THE PSYCHOLOGY
HUNT
OF AUTO-EDUCATION
97
775
M78
H94

ཀང་བ་འ་ ་་་
་་་་་་་
MICHIGAN ·
CHIGAN
IVERSITY
RSITY
AL·LIBRARIES ·
ARTE
THE UNIVERS
THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF
AUTO-EDUCATION
BASED ON THE INTERPretation oF INTELLECT GIVEN BY
HENRI BERGSON IN HIS "CREATIVE EVOLUTION.”
ILLUSTRATED IN THE WORK OF
MARIA MONTESSORI
BY
HARRIET E. HUNT, Pd.D.
FORMER PRINCIPAL OF THE CITY TRAINING SCHOOL FOR
TEACHERS IN SCRANTON, РА.

BULLET
SCHOOL
•
1874
PUBL
TIONS
SYRACUSE, N. Y.
C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER
Copyright, 1912, by C. W. Bardeen
LB
775
.M78
H94
PREFACE
The material of this book is presented
from the stand-point of a practical teacher,
not from that of a psychologist.
For many years, the question of training
teachers has claimed my most serious
thought and effort.
While principal of the training school
of Scranton, Pa., where I personally con-
ducted both the theoretical and
and the
practical phases of the work, I demon-
strated the possiblity of so training teachers
that their first attempts at teaching
children would be pedagogical. However,
this work was largely intuitional for while
it was possible to so train the teachers,
I could not tell how I did it. The past
two years have been spent in reducing
my practice to principles.
In this work, I have been greatly aided
by Henri Bergson. For while no pre-
tence of grasping his entire philosophy
(3)
4
AUTO-EDUCATION
is made, I did find his interpretation of
intellect and intuition, of consciousness
and life most opportunely helpful. And
for this, I am most sincerely grateful.
Thanks are due also to William James,
whose "Principles of Psychology" was
most helpful in regard to the problem of
relations and whose "Radical Empiricism",
just received, seems to substantiate this
theory.
As to the practical application of my
theory, I am most deeply indebted to
Dr. Maria Montessori for the invention
of a material which seems so completely
suited to carrying out this theory.
It is my belief that any teacher who
can gain such a point of view as that held
be Bergson, James, or Montessori can, of
her own initiative, organize her class
work on the basis of auto-education.
But this can not be done on the basis of
the old psychology of sensations, per-
ceptions, etc. In order to understand
when and how to intervene in the mental
processes of the child and when to refrain
PREFACE
5
LO
from doing so, one must understand the
underlying principles which determine
the sensations, perception, etc. And in
order to appreciate the vital necessity
.for self-development, one must under-
stand as far as may be, the development
of life.
The purpose of this book is to show
that this "underlying principle" is the
tendency to establish relations, and that
the most important fact of life is the fact
of a developing form of consciousness.
Scranton, Pa.
June 21, 1912.
HARRIET E. HUNT
CONTENTS
I THE FORM OF KNOWLEDGE-THE
TENDENCY TO ESTABLISH RELA-
TIONS
•
9
II THE CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE—A
DEVELOPING CONSCIOUSNESS.
26
•
III LEARNING AND TEACHING FROM
TEE STANDPOINT OF THE "TEN-
DENCY TO ESTABLISH RELATIONS"
IV THE REORGANIZATION OF A CITY
SCHOOL SYSTEM-
SYSTEM-BASED
AUTO-EDUCATION.
•
BASED ON
49
69
(7)
I
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF AUTO-
EDUCATION
Since the body, with its brain, is but
the manifestation of the life which has
formed it, it is clear that a "Scientific
Pedagogy" must rest ultimately on a
psychology of this life. It is true that
"Pedagogical Hygiene", Pedagogical
Anthropology" and "Experimental Psy-
chology" have contributed greatly toward
a scientific pedagogy, but these contri-
butions are largely toward the physical
development, while the more fundamental
problem of pedagogy is the development
of life-not alone of human life, but of
all life.
The recent interpretations of mental
phenomena which are based upon the
more intimate knowledge of life as con-
sidered in its entire range of manifesta-
tions, have incalculable value as applied
to education.
(9)
1
10
AUTO-EDUCATION
In dealing with intellect, the knowing
element in consciousness, psychology has
focussed attention almost exclusively upon
the images of objects which so largely
constitute the "stream of consciousness".
But we are conscious of something beside
these images of objects. For example,
I have an image of this paper, but the
paper is on the desk, and I am conscious
of that space relation, on; I am writing
on the paper now-a time relation; the
ink is blue, i. e., it is like my mental
standard of blue-a relation of likeness;
I am writing with my pen, but it belongs
to a class of tools called pens—a relation
of the particular to the general; I see the
ink in my pen, it stays there until the
pen is pressed upon the paper when it
flows out forming the letters-a relation
of cause and effect. Besides the images
of objects, then, we are conscious of the
relations of space, time, likeness, dif-
ference, cause and effect and the particu-
lar to the general. And there are other
kinds of relations but they will not be
considered here.
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
11
It has been said that gaining knowledge
is seeing relations, and we must take
account of this fact of relating.
In his discussion of intellect, Bergson
distinguishes between that which is given
by the perceptive faculties, namely, sensa-
tions, perceptions, ideas, etc., and the
tendency to establish relations. The
former constitutes what is called the
"matter" of knowledge; while the latter,
the tendency to establish relations, is
the "form" of knowledge. The form,
the tendency to relate, is innate, inherited,
while the matter, the sensations, per-
ceptions etc., are acquired. "The new-
born child," says Bergson, "so far as
intelligent, knows neither any definite
object nor a definite property of any
object; but its intelligence makes use
of like with like, cause and effect", etc.
In this way, a body of knowledge is ac-
quired.
This discrimination between the form
and the matter of knowledge has an
important bearing upon the method of
education. The tendency to establish
12
AUTO-EDUCATION
relations which underlies sense percep-
tion, and which is innate and so acts of
itself, is one of the most important prin-
ciples underlying auto-education.
·
In his "Play of Animals and Man",
Groos speaks of the "hunger of the senses"
In the same sense, there is a hunger of
the relating tendencies. Especially may
this be seen in reference to space rela-
tions. When a child begins to handle
blocks, shells, or other small objects, his
interest in mere position-a space rela-
tion-is clearly seen. This may be il-
lustrated by the little girl of eighteen
months who would entertain herself for
twenty minutes at a time by merely
moving her shells one by one from the
sand pail to the wheel barrow, then back
to the pail and so on. This little girl
used her building blocks in the same way,
but at this period nothing could induce
her to build with them; relative position,
the necessary relation in building, came
later. A little boy of four years, when-
ever he heard the size of an object men-
tioned as, for instance, if his mother were
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
13
to say, "Mary was eating a large apple,”
would say, "Well, mamma, was it as large
as my ball?", showing his immediate
interest in the space relation of relative
size.
The phenomenal success of the Mon-
tessori Method is due to the fact that the
material makes its appeal directly to this
tendency to establish relations, and so
meets the child's first needs in his efforts
to grasp the meaning of his environment.
The child does get sensations through
the material, to be sure, but these in-
terests are subordinate to the greater
interest afforded by the impulse to relate.
This fact shines out from all the pages
of Montessori's great work, "The Mon-
tessori Method", although it is not re-
flected from her consciousness. For in-
stance, in the chapter on "Sense Training,"
page 169, she says:
"With the normal child it (the didactic
material) provokes auto-education.
"This fact is one of the most interesting
I have ever met with in all my experience,
and it inspired and rendered possible
14
AUTO-EDUCATION
the method of observation and liberty.'
