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DANISH WEST INDIA. ISLANDS.
----
º JĪ ĶºȘVĂȚĂTO)JĪJĀ, †Ş ÜÇ [[A^\(])J, ĶĪJĪJĀ ĶĪÓ ÁTJUK,


A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
4G F
ST. T H O M A S, W. I.,
ITS RISE AND PROGRESS IN COMMERCE ; MISSIONS AND
CHURCHES; CLIMATE AND ITs ADAPTATION TO INVA-
STRUCTURE ; NATURAL
LIDS; GEOLOGICAL
HISTORY, AND BOTANY;
{AND INCIDENTAL, NOTICES OF
ST. C. R O IX A N D S T. J O PIN S ;
SLAVE INSURRECTIONS IN THESE ISLANDS ; EMANCIPATION AND
PRESENT COND:TION OF LABORING CLASSES.
BY JOHN P. K.N ox,
PASTOR OF THE REFoRMED DUTCH CHURCH, ST. THOMAS, w, .
NEW YORK :
STREET.
CHARLES SCRIBNER, 145 NA8SAU
1852.
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1852, by
C EIA R L E S S C R IB N E R,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.
Printed by
C. W. B E N E D I C T,
201 William Street,
& ſº -2m/ /*
Ø QV
7 - : d & 2%
2 : ; **
PREF A (; E,
THE Author cannot admit the idea that “if a.
work be good it needs no apology; if bad, it deserves
none.” May there not be an intermediate state
between good and bad to which circumstances doom
the writings of many, and to which they would
gladly have risen superior had it been in their power.
He pleads such circumstances. . Whilst the torrid
Zone is wonderfully adapted to the development of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms, it is not prolific in
books, nor distinguished for cerebral activity. Now
the “Historical Account” has been produced within
the tropics, and that too, in midsummer, with the
thermometer continuously, day and night, at 82°.
Besides the author's leisure hours could alone be
employed for writing, which probably had been better
devoted to rest from the severe labors of a profession
and other engagements, which could not be slighted.
Y] - PREFACE.
Then why write 7 . To give pleasure to his restless
mind, anhappy when unemployed; and to meet a
want which had long been felt in the island. A con-
nected History of St. Thomas, and of the important
events which have transpired in her sister islands,
had never been attempted. The very limited works
of Hóst, Oldendorf, and Nissen, are incomplete, and
the latter alone in English. The author has attempted
to combine, then fill up the gaps and continue the
history to the present time. He is conscious that his
book is still incomplete from inability especially to
examine the public records in Copenhagen, and has
not, therefore, presumed to call it a history. .
His deseription of the present state of St. Thomas,
with his notices of St. Croix and St. John’s, he hopes
will not be unacceptable to the many strangers from
Europe and the United States who visit these islands.
Invalids, especially may rely upon the information
given concerning the elimate. -
In his remarks upon the insurrection in St. Croix,
emancipation in the islands and present state of the
Haboring classes, he has endeavored to express his
views honestly and fully, as dictated by an impartial
judgment and as the result of careful observation upon
facts.
The author avails himself of this occasion to make
his grateful acknowledgments to those gentlemen who
PREFACE. vii
have assisted him in various ways as he has prepared
his Work. They are especially due to Mr. Henry
Krebs, for his tables on the temperature, and his cata-
logue of plants. From the distinguished capabilities
of this gentleman as a botanist, and the manner in
which he has with the most unassuming modesty and
indefatigable perseverance investigated the flora of
the island, the utmost reliance can be placed upon
the catalogue for scientific purposes.
ST. THOMAs, W. I., Oct. 25th, 1851,
0 0 NT ENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The Virgin Islands—When discovered—The Caribs—Colum-
bus names St. Croix and the Group—Account of the
Caribs—Their Number—Expulsion from the Islands—
Gradual and almost Total Extinction,
CHAPTER II.
Carribbean Islands neglected by Spain—New Impulse to
Colonial Commerce in Europe—Dutch and English Wessels
visit the West Indies—Farly Settlement of English and
Dutch in St. Croix—Combat between them—Dutch leave
, the Island—English Colony destroyed by the Spaniards—
Dutch attempt to regain St. Croix—French take the Island
and drive out the Spaniards,
CHAPTER III.
Establishment of the French Colony in St. Croix—Its Mis-
fortunes—The Island sold to the Knights of Malta—Con-
tinued History of the Colony—Knights of Malta sell the
Island to a new French Company—The King of France
takes over the Island—Island abandoned by the French,
13
21
33
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
St. Thomas–Notices of the Island by Historians before
permanently settled—The Dutch first Settlers—Taken
from them by the English—Danes find it uninhabited—
Buccaneers never in possession—Danish West India Com-
pany constituted-It colonizes St. Thomas—Ordinance of
first Governor—Estates laid out and occupied—Slaves
brought from Africa—Stringent laws to regulate their con-
duct,
*
CHAPTER V.
Brandenburghers establish a Commercial Company in St.
Thomas–Colonists invited to the Island–Census taken
in 1688–Buccaneers rob the Brandenburgh Company's
Factory—The Island rented by the Danish Company for
ten years to Thormohlen—Description of the Island in
1701 by Pére Labat—Slaves escape to Porto Rico–St.
John's colonized, 1716—Land Tax imposed,
CHAPTER WI.
Arrival of Moravian Missionaries at St. Thomas—Slaves
restless—Severe Ordinance against them—Insurrection in
St. John's, 1733—Suppressed after the Slaves had held the
Island six months,
CHAPTER VII.
St. Croix purchased by the Danish Company of the French—
Danes occupy the Island–Rapid increase of this Colony——
Government of St. Croix and St. Thomas separated—
Dutch Commerce excluded by Merchants of Copenhagen—
These Merchants join the Danish Company—Severe re-
strictions now laid upon the Commerce of the Colonies— .
CONTENTS.
xi
Colonists complain to the King, Frederic V.-Purchase the
Privileges of the Company, and abolish it—St. Croix bene-
fitted, St. Thomas injured by the change—Ports of St.
Thomas and St. John's declared free—Continued History of
St. Thomas—The Island beginning to enjoy a wonderful
Prosperity in 1792–Taken by the English in 1801–Re-
stored 1802—Retaken by the English 1807 and held eight
years—Fires—Close of Civil History,
CHAPTER VIII.
The Commerce of St. Thomas—Its Origin and Progress from
the Establishment of the Danish West India Company to
the present day.
CHAPTER IX.
Slavery in the Danish West India Islands—Steps towards
Emancipation—Insurrection in St. Croix, 1848—Emanci-
pation—“Labor Act”—Losses to Owners—Compensation—
Present State of Working Classes in St. Thomas, .
CHAPTER X.
History of the various Religious Sects which have existed
and still exist in St. Thomas—Lutherans—Reformed
Dutch–Moravians—Catholics--French Huguenots—Jews,
CHAPTER XI.
Description of the Town and Harbor of St. Thomas–Civil
Authorities—Courts of J ustice—Military—Custom-house —
Duties and Port Charges—Quarantine—British Post Office
Agency-Banks and other Institutions--Burgher Council—
Country Treasury’s Income and Expenditure—Revenue
and Disbursements of the “King's Chest”—Proposed altera-
tion in the Colonial Laws, ,
tº .
78
96
. 1 10
133
. 164
xii CONTENTS,
CHAPTER XII.
Climate of St. Thomas—Temperature—Barometer—Winds—
Fall of Rain—Clouds—Diseases—Mortality—Physicians—
Change of Climate occasionally necessary to Residents—
Apothecary—Burials—Sanitary Provisions—Invalids seek-
ing the Island for Health—Advice to such, & . 1 79
CHAPTER XIII.
Physical Outline of St. Thomas—Its Geology—Earthquakes–
Hurricanes—Zoology—Botany—Complete List of Plants– 207
APPENDIX A.
sº Names of First Colonists in St. Thomas, 1678, e , 247
APPENDIX B.
‘‘ Labor Act,” e º e o e , 248
APPENDIX C. tº
Petition of the Inhabitants of St. Thomas and St. John’s to
the Rigsdag of Denmark for Compensation, e . 255
APPENDIX D.
Names of Clergymen and Dates of Service of the Lutheran
Church, . e º º e º , 261
APPENDIX E.
Proposed Colonial Laws, & º e º , 263
: APPENDIX F.
Steamer Route to Chagres, . º º º . 269
CHAPTER I.
---
The Virgin Islands—When discovered—The Caribs—Columbus names
St. Croix and the Group—Brief Account of the Caribs—Their Num-
ber—Expulsion from the more Northern Islands—Gradual and
almost Total Extinction.
To the north of the Windward Islands, and nearly east of
Porto Rico, lies the Virgin Group. It consists, excepting
Anegada, of a cluster of lofty islets and rocks, extending about
twenty-four leagues east and west, and sixteen north and
south. On approaching this group by the Sombrero, or Vir-
gin's Passage, there is much in the general appearance of the
islands to excite the most pleasing and lively emotions.
Their blue summits rising one after another out of the ocean;
their picturesque outline, and still more picturesque group-
ing; their numerous channels, small bays, and rocky pro-
jecting points; these, with the rich tropical growth of trees
and shrubs; the lovely green of the cultivated estates ; the
groves of palms in almost every valley, fringing the beach ;
the white rolling surf; and the varying lights and shadows
14 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
from passing clouds, present views of extraordinary novelty,
beauty, and even magnificence.
“So freshly fair are everywhere the features of the scene,
That earth appears a resting-place where angels might alight,
As if sorrow ne'er a visitant in human breast had been,
And the verdure of the summer months had never suffered blight.”
There are few travellers, upon visiting the Virgin Islands,
especially St. Croix, that will not accord to them the first
rank among the gems of the ocean, for enchanting loveli-
IlêSS.
They were discovered by Christopher Columbus during
his second voyage to the West Indies, in 1493.” On Sunday,
the 3d of November, he arrived at Dominica, proceeded to
Guadaloupe, where he remained a few days, and then north-
ward, discovering and naming Montserrat, Redondo, Anti-
gua, San Martin, and arrived off the Virgin Islands on
Thursday the 14th. The weather proving boisterous, the
Spaniards anchored on the same day at an island called by
the Indians Ayay, and to which Columbus gave the name
of St. Croix. They found it was inhabited by Indians simi.
lar to those whom they had just seen at Guadaloupe, and
whom they there called “ Caribes,” having seen horrid evi-
dences that they were cannibals. Among them, as in Guada-
loupe, they observed captives who had been taken from
other islands. These were the more peaceable Arrowauks,
who had been apprehended at Porto Rico or its neighboring
* Peter Martin, D. 1, L. 2, Hist, del Almirante, c. 47. Las Casas,
Hist, Ind,, c. 85
ST. THOMAS, w. I. 15
waters, and brought thence. How densely the island of
St. Croix was inhabited by the Caribs is not stated. A
village was discovered on shore, but mostly deserted by the
men, who had fled at the approach of the Spaniards.
It was whilst he lay at anchor at this island, that Colum-
bus was made fully aware of the fierce and courageous
spirit of these natives.” During the absence of the boat,
which had been sent to the shore with twenty-five men to pro-
cure water and obtain information, a canoe containing four
men, two women, and a boy, coasting from a distant part of
the island, came suddenly in full view of the ships. Their
amazement at what they beheld, prevented them from see-
ing the boat, which was now returning from the shore, and
making towards them in order to capture the men. At
first they attempted flight ; but this proving impossible,
they took up their weapons and fearlessly attacked the
Spaniards. The women, as well as the men, plied their
bows with such amazing vigor and rapidity, that, although
the Spaniards were covered with their targets and other
defensive armor, several of them were quickly wounded.
To avoid their galling fire, their canoe was overset; still, it
was with no little difficulty and danger that some of them
were secured, as they continued to defend themselves, and
to use their bows with great dexterity while swimming in
the sea. One of the Caribs died after being brought on
board, having been transfixed by a spear; and a few days
afterwards, one of the Spaniards died from a wound
* Herrera. Washington Irving's Hist. Columbus.
16 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
received from the poisoned arrows which the Caribs had
used.
Leaving St. Croix, and pursuing his voyage, Columbus
bore down to the Virgin Group already in sight to the
north. The contiguity of the many islands and islets, the
roughness of the sea in the narrow channels, and the dan-
ger from hidden rocks, caused the Admiral to “lay off” with
his vessels. He, however, sent in a small caravei to reconnoi-
tre, which returned with the report that there were upwards
of fifty islands, and apparently uninhabited. To the largest
of this group Columbus gave the name of “Santa
Ursula,” and he called the others “the Eleven Thousand
Virgins.”
Mr. Suckling, in his brief account of the Virgin Islands,
says they were thus called by Sir Francis Drake, in 1580,
in honor of Queen Elizabeth. Upon this point the author
was evidently mistaken, as all the Spanish historians state
that Columbus gave their name, “Las Virgines,” in allu-
sion to the well-known legend in the Romish ritual of the
11,000 virgins.
The island at present called Virgin Gorda (Great Virgin)
and sometimes Penniston or Spanishtown, was probably the
one which Columbus named Santa Ursula.
Whether St. Thomas and St. John’s received their names
at this time from Columbus, or were thus called afterwards
by some other Spanish voyager, has not been traced.
That all the Virgin Islands were in possession of the Ca-
ribs, as well as St. Croix, or at least visited by them on
frequent occasions, there can be little doubt. They were
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 17
reported to Columbus as apparently uninhabited, but the
Indians upon them might easily have withdrawn out of
sight into the mountains or ravines, as the caravel passed.
Their nearness to St. Croix, and the facility with which the
Caribs could pass from them on their predatory excur-
sions against the Arrowauks on Porto Rico, together
with their abundance of fish, lead to the belief that, if
they were not permanently inhabited, they were frequently
resorted to as places of temporary residence for various
purposes.
In confirmation of this there is upon the island of St.
John's, at Kip Bay, near a waterfall, and within a few
minutes' walk from the beach, carvings of faces and other
"designs upon the surface of a rock.
The carvings are faint, the faces the size of life, and can
only be well made out by throwing water upon the
surface. The surface of this carved rock lies nearly hori-
Zontal, and close to the edge of the stream, which has here
formed by its washings in times of heavy rains, a small pic-
turesque ravine. The valley or flat, into which the ravine
OpenS, must have formed, before it was cleared and culti-
vated, a beautiful grove. It may, therefore, have been the
burial-place for their dead; and the imagination tries to
throw around it the hallowed associations of a spot thus
consecrated, and call up scenes of the past when these fierce
warriors buried their dead out of their sight. But another
thought intrudes, when standing in this valley, which, be-
cause of the striking feature in the character of the Caribs,
takes possession of the mind to the exclusion of every other
18 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
suggestion. It is that here was the resort where they held
their cannibal feasts on the slaughtered bodies of their ene-
mies, or of those young captives whom they had kept and
reared for that horrid purpose.
How long after the discovery of these islands the Caribs
Continued to inhabit them, it is impossible to determine with
accuracy. In 1596, when the Earl of Cumberland, on his
way to attack Porto Rico, visited the Virgin Islands, he
describes them as “a knot of little islands, wholly uninha-
bited, Sandy, barren, and craggy.” Nor is there any mention
made by Du Tertre and others, when treating of the early
settlement of St. Croix in the beginning of the 17th century,
of the Caribs being then in that island. It appears that
St. Croix was the only island north of St. Kitt's where the
Caribs were known to reside in any large numbers, and in
villages. It is probable that as soon as the Spaniards were
well established in Porto Rico, the Caribs, seeing the treat-
ment which the Arrowauks received at their hands, and
having already felt their superiority, would leave a vicinity
which threatened them all with captivity or extermination,
and join the main body of the tribe in the Windward
Islands. Such were their canoes and larger craft, as de-
scribed by Père Labat, that this migration could easily have
been accomplished. Oldendorp, a German historian, says
they were driven away from the Virgin Islands in the time
of Charles V., about the year 1550, the emperor having
ordered them to be treated as enemies and exterminated.
This was the commencement of that war upon this extraor-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 19
dinary cannibal tribe of Indians, which afterwards did truly
result in their extermination.
Historians who treat of the Caribs, make but slight men-
tion of their numbers throughout the Caribbean islands.
That they were never very numerous, probably not num-
bering over 50,000 in all, may be inferred from the fact that
they did not dwell in villages upon more than ten of these
islands–St. Croix, St. Christopher’s, Guadaloupe, Mariega-
lante, Dominica, Martinico, St. Lucie, St. Vincent, and Gre-
nada; and that it was only by concentrating their numbers,
although their fierce and courageous spirit rendered them
formidable in war, that they could at all contend against the
first English and French colonists. As Europeans increased
in the Caribbean Islands, and their colonies gathered strength,
the Caribs were either destroyed in their attacks upon the
colonies, or driven still further south until they were en-
tirely confined to Dominica and St. Vincent’s. These two
islands, by several treaties, were given up to them from time
to time ; but even there, as colonies were pushed into their
midst, these brave savages gradually perished before the
progress of civilization, and may now be considered as
almost extinct. Their origin, whether from North or South
America, their robust muscular frames, their warlike cha-
racter in such strong and strange contrast with the Arrow-
auks, their malignant hatred of this mild and peaceable
tribe, their horrid cannibal customs, their unconquerable
determination to reject all attempts repeatedly made to
convert them to Christianity, their hostility to the Eng-
20 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
lish and French colonies established in their midst, have
rendered them prominent among all the Indian tribes of
the American continent, and attracted the attention of his-
torians.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 21
CHAPTER II.
Caribbean Islands neglected by Spain — New Impulse to Colonial
Commerce—Dutch and English Wessels visit the West Indies—Early
Settlement of English and Dutch in St. Croix—Combat between
Dutch and English on St. Croix—Dutch leave the Island—French
Deserters leave the Island–English Colony broken up by the
Spaniards—Dutch attempt to regain St. Croix — French take the
. Island and drive out the Spaniards.
THE Caribbee Islands, or that chain which reaches in
the arc of a circle from the South American coast, north,
until it joins on to Porto Rico, in its deflection towards the
west, seem to have been entirely neglected by the
Spaniards, after their discovery. Occasionally, however,
they made search among them for gold, or descended upon
them to attack the Caribs, in order to add to the number of
their slaves in these colonies.
St. Domingo had become of great importance to Spain on
account of its gold mines. Attempts were made to colonize
Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by this nation, from 1508
to 1510. The great kingdom of Mexico was subjected by
Cortez, 1519–1521. Peru, Chili, and Quito, were con-
2% -
22 A HISTORICAL Account of
quered by Pizarro, 1529–1535, and New Grenada in 1536.
These colonies and conquests absorbed in the New World
the attention of Spain, and left the Spaniards no time to
consider islands of small importance. Gold and silver,
moreover, were the great objects of their desire ; and hence
search after and mining for these excluded all thoughts of
agriculture or commerce, which could alone give any value
to islands of limited extent.
Ferdinand and Isabella had obtained from the Pope a
grant to all the countries they had or might discover in the
New World. The Spaniards thus claimed the Caribbee
Islands, although their colonies did not reach east of Porto
Rico. This hindered other nations, for many years, from
turning their attention to the West Indies; so that, prior to
1600, but few vessels save those of the Spanish nation had
ever visited these islands. Naval expeditions had been
fitted and sent out by the English against the Spanish
colonies: private armed vessels had also cruised in and
around the Caribbean Sea, to make depredations upon the
Spanish ships; and some few merchantmen, especially of
the Dutch, were occasionally touching at the Windward
Islands for refreshment or traffic with the natives, on their
way to trade with the Spanish settlements.
At the beginning, however, of the 17th century, a new
impulse and greater activity were given to colonial
commerce. The Dutch led the way, and as early as 1602
their East India Company was established, and their
colonial system and success, in the East Indies, were
rapidly developed and increased. They were soon followed
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 23
by the English. With this advancing state of commerce by
these two maritime powers, increased attention was natu-
rally drawn to the West Indies; and, notwithstanding the
determination of the Spaniards to exclude all other nations
from navigating the seas on which their colonies were
situated, enterprising individuals and companies, both among
the Dutch and English, were sending their vessels to their
islands, partly for the purpose of trade, and partly for
observation and aggression. The French, also, about this
time, were stirred up to share in the new impulse and
extent which had been given to colonial enterprise and
foreign commerce. Their vessels also began to visit the
West Indies. -
How early attempts were made by individuals, or small
parties of other European powers than the Spanish, to get
a foothold upon the islands of the Caribbean Sea, we are
not definitely informed. In 1623,” the first regular settlement
whose history is recorded, was commenced on St. Christo-
pher’s by Mr. Thomas Warner, who had arrived there
with fifteen companies from Virginia. The French came
also to that island the same or the next year, and commenced
a colony. That other islands had, however, been frequently
visited long before this, and that deserters, or shipwrecked
crews, or small enterprising parties, had taken up their
abode at various places upon them, there can be no doubt.
Whether St. Croix and St. Thomas were thus settled, and
settled prior to St. Christopher's and Barbadoes, has not been
* B. Edwards.
24 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
traced. Bryan Edwards* says that the Dutch and English
came to St. Croix in 1625; but, as he quotes no authority,
We have been unable to determine whence he has derived
his information. It is not likely, however, that both nations
settled at the same time. One must have preceded the
other ; and as the Dutch had established their West India
Company as early as 1621, and were the first to trade in the
Caribbean Sea, they had most probably landed first upon St.
Croix, and even prior to the settlement of the English at
St. Christopher's.
The French author, Du Tertre,f in part confirms the very
early settlement of St. Croix. He says, that for “many
years” prior to 1645, St. Croix was in possession of the
Dutch and English, who had been joined by certain French
refugees from the island of St. Christopher's.
Whence these Dutch and English came, we are equally
at a loss to determine. If the settlement in St. Croix was
made in 1625, or before that time, them they must have
come direct from Europe. If later, the English may have
been of those who had been driven out of St. Christopher's
by the Spaniards, under Don Frederik de Toledo, in 1629;
and the Dutch of those expelled from the Brazils by the
Spaniards and Portuguese, in 1626.
That these first settlers had made considerable progress in
the establishment of their respective colonies on St. Croix,
and were engaged in agriculture and commerce, may be
drawn from the fact that, in the year 1645, the population
* Hist. West Indies, vol. i. p. 184.
f Histoire des Antilles, vol. i. p. 272.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 25
numbered at least six hundred persons in all, and that they
were governed by general officers appointed by the
“Seigneurs” of their respective countries.* By “Seigneurs,”
we suppose Du Tertre, from whom we derive the fact,
alludes to the Directors of the Dutch West India Company,
and such noblemen in England who had received letters-
patent from Charles I. to possess certain of the West India
Islands.
