,
covered with a cartilaginous scale; cheeks and region of the eyes destitute of feathers, and covered
with verrucose red skin. Wings short, the first quills equally narrowed towards their tips, the
fourth and fifth the longest. Tail long, regularly wedge-shaped, and composed of eighteen feathers.
* Numida Meleagris. + Phasianidae. † Phasianus colchicus
302 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Feet, having three anterior toes united by a membrane as far as the first joint, and the hind toe
articulated upon the tarsus, which in the male birds is furnished with a horny cone-shaped sharp
Soul".
P Pheasants are fond of the shelter of thickets and woods, where the grass is long; yet, like
partridges, they often breed also in clover fields. They form their nests on the ground, where from
twelve to fifteen eggs are laid, smaller than those of the domestic hen. As in the mowing of clover
near the woods frequented by pheasants the destruction of the eggs is sometimes very great, game.
keepers have had directions to hunt them from these fields as soon as they begin to lay, until their
haunt is broken, and they retire into the corn.
Pheasants can scarcely be termed English birds, as they have never been allowed to exist in a
wild state in this country. Leland, in Henry the Eighth's reign, mentions a preserve in Bradgate
Park, Leicestershire, “for those right curious birds called fesans.” But there seems no reason why
they should not be domesticated here, if they were not so good eating as to be regarded as game.
THE COMMON PHEASANT.
Their food in a wild state consists of grain, seeds, green leaves, insects, and ripe fruit. Mr.
Selby says that the root of the common buttercup is also much sought after by the pheasant ; and
Mr. Yarrell testifies to having found their crops “distended with acorns of so large a size that they
could not have been swallowed without difficulty.”
THE RING-NECKED PHEASANT.”
THE Ring-Pheasants are common in the woods of many parts of China. They are frequent in India,
where they are smaller than the common pheasant. They are also found about the Caspian Sea, on
the southern part of the desert between the Don and the Volga, in Great Tartary.
It is long since this bird was brought from China into Europe. Its size is always less, the ex-
panse of its wings smaller, and its tail shorter, when it is compared with the common pheasant. The
upper part of its head is tawny, with a gloss of green, two white dashes surmount the eyes, and the
* Phasianus torquatus.

THE RING-NECKED PHEASANT. --- 303
rest of the head and neck are of a deep and brilliant green, with a violet reflection, except where the
white collar, which gives its name to the species, passes round the neck.
The feathers of the back are black in the middle, surrounded by a zig-zag whitish band, and
tipped by a black arrow-shaped spot; those of the shoulders are black at the base, marked in the
centre by a whitish pupil surrounded by a black ring, and chestnut with somewhat of a purplish gloss
towards their tips. The tail-coverts are light green, with loose silky barbs; the breast of a brilliant
reddish purple; the sides pale yellow; the under parts and thighs black, with a gloss of violet; and
the tail-feathers olive-green in the middle, with broad black transverse bands.
M. Temminck considers the ring-necked pheasant of China not as a variety of the common
species, but as one that is distinct. In its native country this bird never unites with the common
pheasant. There is a constant and marked dissimilarity between the plumage of these two birds.
Their manners are dissimilar, and their eggs of a different colour.
THE RING-NECRED PHEASANT.
In the female there is a narrow band of short black feathers beneath each eye, which distinguishes
her from the common pheasant, from which she differs besides in the want of the black spots on the
breast, and the greater intensity of the transverse black bars upon her tail.
The parent birds and their brood, if undisturbed, remain in the stubbles and hedge-rows for some
time after the corn is ripe. If disturbed, they seek the woods, and only issue thence in the mornings
and evenings to feed in the stubbles. They are fond of corn; but can procure a subsistence without
it, since they often feed on acorns and on the wild berries of the woods. Often may it be said in the
autumnal season:-
"Seel from the brake the whirring pheasant springs,
And mounts exulting on triumphant wings;
Short is his joy; he feels the fiery wound,
Flutters in blood, and panting beats the ground.
Ah! what avail his glossy, varying dyes,
His purple crest, and scarlet-circled eyes;
The vivid green his shining plumes unfold,
His painted wings and breast that flames with gold!
In confinement, the female pheasant neither lays so many eggs, nor hatches and rears her brood
with so much care and vigilance, as in the fields out of the observation of man. Indeed, she will very
* Pope.

304 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
rarely dispose them in a nest, or sit upon them at all; and hence, in the business of incubation and
rearing her young, the domestic hen has generally been substituted for the hen-pheasant.
It has been supposed by some that this bird is by no means remarkable for sagacity. Thus, it
has been asserted that the pheasant imagines itself out of danger whenever its head only is concealed;
and that on being roused from its usual state, it will often perch on a neighbouring tree, where its
attention will be so fixed on the dogs, as to suffer the sportsman to approach very near. But there
are sportsmen who can recount stratagems that they have known old cock-pheasants to adopt in thick
and extensive coverts, when they have found themselves pursued, before they could be compelled to
take wing, which prove that this bird is not deficient in contrivances for its own preservation.
CHINESE PHEASANTS.
As the cold weather draws on, the pheasants begin to fly at sunset into the branches of the oak
trees for roosting during the night. This they do more frequently as the winter advances, and the
trees lose their foliage. At these times the male birds make a noise, which they repeat three or four
times successively, called by sportsmen cocketing. The hens, on flying up, utter one shrill whistle, and
then are silent.
THE SILVER PHEASANT.:
THE Silver Pheasant, both in external form and natural disposition, exhibits much analogy with the
birds of the genus Gallus. It is easily tamed, and might be entirely domesticated. Its robust consti-
tution accords more with that of the common fowl than that of the other pheasants. The form of its
caudal plumes, and the mode of their insertion, also, present great analogies to the domestic cock.
The total length of the male bird is about two feet eight inches. Its cheeks are clothed with an
apparently naked skin of a bright red colour, advancing forwards above the eyes so as to form a kind
of crest, and terminating in a pendulous fold on each side of the lower mandible. The top of the head
* Phasianus mytheremus: Linnaeus.

THE SILVER PHEASANT. 305
is ornamented by a tuft of long black feathers, which fall down over the upper part of the back of the
neck. On the sides of the head and neck, the entire surface of the back and wings, and the upper
part of the tail, the plumage is of a bright silvery white, traversed with the greatest regularity by an
infinite number of finely pencilled black lines passing obliquely, in the form of chevrons, across the
feathers. A striking contrast to this delicacy of tint is afforded by the uniform purplish black of the
fore part of the neck, breast, and under surface of the body. -
In the female the red of the cheeks is much less extensive; the top of the head has a kind of
crest of a dusky brown; the neck, breast, and upper surface are of an earthy brown, and crossed by
blackish bands; and the tail variegated with black, white, and brown. *
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THE SILVER PHEASANT.
These birds pair about the end of April. When the female has sufficient liberty, she attends very
assiduously to her brood. The incubation lasts twenty-six days. The number of the eggs varies from
eight to fourteen. Their colour is yellowish-red, often bordering on black, and they have small brown
points. *
This pheasant inhabits the northern regions of the vast empire of China. It has been transplanted
into almost all the countries of Europe, where, with a little care, it thrives perfectly well. It is more
easily tamed than the common pheasant, and its young ones are reared with less difficulty.
THE GOLDEN PHEASANT.”
THE Golden Pheasant is derived from China. Its name there is said by Latham to be “Kinki,” or
* Phasianus pictus: Linnaeus.
WOL. III. 135

306 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“Rinker,” which signifies “Golden-flower Fowl.” It is a favourite in that country, as may be seen by
its frequent occurrence in Chinese paintings. e - *
In our country this bird has hitherto been preserved only in aviaries, where it is shielded from
the cold of winter and supplied with food. In captivity it breeds freely. It is one of a race remarkable
for beauty.
The golden pheasant is much smaller than the common one. The length of the male is about
three feet, of which the tail measures twenty-three inches. The head is ornamented with a beautiful
silky crest, of a fine amber-yellow. The feathers of the back of the head and neck are of a rich orange-
red, edged with a line of black, and capable of being raised at will. Lower down, so as to lie on the
top of the back, the feathers are glossy greenish-black. The back is rich yellow; the wings deep blue
at their base, the under surface intense scarlet. *
It is chiefly the want of the comb, the peculiar covering of the cheeks, and the remarkable form
of the tail, that distinguish the present group from the genus Gallus, comprehending the numerous
species and varieties of domesticated fowls. From this hardy race the pheasants differ still more in
constitution and habits than in external characters, seldom breeding in captivity, unless under the
most favourable circumstances, and manifesting an excessive sensibility to the impressions of a variable
atmosphere and the influence of a northern climate. The usual attitudes of the birds are extremely
different—the cock elevating his head to the full stretch of his neck, with a haughty and independent
air; while the pheasant projects it forwards in an almost horizontal position, scarcely raising it above
the level of his body.
In the female, as is usual in this tribe of birds, the colours are far less splendid than those of the
male. The upper parts are of a rusty-brown, varying in intensity; the under surface is marked with
spots of a deep brown on a lighter ground; the throat is nearly white; the wings are transversely
barred with black; and the tail, which is considerably shorter than that of the male, is variegated like
the wings.
Much of the difficulty, as well as much of the tenderness of constitution, manifested by these
birds is attributed by M. Temminck to the close confinement in which they are usually kept, and to the
very precautions which are taken to preserve them from the effects of cold. He advises that they
should be gradually habituated, like the more common race, to the large pheasantries in which the
latter are preserved, and doubts not that, as they multiplied under such circumstances, they would
become more and more hardy, until at last they would be fully capable of supporting the cold of our
northern winters. The experiment, he tells us, has already been made in Germany, where they have
been kept at perfect liberty in an open pheasantry, in company with the common species, and suffered
no greater inconvenience than the latter from the change of seasons.
THE ARGUS PHEASANT.4%
OF all the Gallina, there are none whose wings are so little adapted for flight as those of the Argus.
The secondary quills of the male are, in fact, three times longer than the primary, which spread out
broadly at their extremities, and altgether form a large, sweeping, fan-like plume. Each of these
feathers is beautifully ornamented with a row of eyes down the web on the outer side of the shaft, and
the rest of this vane is filled with lineal and oval spots of deep brown on a yellowish gray ground.
Their stems are extremely weak, and they have no coverts. If we add to this the weight of the bird,
and its broad tail, in the centre of which are implanted two great and broad feathers, which exceed the
others by many feet, it will appear that the Argus is not only unique, but the only bird in which so
remarkable a disproportion takes place.
The Argus runs more than it flies, and its legs being very long, render it well adapted for this
motion. It is also assisted therein by the use of its wings. It does indeed sometimes rise from the
ground, but its flight is short and heavy.
This bird inhabits Sumatra, and is equally found in the south of India. It is also said to have been
observed in Chinese Tartary. It appears to be a bird of recluse habits, frequenting wooded mountains,
* Argus giganteus,
THE ARGUS PHEASANT. 307
and places remote from human habitations. In size it is little inferior to a turkey. Its voice is
described as rather plaintive.
THE IMPEYAN PHEASANT.”
ExTREMELY difficult is it to form an adequate idea of this splendid bird, for the greater proportion of
its plumage is dazzling with changing hues of green, steel-blue, violet, and golden-bronze. This
pheasant looks as if it were principally clothed in a scale-armour of iridescent metal; while the
plumage is soft and velvety to the touch. The crest on the head consists of naked-shafted feathers,
with an oval tip of the same quality as the rest of the plumage, and of a metallic green; the centre of
the back is pure white; the tail is rounded, and bright chestnut.
THE ARGUS. PHEASANT.
This bird, the size of a hen-turkey, is a native of the mountain ranges of Nepaul and the
Himalayas. Its principal food consists of bulbous roots, for scooping out which its bill is well adapted.
Nothing seems certainly known of the rest of its habits.
THE JUNGLE FOWL.H.
A. RESTRICTED genus of these birds: is one of peculiar importance. The head of the birds constituting
it is generally surmounted by a fleshy vertical crest, the base of the lower mandible furnished with two
* Lophophorus Impeyanus.-Phasianus Impeyanus: Latham. +Gallus giganteus: Temminck. + Gallus.

308 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
flattened wattles, and the tail-feathers, fourteen in number, rising in two almost upright planes, with
ample coverts in the male sex. Here we find our domestic cock and hen.”
Many fanciful and superstitious feelings are still retained regarding the domestic cock, and his
nocturnal crowing; and even his more familiar morning salutation is supposed by the ignorant to
dispel all spirits, “whether on sea or fire, in earth or air.”
-
/* ". º */
º
ºº --
(ſº
%, ’º
º
* -
THE IMPEYAN PHEASANT.
“Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes
Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrate,
The bird of dawning singeth all day long :
And then, they say, no spirit waks abroad;
* Gallus domesticus.









THE JUNGLE FOWL. 303
The nights are wholesome; then no planets strike;
No fairy takes, no witch hath power to charm;
So hallowed and so gracious is the time.”
of the numerous benefits which the Divine goodness has enabled us to derive from the wide circle
of the feathered tribes there is probably none which surpasses, either in extent or utility, the domesti-
cation of these most familiar birds. So long, however, have they been subservient to the subsistence
and comfort of our race, that no authentic tradition remains of their introduction to any of the more
ancient kingdoms of the earth. They may, therefore, be regarded as one of those particular and
providential gifts which, at an early period of the world, was bestowed on the human family, and
has since, like the faithful and accommodating dog, attended it in its wonderful and far-spread
migrations.
THE JUNGLE FOWL,
It has been supposed, indeed, that our different races of domestic poultry were originally derived
from Persia, from the circumstance of Aristophanes calling the cock “the Persian bird.” But that
this is erroneous is evident from the fact, that all modern researches have failed to discover any
birds of the genus gallus in that country. If, however, it is merely meant that the Greeks, during
their intercourse with the Persian nation, may have obtained from that people a breed previously
domesticated, then there is reason for such an idea, poultry being known to have existed in Persia,
in a domestic state, from a very remote antiquity.
No doubt can be entertained that these birds were well known over many parts of Europe
and Asia for several hundred years before the Christian era. When Themistocles took the field
to combat the Persians, he saw, it is said, two cocks fighting against each other; and hence he
alluded, while haranguing his troops, to the invincible courage of these birds. “Observe,” he said
of the cock, “with what intrepid valour he fights, inspired by no other motive than the love of












310 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
victory; whereas you have to contend for your religion and your liberty, for your wives and
children, and for the tombs of your ancestors.” Nor was this appeal uttered in vain: the Athenians
achieved on this occasion one of the most memorable victories emblazoned on their annals. Themi-
stocles died about the 449th year preceding the Christian era, and must, consequently, have been
the contemporary of Nehemiah.
According to M. Temminck, our domestic cock seems to have originated from the Jago Cock,” a
very large wild species, which inhabits the Island of Sumatra, and from the species Bankiva, another
primitive cock, found in the forests of Java. For this opinion the following reasons have been assigned:
the resemblance of their females to our domestic hens; the size of our village cock, which is inter-
mediate, between that of the Jago and Bankiva; the nature of the feathers, and the forms and
distribution of the barbs, which are absolutely the same as in the domestic cock; and because it is in
those two species alone that the females are provided with a crest and small barbles, characters which
are not found in any other of the primitive species which are known.
TILE FRIZZLED AND SILKY FOWLS,
The Malay Gigantic Fowl is a native of Java and Sumatra. In its natural attitude the male bird
is more than two feet in height, measuring from the top of the head to the ground. It has a comb,
which is thick, low, and without serrations, appearing as if it had been partially cut off; the wattles
are small; and the throat is bare. Elongated feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour,
cover the neck, and advance upon the back; while others, of the same kind and hue, cover the rump,
and drop on each side of the base of the tail. The feathers of the middle of the back and the shoulders
of the wings, which are of a loose texture, are of a dark chestnut. The greater wing-coverts, like the
tail-feathers, are of a glossy green. The limbs are remarkably stout. The tarsi are of a yellow colour.
The voice of this bird differs greatly from the clarion-peal of our domestic fowl, for it is a sort of hoarse
and short crow.
In some parts of continental India this bird is domesticated, and is known to Europeans as the
*Gallus giganteus.














THE JUNGLE FOWL. 3.11
Kulm Cock, Colonel Sykes supposes that it is not a native of that country, but that it was introduced
by the Mussulmans from Java or Sumatra. Two cocks and a hen were brought by that gentleman
into England in June, 1831. They bore the winter well; the hen laid freely, and soon reared two
broods of chickens. The hen was one-third smaller than the male. The cock has the habit, when
tired, of resting on the first joint of the leg. Other specimens of this gigantic race have been brought
into this country.
|| || || |
WALL-L-L-L POULTRY.
According to Sir E. Tennent, the Jungle-fowl of Ceylon" is shown by the peculiarity of its
plumage to be distinct from the Indian species. It has never yet bred, nor survived long in captivity,
and no living specimens have been successfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all parts of the
island, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains; and one of Sir Emerson's most vivid memorials
* Chacophaps Indºcas.








312 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
associated with his journey through the hills, is its loud, clear cry, that sounds like a person calling
“George Joyce.” At early morn it rises amidst mist and dew, giving life to the scenery that has
scarcely yet been touched by the sunlight.
The Domestic Cock is that bird over which, above all others, man has acquired the most
ample dominion. This conquest was not, however, achieved without difficulty. In no work of
antiquity do we meet with the slightest indication of the migration of these birds, nor is it probable
that, heavy as they are, and with wings and tails so constructed as to have no facility for a flight
of long duration, or for traversing the seas, they should have been able to transport themselves
from countries far remote. Man must, therefore, have brought them into the different countries
where those species exist at the present day. They are now propagated through every country of the
globe. º *
A pure Dorking fowl is of large size and rounded contour, and furnished with one or more
additional, but imperfect, toes; the legs are short, and the plumage white. The breed, of late years,
has been much crossed with the common dunghill fowl, and with the Sussex race, but without any
deterioration. The flesh is remarkably white and delicate in flavour. They are not easily obtained in
the place to which they have aided in giving celebrity; but vast numbers of them are regularly sent to
the London markets.
A brood of fowls, called the Spanish, is often seen around London. They are of a very large size,
and the hens lay enormous eggs, but they do not sit well. The plumage is black, the comb large and
often pendulous, and the naked skin behind the ears white.
The black Poland or Hamburg breed have a large top-knot of long white feathers. The gold-
spangled and silver-spangled Polands are remarkable for their beauty of plumage. These have small
combs on the forehead, and a full top-knot of feathers on the crown. Fine fowls of these breeds are
highly valued.
The game cock, which is probably a native of India, though for many centuries established in
England, has an unusual length of spur, his natural weapon of combat. The flesh of this variety is
delicately white, and of the finest flavour; the plumage is brilliant, and the form symmetrical ; but
from their pugnacious temper, there is great difficulty in rearing even those of the same brood.
Buffon describes a curious scene, of which he was a witness. A sparrow-hawk alighted in a
populous court-yard, when a young cock, of that year's hatching, instantly darted at him, and threw
the foe on his back. In this situation the hawk defended himself with his talons and his bill, intimi-
dating the hens and turkeys, which screamed tumultuously around him. When he had slightly
recovered, he rose, and was taking wing; when the cock rushed on him a second time, overturned him
again, and held him down so long, that he was caught.
The patience and perseverance of the hen while hatching are truly extraordinary. She covers her
eggs with her wings, fostering them with a genial warmth, often turning them, and changing their
situation, that all their parts may receive an equal degree of warmth. So intent is she on her task, as
to neglect, in some degree, even the ordinary supplies of food and drink. In about three weeks, the
young brood burst from their confinement, when, from being one of the most cowardly and voracious,
she becomes the most daring and abstemious of all animals. If she casts her eyes on a grain of corn,
or even a crumb of bread, she will not touch it, but gives her numerous train immediate notice of her
success by a peculiar call, which they all understand. Instantly they flock around her, and the
precious morsel is divided among them. Though by nature timid, and apt to fly from the smallest
assailant, yet, when marching at the head of her brood, she is fearless of danger, and will fly in the
face of the fiercest animal which offers to annoy her.
Mr. Jesse says: “I am always sorry to see the anxiety and misery of a hen who has hatched
ducks, instead of her natural progeny. When they take to the water she is in a perfect agony,
running round the brink of the pond, and sometimes flying into it, in hopes of rescuing her brood from
the danger she apprehends them to be in. A friend of mine observed a remarkable instance of the
degree to which this natural apprehension for her brood may be overcome in the hen by the habit
of nursing ducks. A hen who had reared three broods of ducks in three successive years, became
habituated to their taking to the water, and would fly to a large stone in the middle of a pond, and
patiently and quietly watch her brood as they swam about it. The fourth year she hatched her own
- THE CAPERCAILLIE,
THE CAPERCAILLIE.
vol. III.
126
313.
-


UASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
eggs, and finding that her chickens did not take to the water, she flew to the stone in the pond, and
called to them with the utmost eagerness.” ~~
The possibility of the existence of wild cocks in America has sometimes been denied. But it
should not be said that, since these birds inhabit India, China, and the Islands of the Eastern Archi-
pelago, in a state of freedom, it cannot follow that America possesses none of them in the same state;
for facts to the contrary may easily be cited.
M. Sonnini thus expresses himself on the subject:-"Travelling in the sombre and solitary forests
of Guiana, when the dawn first began to shed a less lugubrious tint, in the midst of those immense trees
which never fall but beneath the axe of time, I have frequently heard a cry perfectly resembling the
note of our domestic cock, but less powerful and sonorous. The considerable distance from all inhabited
places could not permit us to believe that this crowing, which the companions of my journey heard very
distinctly, was produced by domestic birds, and the Indians by whom we were followed told us that it
was the cry of wild cocks. In one of these journeys, I myself beheld on a mountain a bird about the
size of a pigeon, with brown plumage, bearing on its head a fleshy crest, having the wings short, and
the tail arranged exactly like that of the hen, whose port and gait it altogether exhibited. I was able
to examine it very well, and it did not appear very wild or shy; the negro whg had carried my fusee
had stopped at some distance, and when he rejoined me the bird was flown into the depth of the forest,
and we searched for it to no purpose.
“This fact, the crowing of the cocks which we heard in the woods, and the knowledge of the wild
cocks possessed by the natives, left no doubt on my mind respecting the existence of these cocks in
South America; and I have now put forth what I had the opportunity of ascertaining, without any
other pretensions than to make known a mere fact in the natural history of the Gallinge.”
Some remarkable specimens have been described by travellers, as the Frizzled * and the Silky
Fowls, of Asiatic origin, of which we give an engraving.
"WATLIKIKI POULTRY.
*
THE Manx Cat” is absolutely tailless, and so are the birds in the Zoological Gardens of Paris, of which
we have given an engraving. They are of Persian origin, as is their name, Wallikiki. The Abbé
Rozier speaks of them as resembling others in size and variety of colour, under the title of the “Tail-
less Hen.” In Holland the species is well known, and there the crowing of the cock is said to be
different from that of ordinary fowls. A hen generally lays about 200 eggs in a year. The chickens
are not marketable, on account of their deformed appearance, but the breed is really as valuable as
. that of any other species of domestic poultry.
We now arrive at another family, f in which are several valuable birds as affording food for man.
THE CAPERCAILLIES *.
THE name thus given to the Wood Grouse is of Gallic origin, and literally means the horse of the wood.
This bird is supposed to have been an inhabitant of the British isles within the last century. It is still
to be found in most parts of the Scandinavian peninsula;-indeed, as far to the north as the pine-tree
flourishes, which is very near to the North Cape itself. It is, however, more scarce in the more
southern of the Swedish provinces. *
Its favourite haunts are extensive fir-woods. In coppices, or small cover, it is seldom or never
found. The birds which breed in the larger forests remain there all the year round; but those, on
the contrary, which breed on elevated mountains, the summits of which are destitute of trees, or on a
more open part of the country, in the event of deep snow, usually fall down to the lower grounds.
The principal food of the capercali, in its natural state, consists of the leaves of the Scotch fir. It
also eats juniper-berries, cranberries, blueberries, and other berries common to the northern forests s
and occasionally also, in the winter time, the buds of the birch, &c. It very rarely feeds on the leaves
ºf the spruce. The young birds feed chiefly at first on ants and other insects, as well as worms.
The capercali makes her nest on the ground, and lays from six to twelve eggs; it is said she sits
* Gallina crispa. f Mammalia, vol. ii., p. 94.' : Tetraonidae. § Tetrao urogallu” "
THE CAPERCAILLIE. 3.15.
for four weeks. Her young keep with her until towards the approach of winter; the cocks, however,
separate from the mother before the hens. The most clear and ample accounts of these birds are given
by Mr. L. Lloyd, in his “Field Sports of the North of Europe,” including those of Professor Nilsson
and Mr. Greiff, and to these we shall be indebted in the description which our present limits will
allow. -
Excepting there be a deep snow, the capercali is much on the ground in the day-time; very
5, 2^
BLACK GROUSE.
frequently, however, it sits on the uppermost branches of the pines. During the night, if the weather
be very cold, it often buries itself in the snow. Its flight is not particularly heavy or noisy, and
it has been observed at a very considerable height in the air, and to be taking a flight of many miles
at a time.
These birds live to a considerable age. The cocks do not attain their full growth until their
third year or upwards. The older ones may be easily known from their greater bulk, their eagle-like
bill, and the more beautiful glossiness of their plumage. The size of these birds appears to depend, in a

316 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
great degree, on the latitude where they are found. In Lapland, for instance, the cocks (the hens
being much smaller) seldom exceed nine or ten pounds. In Wermeland and adjacent parts, Mr. Lloyd
never heard of their exceeding thirteen pounds; whilst in the more southern provinces of Sweden they
have not unfrequently been met with weighing seventeen pounds and upwards. The hen capercali
usually weighs from five to six pounds.
With the capercali, as with other birds, occasional varieties of plumage will be found. A hen,
that was shot in one of the southern provinces of Sweden during autumn, was, with the exception of a
few gray feathers on different parts of the body, perfectly white. This bird, however, had several
young ones, the plumage of all of which was of the usual colour.
THE BLACK GROUSE.”
THE Black Grouse, or Heath Cock, is only met with in uncultivated wastes, which are covered with
heath and juniper. It feeds on the mountain and bog-berries, and when these are scarce, on the tops
of heath. This bird abounds in North Wales and in the Highlands of Scotland; and they are found
in the southern parts of England.
“Good-morrow to thy sable beak The rarest things with wayward will,
And glossy plumage dark and sleek, Beneath the covert hide them still;
Thy crimson moon and azure eye, The rarest things to break of day,
Cock of the heath, so wildly shy: Look shortly forth and shrink away.
I see thee slyly cowering through
That wiry web of silver dew, “A fleeting moment of delight
That twinkles in the morning air, º º: *...*º
º º S SilC)
Like casements of my lady fair. That I shall parley hold with thee.
“A maid there is in yonder tower, Through Snowdon's mist red beams the day,
Who, peeping from her early hower, The climbing herdboy chants his lay,
Half shows, like thee, her simple wile, The gnat-flies dance their sunny ring—
Her braided hair and morning smile. Thou art already on the wing.”4.
In the spring, the males resort to some particular elevated and open spots, where they may be
heard in the morning and evening inviting the females by their call, displaying a variety of attitudes,
and uttering, as Mr. Selby says, a crowing note, accompanied by another sound, similar to that made
by the whetting of a scythe. This call is obeyed by the females, who do not long, however, engross
the attentions of the males. t
The females make a slight nest on the ground, frequently sheltered by some low thick bush.
Here they deposit from six to eight eggs, of a yellowish-white, spotted and speckled with orange-
brown. The males are selfish creatures, leaving them not only to the solitary task of incubation, but
to that also of providing for the young. -
Considerable packs of these birds, composed as well of cocks as hens, are often to be seen in the
northern forests during the winter time. They are most commonly to be met with near to the margins
of lakes and rivers, where the birch usually grows in abundance; as it is from the buds of that tree
the black cock derives the principal part of his subsistence during the inclement period of the year.
If the snow be loose and deep, this bird, like the capercali, often burrows beneath its surface.
In general he is entirely hidden from view, though sometimes his bill protrudes above the snow; thus,
he is fully protected from the weather, let the temperature be ever so severe.
THE RED GROUSE.t
THIS is a handsome species, and though called by Latham Scoticus, is worthy of a more general appel-
lation, since it is found not only in Scotland, but in the north of England, in Wales, and in Ireland.
It is, however, especially abundant in Scotland. Mr. Macgillivray says, that the low sandy heaths
of the eastern counties of the middle division appear to be less favourable to it than the more moist
peaty tracts of the western and northern districts, where the shrubs on which it feeds attain a greater
size. In the central and desolate regions of the Grampians it is equally abundant as on the moors of
* Tetrao tetrix: Linn. t Joanna Baillie. : Tetrao Scoticus: Lath.
THE RED GROUSE. 317
the Hebrides; and on the hilly ranges of the south, the Pentlands, the Lammermuir, the mountains of
Peebles, Dumfries, and Selkirk, and the moors of the North of England, it is still plentiful.
A depression of the ground, sheltered by a tuft of heather, suffices for a nest, which is formed of
the stems of ling and grass, with occasionally a few feathers. The eggs are from eight to fourteen or
fifteen in number, of a reddish-white ground colour, nearly covered with brown blotches and spots.
Their natural enemies—the birds of prey—have been much thinned. The seasons have been
rendered milder in their haunts by the progress of cultivation in their vicinity; and the throwing of
much of the country into sheep-walks has given them more repose in the central highlands than when
the glens abounded with human dwellings. Yet still the boundaries of the moor-fowl have been
circumscribed, and the pasturage of sheep tends to destroy their favourite heather, which is the only
good cover that they have, both from the weather and their enemies. It is, therefore, probable that,
with more preservation than formerly, the numbers of these birds are considerably diminished.
THE PTARMIGAN.4
THE common Ptarmigan is not only a native of Scotland, but of the higher latitudes of Continental
Europe, where the willow ptarmigan and the rock ptarmigan are also abundant. In their manners the
• *, wº
• º fºx.
N § S.--
Š Š->–
*Jºs SS
THE PTARMIGAN HN WINTER PLUMAGE.
ptarmigans maturally resemble each other. But in Scotland, a comparatively temperate climate, the
bare and bleak mountains are the permanent abode of the species there indigenous; while, under the
intense severity of winter within the polar circle, they all quit the more exposed situations and seek
the willows and copse-woods which border the rivers, and stretch over the sheltered vales. Mountain-
berries and heath-shoots in summer, spring-buds and leaves in winter, constitute their food, in search
of which, as well as for the sake of shelter, they burrow beneath the snow.
* Lagopus mutus: Selby.