Illustrating this she continues:
"Let us suppose that we use our first
object-a block in which solid geometric
forms are set. Into corresponding holes
in the block are set ten little wooden
cylinders, the bases diminishing gradually
about ten millimeters. The game con-
sists in taking the cylinders out of their
places, putting them on the table, mixing
them, and then putting each one back
in its place. The aim is to educate the
eye to the differential perceptions of di-
mensions."
Although Montessori's "aim" may be
to train the sense of sight through the
medium of this game, it is very evident
that the child's aim in using the material
is to satisfy his "hunger" for the space
relations of position and of relative size.
This view is further borne out by the
account on page 233 of the succeeding
lesson on this material, which is as follows:
"The directress, after the child has
played for a long time with the three
sets of solid insets, and has acquired a
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
15
security in the performance of the exercise,
takes out all the cylinders of equal height
and places them in a horizontal position
on the table, one beside the other. Then
she selects the two extremes, saying,
"This is the thickest-This is the thinnest.'
She places them side by side so that the
comparison may be more marked, and
then taking them by the little button,
she compares the bases, calling attention
to the great difference. She then places
them again beside each other in a vertical
position in order to show that they are
equal in height, and repeats several times,
'Thick-thin.' Having done this, she
should follow with the test, 'Give me the
thickest Give me the thinnest,' and
finally she should proceed to the test of
nomenclature, asking, 'What is this?'
In the same way the directress proceeds
with other cylinders, calling attention
to 'highest' and 'lowest', 'largest' and
'smallest'."
The child, according to Montessori's
account "takes spontaneously a lively
interest” in this game, "pushing away all
16
AUTO-EDUCATION
who would interfere, or offer to help him,"
wishing "to be alone with his problem."
The joy of exercising the relating
tendencies is clearly evident in this ex-
ercise, and indeed Montessori says herself
of it, "There is, therefore, no question
here of teaching the child the knowledge
of the dimensions, through the medium
of these pieces.
"Here it is instead, the work of the child:
the auto correction, the auto-education
which acts for the teacher must not
interfere in the slightest way."
One has only to observe the child in
his play with this material to see that
"the auto-education that acts" is the
tendency to establish relations. In his
play with these objects the child is con-
stantly sensing the likenesses and dif-
ferences in size and the space relations
of relative size. After these relations
have become fairly established, the names
are given. Many other illustrations bear-
ing on this point could be cited. Indeed,
the important characteristic of the Mon-
tessori Method is to present "few con-
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
17
trasted stimuli", wait until the child has
established the desired relations and then
give the name.
The foundation for the conceptual rela-
ations which is established by this sys-
tem is of inestimable value to the child.
The following reference to nomenclature
is interesting because of its bearing up-
on these relations:
“This (nomenclature) is one of the most
important phases of education. Indeed,
nomenclature prepares for an exactness
in the use of language which is not always
met with in our schools. Many children,
for example, use interchangeably the words
thick and big, long and high. With the
methods already described, the teacher
may easily establish, by means of the
didactic material, ideas which are very
exact and clear, and may associate the
proper word with these ideas."
Discriminating through the medium of
this material the exact space relations
of "thick and big", "long and high", etc.,
and learning the names that apply to
these relations, enables the child to exer-
18
AUTO-EDUCATION
cise this same relating activity in com-
nection with the objects of the environ-
ment, and the subsequent use of these
terms as applied to the environment shows
the development of the generalizing ac-
tivities. An illustration of this is given
by Montessori in connection with her
remarks on the generalization of ideas.
"There will be children who, after having
touched a few times the stuffs, or merely
the smooth and rough cards, will quite
spontaneously touch the various surfaces
about them, repeating 'smooth', 'rough',
it is velvet', etc. 'We must await this
spontaneous investigation of the sur-
roundings, or as I like to call it, this
voluntary explosion of the exploring spirit.
"The teacher should watch with the
most solicitious care to see when and how
the child arrives at this generalization of
ideas. For example, one of our little
four-year-olds while running about in the
court one day suddenly stood still and
cried out, 'Oh! the sky is blue!' and stood
for some time looking up into the blue
expanse of the sky."
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
19
This illustrates perfectly the fact that
the tendency to establish relations is the
principle underlying auto-education. The
child saw the likeness between the sky
and his mental standard of blue and so
could teach himself the color of the sky;
i. e. the development of his relating power
produced an alertness and activity of
mind which compelled new discoveries—
this is auto-education.
There is nothing mysterious about auto-
education if the teacher only focuses her
attention upon the tendency to relate,
which the child begins to exercise at birth,
instead of on the conscious elements of
sensations, images of objects, etc., which
the child has to acquire.
It is claimed that the children them-
selves, through their interests, have de-
termined the sequence in which the material
is presented. No doubt the relative time
of the development of the relating ten-
dencies has determined for the child his
interests.
While the illustrations cited above show
than an appeal is made by this material
Uor M
20
AUTO-EDUCATION
to the relating tendency, the method
used by Montessori in teaching the repre-
sentation by figures of the number ten
(a point which has to be taught indepen-
dently of the material), shows that she
has not yet grasped the idea of this ten-
dency.
Counting beyond ten is carried on by
the "Long Stair" rods. The lesson in
which the children are taught to repre-
sent the numbers which consist of two
places, units and tens, begins as follows
on page 336, of "The Montessori Method”:
"Counting along the rod as far as nine,
there remains this one section which, as
there are no more numbers, we again
designate as 1; but this is a higher 1 than
the first, and to distinguish it from the
first, we put near it a zero, a sign which
means nothing."
The reason for using the figure 1 to
designate the ten is not a matter of cause
and effect "because there are no more
numbers" (figures), but it involves a re-
lation of likeness leading to a relation
of the particular to the general. The
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
21
rod is composed of ten sections and is
now to be considered a ten. This 1 ten,
the same as in the case of 1 child, 1 class,
1 army is to be designated by the figure
one. The oneness of the 1 ten, 1 class,
1 army, etc. is to be classed with the one-
ness of the 1 unit, 1 house, 1 chair, etc.
Then follows the cause and effect that in
order that we may know whether the
figure 1 means 1 unit or 1 ten, we give
each its place. If we have only 1 ten
with no unit, we place the naught in units
place. Instead of meaning "nothing"
this naught has a very definite meaning,
which is that there are no units.
These relations are easily worked out
by children at this period and are not
only extremely interesting to them, but
are most significant as forming the basis
for all further auto-education in numera-
tion and computation.
As an illustration of the wonderful
effect produced by training the relating
tendencies, an incident from the ex-
perience of Miss George may be given.
The exercise in filling in with the colored
22
AUTO-EDUCATION
crayon the outlines of the mental insets,
preparatory to writing, was in progress.
A little girl had on her paper the outline
of a square frame in which was another
outline of a smaller square to be filled in
with a color to be chosen by the child.
The only direction given the children
was, “Do not go outside the lines with
your crayons."
The little girl in question chose what
proved to be an ugly orange color, which
she proceeded to "lay on" with vigorous
strokes mostly curved in direction. The
result was a thick mass of dirty color
which did not fill the space.
No word of criticism on her work was
made, nor were any suggestions as to
color or stroke given. The child pro-
ceeded according to her own idea, and
after six or eight designs had been filled
in, each of which was an improvement
upon the preceeding one, produced a
design which was beautiful and delicate
in color, being a light green in the center
with a corresponding light pink frame,
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
23
and having a smooth and even surface
with the downward parallel strokes.
In her first attempt at filling in, the
impulse to "lay on" the color swamped
her intellect. The charming bit of auto-
education which followed lies in the fact
that (1) previous exercises in telling like-
ness and difference in color had, in training
the power to relate, brought to her atten-
tion colors which appealed to her sense
of beauty; (2) the exercise of the relating
tendency with regard to space relations
of rough and smooth, as given on pages
185, 186 "The Montessori Method," had
acquainted the child with surfaces, en-
abling her to descriminate a smooth,
even surface.