The history of St. Croix now opens with a tragic event,
which seems the precursor of those disastrous circumstances
which that island experienced for a number of years.f In
1645, the governor of the Dutch portion of the island had
killed in his house, either designedly or by accident, M. de
Brasebet, the governor of the English. Rochefort places
this event in 1649, but he was evidently mistaken. Imme-
diately the two parties seized their arms, and a furious
combat ensued, in which the Dutch governor was so severely
wounded that he died in a few days. Satisfied, after this -
ruthless encounter, so suicidal to their infant colonies, with
the blood that had been shed, the combatants withdrew to
their respective quarters. The Dutch, upon the death of
their governor, elected another in his place. The English,
still breathing vengeance, under a pretence of settling all
difficulties between the two parties, invited the Dutch
governor to visit their colony. He complied, under a
promise of protection. This promise, however, was shame-
fully violated. They seized his person, condemned him to
* Du Tertre, vol. i. p. 272, # Ibid.
26 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
death in retaliation for the murder of their governor, and he
was publicly shot. Concluding that there could be no
longer peace between the two colonies established by
different nations upon the same island, and which had now
suffered so much at each other's hands, and being no doubt
the weaker party, the Dutch determined to abandon the
island. They retired almost immediately to St. Eustatius
and St. Martin’s, which were then colonized by their nation.
There had been associated with the Dutch on their quarter
of the island, one hundred or one hundred and twenty
French, nearly all deserters from the Island of St. Christo-
pher. These, if they had not assisted, had sympathized
with the Dutch in their quarrel. Fearing, in consequence,
bad treatment at the hands of the English after the depar-
ture of the Dutch, they asked permission of the English
commander to withdraw to one of the French islands.
Their request was granted, and they took passage in an
English ship of about three hundred tons burden, com-
manded by Capt. Thomas Paul. They agreed to give
him their plantations of manioc, provided he would carry
them to Guadaloupe. Here they arrived safely in the month
of July, and were cordially received and protected by the
governor, M. Houel. They complained to this governor of
their treatment in St. Croix, whereupon Capt. Paul was
seized and imprisoned, and afterwards, by order of the
“Procureur Fiscal,” his vessel and cargo were condemned
and sold, and ultimately confiscated. “This unrighteous
procedure,” says Du Tertre, “made considerable noise in
England, France, and the Islands.” It was done to indem-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 27
nify the French for their losses in St. Croix, and the only
pretext for the seizure was that the vessel was an armed
privateer, and without regular papers.
The English now remained sole masters of St. Croix.
Their colony made rapid strides in prosperity, and in a few
years their numbers were greatly increased. They were
soon, however, in their turn, to suffer under the aggression
of a superior power.* The Spanish government at Porto
Rico, becoming alarmed at having so prosperous a colony
at their very doors, sent twelve hundred men in five ships,
on the 10th of August, 1650, to break up the settlement,
drive out the intruders, and take possession of the island.
Although a treaty had been concluded between Spain and
England in 1630, the first article of which “stipulated that
there should be peace between the crowns and their
respective subjects in all parts of the world,” Spain, still
arrogating to herself the right over all the territories which
she had discovered on the new hemisphere, violated this
treaty in this unjust attack upon St. Croix, and made her
share the fate of St. Christopher's and Tortuga, which had
been destroyed by her tyrannical forces. This was the more
aggravated, as the destruction of these colonies had mainly
led to the treaty.
It may be here remarked that it was this aggrandizing,
warring spirit, on the part of the Spaniards in the West
Indies, against all nations, which led to the buccaneering
enterprises so long conducted against them by the English,
T}utch, and French. And, as the Spaniards were often
* Du Tertre, vol. i. p. 448.
28 A HISTORICAL Account of
cruel in their attempts to expel these nations from the
American seas and islands, they brought down upon them-
selves a hostility aggravated by revenge, and a perpetual
aggression upon their ships and colonies, fierce, bloody, and
destructive. From the greater strength, however, of the
Spaniards in the West Indies, added to their bigotry and
avarice, they could always retaliate with tenfold severity.
Continuing their persecutions, especially towards the
English, of which the invasion of St. Croix was a marked
case, Cromwell was ultimately induced to take those
rigorous measures against them in 1655, which resulted in
the taking of Jamaica. These measures have not always
been justly considered, and have been too harshly con-
demned even by English historians themselves.
The Spaniards made their descent upon St. Croix by
night. So sudden and unexpected was the attack, that the
English were taken by surprise. Twenty-six of their num-
ber were murdered in cold blood upon the spot,” and others
would have shared the same fate had not the alarm been
spread, and they were enabled to save themselves by flight.
The next day, a few prisoners having been taken, two of
their number were sent to the fugitives and those residing
in the interior, with the threat that if all did not leave the
island in three weeks, no quarter would be given, not even
to their women and children. The English, who had not
expected a proposition so favorable, received it with joy,
* B. Edwards says, vol. i. p. 184, that “the Spaniards exterminated
every inhabitant that fell into their hands, murdering, as at Tortuga,
even the women and children.”
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 29
and promptly sent to St. Christopher's, entreating the Eng-
lish general there to send vessels to their aid, by which
they might embark their families and goods. Their request
was immediately granted, and the remaining English left
the island.
The Dutch having been informed of the overthrow of the
English, and that they had abandoned the island, presuming
also that the Spaniards had returned to Porto Rico, at once
resolved to regain those possessions from which they had
been expelled. Most rashly, a small force was embarked on
board two vessels from St. Eustatius, and they set sail for
St. Croix. Their measures were not only rashly taken, but
badly prosecuted. Having arrived off the island, they took
no precaution to reconnoitre to see if the Spaniards were
still in possession, but dropped anchor directly under the
fortress and proceeded to land. Their worse than folly
resulted as the least reflection might have anticipated. A
garrison of sixty Spaniards had been left to hold the fortress.
These brought their guns to bear upon the vessels, and then
detached a party to encounter the Dutch as they should
land. The boats had no sooner touched the shore, and
those who were in them landed, than a volley of destructive
musketry swept death into their midst. Many were killed,
and no resistance being offered, ten were taken prisoners,
and the rest fled into the forests. Here they were ulti-
mately pursued, and many shot.
The French in St. Christopher's had received, at the same
time with the Dutch, information of the destruction of the
infant colony in St. Croix. M. de Poincy, knight of St.
30 A HISTORICAL ACCO1 JNT OF
John’s, lieutenant-general over the French West India
Islands, ambitious to let no opportunity escape of extending
the limits of French dominion and augmenting the glory of
his nation by warlike enterprises, determined simultaneously
with the Dutch to take possession of the island. His plans
were laid with more judgment than theirs. He chose one
hundred and sixty of the bravest men of St. Christopher’s,
and embarked them in two vessels. The command of the
expedition was given to M. de Vaugalan, with orders to
establish themselves upon St. Croix, having driven out the
Spaniards, and taken possession of the fortress in the name
of the king. The two vessels agreed that when they should
arrive off the island they would rendezvous at a place about
a league from the fortress, not being assured that the Span-
iards had left. The smaller vessel, unfortunately, which
had on board thirty-five or forty men, was separated from the
other, and being driven by the wind past the fortress, drop-
ped anchor a little beyond it. The soldiers were immedi-
ately landed, and the officer who had them in charge, sup-
posing that their commander, wiſh the rest of the force, was
at the place of rendezvous, marched to join him. The
Spaniards had seen the vessel pass, and judging that they
were enemies, watched their movements, and sent a de-
tachment to lie in ambush and cut them off as they should
advance. The French fell into the snare ; and although
they fought bravely, killing many of the Spaniards, were cut
to pieces—only three or four surviving the unequal contest.
M. de Vaugalan having waited three days for the other ves-
sel, and hearing nothing of her, resolved to land with his
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 31
force, and attack the Spaniards. With only sixty-five men,
he posted himself a short distance from the fort, and drew
up his little company in order of battle. The Spaniards
were now summoned to surrender. They asked three days
to deliberate. Upon this the French advanced still closer
to the fort, under cover of a small hill, and again demanded
a surrender. The Spanish commander, supposing the
French were a company of adventurers, and in need of pro-
visions and refreshment, sent them a cow and a quarter
cask of Madeira. The only answer, however, to this peace-
offering was another summons, accompanied by the threat
that if the fort was not surrendered in two hours, the place
would be taken by assault, and no quarter given. The
Spaniards, not knowing the strength of the French, at
length capitulated, left the ſort with their arms and baggage,
and embarked in a vessel which had been given them, for
Porto Rico. The French found the Dutch prisoners, who
were the remnant of their unfortunate expedition, confined
in the fort. These they released, and shortly after, sent
them to St. Eustatius. St. Croix had thus passed succes-
sively under the power of three nations in a very short pe-
riod, and the year 1650 is thus made memorable in its early
history. Had the English colony been suffered to remain,
it would no doubt have proved one of the brightest gems
among their island possessions. The destruction of this
colony by the Spaniards would no doubt have aroused the
indignation of the British government, and speedy redress
been sought; but that government was involved at the time
in a civil war, which allowed but little attention to be paid
32 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
to foreign affairs. The expelled colonists, however, had
made their loud complaint, and as soon as Cromwell was
well seated in power, seeing that his country had been out-
raged time and again by the perfidy of the Spaniards, in
murdering and cruelly persecuting her subjects in the West
Indies, and robbing them of their possessions, and now con-
tinuing thus to act in the very face of a treaty, concluded to
arrest such unrighteous procedures. He declared war
against Spain in 1655, and wrested from her possession the
valuable island of Jamaica.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 33
CHAPTER III.
Establishment of the French Colony in St. Croix—Its Misfortunes—The
Island sold by the French West India Company to the Knights of
Malta—Continued History of the Colony—Knights of Malta sell the
Island to a new French Company—The King of France takes over
the Island—Island abandoned by the French.
As soon as M. de Poincy heard the success of his enter-
prise, he sent 300 men to found a colony upon St. Croix,
and appointed M. Auger governor. This occurred towards
the close of 1650. It was an ungenerous step on the part
of M. de Poincy thus to pass by the services of M. de
Vaugalan, and supersede him in a command to which he
was justly entitled. He was so much disappointed by the
proceeding that he died of grief in the beginning of the
next year. The settlement proved at once very unhealthy.
Three governors in succession, and two thirds of the colo-
nists, died the first year. In order to arrest the mortality
which was so rapidly thinning their numbers—a mortality
which arose from the dense and aged forests that covered
the island, Scarcely affording an opportunity for the winds to
34 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
carry off the poisomous vapors with which its morasses
clogged the atmosphere—the colonists who remained, set fire
to the woods, and going on board their ships, became specta-
tors of the conflagration. They returned on shore after the
flames were extinguished.
M. de Poincy, notwithstanding the discouragements and
trials which arose to his infant colony from the unhealthi-
mess of the climate, conceived the hope that as St. Croix
was one of the largest, most beautiful, and fertile islands
inhabited by the French, it would become, in the course of
time, under vigorous measures, one of the most flourishing,
populous, and productive. He accordingly spared no effort
or expense to force it to the highest point which could ren-
der the colony celebrated and attractive. He sent thither,
from St. Christopher's his best friends, and required all that
could possibly do it to go and settle upon the island. He
committed, however, grievous faults. All commerce with
St. Croix was restricted to the French West India Company,
and heavy taxes were imposed upon the colonists. This
was not so much the error of the lieutenant-general as of
the company, which, through an inordinate lust of gain, be-
came unjust and even cruel towards its colonies. Dissatis-
faction soon arose as an inevitable consequence, and dissen-
sion increased. The inhabitants encouraged a contraband
trade with the Dutch, who were selling provisions and mer-
chandise on far more moderate terms than any of those
nations who were trading to the West Indies, and with
whom the French especially could not compete. The Com-
pany sank into a state of total inaction, not only towards
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 35
St. Croix, but all their West India possessions. Being de-
prived of most of their profits, whilst their expenses were
yearly increasing, and their affairs becoming very soon still
more involved, to prevent a total ruin, they put their posses-
sions up to auction, and they were mostly bought by their
respective governors.” In 1651, the Knights of Malta
bought St. Christopher's, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, Tor-
tuga, and St. Croix, for 120,000 livres, which were paid down
by the Commandant de Poincy from his individual revenues
of two Commanderies, which he held as a Knight of Malta,
in France. The principal right, therefore, to these islands
was held by himself; and he continued to hold it, meeting all
the extraordinary expenses laid out, especially upon St.
Croix, out of his revenues from France, until 1653. In
that year he granted all his possessions in the West Indies
to the Knights of Malta, on condition that he might be per-
mitted to dispose of the rest of his property as he saw fit.
This religious order thus becoming the proprietors of the
various islands purchased in their name by M. de Poincy,
and now devised to them by him, their full possession and
dominion were confirmed by a royal concession made in
March, 1653, and signed by Louis XIV.f The object of this
concession to the Knights of Malta was that “an establish-
ment might be formed by them in the West Indies for the
service and defence of Christianity, and for the conversion
of the savages to the Catholic religion.” They were to
hold the islands, however, in fief of the crown, and were
not allowed to entrust any with their government but a
* A. Rayna), vol. iv. p. 164. f Du Tertre, vol. i. p. 458.
36 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
Frenchman. M. de Poincy continued as lieutenant-general
Over the islands, - - -
Although St. Croix had thus changed masters, passing
first under the control of M. de Poincy and afterwards
under the authority of the Knights of Malta as proprietors,
the downward tendency of its affairs was not checked. To
Such an extent had dissatisfaction arisen on account of sick-
ness, the restrictions of their commerce, and consequent
hindrances in the way of agriculture, that when M. de
Poincy, in 1657, sent the Chevalier de la Mothe in a vessel
loaded with merchandise and all things necessary for the
colony, the most disaffected of the inhabitants, thinking this
a favorable opportunity to abandon the island (a step which
they had contemplated for some time), seized the ship, put
the Chevalier in irons, and to the number of two hundred
embarked on board, and left the island. Not daring to go
to St. Christopher's, it is supposed they sailed to the Brazils,
and settled there.
Thus frustrated in his designs, but not wishing to abandon
his hopes of the favorite island, M. de Poincy, in 1759, chose
a young gentleman by the name of Du Bois as governor of
St. Croix;% believing that by his energy, courage, and affabil-
ity, for all of which he was remarkable, he would restore
the untoward affairs of the colony to a more prosperous con-
dition. T)u Bois accepted the appointment on condition that
the restrictions on commerce should be removed, and that four
hundred men should accompany him from St. Christopher's
to put the island in a state of defence against the Spaniards
* Du Tertre, vol. iii. p. 116,
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 37
of Porto Rico. His conditions were acceded to, and a
portion of the required men furnished with the promise that
the remainder would be sent in six months. Du Bois
sailed for St. Croix in April, 1659. He found, on his arri-
val, but forty or fifty men capable of bearing arms, and
these entirely without discipline. His arrival, however,
revived the drooping hopes of the colonists, and the first
few months of his government were so successful, that the
island began to be repeopled, and give hopes of future pros-
perity.
M. de Poincy died immediately after Du Bois sailed for
St. Croix, his last act showing that his hopes still clung to
that island. He was succeeded in his office by Chevalier de
Sales, who had been appointed as his successor by the Knights
of Malta, and who had been for some time in St. Christo-
pher's, waiting the demise of M. de Poincy.
Du Bois falling sick in St. Croix, he was obliged to
return to St. Christopher's, Commandant de Sales renewed
his appointment, which was afterwards confirmed by the
Knights of Malta, as they considered him the restorer of the
island. In 1661 he returned to his government with another
reinforcement of colonists. The island now again rejoiced
in prosperity and a greatly increased population. There
were 600 men capable of bearing arms; and with renewed
activity in agriculture, the most sanguine hopes were enter-
tained that the colony would realize all that had been expected
of it, and reward those who had so liberally exerted them-
selves in its behalf. ^,
Unfortunately, in this year, a severe drought prevailed in
38 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
St. Christopher's and St. Croix. The inhabitants of both
islands were reduced to the greatest extremity, especially in
St. Croix, where they were still in a measure dependent on
St. Christopher's for supplies. Heavy rains succeeding the
drought, more than half of the inhabitants fell sick, and
many died. Troubles and discontent again arose; and had
it not been for the mild but emergetic government of Du
Bois, the island would have fallen back to its former state
of poverty and misery. After this severe trial was passed,
he continued to sustain the colony with some degree of pros-
perity until the island again passed into the hands of other
proprietors.
In 1664, after the wonderful revolution effected in France
under the wise and vigorous measures of Colbert, minister
of finances to Louis XIV., to whose talents, activity, and
enlarged views, that nation owes the universal development
and the rapid progress of her industry and commerce, a
commercial company was again established to trade with
the West Indies. To this company the king loaned con-
siderable sums. Influenced and directed by Colbert, the
directors purchased, in 1665, the privileges and possessions
of the Knights of Malta in the West Indies, for 500,000
French livres. This included St. Croix, and thus the
island was again to be subjected to a company after it had
been held by the religious order fourteen years. The policy
of this new company was the same as that which had pre-
viously existed. Commerce restricted to themselves, was
the rock upon which they split. The island as a conse-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 39
quence could not flourish as it would naturally have done,
under more favorable circumstances.
Du Bois was continued as governor, and a chart pre-
pared by him shows that a very large part of the island
was under culture. The names of ninety estates are laid
down.
In 1674 the new company becoming deeply involved,
mainly through the dishonesty of agents, the king of France
paid off their debts, restored their capital, and took over the
island as a part of his dominions. Still the change wrought
no relief; and the colony dragged on, maintaining its exist-
ence for twenty years. At length the farmers of the reve-
nue complaining that the trade of St. Croix with foreign
powers greatly diminished the revenue derived from the
island, and the governor of St. Domingo, who was aggran-
dizing his colony at the expense of others, entreating that
the colony of St. Croix might be added to that of St. Do-
mingo, it was determined to abandon the island. This
determination was taken and carried into effect in 1695.
There were at the time no more than 147 white persons,
men, women, and children, and 623 slaves upon the island;
so greatly had its late prosperity waned under an unenlight-
ened system of commerce. Three vessels and several
transports were sent from St. Domingo for the removal of
the colony. When they arrived, and the order was given
for all to embark, great dissatisfaction was manifested by
the colonists, but there was no relief. After sacrificing
many of their effects by selling them greatly below their
value to the subaltern officers, who pretended that there was
40 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
no room for them on board the ships, and leaving behind
their horses, horned cattle, and sheep, they set fire to their
houses, and sailed for St. Domingo.
Strange procedure on the part of the French Government
thus to abandon an island so fertile, its rich soil having
yielded tobacco, cotton, indigo, and sugar, and after the im-
mense sacrifice of treasure and life which the colony had
cost! The court of France could not have been well
advised of the island as a colonial possession.
Before closing this chapter, a brief mention is due to the
labors of those priests who sought the spiritual welfare of
this colony under its many changes and varied conditions.”
With the original settlers from St. Christopher's, immediately
after the island passed into the possession of the French,
went two Jesuit priests; one died shortly after his arrival,
and the other was obliged to retire on account of sickness.
Various other laborers of different orders continued to visit
the island from time to time, performing the sacred duties
appertaining to their office; but few, however, remained
permanently, and those who did were soon removed by
death. When Du Bois was appointed governor, having
learned the long destitute condition of the colony regarding
the privileges of Christianity, he made arrangements for the
establishment of a permanent mission. Regular articles
were drawn up between the Governor General, M. de Sales,
and Fathers Beaumont and Du Bois, in which it was stipu-
lated that the mission should have land sufficient for its pur-
pose, a revenue of 4000 pounds of sugar for each missionary
# Du Tertre, vol. iii. p. 302.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 41
and 5000 pounds for the head of the establishment, the colo-
nists were to furnish each missionary with ten negroes, the
missionaries were to hunt and fish throughout the whole
island, and they were to be exempt from all taxation. The
fathers who formed this mission and entered upon their work,
were Du Bois and Le Clerc. Both labored with great
assiduity for some time in their office. At length Father
Du Bois being fond of controversy, left the island and visited
the English and Dutch colonies at Antigua and elsewhere,
seeking for heretics, in order to convert them to the Catholic
faith. The pious Du Tertre says he had “marvellous fruit
in his labors.” His mission, thus established, continued to
be regularly supplied with missionaries until the colony was
broken up. It was then removed with the colonists to St.
Domingo, and with it the eighty slaves which belonged to
the establishment, and the works of their sugar estate.
42 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
CHAPTER IV.
St. Thomas—Notices of the Island by Historians before permanently
Settled—The Dutch, first permanent Settlers—Taken from them by
the English—Danes find it uninhabited—Buccaneers never in posses-
sion—Danish West India Company constituted—It colonizes St.
Thomas—Ordinance of first Governor—Estates laid out and occupied
—Slaves brought from Africa—Stringent laws to regulate their
conduct.
WHEN and by whom St. Thomas was first settled, can-
not be traced with any certainty. That its safe and com-
modious harbor early attracted the first navigators of the
Caribbean Sea, especially the Dutch, as a port of refuge, or
a place of repair and refreshment, there can be little doubt.
It has been already remarked that, in Hakluyt's Collection
of Voyages, the Virgin Islands are described as wholly unin-
habited in 1596. It may be conjectured, however, that at
the time the Dutch and English settled in St. Croix in
1625, or about that time, Some individuals may have taken
up their abode upon St. Thomas. The nearness of the
islands, and the superiority of the harbor of St. Thomas over
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 43
any of those in St. Croix, strengthens this idea. Du Tertre,
in his history,” partly confirms the supposition. He relates
that M. de Poincy, in 1647, wishing to rid himself of certain
influential and obnoxious persons in St. Christopher's, who
had been the friends of M. de Thoisy, gave out that he pur-
posed to form a settlement upon the Virgin Islands. His at-
tention had been called to these islands by John Pinart,
who, having made several voyages there, reported that, upon
the largest, he had found a plantation of potatoes and ma-
nioc entirely deserted. For this island he constrained the
most disaffected of his enemies to embark on board Pinart’s
vessel, to the number of sixty-six. The plantation was
found to be on Crab lsland, where the English had com-
menced a settlement; but the fact coming to the knowledge
of the Spaniards in Porto Rico, they had made a descent
upon it and murdered every person, not even sparing the
women. The French, upon their arrival, found the dead
bodies scattered in various places. They soon suffered in
like manner at the hands of the Spaniards. An expedition
was fitted out against them as soon as they had landed, a
desperate battle was fought, and the French being over-
come, the remnant of their number saved themselves by
flight to the hills. The Spaniards, on retiring, burned
their effects, carried off their vessel, and left them to their
fate. Suffering after this the most dreadful privations, and
seeing no hope of subsistence in their destitute condition,
five of the most hardy built a canoe, with the determination,
if possible, to reach some colony which might exist on the
* Vol. i. p. 401.
44 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
neighboring islands. They committed their frail vessel to
the ocean, and steering towards the east, arrived at St.