3.18 • * . CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Perhaps the changes of plumage in none of the feathered tribes are more worthy of attention than
those the ptarmigans undergo. Their full summer plumage is of yellow more or less inclining to brown,
beautifully barred with zig-zag stripes of black; their winter plumage is pure white, except that the outer
tail-feathers, the shafts of the quills, and, in our species, a streak from the eye to the beak, are black.
Now, in both these cases, there is a benevolent provision for the safety of these birds. Thus, in
summer the brown patches of heath on the rocky sides of the mountains assimilate well, in their broken
and blended tints, with the attire of the ptarmigans; and, as concealment from their enemies is one of
the laws of Nature, this end is effectually answered. But when the mountains are covered with snow,
and all around is attired in a mantle of dazzling white, were the plumage of these birds to continue as
it was, they would at once attract the Iceland falcon and the snowy owl. The white feathers, on the
contrary, which clothe them at this season, are sure to defend them from their foes.
The saying of the poet may often be recalled in the study of this as well as of other portions of
the Divine operations:— º
“In human works, though laboured on with pain,
A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain;
In God's, one single can its end produce,
Yet serves to second, too, some other use.” - -
And so it is here. The white plumage is a defence against the cold of winter, as are other provisions,
by which it is accompanied; for then the legs of the ptarmigan, which have been covered with feathers
Foot of THE PTARMIGAN IN WINTER. FOOT OF SYRRHAPTES PARADOXUS : PALLAS.
of a hair-like and downy texture, extending as far as the toes, are now so enveloped as to resemble the
feet of a well-furred quadruped, while the bill is almost hidden. The additional reason of this will
speedily be apparent. * -
It is well known that colour greatly influences the rate at which bodies either reflect heat, or
acquire and part with it, and that objects which reflect heat the most part with it the least. Reflection
takes place most readily in objects of a white colour, and from such, consequently, heat will radiate
with difficulty. If then, two animals, one of a black colour and the other white, be placed in a higher
temperature than that of their own body, the heat will enter the one that is black with the greatest
rapidity, and elevate its temperature considerably above the other. But when these animals are placed
in a situation the temperature of which is considerably lower than their own, the black animal will
give out its heat, by radiation, to every surrounding object colder than itself, and speedily have its
temperature reduced; while the white animal will part with its heat by radiation at a much slower
rate. The winter colour of the ptarmigan, therefore, combined with its increased fulness of plumage,
tends to limit the expenditure of the vital heat generated in the system; though some expenditure
must take place. This power of generating heat in the animal system, it may be added, is the principle
on which all animals are enabled to withstand the effect of cold, and to preserve life and health in a
low temperature.
The Syrrhaptes paradoacus, the foot of which is represented, inhabits the steppes of Bucharia and
Tartary. *
THE PINNATED GROUSE.”
THIS American bird is often called the heath-hen. In size, shape, and habits, it strongly resembles
the red grouse, already described; but the plumage is not at all alike; for the former is of a peculiar
* Tetrao cupido.

THE PINNATED GROUSE. 319
gray, or dark ash-colour, without the dusky red of the latter. The flavour of the flesh much resembles
that of the British grouse, but the colour of it is scarcely so dark.
These birds are found, for the most part, in those wild and elevated situations where, either from
the sterility of the soil or the very considerable altitude, there are no forest-trees; the only vegetation
being two or three sorts of heath and a little alpine moss. The subsistence of these grouse is, therefore,
restricted to the young shoots of alpine plants, or the berries they produce; for, during the rigours of
a North American winter, they are never known to migrate to milder and more settled regions, or,
indeed, to any situations which do not yield their favourite food.
An adult grouse, when fat, weighs about three pounds avoirdupois. But the eagerness of the
sportsmen is so great, that a large proportion of those they kill are but a few months old, and have not
attained their full growth. -
The season for pairing is in March, and the breeding-time is continued through April and May.
The male grouse utters a peculiar sound, which may be heard on a still morning for three or four miles,
while the parts about the throat are sensibly inflated. This sound is called tooting, from its resemblance
to the blowing of a conch or horn from a remote quarter.
The female makes her nest on the ground, in recesses very rarely discoverable by man. She usually
Liºli’uºluºs TACHIDROMU3.
lays from ten to twelve eggs, of a brownish colour, much resembling those of the guinea-hem. When
hatched, the brood is protected by her alone; and, surrounded by her young, she exceedingly resembles
the domestic hen with her brood. When she utters a cry of alarm, the little ones immediately scamper
to the brush, and while they are skulking into places of safety, their anxious parent beguiles the spectator
by letting fall and fluttering her wings, limping along the path, rolling overin the dirt, and otherpretences
of inability to fly and even to walk.
During the period of pairing, and while the females are occupied in incubation, the males are
accustomed to assemble, principally by themselves. They repair to some select and central spot, where
there is very little underwood. The time of meeting is the break of day, and as soon as the light
appears, sometimes forty or fifty are thus assembled from the neighbourhood. When the dawn is past,
the ceremony begins by a low tooting from one of the cocks. This is answered by another. They then
come forth from the bushes, one by one, and strut about with all the pride and ostentation they can
put forth. Their necks are incurvated; the feathers on them rise into a kind of ruff; the plumes of
their tails are expanded like fans; and their movements emulate, so to speak, the pomp of the turkey.
cock. They seem to vie with each other in stateliness; and as they pass one another, frequently cast
looks of insult, and utter notes of defiance. These are the signals for battles, in which they engage
with wonderful spirit and fierceness. During these contests, they leap a foot or two from the ground,
and utter a discordant, cackling, screaming cry.
To the production of this sound Wilson particularly alludes. “What appears to me,” he says,
“the most remarkable circumstance relative to this bird is, that not one of all those writers who have













320 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
attempted its history have taken the least notice of those extraordinary bags of yellow skin which
mark the neck of the male, and which constitute so striking a peculiarity. These appear to be formed
by an expansion of the gullet, as well as the exterior skin of the neck, which, when the bird is at rest,
hangs in loose, pendulous, wrinkled folds, along the side of the neck, the supplemental wings, at the
same time, as well as when the bird is flying, lying along the neck. But when these bags are inflated
with air, in breeding-time, they are equal in size, and very much resemble in colour, a middle-size, fully-
ripe orange. By means of this curious apparatus, which is very observable several hundred yards off,
he is enabled to produce such extraordinary sounds, which, though they may easily be imitated, are yet
very difficult to describe in words. The sound consists of three notes, of the same tone, resembling
those produced by the night hawks in their rapid descent, each strongly accented, the last being twice
as long as the others.”
HEMIPODIUS TACHIDROMUS.*
THIs bird inhabits the meridional parts of Spain, Sicily, and North Africa.
The next birds to be noticed are often placed as forming a separate family,t and sometimes as a
sub-family of the Tetraonidae.:
THE PARTRIDGE.S
THE Partridge is essentially the tenant of the open corn-fields. It is common in the corn counties of
THE PARTIRIDGE,
Britain and on the adjacent continent, being, in fact, most abundant where the labours of the plough-
man are the most extensive.
In February the pairing time takes place, and the males often fight obstinately with each other.
The female lays her eggs at the latter part of May or the beginning of June, selecting a shallow
excavation under a tuft of herbage for their reception. The male leaves the work of incubation
entirely to his mate, but joins her when the brood is hatched, and unites with her in its protection.
* Tetrao Andalusicus: Gmelin. + Perdicidae. i Perdicinæ. § Perdix cinerea: Lath.
-

THE PARTRIDGE. 321
Few birds are more solicitous in rearing their young, and many are the stratagems which the
parents will practise to draw of attention from the brood, which by signal notes is scattered and
recalled. Of this Markwick gives the following proof:-"It is not uncommon to see an old partridge
feign itself wounded, and run along the ground fluttering and crying before either dog or man, to draw
them from the helpless unfledged young ones. I have often seen it, and once, in particular, I saw a
remarkable instance of solicitude in the old bird to save its brood. As I was hunting with a young
pointer, the dog ran on a brood of very small partridges; the old bird cried, fluttered, and ran tumbling
along just before the dog's nose, till she had drawn him to a considerable distance, when she took wing
and flew still further off, but not out of the field. On this the dog returned to me, near the place
where the young ones lay concealed in the grass. This the old bird no sooner perceived than she flew
back again to us, settled just before the dog's nose, and by rolling and tumbling about again, drew off
his attention from the young, and thus preserved her brood a second time. I have also seen when a
kite has been hovering over a covey of young partridges, the old birds fly up at the bird of prey
screaming and fighting with all their might to preserve their brood.”
TILE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE,
Selby mentions a well-authenticated instance in which two partridges, in defence of their brood,
gave battle to a carrion-crow, and actually held the miscreant till taken away from them by the
spectator of the scene.
Except during the breeding season, partridges associate in flocks or coveys.
“Fearful and cautious are the latent prey - Though borne triumphant, are they safe;
As in the sun the circling covey bask Glanced just and sudden from the fowler's eye,
Their varied plumes, and watchful every way, The gun o'ertakes their sounding pinions, and again,
Through the rough stubble turn the secret eye. Immediate, brings them from the towering wing,
Caught in the meshy snare, in vain they beat Dead to the ground, or drives them wide, dispersed,
Their idle wings, entangled more and more. Wounded, and whirling various, down the wind.”
Nor on the surges of the boundless air,
So rapid, however, is the multiplication of the partridge as almost to defy extermination 3 nor
will persecution drive it from its haunts. The covey will rise, whirl about, and alight, again and
again; but though they may be diminished by the gun, the survivors will often continue in the same
turnip-field, or on the same clover-stubble, as pertinaciously as a mountain tribe has clung to their
fastnesses in a war of extirpation.
The partridge, like the pheasant, feeds early in the morning and late in the evening, the covey
* Thomson.
707, III. 137

322 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
resting during the day among herbage, or basking on dry banks, or, like the fowl, dusting their
plumage and cleaning their feathers. At night they generally choose the middle of a large field as their
roosting-place, and sit crowded together. The call of the partridge is usually heard before the covey
retire to rest; they answer each other, and thus the stragglers are collected.
On the esteem in which the partridge is held for its flesh we need not expatiate. An old distich
says: “If partridge had the woodcock's thigh,
'Twould be the best bird e'er did fly.”
THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.- -
An enemy to the bird just described has been introduced from the Continent into England within
about sixty years; driving it from the lands and inclosures in which it has become established.
THE QUAIL.
The Red-legged Partridge is a native of France and Southern Europe, and the isles of Jersey and
Guernsey. The Marquis of Hertford and Lord Rendlesham procured some of its eggs, and had them
placed under the common hen; the former nobleman at one of his shooting residences in Suffolk, the
latter at an estate in the same county. It was from these two spots that the species gradually extended
itself; and in Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and the adjacent counties, it is now very abundant. The flesh
of this bird, though highly prized by some, is inferior to that of the common partridge, and it is also
less juicy.
- THE QUAIL.f.
The Quail with which we are acquainted is much less than the partridge, being only about seven
inches in length; it however resembles that bird in its form and modes of life, and its flesh is excellent.
* Perdix rubra: Brisson. # Coturnix dactylisonans.






THE QUAIL. 323
It is widely spread, being found throughout the whole of Southern and temperate Europe, and the
greater part of Asia and Africa, but is everywhere migratory.
The female makes an artless bed in a slight hollow of the ground for her eggs, which are of a
green tint, and vary in number from eight to twelve, or even fifteen. In England the quail makes its
appearance in May, but not in such great abundance, it is said, as formerly. In October it departs to
Africa, which is the great winter abode of this species.
The female has not the dark half-circular marks descending down the sides of the neck, nor the
black patch in front, which distinguishes the male bird. The feathers on her breast, however, are
strongly marked with a small dark spot on each side of the light straw-coloured shaft. The young
birds of the year resemble the adult female.
Richly cultivated lands are the favourite localities of these birds, and especially extensive wheat.
fields. Unlike the partridge, they are polygamous, and on their first arrival the males may be heard
uttering their whistling call, in defiance of each other.
THE CALIFORNIAN QUAIL.”
There is a group in America representing the quails and partridges of the Old World, to which has
been given the name of Ortyx. These birds have a greater stoutness of bill than those just mentioned;
P **q-º-º/
THE CALIFORNIAN QUAIL.
3
the tail, which is somewhat wedge-snaped and rounded at the extremity, is also more elongated.
They closely resemble the quails in their general manners and pugnacious habits, but they have no
spurs on the tarsi. They frequent thickets and bushes, building their nests on the ground, and migrate
during the winter to more temperate regions.
The most beautiful species is that of which we give an engraving. This bird was first discovered
by the unfortunate La Perouse; and it is stated by the editor of his “Voyage,” that it was found in
great abundance in the low woods and plains of California, assembled in bands of two or three hundred,
and that it was fat and well-flavoured.
Little, however, was known of the Californian Quail till Captain Beechey brought over several,
as one result of his voyage of discovery. The beautiful crest on the head adds greatly to their
appearance.
THE VIRGINIAN COLIN,+
THIs bird is a general inhabitant of North America, from the northern parts of Canada and Nova
Scotia, in which latter place it is said to be migratory, to the extremity of the peninsula of Florida.
Audubon says, its common name in the eastern and middle districts is that of quail, but in the western
* Lophortyx Californicus. f Ortyx Virginianus.


324 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
and southern states it is called a partridge. Their food, in a wild state, consists of grain, seeds, insects,
and berries; but buck-wheat and Indian corn are also particular favourites.
In America there are, in fact, no true partridges; but a numerous family of colins supply their
place, of which some thirty-five species are already known, and others, most probably, remain to be
described. Little difficulty would attend their acclimitisation; and all that are known are exceedingly
prolific. Three examples—the Cuban Colin,” the Crested Colin,t and the Californian Colini-may be
seen in our Zoological Gardens, besides the Virginian Colin.
Another familyś of birds now demands consideration, consisting of those in which the locomotive
energy is thrown into the lower extremities, the wings being in no instance adequate to raising the
body into the air, and in the majority of cases merely rudimentary. The true wing bones are best
developed in the Rhea ; the next best development is in the Ostrich ; while in the Cassowary, Emeu,
and Apterix, the lowest development of these bones is exhibited. A glance at an ostrich's skeleton
will show the strongly developed pelvis and posterior limbs.
THE OSTRICH.I.
THE Ostrich, the Camel-bird of the Arabs, has been celebrated from the earliest antiquity. It is
found throughout Arabia and Africa, everywhere shunning the presence of man, and preferring the
solitude of the desert.
The food of the ostrich consists of the tops of the various shrubby plants which the most
arid parts of South Africa produce in abundance. It is so easily satisfied with regard to water, that
it is constantly to be found in the most parched and desolate tracts which even the antelopes and the
beasts of prey have deserted. Its cry at a distance so much resembles that of the lion, that the
Hottentots are said to be sometimes deceived by it.
The male ostrich of South Africa, at the time of breeding, usually associates to himself from two
to six females. The hens lay all their eggs together in one nest, the nest being merely a shallow
cavity scraped in the ground, of such dimensions as to be conveniently covered by one of these gigantic
birds in incubation. An ingenious device is employed to save space, and give at the same time to all
the eggs their due share of warmth. Each one of the eggs is made to stand with the narrow end on
the bottom of the nest, and the broad end upwards; and the earth which has been scraped out to form
the cavity is employed to confine the outer circle, and keep the whole in the proper position. The
hens relieve each other in the task of incubation during the day, and the male takes his turn at night,
when his superior strength is required to protect the eggs or the newly-fledged young from the jackals,
tiger-Cats, and other enemies. Some of these animals, it is said, are not unfrequently found lying dead
near the nest, destroyed by a stroke from the foot of this powerful bird.
No fewer than sixty eggs are sometimes found in and around an ostrich's nest; but a smaller
number is more common; and incubation is occasionally performed by a single pair of ostriches.
Each female lays from twelve to sixteen eggs. They continue to lay during incubation, and even after
the young brood are hatched. The supernumerary eggs are not placed in the nest, but around it,
being designed to aid the nourishment of the young birds, which, though as large as a pullet when first
hatched, are probably unable at once to digest the hard and acrid food on which the old ones subsist.
The period of incubation is from thirty-six to forty days. Occasionally the nest is left by all the birds
in the middle of the day, the heat of the sun being then sufficient to keep the eggs at the proper
temperature. *-
A tº
As to the passage in the Book of Job (xxxix. 14), it may be remarked that within the torrid
zone the heat of the sun's rays renders the incubation of the female unnecessary, excepting, perhaps, at
night; but in the cooler latitudes she is assiduous in performing the maternal office. In Caffraria,
the Rev. J. Broadbent, on approaching an ostrich's nest, remarks:—“We saw the female sitting
upon it; and though she had been disturbed before by the Hottentot, she remained till we were very
near, and then ran off at the report of two guns which were fired. The ground was sandy for several
miles round, and covered with thinly scattered bushes. There lay a great number of loose ostrich
* Ortyx Cubensis. ºf Eupsychortyx cristatus. + Callipepla Califo.nica.
$ Strutuionidae. | Struthio camelus : Linnaeus.
THE OSTRICH, 3.25
feathers about the nest, which appeared to have come off the female while sitting, and she had the
naked appearance which domestic fowls have at such times. - .
“The eggs were forty-two in number, and were arranged with great apparent exactness. Those
which were in the circle we found to be quite fresh, at which I expressed my surprise. The Hottentot
informed me that these had been provided for the ostrich against the hatching of those in the middle,
when she would break them, one after another, and give them to her young ones for food; and that
§§§
§§§
º
§
ſ
f
d of in this manner, the young ostriches would be able to go abroad
by the time they were all dispose
r themselves such things as the desert afforded. This fact affords a
with their mother, and provide fo
fine instance of animal instinct.”
An ostrich egg is considered as equal in its contents to twenty-four of the domestic hen. When
taken fresh from the nest they are very palatable, and are wholesome, though somewhat heavy food.
The best mode of cooking them is that practised by the Hottentots, who place one end of the egg in the
hot ashes, and, making a small orifice in the other, keep stirring the contents with a bit of stick

826 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
till they are sufficiently roasted; and then, with a seasoning of salt and pepper, there is a very nice
omelette.
The ostrich of South Africa is a prudent and wary bird, and displays but little of the stupidity
charged upon it by some naturalists. On the borders of the Cape colony, at least, where it is eagerly
pursued for the sake of its valuable plumage, the ostrich discovers no want of sagacity in providing for
its own safety or the security of its young. It adopts every possible precaution to conceal the place of .
its nest, and uniformly abandons it, after destroying the eggs, if it perceives that they have been
disturbed, or the footsteps of man have been discovered near it. In relieving each other in hatching,
the birds are said to be careful not to be seen together at the nest, and are never observed to approach
it in a direct line. sº
Though the ostrich is generally admitted to go faster than the swiftest horse, yet the Arabs on
horseback contrive to run these birds down, their feathers being valuable, and their flesh not to be
despised. The best horses are trained for this chase. When the hunter has started his game, he puts
his horse on a gentle gallop, so as to keep the ostrich in sight, without coming too near to alarm it and
put it to its full speed.
On finding itself pursued, the bird begins to run at first but gently; its wings, like two arms
keeping alternate motion with its feet. It seldom runs in a direct line, but, like the hare, doubles, or
rather courses, in a circular manner; while the hunters, taking the diameter, or tracing a smaller
circle, meet the bird at unexpected turns, and with less fatigue to the horses. This chase is often
continued for a day or two, when the poor ostrich is starved out and exhausted, and finding all power
of escape impossible, it endeavours to hide itself from the enemies it cannot avoid, running into some
thicket, or burying its head in the sand; the hunters then rush in at full speed, leading as much as
possible against the wind, and kill the birds with clubs, lest the feathers should be soiled with blood.
M. Adamson saw two tame ostriches, which had been kept two years at the factory of Podor, on
the south bank of the Niger. He says:–“They were so tame that two little blacks mounted both
together on the back of the largest ; no sooner did he feel their weight, than he began to run as fast as
ever he could, till he carried them several times round the village; and it was impossible to stop him,
otherwise than by obstructing the passage. rº.
“This sight pleased me so well, that I would have it repeated; and, to try their strength, I made
a full-grown negro mount the smallest and two others the largest. This burden did not seem to me at
all disproportioned to their strength. At first they went at a moderate gallop; when they were heated
a little they expanded their wings, as if it were to catch the wind, and they moved with such fleetness
that they seemed to be off the ground. Everybody must, some time or other, have seen a partridge
run, consequently must know that there is no man whatever able to keep up with it; and it is easy to
imagine, if this bird had a longer step, its speed would be considerably augmented. The ostrich moves
like the partridge, with both these advantages; and I am satisfied that those I am speaking of would
have distanced the fleetest race-horses that were ever bred in England. It is true, they would not hold
out so long as a horse; but, without all doubt, they would be able to perform the race in less time.
I have frequently beheld this sight, which is capable of giving one an idea of the prodigious strength of
an ostrich, and of showing what use it might be made of, had we but the method of breaking it and
managing it as we do a horse.”
The foot of the ostrich is not a little remarkable. It is divided into two toes only, and each toe,
well padded beneath, is armed at the extremity with what may properly be called a hoof. The whole
strongly resembles the foot of the camel. In the noble gallery of the British Museum, there is a fine
and well-preserved series of young ostriches; but not the slightest trace of a nail is observable on the
external toe of any of them, any more than on that of the adult bird.
Another point of resemblance between the quadruped and the bird may also be mentioned. The
camel has a callous naked protuberance on the chest, on which, when reposing, the animal throws a
great portion of the weight of the body. This protuberance occurs in the ostrich. *
The flesh of the ostrich, when young, is good and palatable, and the eggs are considered a great
delicacy. Both Europeans and natives agree in this last opinion. The Hottentot—who abstracts the
egg from the nest with a long stick, that the hen may not take alarm at the human touch, and not
abandon the nest, but go on laying, as the common hen will do to a great extent when her nest is
32
THE CASSOWARY.

THE OSTRICH. 327
robbed—buries them in hot ashes. They are said to be excellent when eaten with a sufficient quantity
of butter. The brains of hundreds of these birds not unfrequently made a dish at the insane Roman
suppers; and Firmus is said to have eaten a whole ostrich at a meal. The flesh of this bird was
prohibited by the Mosaical law as unclean, and the Arabs regard it in the same light; but many of
FUOT OF THE OSTRICH. FOOT OF THE CAMEL.
A.
the barbarous tribes in the interior of Africa feed on it without scruple. The well-known plumes form
a material article of commerce for the head-dresses of European and other ladies.
Another division of this family” presents some marked differences from the preceding. Here the
bill is straight, carinated above, rounded and bent at the point; the upper mandible slightly vaulted,
the edges depressed, and notched or jagged towards the extremity; the lower mandible rather angular
below, towards the point ; the nasal fossae nearly as long as the bill; the head is helmeted; the front
of the neck is naked, and furnished with two wattles; the toes are three; the wings are entirely unfit
for flight, and furnished with five rounded, naked, pointed quills.
THE EMEU.f
THE Emeu seems to have been unknown in Europe until the sixteenth century, when the Dutch, on
their return from their first voyage to India, brought one from the island of Java. This bird was
given them by the reigning prince. For a considerable time it was exhibited at Amsterdam for money;
it was then sold to the Count de Solms, who gave it to the Elector of Cologne, and by him it was
presented to the Emperor of Germany. In the course of the ensuing six years, the Dutch merchants
shipped two others from the same place, but both of these died on the voyage. In the year 1671 an
emeu was sent by the Governor of Madagascar to the King of France, which was kept alive for four
years in the royal menagerie at Versailles. Since that period these birds have been frequently brought
into Europe, and as they bear its climate well, they are to be found in various places.
The head of the emeu is surmounted with a bony prominence, covered with a horny substance; the
skin of the head and the upper part of the neck are naked, and tinged with cerulean blue and flame.
colour; the bird has pendent wattles, like those of the turkey-cock; the wings are furnished with some
stiff, featherless quills; and the nail of the internal toe is much the strongest. “It is,” says Cuvier,
“the largest of the birds after the ostrich, from which it differs sufficiently in its anatomy, for it has
short intestines and small coeca, wants the intermediate stomach between the crop and the gizzard, and
its cloaca does not exceed that of other birds in proportion.” Its height, when erect, is about five feet.
This species is characterised by Lesson as “stupid and massive;” and he says it feeds on seeds and
herbage. Bontius considers that it ought not to be classed among birds, because the wings it has are
calculated to aid in running, not in flight. He states that, when irritated, the bird does not rush
orward to the attack, but turns itself obliquely, kicking backwards at the enemy. Cuvier observes,
that the featherless quills serve the emeu for offensive weapons. Bontius remarks, that the eggs are
* Casuarius. + Casuarius Emeu.