The training of the relating tendencies
in regard to likeness and differences in
color and in regard to space relations of
rough and smooth surfaces provided the
means for a self-education, which in this
instance seems truly wonderful.
Beside the indefinite space relations of
long, large, heavy, etc., which are gained
through means of the Montessori material,
24
AUTO-EDUCATION
there are the various definite space rela
tions such as, yard, quart, pound, etc.
which are to be gained through the use of
the measures of the denominate number
tables. In following its natural tendency
to relate, the mind needs these standards
of measurements, and attention to the
problem of acquiring them should succeed
the Montessori work.
There is only one method of gaining
knowledge, and that is through the es-
tablishment of relations. This fact must
be recognized in the higher as well as the
lower grades. A thorough comprehen-
sion of how this principle works would
go far toward enabling teachers to adopt,
through their own initiative, the method
of auto-education.
It is impossible, however, successfully
to train teachers in the method of auto-
education from the standpoint of the
content of knowledge alone. Until one
gets down to the activity itself, by which
this content is acquired, the problem of
"direction" (teaching) is involved in
mystery. Only that psychology which
ITS PSYCHOLOGY
25
takes account of the tendency to estab-
lish relations is adaquate to serve as the
basis of auto-education.
:
II
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
But it is not alone the recognition of
the form of intellect that characterizes
the psychology of auto-education, but
the new meaning which has been given
to the content of knowledge is to be con-
sidered as well.
Sense training is, indeed, an important
matter, but this sort of training has a limit,
and this fact raises the question of what
is to follow sense training.
/ We are familiar with the psychology
that, beginning with sensation which
gives us a knowledge of the properties of
objects, passes on to perception which
gives the knowledge of whole objects and
so on to conception which gives us the
knowledge of classes of objects. But in
order to get the real meaning of life and
mind, we must realize that animal life
taken in its entirety, exhibits just these
(26)
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
27
1
same stages in a developing form of con-
sciousness. It is this fact of a developing
consciousness that gives significance to
sense training. A brief statement based
upon Romane's "Essay and Origin of
Human Faculty" will explain what is
meant by a "developing consciousness".
Mention was made above of our con-
sciousness of images and their relations.
Comparing this human grade of intellect
with that of the animals next below
ourselves, the mammals, birds, frogs,
and fishes, we are forced to conclude from
the acts of these animals, that they, too,
have images of objects and, to an extent,
of their relations; e. g., the fish, which is
the lowest of the vertebrates, can be
trained to distinguish between pieces of
rice paper dyed pink, which are its food,
and pieces of ordinary white paper, so
that when both are put into the water at
the same time the fish will choose the
pink. This shows what Romanes calls
a "sort of outward generalization"-a
tendency to relate the particular to the
general. This process is similar to our
28
AUTO-EDUCATION
Own act of generalization, although in
the lower animals mentioned above, it
is limited to the objects which are present
to the senses. These animals cannot
image objects which they have never seen;
and also not having language by which the
generalizing or conceptual power, as it is
called in its perfected state, is greatly
extended, these lower animals lack the
element of self-consciousness. Through
this power, man looks upon his inner
world of images, ideas, concepts, as the
animal looks upon the outer world. Man's
knowledge is not limited to the things he
has seen: with the system of words, which
are symbols of things, he arrives at the
knowledge of things he has not seen.
Man knows things by classes. This is
the conceptual grade of consciousness.
The higher animals are conscious of ob-
jects as individuals, which is the percep-
tual grade of consciousness.
Considering now the lowest forms of
life, the one-celled microscopic forms,
such as bacteria, the familiar amoeba,
and the like, we find that, though through-
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
29
out life they are only microscopic cells of
protoplasm, yet each has a consciousness.
The amoeba has the consciousness of
touch, for if touched, it will move. It is
sensitive also to light, heat, and chemical
forces, which indicates the presence in
consciousness of other sensations beside
that of touch. These animals are con-
scious of the properties of objects-not
of whole objects. This is the sensation
grade of consciousness.
il-
It has not always been allowed that
these lower forms of life have conscious-
ness. In fact, Descartes and other
osophers have maintained that t ani-
mals were mere automata. P. how
does one know that another son has
thoughts and feelings? If a person were
to lie perfectly motionless for a period of
days, supposing such a thing possible,
one would judge him to be unconscious,
though he might be engaged in very active
thinking. The only reason for supposing
that other persons have thoughts and
feelings similar to our
to our own is because
under similar circumstances they act as
30
AUTO-EDUCATION
we do; we judge of their thoughts by what
they do. In the same way, judging by
the behavior of the lower life forms, we
conclude that consciousness does exist
in the form of simple sensations; although
just what a consciousness consisting of
sensations alone without giving images
would be like, it would be difficult for us
to imagine.
The first manifestation of sensory con-
sciousness is undoubtedly the sensation
of touch. Then other sensations, such
as taste, smell, vision of light and dark-
ness are added; or rather, unfolded from
the mind, for all of the forms of con-
sciousness are peculiarly the gift of the
mind, as Edward Carpenter so beauti-
fully shows:
"Everyone," he says, "has experienced
the magic of the musician, that out of
three sounds he frames, not a fourth,
but a star. The three first notes are
mere sounds, noises; but with the fourth,
the phrase, the melody, the meaning
descends upon us from within. An an-
swer comes from the background of our
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
31
minds, which transforms mere noise into
music.
"So it is with the mind of the lowest
life forms of a single cell, perhaps the
sense of touch has awakened within it, but
no more. Presently another sensation of
touch and many more, but still no growth
of consciousness. Then one day the sense
of likeness between them arrives. And
it arrives from within. The mind of that
cell has reached the degree of conscious-
ness represented by the perception of
likeness and difference."*
From such seemingly small beginnings.
consciousness has developed through the
various grades of sensation, perception,
and conception.
In the knowledge given by each suc-
ceeding grade of intellect, there appears
an ever increasing unity. The sensa-
tional grade gives the knowledge of the
properties of objects, the perceptual grade
gives the knowledge of whole objects,
*Note. This quotation seems to give a sense of self-
development, not necessarily an accurate statement of the
order in which mental processes develop.
32
AUTO-EDUCATION
while the conceptual grade gives the
knowledge of classes. Beyond this last
grade, however, is one other and greater
unity—the union of all classes of objects,
the cosmos. Is there any grade of con-
sciousness which gives this unity? Un-
doubtedly there is, although it may not
be through intellect alone that it is known.
"By intuition, we come to a knowledge
of the universe as a whole and to our
own identity with this whole and a sense
of kinship with all life." This form of
consciousness is called the "Cosmos Con-
sciousness" by Edward Carpenter, who
says:
"Of the existence of this form of con-
sciousness there is evidence all down
history; and witnesses, far removed from
each other in time and space and race
and language and perfectly unaware of
each other's utterance, agree so remark-
ably in their testimony that there is left
no doubt that the experience is as much
a matter of fact as any other human ex-
perience, though the capacity for it is,
of course, not universal. But it is not
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
33
only the great prophets and seers who
prove to us the existence of this stage of
consciousness. For to almost all man-
kind, flashes of the same thing come in
those moments of exaltation of intuition
which form the basis of religion, art and
music."
In both the ancient and modern drama,
we find instances of the cosmic conscious-
ness portrayed, for example, in the Hindu
drama "Sa Kuntala", and in the drama
of "Peleas and Melisand" by Maeterlinck.
While Edward Carpenter's "Art of
Creation" gives an exceedingly interesting
account of the cosmic consciousness, it
is in the "Creative Evolution" of Henri
Bergson that we find the most scientific
treatment of the subject.
In order to get the full meaning of Berg-
son's idea, however, one needs to realize
more fully than ordinarily the part that
life plays in the environment. Let me,
therefore, call attention to a few facts
concerning life.
Think for a moment what life can do!