Thomas. Here they found evidences that a settlement had
once existed upon the island, for oranges, citrons, limes, and
bananas, were growing in abundance. Having refreshed
their exhausted frames with the fruit, and remained five
days, they again embarked, and were picked up at sea by a
passing vessel.
From this account, it appears that, prior to this period—
1647—there had evidently been persons living upon St.
Thomas. Why they had left can only be conjectured.
Fear of the Spaniards after the murder of the English on
Crab Island, or the driving out the Dutch from St. Croix by
the English in 1645, may have led them to go over to that
island. -
Oldendorp, in his History” of the Moravian Missions in the
Danish West India Islands, conjectures that when the
Dutch were driven out of St. Croix, they went over to St.
Thomas. But Du Tertre, as we have seen, says they re-
tired to St. Eustatius and St. Martin's. It is seen, too, that
they were not found by the French wanderers upon the
island in 1647.
Rochefort in his work,” written in the year 1657, describes
the Virgin Islands, but only makes mention of San Crero (?)
as inhabited. He says, also, “the Spaniards often visit
them for the purpose of catching the numerous fish which
abound in their channels and bays. There are also an infi-
nite number of beautiful land and sea birds upon them.
* Oldendorp, Hist, p. 33. * Hist, des Antill, p. 61.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 45
But there is so little good soil, that after cultivation had
been tried, and the islands thoroughly explored, they had
not been considered fit for settlements.” As he makes no
allusion to the settlement of Dutch buccaneers at Tortola,
commenced in the year 1648, there might have been other
of the Virgin Islands inhabited, and he not aware of the fact.
The next mention of St. Thomas is by Louis Holberg, the
Danish Shakspeare and historian. He records in his history
that in the time of Frederick III., a certain master of a ship
called “Erric,” from the West Indies, died and was buried
on the island in 1666.
Hóst, another writer upon St. Thomas,” who records the
above fact, conjectures that in this year, 1666, the island
was inhabited by Hollanders and Caribs—the Hollanders
being refugees from other islands. He was certainly in
error as it regards the Caribs, for they had long since been
expelled by the Spaniards. Concerning the Dutch as then
inhabiting the island, he was correct. But when they had
settled he does not state, nor have we been able to trace the
fact. It must, however, have been some time between the
years 1657 and 1666.
In 1667, when the English took from the Dutch St. Eus-
tatias and St. Martin's, St. Thomas was included in the
capture. Finding that the two former islands were more
fertile, they abandoned St. Thomas for them, compelling all
the colonists to remove their effects and even their dwell-
ings thither. The island now remained uninhabited until
1671.
* Hist. St. Thomas, p. 6.
3%
46 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
It is the general opinion of many of the inhabitants of St.
Thomas, that the island was at one time possessed by the
buccaneers. Three old towers, one within the walls of
Christian's fort, and the other two upon hills to the east and
north of the town, have mainly given rise to this idea. The
romantic names even of “Black Beard's” and “ Blue
Beard's" castles have been given to the towers on the hills,
and they are pointed out as such to strangers visiting the
island. As they form a very prominent part of the pic-
turesque panorama of the surrounding scenery on entering
the harbor, with their bold outline against the sky, and the
light streaming through their embrasures, the account is
readily believed, for the imagination is already busy at work
with them to fill up the pleasing eſſect of the view upon the
mind. Truth must deal sometimes sadly with romance, and
it really seems a pity to rob some of the community at least
of their cherished ideas of the buccaneers. The tower
within Christian's fort was indeed (according to tradition)
found on the island when the Danes took possession, but it
could only have been built by the Dutch, who had been set-
, tied upon the island but a few years before they were com-
pelled in 1667 to remove with the English to other islands.
There is not a vestige of history to be found which states
that the buccaneers were ever in possession of the island.
The two towers to which the awful names are given, were
built by the peaceable colonists after Denmark had got pos-
session of the island, the one on Government Hill about
the year 1690, and the other to the east of the town, some
little time previous to the year 1700.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 47
Having been groping our way in the dark, hitherto, in
regard to the history of St. Thomas, we come with more
pleasure to what can be written without conjecture.
Wishing to share in the colonial and commercial enter-
prise of the seventeenth century, the Danes formed, at Co-
penhagen, the West India and Guinea Company, on the
11th March, 1671, and in the same year took possession of
St. Thomas as uninhabited. The English governor of the
Leeward Islands, Charles Wheeler, objected to this posses-
sion, claiming the island for England by the right of con-
quest, as the English had wrested it from the Dutch in
1667. Colonel Stapleton, the successor of Governor
Wheeler, renewed the objection. Christian V., of Den-
mark, having made a representation of the facts in the case
to the king of England, through his envoy, Marcus Gioe,
Charles II. issued an order to Colonel Stapleton, command-
ing him not to interfere with the Danes in their possession
of St. Thomas, as his subjects had freely abandoned the
island. -
The framers of the Danish West India and Guinea Com-
pany were Jens Juul, baron, Peter Pedersen Lerke, count,
and IIans Nansen, bishop. On the 16th March, they pub-
lished that the directors should be six in number, and have
at least 2000 rix-dollars invested in the company, and that
100 rix-dollars would constitute a shareholder. On the 31st
of August following, the directors despatched the “Golden
Crown,” Captain Arent Henricksen, to St. Thomas, and on
the 20th October, “The Pharoah.” In the latter had em-
barked Jorgen Iversen, the first governor. The Pharoah
48 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
did not arrive at St. Thomas until 23d May, 1672. The
governor on his arrival found a goodly number of colonists
already attracted to the island, and engaged in agriculture.
They were principally Dutch, probably of those who had
been formerly compelled to abandon the island, and who
had now returned to their estates. Of this early prosperity
of the colony, and the favorable circumstances under which
it was commenced, we have confirmation in the first orders
which were issued by Governor Iversen, dated August 8th,
1672, at “Christian's fort.” We may here remark that this
fort must have been already built at the time of the date of
the orders, and was probably one of the first acts of the
colony in the island. The orders are as follows:*
“I, Jorgen Iversen, His Majesty the King of Denmark
and Norway, and the West India Company's Governor of
the Island of St. Thomas, find it right and proper to pro-
claim this ordinance for the honor of God, and the good of
the country.
“1. Every person who speaks Danish is bound to attend
service every Sunday in Christian's fort when the drum beats,
and on failure of doing so is to pay a fine of twenty-five
pounds of tobacco. *
“2. Persons of all other nations are bound to attend Ser-
vice every Sunday afternoon at the same place, under the
same penalty.
“3. Every householder shall encourage his servants to be
pious, and have morning and evening prayers; and if he
* Host's Hist, of St. Thomas, p. 8. We are indebted for much of the
following history of St. Thomas to this author.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 49
allows them to do work on Sunday which might have been
done on Saturday, or if he occupies servants of other people
in his employ, he is, for every offence, to pay fifty pounds of
tobacco. N
“4. For the defence and good of the country, every
householder shall keep in his house for himself and every
man in his service, a sword with belt, and a gun with suffi-
cient powder and ball ; and also each householder shall
have two pounds of powder, or more if he pleases. Every
person neglecting this duty shall pay one hundred pounds
of tobacco. *-
“5. When the drum beats (save on Sunday for service),
every man shall let his neighbor know it, and all shall hold
themselves in readiness to be at the fort with their arms,
,when a gun is fired at the flag-staff.
“6. If (and God forbid it) an enemy should come unex-
pectedly, then the person who first observes it (if in the day)
is to fire three shots, and inform his neighbor; who, in his
turn, is to inform his neighbor, and so in succession, as
quickly as possible. If at night, he is to fire one shot, and
his neighbors are to do the same, and keep themselves ready
for defence.
& 4 7. No person shall fire a gun after sunset, or make any
noise, unless he observes some treachery from enemies, in
which case all must attend armed at the fort. If in the
day-time the drum is beaten, three shots fired, and the flag
hoisted, it is the signal of alarm ; if at night, and the owner
of an estate fires a gun, it shall be an alarm ; and if at night
three shots are fired at the fort, every honorable warrior
50 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
*
must go to the fort, armed, and there assist with life and
blood.
“8. Every Saturday afternoon when the drum beats, all
persons who can use a gun shall meet at the parade ground
.*
fully armed. Any person absent, in favorable weather,
shall forfeit every time twenty-five pounds of tobacco,
which is to be paid at the end of the year for the benefit of
those who meet regularly.
“9. No person shall leave the island without permission
from the governor, under penalty of five hundred pounds of
tobacco; and the person who aids another to leave, shall
pay one thousand pounds, and be responsible for the debts
and other liabilities of the party leaving.
“10. No man nor any in his house shall purchase of, or
negotiate with, the people or white servants of any other
person, without his permission, under a penalty of five hun-
dred pounds of tobacco. And any one concealing the ser-
vant of another, is to pay one hundred pounds of tobacco for
every twenty-four hours.
“11. If any servant leaves his master, he shall not be
harbored by any person; and if such servant is taken, he
shall serve his master a day extra for each week of his ab-
sence, and a week for each month, and a month for each
year, and a year for every seven years; and if it is his cus-
tom to run away, his master may put him in irons until he is
broken of his bad habits.
“12. Every man who enters the estate of another, and
does any damage, shall pay for the first offence ten pounds
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 51
of tobacco ; for the second offence, twenty pounds; and for
every subsequent offence, a double quantity.
“13. No man must let his negro leave the estate after
sunset, without good cause, that he may not go to his
neighbor's estate, and do injury; and whoever at night ob-
serves a strange negro on his estate, shall catch him, and
carry him in the morning to the fort, where he shall be
punished.
“14. Persons breaking the foregoing rules, are to be sum-
moned to the fort, and the offence lawfully proved, and, if
he is sentenced to pay any fine, it is to be divided into three
parts, one for the king, one for the church, and one for the
complainant.”
This ordinance is signed by Jorgen Iversen, governor,
Erasmus Bladt, Charles Baggaert, Thomas Swain, Adrian
De Vos, Anthony Salomons, Hans Paulsen, A. Begaret,
Christian Wadts, and Joost von Campenhout. The ser-
vants alluded to in the ordinance were white persons, who
had sold their services to their masters in Europe, to be
brought to the West Indies, a custom then prevalent; and
the negroes were slaves, brought with the colonists from
neighboring islands, probably St. Eustatias and St. Martin's.
Immediately after the colony was established by the Danes,
the Spaniards at Porto Rico, still jealous of other nations
possessing islands in their vicinity, sought to annoy it by
every means in their power. They often descended by
night upon the island, and stole negroes and cattle. The
arming of the colonists, and appointed alarms, and drill,
were to guard as much as possible against these depreda-
~-
52 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
tions, and also to protect the colony against the French and
English buccaneers" established at Tortuga, whose attacks
upon commerce and settlements were justly dreaded through-
out the West India Islands, especially those belonging to the
Spaniards. -
Even before Governor Iversen had arrived, the colonists
had taken possession of certain portions of the island, upon
which they had settled, and claimed as their estates; and
had already engaged principally in the cultivation of tobacco.
Hence all fines were paid in that article, and it formed the
principal medium of exchange. The town was not then in
existence, as all the colonists were located in the country.
The officers of government must have resided at the fort.
The estates thus settled were afterwards confirmed to the
colonists by deeds regularly issued, in the name of the
governor, in the year 1678. The records of sixty-one of these
deeds are still preserved. The first grants an estate to the
governor called “Doppels,” which he deeds to himself, in
his own name, as governor. No purchase sum had been
paid down for any of these estates, and the only condition
securing their titles was the annual payment of a capon or
turkey to the company. These were paid at a certain sea-
son, when a grand banquet was prepared, and the colonists
feasted upon this strange nominal and fowl revenue of the
company. The second deed is here recorded as a curiosity.
“1, the undersigned, Jorgen Iversen, Governor of St.
Thomas, to all men do hereby make known that, in behalf
# The name buccaneer is derived from “boucan,” a word of the Carib
Indians, signifying meat preserved in a particular manner, which was
adopted, together with the custom, by the French in the West Indies.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 53
of the Royal Danish West India Company, and in virtue of
the Directors' power, I have this year, 1678, given to
the honest and beloved man, Jan Cramues, a piece of ground
situated on the west side of Jeshen Jansen's plantation, and
to the east side of Doppels, being three hundred and four-
teen feet in breadth. Said plantation commences by that
cotton tree used as a mark, and situated on the lowest end
of his plantation on the plain of Doppels plantation, which
runs from that cotton tree, E. N. E.; and from there Jans
Cramues's plantation runs on both sides from N. to W. un-
til the top of the great mountain, which is its length.
Said piece of ground I do hereby give unto the aforesaid,
and his heirs, for their own inheritance and property, that
he and his heirs, or to whomsoever he or they may again
sell it, may have, possess, use, keep, and make said planta-
tion as useful to themselves as they best know, will, and
can ; whereby they shall not be liable to any other ground
tax than that of giving yearly on the 5th January, one Ca-
pon to the company, or its attorney, for the true fulfilment
of which, I, in behalf of the company, have signed this with
my own hand, and sealed with His Royal Majesty's given
Seal. -
Actum, St. Thomas, Christian's Fort, 25th May, 1678.
JORGEN IVERSEN.
MATTHAEUs TURPKA.
The names of the sixty-one persons whose deeds were at
this time recorded, will be found in Appendix A. Some of
these names are still in existence in the island, but whether
legitimately derived from these first colonists cannot be said
54 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
In the following year, September 6th, 1679, Nicholas
Esmit was elected by the company as the successor of Go-
Vernor Jorgen Iversen, and was confirmed in his office by
the king. Although the island, as we have seen, was en-
tirely laid out in estates, cultivation had made hitherto but
little progress, owing to the want of sufficient laborers.
This difficulty was early seen by the home government;
and, to meet the wants of the colonists, and enhance the in-
terests of the company,” Christian V. purchased in Africa,
of the king of Aquambon, the two forts of Fredericksburgh
and Christiansburgh, on the Gold Coast, and ordered ships
tC) proceed thither in order to purchase slaves for St. Thomas.
The king, moreover, to carry out all the plans of the com-
pany, at this time, laid a tax on carriages in Copenhagen,
ordering all the owners of such either to possess 500 rix-dol-
lars’ worth of shares, or pay a revenue of 60 rix-dollars.
Slaves were thus multiplied in the colony, and agriculture
received a new impulse. Abbé Raymalf charges the com-
pany, in whose sole right the forts were vested, on the coast
of Guinea, with barbarity. The agents of the company,
however, there, were no doubt the more to blame. Other
nations, too, had set the example of this barbarity. The
good Abbé mentions one noble exception to these agents.
Such was his character for probity and philanthropy that he
was almost an object of worship. People came three hun-
dred miles to see him ; and an old prince, living at that dis-
tance, sent his favorite daughter, with abundance of gold,
% A. Raynal, vol. iv. p. 155. f Ibid.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 55
and diamonds, that the thrice worthy Schilderop might give
him a grandson.
Nicolas Esmit was succeeded in his office in 1682 by
three different governors, all elected successively for reasons
unknown to us during that year—La Vigne, George Han-
sen, and Adolph Esmit, brother to the former governor.
The only event of importance that occurred at this period,
was the taking possession of Crab Island, where the Danish
flag had been planted in the name of Christian V. of Den-
mark. -
With the aid of the slaves now introduced into the colony,
the cultivation of sugar had so far progressed that, when
Gabriel Milan succeeded Esmit as governor in 1684, fines
were ordered by him to be paid in that article instead of
tobacco, and he encouraged its further cultivation by every
means in his power. This governor also soon found it ne-
essary to pass stringent laws regarding the slaves. They
#. forbidden to hold feasts and “drum dances,” heathen-
ish customs brought with them from Africa, and which
they had taken occasion to celebrate, especially during the
Chrismas holidays, as these were days of relaxation from
labor, and of rejoicing by their masters. These “drum
dances,” we may remark, are still kept up, with all their
abominations, to the present day. The slaves were also
forbidden to carry knives or clubs, and were ordered to be
at home on Sundays by sunset, and on other evenings at
drum-beat. A slave transgressing these laws was “for the
first offence to be whipped, for the second to have his ears
cut off, and for the third to be hung, and his head placed on
56 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
a stake.” The law must have proved a “dead letter,”
especially as it regarded dancing, otherwise the estates
would soon have been without laborers, for such is still their
excessive fondness for such amusements they would most
assuredly all have been hung.
In 1685, deeds of estates were ordered to be produced.
Where this could not be done, the estates were confiscated ;
and all those who had received estates originally as grants
from the company, were ordered to commence the cultiva-
tion of sugar in two weeks, otherwise their grants would be
annulled. The company had already found that their outlay
largely exceeded the revenue, and were therefore taking
measures to render the colony more profitable. Efforts too,
at the same time, were made to embrace the advantages of
the excellent harbor in the island, and add the benefits of
commerce to those of agriculture.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 57
CHAPTER, W.
Brandenburgers establish a Commercial Company in St. Thomas—
Colonists invited to the Island—Census taken in 1688—Buccaneers rob
the Brandenburg Company’s Factory—The Island rented by the
Danish Company for ten years—Description of the Island in 1701 by
Père Labat—Slaves escape to Porto Rico—St. John’s colonized, 1716–
Land Tax imposed upon the Colonists.
THE Danish West India Company not being able, from
their limited capital, to embark in a more extended commerce -
than that of sending a single ship, annually, to their forts on
the coast of Africa for slaves, which ship, after proceeding
to St. Thomas, returned with the produce of the island,
Christian V. entered into an important treaty with the
Duchy of Brandenburg. This treaty permitted a company
of Brandenburgers to establish themselves at St. Thomas
for the purpose of carrying on commerce. It was signed
24th November, 1685, and was to remain in force for thirty
years. This company went into operation immediately, and
located their large factory at the west end of the town, then
and still known as the Brandenburg Quarter. The Dutch
58 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
were its principal shareholders, and such was the immediate
flourishing condition of its affairs that, in two years from the
time of its organization, fifty persons were employed in the
factory, and five vessels actively engaged in its trade.
The colony of St. Thomas was also at this time enlarged
by families of French Protestants, who, after the revocation
of the edict of Nantes, fled from St. Christopher's to the
island, fearing persecution. These were afterwards joined
by others from Europe. Together they formed a small
congregation, with their beloved pastor who had accom-
panied them, and proved valuable to the colony by their
piety, frugality, and industry. -
The success of the Brandenburg Company was looked
upon with jealousy by the colonists, and by the Danish
West India Company. To compete with them, and have
the Danish Company share in the advantages of commerce,
the king, by a royal commission, in 1687, permitted vessels
belonging to Copenhagen, Bergen, and Christiana, to trade
to St. Thomas.
Governor Milan was sent home in irons during the year
1687, charged with cruelty towards an assistant. He was,
shortly after his arrival in Copenhagen, publicly beheaded.
On 7th September, 1687, Adolph Esmit was again
elected governor. That the company at this time desired
to extend their possessions is evident from the fact that
Gov. Esmit secured his appointment as governor over St.
Thomas, St. John’s, Little and Great Passage, and Crab
Island. To meet this extension of their possessions, partly
assumed indeed, the governor in the next year published a
ST. THOMAS, W. 1. 59
decree in the name of the company, inviting persons from
other islands to join the colony, offering the most favora.
ble inducements. All such should be exempted from taxes
for eight years. They were to have as much land as they
could cultivate, with assistance for that purpose, to be .
loaned by the company. All their imports and shipments of
produce were to be free of duty for eight years, with other
commercial privileges; and free exercise of conscience was
granted to each and all, of whatever nation or religion.
That an increase of the colonists was needed, is shown by
the result of a census taken by Frank Martins, A. Brock,
and Simon Luck, about the time this decree was published.
It had been ordered by the governor on the 25th July, 1688.
The total number of the whites and slaves was found to be
seven hundred and seventy-eight. This must have been
exclusive of those connected with the Brandenburg Com-
pany. In the country, on ninety estates, were three hundred
and seventeen whites, and four hundred and twenty-two
slaves. Of the white families, there were eighteen Danes,
one Holsteiner, three Swedes, sixty-three Hollanders, thirty
English, one Portuguese, two Germans, and seventeen
French.
In the town of Charlotte Amalia—then vulgarly called
“Tappus,” and now known as St. Thomas—were thirty-five
whites, and four slaves. Of the whites, embraced in nine
families, there were two Danes, one French, one German,
two English, and three Hollanders. Among the whites in
town were two tailors, one hotel-keeper, one shoemaker,
60 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
three carpenters, one blacksmith, one fisherman, one ironer,
and one washer.
In this year, the Brandenburg Company met with a
severe loss from the Buccaneers. War having been
declared by England and Holland against France, a French
buccaneering vessel, with two hundred men, anchored by
night between Sail Rock and the island, and landed a strong
force in boats at Gregeriet Bay, to the west of the town.
They surprised the factory, secured the clerks and servants,
and carried off large quantities of silver, furniture, and
merchandise, which they compelled the slaves to carry to
their boats. An iron safe in the lower part of the building
escaped their notice, in which, it was afterwards said, the
company had over $100,000. They carried off the books of
the Company, which were kept in the Dutch language, in
order to prove that they had taken a lawful prize from that
nation.
Christopher Heins succeeded Adolphus Esmit as governor
in 1689, and he was succeeded in 1690 by John Lorents,
who was elected to his office by the inhabitants. Two
events occurred immediately after he entered upon his
duties, which agitated to some extent the affairs of this
hitherto quiet colony. The Brandenburg Company, ambi-
tious to secure a permanent colony in the West Indies,
endeavored to gain possession of Crab Island, but the
vigilant governor with much difficulty, and still more
anxiety, frustrated all their plans. No sooner had this
vexatious trouble ceased, by the IBrandenburgers quietly
settling down to their continued pursuit of commerce, than
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 61
the colony was startled by the intelligence that the king and
company had farmed out the whole island to George
Thormohlen for ten years. The affairs of the company must
have been at an exceedingly low ebb to have induced such
an undertaking. Probably it had become largely indebted
to this individual. This transfer or rent of the colony
stipulated that Thormohlen was to possess entire control
over its affairs, and enjoy all its revenue ; and the king, to
secure to him the import and export duties paid by the
Brandenburgers, compounded with that company for the
same, for three thousand pieces-of-eight per annum, to be
paid in two instalments. For what equivalent all this was
done is not known. Thormohlen, however, had agreed to
send out a garrison to protect the island. To meet the
expense of this, the colonists were to be subjected to
certain taxes, which was made known to them by the
governor. Their opposition to this was most strenuous, on
the ground that they had always acted as militia, and that
they had assisted in building the tower on “Smith’s Hill.”