328 CASSEIIL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
very different from those of the ostrich, by reason of their thinness and colour; for their shell is
greenish, ornamented with numerous tubercles of a deeper green.
The emeu is found in the peninsula of Malacca, and the great chain of islands to the south and east.
Bontius notes it from Ceram and the other neighbouring Molucca islands. And, according to Lesson,
it is very common in the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago, and especially at New Guinea. Cuvier
relates that the bird lays a small number of green eggs, which it abandons to the heat of the climate.
THE CAssow ARY."
THIs bird is stated by travellers to attain a height of more than seven feet, and its average in captivity
may be estimated at between five and six. In form it closely resembles the ostrich, but is lower in the
legs, shorter in the neck, and of a more thick-set and clumsy make. At a distance, its feathers have
more the appearance of hair than of plumage.
In a state of nature, this bird is very fleet, and affords much sport in coursing with dogs, which
are, however, shy of their game, in consequence of the painful kicks which the bird can inflict. So
powerful are they, according to the settlers, that the bird can break a man's leg by striking out with
its feet. Well-trained dogs, therefore, to avoid this infliction, run up abreast, and make a sudden spring
at the neck of the bird.
Though the Cassowary has bred so frequently in captivity, the mode of making the nest in the
wild state does not appear to be well known. It is generally supposed to be a mere hollow excavated
in the earth. The dark green eggs are six or seven in number. The birds appear to be tolerably
constant in pairing, and the male bird sits and hatches the young, whilst the female watches and guards
the nest.
These birds will take water. Captain Sturt, when descending the Murrumbidgee, in Australia,
saw two of them in the act of swimming. They appear to be gregarious, and not very shy in some
localities. Major Mitchell, in his excursion towards Port Phillip, found them very numerous on the
open downs, and their curiosity brought them to stare at the horses of the party, apparently uncon-
scious of the presence of the riders. In one flock he counted thirty-nine, and they came so near, that
the traveller, having no rifle with him, discharged a pistol at them, but without effect.
The body of the cassowary is very heavy; and its wings are so short that it has no power to raise
itself from the ground in flight. The quills of which the wings are composed are five in number; they
are strong, distinct from each other, and without barbs. The beak is about five inches long, of a very
hard substance, and somewhat curved. There is a bony protuberance, covered with horn, and of a
blackish-brown colour, on the top of the head. The skin of the head and neck is entirely naked; it
is of a fine blue colour above and red below. On each side of the front of the neck hangs a long, light
blue wattle. The body is covered with black feathers, which, at a little distance, appear like hairs.
So long are those on the hinder part of the back, that they entirely conceal the tail. The thighs are
covered with feathers, almost to the knees. The legs are remarkably stout; the toes of each foot are
only three in number ; and the nail of each internal toe is about twice the length of any of the others.
A cassowary that was kept, some years ago, in the menagerie at Paris, devoured every day between
three and four pounds weight of bread, six or seven apples, and a bunch of carrots. All its food was
swallowed without being bruised. In summer it drank about four pints of water in the day, and
in winter somewhat more. -
This bird was sometimes ill-tempered and mischievous. It was greatly irritated when any person
approached it dressed in red clothes, or of a dirty and ragged appearance; and it frequently attempted
to strike them by kicking forwards with one of its feet. It has been known even to leap out of its
inclosure, and to tear the legs of a man with its claws.
A cassowary, at the same time, in Exeter Change, could not be regarded as an ill-tempered bird. ‘It
was driven many times out of its cage, every day, by its keeper, for the inspection of visitors. It ran
without any apparent concern, for some time, about the room, and allowed even strangers to handle it
without any resistance; and after a while it returned quietly to its cage.
Ordinarily this bird appears to be dull; and its disagreeable voice and hard black flesh offer no
* Dromaius Novae Hollandia.
TIIL CASSUWAIRY.
138
III,
WOL.

330 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
compensation for the cost of rearing and supporting it. The wild cassowary feeds on fruits, tender
roots, and occasionally on the young of small animals. The tame ones which have appeared in our
Zoological Gardens are fed not only on fruits, but on bread, of which each one receives about four
pounds a-day.
These birds run very swiftly, and often outstrip the fleetest horses. They resist dogs by dealing
them very severe blows with their feet. The male bird generally leaves his mate to the cares of
incubation, which are required only at night; for, during the day, the three grayish eggs, spotted with
green, are exposed to the vivifying heat of the sun, being slightly covered with sand in the hole where
they were laid. In captivity, their incubation lasts eight-and-twenty days.
There appears to be but little difference in colour between the two sexes; but the young, on first
quitting the shell, have a much more elegant livery. A brood of these birds was hatched, some years
ago, in the Zoological Gardens in the Regent's Park. Their ground colour was grayish-white, marked
with two longitudinal broad black stripes along the back, and two similar ones on either side, each
sub-divided by a narrow middle line of white. These stripes were continued along the neck without
sub-division, and were broken on the head into irregular spots. Two other broken stripes passed down
the fore part of the neck and breast, and terminated in a broad band passing on either side across the
thighs. The bill and legs were of a dusky hue, as in the fully-grown bird. The young bird has not
the helmet of the adults, and his plumes are of a light red colour, mixed with gray.
TEIE APTERIX.*
THIs is an exceedingly curious bird. In 1812 Captain Barclay, of the ship “Providence,” brought a
specimen from New Zealand, and presented it to Dr. Shaw. On the death of that eminent man it
==S-
--
Sºº-º-
THE APTERIX.
came into possession of the late Earl of Derby, the president of the Zoological Society of London,
distinguished for his munificent patronage of zoology, and for his beautiful and valuable collection,
both of living animals and preserved birds. Since that time several specimens have been procured,
and its anatomy carefully studied.
* Apterix Australis.

THE APTERIX. - 331
Though the Apterix has no wings, yet there are small members growing out of the part of the
body from which the wings of birds arise. The feathers are soft and flexible, and furnished with
extremely fine hair, so that the covering of the Apterix has, at a distance, exactly the appearance of
coarse fur.
The length from the point of the bill to the end of the tail-less body is about thirty-two inches;
but the bill varies greatly in length, and it is supposed that the female has the longer bill. It appears
that worms, insects, and probably snails, are the food of this species.
º
ºt." ſ
-
* ,
THE MOORUR.
Mr. Gould has become acquainted with several specimens of this bird. He states that its favourite
localities are those covered with extensive and dense beds of fern, amongst which it conceals itself, and
when hard pursued by dogs, the usual mode of chasing it, it takes refuge in the crevices of rocks, hollow
trees, and the deep holes which it excavates in the ground in the form of a chamber. In these latter
situations it is said to construct its nest of dried ferns and grasses, and there deposits its eggs.
This bird is called “Kiwi” by the natives of New Zealand, who hunt it for the sake of its flesh,




332 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
of which they are extremely fond. Until the approach of night it buries itself in the recesses of the
forests, and then ventures forth, in couples, in search of food, which they discover in darkness with the
greatest ease. The cry of this bird resembles the sound of a whistle, and it is by imitating this that
the hunters are able to take it. Sometimes it is chased by dogs, and at others secured by suddenly
coming upon it with a lighted torch, when it makes no attempt at flight.
THE MOORUK.º
THE Mooruk is a species of Cassowary. One was procured by Dr. Bennett from the natives of New
Britain, an island in the South Pacific Ocean, near to New Guinea, where it is known by that name.
Its height was three feet to the top of the back, and five feet when standing erect; its colour was
rufous, mixed with black on the back and hinder portions of the body, and raven-black about the neck
and breast; the loose, wavy skin on the neck being beautifully coloured with iridescent tints of bluish
purple, pink, and an occasional shade of green. It had a horny plate on the top of the head, resembling
mother-of-pearl darkened with blacklead; and behind this was a small tuft of black, hair-like feathers,
continued, in more or less abundance, over the greater part of the neck. The bird was very tame and
familiar, and, when in a good humour, frequently danced about its place of confinement. It was fed
on boiled potatoes, and occasionally on meat. The bird appeared to Dr. Bennett to approximate
nearer to the emeu than to the cassowary, and to form the link between them.
THE DODO.
THE visitors of the British Museum were, some years ago, accustomed to glance at the representation
of a bird, the gift of Mr. George Edwards, which he thus describes —"The original picture from
which this print of the Dodo is engraved, was drawn in Holland, from the living bird, brought from
St. Maurice's Island, in the East Indies, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. This picture was the
property of the late Sir Hans Sloane to the time of his death; and afterwards becoming my property,
I deposited it in the British Museum, as a great curiosity. The above history of the picture I had
from Sir Hans Sloane, and the late Dr. Mortimer, Secretary of the Royal Society.”
Were this the only evidence that could be adduced, it would be more easy to suppose that the
artist had invented the picture than that a species of birds should have become extinct in so short a
space of time. But there are three other representations of the dodo in very early printed books, and
they are evidently not copied from one another, though they all agree in representing the animal with
a sort of hood on the head, the eye placed in a bare skin extending to the beak, the curved and swelling
neck, the short heavy body, the small wings, the stumpy legs and diverted claws, and the tuft of rump
feathers. - -
Hubert thus describes the bird in his “Travels;”—“The dodo comes first to our description:
here, and in Dygarrois (and nowhere else, that ever I could see or hear of, is generated the dodo ; a
Portuguese name it is, and has reference to her simpleness); a bird which, for shape and rareness, might
be called a phoenix (wer’t in Arabia); her body is round and extreame fat, her slow pace begets that
corpulencie; few of them weigh less than fifty pound: better to the eye than the stomak : greasy
appetites might, perhaps, commend them, but to the indifferently curious nourishment but proves
offensive. Let's take her picture: her visage darts forth melancholy, as sensible of Nature's injurie in
framing so great and massive a body to be directed by such small and complementall wings, as are
unable to poise her from the ground, serving only to prove her a bird, which otherwise might be
doubted of; her head is variously drest, the one halfe hooded with downy blackish feathers, the other
perfectly naked, of a whitish hue, as if a transparent lawne had covered it; her bill is very hooked.
and bends downwards; the thrill, or breathing place, is in the midst of it, from which part to the end
the colour is a light green, mixt with a pale yellow; her eyes be round and small, and bright as
diamonds; her cloathing is of finest downe, such as you see in goslins; her trayne is, like a China
beard, of three or four short feathers; her legs thick, and black, and strong; her tallons, or pouncers,
sharp ; her stomak fiery hot, so as stones and iron are easily digested in it, and, in that shape, not a
* Casuarius Bennetti.
TIIE DODO. 3:23
little resembling the Africk ostriches; but so much, as for their more certain difference, I dare to give
thee (with two others) her representation.”
There are several details in this description, such as the digestive powers of the stomach, which are
doubtless inaccurate; but the more important particulars entirely accord with other evidence.
The bird in question, from every account which we have of its economy, and from the appearance
of its head and foot, is decidedly gallinaceous; and from the insufficiency of its wings for the purposes
of flight, it may with equal certainty be pronounced to be of the struthious structure, and referable to
the present family. But the foot has a strong hind toe, and, with the exception of its being more
robust—in which character it still adheres to the Struthionidae—it corresponds exactly with the foot of
THE DODO.
the Linnaean genus Craz, that commences the succeeding family. The bird thus becomes osculant, and
forms a strong point of junction between these two conterminous groups; which, though evidently
approaching each other in general points of similitude, would not exhibit that intimate bond of
connection which we have seen to prevail almost uniformly throughout the neighbouring sub-divisions
of Nature, were it not for the intervention of this important genus. -
Thus the existence of the dodo is placed beyond all doubt. It appears that there is a general
impression among the people of the Mauritius, that this bird did exist at Rodriguez, as well as in the
Mauritius itself; but the oldest inhabitants never saw it, nor has a single specimen been preserved by
them.
With this bird we conclude our account of the GALLINæ, often called the Rasoises, or Rasorial,
Birds.



:
-
#
º
#
W.A. D. IN G B I R D S. *
“THE habits and manners of birds,” says Buffon, “are not so free as might be supposed; their conduct
is not the result of a freedom of will or choice, but a necessary effect derived from the conformation,
the organisation, and the exercise of their physical faculties. Determined and fixed, each in the
manner of life which this necessity imposes, none attempt to infringe it, and none can withdraw
themselves from its influence. It is by this necessity, as varied as is the structure of animated bodies,
that all the districts of Nature are peopled. The eagle quits not the rock, nor the heron the shore;
the one drops from his airy height to carry off or tear the lamb, by no right but that of power, and by
no means but those of violence; the other, with his feet sunk in mire, awaits, at the command of
necessity, the passage of his fugitive prey. The woodpecker never abandons the trunks of trees, round
which he is ordained to creep; the snipe must remain in his marshes; the lark in his furrows; the
singing-birds in their groves. Do we not observe all granivorous birds search out inhabited countries,
and follow the track of cultivation; while, on the contrary, those which prefer berries and wild fruits
invariably shun the footsteps of man, and in the dense wood, or on the solitary mountain steep, bide
alone with Nature, which has dictated the laws they shall obey, and furnished them with the means of
such obedience? She it is who retains the wood-hen beneath the thick foliage of the fir-tree; the solitary
blackbird (turdus merula) in the rock; the loriet in the forest, that re-echoes to his cries; while the
bustard haunts the dry fallow land, and the rail the humid meadow. These are the eternal, immutable
decrees of Nature, as permanent as the forms of her productions. These are her grand and rightful
properties, which she never yields nor abandons, even in things which wo imagine we have ourselves
appropriated altogether; for, let us have acquired them how we may, they are not the less under her
dominion. Has she not, for example, quartered upon us such troublesome guests as the rat in our
houses, the swallow under our windows, and the sparrow beneath our roofs? And when she calls the
stork to the summit of the ruined tower, within whose walls the night-bird has already taken up his
abode, does she not seem hastening to resume the possessions which we have usurped for a period, but
which she has commissioned the resistless hand of Time to restore to her domain?”
In this enumeration, Buffon has included some of the Wading Birds, which strikingly illustrate
the observations he makes. The structure and general conformation of this great family admirably
* Grallatores.





WADING BIRDS, 335
adapt them to the local situation appointed for them, and the nature of their food. The woods, the
hills, and the verdant plains are not their portion, neither is the sea, nor the larger rivers and lakes,
on the surface of which, far away from the shore, so many revel in a congenial element; but theirs
are the swamp, and the morass, and the low and oozy lands which border the sea and its petty creeks
and inlets. Here they find their food, which consist of the smaller fishes, reptiles, snails, insects, and
water-plants. Their legs are accordingly of great length, the thighs often bare of feathers for a
THE COMMON. CRANE.
considerable distance, and the toes either long and spreading, or partially webbed; many, if necessity
requires, can swim, and some few swim and dive with great dexterity.
In proportion to the length of their legs is that of the neck, or at least generally so; and where
the neck does not bear a due relative proportion, its length is usually made up by that of the beak;
but in many, as the stork or the heron, we find both the neck and the beak equally elongated. In the
structure of the beak the wading birds offer much variety, according to the particular nature of the
food to be obtained. In many it is long, powerful, and pointed; in others, broad and rounded; and
again, in others soft and pulpy at the tip, and supplied with nerves, so as to perform the office of a

336 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
feeler when inserted into the oozy mud in search of minute insects or seeds. Thus the heron, the
spoonbill, the oyster-catcher, and the woodcock, afford examples by way of contrast, in each of which
we find this organ so modified as to be consonant to the nature and habits of its possessor.
The order Grallatores is very extensive, and includes a vast assemblage of subordinate groups.
Besides those on the border-line, it comprehends cranes, storks, herons, ibises, plovers, snipes, sandpipers,
and very many more. Our limits will therefore allow only of a general outline, illustrated by some of
the best examples, that the main and distinguished features of the whole may be clearly understood.
Nor should it be overlooked, that whatever attraction these birds may present to the scientific
ornithologist, they are highly interesting to all who love the study of Nature. The very place
they occupy is peculiarly worthy of consideration, as here we may obtain a distinct view of the system
that prevails throughout the regions of animated beings. For here may be observed birds which link
together the Grallatores with some of the Gallinae, while others are united with the Natatores, the
swimming order of birds, which we shall subsequently contemplate.
One family of wading birds includes those known by the name of Cranes.”
THE COMMON CRANE.4
THE Common Crane is a large bird, measuring upwards-of five feet in length. The plumage is, in
general, ash-coloured, but the forehead is black; the sides of the head, behind the eyes, and the hind
part of the neck, are white; on the upper part of the neck there is a bare ash-coloured space of two
inches; and above this the skin is naked and red, with a few scattered hairs. Some parts about the
wings are blackish. From the pinion of each wing springs an elegant tuft of loose feathers, curled at
the ends, which can be erected at will, but which, when quiescent, hangs over and covers the tail. The
legs are black. &
This species is found in numerous flocks, in the northern parts of Europe. It is stated by Mr.
Nilsson that the crane is seen in Sweden in spring and autumn, and that it goes to the marshes of
Scania to breed. Linnaeus describes their appearance in Lapland, and Pennant says they also visit
Russia and Siberia. ** *
The nest of the crane is made among long herbage, reeds, and the luxuriant vegetation of swampy
tracts, and sometimes on insulated ruins. Two eggs are laid, of a pale dull-greenish colour, blotched
with brown. The food of this bird consists not only of grain and vegetables, but worms, frogs, and
snails. Cranes are said to make great havoc in the coru when it is green. Of their migration
Milton says:–
&
“Part loosely wing the region; part, more wise,
In common, ranged in figure, wedge their way,
Intelligent of seasons; and set forth
Their airy caravan; high over seas
Flying, and over lands with mutual wing
Easing their flight: so steers the prudent crane
Her annual voyage, borne on winds; the air
Floats as they pass, fanned with unnumbered plumes.”
Flocks of these birds are seen, at stated times, according to Mr. Gould, in France and Germany,
passing northwards and southwards, as the season may be, in marshalled order, high in the air, their
sonorous voices distinctly heard even from their elevated course. Occasionally they descend, attracted
by newly-sown fields, or the prospect of finding food in marshes, on the borders of rivers, or even the
shores of the sea; but generally they continue their flight unchecked towards their destinod resting-
laces.
p Willughby says:– “The flesh is very savoury and well. tasted, not to say delicate;” and indeed
it seems to have been highly prized in former days. Pegge says, in his “Form of Curey :”—“William
the Conqueror was remarkable for an immense paunch, and withal was so exact, so nice and curious in
his repasts, that when his prime favourite, William Fitz Osborne, who, as dapifer or steward of his
household, had the charge of the curey, served him with the flesh of a crane Scarcely half roasted, the
king was so highly exasperated, that he lifted up his fist, and would have struck him, had not Eudo,
* Gruidae, + Grus cinerea,
THE COMMON CRANE. 337
who was appointed dapifer immediately after, warded off the blow.” At the enthronisation of George
Newell, an English archbishop, 204 cranes were served; and in the “Northumberland House-
hold Book,” the price of the crane (cranys) is marked sixteen pence. At some ancient marriage-
feasts, also, one of the items in the first is, “9 cranes, every crane three shillings and fourpence ;”
and in the second we find, “Item for a standert, cranes 2 of a dish,” for the second course ; and in the
expenses we find, “Item in cranes, 9 . . £0 30s. 0d.” The long drooping feathers of cranes are
valuable as plumes.
THE CROWNED CRANE.”
THIs bird is considerably larger than the demoiselle crane, and though less graceful in form and attitude
it is far more elegant in the varied colours of its plumage. It measures, when fully grown, about four
.*
- THE CROWNED CRANE,
feet in total height. The cheeks and temples are entirely naked, and are covered with a bright roºy
red, which sometimes overspreads the whole of the naked surface, and sometimes is confined to a
portion of it. A similar naked space beneath the upper part of the throat is gradually developed, and
terminates in a fold of skin resembling the wattle of a turkey. A close tuft of short, smooth, even,
velvety, deep-black feathers covers the fore part of the head, and behind them rises a very remarkable
crest, each filament of which is twisted spirally on itself, is fringed along its edges with a series of black-
- pointed hairs, and terminates in a blackish
pencil. The bill, legs, and feet are of a dusky-
black. The iris is remarkable for being al-
most destitute of colour.
The voice of the crane—and the remark
applies more or less to the whol family—
may be heard while the bird is out of sight,
its being singularly loud and sonorous. The
peculiarity, in this instance, consists in con-
volutions of the trachea before entering the
chest, Thus, as the engravings will show,
Rºº-º-º: the trachea, instead of going directly into the
SECTION OF THE STERNUM OF THE DEMOISELLE CRANE, chest, enters 3, large cavi ty between the two
* Ardea pavonina.
VOI,.. III. 139


338 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
plates forming the keel of the breast-bone, and is there doubly reflected before it emerges and ascends to
pass into the chest.
The first represents the breast-bone and trachea of the young demoiselle crane. Here the tube F,
quitting the neck, passes between the branches of the merry thought (furcula), A, to the inner edge of
the keel of the breast-bone, B B, which is grooved to admit the fold. In this groove the fold of the
trachea is bound by the cellular membrane :
at the point c a small portion of the bone is
sawed away to show the depth of the groove
which receives the trachea. d is the inferior
larynx.
The following engraving exhibits the
trachea in the common crane, running a con-
voluted course in a cavity in the substance
of the keel of the breast-bone, between the
two plates comprising it, one of which is cut
partially away to expose the course of the tube.
In this, as in the preceding, the furculum, A, is
not, as in most birds, a distinct bone, but is SECTION OF THE STERNUM OF THE COMMON CRANE,
solidly united to the keel of the breast-bone, B.
THE DEMOISELLE.”
THE elegant species to which the name of Demoiselle was given by the French Academicians, is
remarkable for its graceful symmetry of form, the tasteful disposition of its plumage, and the agreeable
THE DEMoisel, L.E.
contrast of its lighter and darker shades of colour. It measures, when fully grown and in an upright
position, about three feet six inches to the top of the head; and its length, from the point of the bill to
the tip of the tail, is about three feet.
Of these measurements, the neck and legs form a very considerable proportion. The whole of the
upper surface of the head is occupied by a patch of light gray; and the sides of it, together with the
neck, including the long slender-pointed feathers which depend from its lower part over the breast, are
* Anthropoides virgo; Vieillot.


THE DEMOISELLE. 339
º
º
THE MANTCHOURIAN CRANE.
of a uniform, but not very intense, shade of black. A tuft of pure white feathers passes off backwards
Except the outer halves of the quill-feathers of the wings and tail, the rest of
from behind each eye.
the plumage is of a slaty-gray. When the wings are folded, the secondary quill-feathers form on either

340 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY. -
side of the body a tuft of dependent plumes, curving downwards. The outer halves of all the quill
feathers are of a dusky-black.
Like the cranes in general, the demoiselle is migratory in its habits. It is a native of Africa. It
extends along the Mediterranean and western coasts from Egypt to Guinea, but is most abundant in
the neighbourhood of Tripoli, and throughout the neighbouring region. It arrives in Egypt in con-
siderable numbers, at the time of the inundation of the Nile, and appears in Constantinople in the
month of October, being then probably on its passage from the Black Sea towards the south. It is also
stated to have been met with at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the interior of Africa.
This beautiful bird has frequently been brought into England, the climate of which it bears
extremely well. It soon becomes familiarised. Several fine specimens are in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society. In France it has bred in captivity; some of the young birds live for twenty-four
years.
THE MANTCHOURIAN CRANE,%
THE locality of this bird, formerly supposed to be Japan, is now known positively to be the country
north of Pekin. M. de Montigny took some specimens to Paris, on his return from China, in 1854,
and these have not only continued in health, but for three successive seasons a nest has been made, and
the young hatched.
Sir John Bowring sent a pair of these favourite birds of the Chinese to Her Majesty the Queen,
which, after living in the Royal collection for some years, were graciously presented to the Zoological
Society in 1857, and in these gardens may, at any time, be seen.
Another family't contains many groups, varying from each other in certain details, but all agreeing
in general characteristics. They are strictly carnivorous, living on fish and reptiles, which frequent the
borders of lakes or marshes. Essentially formed for wading, their limbs and neck are long, but the
beak varies considerably, according to the manner in which the food is to be obtained. The toes are
generally long and slender, so as to cover a wide area, and thus keep the bird from sinking into the
oozy mud; and the inner edge of the claw of the middle toe is mostly pectinated.
\
TIII. HERONS.
THE Herons are to be found in all quarters of the globe, but they seldom occur in very cold regions.
The bill of these birds is much longer than the head, as large as it is high, or larger, at the base; the
upper mandible is nearly straight. So it is with the Scopolaceous Heron.:
The common heron, whether male or female, after the third year, has long, loose, black feathers
on the back of the head; similar plumes of a lustrous white depend from the lower part of the neck ;
the equally elongated and subulate scapulars are of a silvery ash. The forehead, neck, middle of the
belly, and border of the wings and thighs are of a pure white; the occiput sides of the breast and
flanks are deep black. On the front of the neck are large longitudinal black and ash spots. The back
and wings are very pure bluish ash; the bill is a deep yellow; the iris yellow ; the naked skin
of the eye bluish purple; the feet are brown, but of a lively red towards the feathered part. The
length is three feet and upwards.
Deadly feuds sometimes take place between the herons and the rooks, arising in a dispute for the
possession of the nest-trees. One of them occurred at Dallam Tower, in Westmoreland, originating in
the felling of the fine old oaks occupied by the herons, and their consequent attempt upon the grove in
the tenure of the rooks. The herons had the best of the fray for two successive seasons, and at length
a sort of peace was made between the two combatants; the herons and the rooks severally setting up
their nest on a particular part of the now only remaining grove, and leaving the other moiety to their
former antagonists.
* Grus montignesia. + Ardeidae. w † Ardea helias: Linnaeus.
THE GREAT white HERON.” -
THIs tall and elegant bird principally inhabits the regions of the South, being found from Guiana, and
probably beyond the line, to New York. It enters the territories of the United States late in
February. The high inland parts it rarely or never visits; its favourite haunts being vast, inundated
swamps, rice-fields, the low, marshy shores of rivers, and similar places, where, from its size and colour,
it is very conspicuous, even at a great distance.
The appearance of the Great White Heron, during the first season, when it is entirely destitute of
the long flowing plumes of the back, is so different from that of the bird in its full plumage, which it
obtains in the third year, that naturalists and others generally consider them as two species.
This bird breeds in several of the extensive cedar-swamps in the lower parts of New Jersey.
Their nests are built in societies, on the trees. The eggs are usually four, of a pale-blue colour. In
THE scopo LACEOUS. I. ERON.
the months of July and August the young make their first appearance in the meadows and marshes, in
parties of twenty and thirty together. The large ditches with which the extensive meadows below
Philadelphia are intersected are, about that season, regularly visited by flocks of these birds; these
are frequently shot, but the old birds are too sagacious to be easily approached. Their food consists
of frogs, lizards, small fish, insects, seeds of the splatterdock (a species of nymphoe), and small
water-snakes.
The long plumes of these birds have, at various periods, been in great request in Europe,
particularly in France and Italy, for the purpose of adorning head-dresses.
Of Bitterns a genust has been formed, including several species. They differ from the herons in
building on the ground, among reeds, osiers, or the luxuriant vegetation of swamps, where they remain
concealed during the day.
*Ardea egretta. * Botaurus.

342 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE BITTERN.”
THE provincial English names of this bird, such as “Mere-drum,” and “Bull of the frog,” as well as
many of its foreign appellations, allude to the bellowing or drumming noise for which it is remarkable.
This deep note of the “hollow-sounding bittern” is heard at the breeding season, about February
or March.
As the day declines, the bittern leaves its haunts, and rising spirally, soars to a great height
in the twilight. Ordinarily it flies very heavily, like the heron, uttering from time to time a
resounding cry.
The Bustards, forming a separate genus,t live generally in open countries, preferring plains or
extensive downs dotted with low bushes and underwood, where an enemy may be descried from afar,
and from whence they can run with exceeding swiftness, using their wings, like the ostriches, to
accelerate their course. When they do take wing their flight is low, and they skim along the ground
writtºr herows
with a sufficiently sustained and rapid flight. Their food consists of vegetables, insects, worms, grain,
and seeds.
They are polygamous, one male sufficing for many females. It appears that the males in the
greatest number of species differ from the females in having extraordinary ornaments, and in possessing
a more variegated plumage. They are said to moult twice a-year. Their massy port, and the slightly
arched and vaulted upper mandible of the beak, and the little webs between the bases of their toes,
recall the form of the gallinaceous birds; but in other respects, as in the nudity of the lower part of the
legs, their whole anatomy, and even the flavour of their flesh, the differences are great and decisive.
THE GREAT BUSTARD !
THE Great Bustard is found in some provinces of France, and in parts of Germany and Italy. It is
cºmmon in Russia and Tartary. It is very abundant in some parts of Spain and Portugal, and it is
dispersed over the more temperate parts of Africa, but in England it is extinct.
* Botaurus stellaris. + Otis. † Otis tarda: Linnaeus.