Here, we will imagine, is a speck of pro-
34
AUTO-EDUCATION
toplasm, the material out of which the
living parts of all animals and plants is
made. It is so tiny that it has to be
magnified many times before it can be
seen. It is called a cell, not because it
is hollow like the cell of a honey comb;
it is a tiny mass answering more to the
honey in the cell of the comb. This cell
of protoplasm may be one of the cells of
a growing bone or of a muscle, or it may
be a nerve cell, for the body is built up
in part by just such cells. Again this
particle may be the cell of a dog, of an
oyster, or of a tree or mushroom, or it
may be a tiny microbe of typhoid fever,
or an amoeba living with other micro-
scopic animals and plants out in the lake.
It may be any of these or a host of things
not mentioned; but whichever it is, wher-
ever it is found, it has the same general
characteristics. This little speck of proto-
plasm-this cell-has life and because of
this, it can do certain things.
Protoplasm can move of itself in any
direction, even contrary to gravity; it
can take in dead matter which is its food
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
35
and separate the chemical constituents
of such food stuff, recombining the mole-
cules so as to form more protoplasm; then
this protoplasm can form other substances
like muscles, skin, bones, or wood and
other plant tissues. Life in the proto-
plasm directs the chemical forces, making
and unmaking compounds of molecules.
Think of the part life has played in di-
recting the forces of nature so as to build
up the complex forms we see about us.
Consider for a moment the things in an
ordinary living room. The carpet on the
floor, every fibre, every thread and every
particle of lint in it was once living pro-
toplasm in some plant or animal; the
floor under the carpet, every particle of
it was once living protoplasm in the body
of some tree; every article of furniture,
all the draperies, the paper on the walls,
all were once living, protoplasm. Even
the plaster on the walls was once living
in the bones, shells, and other hard parts
of animals. Again, think of the city, the
houses, street cars, wagons; the material
of each was once, in great part, living
36
AUTO-EDUCATION
protoplasm. We are accustomed to look
at these objects as so many material
things which minister to our comfort or
discomfort, but what I wish to point out
is that all these things are the manifesta-
tions of life—have been built up molecule
by molecule by life, by that mighty im-
pulse with which life moves through
matter. The material of these things has
been organized or built up by the life of
the cell, and then this material has been
used by man in manufacturing tools,
houses, and other things.
According to Mr. Bergson, "Life, that
is to say, consciousness launched into
matter," organizes matter, i. e., it builds
up the bodies of animals and plants.
Now, in this process of the organization
of matter by life, there are two kinds of
things to know: first, the matter as or-
ganized; and second, the movement of
life in the act of organizing. The necessity
of attending to these two phases has
resulted in splitting consciousness into
intellect, which knows matter; and in-
tuition, which knows life.
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
37
For reasons which I will not enter into
here, "intuition, which seems preferable
to intelligence" has developed along the
line of instincts. While this line gives a
very narrow range of knowledge, in some
instances the knowledge seems marvellous.
This is shown in insect life, where in-
stinct seems to have found its culmination.
The insect, for example, that stings
its prey (the larva of another insect) in
those nine motor nerve centres, which
paralyzes without killing, and so furnishes
fresh meat for its own larva, knows the
place to sting, as Bergson says, “by an
intuition which is probably like what we
call divining sympathy".
On the other hand, "Consciousness in
man', says Bergson, "is pre-eminently
intellect. It may have been, it ought,
so it seems, to have been also intuition.”
Intuition and intellect represent two op-
posite directions of the work of conscious-
ness: intuition goes in the very direction
of life, it knows the organizing process—
it knows life from the inside; intellect
goes in the opposite direction and knows
38
AUTO-EDUCATION
matter after it has been formed. “A
complete and perfect humanity," con-
tinues Bergson, "would be that in which
these two forms of conscious activity
should attain their full development."
We, as human beings, have intuition,
but it is vague and "above all discon-
tinuous". "It is a lamp almost extin-
guished, which only glimmers now and
then for a few moments at most. But
it glimmers wherever a vital interest is
at stake. On our personality, on Our
liberty, on the place we occupy in the
whole of nature, on our origin and perhaps
also on our destiny, it throws a light
feeble and vacillating, but which none
the less pierces the darkness of the night
in which the intellect leaves us.
"These fleeting intuitions philosophy
should seize: first to sustain them, then
to expand them and so unite them to-
gether. The more it advances in this
work, the more will it perceive that in-
tuition is mind itself, and in a certain
sense, life itself.”
Intuition, as "divining sympathy", is
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
39
the way of knowing which is characteris-
tic of instinct and is therefore common
to all animals. But the bodies of animals
are so fashioned that they can use only
an infinitely small number of objects
and therefore their knowledge is extremely
limited. "Consciousness is held in a vice,"
says Bergson.
Intelligence, on the other hand, has a
brain that can build an unlimited number
of motor mechanisms and a body that
can use these mechanisms, in reacting
to any number of things and so can over-
come all obstacles. In this, consciousness
has found its freedom to develop.
While intuition seems to have waned
during this progress of intellect, great
possibilities for it have accumulated
through the development of intellect i. e.
through the accumulation of ideas and
concepts. (We seem now to be approach-
ing the time when the two streams, in-
tellect and intuition, shall merge again
in one as they were merged in the begin-
ning-through with their potentialities
now partially realized. This merging is
40
AUTO-EDUCATION
the problem of the developing conscious-
ness. How is it to be achieved?
We are not left by Bergson without
suggestions concerning this. By a kind
of "sympathy" the insect knows the one
object and how to treat this one object,
which is to be the food for its young.
"If this sympathy could extend its object
and also reflect upon itself, it would give
us the key to vital operations-just as
intelligence, developed and disciplined,
guides us into matter." Instinct does not
reflect, does not form concepts, is not
self-conscious. By human intuition Berg-
son means "instinct that has become
self-conscious, capable of reflecting upon
its objects, and of enlarging it indefinitely”
-that is of applying this knowledge to
other things. The artist who seeks to
know the intention of life that runs through
the features if his model by placing himself
back within the object by a kind of sym-
pathy, exericses this intuition, in a measure.
"An inquiry turned in the same direction
as art, which would take life in general for
its object would, through this intuition,
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
41
enable us to grasp what it is that intelli-
gence fails to give us." "Then, by the
sympathetic communication
communication which it
establishes between us and the rest of
the living, by the expansion of our con-
sciousness which it brings about, it in-
troduces us into life's own domain, which
is reciprocal interpenetration, endlessly
continued creation. But though it there-
by transcends intelligence, it is from
intelligence that has come the push that
has made it rise to the point it has reached.
Without intelligence, it would have re-
mained in the form of instinct, riveted
to the special object of its practical in-
terest." Herein lies the significance of
a developing consciousness.
Intelligence, working its way up to
freedom through the grades of sensation,
preception, and conception, meets again
the question of the stream of life, but
having freed itself, in a measure, from
matter through its conceptual activities,
it can now, as Bergson says, “turn inward
on itself, and awaken the potentialities
of intuition which still slumber within it.”
42
AUTO-EDUCATION
Intelligence, then, developed to its farth-
est extent gives intuition the opportunity
to establish a "sympathetic communica-
tion between ourselves and the rest of
the living", and by so "expanding our
consciousness", brings us to the knowledge
of life itself.
Undoubtedly, the work of education,
then, is to develop an intellect that can
"give the push". Here again, suggestions
from Bergson are not wanting.
The superiority of man's consciousness
over that of animals is due, he says, to
three things: first, to a brain which enables
man to build an unlimited number of
motor mechanisms with which to react
to the things of the environment; second,
to language (concepts), which partially
frees man's intellect from material things;
third, "to social life, which stores and
preserves efforts as language stores and
preserves thought, fixing thereby a mean
level to which individuals must raise
themselves at the outset, and by this
initial stimulation prevents the average
man from slumbering and drives the
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
43
superior man to mount still higher. But
our brain, our society, our language are
but the external and various signs of one
and the same internal superiority. They
tell, each after its manner, the unique,
exceptional success which life has won."