The taxes proposed were ultimately rejected, save a poll-
tax of fifty pounds of sugar for each male, and four per
cent. On exported produce. The garrison arrived 30th
March, 1692, being the first regular foreign troops in the
island, and Thormohlen again urged the necessity of an
increase of taxation for their support, through the governor;
but, the colonists steadily refusing, the question was ulti-
mately abandoned. The trade of St. Thomas, about this
period, with the French colony in St. Croix, interfered so
4
62 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
much with the revenue of that island that it ultimately led
to the breaking up of that colony, as we have seen, in 1695.
In 1707,” whilst John Lorents was still governor, the
island was visited by Père Labat. The account of this
visit, detailed in his work on the West Indies, gives
additional insight into the state of the colony, as it then
was. Of its commerce, he makes this remark: “ Denmark
being almost always neutral in the wars of Europe, the port
of St. Thomas is open to all nations. T]uring peace, it
serves as an entrepôt for the commerce which the French,
English, Spaniards, and Dutch, do not dare to pursue openly
on their own islands; and in time of war, it is the refuge
of merchant ships when pursued by privateers. On the
other hand, the privateers send their prizes here to be sold,
when they are not disposed to send them to a greater
distance. A great many small vessels also proceed from
St. Thomas to the coasts of South America, whence they
bring back much riches in specie or in bars, and valuable
merchandise. In a word, St. Thomas is a market of
great consequence.” We might here take occasion to speak
more fully on the commerce of the island, but prefer leaving
that subject to be embodied in a distinct chapter.
The fort, Père Labat describes, as “forming only a small
square with diminutive bastions, without any ditch or
exterior works. All its defence consists in a bed or hedge
of prickly pear (a species of cactus) which surrounds it,
occupying the space where ought to be the fosse and
covered way. It is six or eight feet broad. Much care is
* Voyage aux Isles de l’Amérique, vol. ii. p. 285.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 63
bestowed upon these plants, which are so close and serried
at their tops, that it would appear they were trimmed every
day. Their height is about seven feet.” The reverend
gentleman was a practical engineer; and having given great
assistance, as such, to the governor of Guadaloupe, advised
during his stay in St. Thomas with the commander of the
fort, concerning certain improvements for its defence. But
they were not carried out.
|His description of the town enables us to see that at that
period it was of very limited extent. “At fifty or sixty
paces from the fort there is a town which takes the form of
the bay, and constitutes the port. This town consists of
only one long street, which terminates at the factory or
offices of the company. This is a large and handsome
edifice, containing many apartments and commodious
magazines for merchandise, and for the security of the
negroes, in which this company carries on a trade with the
Spaniards. To the right of the factory are two small
streets filled with French refugees. The houses of the
town, which formerly were nothing but huts, are now built
of brick, almost all of one story, but very well arranged.
The pavements are of tiles, and the interiors whitewashed
as in Holland.”
Of the estates he thus remarks : “They are small, but
well kept. Work is only performed during the day, and in
consequence but little sugar is made. The soil, though
light, is very good, and produces abundance of manioc,
millet, sweet potatoes, and all kinds of fruits and herbs.
The came grows very well. They have few cows and
^3.
64 - A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
horses, for the want of necessary pasturage; but the
inhabitants do not want for meat, the Spaniards of Porto
Rico furnishing them with it in abundance. They raise
young kids, which are excellent, and fowls of all kinds in
quantities. Provisions, however, are always dear, money
being plentiful, and strangers generally arrive in affluence.”
The priest, in the peculiar dress of his order, attracted
a great deal of curiosity in the street, and which he seemed
quite pleased to gratify. He found but one Roman Catholic
in the place. His sympathies were largely drawn out
towards the French Protestants. He offered to preach for
them, their pastor having just died, but they declined his
services on the ground of doctrinal differences between
them.
Governor Lorents died in 1702. He was a worthy and
faithful officer, and his death was much regretted, both by
the company and Mr. Thormohlen, into whose plans he had
warmly entered. His salary had been only four hundred
rix-dollars, with perquisites, no doubt, appertaining to his
office. The term of Thormohlen's proprietorship ceased
with his death.
From 1702 to 1716, there were but few changes in the
colony of any interest. Capt. Claus Hansen, who had
brought out the garrison and commanded the fort, Joachim
van Holten, Michael Krome, and Eric Bredal, were elected
successively as governors. During this period it was
ordered that all wills should contain a legacy to either the
Lutheran or Dutch churches. The cultivation of indigo
was commenced, and some changes were made in the courts.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 65
In 1713 a dreadful hurricane devastated the island. When
Eric Bredal entered upon his duties as governor in 1716,
King Frederick IV. issued several orders for the better
regulation of the colony. By these, the import and export
duties were changed from eight to six per cent. Congrega-
tions were permitted to elect their own pastors, and the
secret council were separated entirely from the courts, in
which they had formerly sat as judges. The governor was
directed, also, to enter into a treaty with Porto Rico
concerning runaway slaves. Many of these had from time
to time escaped to Porto Rico. The subject of the treaty
was for their apprehension and return. It was formally
drawn up and signed. Still the evil continued, and the
Spaniards threw such difficulties in the way of the runaway
slaves being reclaimed, that but very few were ever
returned to St. Thomas. The plea of the authorities in
Porto Rico was that the slaves came to their island to be
baptized / Several planters were ultimately ruined by their
slaves making their escape. It was also in this year that
the privileges of the Brandenburg Company ceased, the
term granted for its commercial establishment in the island
having expired. Its prosperity had been great. Whilst the
Danish West India Company had suffered from the estab-
lishment and commercial success of the Brandenburgers in
their colony, (being deprived of one of the principal sources
of revenue or prosperity appertaining to all colonies—the
advantages of commerce), still, the privileges which had
been granted to them led to the increase of the colony, and
laid the foundation of that commercial enterprise and
66 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
Success which have so characterized the island since.
What was lost by the Danish Company was gained by the
island. -
When the privileges of the Brandenburgers ceased, the
king ordered that those of their number who wished to
remain on the island, must swear allegiance to Denmark.
Attention was now turned to the island of St. John’s. In
a letter written by the Directors, dated 20th December,
1716, permission was given to sixteen of the inhabitants of
St. Thomas to cultivate that island. A written agreement
for this purpose was drawn up between them and the com-
pany. The English attempted to dislodge the infant colony
the next year, but without success, as the Danes had taken
formal possession of that island in the year 1684, and had
held it since, without molestation, or without their right
being questioned. Seeing the importance of this additional
colony to the company, a sum of money was subscribed in
St. Thomas for its assistance, and a successful agriculture
was soon established upon that island.
Now orders were issued in 1718, by His Majesty and the
Directors of the Company, for the government of the colo-
nies. By these a Zand tax, for the first time, was imposed,
being twenty skillings ($0.13%) for each one hundred square
feet of land. Two and one half rix-dollars were also im-
posed as a land tax for each man, woman, and slave. The
Royal Council was made to consist of five persons besides
the governor as president—two merchants, the book-keeper,
the treasurer, and the Secretary. Slaves were to be well
treated, and planters were no more to have the power of
--f
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 67
life and death over them. Clerks serving six years were
then permitted to return home; but young unmarried wo-
men were not to enjoy this privilege at all, without especial
permission These orders also established a reconciling
court with the governor as judge ; and the duties on im-
ports and exports were lowered to five and six per cent.
Colonel Otto J. Thambsen, Captain Frederik Moth, and
Commander Henry Suhm, succeeded each other as gov-
ernors over St. Thomas and St. John's from the year 1723
to 1732. The only event of any importance which occur-
red during this period was the declaring St. Thomas a
port of entrance for all nations in 1724. This, however,
was only granting and formally publishing what had ac-
tually been the case for years. Still, the restrictions on com-
merce which had existed up to this time, had no doubt pre-
vented many vessels from visiting the island from foreign
ports. The trade of the island therefore from this date, no
doubt, received a new impulse. This decree, however,
must have been Soon annulled, as we find it repeated in
1764 and 1766.
68 A HISTOR }CA L ACCOUNT OF
CHAPTER WI.
Arrival of Moravian Missionaries—Slaves restless—Severe Ordinance
against them—Insurrection in St. John’s—Suppressed after the Slaves
had held the Island six months.
PHILIP GARDELIN, former agent and book-keeper of the
colony, succeeded Commander Henry Suhm as governor, in
1732. Events of considerable interest and importance in
their bearings upon the prosperity and after history of the
islands, occurred during the administration of this governor.
On the 13th Decernber of this year, arrived two Moravian
missionaries, Leonard Dober and David Nitschman, whose
object was the conversion of the negro slaves. This was
the commencement of the great work of Foreign Missions
by the United Brethren, and resulted in much good to the
Danish West India Islands. The history of these labors
will be reserved for a distinct chapter.
To mark as it were the commencement of these missions,
and show the great need of the humanizing effects of Chris-
tianity at least upon the slaves, an event soon occurred of
the most painful and disastrous character. A few facts
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 69
must be stated before coming to the circumstances of this
event. -
As the slaves, both in St. Thomas and St. John's, had
now greatly increased, through their importation from
Guinea by the company, and some of these from the very
worst tribes on that coast, fears were arising of their aug-
mented power. Nor was this without just grounds, as dis-
orders were becoming frequent among them, and many had
contrived to escape from bondage. Every precaution had
been taken to hinder the latter, by forbidding boats to be
kept on the estates, and ordering all boats in the harbor to
be hauled up near the fort, and chained. Great and further
complaints being made from the estates to the governor,
there was issued by the Royal Council the following placard,
31st January, 1733:
1. The leader of runaway slaves shall be pinched three
times with red-hot iron, and then hung.
o, or if the
2. Each other runaway slave shall lose one leg,
owner pardon him, shall lose one ear, and receive one hun-
dred and fifty stripes. &
3. Any slave being aware of the intention of others to
run away, and not giving information, shall be burned in
the forehead, and receive one hundred stripes.
4. Those who inform of plots to run away, shall receive
$10 for each slave engaged therein.
5. A slave who runs away for eight days, shall have one
hundred and fifty stripes, twelve weeks shall lose a leg, and
six months shall forfeit life, unless the owner pardon him
with the loss of one leg.
4%
70 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
6. Slaves who steal to the value of four rix-dollars, shall
be pinched and hung ; less than four rix-dollars, to be
branded, and receive one hundred and fifty stripes.
7. Slaves who shall receive stolen goods, as such, or pro-
tect runaways, shall be branded, and receive one hundred
and fifty stripes.
8. A slave who lifts his hand to strike a white person, or
threaten him with violence, shall be pinched, and hung,
should the white person demand it, if not to lose his right
hand.
9. One white person shall be sufficient witness against a
slave,and if a slave be suspected of crime, he can be tried
by torture.
10. A slave meeting a white person, shall step aside, and
wait until he passes; if not, he may be flogged.
11. No slave will be permitted to come to town with
clubs or knives, nor fight with each other, under penalty of
fifty stripes.
12. Witchcraft shall be punished with flogging.
13. A slave who shall attempt to poison his master, shall
be pinched three times with red-hot iron, and then broken
on a wheel.
14. A free negro who shall harbor a slave or thief shall
lose his liberty, or be banished.
15. All dances, feasts, and plays, are forbidden unless per-
mission be obtained from the master or overseer.
16. Slaves shall not sell provisions of any kind, without
permission from their overseers. *
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 71
17. No estate slave shall be in town after drum-beat,
otherwise he shall be put in the fort and flogged.
18. The king's advocate is ordered to see these regula-
tions strictly carried into effect. -
If the mind revolts at the perusal of this placard, it must
be remembered, in mitigation of its severity, that a large
body of the slaves were but recently introduced from Africa,
and therefore still ignorant, vicious, and even savage ; and
that the situation of the colonists was becoming in a mea-
sure desperate from symptoms of disorder and rebellion.
These symptoms at length broke out in an open and bloody
insurrection in St. John's on the 13th November, 1733.
A fort had been erected at the west end of that island,
but it was very insecure from the nature of its construction,
and was provided with only a few cannon, and twenty-five
muskets. Eight soldiers, commanded by a lieutenant and
serjeant, were stationed at this miserable apology for a
fortress. Governor Gardelin had been on a visit to the
island, and was to leave on the following Sunday. That
was the day fixed on for the insurrection ; and it was the
plan of the slaves, principally those of the Amina tribe, to
murder the governor and all the white inhabitants, and then
hold the island in their possession. A kind providence de-
livered the governor. On Saturday he observed a large
vessel passing to the south, and supposing it to be one of the
company's ships, rowed off to her in a small boat, and pro-
ceeded to St. Thomas, taking with him his daughter, Mrs.
Soctman, wife of Judge Soctman of St. John's, and her in-
fant child.
72 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
Early on Sunday morning, certain slaves were admitted
5?
into the fort bearing bundles of wood for the use of the
soldiers. It was their custom to do this on Saturday eve-
ning, but sometimes it was deferred until the next morning.
In the bundles of wood the slaves had concealed their
knives and cutlasses. At a given signal they rushed upon
the soldiers, and succeeded in cutting all down except one,
who saved himself by hiding beneath a bed. The serjeant
had sprung through a window without the walls of the fort,
but injuring himself so severely as to be unable to escape,
was also murdered. The lieutenant was absent upon his
estate. As had been agreed upon, the slaves, now in pos-
session of the fort, fired two guns, which was to be the sig-
nal of their success, and for all those engaged in the con-
spiracy to rise and murder the whites. Alarmed by the
guns, and seeing the commotion among the slaves, several
planters, headed by John Beverhout, with their families,
rushed to the estate of Mr. Durlo, now “ Little Cinnamon
Bay;” the house on this estate being on an eminence, and
protected by two cannon. In the meantime a fearful sacri-
fice of life was taking place on some estates. Whole
families were massacred in the most horrid manner.
Among these were Judge Soctman and his daughter, Mr.
Kint, the children of Mr. Beker, the overseer of Mr. Moth,
the wife of Mr. Kruger, and twenty-five other men, women,
and children. The bloody work had been sudden and with-
out mercy. After murdering Judge Soctman, and placing
his head upon a pole, they held a council around his muti-
lated remains, whether they should kill his daughter, a
ST. THOMAS, w. I. 73
beautiful child twelve years old. Overwhelmed with grief
at the death of her father, she entreated them to take her
life also ; upon which they rushed upon her, and immedi-
ately her mangled corpse lay across that of her beloved
parent. This daughter had placed a string of beads (which
she had prepared from certain seeds found on the island,
with her own hands) around the neck of her little infant
sister, when she left her the day before. That infant was
afterwards Tady Lindberg. At her death, which occurred
when she was upwards of ninety years of age, these beads
were found still suspended around her neck. She had ever
worn them as a memorial of her murdered father and sister.
The planters who had fled to the Durlo estate immedi-
ately despatched a boat, with a letter to the governor of St.
Thomas, informing him of the insurrection, and entreating
assistance at Once, and deliverance from their imminent
peril. This letter was signed by Messrs. Beverhout,
Charles, Runnels, Badger, De Wint, and Ty usema. The
consternation and grief produced by this letter, which also
stated who had been murdered, were great. It was over-
whelming to the governor, and his daughter, Mrs. Soctman.
Vessels were at once despatched to bring off the survivors.
In the meantime, the slaves had surrounded the eminence
upon which the mansion at Durlo estate was located ; and
they were only repulsed by the heroic conduct of an old
Englishman, assisted by the rest of the planters. He poured
down upon the conspirators, thirsting for their blood, a de-
structive fire from the two cannon, killing and wounding
many. This forced them to withdraw to the foot of the
74. A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
hill ; and, under cover of the cannon, the planters were en-
abled to embark their wives and children for St. Thomas
and Tortola, on board the vessels which had now arrived
for their assistance. When these fugitives arrived at St.
Thomas, the excitement and tumult there were greatly in-
creased. An alarm was fired from the fort, fearing that the
insurrection might extend to St. Thomas, and the garrison
of ninety men were got under arms, assisted by sixty sailors
from vessels in the harbor, headed by Tieutenant Stibot,
of the navy. A large East Indiaman, the vessel in which
the governor had come from St. John’s, was also moved in
close to the town. After this precaution, Lieutenant Taar-
bye, with thirty soldiers, Captain John J. Creutzer, with
the young burghers, and John De Wint, with the Jager
corps, fully armed and equipped, proceeded to St. John's.
Upon their arrival at Coral Bay, they at once stormed the
fort, and drove out the slaves. Assistance was then de-
spatched to the Durlo estate, where the planters were still
holding out against fearful odds. This detachment met
with obstinate resistance in attempting to reach the house.
The slaves were armed with the muskets taken from the
fort, and with knives and cutlasses fastened on poles ; but
they were ultimately driven off, and the planters relieved.
Holding possession of the fort and this house, a council was
held, and it was found impossible for so small a body of
troops to suppress the insurrection, or even dare to venture
out upon the estates. Inquiry, however, was instituted into
the extent of the insurrection, and how far any of the
planters were spared. Dr. Cornelius F. Bodger was the
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 75
only survivor, save those who had sought refuge on the
Durlo estate. The slaves had spared him on condition that
he would attend to any who might be ultimately wounded.
It was also learned that the creole negroes had not sided
with the rest of the slaves, and that the insurrection had
first broken out on the estate of the company, now called
“Caroline,” and had extended to the estates of Messrs.
Suhm, the former governor, Hendriksen, Soctman, and
Peter Kruger, until it had spread over the whole island.
This information was derived principally from a servant of
Dr. Bodger, named Christian Sout, in whom the conspira-
tors had every confidence, but who was a friend to the
whites. He afterwards became very useful as a spy, and
for his fidelity received his freedom. He was highly intelli-
gent, and singularly skilful and successful as a botanist in
the use of medicinal plants found on the island. The force
sent from St. Thomas, finding themselves unable to contend
against the superior number of the slaves engaged in the
insurrection, returned with all the planters, leaving the
slaves in entire possession.
Upon their return, the royal council engaged the services
of Captain Meaux of Nevis, whose vessel was lying in the
harbor, and was manned by sixty men, to regain the island.
He likewise failed, after making an unsuccessful attack
upon the fort at Coral Bay, in which two of his sons were
killed by his side.
The book-keeper from St. Thomas was now sent to
Martinique, to seek aid from the French. The governor of
that island very promptly despatched four hundred men
76 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
with their officers to Coral Bay. This force encamped near
the fort, from which the negroes fled at their approach.
They were joined by all the available force from St. Thomas
and the former planters of St. John's. By sending out detach-
ments in different directions along the north and south sides
the island, and driving the insurgents before them, they
forced them to concentrate on the north-east side. Here
they were surrounded by the troops. Finding all chance of
escape cut off, they first held a feast, and rather than fall into
the hands of those from whom they could only look for the
most severe and merited punishment, they resolved upon
self-destruction. Three hundred were, after a few days
from the time that they were surrounded, found lying dead
5 5
at Brim’s Bay, now “Anna Berg.” Seven others were
also discovered in a ravine, a short distance off, who ap-
peared to have been the leaders in the insurrection, who
had shot each other. Seven guns broken to pieces, save
one, were found lying by their sides. Tradition reports
that the three hundred had cast themselves from a high pre-
cipice on the rocks below. The historian Hóst says they
were shot, and were found lying in a circle. A few had
been taken prisoners. Two of these had been summarily
executed in St. John’s, and twenty-six in St. Thomas, some
of the latter having been made to undergo the severest tor-
ture. The insurrection was thus suppressed, and the
island recovered after it had been in possession of the insur-
gents for six months. Of the estates, on forty-four the
buildings were all destroyed, whilst on forty-eight they had
been preserved. The governor's estate had suffered the
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 77
most. Many planters were of course ruined, and those
who found themselves involved in debt, retired to Tortola.
The expense to the government in quelling the insurrection
amounted to 7,905 rix-dollars, besides presents to the French
Officers.
The government in St. Thomas afterwards proposed to
the planters of St. John’s to pay one third of the expense
which it had incurred in quelling the insurrection ; but they
refused on the ground that the insurrection had commenced
on the company’s estate, where the greater number of the
Amina tribe were laborers, and that the fort had been left in
too insecure a condition, and the force stationed there too
small, considering the danger to which they had been ex-
posed. - -
The melancholy events of this year were long remem-
bered by the inhabitants, and what aided to render it more
painfully memorable, famine and disease swept off many
upon the different estates. The excitement, however,
growing out of the purchase and possession of St. Croix, as
an additional island to His Majesty's and the company’s
possessions in the West Indies, together with the hope of
increased prosperity, which this acquisition inspired, weak-
ened that good impression on their minds which their mis-
fortunes were calculated to impart.
78 A HISTOR1CAL ACCOUNT OF
CHAPTER VII.
St. Croix purchased of the French—Danes occupy that Island–Rapid
increase of the Colony there under Governor Moth—Governments of
the Islands separated—The Dutch having enjoyed most of the Com-
merce of St. Thomas, Merchants in Copenhagen exclude them by
their enterprise—These Merchants taken into the Danish Company
—Severe restrictions now laid upon the Commerce of the Colonies—
Colonists complain to the King, Frederic V-Purchase the Privileges
of the Company, and abolish it—St. Croix benefited by the change,
St. Thomas injured—Ports of St. Thomas and St. John's declared Free
—Continued History of St. Thomas—In 1792 the Island beginning to
enjoy a wonderful Prosperity—Taken by the English, 1801—Re-
stored, 1802—Retaken in 1807 and held Eight Years—Fires–Conclu-
sion of the Historical Sketch.
DESIROUs of extending the power of the Danish West
India Company, and adding to the influence and resources
of its colonies, King Christian VI., on the 15th June, 1733,
purchased St. Croix of France for 750,000 French livres.*
This island had remained without inhabitants since its
abandonment by the French in 1695—rlow over thirty-
% A. Raynal states the sum at 758,000 livres. Edwards at £75,000.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 79
seven years—and had become again a complete wilderness.
The fact of this purchase was made known to the Govern-
ment and Royal Council of St. Thomas and St. John's soon
after it was consummated, and they were ordered to take
possession of the island as soon as practicable. The news
arrived when the insurrection in St. John's was progressing.
It was not, however, until the 10th January, 1735, that the
disturbed state of the colonies enabled Governor Gardelin to
carry out the wishes of the king and company. A few
days previous to that date, he had sent over Captain Moth,
together with Diederick von Ottilager, appointed as lieute-
nant of the fort in St. Croix (which was still in a good state
of preservation, and mounted with nine guns), Lawrence
Nissen, secretary, Cornelius F. Bodger, physician, William
Chalvil, stadtshofman, thirty citizens of St. Thomas, and
clerks, soldiers, and slaves. Upon their arrival in the har-
bor of Bassin, they found the shore covered with such a
dense growth of bushes, vines, and trees, that the party
had to remain three days on board their vessel, whilst the
slaves cleared sufficient space for them to land and remain
with any comfort.