THE LITTLE BUSTARD."
The favourite localities of this bird are the arid plains of Spain, Italy, and Turkey; it is also found-
though more sparingly—in the South of France; but in the northern parts of the Continent it is never
THE BITTERN.
seen. Its body is somewhat larger than that of a pheasant; and its manners and food are precisely
those of the great bustard,
THE ASIATIC BUSTARD.4
MR. Gould has given a magnificent representation of this bird, which was brought from the Highlands
of the Himalaya, but it is not confined to that locality Colonel Sykes observed it in the wide and
open country of the Mahrattas, where it lives in large flocks, and is considered one of the greatest
delicacies as an article of food. So abundant are they in the Deccan, that one gentleman shot nearly a
thousand of these birds.
* Otis tetrax. f Otis nigriceps.

84.1 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The length of the male bird of this species, inclusive of tail, is 56% inches. The female resembles
it in plumage, but is only 41 inches, including the tail. The male is furnished with the gular pouch.
Colonel Sykes found an egg in a hole in the earth on the open plain, and that considerably
advanced in the process of incubation. In shape it was a perfect oval; and in colour a brown olive,
with obscure blotches of darker brown olive.
AFRICAN BUSTARDS.
Le VAILLANT discovered one speciess inhabiting the Caffre country, and some parts of the colony of
the Cape of Good Hope.
Another species,t met with by Major Denham, near the larger towns, did not occur in any great
abundance. It frequented moist
places, wherethe herbage was pure
and fresh, and where it was taken
in snares by the natives for food.
It was almost invariably seen
singly, Major Denham only once
having observed a pair together.
It was always found in company
with gazelles. That gentleman
praises its large and brilliant
eyes. The Arabs are accustomed
to compare the eyes of their most
beautiful women to those of the
Oubara, which seems to be a
general name for the bustards of
Africa.
A third species was discovered
by Mr. Burchell, in South Africa,3:
which stood upwards of five feet
in height, and may be regarded
as the most gigantic development
of the four hitherto observed.
“We shot,” Mr. Burchell says, “a
large bird of the bustard kind,
which was called Wilde Paauw
(wild peacock). This name is here
very wrongly applied, as the bird
THE LITTLE Bustartly. - to which it properly belongs differs
from this in every respect. There are, indeed, three, or perhaps four, birds to which, in different
districts, this appellation is given. The present species, which is called Kori in the Sichuana language,
measured, in extent of wing, not less than seven feet, and in bulk and weight was almost greater than
some of the people could manage. The under part of the body was white, but the upper part was
covered with fine lines of black on a chestnut-coloured ground. The tail and quill-feathers partook of
the general colouring of the back; the shoulders were marked with º-sºº.
large blotches of black and white, and the top of the head was
black; the feathers of the occiput were elongated into a crest; those
of the neck were also elongated, loose, narrow, and pointed, and were
of a whitish colour, marked with numerous transverse lines of
black.”
The Otis Houbara inhabits the north of Africa, and appears oc-
casionally in Europe. It is remarkable for its crest.
The Storks form another genus,' characterised by a long, sharp, HEAD OF OTIS Hous ARA.
* Otis caerulescens. + Otis Denhami. it Otis kori. § Ciconia.


AFRICAN BUSTARDS. 345
powerful, cylindrical beak, unimpressed with furrows; a naked skin surrounding the eyes; long tarsi,
the toes before being united by a membrane as far as the first joint; short claws, without any trace
of pectinated edges; and ample rounded wings.
THE WHITE STORK.
THE White Stork generally stands from three feet and a half to four feet in height, including its neck.
The legs are exceedingly long, and do not appear sufficiently thick for the bulk they sustain; the feet
are webbed; the beak is straight, long, pointed, and compressed. The stork walks slowly, and with
measured steps; but its flight is powerful and long-continued, and it is accustomed to traverse the
higher regions of the air.
“Where the Rhine loses its majestic force
In Belgian plains—won from the raging deep
By diligence amazing, and the strong
Unconquering hand of Liberty–
The stork-assembly meets; for many a day
Consulting deep and various, ere they take
Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky.
And now, their route designed, their leaders chose,
Their tribes adjusted, clean'd their vigorous wings,
And many a circle, many a short essay,
Wheel'd round and round, in congregation full
The figur'd flight ascends, and, rising high
The aërial billows, mixes with the clouds."+
Storks are thus birds of passage. They
spend the winter in the deserts of Africa and
Arabia, and in summer return to towns and
villages in colderlatitudes, where they build their
nests on the summits of old towers and belfries,
on the chimneys of the highest houses, and some-
times in dead trees. In marshy districts, where
the services of the bird in destroying reptiles are
of great value, the people fix an old cart-wheel,
by the nave, in an horizontal position, to the
extremity of a long perpendicular pole—an ac-
commodation which seems so very eligible to
the birds, that they rarely fail to construct their TIE WI-ITE STOIº.
capacious habitation on such platforms.
The nest is a large cylindrical structure, built very strongly and durably with sticks, twigs, and
strong reeds, and lined on the inside with fine dry herbs, mosses, and down gathered from the bushes.
These fabrics last many years, and to them the faithful pairs annually direct their unerring course from
the far-distant regions, to deposit their eggs, and to rear their young.
There are several references in the Scriptures to the bird now under consideration. Thus one of
the inspired writers says, “As for the stork, the fir-tree is her house;" and it is stated by Doubdan
that the fields between Cana and Nazareth are covered by numerous flocks of them, each flock containin 9.
according to his computation, more than a thousand. In some parts the ground is entirely whitened
by them; and, on the wing, they darken the air as it is darkened by clouds. At the approach of
evening they retire to roost in the trees.
Jeremiah the prophet alludes to the annual migration of the stork. He speaks of it as “in the
heaven," expressing in this way the astonishing flight of this bird when she starts for distant regions
and the amazing height to which she soars. He says, also, that the stork “knoweth her appºinted
time." To this fact Shaw alludes, and states that for about the space of a fortnight before the ºil.
pass from one country to another, they “constantly resort together from all the circumjacent parts in .
certain plain; and there forming themselves, once every day, into a douwanne, or council, according to
-
* Ciconia alba. + Thomson.
WOL. III. 140


346 CASSELLPS POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
the phrase of Eastern nations, are said to determine the exact time of their departure, and the place of
their future abode.”
In Bagdad, and some other of the remote cities of Asiatic Turkey, the nests of storks present a
very remarkable appearance. The towers of the mosques at Constantinople, and most other parts of
Turkey, are tall round pillars, surmounted by a very pointed cone; but at Bagdad the absence of this
cone enables these birds to build their nests upon the summit; and as the diameter of the nest
generally corresponds with that of the tower, it appears as a part of it, and a regular termination to it.
The curious effect is not a little increased by the appearance of the bird itself in the nest, which thus,
as part of the body and its long neck are seen above the edge, appears the crowning object of the
pillar.
The Turks hold the bird in high esteem ; and the stork, in cities of mixed population, rarely or
never builds its nest on any other than a Turkish house. Thus, the Rev. J. Hartley remarks:—“The
Greeks have carried their antipathy to the Turks to such a pitch, that they have destroyed all the storks
in the country. On inquiring the reason, I was informed, ‘The stork is a Turkish bird; it never used
to build its nest on the house of a Greek, but always on that of a Turk.’ The tenderness which the
Turks display towards the feathered tribes is indeed a pleasing trait in their character.”
In all countries where the stork breeds, as in Holland, and Germany, it is protected, boxes being
provided on the tops of the houses; and in many continental cities it is deemed a favourable omen
for a man when a stork selects his roof as its periodical resting-place. Here it will remain for many
successive years, the sagacious tenants of the nest returning, from time to time, with unfailing precision.
The eggs vary, being not less than two, and rarely exceeding four. The female covers them with
the most tender solicitude, and will rather die than resign her charge. In the battle of Friedland, a
farm near the city was set on fire by the falling of a bomb, and the conflagration extended to an old
dry tree, on which a pair of storks had built their nest. It was then the season of incubation, and the
mother would not quit the nest until it was completely enveloped in flames. She then flew up per-
pendicularly, and when she had attained to a great height, dashed down into the midst of the fire, as if
endeavouring to rescue her beloved progeny from destruction. In one of these descents, enveloped in
fire and smoke, she fell into the midst of the burning embers and perished.
The most assiduous care in the rearing of the young succeeds to that of incubation. The parents
never lose sight of their brood. One remains in charge of the nest, while the other is abroad searching
for serpents, lizards, frogs, or snails. Their teaching the young in their first career through the air is
said to present an interesting spectacle.
A variety of passages may be gathered from the writings of the ancients, which show that they
regarded the stork as eminent for requiting its parents. Its name in the Hebrew language signifies
mercy, or piety; and its English name is taken, if not directly, yet secondarily through the Saxon, from
the Greek word storgē, which is often used in our language for natural affection.
“The stork's an emblem of true piety; His mother on his back, provides her food,
s Because, when age has seized and made his dam Repaying thus her tender care of him,
Unfit for flight, the grateful young one takes Ere he was fit to fly.”*
Burcherrode, a Dane, relates what he has seen, and that, it has been remarked, “without the
ornaments or the exaggeration of poetry and fable.” “Storks build,” he says, “in the prefecture of
Byderstede, in the southern part of Jutland; and men may be taught by looking upon them. In a
retired part of Eyderstede, some leagues from Toningen, towards the German Sea, there are clusters of
trees. Among these they build ; and if any creature comes near them in the nesting season, which
lasts near three months, they go out in a body to attack it. The peasants never hurt them, and they
are in no fear of them.
“The two parents guard and feed each brood, one always remaining on it, while the other goes
for food. ' They keep the young ones much longer in the nest than any other bird, and after they have
led them out of it by day, they bring them back at night; preserving it as their natural and proper
home."
“When they first take out the young, they practise them to fly; and they lead them to the
* Beaumont.
THE WHITE STORR. 347
marshes, and to the hedge-sides, pointing them out the frogs, and serpents, and lizards, which are their
proper food ; and they seek out toads, which they never eat, and take great pains to make the young
distinguish them. In the end of autumn, not being able to bear the winter of Denmark, they gather
in a great body about the sea-coasts, as we see swallows do, and go off together—the old ones leading
the young ones in the centre, and a second body of the old behind. They return in spring, and betake
themselves in families to their several nests. The people of Toningen and the neighbouring coasts
gather together to see them come; for they are superstitious, and form certain presages from the
-
- --- -
* - º -
- - - - - -
---, -º-º-º-º-º-
--- ~~~~--------
TIII. MAI-ALC-U sºon-
manner of their flight. At this time it is not uncommon to see several of the old birds, who are tired
and feeble with the long flight, supported at times on the backs of the young; and the peasants speak
of it as a certainty, that many of these are, when they return to their home, carefully laid in their old
nests, and cherished by the young ones which they reared with so much care the spring before.”
The stork is easily tamed, and may be trained to reside in gardens, which it will clear of reptiles
and insects. Though grave in its air, it may be roused by example into a certain degree of gaiety.



348 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
Hermann relates that he saw some children in a garden, playing at hide and seek: a tame stork joined
the party, ran its turn when touched, and distinguished the child whose turn it was to pursue the re
so well, as, along with the others, to be on its guard.
Another instance of sagacity has been recorded. A farmer, in the neighbourhood of Hamburg
brought into his poultry-yard a wild stork, to be the companion of a tame one which he had long kep
there; but the latter, disliking a rival, beat the wild one so cruelly that he was compelled to take wing,
and with some difficulty escaped. A few months afterwards, however, he returned to the poultry-yard,
attended by three other storks, when they all fell on the tame stork and killed him.
This stately bird, though a visitor of the continent of Europe, from the north of Spain to Prussia,
and particularly common in Holland, is rarely seen in England, except in zoological collections. It was
once, however, common; and one of the many evidences of the changes produced by the operations of
man is afforded in the extinction of the stork. One or two solitary storks have been shot in England
during the present century.
- TEIE MARABOU STORK.*
THE Marabou Stork appears to inhabit nearly the whole of tropical Africa. The plumes imported into
Europe are chiefly brought from Senegal. It greatly resembles the white stork in its habits, but
becomes still more familiar; and in consequence of its large size, it renders far more essential service in
removing carrion, offal, and other nuisances.
Smeatham gives an amusing description of a young marabou, which had been domesticated in
that part of Africa where he resided. This bird always took its place at dinner-time in the great hall,
behind its master's chair, where it remained in expectation of, as usual, sharing the meal. Though the
servants carried switches to protect the dishes from its attacks previously to the arrival of the guests,
yet, watching its opportunity, it would frequently snatch some favourite morsel before they were aware
of it. It has been known in this way to make a single mouthful of an entire boiled fowl. Permitted
to fly at large about the island, it roosted very high among the silk-cotton trees, from the tops of which,
even at the distance of two or three miles, it would espy the servants carrying the dishes across the
yard, and dash down among them as they entered the hall.
When sitting, it was observed always to rest itself on the whole length of the hind part of the leg.
It sometimes stood in the room for half an hour after dinner, turning its head alternately, as if listening
to the conversation.
It preyed on small quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, and though it would destroy poultry, it never
dared openly to attack a hen with her young ones. It had been known to swallow a cat whole; and
a bone of a shin of beef being broken served it for only two morsels.
Its courage was not equal to its voracity, for a child of eight or ten years old was able to put it to
flight ; though it would seem at first to stand on the defensive, by threatening with its enormous bill
widely extended, and crying out with a loud hoarse voice.
There are two other species of gigantic stork, or crane: the Adjutant, or Argala, of Bengal,t and a
Javanese species described by Dr. Horsfield.;
Another genus $ now comes under review.
THE COMMON SPOONBILL.I. ****
THE bills of the birds thus denominated are very long and strong, very much flattened, and having the
point very much dilated, and rounded into the form of a spoon, or spatula; the upper mandible is
channelled, and transversely furrowed at its base. Their feet are long and strong : three toes are
anteriorly united up to the second joint by membranes or webs; the posterior toe touches the ground.
The wings are moderate and ample; the first quill is nearly as long as the second, which is the longest.
These birds live in society in wooded marshes, generally not far from the mouths of rivers, and
are rarely seen on the sea-shore. Their food consists of small fishes, spawn, and small fluviatile
testaceous molluscs, as well as small reptiles and aquatic insects.
* Ciconia marabou: Wigors. + Ciconia argala. : Ciconia Javanica. § Platalea. | P. leucorodia.
THE COMMON SPOONBILL. 349
According to circumstances, they build their nests either in high trees, in bushes, or among rushes.
Their moult is simple and ordinary; but the young bird does not assume the confirmed livery of the
adult till the third year. º
The bill is gradually developed, and appears covered with a membrane. The creat makes its
appearance at the end of the second year. The differences between the sexes are only slightly marked.
These birds are distributed through Europe generally. Holland appears to be a principal place
for their summer meetings. Temminck states that the spoonbill has two periods of passage along the
maritime coasts, and that it journeys with the storks. As winter approaches, it migrates to more
... southern regions till the milder weather recalls it.
Mr. Bennett tells us that in winter it takes up its quarters in various parts of Africa, extending
southwards even to the Cape of Good Hope. It is rarely met with in inland countries, except on the
banks of the larger rivers; but it is by no means uncommon, during the season, on the coasts of the
great extent of country which it embraces in its visits.
In England it only appears occasionally. Pennant mentions a large flight which arrived in the
marshes near Yarmouth in April, 1774. Colonel Montagu describes it as sometimes seen during the
winter on the coast of South Devon, and mentions his receiving two specimens from that part of the
country, one in November, 1804, and the other in 1807. Mr. Yarrell records two specimens which
were shot in Lincolnshire in 1826.
The flesh of the spoonbill, when well fed and fat, is said to resemble in flavour that of a goose.
Another genus” has the bill strong, large, conical towards the point, and the upper mandible bent
at a sudden angle; the lower mandible the larger, and each having serrated edges; the tarsi very
long.
THE RED FLAMINGO.f
THE remarkable figure and proportions of this bird, as apparent in our engraving, at once indicate its
position among the wading birds. The neck is slender and of great length, equalling commonly that of
the feet. With a body less than that of a common goose, slender and tapering, it is thus adapted to
wade through shallows and morasses with great security. But as the Flamingo frequents the sea-coast
and the adjacent marshes, it has also the power of swimming, and its toes are partially webbed; and
thus it may fearlessly venture even beyond its depth, nor apprehend being carried away by the retiring
tide,
Its food consists of small fish, shells, and water insects, for the capture of which its beak is most
singularly constructed; in length it is nearly five inches; the upper mandible is bent downwards in
the middle, at an acute angle, as if broken, the space from the angle to the point.being a broad flat
plate, of a somewhat oval figure; the lower mandible, which is the larger, is so adjusted as to fit the
angle with its edges, its under surface being gently arched downwards. The edges of both mandibles
are furnished with a row of serrations, or tooth-like eminences, those of the upper being the larger.
The use of the mandibles is, like a strainer, allowing the water to pass through, but retaining any
small body, as an insect or a fish. In searching for food among the mud, at the bottom of waters, the
upper and not the under mandible is applied to the ground; the flat portion of its surface being well
adapted for pressing close down on the soft bed of the marsh or creek. Hence, in that situation, the
inferior mandible is placed uppermost, and by its motion works the disturbed and turbid water through
the two, as is seen in ducks and other aquatic birds. The tongue is large and fleshy, and the sense of
taste is probably acute.
The height of the flamingo, in its natural attitude, is about four feet. The first year, its livery is
of a grayish clouded white; the second, the white is purer, but the wings are tinted with a beautiful
rose-colour; in the third year it attains its full plumage. Its colour is then extremely rich and
brilliant, being of a fine deep scarlet on the back, and roseate on the wings, the quill-feathers of the
wings being jet black. The hues of the bird become more intense during succeeding years. A flock
of these tall and splendid birds, moving about on the sea-beach, with their plumage reflecting the
glowing rays of a tropical sun, is a spectacle never to be forgotten,
* Phoenicopterus. f Phoenicopterus ruber: Linnaeus.
350 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
This bird, known in Europe, has been seen everywhere on the African coast, and the adjacent
islands, quite to the Cape of Good Hope. Le Vaillant found thousands of them on the river Klein-
Brak, where the water is brackish, owing to the flowing of the tide. It has been occasionally observed
on the coasts of Spain, of Italy, and on those of France, which lie on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
rare and accidental in the neighbourhood of Rome; and it has been noticed in various parts of the
East. There is also an American species of flamingo.” º
*
THE JABIRU,
THE Jabiru is partial to salt-water creeks and lagoons. The beak is large, broad, comical, and pointed 5
the lower mandible is slightly curved upwards; its colour is black. The head is large, and neck thick;
both the head and neck are of a rich, deep glossy-green, changing, when it reaches the occiput, into
beautiful iridescent tints of violet and purple, which, when viewed under a bright sunshine, or in a
changing light, gleam with a metallic effulgence equal to that seen in the peacock. Dr. G. Bennett,t
to whom we are indebted for this account, describes a jabiru he had at Sydney. It permitted any one
to approach it, only moving away timidly when an attempt was made to touch it. It sometimes stood
quite erect, or on one leg, with the other thrown out ; or rested upon the tarsi, like the emeu and
mooruk, and again on one leg, with the bill inclined upon the breast. It greedily devoured 14 lb. of:
beef cut in small pieces, on its arrival, but it fed also on fish and reptiles. It picked up the smallest
object with great readiness, though its mandibles appear unwieldy, and clattered them together with a
loud noise when catching flies. When a tub of water was placed near it, it put one leg in it; and after
drinking, filled its mouth with water, and threw it out again, as if rinsing the mandibles. The eyes
were very large, and remarkably brilliant, and yet imparted great docility of expression, making it appear
—what it was—an amiable bird, familiar with all around it, and courting admiration, but on the watch
for any act of aggression. When suddenly startled, it would flap its long and powerful wings, as if
preparing for flight, for which its structure seemed well adapted, the whole bulk of the body being so light.
This bird was first placed in a yard where some poultry were kept ; he stared at the fowls, and
they ran away on his approach, although he did not make the least attempt to molest them; and when
striding round the yard, all the poultry fled before him, although it did not appear to be an intentional
chase on his part. There happened to be a pugnacious, fussy little bantam-cock in the yard, who
would not permit the intrusion of any stranger, and on seeing the jabiru he strutted up with expanded
and fluttering wings and ruffled feathers, in a violent state of excitement, cackling and screaming most
vehemently, and making efforts, as energetic as so diminutive a bird was capable of, to frighten and
drive him out of the yard. The jabiru, with his keen bright eyes, regarded the little fluttering object
with cool contempt, and walked about as before; the bantam followed. At last the jabiru turned, and
strode after the consequential little creature, as if to crush it under his feet; when the bantam, seeing
matters take this serious turn, made off as fast as possible—like all little bullies—and did not again
venture to attack so formidable an opponent. In a few days the jabiru became quite domesticated
among the poultry, and they evinced no fear; even the little bantam tolerated his presence, but whether
from fear or affection, Dr. Bennett did not know.
THE IBIS.ſt
ALTHOUGH well-preserved mummies of the Ibis are to be met with in abundance, they appear,
if not to have escaped the observation of naturalists, at all events to have been examined without
much penetration; and even Blumenbach, the celebrated physiologist of Germany, who examined
the bones of the true ibis in a mummy in London, considered them as belonging to the Tantalus
ibis—a bird as large as a stork, and with a similar kind of beak. The individual to whom the
merit of breaking through this fallacy is due is the traveller Bruce, who used his own eyes, and
exercised his own judgment. He at once recognised the true ibis as one which at the present day
abounds on the banks of the Nile.
* Phoenicopterus chilensis: Molina. + “Gatherings of a Naturalist.”— Van Voorst. f Numenius ibis: Cuviºs.
-
THE RED FLAMINGO AND THE JABIRU.


THE AFRICAN JACANA.”
THE Jacanas are peculiar to the hotter climates of Asia, Africa, and America, and in their general
habits closely resemble the moor-hen. They trip over the weeds which mantle the waters with
singular ease and grace, searching for the various aºuatic insects which constitute their food
º
* Parra Africana.

cassell's PopULAR NATURAL. History.
The most beautiful of them all is the Chinese jacana, which is found throughout the whole of
India. It appears among the Himalayan mountains, wherever it can secure an asylum in lakes and
morasses; and, with two allied species, it is observed on the Ganges, between Calcutta and Benares.
-
sº
N -
º
wºn
Wº .
w \\ º
-
THE AFRICAN JACANA.
Its length is about twenty-two inches. The head, fore part of the neck, and chest, are white; the
back of the neck is of a bright orange-colour, divided from the white by a narrow black line; the
shoulders are white; the rest of the plumage is of a deep chocolate-brown. The beak and legs are of
a dull olive-green.

AFRICAN WATER FOWL.
THE appearance of this bird is very remarkable. Our knowledge of it is due to the indefatigable
exertions of Mr. Gould. With its manners we have yet to make an acquaintance. In some respects
it will remind the ornithologist of the singular-looking bird called the boat-bill.
The end of the beak and the form of the feet resemble those of the dodo. The beak of this
bird" is formed like a spoon, and is very large; it is yellow in the male, and red-brown in
the female. The crest is convex, and terminates in a hook at the extremity; it is of a light brown
colour, which gradually changes to yellow as it approaches the bill. The nostrils are long. The
AFRICAN -ATER FOWL.
middle of the lower jaw is membranous. The skin surrounding the eyes is of a yellow colour, and
quite free from hair. The eyes are of a clear grayish-brown. The feet are very long, and covered with
fine scales, which distinguish this bird from other water fowl, whose feet are generally covered with
large and coarse scales. The general colour of the bird is gray, lighter upon the back and feet than
at other parts of the body. The feathers at the back of the head are long and of a peculiar form. The
tail of the bird resembles that of the jabiru of America. It inhabits the marshy districts of Africa.
and subsists upon the fish and small reptiles which there abound.
* Paloenicepsrex,
141
Wºl. III






354 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE BOAT-BILL.º.
THE Boat-bill is about the size of a domestic hen. Its beak resembles a boat reversed, having a strong
ridge or keel down the middle of the upper mandible, and the sides spread out and bowed.
THE BOAT-BILL,
In the male, the upper part of the neck and breast are dirty white; the back and lower part of
the belly rusty-reddish. The legs and feet are brown. From the head depends a long crest of feathers,
falling backwards. -
This speciesinhabits Cayenne, Guiana, and Brazil, and chiefly frequents such parts as are near the
water. In such places it perches on the trees which hang over the streams; and, like the kingfisher,
drops down on the fish that swim beneath. It has been thought to live on crabs likewise; but fish is
its most common, if not its only food.
The true Plovers are divided into several genera, but they are closely united together by a
similarity of habits. Of these, one genust is the most typical. It is characterised by the beak being
slender, straight, compressed, and shorter than the head; the nostrils being longitudinal slits in a
membrane at the base. The wings are moderate, and pointed.
Some species of this genus are inhabitants of open districts and wild wastes, both dry and marshy,
whence they retire to the coast during the severity of winter. Others are constantly resident on low,
extensive sand-banks, or beds of shingle about the mouths of rivers, or along a flat line of sea-shore.
! They associate in flocks, except during the immediate season of incubation; and, after this period, the
* Cancroma cancrophaga-Linnaeus. † Charadrius.

THE PLOWERS. 855
old birds assemble again for the purpose of migration, in which they precede the young : these, in
similar bands. take their departure soon after. -
THE GOLDEN PLOWER.4
This bird, spread over the whole of Europe, is by no means uncommon in our islands, frequenting
heaths and swampy moors, but especially the barren, hilly districts of Scotland, and the adjacent
- º ſº
—-S ... *.s / 2 --> w
NS 2'.
THE GOLDEN PLOVER,
counties, where it breeds. Thomson speaks of the Spring, while yet “the trembling year is uncon-
firmed,” so that “scarce the bittern knows his time” to shake the marsh, -
“ — Or from the shore,
The plovers when to scatter o'er the heath,
And sing their wild notes to the listening waste.”
But towards the end of August, the duties of rearing their young being over, the Golden Plovers con-
gregate in large flocks, which visit the fallows and newly-sown wheat-fields, where they sojourn till the
severity of winter drives them to the shore. The flesh of these birds is considered but little inferior to
that of the woodcock. - - -
THE STILT PLOVER.f.
To adopt a part of the interesting description of Gilbert White : “It must be matter of great curiosity
to see the Stilt Plover move; to see how it can wield such a length of lever with such feeble muscles
as the thighs seem to be furnished with. At least, one should expect it to be but a bad walker; but
* Charadrius pluvialis. t Charadrius himantopus: Pennant.


356 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
what adds to the wonder is, that it has no back toe. Now, without that steady prop to support its
steps, it must be liable, in speculation, to perpetual vacillations, and seldom able to preserve the true
T“T --——-
*-m-m-m-
=sº
* & 2" ſtºº § 2 e
~ * -- - * * * * * º
€ºs . Sº *
2 º: º ---
º-
sº-º-º:
gº - . . A a
egºſºvº. . . .
diſpº &
&
THE STILT PLOVER,
centre of gravity. The old name of Himantopus is taken from Pliny, and, by an awkward metaphor,
implies that the legs are as slender and pliant as if cut out of a thong of leather.”
Mr. Gould states that this genus, although widely distributed, contains only two well-authenticated
species, one of which has furnished our illustration, and the other is known in North America.
THE AWOCET.4
THE Avocet, so singular in its appearance, is not destitute of beauty; its beak, which has been
compared to a thin piece of elastic whalebone, and its feet attracting particular attention. “This
* Recurvirostra avosetta: Pennant.