Here is the very essence of the doctrine
of auto-education.
The brain, a physiological instrument.
both formed and used by life; language,
an immaterial instrument fashioned by
life and used for the expression and storage
of ideas; and society, instituted by life
for the storage of efforts with these
accomplishments to its credit, may we
not trust life to educate itself? All
education is, of necessity, auto-education.
The work of the teacher is that of direc-)
tion, first, through the means of a suitable
environment; and second, through direct
appeal to the mind.
The three things mentioned above,
brain, language, and social life, discover
to us the paths by which the young are
to be guided to greater achievements.
First, there must be the physiological
44
AUTO-EDUCATION
development of the brain and body;
second, there must be opportunity for
the exercise of those impulses to activity
which seize upon the "efforts stored by
society"; third, intellect must be led to
freedom through means of language (con-
cepts) from a knowledge of things seen
to a knowledge of things not seen.
With regard to the first, we must look
to "Pedagogical Hygiene," "Pedagogical
Anthropology" and "Experimental Psy-
chology". As to the second, the child
is a "consciousness launched into matter",
and the impulses due to this impulsion
are vital to development; the material
impulses building its body, the personal
impulses determining its individuality,
and the social impulses appropriating and
continuing the efforts of preceeding gene-
rations. Our more immediate concern
here is with the third, the intellect.
Sense training is the first step toward
this unfolding of intelligence, and while
this step is very important it must soon
be followed by the more important prob-
lem of developing the conceptual form of
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
45
consciousness which constitutes the strict-
ly human grade of intellect and is the
path by which consciousness frees itself.
As sense training is accomplished through
the tendency to establish relations, so
the training of the conceptual power is
determined in the same manner. It was
stated in the beginning that the initial
step in conception is nomenclature-
learning the names of things seen; but as
this knowledge advances, the relating of
like with like, of the particular to the
general and of cause and effect, makes pos-
sible a knowledge of things unseen-such
for example as geographical and historical
knowledge. This relating, like that in
sense-training, is to be carried on as far
as possible as a matter of auto-education.
This would be determined by the environ-
ment provided and by the method of
directing the psychic activity.
The fact of thus developing the con-
ceptual form of consciousness through
means of the establishment of relations,
gives meaning to the otherwise unintelli-
gible opening paragraphs of Montessori's
46
AUTO-EDUCATION
chapter on "Intellectual Education", where
she says: "The sense exercises consti-
tute a species of auto-education, which,
if these exercises be many times repeated,
leads to a perfecting of the child's psycho-
sensory processes. The directress must
intervene to lead the child from sensa-
tions to ideas-from the concrete to the
abstract, and to the association of ideas.
For this, she should use a method tending
to isolate the inner attention of the child
and to fix it upon the perceptions-as in
the first lessons his object in attention
was fixed, through isolation, upon single
stimuli.
"For this, knowledge of a special tech-
nique is necessary. The educator must,
'to the greatest possible extent, limit his
intervention; yet he must not allow the
child to weary himself in an undue effort
of auto-education.'
"It is here, that the factor of individual
limitation and differing degrees of per-
ception are most keenly felt in the teacher.
In other words, in the quality of this
intervention lies the art which makes
CONTENT OF KNOWLEDGE
47
""
up the individuality of the teacher.'
"To lead the child from the education
of senses to ideas" as Montessori quotes
from Seguin, does indeed, require a "spec-
ial technique", but what is this “special
technique"?
I fail to find any explanation in the
writings of Montessori that would help
a teacher to gain this much-to-be-desired
technique. To possess it or not to possess
it is a matter of "individuality" in the
teacher, according to Montessori. The
question of when and how the teacher
should "intervene" to lead the child from
"sensations to ideas" is perfectly clear
and simple, however, when considered
from the point of view of the tendency to
establish relations, as will be shown in
Part III, but it can not be explained on
the basis of the old psychology.
A psychology that is adequate to explain
auto-education must first describe the
process by which the content of knowl-
edge is acquired; and second, it must de-
fine the relation and meaning of human
consciousness in regard to all life.
48
AUTO-EDUCATION
Above all others, the teacher is one
whose mind should be "set in the
direction of life"; she should know life as
well as matter, and though she may not
achieve the great "divining sympathy"
which is intuition", she should know that
such a form of consciousness exists and that
all human life is working toward that goal.
This is what Montessori calls the "spirit"
of the teacher. "We must make of them
(teachers) worshipers and interpretors of
the spirit of nature." This cannot be
done so long as life is thought of as con-
sisting of unrelated groups of individuals.
If a teacher does not herself possess in-
tuition.in some degree, she can be pre-
pared in "spirit" only as she comes to
know the significance of a developing
consciousness—the meaning of all life.
The tendency to establish relations is
the form of self-activity which, if recog-
nized and directed both in its early and
later stages, will lead, through sensation.
and preception to a grade of intellect far
superior to that which is now produced-
even, peradventure, to intuition.
III
LEARNING AND TEACHING FROM
THE POINT OF VIEW OF ES-
TABLISHING RELATIONS
The real significance of a psychology
that recognizes a developing consciousness
and that discriminates between the form
and the content of knowledge is to be
seen in the application of these principles
to teaching.
Such intuition as Montessori has shown
in developing her method of auto-educa-
tion is of rare occurence; however, through
the intellectual approach to the subject
something akin to this intuition may be
achieved by those who greatly desire it.
Certainly to have thought out clearly
what the processes of learning and teaching
are, is one step toward directing such
processes. While a Scientific Pedagogy
must, indeed, rest upon the observation
of children developing under conditions
of freedom, it is extremely important
(49)
50
AUTO-EDUCATION
that these observations be interpreted ac-
according to the most advanced psy-
chology.
Such a general statement as, “The ten-
dency to establish relations is the funda-
mental principle of auto-education," is
of little use as an aid to teaching until
this principle has been analyzed. In
order to apply this principle in teaching
the process of establishing relations must
be described, as also the method of di-
recting this process.
There are various kinds of relations
which things sustain to one another.
Among those to be considered here are
relations of space, time, likeness, difference,
the particular to the general and cause and
effect. Space relations are expressed by
such words as on, under, between, larger,
foot, inch, quart, pound, etc; time rela-
tions by such words as early, year, day,
before, four o'clock, etc. Examples of
the other relations will readily occur to
one.
The sensing of a relation is a peculiar
experience. Take for example, the word
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
51
beside. What is there in the material
world that answers to it? You sit beside
your friend. What does the word mean?
Clearly, nothing apart from the two
persons. How, then, can it be sensed?
This is the way the mind does it. The
attention is focussed first upon the friend,
we will say, then upon one's self, passing
alternately from one to the other several
times; the effect of this passing is the
awareness (i.e. the sensing) of the rela-
tion. Again, suppose one were asked,
"How long are the lead pencils used in
school?" Immediately the standards of
long measure come to mind; attention is
focussed upon the mental image of the
length of the pencil and then upon the
mental standard of inches following which
the mind judges, "Pencils are six inches
long." Relations of likeness and dif-
ference are sensed in a similar manner.
For example, in telling a color, the child
focusses attention alternately upon the
color seen, then upon his mental standards
of color, naming the color according to
the likeness perceived.