A representative of the King of France had accompanied
the party, who had come up from one of the French islands
for the purpose. The mode of taking over the island was
now observed with great formality, and the representative
of France solemnly confirmed the transaction. The gov-
ernor of Porto Rico, and the general of the English Wind-
ward Islands, had in the meantime protested against these
proceedings in the name of their respective sovereigns;
S() A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
but their protests were entirely disregarded, as France had
guaranteed the sale of the island to Denmark.
The persons, however, who had thus gone over to St.
Croix to take possession of it, in the name of his Damish
Majesty, were not the first to arrive in the island after its
sale by the French. From the history of the Moravian
Missions% in the Danish West India Islands, it appears that
a colony of missionaries, who had arrived at St. Thomas,
June 11th, 1734, passed over to St. Croix immediately after,
and commenced clearing the six estates on that island owned
by the Tord Chamberlin de Plus, who had given them a
commission for that purpose. The company consisted of
fourteen brethren and sisters. Their great object was to
lay the foundation of a mission for the Christianizing of
those slaves who were about to be introduced there. Ten
of their uumber, through the insalubrity of the climate, and
incessant toil upon the land, died, and the rest were pros-
trated by sickness, before the end of the year.
Governor Gardelin had been proposed by the company as
governor of St. Croix, but declining the offer, he had sent
Captain Moth in his stead, with orders to act in subjection
to him, and the royal council of St. Thomas.
Governor Gardelin leaving St. Thomas for Copenhagen
in 1736, Captain Frederick Moth was elected governor
over the Danish West India Islands, and commandant of
St. Thomas. Retiring from St. Croix, and making St.
Thomas his place of residence, he left as commandant ad
Wnterim of the former island Mr. Gregers Nissen, assisted
* Brethren’s Missions, p. 303.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 81
by Mr. Sobotker as his secretary. Captain Moth labored
with great assiduity in his office, and with an enlightened
spirit of enterprise, and a sincere desire to benefit the in-
habitants, not only maintained the laws then existing, but
added such as greatly tended to secure justice in the admi-
nistration of the courts, protect the rights and property of the
citizens, and enhance the prosperity and happiness of the
islands. Removing to St. Croix in 1740, at the request of
the company, who now formed the highest anticipations
of the success of their colony upon that island, his govern-
ment became so marked by judgment, vigor, enterprise,
and faithfulness, that many rich and influential persons from
St. Eustatias, Virgin Gorda, and Tortola, were induced to
purchase estates and settle there. On the departure of
Captain Moth, Jacob Schonemann was elected governor of
St. Thomas in his stead. He had also authority over St.
John’s.
The prosperity of the colonies at this period was steadily
advancing. Two severe hurricanes, however, in 1738 and
1742, proved alike destructive to life and property. In the
former the vessel of the company was wrecked between St.
Thomas and St. John's.
Christian Schwerder, lieutenant of artillery, succeeded
Governor Moth in his office in 1744, and resided in St.
Thomas. TXuring Governor Moth’s administration, the ut-
most harmony had existed between the colonies on the
three islands. With the new administration, difficulties
arose. Lieutenant Schwerder was found inadequate to his
duties, and it became necessary to form a royal council in
82 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
St. Croix. He was ultimately reprimanded by the com-
pany, and dismissed in 1746, when Christian Suchm was
appointed to his place as governor-general. His appoint-
ment did not allay the difficulties which had sprung up be-
tween the colonies, mainly on account of the administration
of the government, but rather increased them. The com-
pany had at length to interfere, and in 1748 appointed
separate governors over St. Croix and St. Thomas, St. John’s
being placed under the government of St. Thomas. Jans
Hansen, advocate, was appointed to the former, and Chris-
tian Suchm to the latter. Kind feelings were thus again
restored. From this period there is nothing worthy of note
in the history of the colonies until the year 1753, when
Peter Clausen was appointed the successor of Jans Hansen,
as governor of St. Croix. His supervision extended also
over the other islands.
It has been seen that the Danish West India Tslands were,
from their first settlement by the Danes, placed under the
yoke of exclusive privileges to the company in Copenhagen.
This was always oppressive to the colonists, and stood
greatly in the way of their prosperity; and had it not
been for the commerce of St. Thomas, little or no advan-
tage would have accrued to Denmark from her colonies.
She was even robbed of much of this advantage ; for the
company, unable to supply the islands, had strangely ex-
cluded the merchants of Copenhagen, and had granted the
greater part of the company trade to the Dutch. In proof
of this, in 1736, there arrived at St. Thomas eight Dutch for
one Danish vessel. Determined, if possible, to secure a
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 83
commerce from which they were thus unjustly excluded,
and which properly belonged to Denmark, certain wealthy
merchants of Copenhagen formed an association, secretly
fitted out vessels in Amsterdam, placed them under the
Dutch flag, and despatched them to St. Thomas. The
leaders in this association were Messrs. Baver, von Hem-
mert, and Biorn. Their consignee in St. Thomas was
Peter de Wint. Their enterprise was successful. The
company made at once acquainted with this association,
and seeing the advantage which would result to itself,
could these merchants be induced to unite with it their
now conflicting interests, made overtures to them for the
purpose, which were accepted. This powerful accession
enabled the company to exclude the Dutch from all com-
merce with its colonies ; but not for the good of the colo-
nies. They became still more burdened and oppressed
under the restrictions laid upon commerce ; and what was
the most galling, those who had so lately exclaimed
against these restrictions, and who apparently strove to
remove them, and by their energy and enterprise excited
the most ardent hopes, now that they were the masters,
added to the bonds.
“Thus from one master who oppressed 'em,
Another cunningly would wrest 'em ;
But found the first so firmly seated
As not to be enforced nor cheated
To yield the power he used so well;
Then tried if he a share would sell.
A bargain struck—the law was made,
84 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
That now their victims must be flay’d,
Who only had been fleeced before
When but one arm the sceptre bore.”
Governor Clausen had no sooner entered upon the duties
of his office, and perceived the course pursued by the com-
pany, than his liberal and enlightened spirit led him to side
With the colonists, and take steps for their relief. Disre-
garding any misconstruction of his conduct by the company,
he nobly united with the planters and merchants upon the
islands, in sending John W. Schopen as their delegate to
Copenhagen to lay before His Majesty their grievances, and
entreat him to break up a monopoly which must ultimately
impoverish if not destroy the very existence of the colonies.
The course pursued by the company in Copenhagen, added
weight to the representations made by this delegate. In
that city its privileges enabled it to monopolize the trade in
raw sugars; and having established a refinery, it commanded
the market also in the article of refined sugar. High prices
in this luxury was the result, to the serious —inconvenience
and discomfort of the inhabitants. The company had thus
overreached itself, and by its short-sighted and avaricious
policy hastened its dissolution. The complaints of the colo-
nies had a favorable hearing ; and King Frederik V., directed
by the wise counsels of Count John Bernstorff, prime min-
ister, resolved to take over the colonies, and put an end to
the privileges of the company by purchase. This was
effected in 1755 for 2,200,000 pieces-of-eight ($1,418,000).
The purchase included the forts, estates, buildings, stores,
slaves, goods, and money, belonging to the Company in the
ST. THOMAS, W. H. 85
Colonies, and its refinery, ship houses, and store houses
in Copenhagen.
The rejoicings in the islands were very great, when the news
of this wise, kind, and liberal step taken by their sovereign,
reached them. The administration, too, of the government
was changed for the better by the addition of various courts,
adding to the general joy. St. Croix at once derived great
benefit from its deliverance from under the yoke of its op-
pressors, against whom its planters, unable to reconcile their
opposite interests, had kept up a continual struggle of ani-
mosity. But the benefit derived by St. Croix was at the
expense of St. Thomas. Many of its planters left for St.
Croix, the soil there being more fertile, and more easy of
culture, and the land taxes being in its favor. The exclu-
sive privilege of purchasing slaves in Africa, hitherto held
by the company, being also abolished, these were now being
rapidly introduced into St. Croix at a greatly reduced price,
to the advantage of agriculture. Commerce, too, in St.
Thomas, had received a severe check. It was impossible,
now that the company’s vessels no longer visited the harbor,
that the merchants of Copenhagen would enter upon a
trade with which they were so little acquainted. Besides,
many burdensome commercial restrictions were continued.
“The rapaciousness of the treasury,” says Abbé Raynal,
“unluckily prevented the advantage which the arrangement
of taking over the islands by the king, would otherwise
have produced. The national productions and merchandise
—in short, whatever they could draw from the first hand, and
put on board Danish vessels—were to be shipped from the
5
86 A HISTORICAL ACCO1j NT OF
metropolis, free of all duties; but for all manufactures that
did not fall under these descriptions, they demanded a tax of
four per cent. All imports into the colonies paid five per
cent, and all exports six, of American productions. What
was consumed in the metropolis had two and a half pex
cent. laid upon it, and what was carried to foreign markets
had one.” To show to what extent the commerce of St.
Thomas had declined, not one Danish vessel entered its
harbor in 1756. Many, therefore, of its merchants retired
to other islands where trade was more flourishing, and of
the inhabitants who were left, forty-nine fiftieths were
slaves. Such, too, was the limited quantity of current coin
in the islands, that it became necessary to issue paper
money, for which the Royal Council in St. Thomas, and the
Burgher Council in St. Croix, were made responsible.
Seeing the decline of commerce, and feeling its evils, the in-
habitants of St. Thomas petitioned that it be made a free
port. This was the first step in those proceedings which
afterwards resulted in the removal of all burdensome restric-
tions upon its trade, and restored the island to even more
than its wonted prosperity. But this did not take place
until after the lapse of a number of years, and after much
struggling and complaining, and strange contrivances to
elude the duties, on the part of the inhabitants.
To give an insight still further into the injurious policy
pursued at this time towards St. Thomas, when Harrien
Felchenhauer succeeded Christian Suchm as governor over
the island, in 1758, the following orders were issued from
Copenhagen : Vessels of two hundred tons, loaded from
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 87
Denmark, Norway, and Sleswick, with provisions for St.
Thomas, were to pay at that port, as port charges, two hun-
dred rix-dollars; from two hundred to three hundred tons,
three hundred rix-dollars; and three hundred tons or more,
four hundred rix-dollars ; and no inhabitant could leave the
island permanently, without paying two and a half per cent.
of his profits, and two and a half per cent. of the value of
his houses to the government.
The prosperity of St. John's had kept pace in proportion
to its size with that of St. Croix, since the king had made
the islands a part of his dominions. Elated with this pros-
perity, its ambitious inhabitants sought to have its own
town and its own commerce. Permission was granted for
this purpose in 1760, and the land at Coral Bay was laid out
in magnificent town lots, to remain, however, most drearily
vacant. A store-house at Creuse Bay, and a ferry to St.
Thomas, were some little gratification under this disappoint-
ment.
In 1761, John George von John, and in 1764, Peter von
Gunthelberg, were appointed successively as commandants
over St. Thomas and St. John's. On the 9th of April, after
the latter had entered upon the duties of his office, St.
Thomas, and especially St. John's, were declared by His
Majesty ports free for vessels of all nations. It was one
of the last kind and liberal acts of King Frederik V. in
favor of these islands. Thrice honored be his memory ! It
was this good king who, at his death in 1766, called his son
and successor, Christian VII., to his bedside, and addressed
him in these remarkable words: “It is a great consolation
88 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
to me, my son, in my last moments, to reflect that I have
offended no one, and that I have shed the blood of none of
my subjects.”
Christian VII., on his succession to the throne, re-ap-
pointed Peter Clausen as Governor-General over the islands,
he having been superseded, under the late king, in that
office by Christian Lebrecht, baron of Prock, and Ulrich
William Roepstorff, lieutenant-colonel, as governor of St.
Thomas and St. John's. He also confirmed the decree of
the late king making the ports of these two islands free to
vessels of all nations, and reduced the export duties on Sugar
and cotton. By these means St. Thomas was gradually
regaining its commerce. Governor Roepstorff, the year
after his appointment, organized the Jager corps. He was
succeeded in his office by Jens Kragh, counsellor. This
gentleman, by his talents and industry, had risen from being
a clerk in the company’s employment, to his present hon-
orable post. IIe constituted the Jager corps a might guard.
These not proving sufficiently efficient, he added to them a
patrol of citizens. This patrol or night guard of burghers
was kept up until last year, proving exceedingly burden-
some and expensive, and thus life and health were often
sacrificed through exposure and dissipation.
In 1772, Governor Kragh ordered Captain Peter Tam-
aryn of the Jager corps, to take a census of colored persons
and free negroes inhabiting the town. The result showed
that there were one hundred and six men capable of bearing
arms; forty-one Catholics, twenty-one Reformed Dutch,
and the rest Moravians and heathens. Of these, eleven
*
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 89
were masons, twelve carpenters, ten captains of boats,
twenty-nine sailors, thirteen fishermen, eleven tailors, five
shoemakers, one cigar-maker, one washer, one goldsmith,
one musician, two planters, and the rest without any occu-
pation. There were also thirty-one widows and married
women with sixty-five children, mostly of the Reformed
Dutch Church, and eighty-three unmarried women with one
hundred and six children. Of these latter women, five
were Lutherans, nine Reformed Dutch, and thirty-two
Moravians. Total, three hundred and ninety-One persons.
This year another destructive hurricane occurred.
Governor Kragh died in 1773, universally lamented, and
was succeeded by George Höst. He prepared statistics of
cultivated land in the islands, and ordered a census of all
the inhabitants. The following were the results. In St.
Thomas there were 39 sugar and 43 cotton estates, contain-
ing land 75,012 feet long by 203,787 feet broad. On these
estates were 42 white persons, and 2,523 slaves. In the
town of St. Thomas were 265 white persons, 336 free ne-
groes and colored persons, and 1,067 slaves. Total popula-
tion of St. Thomas, 4,233. In St. John's there were 27
sugar and 42 cotton estates, containing land 134,808 feet
long by 158,195 feet broad. On these were 104 white
persons, and 2,330 slaves. Total population of St. John’s,
2,434. The income of the land treasury at this period
was only 1,159 rix-dollars, and its expenses 1,170 rix-
dollars. Governor Höst, during his administration, prepared
a civil history of the island. It mainly details the successive
civil officers, with the various decrees issued by the home
90 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
government from time to time. He was succeeded in 1773
by Thomas von Malleville, colonel of infantry, as Com-
mandant of St. Thomas and St. John's. He was a native
of the island, and was the first Commandant not belonging
to the Lutheran Church. -
We have but little more to record of St. Thomas until
the year 1792, save that a severe drought prevailed in 1789,
and lasted three years. Such was the distress which it
occasioned, that many planters in the three islands were
constrained to sell some of their slaves to the French and
Spanish colonies to prevent starvation.*
From the year 1792, a great change commenced in the
commercial prosperity of the island. Since the abolishment
of the Danish West India Company in 1755, commerce had
continued at a low ebb. It was somewhat revived in 1764
and 1766, when the port was declared free for vessels of all
nations; still its operations were limited. But now, owing
to the wars of Europe, wonderful was the advance of the
island in greatly increased agricultural and commercial
interests. The neutral port attracted hundreds from Eu-
rope and the other West India Islands, who now crowded
in to enjoy its advantages. So great was the strife to share
in these, that from the year 1792 to 1801, no less than fifteen
hundred and sixty-nine strangers had enrolled themselves as
citizens. The town, at the commencement of this prosperity,
was confined principally to the main street. With the
% Catteau states that there were imported into the Spanish Antilles
from 1778 to 1789, 23,342 African slaves, 17,113 in foreign, and 6,229
in Danish vessels.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 9i
influx of foreigners, stores and dwellings were rapidly built,
and the town extended in every direction, and was supposed
in 1799 to contain over seven thousand inhabitants. Many
of these were refugees from St. Domingo. We might
here detail the particulars of this commercial prosperity,
but prefer embodying them in a separate chapter on the
commercial history of the island. Colonel Malleville con-
tinued commandant of St. Thomas and St. John's until 1796,
when he was appointed governor-general over the three
islands and removed to St. Croix. He was succeeded by
Colonel Von Muhlenfels, as commandant of St. Thomas,
who, in his turn, was succeeded by Colonel C. W. Von
Schotten, in 1800.
It was in this year that Denmark, after struggling to main-
tain her neutrality, felt herself constrained, together with
Sweden and Prussia, to join the northern confederacy of
Paul I. of Russia, with the ostensible purpose, on the part
of the confederacy, of protecting their commerce against the
encroachments of the English by sea. Thus led away by
the impetuosity of the unfortunate Paul, the crown-prince
of Denmark was immediately involved in a war with Eng-
land. His fleet was defeated at Copenhagen on the 2d
of April, 1801, and St. Thomas having been blockaded for
some time, was surrendered on the 1st of the same month,
to a military and naval force under Colonel Cowell, by
Commandant Colonel W. Von Schotten. The island was
held by Great Britain until 22d February, 1802, when it was
restored to Denmark. The Danes, by their courage, had
obtained a truce, upon which Denmark acceded to the
92 A HISTORICAL AeeouNT or
treaty of Russia with Great Britain. During the ten
months that the island was thus held, its commerce and
prosperity were greatly depressed; but they at once returned
to their former state when the port became once more
neutral. Fort Cowell was built when the English had pos-
session, and was named after its English commander.
Wealth now continued to pour into St. Thomas, and with
it luxury and vice prevailed to an alarming extent in the
community. Judgments followed. In 1804 a devastating
fire swept over the main part of the town, and laid the
modern Tyre in ashes. Twelve hundred houses were con-
sumed, with a large amount of valuable goods. The loss
was estimated at $11,000,000, a part of this falling on
European merehants, who had sent out merehandise on
consignment. During the following year the town was
rebuilt, and the stores erected were of a more safe and sub-
stantial character. In 1806, two more extensive fires
ecurred, the one consuming four hundred and eight and the
other four hundred buildings. In the latter, stores were
again wrapt in flames, and goods to the amount of $5,000,000
were destroyed. A still heavier blow fell upon the ap-
parently doomed place, where God was too much forgotten
and his laws disregarded. The island was again surren-
dered by Colonel Von Schotten to the English 22d December,
1807. In 1807, from the peculiar state of Europe, Denmark
was forced to include herself in Napoleon's continental
system. A French army stood on the borders of her king-
dom, and Napoleon and Alexander had become personal
friends at Tilsit. England, fearing that Denmark would
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 93
now be no longer able to maintain her neutrality, and would
yield up her navy to supply the loss of the French at Tra-
falgar, demanded of Denmark a defensive alliance, or a
surrender of her fleet as a pledge of her neutrality. Both
were denied. The result is too well known. Her capital
bombarded for four days, two thousand four hundred houses
ruined or laid in ashes, thirteen hundred inhabitants killed, and
her entire fleet captured, was a fate hard indeed, and
rendered yet harder by the fact that Denmark had struggled
honestly to preserve her neutrality. England now offered
the Crown-prince, Frederick VI., neutrality or alliance; he
however, rejected all proposals, and declared war against
that kingdom. The Danish West India Islands were in
consequence taken by the British force under command of - *
General McLean. There were quartered in St. Thomas
fifteen hundred troops. Thus subjected, the commerce of
the island was greatly restricted, and her merchants were
obliged to transact their business with English houses. But
few other than English vessels entered the harbor. At
length, peace being restored, the islands were surrendered
to Denmark, April 15th, 1815, having been exchanged for
the island of Heligoland, which Denmark was obliged to
cede to Great Britain. x
Colonel Von Holten was now appointed commandant of
St. Thomas and St. John's. Business once more resumed
its wonted channels, and flowed on, if not with so full a
current, yet more quietly and with less impetuous rapidity.
In 1815 a brisk trade sprang up with Porto Rico, Spain
5%
94 A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF
having then permitted foreigners to settle in that island,
which has continued with more or less success ever since.
Commerce was also extended to South America; but this
is anticipating our next chapter.
But few facts now remain to be recorded, to bring our
history to its close. In 1819 Major T. Von Scholten suc-
ceeded Commandant Von Holten in his office. That year
another dreadful hurricane occurred on the 21st September.
About this time many Spanish families fled to St. Thomas,
in consequence of the revolution in the Spanish Provinces
of South America. The town was then supposed to num-
ber thirteen thousand inhabitants more than has ever occu-
pied it since. Major T. Von Scholten was relieved from
* time to time in his command by Captain C. G. Fleischer,
Admiral Jessen, and General Von Sobotker, between the
years 1820 and 1825. In 1825 another dreadful fire devas-
tated the town, destroying twelve hundred houses and
tenements, which was followed by yet another in 1826,
which consumed the custom-house, Danish church, and
sixty dwellings. Since this period, save in 1837, when
another hurricane devastated the town, St. Thomas has
enjoyed a uniform prosperity, with but little of especial in-
terest to mark its history. Agriculture has greatly declined,
but very few estates being now under culture. Commerce,
as it will be seen, has sustained its importance.
From 1830 to the present time, Counsellor Rosenorm,
Commander L. T. Rohde, K. D., General J Von Sobotker,
and Chamberlain Colonel F. Von Oxholm, K. D., have suc-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 95
*
cessively been at the head of the administration of the
government, either as governors or vice-governors.
Whilst Commander Rohde was governor, a serious and
alarming conspiracy was discovered, September 8th, 1831,
at Tortola. The negroes had formed a plot to murder
the white males, plunder the island, seize the vessels, and
- then, carrying off the wives of their former masters, proceed
to Hayti. Immediately that this horrid plan was revealed,
the Hon. Mr. Donovan, who then presided over the English
Virgin Islands, despatched a messenger to St. Thomas,
beseeching help of the Government. Commander Rohde
promptly ordered the man-of-war brig, St. Jan, Captain
Bodenhoff, to proceeed to Tortola, where she arrived on the
11th at noon. With the presence of this armed vessel, and
the measures which had been taken to arm the inhabitants,
the conspirators abandoned their plot, and made no attempt
to carry it out. The St. Jan remained until the 19th, when
all fears on the part of the government had subsided. Hav-
ing received no sympathy or aid from St. Christopher's, to
which island they had also sent for assistance, the officers
of government and the inhabitants felt doubly grateful to
Commander Rohde and the captain of the brig for the warm
interest felt and manifested by them so generously in their
welfare. Having thus occupied ourselves mainly with the
rise and progress of the Danish colonies, especially that of
St. Thomas, we shall give in the two following chapters,
the commercial and religious history of this island, and then
dwell upon its present condition.
96 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS IIISTORY OF
*
CHAPTER VIII.
The Commerce of St. Thomas—Its Origin and Progress from the Es-
tablishment of the Danish West India Company to the present day.
IN order to give a general outline in this chapter of the
origin and history of the commerce of St. Thomas, it will
be necessary to recur to the establishment of the Danish
West India and Guinea Company, in the year 1671, and to
repeat some of the circumstances which have been already
mentioned.