THE AVOCET. 35?
bird,” says Mr. Yarrell, “is apparently more rare now than formerly. Sir Thomas Brown says they
were not uncommon in his time in the marshy lands of Norfolk; and some years ago I was told that
more than twenty specimens were received at Leadenhall Market for sale within one month : but now
scarcely an example appears once in a year—the last I heard of was in the spring of 1837.”
As is the case with the other fen-birds, the avocet breeds in the herbage on the borders of the
fen ; but its feeding-grounds; and also its mode of feeding, are peculiar. The little runs or water-
courses which cross the loose sand or sludge, and which always contain a considerable quantity of
spawn, larvae, or other animal matters, according to the time of the year, are the places which it
frequents. It can swim, as, indeed, all birds that have close plumage on the under part can do less or
more; but it perhaps does not swim voluntarily in any instance, and it never swims when it is feeding.
THE AVOCET.
&
It is not adapted for that, as the action of both the body and the bill require a fulcrum of something
more stable than water. Swimming in still water, the bird could not scoop, as the stroke of the bill
would merely drive the body backwards; and, as it feeds against the stream, its moving would be like
that of a man attempting to force a boat against the stream by placing his pole upwards, and, by that
means, adding his own exertion to the downward force of the current.
The avocet wades up the shallow stream, and, only that its strokes are equally effective right and
left, its action is not unlike that of a mower. Its legs are long and placed far asunder, and it proceeds
by long and slow strides. Suppose the foot on one side advanced and planted, and the one on the
other side in the rear to the full extent of its stride: the axis of its body will in that position be
obliquely across the run, with the head toward the side of the rear foot, and the tail to that of the
advanced one, both feet being nearly in the line of the centre of the run; and, if we suppose the left

358 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
foot to be the one in advance, the bill will be over the right side of the run. The bird then bends its
neck a little to the left and downwards, and, immediately advancing the right foot, it swings the body
upon the left as a pivot, the bill scooping a transverse curve, and impelled by the swing of the body.
As soon as the right foot is planted, or, rather, contemporaneously with the planting of it, the bird
elevates its bill, in order that whatever food has been scooped up by the bill may be conveyed to the
mouth; and that part of the process is very soon over, as the curve of the bill is not a portion of a
circle, but of what geometers call “the curve of quickest descent.” The bill is immediately lowered,
with the point toward the right; and the advance of the left foot, and the swing of the body upon the
right one, make another sweep in the opposite direction. In this way the bird advances up the run,
TELE WOODCOCK.
scooping alternately left and right, with ease, with effect, and even with a grace almost unparalleled in
the action of birds. It is, indeed, one of the most beautiful instances of animal mechanics that can
possibly be imagined, and the motions are so performed that they can all be seen.
Worms, aquatic insects, and some crustaceous animals yield the food for which the avocet searches
diligently on soft sand and mud, and sometimes wades in the waters. It is stated that the peculiar
marks in the sand arising from the singular form of the beak while the bird is in pursuit of its prey
may be observed. The character of the beak, and the stooping action of the bird, have led to the
provincial names it has received, of the “Scooper,” and the “Cobbler's-awl Duck.” -
The general forms of a large and varied family” may be thus described: the bill long, straight, com-
pressed, and soft, with the point enlarged; the two mandibles furrowed for half their length; the
point of the upper mandible longer than the lower, the enlarged end sometimes forming a blunt
hook. The nostrils are lateral, basal, slit longitudinally near the borders of the mandible, and covered
by a membrane. The feet moderate, slender, the naked space above the knee very small; three toes
* Scolopacidae.



THE WOODCOCK. 359
before entirely divided, the external and middle toe united, and a hind toe. The wings moderate, the
first quill rather shorter than, or of the same length as, the second, which is the longest.
“Most of this family,” as Selby observes, “procure food by thrusting the bill into the soft earth,
or the mud of shores, and thence extracting their prey; and, to facilitate this, an extraordinary develop-
ment of nerve is distributed over and to the extreme point of the bill, thus endowing them with an
exquisite sense offeeling; and in many species this member is further provided with a peculiar muscle,
which by the closing of the upper part of the mandibles, operates so as to expand them at the point,
and enables the bird, with the bill still buried in the ground, to seize its prey the moment it is aware
of being in contact with it.” This peculiar mode of searching for their prey has obtained for many
species—at least, the snipe, woodcocks, &c.—the title of Birds of Suction.
THE WOODCOCK.”
THE Woodcock is a native of the northern provinces of Continental Europe, but instances are known
of its remaining in England to breed, thus passing the summer with us. It is, however, strictly
speaking, a winter visitor to our shores. “The first autumnal flight of the woodcock,” says Selby,
ºv Nº. - - sº - - -
sº º º º: º
THE GREAT SNIPE.
“on its retreat from the northern countries of Europe, where it breeds and passes the summer,
generally takes place towards the end of September, or the beginning of October; but as this consists
of birds whose flight is directed to more southern latitudes than our islands, a few stragglers only
remain; and the flight, after resting for a day or two, proceeds on its course to Portugal, and so onwards
to the furthest limit of its equatorial movement. The direction taken by such a great and successive
column of these birds, under migration from the north to the southern parts of Europe and Northern
Africa being in a great measure intersected by the south-western coasts of England and Ireland,
accounts for the abundance of them in Devonshire and Cornwall, and the countries thus situated, and
the still greater numbers found in the southern and western districts of Ireland, compared with the
other parts of the kingdom.”
“It is thus, also, that woodcocks are generally first observed in these positions, and sometimes long
before they are seen in England and Scotland. The succeeding flights, which continue at intervals
during October and the two following months, becoming each more limited in extent, the whole country
gradually receives its accession of winter visitants, those that take up their haunt in the northern
counties of England and Scotland seldom arriving before the middle of November, or the beginning of
December; the earlier flights, when they do alight in the country, merely remaining for a day, and
* Scolopax rusticola.
















360 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
then passing on to the southward. From this latter circumstance, the search for woodcocks in
Northumberland, in the beginning of the season, is
very uncertain, and to ensure success, attention must
be paid to the state of the weather, and the direction
of the wind.”
These birds land on our shores in the night, or in
dark misty weather, for they are never seen to arrive,
but are frequently discovered next morning in any ditch
which affords them shelter after the extraordinary fatigue
occasioned by the adverse gales which they often en-
counter in their aerial voyage. They do not remain near
the shores longer than a day, when they are sufficiently
recruited to proceed inland, and they visit the same
haunts which they left in the preceding season. In
temperate weather they retire to mossy moors, and high,
bleak, mountainous parts; but as soon as the frost sets
in and the snows begin to fall, they seek lower and
warmer situations, with boggy grounds and springs, and
little oozing mossyrills which are rarely frozen, where
they shelter in close bushes of holly and furze, and
the brakes of woody glens, or in dells which are covered
with underwood. Here they remain concealed during the day, and remove to different haunts,
feeding only in the night. -
Y OUNG SNIPE.
---
THE COMMON SNIPE.”
THIs bird, though a winter visitant, remains in numbers constantly in Britain, merely changing its
abode according to the state of the weather, or the scarcity and abundance of food in different
localities. The nest is found in a tuft of rushes or heath. in the midst of the moorland or marsh.
THE COMMON. S.N.I.P.E.
A small species, being only about one-half the size of the Common Snipe, is one of our regular
winter visitants. The scapulars, rump, and other parts of the back are glossed with rich inetallic
* Scolopax gallinago.


THE SNIPES.
reflections of purple, bronze colour, and green. This is called the Jack Snipe. Another species is
named the Great Snipe.*
º
º
-
º º
Nº. º
Nº. º
Nº. º 2.
s
JACK SNIPE.
Mr. Selby says: “In addition to our native snipes, great flights come annually from N ºrway and
other northern parts of Europe; and in Northumberland they arrive in the greatest numbers in the
beginning of November. They seldom remain long in
one situation, moving from place to place, under the
regulation of various causes; so that the sportsman who
has enjoyed excellent snipe-shooting one day may find
the same spots entirely deserted on the following:
Towards the end of March or the beginning of April,
snipes, having nearly perfected their summer or
nuptial plumage, select appropriate places for midifica-
tion, and the male bird commences his calls of invita-
tion for a mate. These are always uttered upon the
wing, and consist of a piping or clicking note, often
repeated, and accompanied at intervals by a humming
or bleating noise not unlike that of a goat, tapparently
produced by a peculiar action of the wings, as the
bird, whenever the sound is emitted, is observed to
descend with great velocity, and with a trembling
motion of the pinions. At this season it soars to an
immense height, remaining long upon the wing; and
its notes may frequently be heard when the bird itself
is far beyond the reach of sight. These flights are
performed at intervals during the day, but more com-
monly towards the evening, and are continued during
rº- º
º º
º º & . º
º º º
-
361.
THE REDSHANK.
the whole time that the female is engaged in incubation.” The Redshank is nearly allied to the
snipes.
* Scolopax major.
+ In France, one of the names by which the common Snipe is known is that of “Chevre volant.”
WOL. III.
142







362 - CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY,
THE DOTTEREL.º.
MR, SELBy notices this bird as particularly abundant in Northern Asia and the eastern parts of
Europe, and as inhabiting Siberia and the vast steppes of Tartary. It is also found, during its
º
THE DOTTEBEL,
winter migration, in Italy and Spain; but the great body of these birds retires to the high latitudes
of Northern Asia, Russia, and Lapland Alps to breed.
Charadrius morinellus: Pennant.

THE DOTTEREL. 363
Drayton sings of this bird:—
“The Dotterell, which we think a very dainty dish,
Whose taking makes such sport as man no more can wish;
For as you creepe, or curve, or lye, or stoupe, or goe,
So marking you (with care) the apish bird doth doe,
And acting everything, doth never mark the net,
Till he be in the snare, which man for him has set.”
Noris this a solitary representation of the dotterel, which accords rather with poetry than fact, “It
has always been considered,” says Mr. Selby, “a stupid bird, but for what reason Icannot conceive. Iallow
that, on its first arrival, it shows but little fear of man; but this, I apprehend, arises more from inex-
perience of persecution in its native wilds, than from any other cause, and which appears evident from
the birds, when harassed and repeatedly fired at, soon becoming too cautious to admit of near approach
any longer. Their habits also contribute to render them unwary, for being nocturnal feeders (like
many others of the Chariadriada), they are at rest and asleep during the greater part of the day, in
which state also the golden plover (a wary bird when roused) will frequently admit of a close approach.
As to the story of the dottereº mimicking the actions of the fowler, by stretching out its leg, wing, or
head, when he sets the example, it, without doubt, arose from the motions that they, as well as other
birds, usually and most naturally make when roused from a state of repose ; and which every one who
attends to the habits of the feathered race must (in flocks of gulls, plovers, tringas, &c.) have frequently
observed.” The food consists principally of insects, slugs, and worms.
This bird is very extensively distributed, but its eggs are rarely obtained; so that Mr. Gould says
THE PIED ONSTEIR-CATCHEL.
—“We only know one collector who possesses them.” We find “dotrels” charged at one penny
each—a considerable sum in those days—in the “Northumberland Household Book,” and enumerated
as admitted to “the high (his lordship’s) table.” They now find a ready sale in the London market at
about six shillings a couple.
THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER.
THE Oyster-catchers sit quietly in pairs the chief part of the day, on the banks or islands of shingle
about the river or on the shore, but resort in the evening to the sands in large flocks. Mr. St. John,
who has carefully observed them in the Highlands, remarks:—“I have often been puzzled to under-
stand why, during the whole of the breeding season, the oyster-catchers remain in large flocks along
the coast, notwithstanding their duties of hatching and rearing their young. When all the other birds
are paired off, they still every now and then collect in the same numbers that they do in winter.
* Haºmatopus ostralegus: Linnaeus.
-

364 CASSELL's POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
“They lay very large eggs, of a greenish-brown colour, mottled with black. Both these birds
and pewits soon become tame and familiar if kept in a garden or elsewhere, watching boldly for the
worms turned up by the gardener when digging. The oyster-catcher's natural food appears to be shell-
fish only ; I see them digging up the cockles with their powerful bill, or detaching the small mussels
from the scarps, and swallowing them whole, when not too large ; if, however, one of these birds finds
a cockle too large to swallow at once, he digs away at it with the hard point of his bill till he opens it,
and then eats the fish, leaving the shell, -
“It is a curious fact with regard to this bird, that if it drops winged in the sea, it not only swims
with great ease, but dives, remaining under the water for so long a time, and rising again at such a
distance, that I have known one escape out to sea in spite of my retriever, and I have watched the
bird swim gallantly and with apparent ease across the bay, or to some bank at a considerable distance
off. The feet of the oyster-catcher seem particularly ill-adapted for swimming, as the toes are very
short and stiff in proportion to the size of the bird. Most of the waders, when shot above the water
and winged, will swim for a short distance, but generally with difficulty; none of them, however,
excepting this bird, attempt to dive. :
When in captivity the oyster-catcher eats almost anything that is offered to it. From its
THE RUFF.
brilliant black-and-white plumage and red bill, as well as from its utility in destroying slugs and snails
in the garden, where it searches for them with unceasing activity, it is both ornamental and useful, and
Worthy of being oftener kept for this purpose where a garden is surrounded by walls; it will, if taken
Young, remain with great contentment with poultry without being confined. I have found its nest in
different localities, sometimes on the stones and sometimes on the sand close to high-water mark, and
very often on the small islands and points of land about the river.”
- THE RUF.F.4
* “onsequence of the ornamental plumes on the neck during the breeding season, the male is called
the Ruff; while the female, to whose attire no such addition is made, is termed the Reeve.
Montague says: “The long feathers on the neck and sides of the head, in the male, that constitute
the ruff and auricles, are of short duration, for they are scarcely completed in the month of May, and
begin to fall the latter end of June. The change of these singular parts is accompanied by a complete
change of plumage; the stronger colours, such as purple, chestnut, and some others, vanish at the
sºme time, so that in their winter dress they become more generally alike, from being less varied in
* Tringa vanellus.-Machetes pugnax: Cuvier.

THE RUFF. 365
their plumage; but we observed that those who had the ruff more or less white, retained that colour
about the neck after the summer or autumnal moulting. We noticed that in confinement their annual
changes never varied; every spring produced the same coloured ruff and other feathers, but the
tubercles on the face never appeared. A young male that was taken destitute of the ruff in the
breeding season, whose plumage was mostly cinereous, except about the head and neck, put on the
ruff in confinement the next spring for the first time, which was large, and the feathers were a
mixture of white and chestnut ; the scapulars and breast also marked with chestnut; and in the
succeeding autumnal moulting he re-assumed his former cinereous plumage.”
The same writer observes, that “the trade of catching ruffs is confined to few persons, and scarcely
repays their trouble and the expense of nets. These people live in obscure places on the verge of the
fems, and are found out with difficulty; for few, if any birds are ever bought but by those who make
a trade of fattening them for the table. Mr. Towns, the noted feeder at Spalding, assures us his
family had been a hundred years in the trade; that they had supplied George II. and many noble
families in the kingdom. He undertook, at the desire of the late Marquis of Townsend, when that
nobleman was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to take some ruffs to that country, and actually set off with
twenty-seven dozen from Lincolnshire, left seven dozen at the Duke of Devonshire's, at Chatsworth,
continued his route across the kingdom to Holyhead, and delivered seventeen dozen alive in Dublin,
having lost only three dozen in so long a journey, confined and greatly crowded as they were in baskets
which were carried upon two horses. During our stay at Spalding, we were shown into a room where
there were about seven dozen males and a dozen females, and of the former there were not two alike.
Our intrusion to choose some birds drove them from their stands, and compelling some to trespass
upon the premises of others, produced many battles. It is a remarkable character of these birds, that
they feed most greedily the moment they are taken; a basin of bread and milk, or boiled wheat, placed
before them, is instantly contended for, and so pugnacious is their disposition, that they would starve
in the midst of plenty, if several dishes of food were not placed amongst them, at a distance from each
other. Their actions in fighting are very similar to those of a game-cock; the head is lowered, and
the beak held in a horizontal direction; the ruff, and indeed every feather, more or less distended, the
former sweeping the ground as a shield to defend the more tender parts, the auricles erected, and the
tail partly spread; upon the whole, assuming a most ferocious aspect. When either could obtain a
firm hold with the bill, a leap succeeded, accompanied by a stroke of the wing, but they rarely injured
each other.
“Few ruffs, comparatively speaking, are taken in the spring, as the old birds frequently pine, and











366 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
will not readily fatten. The principal time is in September, when the young birds are on the wing;
these are infinitely more delicate for the table, more readily submit to confinement, and are less inclined
to fight. If this plan was generally enforced by the proprietors offen-land, or made a bye-law amongst
themselves, the breed would not be so reduced; but there are still fowlers who make two seasons, and
by catching the old birds in the spring, especially the females, verify the fable of the goose and the
golden eggs; the destruction of every female in the breeding season is the probable loss of four young.”
A kindred bird to the ruff is the Knot.”
A writeR in the vicinity of Clitheroe, in Lancashire, says: “The Common Sandpiper breeds with us;
and I, this year, started an old one from her nest, at the root of a fir-tree. She screamed out, and
rolled about in such a manner, and seemed so completely disabled, that, although perfectly aware that
her intention was to allure me from her nest, I could not resist my inclination to pursue her, and, in
the sandpiper.
consequence, I had great difficulty in finding the nest again. It was built of a few dried leaves of the
Weymouth pine, and contained three young ones just hatched, and an egg, through the shell of which
the bill of the young chick was just making its way; yet, young as they were, on my taking out the
egg to examine it, the little things, which could not have been out of their shells more than an hour or
two, set off out of the nest with as much celerity as if they had been running about a fortnight. As
I thought the old one would abandon the egg if the young ones left the nest, I caught them again, and
covering them up with my hand for some time, they settled down again. Next day all four had
disappeared.”
THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER.1
AUDUBox, in his “Ornithological Biography,” thus refers to a power possessed by birds—that of being
able to move their eggs when danger threatens —“My esteemed friend, Thomas Macculloch of Picton,
Nova Scotia, having transmitted to me a curious account of the attachment of one of these birds to her
eggs, I here insert it with pleasure:– Being on an excursion to the Hardwood Heights, which rise to
* Tringa grisea. f Tringa hypoleucos: Pennant. it Tringa macularia: Pennant.



THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER. - 367
the west of Picton, my attention was attracted by the warbling of a little bird, which appeared to be
entirely new, and which proceeded from a small thicket a short way off. Whilst erossing an intervening
meadow, I accidentally raised a Spotted Sandpiper from its nest, and having marked the spot, I hastened
forwards; but the shyness of the object of my pursuit rendered all my efforts unavailing, and, returning
to the nest I had just left, I expected to find it still unoccupied; but the sandpiper had resumed her
place, and left it with great reluctance on my near approach. The nest contained four eggs, which I
determined to remove on my return at night, and for the purpose of preventing the bird sitting again
upon them, I placed a number of stones in a slanting position over the nest, and so close that it was
impossible for the bird to get into it. On my return in the evening, however, I observed the little
creature rise from beside the stones apparently in greater trepidation than ever, and more anxious to
draw me away by the exhibition of all those little arts which they practise for this purpose. On
examining the spot, I was very much surprised to find that the poor thing had not only hollowed out
a new nest, but had actually succeeded in abstracting two eggs from the other nest. How the bird had
contrived to move the eggs I cannot conceive, as the stones remained unaltered. This attachment to
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THE COMMON GALLINULE.
its nest and eggs appeared to me more singular, as the bird had but just commenced incubation, the
eggs exhibiting very little appearance of the young.’”
THE COMMON GALLINULE.3%
THIS bird, often called tne Moor-hen or Water-hen, is disposed over Europe generally, and is also
found in many parts of Asia and Africa. It inhabits ponds, slow-moving and deep waters, canals,
&c., where the borders are covered with luxuriant herbage, osier-beds, or reeds.
The following incident is given by Mr. Waterton —“In 1826, I was helping a man to stub some
large willows near the water's edge. There was a water-hen's nest at the root of one of them. It
had seven eggs in it. I broke two of them, and saw that they contained embryo chicks. The labourer
took up part of the nest, with the remaining five eggs in it, and placed it on the ground and about
three yards from the spot where we had found it. We continued in the same place for some hours
afterwards, working at the willows. In the evening, when we went away, the old water-hen came
back to the nest. Having no more occasion for the labourer in that place, I took the boat myself the
next morning, and saw the water-hen sitting on the nest. On approaching the place I observed that
she had collected a considerable quantity of grass and weeds, and that she had put them all around the
* Gallinula chloropus.

368 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
nest. A week after this I went to watch her, and saw she had hatched; and, as I drew nearer to her,
she went into the water, and the five little ones along with her.”
The nest of this bird, which is rather large, is rudely formed of reeds and rushes close to the
water's edge, but generally concealed among the herbage. Frequently there are two, and sometimes
three, broods in a year; but the birds are not so numerous as might be supposed, from the various
casualties which diminish the young. Often are the eggs washed away by the summer floods; some-
times the heron, contrary to its usual habit, swims a little way out to capture the young bird ; while
pike and even trout will banquet on the progeny of the gallinule. Very soon after the young are
hatched, they are able to proceed to water. The mother leads them forth in the morning and toward
evening; but when the day is hot, and during the night, she returns with them to the nest, and covers
them with her wings.
THE - PUTTED GALLINULE."
The flight of this bird is heavy and awkward, the legs hanging down; but it rises readily, and
can keep up a long course on the wing. While walking, it flits up its short tail, so as to display the
white under-coverts very conspicuously.
This bird is found also in many parts of Asia and Africa. It is about the size of a pigeon, and it
weighs about a pound. The upper plumage is dark olive-green, inclining to black; the under plumage
is deep bluish-gray, with white on the under tail-coverts and the edges of the wings, and there is also
some dull white on the belly and thighs. The feathers on the flanks, which are loose and pendant,
and hang over the upper parts of the thighs, are black, with streaks of white. The bill, which is
about an inch in length, is thick and strong, arched in both mandibles towards the tip, and with the
upper projecting a little; it is greenish at the tip, and reddish towards the base.
This bird swims gracefully, and dives not only to avoid danger, but often to obtain food, as it has
been taken by lines baited for eels. It feeds habitually on insects, aquatic worms, the larvae of dragon-
flies, &c. When suddenly surprised on the bank, where it may often be seen at rest, it dashes into
the water, where, half flying, half running over the surface, it makes its retreat. Its actions are smart
and lively, and render it an interesting appendage to ornamental sheets of water.
THE SPOTTED GALLINULE.”
THE Spotted Gallinule is extensively known. It is found in the southern parts of Russia; it is, rare
in the north of Germany and in Holland; it is more common in France and Provence; but it is most
frequently met with in the southern and eastern parts of Europe.
The spotted gallinule is one of Britain's summer visitants, breeding in marshes overgrown with
reeds and sedges. Its nest, formed of coarse aquatic plants, but having a lining of softer materials, is
* Gallinula perzana: Leith.





- THE SPOTTED GALLINULE. 369
built on the wet ground, and often at the edge of the water. Here it deposits eight or ten eggs, of a
pale reddish-white, spotted and speckled with dark reddish-brown. A naturalist says: “There can be
no doubt that the spotted gallinule breeds in the marshes of Norfolk. We have seen a considerable
number of its eggs in Yarmouth, which, as well as its young, were found in the neighbourhood of that
place.” It also breeds in the fems of Cambridgeshire.
The flesh of a water-hen, in good season, when accustomed to a neighbouring wheat or barley
stubble, is juicy and well-flavoured.
THE CORN-CRAKE OR LAND-RAIL.”
In the rich meadows of some parts of Britain, the peculiar cry of this bird may be heard resounding on
every side, during the whole or greater part of May. Now the Land-rail seems close at hand, as if the
bird were not a yard off; now it is far distant, while other voices in different parts of the meadow
-E CORN-CºA:1-1. On Land-tº-LL.
keep up the reiterated note, crake, crake, crake, from which the English and the Latin names are
derived.
Mr. Jesse, in his remarks on this bird, says: “I have met with an incident in the natural history
of the corn-crake, which I believe is perfectly accurate, having been informed the bird will put on the
semblance of death when exposed to danger from which it is unable to escape. The incident was
this: a gentleman had a corn-crake brought to him by his dog, to all appearance quite dead. As it lay
on the ground he turned it over with his foot, and was convinced it was dead. Standing by
however, in silence, he suddenly saw it open an eye. He then took it up; its head fell, its legs hung
* Gallinula crex: Lath.
WOL. III. 143



370 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
loose, and it appeared quite dead. He then put it into his pecket, and before long he felt it all alive,
and struggling to escape. He then took it out; it was as lifeless as before. Having laid it upon the
ground, and retired to a distance, the bird in about five minutes warily raised its head, looked round,
and decamped at full speed. I have seen a similar circumstance take place with a partridge, and it is
well known that many insects will practise a similar deception.”
THE HORNED SCREAMER.”
THE Linnaean genus of birds, called Palamedea, has been placed by Mr. Vigors among the Gralla-
tores. The Palamedea cornuta, or horned screamer, is a South American bird, larger than a common
THE LORNED SCI-EAMEIR.
goose, having a long spear-shaped horn projecting from the forehead. It lives in marshy or inundated
places, which it makes to resound with its wild and loud cry.
It does not enter the great woods, perching only momentarily on dead branches. It sends forth
shrill and piercing cries, which may be heard at a considerable distance; whence its English name.
Bajou states that its food consists only of aquatic plants and seeds; though others, before him, have
averred that it also feeds on reptiles. It never attacks other birds, and the only use it makes of its arms
is, when the males dispute for the possession of the females. Once paired, however, the two quit each
other no more; and when one dies, the other soon pines away with grief. The screamers construct
their nests in the form of an oven at the foot of a tree, according to Pison; but Bajou tells us that
they make it in bushes, at some distance from the ground, and often in reeds. The female in general
lays but two eggs, of the size of those of a goose, and there is but one brood—in the month of January
or February, except when the eggs are destroyed by any accident, and then a second takes place in
April or May. As soon as the young are in a fit state to fly, they follow the mother, who gradually
accustoms them to seek subsistence alone, after which they quit her. The flesh of the young, though
black, is good eating; but that of the old is hard, and less agreeable to the taste.
* Palamedea cornuta : Linnaeus.





THE HORNED SCREAMER. 3.71
The Kamichi, or screamers, resemble the Jacanas in many respects, but are much larger. They
resemble them in the two strong spurs on each wing; in the long toes and strong claws, especially that
of the thumb, which is long and straight, as in the larks; but their bill, not much cleft, is but slightly
compressed, not swelled, and the upper mandible is but slightly arched. Their legs are reticulated.
THE NOTORNIS.*
This is a specimen of one of the curious birds found only in Australia. The one represented by Mr.
Gould, from whose splendid work our engraving was taken, was captured near the Isle of Resolution
THE NOTORNIs.
by the seal-fishers. Having noticed the marks made by the bird on the snow, they followed it to the
place whither it withdrew, when it took flight, running rapidly before the dogs which followed it, and
at last captured it. It uttered piercing cries and struggled for a long time. It was kept alive for
four days; its body was roasted and eaten by the sailors, who found its flesh of an agreeable flavour.
The Motornis Mantelli of Owen, named after the traveller Mantell, who was the first to observe it
dive, approaches the Rails in the form of its beak and the general colour of its plumage, and is unlike
them in the weakness of its wings; its primary feathers are very short. It cannot fly, but it runs
with great speed. It probably has the power of swimming; the thickness of its plumage leads to the
belief that he has a preference for damp spots. The head, neck, breast, and upper part of the belly
and sides are of a beautiful purple-blue; the back, rump, and upper part of the tail are of a deep
green olive, tipped with copper-green; a beautiful blue stripe separates the purple blue of the neck
from the green of the back ; the lower part of the belly and the thighs are of a dull bluish black; the
wings are of a beautiful deep blue; the long feathers are tipped with green, forming a crescent where
the wing is extended. The tail is deep green; its under-part white. The beak, talons, and iris are of
brilliant red. The height is two feet.
Much has yet to be learned in reference to this bird. The ornithology of Australia, though far
from being so peculiar and anomalous as its mammalogy, contains, nevertheless, many new and singular
forms, of which the Motormis is an example. Its limited range is a formidable barrier to acquaintance
with it, but much will doubtless be accomplished by the sagacity and intelligence of naturalists.
* Notornis Mantelli: Owen.