52
AUTO-EDUCATION
With respect to the relation of cause
and effect, one may experience a cause
and then try to forecast its effect; or one
may experience an effect and then en-
deavor to determine the cause. In either
case one holds in mind the event ex-
perienced, and by means of attention
searches either in the mind or among
outward phenomena for another fact which
will satisfy the mind as being the other
term. For example, one experiences hot
weather in summer. What is the cause
of this? Since the earth receives its heat
from the sun, hot summers must be due
in some way to the relation of the sun to
the earth. Influenced by other exper-
riences with heat, the nearness of the earth
to the sun may first be suggested as the
cause of hot summers; however, this idea
must be discarded, for as a matter of fact,
the earth is farther from the sun in sum-
Further search reveals the true
cause to be that the angle at which the
rays of the sun strike our section of the
earth is more nearly vertical in summer.
mer.
With reference to the relation of the
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
53
particular to the general, the same passing
of the attention from one thing to another
takes place which results in the establish-
ment of the relations of likeness, but there
is an additional experience that quite
transcends the sensing of other relations.
To illustrate, one notices how the little
brook which passes the door washes the
dirt from the hills, distributing part along
the submerged meadow land, and with
the finer particles building a mud bank
where it meets the current of the river.
Other brooks are seen to do the same thing.
The mind passing from one instance to
each succeeding case senses the similarity
(likeness) of the action of the water; then
comes the exclusively human feat of
mind: for, having sensed the similarity
of action in the cases it has perceived, it,
in imagination, passes to other instances
not seen and generalizes, "This action is
true of all rivers." This power to sense
the relation of the particluar to the gen-
eral extends one's knowledge from an ex-
perienced environment to the limits of
the unseen.
54
AUTO-EDUCATION
This passing of the mind from the seen
to the unseen is the exercise which the
intellect needs in order to develop this
human form of consciousness-the con-
ceptual form. This can not be done by
memorizing subject matter. The images
of the individuals must be present to the
consciousness in order that it may pass·
on to class consciousness.
This establishment of relations is im-
portant, not only from the psychological
point of view, but also from the physio-
logical point of view; for it is this exercise
which tends to develop the brain cells.
and builds up the net work of association
fibers which are necessary to mental
development.
In this description of the relating pro-
cesses, an important fact is to be noted,
viz., the mind establishes relations (1)
between the objects or events of the
material world, (2) between the mental
images of objects or events, (3) between
objects and mental images taken together.
This is an important distinction to make;
for while the basis of our knowledge is
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
55
gained through means of objects or events,
by far the greater part of it is gained
through means of mental images.
The objects of the didactic material
used in the Montessori System are of such
a nature as to appeal to these tendencies
in the earliest stages of their development.
The accurate discriminations of the vari-
ous relations, together with the names
learned in connection with this material,
provide the child with the means of con-
tinuing, unaided, his "explorations of
the environment". The little child men-
tioned in Montessori's book, who discover-
ed that the sky was "blue", had formed
the relating habit, and had also acquired
the words necessary to state the generali-
zation she had spontaneously made. The
are a very necessary feature of
the development of this tendency toward
generalizing the "outward generalizing"
as Romanes calls it.
names are
This objective relating goes on spon-
taneously in cases where the relations are
quite obvious, but where the relation is
obscure, the teacher sometimes finds it
Uor M
56
AUTO-EDUCATION
necessary to aid the child in observing
them through appealing to his mental
images. This is always the case with
regard to the lesson on units and tens
place as mentioned above. The "oneness"
of a group is not realized until similar
instances such as, "1 class", "1 family",
"1 army" are called to mind.
It is, however, in that stage of develop-
ment when the mind, passing from the
outward generalization, comes to the
period of conception proper-that stage
in which the mind passes from the
knowledge of the seen to the knowledge
of the unseen-that the establishment
of relations between mental images begins
to play a more important role in the
process of gaining knowledge.
The awakening of this power is a great
event in the life of the child. It is of
great assistance to the child at this period
to have him make use wherever possible
of memory images instead of objects. For
example, a conversation in which the
child is led to tell his experience in seeing
grocers and other merchants measure
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
57
various kinds of things is very helpful
to the child in forming a conception of
measurement. The use of memory images
is one step toward imaging the unseen.
The movement of the mind in estab-
lishing relations between mental images is
the same as in the case of objects, though
the directing of the activity is quite dif-
ferent, being in the first instance a matter
of determining the objects of the environ-
ment and in the second instance a matter
of determining the mental images.
The problem of teaching is the problem of
manipulating mental images
This is not so difficult as it may appear,
although efficiency in this art requires
study and practice (not practice on
children, however). In the establishment
of relations through means of mental
images two things are to be considered,
(1) the presence of images in conscious-
ness, and (2) the establishment of the
relations between these images.
The presence of ideas in consciousness
58
AUTO-EDUCATION
may be determined through means of
the association of ideas.
The method of arousing mental images
through the association of ideas is not
to be confused with that in which the
ideas are stated by the teacher. In dealing
with large classes, the teacher must know
that every child images the proper thing
and experiences the required relations;
otherwise both brain and mind develop-
ment is retarded. If the child himself
states the idea, the teacher judges with
reason that he has the necessary images.
(It is important to note at the outset,
that it is sufficient for a child to express
an idea in words that are equivalent to
the correct words. The correct expres-
sion may then be substituted by the
teacher.)
Through associated ideas, then, images
are to be brought to the mind of the child.
For example, take the idea of fractions.
The equivalent of this idea, divided into
equal parts, is associated by little children
with "sharing", so that, in order to get the
child to image the idea of dividing, one
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
59
could ask, "If you wished to share your
apple with some little friend, what would
you have to do?" To which the child
would reply, "I should have to divide the
apple." In making this answer the child is
obliged to image the dividing of the apple.
The "equality of parts" is associated
with "being fair", so that if the teacher
asks, "If you were very fair in dividing
the apple, how would the pieces compare
in size?” the child must mentally compare
the two pieces, seeing the equality of them.
In this illustration the teacher makes use
of the memory image (associated idea)
of "sharing", to get the child to sense the
space relation of dividing, and she makes
use of the memory image of "being fair"
to get the child to sense the space rela-
tion of equality. It is important to note
that in doing this questions were used to
which each child thinks an answer.
The vital point in the problem of ques-
tioning is exemplified in each of these
questions. "If you wished to share your
apple with some little friend, what would
you have to do?" The child images
60
AUTO-EDUCATION
himself and the other child and the apple;
his mind then passes from the one apple
to the two children and he answers, "I
would have to divide the apple." The
important point to be noted is that the
subject-matter of the question expresses
the associated idea, viz., “sharing”, and
not the relation, "divided". Similarly,
in the question with regard to the equality
of parts the subject matter expresses
"being fair", the associated idea, not
the relation equal.
The question which could be used to
establish the fact that "the roots of the
plant take up the water" may serve as
another illustration. We will suppose
that the teacher asks, "What part of the
plant takes up the water?" But the
children do not know this and so, through
means of associated ideas, she then estab-
lishes the new relation. The two associat-
ed ideas are pouring water on the dirt and
the roots are down in the dirt. The ques-
tions, then, would be "When we feed the
plant where do we pour the water?" Im-
age, "On the dirt." "What part of the
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
61
plant is down in the dirt?" Image, "The
root is down in the dirt." Relation estab-
lished (cause and effect), "The root takes
up the water."
It is sometimes necessary to make use
of mental images not so closely connected
with the subject in hand as are those of
the instances cited. Examples of such
case may be seen in the use of illustrations
in a lesson.
For example: take the case of the bee's
wings being hooked together in flight.
By the aid of the microscope the children
have discovered the row of little hooks
on the back wings and also the groove
on the front wings into which they hook.
They have also described the use of the
wings in flying. The children can dis-
cover no reason for this arrangement and
so through a similar case, though con-
siderably remote, the teacher helps them
to discover the effect of hooked wings.