From the title this Company assumed, it would appear,
that it was to the cultivation of the soil, rather than to
commerce, that its members looked for the success of their
undertaking; and that this cultivation was to be carried on
by the only means then adopted by all nations possessing
colonies in these islands, namely, the importation of slaves
from the coast of Africa. It was not, however, until eight
years after the colony in St. Thomas was formed, that an
expedition was dispatched, having for its object the impor-
tation of negroes. The Company monopolized this traffic,
as far as their own colonies were concerned, and in time,
supplied them all with the strength required for their culti-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 97
vation. From the nature of the soil, and the present condi-
tion of agriculture in the island of St. Thomas, it is difficult
to imagine that any great return was obtained for the
expense incurred in that island, and it does not appear that
the Company ever arrived at any great pitch of pros-
perity.
We have seen that another privileged association was
formed in 1685, called the Brandenburg Company. Not-
withstanding its name, the partners in it were almost exclu-
sively Dutch. Commerce was their object, and they were
very soon engaged in an extensive and lucrative trade.
We are left very much to conjecture as to the nature of
their commerce. It does not appear that they were permit-
ted to share with the Danish Company in the slave-trade,
and it is more than probable they dedicated themselves to
the importation of provisions, and the manufactures of their
native country, as well as other European nations, which
they disposed of for the consumption of St. Thomas, the
neighboring Antilles, and the Spanish colonies on the Con-
timent of South America. This they were enabled to do
the more advantageously, since from the general neutrality
of Denmark in the wars of Europe, her flag was a protection
at sea, and her port an Open one to all comers. This neu-
trality was an especial source of the prosperity of St.
Thomas, for the prizes of the different belligerent powers
that were captured in the West Indies were frequently
brought to its port for sale ; and thus an extensive entrepot
of the productions of almost every country was established,
and the island no doubt soon became the resort of trading
98 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF
vessels from all points of the West Indies and South Ame-
rica, when they dared not, for fear of capture, venture on
more distant voyages.
The Charter of the Brandenburg Company expired in
1716, leaving the trade once more in the hands of the West
India and Guinea Company, in which his Majesty, the king
of Denmark, had, from the beginning, been a principal
shareholder. This association retained the entire monopoly
of commerce, excluding all other Danish subjects from any
participation in it, yet so completely was it wanting in the
energy necessary to command success in such pursuits, that
it never went beyond the employing of one vessel of no
very great burden in importing slaves into the colony,
and carrying thence its products to Denmark. In order
that the inhabitants should not altogether starve, or be
driven from the island, permission was afforded to the
Dutch, and the British colonists of North America, to
introduce provisions and merchandise. With this opening,
the sagacious and enterprising Dutchmen soon made them-
selves entire masters of the commerce. The jealousy of the
Danes was forth with excited, and on the accession of seve-
ral merchants of Copenhagen as partners of the Company,
it was once more decided to annul the new privileges which
had been granted to Holland. This state of things lasted
for several years, during which the Company held almost
sovereign sway in the island. In one branch of its prero-
gative, however, it was perfectly ready to admit the general
body of the colonists to a participation, or even to cede it to
them altogether. This was the payment of the force
ST. THOMAS, W. I. - 99
necessary for its protection. Accordingly we find it stated
in an old record of the year 1726, that after many disputes,
the colonists undertook to relieve the Company of the
charge altogether. In this they were no doubt induced by
the hope of improving their own situation, which had
become anything but agreeable from the oppressions and
exactions of the Company.
The inhabitants at last, in 1775, succeeded in inducing
the king to interfere in their behalf. His Majesty took over
the Company's rights, and held the management of the
colonies in his own hands. The policy at first adopted,
however, continued to be of a restricted nature, ill suited to
promote the prosperity of an island possessed of but small
internal resources, and having little but its excellent har-
bor, and central situation, to recommend it. Symptoms of
decay became apparent, and to remedy this the king very
wisely, in 1764, threw open the port to vessels of all nations.
This was confirmed in 1760, when the duties were so
arranged that, though nominally higher, their actual amount
was not over one and a half per cent. on the value of the
importations. -
It is somewhat singular, that this freedom of trade was
especially extended to St. John’s, and that that island was
considered as the fittest to become the seat of the flourish-
ing commerce which was expected to result from the adop-
tion of this liberal measure.
From 1766 to 1792, we have but few records to assist us
in describing the commercial progress of St. Thomas. The
absence of all restrictions on commerce and navigation in
100 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF
this little island, surrounded as it was by countries where a
very different policy prevailed, soon attracted the notice of
enterprising Europeans to it, as a point from which the
manufactured goods of their respective countries could be
easily introduced into the islands and continent in its
vicinity, whence they would, no doubt, draw a very large
profitable return in the valuable products of these places.
Thus the population was considerably increased, and it
became of that mixed character which it retains to this day;
and possibly about this period were established some of the
old commercial houses whose lineal or indirect successors
are in some instances still flourishing in the island.
During this interval, too, the British Colonies in North
America had thrown off the yoke of England ; and we are
safe in surmising that the enterprising merchants of the
infant Republic were not slow to avail themselves of this
opening for the extension of their commerce in the West
Indies. Accordingly we find it stated in an unpretending
volume of memoranda relating to St. Thomas,” that in 1792,
on the author’s arrival, “the greatest part of the shipping
that came into the harbor were American vessels, Small
Spanish sloops and boats, and large English merchantmen.”
But it does not appear that any Americans had as yet settled
in the island.
By this time, then, the importations of manufactured
goods from Europe, and provisions from the United States,
must have reached a respectable amount. The “Spanish
sloops and boats” mentioned, were no doubt part of the
* Nissen’s Reminiscences.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 101
customers who took off these importations, leaving in
exchange for them specie, in the shape of dollars, dou-
bloons, &c.
An immensely increased impetus was given to the Com-
merce of St. Thomas by the breaking out of the war in 1792,
consequent upon the French revolution. The island then
profited by the neutrality maintained by Denmark. It
became the only market in the West Indies for the products
of all the colonies, and the only channel through which they
could be conveyed to the countries in the North of Europe.
The resort to it of mercantile speculators from all quarters,
brought a large addition to its population ; and the author
before quoted informs us, that many stores and houses were
built, and that in the year 1793 one hundred and four per-
sons took out burgher briefs; that is, paid the tax required
to qualify them to begin business in the colony.
The war"naturally raised the price of West Indian pro-
ductions in Europe to an enormous degree; and though St.
Thomas had but little of these productions of her own to
export, great quantities came pouring in for sale, and were
transmitted to Europe and America in neutral vessels, in
order to avoid the cruisers of the nations that were at war
with each other. On the other hand, large importations of
merchandise arrived from Europe, and of flour and other
provisions from the United States, which were immediately
sold and dispersed among the British, Spanish, and French
colonies. This trade was greatly molested by British and
French privateers, particularly the former, which were by
far the more numerous, and the more indefatigable in their
102 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF
vocation. Ioud complaints were made of this state of
things; but all who reflected on the subject clearly saw that
it was to the very circumstances complained of, that they
owed the immense profits derived from their adventures,
when they managed to steer clear of the dangers by which
they were surrounded.
A short interruption to this prosperity occurred in 1801,
when the island was given up to the British, who held it,
however, for only ten months. Early in 1802 it was
restored to T)enmark, and resumed all its former activity.
The harbor was again crowded with German, Danish, Eng-
lish, French, and Spanish vessels, besides a few from the
Mediterranean ports, and many belonging to the United
States. - -
Immense losses in merchandise and other property were
sustained by fires in 1804 and 1806, but these losses were
speedily surmounted, and the restored parts of the town
always assumed a much more substantial and regular
appearance than they had worn before the accidents
occurred.
The British Commissariat Department in the West
Indies had frequently recourse to St. Thomas for the
purpose of raising the large amounts of specie required for
the payment and provisions of its sea and land forces. This
was accomplished by the sale of bills drawn upon the Royal
Treasury in London, which were readily bought up by the
English and other merchants. The rate at which the bills
were sold—frequently $4 50 per pound sterling—was, in
itself, a source of considerable gain to the purchasers.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 103
Late in the year 1807, St. Thomas was again, by capitu-
lation, transferred to Great Britain, who, however, this time
retained it nearly eight years, or until April, 1815. The
first result of the change of masters was an increase in the
prices of all kinds of American provisions, timber, &c., and
a scarcity, Or, rather, almost total absence, of all the Ger-
man, French, Spanish, and Italian commodities, to which
the inhabitants had been so long accustomed. The harbor
was no longer gay with the flags of all nations, although
three or four times a year a sight of surpassing interest Was
to be seen in the assembling of the numerous homeward
bound English ships at St. Thomas, for the purpose of
obtaining the benefit of the convoy of men-of-war appointed
to protect them on their voyage. The number of merchant
ships varied according to the season of the year. The
convoy, which sailed in the month of August, frequently
numbered not fewer than four hundred, while the smallest
was composed of at least a hundred vessels. It must have
been a sight of no common interest to witness the departure
of so numerous a fleet, even though composed of merchant
vessels. Many of them were of a large class, and partly
armed, while all no doubt did their utmost to make a
respectable appearance under the eyes of so many observers,
and to avoid the stigma of laggard, from their proud and
majestic conductors—the men-of-war.
Trade during these years languished, but was not
annihilated. What remained of it was turned into a differ-
ent channel. The manufactures of the northern and middle
countries of Europe were imported in British vessels by way
104 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS H1 STORY OF
of England, and considerable quantities of foreign West
India produce found its way through St. Thomas to the
English market, introduced, no doubt, as the growth of a
British possession. American provisions, and lumber of all
kinds, were received through the small Swedish island of
St. Bartholomew, which had also been made a free port ;
and from British North America were received the produc-
tions of that country direct. Great Britain, of course, sup-
plied the island with her manufactures in abundance, and
Ireland sent provisions and linens; but the change from a
neutral, to the flag of a belligerent power, rel.dered it
infinitely more difficult to dispose of their importations to
advantage.
In April, 1815, the Danes again became masters of the
island. Foreign vessels speedily arrived laden with the
goods that had so long been prohibited. Numbers of the
smaller class of vessels, schooners, sloops, &c., were put
under Danish colors, and adventures to the other West
India islands and the Spanish main, were resumed with the
same activity as in former times. Produce once more
poured into the island, and many Danish ships were loaded
and dispatched for the European markets.
Commerce was again molested by privateers, but this
time they sailed under the Columbian and Buenos Ayrean
flags, and continued to commit depredations during the
entire continuance of the war of independence between
Spain and her South American colonies—that is from 1808
to 1825. These pretended privateers had, in many cases,
no right to the flags they had assumed, and were, in fact,
ST. THOMAS, W. 1. 105
nothing better than pirates, who took indiscriminately what-
ever came in their way that was worth capturing, and
weaker than themselves, adding frequently to their other
crimes, the wanton slaughter of the crews or passengers
they found in their prizes.
The South American struggle for independence brought
a new addition to the population by the emigration from
that country to St. Thomas, of many of its inhabitants,
principally natives of Old Spain. In some cases the fugi-
tives brought with them means sufficient to begin business,
and some of them became, afterwards, among the wealthi-
est merchants of the island.
When it became evident to the European Powers that
the South Americans could succeed in throwing off the
yoke of the mother country, their enterprising merchants
began already to meditate the opening of a direct trade with
these rich and fertile regions, and as early as 1824 direct
importations were made at various of the Colombian ports.
This, of course, was so much withdrawn from the commerce
of St. Thomas; but, in the meantime, the island of Porto
Rico had so increased in its population and productions, as
in a great degree to make up the loss of the South Ameri-
can trade.
St. Thomas has gone on prospering up to the present
day. Some, however, suppose its prosperity has now
reached its culminating point, and that it cannot hope long
to maintain the important position it has acquired. Those
who thus predict its decay, point chiefly to some attempts
that are now making in Porto Rico to follow the example
106 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF
of South America, by establishing a direct trade with the
manufacturing countries of Europe and, America. But the
usual blindness of Spanish commercial policy is too evident
in the steps that are taken for that purpose, to admit of the
slightest probability of their success. The St. Thomas
trade with that island has long lost its original character of
a cash business, and for many years the most liberal and
extended credits have been afforded to the Spanish dealers.
These facilities have been the means of creating a large and
respectable class of shopkeepers in Porto Rico, from whom
by far the greatest part of the custom-house revenues is
derived ; and, indeed, not a few of the sugar plantations of
the island have been established by means of the facilities
thns afforded by St. Thomas. And this is the sort of con-
nexion to which, by a most unreasonable scale of differential
duties against importations from St. Thomas, the Porto Rico
authorities are doing all they can to put an end to. In the
meantime, a few individual traders of the Spanish island,
and possibly some of the authorities themselves, are reaping
large advantages from the present state of things; while the
numerous body of shopkeepers, before mentioned, see the
lucrative occupations they have been so long accustomed
to, trammelled by the unwise measures of their own rulers,
and only for the purpose of enriching a few individuals,
principally we believe foreigners, who are there for the sole
purpose of acquiring wealth with which to remove as soon
as possible to their own countries. The Spanish traders
complain, not indeed loudly, but deeply, while they are in
St. Thomas, of the injuries they sustain by these measures;
ST. THOMAS, W. I. - 107
but their dread of expulsion, or other punishment, deters
them from making their complaints known to the Cortes of
Spain, the only quarter whence they might possibly hope to
receive redress.
The result of the Porto Rico policy will probably be that
which invariably follows unreasonable restrictions on com-
merce, namely, the increase of smuggling, and consequently
empty coffers in the custom-houses, while its destructive
effect on the morality of the population, is perhaps, still
more to be deplored.
St. Thomas, as the principal rendezvous of the British
steam-packets, and from its central situation in the great
route from Europe to the rich countries now opening up on
the Pacific ocean, will, we hope, still continue to prosper,
even should its Spanish neighbors succeed (which, how-
ever, does not seem likely) in dispensing with her con-
nexion.*
At present, the value of goods imported into St. Thomas
may be set down at $5,000,000; probably half of which
comes from Europe, about $1,000,000 from the United
States and British America, and the rest from France,
Hamburg, Altona, Flensburg, Bremen, and Holland, with
Spain, and one or two ports in the Mediterranean. It is
* Since the above was written, the Government of Spain, apparently
actuated by sounder views of commercial policy than its colonial depu-
ties, has seen fit to order the withdrawal of the greater part of the
differential duties on importations from St. Thomas, and from the 1st of
November of this year, they will be reduced to 24 per cent. Wessels
under the Spanish flag, however, when coming from St. Thomas, will
continue to be treated as foreign as far as their cargoes are concerned,
108 COMMERCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF
estimated that $2,000,000 of these imports go to the island
of Porto Rico;” and it is ascertained by, a return lately
made to a public body in St. Thomas, that her merchants,
either for their own or for account of her European and
American correspondents, take on an average $1,021,114
per annum in Porto Rico produce, and $999,962 in the
paper of its mercantile houses, besides making occasional
remittances of specie, which in 1849 and 1850 amounted to
$216,992. It is true that but little of the produce thus
exported comes to St. Thomas, since its merchants usually
send their vessels to load in Porto Rico, whence they sail
direct for their ultimate destinations. The absence of any
explanation of this circumstance, in the official returns to
Madrid, is directly calculated to mislead the Spanish Gov-
ernment as to the nature of the relations between the two
islands.
The remaining portions of the imports of St. Thomas go
to St. Domingo, Cuba, Venezuela, New Grenada, Curaçoa,
and the Windward Islands, but it is next to impossible to
ascertain what proportion finds its way to each of these
countries respectively.
The shipping, as far as regards the number of vessels
entering the port, does not seem to have increased during
the last thirty-two years, although there has been a large
augmentation in point of tonnage, arising partly from the
quantity of coal imported since 1841, for the use of the
Royal Mail Steam-packet Company’s ships, which amounts
to no less than 42,000 tons per annum; and partly from the
* McCulloch states it in 1839 at $1,951,617.
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 109
increased size of the vessels employed in the importation of
goods from Europe.
In 1819, the number of vessels that arrived was 2,358 ;
tonnage, 157,003 tons. In 1850, the vessels numbered only
2196, while the tonnage came up to 235,843, in which the
British mail steamers are not included. The average for
the last thirty-two years is found to be 2,512 vessels, mea-
suring 182,038 tons; and there seems to be no reason to anti-
cipate a decay, so long as the masters of the islands continue
to pursue the liberal system of commercial policy which
has conducted it to its present prosperity.
1 10 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
CHAPTER IX.
Slavery in the Danish Islands—Steps towards Emancipation—Insur-
rection in St. Croix, 1848—Emancipation—Labor Act—Losses to
Owners—Compensation—Present State of the Working Classes in
St. Thomas. -
THE three islands, St. Thomas, St. John's, and St. Croix, as
we have seen, were successively, as colonized by the Danes,
supplied with slaves imported by the Danish West India
and Guinea Company, from the coast of Africa. This sup-
ply was, at a very early period in the history of the colo-
mies, more than abundant.* A very large number were of
the most savage character. When all the islands had been
supplied, they numbered together over 31,000. To subdue
them to bondage, and compel them to labor, led to the most
rigorous measures. Life and limb were often sacrificed,
that order might be maintained and refractory spirits over-
come. At first, almost unlimited power was held by mas-
ters over them. By degrees, the government restricted this
power, and placed the slaves under more humane laws. An
# The slaves in the three islands have never exceeded the following
numbers: St. Thomas, 3,500; St. John's, 2,500; St. Croix, 26,000.
SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 111
advanced civilization was everywhere humanizing society.
|But little, however, had been done to bring them under the
hallowed influence of Christianity, save through the personal
influence of pious colonists, until the year 1732, when the
Moravians commenced their labors for the conversion of the
heathen, by establishing a Mission in St. Thomas. It will
be seen, in the remarks made on the history of this denomi-
nation in the island, that, although they had to encounter
great and almost insurmountable difficulties, a good success
ultimately crowned their efforts, not only in St. Thomas, but
also in St. Croix and St. John's. Perceiving the advan-
tages of these missions, the King of Denmark, at an early
period after their establishment, took them under his foster-
ing care, and many slaves were turned from their heathenish
views and immoralities to the service of God, and obedience
to his laws. That the islands thus reaped a great advantage
in the improved character of their slaves, none can for a mo-
ment doubt ; and that Christianity was thus brought to
pour its blessings upon blinded and besotted minds, turning
them from darkness to light, and bringing them out of the
bondage of sin to the liberty of the gospel, rejoices every
believing heart.
To the honor of Christian V II. (or rather of Frederik VI.,
who then ruled Denmark as regent), the slave trade was
declared unlawful by the Danish government, as early as
1792. It was abolished in 1803, this government thus
nobly leading the way in checking that awful sin which
has now been denounced by every Christian nation. Owing
to many difficulties, however, the slave trade was not en-
112 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
tirely suppressed in the colonies, until several years after-
wards.
His late Majesty, King Christian VIII., was induced, in
the year 1847, to enact certain laws towards the complete
emancipation of all the slaves in his West India Colonies.
From the 28th July of that year, it was ordered that all
children, born of those held in bondage, should be free; and
also, that at the end of twelve years, slavery should entirely
cease. There was but little demonstration of joy in the
three islands, when these orders were made known to the
slaves. Discontent was rather manifested ; and the orders
exerted a stronger influence upon their minds than was sus-
pected at the time, as events ultimately showed. The
policy of publishing these orders, especially the one that
slavery should cease at the end of twelve years, is at least
doubtful. Does not the result show that the slaves might
have been better prepared for freedom without such know-
ledge, and would it not have delivered from the insurrection
which soon followed, and the evils attendant upon it " But
the intention of the government was most benevolent, and
the mistaken step had also been taken by the kingdom of
Great Britain, in her apprentice system.
Rendered now more anxious for the sweets of freedom,
the slaves in St. Croix, the next year, 1848, in the most
quiet and successful manner plotted an insurrection. As
their concerted plan was adopted by a great proportion of
their number, and for some length of time before its execu-
tion, it is really astonishing that it had not been more exten-
sively divulged. Up to the very day of its breaking out,
SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 113
but few if any of the planters or citizens had the least sus-
picion of its existence. It was known, however, to some of
the officers of government, and warnings had been written
from Tortola. July 26 ushered in the Sabbath morning,
with its usual quietness and peace. As the day advanced,
tranquil enjoyment and religious feeling seemed to reign
throughout the island. Towards evening a commotion was
visible; still, but few felt any uneasiness. About eight o’clock,
however, there was suddenly a too fearful evidence given
that the slaves had risen in rebellion. Simultaneously
alarms rang out from many estates as the given signal; and
as these alarms rolled on throughout every part of the island,
consternation and terror, tumult and uproar, spread on all
sides. Fear in its most bitter forms now seized upon the
minds of the inhabitants of Frederiksted and the estates
contiguous, and many rushed immediately on board the
shipping lying in the harbor. Several inhabitants applied
to the authorities for orders to resist with the militia force,
but they were refused. The night was one of horror,
especially to those who were unable to escape from their
estates. Terror conjectured the worst consequences. But
the anxiety and dread, carried to the utmost pitch, though
natural under the circumstances, were unnecessary. No
violence was offered to persons or property during the night,
as its sleepless hours passed ; and it is doubtful if any of the
slaves would have entered the town, had the inhabitants
remained in their dwellings, and the militia at that post of
duty which they sought in vain. In the meantime, a
messenger had been dispatched to the Governor-General
114 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
Von Scholten at Christiansted, informing him of the insur-
rection, and requesting his immediate presence.
At eight o'clock on the morning of the 3d, about two
thousand negroes from the north-side estates marched into
town, armed with various weapons. They went directly to
the fort, and demanded their freedom. In the absence of
the Governor-General, they were told by the officer of the
fort, that there was no one who had the authority to grant
their request. Their numbers increasing by a band of 3,000
from the south and middle parts of the island, and their
passions becoming more inflamed from their associated
influence, they proceeded to the destruction of property.
The police-office and judge's house were completely sacked,
and every document, many of them of the greatest im-
portance, destroyed, or scattered to the winds. The house
of the judge's assistant shared a like fate. The whipping-
post met with little mercy ; it was uprooted, carried in
triumph to the wharf, and thrown into the sea. As yet,
private property, apart from the government officers', was
undisturbed, save in a very few instances. Returning again
to the fort, and restless at the continued absence of the
Governor-General, their conduct became more violent, and
they threatened that, if their freedom was not proclaimed by
4 P. M., they would burn the town. No attempt, however,
was made to assault the fort, although in the most insolent
manner they charged the soldiers with cowardice, and dared
them to fire. Not a shot had yet been fired against them,
nor the least resistance made to their violent proceedings.
Having now had entire possession of the town for several
SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 115
hours, and many of the white families being still in the
interior of the country, this was, no doubt, at this time, a
prudent course. The very worst consequences were appre-
hended from their revenge, if they should now be resisted.