SW IM MIN G. BIR D S. *
We now arrive at the last Order, containing the birds whose habits are decidedly aquatic, and whose
structure has obtained for them the name of Water-Fowl. Their feet indicate their true character.
FOOT OF LESTIRIS CATARRACTES. Foo! O! PROCELLARIA URINATRIX.
THE MUTE SWAN.H.
PRE-EMINENT for grace and elegance among the varied order of swimming birds are the Swans.
Those known in our island, and the adjacent parts of the Continent, are alike conspicuous for the
beauty of their form and the elegance of their attitudes. As we observe it gliding over its congenial
element, we are disposed to exclaim with Wordsworth :—
“Behold! the mantling spirit of reserve
Fashions his neck into a goodly curve,
An arch thrown back between luxuriant wings
Of whitest garniture, like fir-tree boughs,
To which, on some unruffled morning, clings
A dusky weight of Winter's purest snows!”
This noble bird is known only to us in a state more or less completely domesticated. The nest,
consisting of a large mass of reeds, rushes, and other coarse herbage, is found on the ground near the
* Natatores, + Cygnus olor.


THE MUTE SWAN. 373
edge of the water, and an island is generally chosen rather than a bank. The female produces six or
seven eggs; these are of a dull greenish-white; they are four inches in length, and rather more than
two inches in breadth. -
The sign of one of our old city inns, “The Swan with Two Necks,” arose out of a practico of
those times. According to the swan laws, every one belonging to the king was marked with two
nicks or notches; and the original sign was the royal bird so marked, that is to say, with two nicks.
In process of time, by some mistake, the two nicks were called two necks; and the error has been
perpetuated to our day.
THE BLACK-NECKED SWAN.”
A very beautiful species of the Swan is found in Chili, the Falkland Islands, the River Plate, and
other parts of South America. It is distinguished by a black neck, which finely contrasts with the
THE BLACK N-C-E-L SWAN.
snowy whiteness of the rest of its plumage. The bill is red, and the legsflesh-colour. The engraving
exhibits two of them bequeathed by the Earl of Derby, from his celebrated collection at Knowsley, to
the Zoological Society of London, of which his lordship was the president. The society now possesses
four examples of the black-necked swan. Another pair is in her Majesty's collection at Buckingham
Palace. -
The comparison, “like to a black swan," arose from its being supposed there was no such bird; but
the Anas Plutonia of Shaw has now become common in our menageries, where it breeds freely. It is
black, with the exception of the primary and a few of the secondary quills, which are white. The bill
is bright-red above, and sometimes has a slight tubercle at the base, which the female wants. The
anterior part of the upper mandible is crossed by a whitish band.
* Cygnus nigricollis.

3.
7
4.
CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE DUCK.”
WILD Ducks are found in Asia and America, as well as Europe; in summer choosing the lakes and
marshes of the north, and in autumn migrating to others which are in more temperate climes. In the
marshy tracts of the British Isles, many remain throughout the year. The mallard is a handsome
bird, but the female is very plain.
The domestic-duck varies considerably in size, and in the colour of its plumage. The rearing of
the large white Aylesbury breed, which is prevalent in Buckinghamshire, forms a part of the business
of many cottagers. -
The Widowed Duck,” from the easel of Sir Edwin Landseer, is very characteristic. The drake,
THE WIDOWED DUCR.
with open beak and flaccid wings, lies dying on the ground; while his mate appears as if fully
conscious of her loss. Little as it may be supposed, a duck can manifest very strong attachment. One,
for instance, is mentioned, on good authority, who obeyed no voice but that of her owner, whom she
followed everywhere, and for whom she would wait at the door when her mistress on a Sunday had
entered the church, until a servant came to fetch her home.
Singular modes of capturing wild ducks are practised in America. In some ponds frequented by
these birds, five or six wooden figures, cut and painted to represent ducks, and sunk by pieces of lead
* Anas boschas.

THE DUCKS. 375
nailed to their bottoms, so as to float at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a favourable
position for being raked from a concealment of brushwood, &c., on shore. The appearance of these
decoys usually attracts passing flocks, which alight, and are soon shot down. Sometimes eight or ten of
these painted ducks are fixed in G frame, in various swimming postures, and secured to the bow of the
gunner's skiff, projecting before it in such a manner that the weight of the frame sinks the figures to
their proper depth; the skiff is then dressed with sedge, or coarse grass, in an artful manner, as low as
the water's edge; and under cover of this, which appears like a covey of ducks swimming by a small
island, the gunner floats down, sometimes to the very skirts of a congregated multitude, and speedily
pours in a destructive and repeated fire of shot among them. In winter, when detached pieces of ice
are occasionally floating in the river, some of the fowlers on the Delaware paint their whole skiff, or
canoe, white, and laying themselves flat at the bottom, with their hand over the side silently managing
a small paddle, direct it imperceptibly into or near a flock, before the ducks have distinguished it
from a floating mass of ice, and generally do great execution amongst them. A whole flock has some-
times been thus surprised asleep, with their heads under their wings. On land, another stratagem is
sometimes practised with great success:—A large tight hogshead is sunk in the flat marsh or mud, near
the place where ducks are accustomed to feed at low water, and where, otherwise, there is no shelter.
The edges and top are artfully concealed with tufts of long coarse grass and reeds, or sedge. From
within this the fowler, unseen and unsuspected, watches the collecting party, and, when a sufficient
number offers, sweeps them down with great effect.
Among the methods resorted to in different countries for the capture of wild ducks, another is so
remarkable as to require particular notice. On the river Ganges, in India, at Ceylon, and in China, a
man wades into the water up to his chin, and, having his head covered with an empty calabash,
approaches the place where the ducks are, and they, not regarding an object so commonly seen upon
the water, suffer the man to mingle freely among the flock, when he has nothing to do but pull them
under water by the legs, one by one, until he is satisfied, and then returns to the shore as unsuspected
by the remainder as when he first came among them. For this purpose the earthen vessels used by
the Gentoos, called kutcharee pots, which are thrown away as defiled after having been once used for
cooking rice, are often employed instead of calabashes; and some authors state that hollow wooden
vessels, with holes to see through, are sometimes used for the same purpose. &
THE SUMMER, I)UCK.”
ALMOST all the coloured plumage of this bird shows a play of colours with metallic lustre. It has a
pendent occipital crest of green and auricula purple, marked with two narrow white lines, one of them
terminating behind the eye, the other extending over the eye to the bill. The female has a shorter
crest, and the plumage is less vivid.
“In Pennsylvania,” says Wilson, “the female usually begins to lay late in April, or early in May.
Instances have been known where the nest was constructed of a few sticks laid in a fork of the
branches; usually, however, the inside of a hollow tree is selected for this purpose. On the 18th of
May, I visited a tree containing the nest of a summer duck, on the banks of Tuckahoe river, New
Jersey. It was an old, grotesque, white oak, whose top had been torn off by a storm. It stood on the
declivity of the bank, about twenty yards from the water. In this hollow and broken top, and about
six feet down on the soft decayed wood, lay thirteen eggs, snugly covered with down, doubtless taken
from the breast of the bird. These eggs were of an exact oval shape, less than those of a hen, the
surface exceedingly fine grained and of the highest polish, and slightly yellowish, greatly resembling
old polished ivory.
“This tree had been occupied probably by the same pair for four successive years in breeding-
time; the person who gave me the information, and whose house was within twenty or thirty yards
of the tree, said that he had seen the female, the spring preceding, carry down thirteen young, one by
one, in less than ten minutes. She caught them in her bill by the wing or back of the neck, and
* Dendronessa sponsa.
376 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
landed them safely at the foot of the tree, whence she afterwards led them to the water. Under this
same tree, at the time I visited it, a large sloop lay on the stocks, nearly finished; the deck was not more
than twelve feet distant from the nest ; yet, notwithstanding the presence and noise of the workmen,
-
THE SUMMER DUCK.
the ducks would not abandon their old breeding-place, but continued to pass out and in as if no person
had been near. The male usually perched on an adjoining limb, and kept watch while the female was
laying, and often also while she was sitting. A tame goose had chosen a hollow space at the root of
THE EIDER DUCE.
the same tree to lay and hatch her young in. The summer duck seldom flies in flocks of more than
three Ol' four individuals together, but most commonly in pairs or singly.” The food of this elegant
bird consists of acorns, grain, the seeds of plants, and insects.


THE EIDER DUCK.”
THE Eider Duck is a native of the Arctic Seas, and is found in great abundance along the shores of
Iceland, Greenland, Lapland, Spitzbergen, and those of Hudson's and Baffin's Bays. It is chased by
the Greenlanders for the sake of its flesh and its skin; the former, though rank, is valued as food;
the latter yields clothing of singular warmth and comfort. “The down of this bird,” says Shaw, “is
of such value, that, when in purity, it is sold in Lapland for two rix-dollars a pound; it is extremely
soft and warm, and so light and expansive that a couple of handfuls squeezed together are sufficient to
fill a quilt five feet square.” The males and females of the eider differ greatly in plumage.
THE CHINESE TEAL.4
THE Mandarin Duck, or Chinese Teal, remarkable from the brilliancy of its plumage, never mates a
second time. Of this Mr. Davis gives the following proof:-" From a pair of these birds, in Mr.
THE CHINESE. T.E.A.L.
Beale's aviary at Macao, the drake happened one night to be stolen. The duck was perfectly incon-
solable, like Calypso after the departure of Ulysses. She retired into a corner, neglected her food and
person, refused all society, and rejected with disdain the proffer of a second love. In a few days the
purloined duck was recovered and brought back. The mutual demonstrations of joy were excessive;
and what is more singular, the true husband, as if informed by his partner of what had happened in
his absence, pounced upon the would-be lover, tore out his eyes, and injured him so much that he soon
after died of his wounds.”
THE AMERICAN WIGEON.
AUDUBox says: “This duck is abundant during winter in New Orleans, where it is much
esteemed on account of the juiciness of its flesh, and is best known by the name of zinzin. In the
* Somateria Mullinissa. * Anas galericulata,
vol. III. 144.




378 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
western country, and in most parts of the eastern and middle states, it is called the bald pate. While
advancing along the shores of the Bay of Mexico, in April, 1837, I and my party observed this
species in considerable numbers; and during the whole of our stay in the Texas, we daily saw, and
very frequently procured wigeons. There they were found in ponds of brackish water, as well as in
the fresh-water streams. Before we left that country they were all paired; and I was informed by the
Honourable M. Fisher, secretary to the Texian navy, that a good number of them breed in the mari-
time districts along with several other ducks, and that he annually received many of the young birds.
Their manners at this time fully proved the correctness of the statements of all those who spoke to me
on this subject. Indeed, my opinion is, that some of these birds also propagate in certain portions of
the most southern districts of the Floridas, and in the island of Cuba, as I have seen wigeons in the
peninsula in single pair in the beginning of May.” p
Wilson says: “This species is very common in winter along the whole coast, from Florida to
Rhode Island, but most abundant in Carolina, where it frequents the rice plantations. In Martinico
great flocks take short flights from one rice-field to another, during the rainy season, and are much
complained of by the planters. The wigeon is the constant attendant of the celebrated canvas-back
duck, so abundant in various parts of the Chesapeake Bay. They are said to be in great plenty at
St. Domingo and Cayenne, where they are called ‘vingeon,’ or “gingeon;’ are said sometimes to perch
on trees, feed in company, and have a sentinel on the watch, like some other birds. They feed little
during the day, but in the evenings come out from their hiding-places, and are then easily traced by
their particular whistle, or whew, whew. This soft note or whistle is frequently imitated with success,
to entice them within gun-shot. They are not known to breed in any part of the United States; are
common in the winter months along the bays of Egg Harbour and Cape May, and also those of the
Delaware. They leave these places in April, and appear upon the coasts of Hudson's Bay in May, as
soon as the thaws come on, chiefly in pairs; lay there only from six to eight eggs, and feed on flies
and worms in the Swamps; depart in flocks in autumn. These birds are frequently brought to the
market of Baltimore, and generally bring. a good price, their flesh being excellent. They are of a
lively, frolićsome disposition, and with proper attention might easily be domesticated.”
THE COMMON SHELLDRAKE..+
THE curious name of this bird, which is spelt either Shelldrake or Shieldrake, has been variously
explained. It has been found to feed so exclusively on minute molluscs, that the name may have
been given it on account of its fondness for shell-fish, or because it so often appears on shields as a
crest in heraldry—a distinction it owes probably to its gay plumage. It is also called the Burrow-
Duck, from its habit of selecting an old rabbit-burrow as its breeding-place, or making holes for itself
in sand-hills by the coast, like the little owls Mr. Darwin saw in similar situations in South
America.
In appearance it is one of the most beautiful of British birds. “In the adult male,” says
Nir Yarrell, “the beak is vermilion, the irides brown; the whole of the head and upper part of the
neck green, bounded by a collar of white, and below that a collar of rich chestnut, which covers the
upper part of the breast, the space before the point of the wings, and the upper part of the back.
The rest of the back and the upper tail coverts are white; the tail feathers white, tipped with black;
lower central line of the breast and belly, rich dark brown; sides, flanks, and under tail coverts,
white; legs, toes, and their membranes, flesh-colour.”
Colonel Hawker makes the following curious remark about the habits of the young bird:—
“You may keep young burrow-ducks for five or six weeks, provided you give them crumbs of
bread, and only a little water three times a day. But if you let them get into the water, or even
drink too much, before they are full grown, and fit to be turned out on your pond, you are almost sure
to kill them. This appears quite a paradox with birds that, in their wild state, are always in the
Water ; but such is the case.”
* Anastadorna : Linnaeus.
37
WATER FOWL.

THE TEAL.4
THIS is one of the smallest and also one of the most beautiful of British ducks. It is distributed over
a great part of Europe, Northern Asia, and America. Multitudes every winter visit the fens of
Britain, breeding, but not numerously, in the marshes of its northern counties. “Our indigenous
broods,” says Mr. Selby, “I am inclined to think, seldom quit the immediate neighbourhood of the
place in which they were bred, as I have repeatedly observed them to haunt the same district from the
time of their hatching till they separated and paired, on the approach of the following spring.” The
nest is formed of a large mass of decayed vegetables, with a lining of down and feathers, and contains
eight or ten eggs. “Wild ducks and teal breed also,” says Mr. Jesse, “amongst the heather in Wool-
mer Forest, and generally in the highest grounds. One of the woodmen, who has a cottage in the
forest, informed me that he had found a teal's nest, with nine eggs in it, in a situation of this
description.”
Of the ducks, generally, we have now spoken; we turn, therefore, to their associates—the Geese,
of whom a poet says:–
“Now o'er our heads compact they fly,– His prey pursuing o'er the beach,
See, as we speak, careering high, On their strong legs they wade; divide
A flock of wild ducks cloud the air Deep down the gulfy food, and glide
In wedge-like shape triangular; Afar unseen; or, rising, meet
Aad gray-geese there, outstretched, combine The breasting wave with wary feet;
Their troop in one unbroken line. Their strokes alternately advance,
Now in small bands dispersed, or each And cleave secure the deep expanse.”
THE GRAY LAG, OR: WILD GOOSE.}
According to Pennant, this was the only species that the Britons could take young and familiarise.
The Gray Lag Goose and the Domestic Goose may, therefore, be considered identical. It is the Anser
of the Romans—the same that saved the Capitol by its vigilance, and was cherished accordingly.
Pliny states that these birds were driven from a distance on foot to Rome; he mentions the
value of the feathers of the white ones, and relates that in some places they were plucked twice in
a year.
Pennant thus writes: “This is our largest species; the heaviest weigh ten pounds; the length is
two feet nine inches; the extent five feet. The bill is large and elevated, of a flesh-colour tinged with
yellow; the head and neck cinereous, mixed with ochraceous yellow; the hind part of the neck very
pale, and at the base of a yellowish brown; the breast and belly whitish, clouded with gray or ash
colour; the back gray; the lesser coverts of the wings almost white, the middle row deep
cinereous slightly edged with white; the coverts of the tail and the vent-feathers of a pure white ;
the middle feathers of the tail dusky, tipped with white, the exterior feathers almost white; the legs
of a flesh-colour.”
The wild goose greatly varies, like most domesticated animals, in its reclaimed state; but it is said
always to retain the whiteness of the coverts of the tail and the vent-feathers; it is esteemed in pro-
portion to the whiteness of the plumage.
“The gray lag,” says Mr. Gould, “is known to inhabit all the extensive marshy districts through-
out the temperate portions of Europe generally; its range northwards not extending further than the
fifty-third degree of latitude, while southwards it extends to the northern portions of Africa, easterly
to Persia, and we believe it is generally dispersed over Asia Minor.”
This bird assembles in flocks, and seeks the most open and wild districts, often descending on
fields of newly-sprung wheat, which with the blades of fine grasses, trefoil, and grain, constitute its
food. Its nest is made on heathy spots, and in marshes, upon tussocks of rushes and dried herbs.
There are five or six eggs, sometimes more, but rarely twelve or fourteen, of a dirty-greenish, or, as
Gould remarks, of a sullied white.
* Querquedula erecca. + Anser ferus,
380 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAI HISTORY.
THE DOMESTIC GOOSE.
TIIIs is a bird of no little value. Not only does it figure with general acceptance on our tables, but its
feathers still yield quills, while the smaller ones and the down contribute largely to the nightly repose
of multitudes.
Of the attachment of geese to particular persons there are many instances. A farmer in Cheshire
bad a flock of these birds when, at the end of three years, one, without any apparent cause, showed a
great partiality for its master. It followed him to the mill, the blacksmith's shop, or through the
bustling streets of a neighbouring town; and so great was its perseverance that he was compelled to
fasten it up when he wished to go out alone. Strange to tell, the farmer thought this attachment
ominous of evil; and, in a moment of alarm, killed his faithful companion.
Jèue awa, Ours is the name of a street in Paris, formerly called Rue awa, Oies, term for geese, and
was given to it on account of the great number of rotisseurs that resided in it. Thus, the authors of
the “Dictionnaire Historique de la Ville de Paris” say:—“The capons of Mans, the pullets of Mezerai,
fattened by art, the chickens of Caux, and a thousand other luxuries, were absolutely unknown in
those old times of moderation and continence, when good morals prevailed, and our fathers, less
sensual and delicate than the present generation, regaled themselves upon geese, a kind of fowl
despised in an age where sensuality and gluttony have the ascendancy.”
In France the goose has long been in little repute as a dish, and seldom appears on the tables of
the epicures of Paris. The flesh they condemn as coarse and unwholesome, and our ordinary accom-
paniment of apple sauce, when mentioned, never fails to elicit flashes of astonishment subsiding into
peals of laughter. But the wings and thighs of geese made into pies, and properly truffled, are regarded
as great delicacies. The department of Perigord, with Toulouse and Bayonne, used to cook annually
about 120,000 of these pies. The pâté de foie gras is still in great requisition in France. But to obtain
the delicacy great cruelty is practised. The wretched geese are nailed by the feet to a board, placed
before a hot fire, crammed with food, and supplied with drink; and it is in this dreadful situation
that, while fear wastes away the flesh, the liver becomes enormously swollen, and thus supplies the
desideratum for those “who live to eat.”
*/
THE BEAN GOOSE.4
This is one of the wild geese, having a comparatively small and short bill. The wings, when closed,
reach beyond the end of the tail. In bulk, it is generally rather less than the Gray Lag, and is some-
times called provincially the Small Gray Goose.
During an excursion made by a party of naturalists in Sutherlandshire, in the summer of 1834, Mr.
Selby says:—“We were agreeably surprised to find that the Bean Goose annually breeds upon several
of the Sutherland lakes. The first intimation we received of this interesting fact was at Lairg, where
we were informed that a few pairs bred upon some islands about twelve miles up Loch Shin. We
accordingly took boat the following morning, and, upon arriving at the place, discovered a single pair,
attended by four or five young goslings. None were obtained, as the old birds, being wild, escaped,
seemingly uninjured, although repeatedly fired at ; and the goslings immediately dived, and escaped
into the reeds and other herbage. Upon Loch Naver we also found several pairs attended by their
young, seemingly about a fortnight or three weeks old, one of which, after a severe chase, we procured.
Upon the islands of Loch Laighal, from thirty to forty pairs, we were informed, annually had their
nests. We saw several old birds, and the nests that had been used, which are concealed in heath,
upwards of three feet in height, that covers the islands. The eggs were all hatched, and most of the
young had betaken themselves to the neighbouring moors, where they continue till able to fly, secreting
themselves when disturbed in the highest heather. At Tongue we saw some goslings about a month
c!d (following a hen), which had been hatched from eggs taken at Loch Laighal. We were told they
became nearly as tame as common geese, but refuse to intermix or breed with them. The eggs, from
* Anser segetum,
The BEAN Goosí. 38i
five to seven in number, are smaller than those of the common goose, but of a similar shape and
colour.”
THE EGYPTIAN GOOSE.”
Aristoriº mentions this bird as haunting the banks of lakes and rivers. It is also named in two of
THE BEAN GOOSE,
the comedies of Aristophanes. Athenæus praises it on account of its eggs, giving them the second
place, those of the peacock being assigned the first; and Ælian alludes to its cunning.
* Anser AEgypticus: Briss, Chenalopex AEgypticus: Gould,

382 CASSELL’S POPULAH, NATURAL HISTORY.
Herodotus, however, directs special attention to the Egyptian Goose. He shows it was held
sacred by the Egyptians, and modern travellers found evidence of its being, at least, a favourite dish
among the priests. Mr. Salt remarks: “Horus Apollo says, the old geese stay with their young in
the most imminent danger, at the risk of their own lives, which I have myself frequently witnessed.
Vulpanser is the Goose of the Nile, and wherever this goose is represented on the walls of the
temples in colours, the resemblance may be clearly traced.” It is also stated that a place in
Tpper Egypt had its name, Chenoboscion, or Chenoboscia (“goosepens”), from these birds being fed
there, probably for sale. These, however, may have been sacred geese, as the goose is said to have
been a bird under the care of Isis.
The bill of the Egyptian Goose is as long as the head, slender, nearly straight, rounded at
the tip, and laminated on the margin. The upper mandible is slightly curved, the nail hooked, and
the lower mandible flat. The wings resemble those of the spur-winged goose, on the bend of the wing
or wrist of which is placed a strong, white, horny spur, about five-eighths of an inch in length, turning
upwards, and rather inwards.
The sexes are nearly similar; the female is rather smaller than the male, and its colouring is less
intense. There is a narrow edging of feathers round the base of the bill, a line running nearly straight
from that edging to the eye, and a larger patch surrounding the eye, of a chestnut hue. In the middle
of the breast there is also a patch of #. chestnut ; the rest of the under part of the body, from the
slight collar to the thighs, is of a pale buff, with fine irregular transverse blackish brown lines. The
legs and feet are of a reddish flesh-colour.
Mr. Gould states that he has placed the Egyptian Goose among the “Birds of Europe,” not from
the number of half-reclaimed individuals which are annually shot in Britain, but from the circumstance
of its occasionally visiting the southern parts of the Continent, from its native country, Africa.
M. Temminck points out the Island of Sicily as one of the places frequented by it, and adds that this
is the species which would appear to have been held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians,
as we frequently find a figure of it among the monuments of that celebrated people. He states
that it is abundant on the banks of the Nile, and is distributed over the whole of the vast con-
tinent of Africa. This handsome species breeds freely in confinement, and is often seen in the
aviaries and near the lakes of those who take pleasure in collecting and domesticating ornamental
water-birds.
“The breeding habits of this bird in a wild, state are,” says Mr. Yarrell, “I believe, but little
known : they hatch and rear their young without difficulty in confinement, and have bred several seasons
in succession in the Gardens of the Zoological Society.
“In the summer of 1838 an Egyptian goose, in those gardens, paired with a Penguin
drake — so called from its walking nearly upright, but which is only a variety of the Common
Domestic Duck—and the eggs were productive. The same two birds were kept together in the follow-
ing season, and the result was, more productive eggs. The young birds were preserved, and kept by
themselves, experimentally.
“Besides various instances of single specimens of the Egyptian goose having been obtained in
this country, a flock of five were seen in the Fern Islands in April, 1830. A small flock visited
the Tweed in February, 1839. Three were shot at Campsie, near Glasgow, in November, 1832. Mr.
Wallace, of Douglas, sent me word that a flock of nine were seen in the Isle of Man, in September,
1838. This species has been killed in Ireland. Four were shot on the Severn, near Bridgewater, in
February, 1840; two were shot in Dorsetshire, in 1836.” Colonel Hawker mentions two killed in
Norfolk, and three at Longparish, in Hampshire, in the winter of 1823; and the next year again,
during some tremendous gales from the west, a flock of about eighty appeared near the same place,
when two more were killed.
THE CANADA GOOSE.”
THE Canada Goose is the ordinary wild goose of the middle and boreal regions of North America.
It is a migrating bird, breeding in the higher latitudes, within the Arctic circle; whence, on the
* Anser Canadensis: Willughby.
THE CANADA GOOSE. 383
approach of winter, vast flocks wing their way southwards, where every means for their destruction
are in active operation.
Though the ordinary European tame goose is kept in North America, the Canada goose is also kept
as a domestic bird, and is said to thrive better than the former. In France and England it has been
domiciled, and interbreeds with the common goose; the hybrids are highly esteemed for the very
THE CANAL.A. GOOSE.
superior flavour and delicacy of their flesh. The Canada goose is said to be extremely watchful, and
more sensible of approaching changes in the atmosphere than our ordinary species.
A writer in the “Magazine of Natural History” says: “In this neighbourhood (near Derby), we
are frequently visited by small flocks of the Canada goose, which is a bird, I believe, of very local
distribution. They always announce their approach by a loud noise, and, after wheeling two or three
times round the piece of water near the house, they alight and commence grazing. They are very
ornamental objects, stalking about the lawn, tossing their heads and making curious contortions with




884. CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
their long necks. It frequently happens that two remain when all the rest are flown. After recon-
noitering the place for a few days, they usually fix on the corner of an island as their nesting-place.
This favourite nook of theirs is not far from where a pair of moorhens, year after year, produce their
young; yet neither goose nor moorhen ever interfere with each other, but keep on very good terms;
nevertheless, the former does not permit her sooty companion to make too close an approach. After
the female goose has fully made up her mind as to the locality of her nursery, she begins plucking
feathers, straws, and other soft materials, until she has at last constructed a feather bed. Having laid
her eggs, generally six, she sits with most exemplary patience, and notwithstanding the proximity of
the water, which offers a great temptation, it is rare to find her off her nest. During the period of
incubation the male is, through the greater part of the day, sailing in measured time and slow over the
water, never approaching his mate very near, nor straying very far. On the approach of any intruder,
he displays great uneasiness, and his tranquillity does not return till the danger is over. Shortly after
THE BERNICLE GOOSE.
the goslings have extricated themselves from their brittle covering, they are conducted to the water by
the female, when they are joined by the male, who brings up the rear. The little family remain
together till the return of the flock, when all mix promiscuously, recruit themselves for a few days, and
then depart. A pinioned female was joined by a male. When they were approached, the male did
not fly away until he was pursued so closely as to be in danger of being caught; he remained with his
mate as long as was consistent with his liberty; when that was in danger, and not till then, he
deserted the female. Several of the wild goslings were obtained in the season of 1832; two of them
passed into the hands of a neighbouring farmer, in whose possession they have remained ever since.
They associate with his domesticated gray lag geese, and are very peaceable. Montagu had observed,
that the Canada goose will breed with the common species. Bewick says, “Great numbers of these
Canadian geese were driven from their haunts during the severe snow storms of January and
February, 1814; they were taken upon the sea-shore, near Hartlepool, and divided among the farmers
in the neighborhood, no pains having been taken to keep the breed pure.”