She asks, “How do people use their hands
in swimming?" to which the children
reply by showing the movement with
their hands. The teacher then asks, “Why
62
AUTO-EDUCATION
do you not hold your hands so?" (indi-
cating the fingers apart). The children
explain that with the fingers apart, the
water would go through (mental image)
and one could not push so hard; after
which the teacher asks, "Compare the
case of the bee's wings. What would be
true with regard to the air if the bee, in
flight, beats the air with his wings apart?"
The children, now, through the relation
of likeness, see that the bee could "push
better", this being the effect of hooking
the wings together.
While the association here is somewhat
more remote than in the previous examples,
the principle is the same. The questions
that embody the associated idea, call
up the image of the act of swimming with
closed fingers. The children are then asked
to compare with this the act of flying with
closed wings, which results in the discovery
of the relation of likeness, and this explains
the use of the hooks.
It is the custom of many teachers of
methods in normal schools to forbid the
use of questions "that can be answered
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
63
by 'yes' or 'no'." The fault with such
questions lies in the fact that the subject
matter of them expresses the relation in-
stead of calling to mind the images be-
tween which the relation is to be estab-
lished by the children. For example, in
the above illustration, instead of the
question given, the teacher would say,
"When people swim they hold their fingers
close together, do they not?" to which
the children would answer, "Yes."
The habitual use of this form of ques-
tion must affect the brain as well as the
mind, for there is little, if any, establish-
ment of relations in such cases. Especial-
ly is this true in connection with large
classes.
Beside the questions used for the pur-
pose of calling up images, the above illus-
tration contains questions which call at-
tention to the relation existing between
the images. For example, the question.
"Compare the case of the bee; what would
be true with regard to the air if the bee,
in flying, beats the air with his wings
open?" This question calls attention to
64
AUTO-EDUCATION
the similarity of effect in pushing on the
water with open fingers and in pushing
on the air with open wings.
The relations of likeness and difference
are generally discovered through means
of comparing, and therefore it is usually
most direct to ask the child to compare
this with that.-"Compare the height
of the windows with the height of the
doors," "Compare the age of Mary with
the age of Paul," "Compare the number
of cents in a dime with the number in a
nickle," "Compare the climate of England
with that of Laborador." In answering
each of these questions, the child is obliged
to image the things related.
With regard to space relations, atten-
tion may be directed to those of position
in many cases by asking, "where" such
and such things may be. It must be
noted, however, that these questions must
be limited in order to avoid confusion of
thought. For example, one may ask,
"Where is the source of the Nile river
with regard to the heat belts of Africa?"
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
65
"Where are the stamens with regard to
the petals?"
Attention may be directed to time
relations by asking "when" such and
such things occurred. For example,
"When was the battle of Bunker Hill
fought with regard to the signing of the
Declaration of Independence?"
Attention may be directed to the re-
lation of cause and effect by asking "why"
is this, or "what is the effect" of that.
In directing attention to the conceptual
relation, i. e. to the thought of a class or of
unseen cases, after the likeness of a few
particulars, has been discovered, one may
ask, "In how many of these cases is this
so?" or "Think of a case where this is not
so"-the negative form.
The vital points to be observed in
questioning, then, are (1) in calling images
to mind through association, the questions
must express the associated idea; (2) in
calling attention to relations, the kind of
relation as to whether it be likeness or
difference, space, time, cause and effect,
or the particular to the general, will
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AUTO-EDUCATION
determine the form of question to be
asked; (3) questions must often be limited
in order to avoid confusion of thought.
The questions given in the above il
lustrations are not the only ones that
could be used in these instances but they
serve to show that from the standpoint
of establishing relations, the problem of
questioning may be made definite and
scientific. This fact is alone sufficient.
to commend this point of view.
Teaching, on this basis, is not easy,
for it implies ability (1) to analyze sub-
ject matter, (2) to psychologize the
subject matter; i.e. to state ideas in such
order as the mind follows in assimilating
them; (3) to determine what relations are
to be established, and (4) what associations
if any, are necessary; (5) to formulate
such questions as will lead to the establish-
ment of the relations; (6) to acquire such
an intimate knowledge of the working of
the mind that whatever the child says
or does will reveal to her the state of the
child's mind, and will furnish the "cue”
for her own immediate proceedure.
ESTABLISHING RELATIONS
67
But the tendency to establish relations
is innate and works through its own in-
itiative. The teacher should therefore
be warned not to interfere with this
activity by unnecessary questions. It is
possible through the proper arrangement
of subject-matter, and of the environment
to aid greatly the process of auto-education
and thus reduce to a minimum the necessi-
ty for direction. It is very important to
remember that this form of activity as
it becomes more and more developed,
becomes more and more
more self-directive.
Application of the principle of auto-
education to the higher grades would be
greatly facilitated by classifying the pupils
according to their special aptitudes as
mentioned in Part IV. Preparation for
a special line of work stimulates interests
and impulses which lead to the acquisition
of knowledge.
What is needed is the working out of
a system of auto-education in a whole
city, wherein, as a laboratory, observations.
of the development of the tendency to
relate could be made in reference to all
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AUTO-EDTCATION
grades and conditions, and also where
the technique of teaching could be more
definitely determined.
;
IV
THE REORGANIZATION OF A CITY
SCHOOL SYSTEM
There is no question that such a re-
organization of education as implied in
the foregoing is now imminent. Ideals
of education change with the changing
ideals of life, and everywhere there is
the call for greater freedom and efficiency.
The problem for our immediate con-
sideration is how to make the forces which
have created a demand for the change
most effective in establishing the reor-
ganization.
The minor changes in educational prac-
tices which have been made hitherto have
been accomplished through means of in-
dividual schools. But why should we
adopt that slow and wasteful method?
Why not utilize the energy and enthusi-
asm necessary to effect the reorganization
of one kindergarten or one grade in effect-
(69)
70
AUTO-EDUCATION
ing the reorganization of all the kindergar-
tens and grades in a city? Surely if a new
form of education is good for one school,
it must be desirable for all. No more time
is necessary for the reorganization of a
city school system than for the reorganiza-
tion of one school in such a system and the
added impetus resulting from a community
of interests would greatly aid the work.
In fact the civic interests of the entire
community should be centered upon the
problem.
The following suggestions for the re-
organization of a city school system are
made with a view to utilize this community
spirit in securing a more efficient system
of education.
The reorganization of a school system
based upon auto-education would affect
the conduct of education most profoundly
with respect to the curriculum, the methods
of teaching, and the equipment of the
schools.
The Curriculum
In developing a system of auto-educa-
tion, the subject-matter of the curriculum
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
71
would have to be determined year by year,
as it would be impossible to forecast
definitely what the children, under this
regimen would require, or what they
would be capable of accomplishing. It
is possible at this time, therefore, to give
only the general characteristics of such a
curriculum.
As
It is clear that the curriculum must
provide a training for the relating and
motor tendencies as well as to furnish
knowledge. During the first years, the
element of training predominates.
advancement is made, however, the knowl-
edge element increases and the question
of training is determined by the special
aptitudes which the child has developed.
First period-3 to 6 years
The Montessori Method seems most per-
fectly adaptable to the needs of this period
as these needs have been presented above.
The diadactic material, nature work,
etc., provide opportunity for the exercise
of the relating tendencies in the earliest
stages of their development.
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AUTO-EDUCATION
The development of the art instincts.
is important at this period and should be
provided for-good music, color effects
in pictures, flowers and other forms of
beauty.
Second period-6 to 9 years
In this period, the curriculum should
provide for the establishment of definite
space relations such as are given in the
denominate numbers tables. Such work
follows naturally the indefinite space re-
lations which have been gained through
means of the didactic material in the
previous period. The instincts of tool-
using, planning, inventing, and ex-
perimenting should be recognized in the
motor training. The artistic tendencies
are to receive continued attention. The
nature work, extended to the larger home
environment gives increased opportunity
for the establishment of relations of cause
and effect and of the particular to the
general which are to form the basis
for future conceptual work in geography,
history, etc.