As it was, a citizen who had fled to the fort having impru-
dently made a remark to them which exasperated their
feelings, they immediately proceeded to his house and store,
and laid everything waste. -
At length the Governor-General arrived in his carriage
from Christiansted, and entered the fort. A great crowd of
negroes had in the meantime gathered around the walls.
There was an intense anxiety on the part of all to know
what would be the course of the Governor-General. The
commander of the fort repeatedly asked for orders. The
Danish man-of-war had sailed from Bassin, and was
momentarily expected. At length, to the amazement of the
officers and citizens, freedom was proclaimed from the ram-
parts, by the Governor-General, to all the slaves in the
T)anish West India Islands. Having been made to under-
stand the proclamation, and being exhorted by the Governor-
General to retire to the estates, now that they had gained
their demands, many left the town, and quietness was
partially restored for that evening.
At Christiansted, on Monday night (the 3d), a band of
negroes from that part of the island attempted to enter the
town about ten o’clock. Arrangements had been made to
resist them, by stationing a force at the principal entrances.
Pressing in by the main avenue, they were ordered back by
the officer in command. Not obeying, a blank cartridge
116 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
was fired from a small field-piece to intimidate them. Still
pressing on in the most daring and disorderly manner, grape-
shot was at length poured into their dense ranks, killing
several and wounding many. This single shot, which was
fired by a militia officer in direct opposition to his superior,
had the desired effect, as they all fled, and gave up their
attempt upon the place.
The night of the 3d was one of greater horror than that
of the 2d. Fires were everywhere visible, lighting up the
very heavens ; and as the slaves had entire possession of
the island, save the town of Christiansted and the fort at
Frederiksted (but few of the whites remaining on the
estates, and the great body of the women and children being
on board vessels in the respective harbors), it was believed
that the island was lost, and that the slaves would pro-
ceed to plunder and murder. On Tuesday, the 4th, the
authorities in Frederiksted, recovering from their alarm and
surprise, called out the militia to protect the town. The
negroes again advanced upon it from the country, but
finding they were about to be resisted, retired ; nor did
they attempt again to enter Christiansted. In the country,
'lowever, the utmost disorder prevailed, and on several
estates the work of destruction was most ruthless and
savage.
On the morning of the 4th, the arrival of the schooner
“ Vigilant” from St. Croix announced the startling intelli-
gence of the insurrection to the inhabitants of St. Thomas.
Great excitement at once prevailed, and this was increased
by the proclamation of freedom at the drum-head in the
sLAvLRY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 117
public streets. A crowd of women and boys followed the
drum, and shouted and danced merrily ; otherwise, order
prevailed in the town. In the country the proclamation
was received by the slaves in the most quiet manner, and
all continued at their work. The fires which were burning
in St. Croix on the night of the 4th being visible by their
reflection in St. Thomas, aroused the worst fears for the fate
of that island, and added to the uneasiness and alarm of the
citizens. Those especially who had relatives and friends in
St. Croix were greatly agitated and distressed. The town,
however, remained quiet during the night, and on the
morning of the next day (the 5th), the planters from the
country reported the negroes still all at work. The fear of
disorder in this island then began to subside, but the excite-
ment of the town was again brought to the highest pitch,
when the “Vigilant” arrived a second time with an officer
from the authorities of St. Croix, requesting immediate
assistance from the militia, and also that the English steamer
“Eagle” be dispatched to Porto Rico for Spanish troops.
A request was also made upon the officer of the English
man-of-war “Thunderer,” then lying in the harbor of St.
Thomas, that his vessel proceed to Christiansted for protec-
tion. A body of sixty volunteers from the Burgher and
Jajer corps immediately embarked for St. Croix in the
“Vigilant,” cheered from the wharfs by an immense con-
course of people. The steamer “Eagle,” accompanied by
the Spanish Consul at St. Thomas, Señor Don F. V.
Segundo, whose lively interest and sympathy at the time
deserved all praise, got under weigh for Porto Rico. The
6*
1 18 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
authorities now heard that the negroes in the country had
ceased work, and were meditating an entrance into town.
Every precaution was immediately taken at the fort by its
active commander. Special constables volunteered and
were sworn in, patrols organized, and the “Thunderer”
dropped anchor off the King's Wharf to cover the town.
At 7 P. M. the schooner “Von Scholten” arrived with a
large body of passengers; among them were several
Moravian missionaries, all fleeing from St. Croix for protec-
tion and safety to St. Thomas.
On this day, in St. Croix, the negroes still held the
interior of the island, and no communication was suffered
by them to be held with its different parts. Three hundred
men were under arms in Frederiksted, and one thousand in
Christiansted. A part of those who had fled to the ship-
ping were returning on shore during the day, but sleeping
on board during the night. Efforts were also being made
during the day from both ends of the island, through the
clergy and officers, with various messengers, to quell the
riot in the country. No troops, however, were marched
out. Fires were again burning in St. Croix in the night of
the 5th. 4.
The next day, without the orders of the Governor-Gene-
ral, the troops from the two ends of the island marched out
to effect a junction, and arrest the mad destruction which
was going on. They succeeded without the least difficulty
—arrested the leader of the rebellion, Buddoe, a young man
belonging to the estate La Grange, with other prominent
blacks, and found that on many of the estates the negroes
SLAveRY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 119
had remained faithful, and had even fought desperately
against the rebellionists to protect their masters' property.
Nine of the prisoners taken were immediately shot. Others
also had been killed in various parts of the island. The
Spanish troops, numbering 500 infantry, with a division of
sappers and miners and two pieces of ordnance, commanded
by Col. Sanguesa, having arrived on the 7th, and Gov.-Gen.
Von Scholten having resigned his authority, to those next in
command, on the plea of sickness, order was gradually ,
restored, day after day, and the insurrection quelled. On
the 10th July a meeting of the planters was called, and
six of their body appointed to frame laws, and regulate
the price of labor. On a few estates work was again
resumed, but on others, the negroes refused all labor, save
On their own exorbitant terms.
Many estates, it was now found, had suffered more or
less. Much furniture had been destroyed, together with
large quantities of provisions, rum, and sugar. Clothing and
many small articles had been plundered. On some estates,
the dwelling-houses presented the most desolate appear-
ance. The fires had been confined to megass heaps,
out-houses, and cane pieces. The life of not a single white
person, however, had been taken. e -
It is believed by some that this insurrection was well
known to Gov.-Gen. Von Scholten for some time before it
broke out ; and that, if he had chosen to take the necessary
precaution, it might have been prevented before its plans
were matured, or easily suppressed after it had commenced.
Others think that he was ignorant of its existence, with the
120 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
rest of the inhabitants; and that his singular conduct on
the occasion arose partly from fear, and partly from the
belief that the event was a fit opportunity to meet the
wishes of the home government concerning the emancipa-
tion of the slaves. We should not judge motives. Unjust
suspicion often rests upon the purest intentions; whilst the
most base considerations have as often been mistaken,
and applauded for the best and holiest influences. What-
ever views controlled the mind of Gen. Von Scholten, his
entire conduct, at a most fearful and trying juncture of
circumstances, were unworthy his high office, and jeopard-
ized the dearest interests and welfare of those he was bound
to protect. (He left the island shortly after, and retired to
Denmark.) In this year he was tried by a commission at
Copenhagen, and condemned for dereliction of duty, as Gov-
ernor-General. He has appealed from this decision.
That the slaves was not impelled to greater acts of
violence in the destruction of property, and the sacrifice
of life, during the insurrection, is a matter of astonishment ;
and shows that a moral and religious influence of no ordi-
nary character had been brought to bear upon their minds.
Where could we expect the uprising of so large a body
of the ignorant laboring classes—gaining almost complete
mastery over all law and constituted authority, obtaining
possession of so much property, holding at their mercy
the lives of those whom they had formerly obeyed—and
having at hand such abundant means to inflame their
passions, without the most disastrous results in rapine and
murder. In St. Croix, the life of not a single White person
SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 121
was sacrificed to their fury or revenge ; and the plunder and
destruction of property were, comparatively speaking, but
limited in extent. We can only account for this, and take
pleasure in recording it as our deliberate opinion, that it was
mainly through that power which Christianity had exerted
through the labors of the Moravian, Episcopal, and Lutheran
clergymen, aided by many pious and energetic inhabitants of
both sexes in behalf of the slaves, imbuing their minds with
the great principles of the Gospel, and leading planters and
other owners to treat their slaves with greater kindness
than in any other of the West India Islands. Nor is it to
be overlooked, as an additional reason for this forbearance
on the part of the rebellious slaves, that the Government of
Denmark had now for years watched over the slaves of its
colonies with the most paternal solicitude, and was at the
very time taking steps for their emancipation.
Quietness and a good degree of order were eventually
maintained, mainly by the presence of the Spanish troops.
With too many, however, not only in St. Croix, but in the
other islands, the liberty obtained was considered freedom
from further work, and privilege to be as licentious as they
might choose. This was now the great difficulty to be
overcome. On the 29th July, ordinances were passed to
compel all to resume work, and restrain the laborers from
leaving the estates; other provisions were also made.
These were partially, but not entirely successful. The
Governor-General now to be sent out to occupy the vacant
office, and the new regulations which the Government at
home would no doubt order to meet the change which had
122 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDs.
taken place in the affairs of the island, were anxiously ex-
pected. Various opinions were in the meantime formed
concerning the result of emancipation, and the future
prosperity of the beautiful island. Many believed it to be
ruined ; others hoped that all would yet be well.
In St. Thomas it was found necessary to resort to very
stringent measures to compel the laborers on the estates to
work. The mind was sickened at the constant use of the
whipping-post; but it was better that the laborers suffer a
temporary evil, than that they should be given up to their
Ways, to their own serious and permanent injury, and the
serious injury, if not destruction, of social order.
His Excellency Peter Hansen at length arrived, in
November, 1848, as King's Commissioner, and ad interim
Governor for the Danish West India Islands. He possessed
full authority to regulate the existing difficulties, and pass
all necessary laws to govern planters and laborers in their
relation to each other. Some experience had already been
gained in these relations whilst he delayed his coming, and
he was not therefore without some guidance under his
arduous and responsible duty. His measures were wisely
taken. In a short time he passed an act, the provisions of
which cannot be too much commended for their wisdom
and adaptation to meet the state of the existing circum-
stances. This is generally known as “The Labor Act.”
It will be found in Appendix B, and well deserves a
perusal. An insight will thus be clearly obtained into the
present working system in the three Danish Islands, for it is
SLAvERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDs. 123
still in force. Under this law, the cultivation of their
estates is still enjoyed by the planters.
That the country negroes have been benefited by eman -
cipation there can be no question. Time, however, will
only show its ultimate results. Much will depend upon
the wisdom of the Government in 7maintaining Zabor, and
maintaining it at a fixed price. If the laws should be relaxed
on this point, idleness and vagrancy must inevitably ensue,
to be followed by all that train of vices so destructive of
everything good and sacred. The laborers themselves
would soon fall back into comparative barbarism, and the
island in a measure be ruined.
The principle that labor should command its price is
correct, but there are exceptions under certain circumstances.
Those just set free from slavery are unable to judge of the
value of labor, and government establishing its price is a mer-
ciful law to guard against evils of the very worst character.
It is unjust to society, and a false philanthropy, that contends
for such a freedom for those held in bondage, as shall lead
them into a bondage far worse than slavery, and a destruc-
tion of those dependent relations which bind together and
uphold every community. Vagrancy is the curse of nearly
all the English West India Islands; and if fixing a price for
labor and maintaining labor by law can prevent it, the pro-
vision becomes merciful, and is just. It may bear hard upon
some, but the majority are benefited.
The case has been different with the principal number of
those who were held as slaves in the towns, especially in
St. Thomas. These have nearly all deserted their former
124 SLAVERY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS.
owners, and too many have abandoned themselves still
further to profligate lives. This has had a serious influence
upon the state of religion and morality in the place. Too
many vagrants had already existed before emancipation,
and now their numbers are increased. These live princi-
pally by their vices, and are thus plunging themselves into
greater degradation, poverty, and suffering.
To the owners of those who were held in bondage, a
severe loss has ensued from emancipation. Blinded indeed
must be the mind that cannot perceive or understand this.
The values of estates are necessarily lessened now that the
laborers are free ; the expenses of labor are greatly increased ;
and the income from the crops, save in a few instances
where the land is easily tilled by the plough, and when the
season has been very favorable, is necessarily lessened.
This is the case under the working of the present “Tabor
Act;” but what uncertainty hangs over the future, as it
regards the maintenance of labor This uncertainty jeo-
pardizes the worth of estates yet more ; and should laborers
become dissatisfied with an owner and leave his estate
(which they all can do by giving notice on the 1st of
August each year), he would be ruined unless others would
at once supply their places. Even with the continued good
working of the “Labor Act,” should a few successive years
of drought prevail, order, and the general maintenance of
the estates could not be sustained, as when slavery existed.
Small estates, especially those without Sugar cultivation,
and where owners maintained themselves and families by
a small stock of cattle, cutting wood, and depending upon
sIAveRY IN THE DANISH ISLANDS. 125
other meagre resources, are now almost worthless, the
owners and laborers picking up together a scanty sub-
sistence as mutual companions in misfortune; and some
have been entirely abandoned. And then, how many
widows and orphans, and families straitened in their
circumstances, were almost entirely dependent upon the
labors of a few slaves, as employed in various occupations ;
but having lost these, are now reduced to the extremes of
want and suffering !
As yet, the Danish government has granted no compensa-
tion for these losses, incurred by its own act, to the former
owners of slaves, in its colonies. This has, no doubt, only
been withheld in consequence of the heavy drafts upon the
treasury from 3the Sleswick-Holstein war. But as this war
has now ceased, that the 7ust claim of compensation will be
attended to and granted, is most anxiously expected and be-
lieved. A government so conspicuous for its good faith,
and mild, equitable, and paternal administration, could
never bely itself, by disappointing this expectation and
confidence, and fall behind the example so nobly (and yet
without full justice) set by Great Britain and France. It
would prove a blot on the fair and bright history of Den-
mark, which after generations of its subjects would be glad
to erase. A memorial for compensation has been drawn up
and numerously signed, and forwarded to Copenhagen. It
is recorded in Appendix C, as an able paper, setting forth
the claim in its justness and force, and with unanswerable
arguments. It might have been added, to give even greater
force to the arguments which this document embraces, that
i26 PRESENT STATE OF THE WORKING CLASSES
had not the administration of the islands been judiciously
managed by the authorities, and sustained by the inhabit-
ants, and had not the colonists so treated their slaves,
meeting the views of the government in this respect, as to
bring the former state of slavery into a milder form than
had anywhere existed ; when they rebelled, a very great
destruction of property might have ensued, and the islands
been rendered almost worthless as colonies. The Danish
government, which is a large owner in landed property in
all the three islands, was thus, no doubt, saved from very
large losses in this respect, independent of the yet greater
losses in the ruin of the colonies.
We shall close this chapter by adverting to the present
state of the working classes in the town of St. Thomas.
Taborers, in certain trades, abound among the men. Car-
penters, masons, tailors, shoemakers, shipwrights, joiners,
cigar makers, and porters, are the most numerous. A few
are employed as house servants, and in other occupations.
The wages of all these are comparatively high, averaging
from $6 to $25 per month. Many, in all these trades, are
excellent workmen, and can always command employment ;
but a large proportion are not so active or well informed,
and therefore are often without work. With the females,
Sempstresses, nurses, house servants, cooks, washers and
ironers, fish and market women, and those who sell differ-
ent articles from trays in the streets, or from house to house,
embrace nearly all those who are receiving wages.
The time occupied by these in performing all kinds of
work, is a source of astonishment to all foreigners accus-
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. - 127
tomed to the activity and diligence of northern laborers.
The climate in part accounts for this; but too frequently
the cause is found in a want of interest in the welfare and
success of the employer, and a disregard of that moral obli-
gation which should bind to faithfulness, under contracts of
every kind. And there seems no present remedy. Con-
tractors, knowing what they have to encounter from this
“eye-service,” meet it patiently, but take good care to
remember it in the contracts, saddling the loss or expense
on those whose work is to be executed.
It would not be amiss here, perhaps, to glance at a few
of the evils which follow in the train of slavery, wherever it
exists, and which are most prominent in our islands. The
slave finds himself obliged to perform his daily task, how-
ever much he may dislike the same, since non-compliance
would but induce punishment until he should submit. He
sees, and therefore knows, nothing, of the principle of
working from choice ; and consequently, envies the lot of
his highly favored master, who can choose his own plea-
sures, appropriate his own time, and is free from the de-
tested, because exacted, toil, of his every-day life. This
want of industry or ambition has everywhere proved a bar-
rier to the elevation of the African race. They feel deeply
and justly the stain of slavery—subjection, dependence upon
another’s will, toiling for others; this has been the iron that
has entered into their very soul; and it is not strange that
they should consider freedom from such a condition the
greatest good to be desired.
But this idea does not die out with slavery. It clings
128 PRESENT STATE OF THE WORKING G LASSES
tenaciously through successive generations and we often
see those, who themselves never wore the yoke of bondage,
shrinking from every species of labor. It is incredible how
small a proportion of our laboring classes, in town, are in
active service. Almost every domestic in our families has
One or more dependent upon them, who, rather than earn a
comfortable subsistence by personal exertion, will accept the
refuse of food from one, and a shelter from another; and
consequently, as in a tropical climate these constitute the
whole of their necessary wants, they remain content,
though they may not know the comforts of a home.
Another evil, prevalent among us, is the idea that Zabor
is degrading. Probably in the commercial city of St.
Thomas we know less of this than upon estates, for our
merchants being foreigners, are more or less active men.
Still we are often struck with the inconsistency of the man
who would censure the weak and ignorant for a spirit that
takes its complexion from his own. If we consider it de-
grading to carry the smallest parcel through the streets,
should we ridicule the mechanic, who in imitation of his
superiors struts proudly before his miniature, half naked
apprentice, carrying the master's tools : An active spirit,
and love of employment, unfortunately, were never the cha-
racteristics of the southerner or West Indian ; and our chil-
dren at an early age acquire the habit of being waited upon.
Early association always connects work with slavery, for it
was the exclusive province of the slave ; and to be enabled
to command attendance is, in his mind, as closely united
with gentility. Hence, every workman is followed through
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. - 129
the day by his juvenile apprentice, whose early years indi-
cate that for some time to come he can only be expected to
do his master’s bidding, in handing his tools as they may
be required, and such like services; while our house ser-
vants, when allowed, will rarely fail to secure the attend-
ance of little children, to do their errands and assist them
in various ways.
Moreover, slavery tends to blunt the finer feelings of our
nature, and to make the man the tyrant. This we mean
especially in reference to our lower classes, for with its
effects upon those in the higher walks of life we have no-
thing, just now, to do. In servitude these often felt them-
selves unjustly dealt with, but knew no redress ; they -
therefore cherished a feeling of revenge, which, since it
cannot be exercised upon the inflicter of the wrong, must
seek its object elsewhere. Hence, we often see a love of
dominion, a thirst of power, characterizing the lower
classes. Such persons are the most exacting taskmasters,
the most tyrannical husbands, the most cruel parents; and
often have our ears been pained to hear the screams of
children, writhing under the tortures of a knotted thong, or
perchance a more dangerous instrument, seized in haste, to
satisfy the enraged feelings of the parent or master. The
victim knows no alternative but patiently to bear what,
probably, he classes among the natural evils of childhood,
till he shall in his turn wreak his vengeance on a future
generation. Would that such an evil were met, and cor-
rected by the strong arm of the law
Extravagance is another serious result of slavery. Hav-
*
130 PRESENT STATE OF THE WORKING CLASSES
ing been in former days entirely provided for, the servant
knows nothing of the value of any article, and naturally is
wasteful. This is true of food, but more especially in
reference to dress. In general, we love to observe the self-
respect which leads an individual in humble life to appear
decently dressed, and believe that the want of such
feelings betrays both ignorance and vice. But the disposi-
tion is everywhere manifested, to appear in clothing far
superior to the station and pocket of the wearer. Undue
importance is given to this, and consequently we see the
majority of servants deeply in debt while in the receipt,
perhaps, of the largest wages. The mechanic scorns to
appear in public in his working clothes ; and your maid,
though sent in the greatest haste on some important errand,
must carefully change her dress before starting.
And what are the consequences of all this " As we
have already remarked, the generality are constantly in
debt, even when in constant employ ; and when laid aside
by sickness or old age, great indeed would be their suffer-
ings, were it not for the kind assistance they render each
other, and that astonishing charity pervading our commu-
nity. Indeed, we have often found this virtue was carried
to an excess with us, proving in the end a premium upon
idleness and beggary | Where such an antipathy to labor
exists, we do not wonder to find many needless vagrants.
If they consider work onerous and degrading, they feel also
that “asking is cheap, and is no crime ;” and it is painful
to see those who should rise superior to receiving assistance
from others, coolly and unblushingly solicit charity, and ex-
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IN ST. THOMAS, W. K. 131
pect the remittance as a matter of course. The evils above
mentioned lead also to licentiousness; many from very
idleness prefer living by their vices; and we all know that
want of employment fosters crime. In the majority of
cases the marriage tie is shunned or despised, and thus a
flood of vice and unhappiness is poured upon our commu-
nity, and official accounts inform us that three fourths of the
children here born are illegitimate! Alas! that we could
believe this crying sin confined to the weak and ignorant :
but we mourn to find those whose knowledge of duty
should lead them to a better life, sharing in this debasing
and soul-destroying vice, and thus upholding its general
prevalence. It would be supposed from the cheapness of
rum, retailed at twenty-five licensed shops, that drunken-
ness would abound. But this is not, the case. Very few
are drunkards, and an intoxicated man in the streets, unless
he be an American or English sailor, is a rare sight. The
majority, however, use spirituous liquors more or less.
It is generally remarked, that living in St. Thomas is ex-
ceedingly expensive. In reference to the higher classes,
this is strictly true. Ttents, servants, and many luxuries
usual to such a style as they adopt, require a large outlay.
But such as choose to pursue a simpler mode, and conform
more to the habits of the north, can very much curtail such
expenditures. The working classes generally rent rooms,
or small tenements, from one to eight dollars per month.
This sounds high, but is in proportion to the rents of stores
and other large buildings; and when we consider the ex-
pense of keeping such in repair, in this climate, it appears
132 PRESENT STATE OF THE WORIKING CLASSES.
altogether reasonable. Landlords, moreover, are frequently
defrauded of their rents. -
The poorer classes live principally on bread and fish. In-
deed we believe no peasantry can command the same
quality of bread on which these subsist, the best of wheat
flour being often sold here extremely low.
Good common schools are much needed at St. Thomas.