THE BERNICLE GOOSE,-
As a singular specimen of credulity and fallacious reasoning, we give an extract from the “Herbal"
of Gerard, who lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth : “There is," he says, “a small island in Lan-
cashire, called the Pile of Foulders (on the west side of the entrance into Morecambe Bay, about fifteen
miles south of Ulverston), wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised ships, and also the
trunks and bodies, with the branches of old and rotten trees cast up their likeness; whereon is found
a certain spume or froth, that, in time, hardeneth unto certain shells, in shape like those of the muskle
but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour, wherein is contained a thing in form like a lace of silke
finely wove as it were together; one end whereof is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the
fish of oisters and muskles are; the other end is made fast unto the belly of a rude mass or lump,
which in time cometh to the shape and form of a bird; when it is perfectly formed, the shell gapeth
open, and the first thing that appeareth is the aforesaid lace or string; next come the legs of the bird
hanging out, and, as it groweth greater, it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all come
forth, and hangeth only by the bill; in short space after, it cometh to full maturitie, and falleth into
THE NEW II.OLL_*.ND CERLOPSIS,
the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a mallard, and lesser than a
goose, which the people in Lancashire call by no other name than a tree-goose; which place aforesaid
and all those parts adjoining, do so much abound therewith, that one of the best is bought for three
ence.”
P The popular error that the molluscous animal called the bernicle contained the young of a species
of goose, called in consequence the Bernicle Goose, lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the
uneducated on the shores of all the European seas. One reason of the continuance of this error in
several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission granted by the priest to eat this goose on fish-
days, because it was considered to partake more of the character of a fish than of a fowl.
I may seem strange to the reader, yet the following notice, sent by Sir Robert Moray to the
Royal Society, actually appears in their printed Transactions. He says: “The pediclo seems to draw
and convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the shell, and the little bird
within it. In every shell that I opened I found a perfect sea-fowl, the little bill like that of a 900&e,
the eyes marked; the head, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the feathers everywhere perfectly
* Anser leucopsis: Bechst.
WOL. III. 145

386 *. CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
shaped, and blackish coloured; and the feet like those of other water-fowl to my best remembrance.
Nor did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody who did; only some credible
persons have assured me that they have seen some as big as their fist.”
So much for grave statement; another, of a different kind, is thus given by Lady Fanshawe, who
was in France in 1649:—“When we came to Calais, we met with the Earl of Strafford and Sir
Kenelm Digby, with some others of our countrymen. We were all feasted at the governor's of the
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THE GOOSANDER, tº
castle, and much excellent discourse passed; but, as was reason, most showed, was Sir Kenelm
Digby’s, who had enlarged somewhat more in extraordinary stories than might be averred, and all of
them passed with great applause and wonder of the French then at table ; but the concluding one was,
that barnacles, a bird in Jersey, was first a shell-fish to appearance, and from that, sticking upon old
wood, became in time a bird. After some consideration, they unanimously burst out into laughter,
believing it altogether false; and, to say the truth, it was the only thing true he had discussed with
them. That was his infirmity, though otherwise a person of most excellent parts, and a very fine-
bred gentleman.” - . . . - - -
THE NEW HoLLAND CEREOPSIS." -
This remarkable bird is a native of New Holland, on. several parts of which it is very abundant; it
does not, however, visit the interior, but is confined to the borders of the sea, and especially to the
small islands adjacent to the mainland. * *. - ‘. *, *
The characters which distinguish this bird from the geese, though not very important, are well
* Cereopsis Novae Hollandise.

THE NEW HOLLAND CEREOPSIS, 387
marked, and embrace striking modifications of various organs. They consist chiefly in the form of the
bill, the naked part of which is extremely short, and forms a kind of truncated hook; in the large open
nostrils placed near the middle of the cere, which is very broad, and leaves but a small portion of the
bill uncovered; in the somewhat greater length of the legs, which are bare of feathers for some distance
above the knees; in all the toes being more robust ; and in the number of tail-feathers, which are six-
teen in the cereopsis, while there are only twelve in the goose.
THE GOOSANDER."
THE birds belonging to the genus Mergus live on lakes, ponds, and rivers. They destroy a vast
abundance of fish, and, for their destructive powers in this respect, have been compared to the otters.
THE CRESTED, THE HORNED, THE EARED, AND THE LITTLE GREBE.
It is for the purpose of retaining the slippery fish that the mandibles and tongues of these birds are
furnished with dentilations and papillae, which facilitate the entrance of food into the gullet. So great
is the bulk of the fish that they sometimes swallow, that they cannot be introduced completely into the
stomach, the body descending there only when the head is digested. The gizzard of the Merganser is
less muscular than that of the ducks; their intestines and caeca are shorter; the swallowing part of the
lower larynx in males is enormous, and partly membranous.
THE GREBES.*
THE Grebes live on lakes and ponds, and build in the rushes. They swim with equal facility either
on or beneath the surface of the water; in the latter case they use their wings as if flying in the
liquid element. Their food consists of fishes, insects, and aquatic reptiles; but the stomach, when
* Mergus merganser, + Podiceps,








388 CASSEii's PopULAR NATURAf. HistoRY.
dissected, is usually found to contain a mass of feathers, which it would appear the bird had taken
from its own plumage.
The title given to this genus of birds refers to the lobated form of their toes, which differ from
those of every other race of aquatic birds. Instead of being webbed, as in the duck tribe and others of
the Watatores, they are completely separate and flattened, having their edges furnished with a broad,
stiff membrane, each toe being, in fact, a distinct and beautifully-formed paddle. Of the three anterior
toes, the outermost is the longest and largest; the next is nearly as large, and its outer edge lies
tile-like over the inner membrane of the outermost; the innermost toe is less than the middle one, on
which its outer edge impinges. The hind toe is short, placed high on the leg, and furnished with a
lobated membrane. The arrangement of the scales crossing the toes gives to them a leaf-like
appearance; for the lines dividing the scales run in regular succession obliquely upwards from a
central line or shaft, formed by the bones advancing to the tips, which are covered with a broad, flat
nail. The leg is short, and flattened laterally, so as to cut the water when drawn up after each
stroke. The largeness of the outer toe, at the first glance surprising, is a necessary and beautiful
provision; for, by this arrangement, the impetus of the stroke of each foot is carried in a line obliquely
forwards to the anterior part of the chest, to which it converges; while, were the structure arranged
differently, the line of the impulse of the stroke would diverge from the body, and there would be
a waste of power.
The nests of these birds are placed among the thick reeds and luxuriant aquatic herbage of
marshes, or the sedges which border fresh-water lakes and rivers. They are composed of masses of
half-decayed roots, dried flags, and other similar materials. Each one is large and compact, but
roughly constructed, and rises and falls according to the rise and fall of the water on which it floats.
There are three or four eggs.
The Crested Grebe” is the largest of the genus. It breeds annually amidst the moors and fens of
our marshy districts. As the winter sets in, and the still waters begin to freeze, it migrates to the ,
larger rivers, and there moults, where it obtains fish and small crustacea, which form its winter food.
When Mr. Selby was making a tour through Holland, accompanied by Sir W. Jardine, he gave chase
to a crested grebe on one of the lakes in the neighbourhood of Rotterdam, and, though in a boat con-
ducted by those most accustomed to the business, it cost severe exertion for upwards of an hour and a
half to get within range, and secure it by a shot through the neck. The Horned Grebet is plentiful in
the north-east of Europe, in Northern Asia, and in North America. Dr. Richardson found it in the
fur countries, frequenting every lake with grassy borders. The Eared Grebe f occasionally breeds in
the eastern counties of England, and is common in the northern parts of Europe. The Little Grebeș
is the Smallest and most interesting of the grebes. It is common in all the southern counties of
Britain, wherever ponds and small lakes, fringed with reeds and dense herbage, offer it a refuge. Shy
and wary, on the least appearance of danger it dives instantly, and takes shelter amidst the reeds, where
it is effectually concealed.
THE DIVERS.]
THE Divers nearly resemble the grebes, from which they differ but little, except in their palmated feet.
Like them, too, while on the land they are beset with difficulties in their locomotions; on the water,
they are entirely at ease. *
In these birds the legs are situated more posteriorly than they are in any other bird. This causes
their walking to be painful, and obliges them, when on shore, to preserve a vertical position. As,
moreover, the greater part of them are bad fliers, and as many of them cannot fly at all, on account of
the extreme shortness of their wings, they may be considered as almost exclusively confined to the
surface of the water. In consequence of this their plumage is closer, and it often presents a smooth
surface, with a silvery brightness. They swim under water with the help of their wings, almost in the
manner of fins. They have a peculiar muscle on each side the lower larynx.
* Podiceps cristatus. f Podiceps cornutus, † Podiceps auritus. § Podiceps minor. | Colymbidae,
36
DIVERS AND PUFFINS.

fiii. COMMON sküAs
The Skua is the largest and most remarkable of the gullst It inhabits the Arctic regions of
Europe, Asia, and America, and is very abundant in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles, breeding in com-
munities upon Foulah, Unst, and Rona's Hill, in Mainland. It is a rare and occasional visitor in the
Southern part of Great Britain. :
It is not merely bold, but ferocious in the breeding season. Selby says: “It will at that time
attack even man, without hesitation, should he happen to approach the site of its nest; and scrimpetu-
ous is its attack, that the natives of the Shetland Isles are compelled, on such occasions, to defend
themselves by holding up a knife or sharp stick, on which the assailant has been frequently known to
transfix and kill itself, whilst making pounces on the head of the intruder. Dogs, foxes, and other
animals are instantly attacked, and so severely dealt with by the wings and beak of the strong, pugna-
cious skua, as to be soon driven to a hasty retreat, and no bird is permitted to approach with impunity;
*. --- Sw Jºss
-*
THE COMMON SRUA.
the eagle itself being beaten off with the utmost fury, should it happen to venture within the limits of
the breeding territory.” - . . . * g.
In some places where these birds abound, they become the guardians of the young lambs, which
the people consider perfectly safe in summer; and as a return for this protection, they are never
molested, being held in no less esteem than the stork in Holland, or the ibis in Egypt. Other gulls
are, however, exposed to the attack of these robbers, probably because, being the most diligent pursuers
of fish, they are sure to find from their exertions a never-failing supply.
The nest of the skua consists of dried weeds. There are two eggs of a dark olive-green blotched
with brown. The head is of a deep brown; the neck and the under plumage brownish-gray,
marbled or tinged with reddish-brown. The bills and legs are black.
The duties of incubation being over, the skua retires from the open sea, and passes a solitary life
during the winter, far from land. •
* Ilestris oatárractes. + Laridae,

390 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
THE COMMON GULL, *
THE Gulls are natives of every shore from north to south. Mant says truly —
Wave in blue sky his silver sail
Aloft, and frolic with the gale,
Or sink again his breast to lave,
And float upon the foaming wave:
Oftoer his form your eyes may roam,
His sunny pinion's sable tip Nor know him from the feathery foam,
In the green wave; now lightly skim Nor, "mid the rolling waves, your ear
With wheeling flight the water's brim, On yelling blast his clamour hear.”
“On nimble wing the gull
Sweeps booming by, intent to cull,
Voracious, from the billow's breast,
Mark'd far away, his destined feast:
|
|
|
Bºhold him now, deep plunging, dip
THE COMMON GULL,
THE COMMON GUILLEMOT.4
THose who have visited Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, will remember the myriads of birds that
breed there—puffins, razor-bills, guillemots, and cormorants. “Their number,” says Gilpin, “can
only be described by the expression of darkening the air. They sit commonly, when they are not in
motion, on the ledges of the cliffs, in the crannies of which they rear their young. You see them
ranged in black files through a considerable space. The report of a gun brings them all out of their
recesses; and the air, which a moment before was still and quiet, is now beaten with myriads of busy
wings, and filled with screams and cries, as various as the tribes from which they issue.”
The Common Guillemot inhabits the northern seas of Europe, Asia, and America, emigrating, in
large troops, in winter to the coasts of Norway, the Baltic, Holland, and France, but more rarely
wandering to the inland lakes of continents. It often breeds, in company with the auks, among
the cliffs of the rocks, as in the Island of Priestholm, near Anglesea, the Fern Isles on the coast
of Northumberland, and the precipitous rocks near Scarborough.
* Larus canus. + Uria trolle,

THE PUFFIN.* .
THE singular appearance of this bird, the contour of its figure, which is round, thick, and ball-like, and
peculiar physiognomy, naturally attract attention. It makes its appearance at its customary breeding-
places about the middle of April, and departs in August to winter on the southern coasts of Spain,
Italy, and other parts of Southern Europe. It is very numerous at the Needles in the Isle of Wight,
on Priestholm Island, off the coast of Anglesea, Lundy Island, and at other places. * *
The length of the bird is thirteen inches. The bill is deeply furrowed, and bluish-gray at the
base, the middle part orange-red, which deepens into bright red at the tip ; the legs are orange-red.
Perched on the cliff of the craggy precipice, the puffin looks down with eager gaze on the sea beneath,
and skilfully throws itself into the abyss. Here it expertly swims and dives; its food consisting of the
smaller fishes, and especially the young of the sprat.
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T H E G R E A T A U. K.f
THE Great Auk was always an extremely rare bird in this country, so much so that the few instances
recorded of its capture are nearly all known. The chief interest attaching to it now is the fact that it
has become nearly, if not quite, extinct, within the last few years; and that chiefly through the
agency of man. The circumstances of its extinction being known may lead us to probable conjectures
respecting the disappearance of other and less known animals and birds.
4. Mormon fratercula: Temm. † Alca impennis,

392 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
On the coasts of Britain the bird was nearly always seen singly, or in pairs; except at St. Kilda,
where at one time it seems to have bred, coming in May, and leaving again in June. It once was to
be found at the Faroe Islands, but was already becoming extinct in 1800. On the coast of Iceland
there was a rock, called the Gare-fowl-skerry—(Geirfugl is the Norsk name for the bird)—off Cape
Reykjanes, which in the last century was singularly productive of these birds. Annual excursions
were made to it, and the birds and their eggs carried off in large numbers. -
This rock became submerged by volcanic agency in 1830, and shortly after a colony of gare-fowls
was found on Eldey, a neighbouring island. There the last specimens were got in 1844. There is,
however, a second rock, near the sunken island, where, if at any point in the Worthern Seas, the gare-
º
º
liº
ſ º
| .
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THE PUFFEN.
fowl, it is believed, may still be living. So formidable a surf, however, is beating over it continually,
that no one has as yet been able to reach it.
But the “Penguin,” as the ancient mariners called the Great Auk, existed formerly in greatest
abundance in the Newfoundland Seas; and the way it was treated there shows us clearly enough how
it comes to be extinct at present. We extract from Hakluyt's “Voyages” the following quaint
description of “The Voyage of M. Hore, and diuers other gentlemen, to Newfoundland, in the yeere
1536 :"—“From the time of their setting out from Gravesend, they were very long at sea, to witte,
above two moneths, and never touched any land untill they came to part of the West Indies, about
Cape Briton, shaping their course thence north-eastwardes, until they came to the Island of Penguin,
which is very full of rockes and stones, whereon they went, and found it full of great foules white and

THE GREAT AUK.
393
gray, as big as geese, and they saw infinite numbers of their egges. They drewe a great number of the
foules into their boates upon their sayles, and tooke up many of their egges; the foules they flead, and
their skins were very like honey-combes, full of holes, being flead off; they dressed and eate them, and
found them to be very good and nourishing meat.”
It would be easy to multiply extracts of this kind, showing that the Auk was literally eaten out,
like the Dodo at Rodriguez. On a group of small islands off Newfoundland, called Trenk Islands,
remains of rude stone enclosures have been found, into which the victims used to be driven, and heaps
of their bones.
º
1. GREAT Aug. 2. The king penguin. 3 & 4. THE BLAck-Bill,ED Auk.
The Penguins" constitute a group of oceanic birds peculiar to the Southern Ocean. They are not
intertropical, but range from the frigid to the temperate latitudes south of the tropic of Capricorn, and
in these seas take place of the auks, and especially of the great auk of the Northern Ocean. The legs
of these birds are so proportioned to their bodies, that, in order to maintain its balance when on shore,
the bird is obliged to stand upright, and to hobble along in this singular attitude. A flock of these
birds, standing in array on the sea-shore, has a novel and very remarkable appearance; for, being
collected in long ranks, they resemble a marshalled body of soldiers. The tarsi are very short and
strong; the toes are three in number, united by intervening webs, besides an inner toe in a rudimentary
condition, directed backwards.
The feet of the penguin serve not only as paddles, but to some extent as a rudder; for the tail is
* Aptenodytes,
WOL. III, 146






394 CASSELL’s POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
very small, and in some species reduced to the minimum of development. Its chief organs of aquatic
progression are, however, its paddle-like wings. In the great auk the wings are also paddles, but they
are less completely so, inasmuch as the usual feathers of these organs are to be made out, though they
HEAD OF PENGUIN. WING OF PENGUIN.
are extremely short and small. In the penguin, on the contrary, the paddles are always covered with
layers of small, rigid, scale-like feathers, lying as closely as possible, and forming a thin but compact
covering to the skin.
- THE TERNS.*
THE Terns have also been called Sea-swallows, from the resemblance of their forked tail, their long
wings, and their constant habit of shaving the surface of the water in all directions, in pursuit of small
fish, to those of swallows.
The terms are continually on the wing, and, though web-footed, are not seen to swim. They rest
º).
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THE COMMON TERN. H.
but seldom, and only on the land. Their food consists chiefly of small fish and mollusks, which they
seize on the surface of the water; but they also catch aerial insects. They send forth sharp and
piercing cries in flying, particularly during nestling time. In calm weather they sometimes rise very
high, and are often seen to come plump down.
* Sterna. + Sterna hirundo.



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396 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
The young differ from the adult and aged only before the moulting, which is double in the known
species. There is no external difference between the sexes. The females deposit their eggs, usually
two or three in number, in a cavity, and these nests are sometimes so close that the sitting birds touch
each other.
Terns are, some assert, found in both continents, from the seas, lakes, and rivers of the North, as
far as the vast coasts of the Austral Ocean, and in almost all the intermediate climates. In Tahiti
they rest upon the bushes; and Forster, in a walk before the rising of the sun, has caught many of
them that were sleeping along the pathway. The species are very numerous.
THE WANDERING ALBATROSS.*
The Wandering Albatross is the largest of all the birds that frequent the sea-coast; it measures three
feet in length, while the extent of its wings is variously stated. Forster says it is about ten feet;
Parkins, eleven feet seven inches; Cook, eleven feet; another authority says twelve feet; a specimen
in the Leverian Museum measured thirteen feet; and Ives describes one, shot off the Cape of Good
Hope, which measured seventeen feet and a half from wing to wing “How powerful,” says Dr.
- º -
==E * : Fº
THE FULLALt. PETEEL.
Arnott, “must be the wing muscles of birds which sustain themselves in the air for hours together
The great albatross, with wings extending fourteen feet or more, is seen in the stormy solitude of the
Southern Ocean, accompanying ships for whole days, without even resting on the waves.”
From the great weight of the birds they have much difficulty in raising themselves into the air,
which they do by striking the surface of the water with their feet, but when once on the wing their
flight is rapid. It is apparently performed with great ease, as they appear to do little more than sway
themselves in the air, sometimes inclining to the left and at other times to the right, gliding with great
* Diomedea exulans,

THE WANDERING ALBATROSS. 397
rapidity over the surface of the sea. It is only in bad weather that their flight is at any great
elevation. Their voice resembles the braying of an ass. -
..º.
THE FULMAR PETREL,4
THE Fulmar Petrel is always abundant in Davis' Straits and Baffin's Bay, and it is common in the icy
Seas. It appears, however, to be migratory, as Captain Sabine, when detained in Jacob's Bay, saw
these birds passing in a continual stream to the northward, in numbers only inferior to the flight of the
“passenger pigeon” of North America. º .*
They visit the rocky St. Kilda, one of the western isles of Scotland, in spring and find tempo-
rary abodes there in holes and caverns. The natives risk their lives, scaling the tremendous and over-
hanging cliffs in search of the young, from whose bodies they obtain down and oil.
“No bird,” says Pennant, “is of such use to the islanders as this; the fulmar supplies them with
oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a
medicine for their distempers.”
THE STORMY PETREL. *
The fulmar is nearly as large as a gull, while the stormy petrel is about the size, and in appear-
ance not unlike, the swift, or largest swallow.
THE STORMY PETREL.t
THE Stormy Petrel, or “Mother Carey's Chicken,” is seen by navigators in every part of the ocean
skimming over the surface of a heavy rolling sea. Before a storm, these birds flock under the wake of
a ship, and are looked upon by sailors as foreboding evil. “But,” says that accurate mattiridist,
* Procellăria glacialis, e + Procellaria pelagica,

398 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL BISTORY.
Alexander Wilson, “as well might they curse the midnight lighthouse, that, star-like, guides them on
their watery way, or the buoy, that warns them of the sunken rocks below, as this harmless wanderer,
whose manner informs them of the approach of the storm, and thereby enables them to prepare for it.”
Barry Cornwall thus sweetly sings:–
“A thousand miles from land are we, For her who lives on the wide, wide sea—
Tossing about on the roaring sea ; - On the craggy ice, in the frozen air,
From billow to bounding billow cast, And only seeketh her rocky lair
Like fleecy snow on the stormy blast : - To warm her young, and teach them to spring
The sails are scattered abroad like weeds, At once o'er the waves on their stormy wing !
The strong masts shake like quivering reeds, - - - - -
The mighty cables, and iron chains, - “ O'er the deep 1 o'er the deep ! -
The hull, which all earthly strength disdains— - - Where the whale, and the shark, and sword-fish sleep
They strain and they crack, and hearts like stone Outflying the blast and the driving rain,
Their natural hard proud strength disown. The Petrel telleth her tale—in vain;
- - For the mariner curseth the warning bird,
“ Up and down up and down | - Who bringeth him news of the storm unheard |
From the base of the wave to the billow's crown, Ah ! thus does the prophet, of good or ill,
And amidst the flashing and feathery foam Meet hate from the creatures he serveth still ;
The Stormy Petrel finds a home— t Yet he ne'er falters:—so, Petrel, spring
A home, if such a place may be, Once more o'er the waves on thy stormy wing !’
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THE GANNET,
The whole of the family of the Petrels are characterised by the strength and expansiveness of
their wings, with the aid of which they traverse immeasurable tracts of the ocean in search of food,
** 2,4°
and support their flight at considerable distances from land, seldom having recourſe to their 20.7°F ºf
swimming. - - -

THE GANNET."
--- sº *-* ~
THE 3.5s Rock, at the entrance of the Frith of Forth, and some of our northern isles, are the annual
resorts of this bird, often called the Solan Goose, for the purpose of incubation. The nests are
placed on the ledges and projections of the rocks, where multitudes breed in harmony together.
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THE WHITE OR COMMON PELICAN.
* THE WHITE PELICAN.4
THIs bird is not uncommon in several of the warmer countries of Europe, whence it sometimes
wanders into more northern latitudes. It is the largest of the swimming birds. So highly dilatable
is its pouch, as to be capable of containing two gallons of water; the number of fish it can hold may,
therefore, be easily imagined. -
* Sula Bassana. + Pelecanus onocrotalus.


400 CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY
THE COMMON CORMORANT.”
The Cormorant, or Corvorant, as it is sometimes called, inhabits the New as well as the old continent.
In the latter it is very widely diffused, being spread over a considerable portion of Europe, especially
the North; and is common in England.
THE COMMON CORMORANT,
This bird swims very low in the water; even in the sea the body is deeply immersed, little more
than the neck and head being visible above the surface. It dives most expertly, pursuing the fish that
forms its food with great activity under water. It flies with the neck outstretched, and may often be
seen drying its drenched plumage on the shore, or on insulated rocks. -
Another species of this bird is the Cormoran Largup of Temminck, the Crested Corvorant of
* Phalacrocorax carbo.

-
THE CORMORANT. 401
Pennant," and the Shag, or Green Cormorant of Gould. In the old bird in its winter dress, the entire
plumage is of the most beautiful resplendent and lustrous green. At the commencement of the spring
there arises on the middle of the head, between the eyes, a fine tuft of wide and outspread feathers,
about an inch and a half high, capable of erection, and which in that state presents a toupet, or large
plume; on the occiput, also, are ten or twelve rather long and sublulate feathers. There are never
TILE DARTER,
any white feathers on the neck, nor on the thighs, as in the common cormorant. The shag is found
throughout the north of Europe; it is very common in Iceland, the Orkneys, Feroe Islands, Norway,
and Sweden, in the vicinity of great lakes.
THE DARTER,+
These extraordinary birds are well described by Buffon when he says:—“The Anhinga offers us a
reptile grafted on the body of a bird.” Those who have seen the long neck of a Darter, and that only
* Phalacrocorax cristatus. * Plotus anhinga: Linnaeus.
WOL. III, 147



CASSELL’S POPULAR NATURAL HISTORY.
issuing from the water, twisting about above the herbage and among the foliage, say that it might
easily be taken for a snake. Le Vaillant states that the neck of the species seen by him in Africa was
always oscillating when the bird was perched; and that any one who saw its tortuous movements
among the foliage, the body being concealed, would take it for one of the tree-serpents.
THE TROPIC, BIRD."
THE Tropic Birds, so well known to navigators, form a genus distinguished at once by the two long
slender tail-feathers. Their length of wing and comparatively feeble foot proclaim them formed for
flight, and accordingly they disport in the air far out at sea, swift and untired. They rarely repair to
the land for any length of time, and when there, at the period of midification, perch on rocks and trees.
Their habitual domicile in the Torrid Zone does not separate them from the land; and they can
reach, as they do nearly every might, the isles and lofty rocks that serve them as a place of refuge.
THE TROPIC BIRD,
M. Lesson, however, so often met with them on sea-tracts entirely devoid of land, and heard them
so often above his head in the calm and fine tropical nights, that he thinks they should be considered
as oceanic birds. The Tropic Bird is about the size of a partridge.
THE FRIGATE-BIRD.4
This bird is among the most singular of the feathered race. Its province is not water, but the air; it
neither swims nor dives, nor rests on the billows like the gull. Its feet are indeed webbed, but the
webs are very partial; the tarsi, or legs, as they are generally called, scarcely half an inch in length-
the whole limb being very short, and covered to the feet with long, loose feathers; the tail is long and
* Phaeton etherius. + Fregata aquila.