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
73
Third period-9 to 12 years
In this period, further standards of
measurement (denominate number tables)
are acquired for use in establishing def-
inite space relations. The technique of
tool-using is acquired through the ap-
propriation of "efforts stored by society"
(modern ways of doing things and modern
inventions). Training of artistic ten-
dencies is continued. Conceptual tenden-
cies are directed along the lines of science,
mathematics, history, language, etc.
Fourth period-12 to 14 years
In this period the work is divided ac-
cording to the special aptitudes of the
children into such departments as litera-
ture and science, engineering and mechani-
cal occupations, art and decorative trades,
farming and agricultural industries, com-
merce and finance. The
The work of the
higher grades should result in a body of
related knowledge which is seen to have
a pragmatic value. The above arrange-
ment would greatly favor such a result.
74
AUTO-EDUCATION
Method of Teaching
While in this reorganization of educa-
tion, the curriculum would differ some-
what from that now in general use, the
greatest change would be experienced
in the methods of teaching. Auto-educa-
tion means "freedom to exercise one's
natural tendencies in re-acting to a
determined environment." Education
through freedom is the direct opposite
of education through control, and there-
fore, new methods of teaching are de-
manded.
In accordance with this demand, a
plan for the reorganization of education
must provide for; (1) the establishment
of a training school for teachers, (2) the
preparation of such teachers of the present
corps as need or desire the training, (3)
the introduction of the work into the
grades.
While this would require several years.
for its accomplishment, it need in no way
interrupt the normal efficiency of the
schools. The entire change could be made
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
75
in a medium sized city in from four to
six years.
The following suggestion in-
dicates one way in which this could be
done.
Plan for Reorganization
First year-During the first year, the
training school organized and the model
school started, say the kindergarten, first,
second and third grades opened. The
kindergarten, first, second and third year
teachers in the city schools take afternoon
courses at the training school to prepare
for the work.
The
Second year-During the second year,
the organization of the model school con-
tinued. The fourth, fifth, and sixth year
teachers of the city schools take afternoon
courses to prepare for their work.
kindergarten, first, second, and third year
teachers who were proficient, introduce
the new work in their grades, the regular
pupil teachers of the training school, as-
sisting.
Third year-The new work started in
the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades.
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AUTO-EDUCATION
During the year that the regular teachers.
are preparing for the work they could be
granted a one-session period for their
teaching, spending the afternoon at the
training school. This would be impera-
tive, as the value of the system depends
wholly upon the ability of the teachers
to teach pedagogically. Beside certain
courses dealing with modern views of
life and mind, the work of these teachers
at the training school would be, to gain
the ability to teach according to the
principles of Scientific Pedagogy, to study
the subject matter of the new work, and
to observe the same work as carried out
in the model school.
Equipment
It is quite probable that few people go
through life without experiencing an oc-
casional change of ideals. These changes,
however, generally come so gradually
that one scarcely realizes what is taking
place. Social intercourse, the newspapers
and periodicals tend to bridge the gap
between the old ideal and the new, so
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
77
that the latter is more or less familiar
before one realizes that it has become
established.
The reorganization of education as here
suggested demands absolutely new ideals.
as the warrant of its acceptance. One
must imagine the child not as forced into
quiet and inaction by having to sit in a
chair at a desk, but as actively trying to
realize its own ideas. One must come
to prefer the noise that results from a
busy interested mind rather than the
silence of repression; noise does not neces-
sarily mean confusion.
The equipment of the schools should
consist of such tools and material as are
necessary in constructive work, such as
carpenter's tools, gardening, cooking, and
sewing appliances, and the usual equip-
ment for the art work. The number of
tools provided for each room need be only
a small percentage of the number of pupils.
As to material, there is enough wasted
every year in any city to supply the
schools bountifully, dry-goods boxes,
78
AUTO-EDUCATION
cigar boxes, tea chest leads, leather scraps,
and innumerable other things that child-
ren and teachers in each section of the
city could secure.
To start off with an expensive equip-
ment that relieves everyone not of ex-
pense, but of the energy and wit in getting,
things to work with, would deprive the
children of an important part of the bene-
fit of the work. The Spartans obliged
their youths to steal their food. Stealing
is not considered a virtue at present, but
the principle of self-help is sound. One
needs only what one can use, and the
need should determine the supply.
The following details as to the equip-
ment for the various grades are suggested:
Training school
The equipment of the training school
is to provide for professional training, and
for literary, scientific, industrial, and art
courses. The manual training school
should form the nucleus of the training
school.
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
79
First, second and third grades
As a means of continuing into the first
three grades, the method of auto-educa-
tion of the kindergarten, the following
details of equipment for these grades are
suggested.
(1) A large, properly heated, lighted,
and ventilated room.
(2) In one corner of this room a Mon-
tessori table fitted up as a carpenter
bench with four each of planes, hammers
and saws. Cases on wall for material.
(3) In another corner a Montessori
table fitted up for cooking purposes, with
four each of mixing pans, spoons and
measuring cups. One gas burner for
cooking; towels, dishpans, etc.
(4) In another corner a store fitted
up with Montessori table for counter and
furnished with all weights and measures.
Also paper, pencils, paints, and other
material used in the work of the grade.
(5) In the center of the room, a large
sand table with boxes for sand and mold-
ing pans.
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AUTO-EDUCATION
(6) One of the Montessori tables fitted
up as a library table with suitable books
and with drawers for pictures.
(7) A table fitted up with aquaria
and to be used in connection with nature
study.
(8) Black boards.
(9) Pictures and casts, etc.
(10) Some provision for furnishing the
best music-possibly a good phonograph.
(11) Material for drawing, painting,
and modelling.
(12) Garden-garden tools.
Fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh grades-
rooms fitted up for study with special
rooms for laboratories, worksohps, etc.
Eighth and ninth grade. Pupils classi-
fied according to special aptitude and
assigned to appropriate departments as
indicated above. Various grammar build-
ings could be utilized for this purpose.
Also any technical or industrial schools
in the city. If possible, a farm near the
city should be secured.
REORGANIZING A SYSTEM
81
The work of civic improvenemt to be
carried on by the older pupils. This
is to include home-making as well as city-
making. It is intended that the relations
between teachers and parents would be
such as to warrant a practical application
of the domestic economy taught through
means of lunch parties and housekeeping
parties held in the homes of the children.
The work of reorganizing a school system
could be under the direction of either the
principal of the training school or an
assistant superintendent appointed for the
purpose.
As to the expense of the reorganization,
there are two ways in which it might be
met. First, it might be done as the
cathedrals of the Middle Ages were built,
through the efforts of all the citizens
centered in a common interest. This is,
of course, the better way; but if it were
not possible, then it might be done as the
kindergartens were started, through the
aid of public spirited citizens, who would
finance the work until the system were
complete, the city contributing its usual
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AUTO-EDUCATION
yearly budget. The system could then
be turned over to the city. The cost of
maintaining such a system would not
greatly exceed the present expense. Such
a contribution to civilization as the re-
organization of an entire city school sys-
tem would be a gift worthy of any of our
present philanthropists.
The importance of attempting the re-
organization as here urged cannot be
over estimated. Progress is made only
as individuals, seeing a better way, cour-
ageously follow it. People are deinanding
the change. The question is, shall we
wait for the slow methods of the past when
individuals worked with small groups,
or shall we adopt the methods of the
present and demonstrate the principle
on a scale that will prove its worth?
People are accustomed to large enter-
prises and would gladly co-operate. In
the coming era of Social Consciousness
which is already supplanting that of
Self-consciousness, the dominant note is
Mutual aid through co-operation.
UNIV. OF MICHIGAN,

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
3 9015 00902 0234
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
DATE DUE
༼ ༤
DEC 14
1 7 19913