THE FRIGATE-Biff). 403
forked, the wings of extraordinary spread, and the general plumage deficient in that close and downy
texture which always characterises a bird whose habitat is the surface of the deep.
“The frigate-bird,” says Mr. Darwin, “has a noble appearance when seen soaring in a flock at a
stupendous height (at which time it merits the name of the condor of the ocean), or when many together
are darting, in complicated evolutions, but with the most admirable skill, at the same floating object.
They seem to take their food quietly, for between each descent they raise themselves on high, and descend
again with a swift and true aim. If the object (such as offal thrown overboard) sinks more than six or
eight inches beneath the surface, it is lost to the frigate-bird. I was informed at Ascension, that when
the little turtles break their shells, and run to the water's edge, these birds attend in numbers, and pick
up the little animals (being thus very injurious to the turtle fishing) off the sand, in the same manner
as they do from the sea.” -
THE FRIGATE-BIRD.
The frigate-bird is met with hundreds of leagues from land; in fact, it resorts there only for
hatching and rearing its young. Under ordinary circumstances it continues ever on the wing over
the ocean, reposing on outspread pinions in the higher regions of the air, where, without any effort, it
can remain suspended. For such a life, however, it has been expressly fitted by its Creator. Beneath
the throat is situated a large pouch, capable of being distended with air from the lungs, with which—
as well as the hollow bones of the wings—it immediately communicates. The bones of the wings
themselves, besides being hollow, are extremely long and light; and thus the pouch and tubes form an
apparatus analogous to a balloon, which requires little else but the wings to be spread to be enabled
by its buoyancy to sustain the body in the atmosphere. This, however, is only one of innumerable
instances, already observed, of the all-wise and benevolent adaptation of the creature to its circum-
stances, and to which others will be added as, in the next volume, we examine the structure and
habits of REPTILES, INSECTS, FISHES, CRUSTACEANs, ZooPHYTEs, and ANIMALCULES,

S C I E N TIF I C
TA B L E.
f. Family; s, f. Sub Family; g. Genus; t. Tribe; s. Species.
ORDER I.
ACCIPITRES ... tº e º 'º º º
g. Vulturidae... © tº º tº ºn tº
s. – sarcoramphus gryphus
papa.
8. — neophron percnopterus ..
8. — vultur aura... .
92 ,, minuta
,, auricularis...
8. º 29
•ºm ºt
— , , fulvus
— , , iota ... tº º ſº
— gypaëtus barbatus
Polyborus... e is tº tº º º gº tº e
— hypoleucus... tº º is & © tº
— vulgaris ... tº e ºs tº º 'º
Falconidae {º} tº tº tº º tº tº & e
— aquila chrysaetos ...
,, fucosa, is tº 9 gº tº gº
•s imperialis ... tº gº tº
— falco albicilla tº e º º tº ſº
, Washingtoniensis ...
— haliaeetus leucophalus
— falco haliaeetus ...
— harpyia destructor
— falco Icelandicus ...
,, peregrinus
, absalon... tº dº e e tº ſº
92 subbuteo s & e
, tinnunculus ...
,, palumbarius ...
— accipiter fringillarius
8. — milvus ictinus
8. — falco furcatus tº e e & 9 º'
, bidentatus ... tº g
, menalopterus - ...
s: —buteo vulgaris ... -
,, lagopus
s. – circus rufus...
cyaneus
g. Strigidae ... ...
s. – bubo Europaeus
, maximus ... ...
3. – strix cunicularia ... tº e c
s. – bubo Virginianus ... tº gº tº
*=msº
a-smsº
mºsºmºe
£ºmmºgº
3, -
3, -
3, -
8, º 99
&, -
PAGE
tö.
ib,
"WOL. III.
s. – caprimulgus vociferus
8. — podārgus cornutus.
s. – nyctibius grandis ...
9. Hirundindia. ... ...
s. – hirundo rustica ...
92 riparia ...
3, -
S. - , , esculanta
8. — , , , urbica
s. – , fucifaga ...
s. – ,, purpurea
3. turdus sordidus
g. Todidae ... ...
8. — todus vividis
|s. --— alcedo ispida
g. Meropidae... ..."
--- t. Dentirostres '. * † tº º ...
8. —lanius excubitor ...
g. Muscicapidae ... ...
s. – muscicapa luctuosa.
8. — yº albicollis
s. – lanius collaris ...
... — muscicapa grisola ...
92 Paridisi
29 tyrannus
g. Sylviadae ... tº e g º º e
g. Saricola ... tº e º ºs e >
8. – saxicola rubicola ...
, rubetra
,, tenanthe ...
— sylvia rubicola ...
— curruca luscinia ...
— phoenicura tythis ...
— Sylvia cisticola ...
sutoria © e dº
— accentor modularis
— salicaria arundinacea
— curruca atricapilla...
g. Anthus ... © e º e º 'º
s. – anthus pratensis ...
,, arboreus
8. — sylvia trochilus ...
g. Motacillae... ... ...
s. – motacilla alba ...
** are e”
3
3, -
S
*-
& © &
* >
92
3, e-
s. – , ,
,, . flava. ...
s. - regulus cristatus ...
g. Troglodytes tº tº º
s. – Europaeus ...
3, -
vulgaris
2. Merulidae.
boarula... *
ORDER II.
PASSEREs ... . -
t. Fissirostres "... ...
g, Caprimulgidae -... to º e
s, – caprimulgus Europeus
Tº se • * *
3, -
© tº o
tº º ſº
tº º º
- PA3T.
4. – turdus musicus ... 116
3. – , , viscivorus ... 118
3. – pentrocincla saxatilis ... 119
g. Myothera ... tº º 'º © tº gº ... ib.
8.- orpheus pollyglottus ib.
5. – , , rufus ... 122
3. – cindus aquaticus .. 123
8. – oriolus Galbula 124
3. – manura superba ... 125
8. — merula vulgaris 127
3. – crotophoga ani 129
3. rhipidura albiscapa ib.
g. Pipridae ... tº 9 tº g is © ib.
g. Parus... ... gº tº tº ib.
8. – cristatus 131
3. – major ºb
5. – caudatus th.
8. --— ater ... I32
8. – caeruleus 133
s. – biarmicus tº tº º 134
8. – atricapillus ... tº dº ſº ib.
s. – myrica cerifera ... ... 135
g. Pºprºnae ... ºb.
3. – rupicola crocea ... ... ib.
8. — ;, viridis I36
s. – ampelis garrulus ... ºb.
8. — pardalotus cristatus ºb.
g. Coracina ... tº e Q is tº ... 137
s. – ampelis Americana ... ib.
8. — cephalopterus ornatus 137
s. – bombycilla ... © tº # ... ib.
39 garrula . ... ib.
3, -
t. Controstres tº º ... . ... 140
8. — alauda arvensis ... ... ib.
3. – , , alpestris ... ... 143
8, - ,, brachydactyla ... 144
3. – , , spinoletta ... ºb.
3. – , , cristata ... ... tº.
g. Emberiza ... ... ... ... 145
p. Plectrophanes ... • ſº º ºb.
6. – Lapponica ... ... to.
s. – nivalis e tº º tº º gº ... 146
s. – emberiza miliaria ... ... 147
s. – 2, citrinelia &b.
s. – , , schoeniclus ... 148
s: — , cirlus ... 149.
... s. – , pecoris ... ... ib.
s. – sylvia aestiva ... ... 150
g. Fringillidae ... ... ... tº:
3. – fringilla domestica ... 15,
Af
PAGE
#. — fringilla montana ... ... 152
s. – carduelis elegans ... 153
s. – fringilla montifringilla 155
8. – linota cannabina ... 156
8. – , , montium ... 158
8. — fringilla flavirostrio 159
s. – linota caniscens ... ... ib.
s. – fringilla coelebs ... ... 160
8. – , , spinus ... . 161
3. – , , Canaria ... ... 162
8. — loxia chloris tº º º ... 164
s. – , , pyrrhula ... ... 165
s. – pyrrhula enucleator 167
g. Ploceimos ... © tº 0 tº º e ... 168
8. — vidua paridisea ... ... ib.
8. – ploceus Philippensis ... 170
s. – , , socius ... 171
8. — coccothraustes chryso-
cephala tº º ... 173
s. – ploceus textor ... ... 174
8. — ;, pensilis ... ... ºb.
8. — icterus mutatus ... 175
s. – ploceus cristatus ... ... ib.
g. Tanagrinae e e º e a e ... 176
g. Fringillidae tº e º e s e ... ib.
s. Tanagra tatus ... ... ib.
g. Loziadae ... • - tº tº tº tº ... 177
8. — loxia curvirostra ... . 178
g. Sturnidae ... © & Q e tº Q i5.
8. — sturnus vulgaris iö.
3. – , , predatorius 182
8. —ptilonorhyncusholosericeus 183
g. Corvidae ... © e 9 tº is tº ... 185
S. — COTWUIS Cerax ºff.
3. — , frugilegus ... 187
8. — , , corone 189
s. – , , cornix to & 191
3. – , , monedula ... tà.
g. Barita ... ... I92
8. — tibicen & e & • * tº £5.
s. – pyrrhocorax Alpinus £5.
s. – garrulus cristatus ... 193
s. – oriolus phoniceus ... 194
s. – garrulus glandarius 195
g. Nucifraga tº º e e tº e 196
s. –caryocatactes £5.
s. – fregilus graculus ... ib.
s. – corvus pica ... 199
s. – loxia oryzivora 202
g. Meliphagidae ... ... ... ib.
s. – meliphaga Novae Hollandiae ib.
s. – Paradisaea major ... ... 203
3. – 99 apoda ... ... 208
3. - 33 major ... ... 209
3. – 93. magnifica ... 210
3. -- 33 regia ... ib.
g. Buceridae ... ... ... ... ib.
s. – buceros rhinoceros ... 211
s, – , , monoceros ... ib.
s. – 2, Malabaricus ib.
s. – , , Niger ib.
s. – cavatus ... tº w is ... 212
s. –vilacous ... ... ... ib.
s. – Abyssinicus ... ... 214
s. – nasatus * - e. e s e ... ib.
t. Tenwirostres © º º ... ... ib.
g. Certhiada. • a e ... ... ib.
s. – Certhia familiaris ... ... 216
SCIENTIFIC TABLE,
8. — Certhia muraria ... tº e >
8. — fulnarius fugilinosus
s. – soul-mangas tº º º tº gº tº
g. Cinnyridae
g. Nectarčniadae ... * - e.
s. – nectarinia splendid
8. — trochilus pella
colubris...
ornatus ...
Gouldii ...
,, superciliosus
s. – sitta Europaea
3. – upupa epops
g. Promerops tº tº e
3. Capensis ... tº º e e 9 º'
g. Neomorpha
3. Gouldi.
*
33
*g
23.
*
22
3. –
ORDER III.
SCANSORES ... u º & tº a 9 tº tº º
g. Galbula. •
g. — cuculus tº ſº tº & º tº tº º ſº
pisanus *
auratus ... e a º
33 Orientalis
— trogonidae couroucouis
. Trogonidae tº e o e º a
. — trogan resplendens
— phoenicophaus pyrrhoce-
phalus ... & ºn tº e e -
8. — bucco versicolor is tº
Lathami ... e tº e
3. - 33
— 2,
;
:
3. –
g. Picidae ... • * * © & ©
8. — tamatia maculata ...
g. Tamatia ...
g. Picidae ...
s. – picus viridis
major
medius
,, martius
. — colaptus auratus ...
... — yunx torquilla
g. Psittacidae tº tº tº
g. Trichogloss:
8. — psittacus pusillus
. —lorius domicella .
— psittacus erythacus
,, aracanga.
37
*-
53
*-
3
$ 3.2
3. –
3.
&
&
— psitt acus.ararauna e de &
- Ina CrOCerCuS ararauna, ...
— plyctolophus rosaceus
*m- 22 galeritus
. — cacatua cristata ...
. Palaeornis * * * * * * * 9 &
— psittacus torquatus • * *
— psittacara cyanogaster
— arara Carolinensis... tº e e
— psittacara Guianensis ...
charmosyna Papuenis ...
— andígena bailloni ... tº º tº
— pteroglossus bitorquatus
g. Musophagidae ...
:
|-
:
:
i
. Macrocercus * * > º • --
PAGE
216
217
ib.
220
225
£b.
226
i5.
227
230
231
232
ib.
iö.
ib.
242
243
ib.
244
245
249
251
252
ib.
ib.
258
262
th.
263
ib.
264
265
266
ºb.
267
268
ib.
270
th.
271
272
274
275
276
ORDER IV.
GALLINA, ... tº e ſº
J. – Columbidae º e G e - ©
8. - lophyrus coronatus e - ©
3. – geophilus carunculatus ...
3. – Columba aromatica
$ ,, Nicobarica
3. ,, palumbus º
3. migratoria © º º
$ ,, Capensis... -
s. – turtur communis ...
5. – chalcophaps Indicus
8. — ourax pauxi tº º º º, º º
g. Pavonidae...
3. – pavo cristatus
3. spicifer © º e tº º º
S
J
S
&
S
S
S
&
-
º-
*-
*º-
95
. — meleagris gallo-pavo tº e O
. – talegalla Lathami... ...
... — Numida meleagris... • * >
. Phasianidiae tº º º
. — phasianus colchicus º
torquatus º
nytheremus ...
pictus ... {\ } 0.
92
*sº
e
39
3
S
• - 5 y
. — argus giganteus
. — lophotorus impeyanus
g. Gallus ... tº e > • * º tº º
8. — gallus giganteus
3. ,, domesticus ...
s. – gallina crisp
g. Otis - tº $ tº tº a gº © tº e
. Tetraonidae tº tº º tº ºn tº º O &
— tetrao urogallus
— , , tetrix
, Scoticus ... e - ©
— lagopus mutus
— tetrao cupido •
. — , , Andalusicus
f. Perdicidae...
s..f. Perdicinae
s. – perdix cinerea
8. — , , rubra © e • * *
— coturnix dactylisonans ...
. — ortyx Virginianus ...
— lophortyx Californicus
!
:
i
92 Cubensis o
. — eupsychortyx cristatus ...
— callipepla Californica ...
g. Struthionidae ... tº e <>
8. — struthio camelus ...
8. — casuarius º
3. – 53 © Iſlöll . . . • a e
s. – dromaius Novae Hollandiae
8. — apterix Australis ... e
s. – casuarius Bennetti tº 0 tº
ORDER W.
GRALLATORES e e e e - e.
g. Gruidae ... e e. tº º tº
3, grus cineria © tº e tº º º
8. — ardea pavonina ... • ee
s. – anthropoides virgo e - e.
s. – grus montignesia ...
g. Ardeidae ... tº $ tº e º e
s. – ardea helias
,, egretta
8, *- • * > • * *
405
PAGE
277
278
ib.
282
284
285
291
292
294
ib.
296
297
299
301
ib.
302
328
330
332
406
SCIEN’īfīIC TABLE.
9. Botavirus ... • * * * * * *
s. – botaurus stellaris ...
— , , nigriceps
— ;, caerulescens
— , , Denhami
, kori
. Ciconia ... tº tº º
— ciconia alba
, marabou
,, argala e ee
,, Javanica
g. Platalea ... e tº º &
s. – platalea leucorodia
g. Phoenicopterus ... ...
8. — phoenicopterus ruber
*-
3. –
s' Numenius ibis ...
s. Parra Africana ...
8. Balaeniceps rex ... tº & Gº
8. Cancroma cancroptoga...
g. Charadrius e tº e e G &
s. – charadrius pluvialis
3. -
s. Recurvirostra avosetta ...
g. Scolopacidae º, e e ºn &
8. —, scolopax rusticola
gallinago
$s -º-º- 3?
93 himantopus
© s a
92 Chilensis...
IPAGE
342
*b.
ib.
343
ib.
344
ib.
345
ºb.
348
ib.
ºb.
ºb.
348
349
ib.
350
*5.
351
353
354
ib.
355
ib.
356
358
359
360
C.eeºee
eee©
PAGE
, 361
362
363
364
ib.
366
ºb.
ºb.
367
368
369
370
371
372
£b.
ib.
373
374
375
377
378
sº
3:0
381
382
o og
6. – scolopax major ...
8. Charadrius morinellos ...
8. Haematopus ostralegus ...
g. Tringae ... © & © tº º º
8. — tringa vanell
,, grisea © tº tº
,, hypoleucos ...
, macularia ...
8. Gallinula chloropus ...
8. Rallus porzana ... C & Q
8. Gallinula crex ... © sº
8. Palamodea cornuta tº
s. Notornis Mantelli Q Q @
ORDER WI.
NATATORES ... ... gº tº
g. Cygnus ... © tº e º º º
8.- cygnus olor... tº e -
, nigricollis ...
8. Anas boschas ... e e -
8. Dendronessa sponsa ...
8. Somateria Molimissa
8. Anas galericulata
8. , tadomas
s. Querquedula erecca
g. Anser e e Q © e G is us -
s. – anser ferus ... tº a º
,, Segetum Q tº Q
,, AEgypticus ...
8. — , Canadensis ...
3, -
&e -
3, -
3. *-
S. -
&= -
8. – anser bernicla
s. Cereopsis Novae Hollandiae
8. Mergus merganser º tº e
g. Podiceps ... ſº o
s. - podiceps cristatus...
99 cornutus...
3. -
8, -
99 minor
g. Colymbidae... ...
8. Lestris catarractes
8. Larus canus Q & Cº e
8. Uria troile e ee tº a tº
s. Mormon fratercula tº o tº
8. Alca impennis ... eº º
g. Aptenodytes tº - tº tº e e
8. Mergulus melanoleucos...
g. Sterna ... G - e.
8. — sterna hirundo ...
s. Diomedea exulans tº gº º
g. Procellaria. - tº e
3, -
© 0 tº
8. — procellaria glacialis
3. *- 92 pelagica
8. Sula Bassana ... º
s. Pelecanus onocratalus ..
s. Phalacrocorax carbo
a. , cristatus ... º
8. Plotus anhinga. ... © e
s. Phaeton etherius ... e
s. Fregata aquila ... •
39 auritus ... "
PAGE
385
386
387
ib.
388
:
ib.
389
390
£5.
... 39B.
... 392
... 393
... 394
... ºb.
... 396
... 397
... ºb.
... ºb.
... 399
... 400
... 401
tº tºº 402
Oee ib.
AFRICAN WATER Fowl, ... tº...º.º.
Albatross, Wandering ... tº a tº
Apterix tº º º tº & E. * e & tº º -
Araçari, Double-Collared ... tº ºr tº
Aromatic Winago .. tº e tº
Auk, Great ...
Avocet tº e tº e
Baker... & © e e g is © e e e - ©
Barbet, Parji-coloured ...
Bee-Eaters ... e tº º tº º º
Birds, Classification of
—, Digestion of ... a - e. • * 0.
—, Eggs of & © tº 0 0 &
, Feathers of ... © e de
—, Incubation of e - e. * * *
—, Nictitating Membrane of ...
—, Respiration of
—, Senses of e e - © tº 0 tº
—, Skeleton of ... * @ 9 tº 9 º'
—, Voice of • * * © º º e - ©
—, Wings of
Bittern e s º
Plackbird
—, Jamaica.
Blackcap ...
Boatbill tº tº º
Bohemian Wax-Wing ...
Bullfinch ... • * tº • e Q
Bunting, Black-headed ... •
, Cirl ... e tº C. tº e e © tº 9
—, Common & Q & © e tº tº º 0.
—, Cow ... © tº e tº e º
, Lapland e s e º 'º o © tº o
, Snow ... • * * tº tº e e - e.
—, Yellow “. . . .
Bustard, African ... • * * & © tº
—, Asiatic
—, Great ... tº & © tº º & 0 - 0
, Little ... tº p º © º ſº tº º º
Butcher Bird tº e & © º º tº º º
Buzzard, Common ... tº º
Canary Bird...
Cap-More ... es e
Capercaillie ... • so º º º
Cassowary ... tº º ºs
Cedar-Bird ... & G G
Cereopsis ... tº e Q e tº e
Chaffinch ... tº e º
Climbing Birds ...
Chough sº º sº tº e º c - e. e - ©
Cockatoo, Greater Sulphur-crested
—, Lesser Sulphur-crested ...
—, Rose-crested ... • * > • & e
Colin, Virginian ... ... tº a º
Condor tº º e tº º º tº e tº sº
Copingas ... e sº G. & 6 tº ee
Cormorant ...
Corn-Crake ... ... ... ...
PAGE
353
396
330
274
284
391
356
216
240
342
127
129
109
354
139
165
148
149
147
145
149
146
147
344
343
342
343
91
66
162
174
314
328
137
385
160
234
196
265
© o º & © Q © e º
266
264
323
16
137
400
369
I N ID E X.
-º-
Crane, Common ... ...
—, Crowned ...
º, Demoiselle ... e G
—, Mantchourian & ſº e
Creeper, Common ... © & ©
—, Wall ... -
Crossbill ... tº a º
Crow, Alpine e G
—, Carrion tº ſº e
—, Hooded
—, Nutcracker
Cuckoo. G G → • * *
—, Eastern Black
--, Gilded... & © tº
Curassovr, Galeated tº e e
Darter
Divers
Dodo ...
Domestic Fowls ...
Dotterel ... tº º º
Duck... © tº e G - e.
, Eider ... & s e
—, Summer
Eagle, Caracara ...
—, Golden
—, Great Sea
—, Harpy
, Sea ... e tº e -
, Vulturine Caracara.
, Washington ... e - e.
—, Wedge-tailed tº & ©
—, White-headed Sea ...
Emu ... g e > * * * © Is -
Euryceros Prevostii
ee
º•
Falcon tº e º e - tº tº tº e
, Gyr ... e - C e tº e
—, Iceland tº ſº e º G º
—, Peregrine e º
Falcunculus ... & © e
Fantail, White-shafted
Finch, Broad-shafted Whidah
, Bull ... tº & tº © tº e
—, Gold ... tº 9 tº * * *
—, Green... tº º ſº &
—, Mountain ... tº sº º
Flamingo, Red ... * @ Q
Flycatcher, Collared * * *
—, Paradise e - © ſº tº ſº
º, Pied ... tº º º tº a º
, Spotted tº º º º & e
, Tyrant • * * * * * s
Fowls, Frizzled and Silky
—, Wallikiki ... tº º e
Frigate Bird... & © tº G tº e
Gallinaceous Birds... ...
Gallinule ...
—, Spotted
PAGE
335
337
338
339
215
216
177
I92
I89
I91
I96
235
237
237
294
401
388
332
399
362
374
377
375
32
37
43
52
67
31
43
42
44
327.
214
53
57
57
57
137
129
168
164
153
164
155
349
95
96
94
95
96
310
311
402
277
367
368
Gannet tº tº º tº dº sº
Goatsucker, Common ... ...
—, Fork-tailed ... tº e - © tº º
Goldfinch ... tº ſº º t tº & Cº - tº
Goosandér ... " ... & so tº G &
Goose, Bean... tº a º • * * ſº e tº
—, Bernicle e tº º * * * tº tº Q
—, Canada © 2 e tº tº º © tº º
—, Domestic ... 0 - - * - ſº
—, Egyptian ... • * * Q & Cº.
—, Wild ... © e ºs © & © tº tº º
Goshawk ... tº tº º e e o e s s
Gould's Neomorpha º e º e º e
— Trochilus © & Cº. © tº e tº tº º
Grebes
Grosbeak, Abyssinian ... ...
—, Pensile tº ºr
—, Philippine tº e -
—, Pine ...
—, Sociable
Grouse, Black © tº G &
—, Pinnated e e G
—, Red ... º
Guillemot ... * tº º & º & & © tº
| Guinea Fowl e se tº º -
Gull, Common * @ e
Harrier, Hen e tº e & © tº
—, Marsh... & sº e s e tº tº Q
Hawk, Sparrow & ºn tº © to º
Hemipodius Tachidromus tº tº G
Heron, Great White & sº º tº e &
—, Scopolaceous • * * * > →
Hobby as a gº tº e -
Honey Sucker
Hoopoe e # e. * * * * * * * - -
Hornbill, Abyssinia © º º ſº e -
, Concave tº e Gº - - -
—, Crescent tº º º * = e º 'º -
, Red-billed ... º, º º & º Q
—, Rhinoceros ... e - e. * - C
2 Unicorn tº º º & © tº tº º
, Violaceous ... tº º º tº º tº
Humming Bird, Ruby-throated ...
* Supercilious ... * - © tº º o
—, Topaz-throated & 9 º' * G -
—, Tufted-necked { } & Gº tº ſº ºr
Ibis e - © e e e tº 6 º G. º º tº G &
Jabiru tº t is © a o
Jacamar ... • * º
Jacana, African &
—, Chinese tº s º * > - tº te tº
Jackdaw ... & e tº * & © g
Jay, Blue ... tº tº ſº. & 0 & 9
—, Common tº a tº º & 6 G s e
Jungle-Fowl... * * * * * > * > *
Kestrel Q & e tº gº © tº e © º
PAGE
398
gº
75
153
386
380
385
382
380
381
379
61
233
226
387
I73
174
170
167
I71
316
318
316
301
390
408
INDEX,
Kingfisher, Black-headed...
—, Common
Kite, Common - e. e.
—, Swallow-tailed
Knot ... tº tº º
Lark, Crested • . . . . . .
—, Meadow
—, Shore ...
—, Short-toed
—, Sky ... º © tº tº
Linnet - e. e. e - © tº sº.
—, Mountain ... e & e
Lory, Papuan
Loxia Bengalensis ..
Lyre-Bird to e e
Maccaw, Blue and Yellow
—, Great Scarlet
Magpie º e e tº a o
Malcoha, Red-headed
Malurus Cyaneus ...
Manakin, Fork-tailed
—, Green ...
—, Rock ...
Martin
—, Purple...
, Sand ...
Merlin - G →
Mocking Bird
—, Ferruginous ...
Mooruk
Nightingale ...
Notornis © tº e
Nutcracker ...
Nuthatch
Oriole, Baltimore ...
—, Golden
Osprey
Ostrich º
Ouzel, Water
Owl, Barn
—, Burrowing
—, Eagle ...
—, Horned
–, Snowy... © tº tº tº gº º
Oyster-catcher ...
Paradise, Emerald Bird of
—, Greater Bird of
—, King Bird of...
— Magnificant Bird of...
, Orchard © & 8 • a ſº
PAGE
90
88
63
64
365
144
144
143
144
140
... iss
158
270
... 173
125
263
262
199
240
169
136
136
135
85
86
83
59
II9
122
331
I01
Petrel, Stormy ... tº tº c
Pheasant, Argus
—, Chinese Peacock
—, Common
—, Impeyan ...
—, Ring-necked...
Pigeon, Carrier ... tº e ſº
—, Carunculated Groun
—, Crowned Goura
—, Magnificent ...
—, Nicobar tº $ tº
—, Passenger
Pipit, Meadow
—, Tree ...
Plantain-Eaters
Plover, Golden
—, Stilt
Poy Bird
Ptarmigan
Puffin... tº C -
Quail ... tº º º
—, Californian
Rapacious Birds
Raven - © tº e to e tº o
Redbreast ... e e s © e is
Redpole, Losser tº
—, Mealy...
Redstart
—, Black ...
Redshank ... tº ſº tº & ſº tº
Regulus, Golden-crested ...
Rice-Bird ... e - e. e e &
Ring-Dove ...
Rook ...
Ruff .
Sandpiper, Common
—, Spotted
Satin Bower Bird ...
Screamer
Secretary Bird
Shelldrake ...
Shrike, Black
—, Collared
—, Great ... tº º
—, Red-backed ...
—, Yellow
Siskin... tº e º tº e Q
Skua ... e - e. G - e.
Snipe, Common
—, Jack ... tº gº ºn
Sparrow, Bottle-nested
—, Hedge...
—, House...
—, Tree
Spoonbills
Starling, Common ...
—, Red-winged ...
Stonechat .. © tº e tº e G
Stork, Marabou ... & © o
—, White... tº e º
Sun-Bird tº tº e e © tº tº
—, Splendid ... tº tº e
Swallow, Chimney ... *
–2 Dicaean tº º º * * © e &
—, Esculent.
Swan, Black-necked
PAGE
397
306
296
301
307
302
278
281
278
284
285
290
110
II0
275
355
355
155
317
391
322
323
I5
185
101
159
159
105
106
361
113
202
285
187
364
366
366
I83
370
51
378
94
95
92
92
91
161
389
360
361
170
108
151
I52
348
178
182
Swan, Mute ê Đ e tº e e tº 0 &
Swift... e e is * - e.
Swimming Birds
Tailor Bird ... • * * © & ©
Tamatia, Spotted-bellied ...
Tanager, Malimbic...
—, Scarlet
Teal ... e tº º
—, Chinese tº o º
—, Golden
—, Missel... ,
—, Rock ...
—, Sordid... tº & ©
Titmouse, Bearded...
—, Black-cap
—, Blue
—, Cole .
—, Crested
—, Great ... tº ſº º
—, Long-tailed ...
Tody, Green
Toucan & © tº & a º - e. e.
—, Saffron-coloured Hill
Trogon, Golden - e. e.
Tropic Bird ...
Turkey, Brush
—, Domestic
—, Wild ...
Turtle, Cape... * - c.
Turtle Dove... © e tº tº a º
Umbrella Bird
Vulture, Bearded ...
—, Black ...
—, Egyptian
—, Griffon
, King ...
—-, Sociable
—, Turkey
Wading Birds e
Wag-tail, Gray ... tº º ºs
—, Pied ... e
—, Yellow... a s ©
Warbler, Fantail ... & © º
—, Grasshopper ... © tº G
—, Reed ... e ee tº º º
Wheatear ... tº the tº € 9
Whinchat ... tº ed e sº
Whip-poor-will
Wigeon, American...
Woodcock ... ...
Woodpecker, Golden-winged
—, Great Black ... ... .
—, Greater Spotted
—, Green ... . ...
—, Ivory-billed ... ...
—, Large Red-crested ...
—, Lesser Spotted • * >
—, Waried
Wren... tº it tº
—, Willow
Wry-neck ...
Yellow Ammor ... •.
PAGE
372
372
107
241
175
176
379
377
116
117
118
119
87
134
134'
133
132
130
I31
131
87
271
272
239
402
299
298
297
291
292
138
27
23
25
26
334
113
113
113
I06
108
109
100
99
77
377
358
245
244
243
242
246
249
243
247
114
III
249
Pardalotus, Crested
Parakeet, Blue-bellied
—, Carolina
—, Pavouan - tº
Parrot, Ash-coloured
—, Indian...
Partridge ... tº º tº
–, Red-legged ...
Peacock tº e e
Pelican e e Q
Penguin © &
Perching Birds
Petrel, Fulmer & eºs
258
262
320
321
294
398
393
75
397
98
348
345
217
220
16s
I48