None are at present sustained, either by government or the
community. Our children would thus grow up in igno-
rance and vice, were it not for the little knowledge they ob-
tain at the Sabbath school. Funds were once ordered by
His Majesty to be appropriated for common schools in the
islands. They were, however, unjustly employed in build-
ing expensive school-houses in Santa Cruz, and thus St.
Thomas was deprived of its share. His Excellency, Go-
vernor Federsen, is now endeavoring to remove this injus-
tice, and by his impartial administration will no doubt place
the cause of education on as firm a basis as that of Santa
Cruz.
HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS. 133
CHAPTER X.
History of the various Religious Sects which have existed and still
exist in St. Thomas—Lutheran–Reformed Dutch—Moravian–
Catholic—Episcopal—French Huguenots—Jews.
THE Danish West India Company was not without a due
sense of the importance of religion in colonial possessions.
With the very founding of this colony, or immediately after,
it made provision for public worship in accordance with the
doctrines and forms of the Lutheran Church, which was
then, as it still is, the national religion. We have seen that
the very first ordinance of the first governor sent out, re-
quired that the Sabbath be kept holy, in enjoining upon all
the colonists to meet at Christian's fort, either in the morn-
ing or afternoon, for divinë service. The worship held in
the morning was conducted in the Danish language, and
that in the afternoon, in all probability, in Dutch. We are
left to conjecture whether clergymen, thus early in the his-
tory of the colony, officiated. It is almost certain that they
did. At that period laymen were not likely to take upon
themselves the responsibilities and duties of the pastoral
office ; and of the deeds executed in 1688, one is for “ the
7
134 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
parson's estate,” and the other stands in the name of
“Domine Oliandus.” The former of these must refer to
the Lutheran clergyman, who, in all likelihood, had come
out to the colony along with Governor Iversen, and for
whose support provision was thus made. On examining
the records of the Lutheran Church, it is found that they
extend no further back than 1688, when the name of A.
Bastian is recorded as the pastor. He might have been
some time in the island before he regularly organized a
Church, and entered upon the record of his official acts as a
settled pastor. The room in Christian's fort which was
thus consecrated to public worship, and which continued to
be used as such for many years afterwards, is still pre-
served, although now appropriated to other purposes. Two
tombstones lie near its entrance, forming a part of the pave-
ment of the court of the fort. The one is that of General
J. M. von Holten, who died and was buried there in 1708.
The other is unknown, as the record is obliterated.
The Lutheran Church continued to be regularly sustained
by a succession of pastors sent out from Denmark. That
these pastors must have retired back to their native country
after very short periods of service, or fallen victims to the
climate, appears from the fact, that in sixty-two years
(from 1688 to 1750) no less than eighteen had occupied the
post—giving a ministry of a little more than three years to
each. A list of the successive pastors will be found in Ap-
pendix D.
About the year 1750, the corner-stone of a church-building
was laid, about one hundred yards north-east of the fort,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 135
and the walls erected ; but it was never completed. The
Rev. H. CEreboe, the incumbent at the time the corner-
stone was laid, dying shortly after, his body was interred
within the unfinished walls. This property was afterwards
sold, and a private residence erected on the old foundations.
Very recently, on enlarging the ground rooms of this edifice,
the bones of the pastor were discovered, and as those con-
cerned in the transaction were ignorant of the early appro-
priation of the lot, they excited various conjectures and
suspicions. The bones were thrown away with the rest of
the rubbish. How seldom the dead lie undisturbed
The Lutheran congregation continued to worship in the
fort up to the year 1793, a period of one hundred and
eleven years. What was its size, or how many were
added to its communion during this time, we are unable to
determine. It must, however, have been very limited in
numbers, as the Dutch constituted the great body of the
inhabitants for many years from the founding of the colony,
and they had founded a church in accordance with their
national religion.
The foundation-stone of another new church edifice was
laid on the site of their present building, in 1789, July 9th.
It was consecrated July 14th, 1793. From this date public
worship was maintained in this church by a regular succes-
sion of clergymen until July 13th, 1826, when it was
destroyed by fire. It was re-built and re-consecrated July
8th, 1827.
It does not appear that any slaves were ever permitted to
connect themselves with this Lutheran Church. Probably
136 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
none ever desired to do so, as the Moravians had devoted
themselves to their spiritual instruction. A missionary was,
however, sent out in the course of time, under the patronage
of the College of Missions, founded by Frederick IV., 1711,
to establish a Mission Church for the negroes exclusively.
This was done, and large numbers up to the present time
have been added to its communion. Both congregations
worshipped in the same building, and occasionally enjoyed
the services of separate pastors. It was, however, fre-
quently the case, that the Lutheran clergyman or the mis-
sionary had to take charge of both the Lutheran and the
Mission churches, serving each, separately, on the Sabbath.
This is the case at present, no missionary having been sent
out for a number of years.
The doctrines and worship of these two churches are
strictly in accordance with the Augsburg Confession. They
are at present supplied by the Rev. F. Tolderlund, an able
and evangelical minister of Christ. For the last year he
has been necessitated to return to Denmark for his health,
his place in the mean time being occupied by the Rev. W.
Tidemand, from St. Croix, who most zealously and faith-
fully discharges his arduous duties, in accordance with the
precepts of the gospel. Public worship, in Danish, is held
by the Lutheran Church on the Sabbath at ten o’clock A.M.,
and by the Mission Church, at one P. M., in English.
The Communion is observed in each four times a year. A
flourishing Sabbath-school is connected with these congre-
gations, numbering one hundred and eighty scholars in
regular attendance. It enjoys the benefit of a large library,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 137
partly purchased and partly donated from the A. Sabbath
School Union, and also one for the teachers.
Protestant Reformed Dutch Church.-The early Dutch
settlers in the colony of St. Thomas, appear upon their very
first arrival in the island to have formed themselves into a
congregation, and secured the services of a pastor. It is
more than probable that these settlers (as has been already
remarked) were some at least of those who had been com-
pelled by the English to leave St. Thomas in 1667 for St.
Eustatius or other more fertile islands. Even at that period
they may have had their pastor with them, and a church
formed in St. Thomas. When they returned to the island, now
that it was in possession of the Danes, their piety would
lead them again to enjoy the same privileges. The service
enjoined to be held by Governor Iversen immediately after
the founding of the colony, on the Sabbath afternoon, was,
probably, as has been stated, held by the Dutch clergyman.
This individual, in all likelihood, was Domine Oliandus, who
had secured to himself an estate, receiving the deed in
1688.
Unfortunately, the records of the Dutch Church only reach
back to 1744, the “old book,” as stated in this first record,
having been destroyed. By examining, however, the books
of the Lutheran Church, it is there discovered, that men-
tion is made of the services of Dutch clergymen between
the years 1688 and 1744, so that we may fairly conclude
from this, and from the fact that the Dutch were for years
so numerous in the colony that their language was the ver-
nacular tongue (forming also the basis of the Creole lan-
13S HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
guage as at present spoken in the island), that this church
was maintained by a regular supply of pastors from Holland,
sent out by the Classis of Amsterdam. Only two names,
however, of these clergymen are recorded in the Lutheran
books, that of Christianus Strumphias in 1712, and Domine
Isaac Gronewold, in 1718. There were short intervals
When the Church was destitute of a pastor, as appears from
the Lutheran books, in which it is recorded, and especial
mention made of the fact, that certain marriages and bap-
tisms of persons connected with the Dutch Church were
performed by the Lutheran pastors. These notices occurring
but rarely show also that the intervals of pastoral destitu-
tion were not frequent or of long duration. From the
friendly feelings which always existed on the part of the
Company towards the Dutch, and from the fraternal feeling
which prevailed between the two denominations, the Dutch
were permitted to hold their worship in the consecrated
room in the fort. This continued for many years. At
length the congregation erected a building, and worshipped
apart. The period of its erection is not known, but was
prior to 1718; for upon a chart prepared in that year of the
island, at the request of Domine Gronewold, a Reformed
T]utch Church building is located in the savannah to the
east of the fort, near the sea shore. Old tombstones are
still to be found in the neighborhood where this edifice must
have stood. The burial-ground of the congregation may
have surrounded the church ; and we learn from the govern-
ment record of deaths, that it possessed such a ground in
the year 1731. All efforts to trace out the existence of this
IN ST, THOMAS, W. I. 139
building from tradition and records, other than those men-
tioned, have been in vain.
That especial privileges were granted from an early
period to the Reformed Dutch Church, over other sects, we
learn from an ordinance in 1707, which permitted Dutch
members to bequeath, by will, to those of their own denomi-
nations, the sum required by law to be left to the poor ; and
from another ordinance in 1733, which forbade all other
denominations but the Lutheran and the Dutch to hold pub-
lic worship in buildings consecrated to that purpose.
From 1733 to 1736 Rev. Arnoldus Von Drumen minis.
tered to the Church. He died in the latter year, and was
succeeded in 1737 by Rev. Johannes Borm, whose ministry
continued until 1743. The wife of this pastor died imme-
diately after their arrival in the island. His death is recorded
in the government records in 1743, to which a note is added
that on his dying bed he was married to his “sweetheart.”
This note savors of an abominable vice, then and still too
much indulged in the island, and which by no means is
commendable of the morals, much less of the piety of the
T}omine. Concubimage at that period, and afterwards, was
rºot looked upon as a sin and it in no way detracted from
the standing and moral estimation even of clergymen
This pastor was succeeded by Rev. John Paldamus,
in 1744. On entering upon his duties, he recorded into a
new register from the “old book,” the names of one hun-
dred and forty-two members, as then living. Of these
eighty-nine white persons and fourteen colored persons were
still on the island, and thirty-nine had just been dismissed
140 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
by certificate, mainly to join the new colony in St. Croix.
The names of the officers of the church, recorded at the
same time, were Lazaer Zugareth and Johannes De Windt,
elders, and Abraham Rogiers and Lucas De Windt, deacons.
Before or about the settlement of this pastor, the congrega-
tion had, for some reason, abandoned their old building, and
had erected another on the south side of the central hill*
upon which the town is built. This continued the place of
Worship for many years. --
The Rev. Paldamus was succeeded, after a ministry of
eight years, by Rev. John A. Monteneag, in 1752. Hitherto
the expenses of the Dutch Church had been supported
entirely by voluntary contributions on the part of the mem-
bers of the congregation. It was also by this means that
they had erected the substantial building in which they
now worshipped. They were now about to be relieved,
in part at least, from these contributions. In the year 1759,
a benevolent lady, Mrs. Catharine De Windt, widow of
Jahns Jahnsen De Windt, bequeathed, at her death, which
occurred on the 3d December of that year, the estate Catha-
rinaberg. This estate reached down into the town; and
although at the time it was bequeathed it was only availa-
ble as an estate, its town lots after 1792 became exceedingly
valuable. Unfortunately the whole had been sold prior to
that time to the Rev. Francis Verboom, who realized from
the sale of town lots over $100,000. He had paid only
$38,400 for the entire estate. Seven thousand six hundred
% The site of this edifice is in Snegle Street, No. 7, Queen's Quarter
and where the house owned by J. J. Cross, Esq., is located at present.
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 141
and eighty dollars of this church property was for the
maintenance of the poor, and the balance for the ministry
of the church.
The ministry of Rev. Monteneag continued eleven years,
when he was succeeded in 1763 by Rev. G. J. Scheers.
His ministry continued twenty-one years, and he was suc-
ceeded at his death in 1784, by Rev. Francis Verboom.
The labors of this clergyman, and his moral character, were
such as by no means tended to increase, but, on the contrary,
injured the spiritual welfare of the Church. It is painful to
record that his life was exceedingly immoral, and that he
substituted gain for godliness. It is matter for astonishment
that he should have been suffered to remain so long as the
minister of the church. By the fire of 1804, when so
many houses were burned, the Dutch church was also de-
stroyed. The loss fell heavily upon the congregation, as
the building and furniture were not insured. A new edifice
was at Once erected; but it was hardly completed, before
that too was burned down in the fire of 1806. This build-
ing was covered by an insurance of $12,000, which pro-
bably was employed to meet the expense of its erection.
Disheartened by these losses, and many of the congregation
having suffered severely in their private property from both
fires, no further steps were taken to erect another church
edifice. The use of the Danish Lutheran Church was
secured, and the congregation worshipped a part of the
Sabbath in that building, during the remainder of the
ministry of the Rev. F. Verboom. He resigned his charge
in 1812, and retired a man of wealth to Holland.
142 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
Under the pastoral services of these clergymen last-
named, embracing a period of sixty-eight years, eight
hundred and fifty communicants were added to the Church.
The congregation, now destitute both of a minister and a
place of worship, and left with a piety withered almost to
its very roots by an unfaithful and ungodly pastor, no dispo-
sition was felt to renew the application to the classis of
Amsterdam for another clergyman. In consequence, the
congregation lay almost waste for fifteen years, and its spiri-
tual condition suffered yet more severely. As a denomina-
tion, the members remained firmly attached thereto, and
could not be induced to join other persuasions ; but with the
exception of a few who “feared the Lord and spake often
one to another, and the Lord hearkened and heard it,” reli-
gion almost died out in their midst. Some, however,
worshipped with the Mission Congregation of the Lutheran
Church, whilst others waited upon the ministry of the
Moravian missionaries, and of the Rev. Nicholas McLaugh-
lin of the Episcopal church, who had arrived in the island
in 1820, and was at once induced to hold public worship.
At length, sufficiently revived to know their destitution,
and to feel conscious that they should remain no longer in
that condition, the Church Session made application through
friends in the United States, to the Reformed Dutch Church
there, that a pastor might be sent out to them. The appli-
cation was successful, and the Rev. Abraham Labagh,
having consented to come out, arrived in the island on the
3d of January, 1828. He met with a warm reception, and
the congregation at once rallied around him ; but he found
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 143
everything in a deplorable condition. Added to the spiritual
dearth which prevailed, the funds of the Church were found
to be badly invested, and even in some instances, squandered
and lost. Fifteen years’ interest, supposing the capital to
have been $30,000, after deducting an allowance for the
poor, should have given at least $20,000 now to be received
by him and invested as additional capital; but not a farthing
was to be found.
An arrangement had been made by the Session of the
Dutch Church with the Wardens of the Lutheran Church,
in 1827, to assist them by the sum of $3,200 for the re-
building of their edifice, which had been destroyed by fire
in 1826, for which the Dutch congregation were to be
allowed its use during a part of the Sabbath. Mr. Labagh
was therefore enabled to enter at once upon his spiritual
labors. The services heretofore held in the Dutch language,
were now for the first time performed in English. His
ministry was eminently successful in removing the rubbish
and building up what had so long lain prostrate. Members
were induced to return to their duty, and the entire congre-
gation became at length united in fellowship, and made to
feel in a good degree their spiritual obligation. The Church
books were carefully revised, and in some instances re-written;
and after the most perplexing labor, about $40,000 of the
capital of the Church funds made tolerably secure, with the
exception of $7,000, which has since been lost, partly by the
hurricane of 1837, and partly by the depreciation of Smith’s
Bay Estate. The Rev. Abraham J. Labagh continued his .
useful labors as pastor of the Church, for thirteen years,
144 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
having received into its communion during that period one
hundred and fifty-five members. He retired in 1841 to the
TJnited States, carrying with him the confidence and love,
not only of his own congregation, but also of the entire
community. His ministry had laid the basis, and partially
built up a state of evangelical piety, such as had never be-
fore existed in the island. -
Mr. Labagh was succeeded in 1842 by the Rev. Philip
M. Brett. As a faithful and emergetic minister of the gos-
pel, his labors during a ministry of three years were greatly
blessed. No less than one hundred and seventeen members
in that time were added to the Church. A Sabbath-school
had been commenced by the Rev. Mr. Labagh, but it lan-
guished, and was ultimately suspended. Mr. Brett, seeing
the destitute condition of the many children of the place,
determined to afford the blessings of such an institution to
them once more, permanently and liberally established.
He was warmly seconded by his congregation, and suc-
ceeded beyond his most Sanguine expectations. A school
with five hundred scholars or more, was formed ; the chil-
dren drawn not only from his own congregation, but from
all the others in the place. With this were connected
valuable libraries, both for the scholars and teachers. This
school has since led to others, and now each congregation
in the place has its Sabbath-school in successful operation.
Of course this drew upon the Scholars of the Reformed
Dutch Sabbath-School, which now only embraces its own
children. Seeing also the manner in which the congregation
was inconvenienced by worshipping in the Lutheran church,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 145
there being scarcely time on the Sabbath-day for three ser-
vices in the same building, and the congregation having in-
creased so much that there was not sufficient room for their
accommodation, Mr. Brett thought it a favorable time to
induce them to erect an edifice of their own. In this, also,
as soon as his wishes were made known, he was warmly
seconded by his people, and almost by the entire commu-
nity. Six thousand dollars having been raised by subscrip-
tions and collections in church, and $11,000 of the capital
of the Church called in, the corner-stone of the present
Dutch Church was laid September 18th, 1844, and the
building immediately commenced. It was completed and
consecrated February 8th, 1846. Mr. Brett had, however,
resigned his charge before this happy event had taken place.
He retired to the United States in 1845.
His successor—the present incumbent—arrived out from
the United States in the fall of the same year. There are
now three hundred and sixty-two members in full commu-
nion in the Reformed Dutch Church. Services are held on
the Sabbath at twelve o’clock, noon, and on Wednesday
evening. The Communion is observed four times a year.
The doctrines and forms are in accordance with the Heidel.
burg and Westminster catechisms.
It is a striking fact with this congregation, that but few,
comparatively speaking, of the many Dutch families once
in connexion with it, are now worshippers in its commu-
nion. Many have left the island, and many have gone to
rest. Presbyterians from Scotland, Ireland, England, and
America ; some from the German Lutheran Church, and
146 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
others from among the Roman Catholics, have joined the
Congregation. Nearly equal numbers of white and colored
persons compose the worshippers, who sit promiscuously in
the different pews and at the Communion Table, no distinc-
tion being made.
The Moravians.—The history of the Moravian Church
in St. Thomas is one of deep interest. It was for the con-
Version of the slaves in this island, that the United Brethren
commenced that work of missions which has since led them
into almost all parts of the world as the heralds of salvation
to the perishing heathen. As early as 1728, these brethren
Were seriously contemplating the extension of the kingdom
of Christ throughout distant parts of the earth, and many
felt a wish to share in the work as missionaries. Count
Zinzendorf having learned, whilst present at the coronation
of Christian VI. in Copenhagen, 1731, through a negro
named Anthony, from St. Thomas, then in the service of
Count de Laurwig, of the destitute condition of the slaves in
this island, and of the desire of some of their number to re-
ceive Christianity, communicated the facts immediately to
the congregation at Hernhut. They at once felt that now
an opportunity offered itself for them to carry out their
long cherished wishes, and Leonard Dober offered himself
as a missionary, to proceed to St. Thomas. After a year's
consideration of his offer, he was appointed to the work ;
and David Nitschman was selected to accompany him to
the West Indies as a companion, but to return as soon as
his brother should be settled in the field of his operations.
Various efforts were made to discourage them from the un-
ST. THOMAS, W. I. 147
dertaking, both on their way to, and at Copenhagen. The
Danish West India and Guinea Company neither approved
nor would it further the design. Ultimately, by the kind
interest of the two court chaplains, Reus and Blnm, with
the liberal assistance of the Princess Charlotte Amelia, and
other individuals, they were enabled to embark in a Dutch
vessel bound to St. Thomas. They sailed from Copenhagen,
8th October, 1732, and arrived at the island on the 13th
December following. Mr. Lorenzen, a planter, who had
been providentially informed of their coming, kindly re-
ceived and entertained the missionaries.
April, 1733, Nitschman returned, leaving Dober to enter
alone upon his self-denying, arduous, and benevolent work.
His efforts were at once directed to the conversion of the
slaves with great assiduity; but surrounded by almost insu-
perable difficulties, he was thrown upon his own exer-
tions for his daily support, and endeavored to follow his
trade as a potter, but finding no employment in this, was
constrained to become steward in the family of Governor.
Gardelin. The insurrection, too, had broken out in St.
Croix not long after his arrival, rendering his intercourse
with the slaves a matter for Suspicion and distrust. His
stewardship in the governor's family, where he was treated
with great kindness, interfering with his missionary labors,
he resigned the situation, and having hired a small house in
town, gained a Scanty subsistence mainly as a watchman
on the estates.
While this missionary was thus employed, eighteen
º
others—ten single brethren, and four married couple-3-were
148 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS :
on their way, a part to join him in his work, and a part to
form a colony in St. Croix, preparatory to the establishment
of a mission on that island, to be ready for those slaves who
were about to be introduced there. This party left Stettin
on the 12th November, 1773, but only reached St. Thomas,
after a voyage of the severest hardships, on the 11th June,
1734. The vessel had wintered, at a port in Norway.
Leonard Dober left for Europe shortly after the arrival of
these missionaries, having been elected elder of “the Unity.”
Those who remained to occupy his post falling victims
to the climate, the mission in St. Thomas suffered a partial
suspension. It was, however, renewed by the arrival of
Frederick Martin and John Bonike, March, 1736 ; and in
September of that year, three persons were baptized, as the
first fruits of their labors among the slaves. Their influence
soon extended; and several proprietors, witnessing the good
effects of their preaching, encouraged them in their work.
One of the planters assisted them in purchasing a small
estate—the missionary station—now known as New Hern-
hut, lying to the east of the town, and to which they gave
the name at that time of Posaunenberg. They took posses-
sion of this estate, 30th August, 1737. Bonike, who had
come out with the only design of working at his trade for
the support of Martin and himself, having conceived a high
opinion of his spiritual gifts, separated from the mission.
IEfforts were made to reclaim him from his enthusiasm, but
in vain. On his way from an interview held with Martin
for this purpose, he was struck by lightning and killed.
Shortly after the mission was established on the estate,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 149
much opposition arose to it on the part of the greater body
of the planters, who sought to counteract the missionaries,
by forbidding the slaves on their estates to attend their
preaching. Even the Rev. J. Borm, pastor of the Reformed
Dutch Church, was induced by prejudices (probably still
more from a want of love to the cause of Christ, if we may
judge from his moral character) to present a memorial to
the Danish government against the Brethren. The ground
of this complaint was that Martin had married his assistant
Freundlich to a mulatto woman, without having been or—
dained to the gospel ministry as Borm supposed. The
memorial was properly disregarded. Their trials were
still further increased. An individual named Fredler,
who had been sent out as one of the colony to St. Croix by
the Brethren, and who had, after withdrawing himself from
the mission there, retired to St. Thomas to commence busi-
mess, was charged with stealing various articles belonging
to the estates of the Tord Chamberlain De Pless, and
imprisoned. Martin Freundlich and his wife were suspected
of having some knowledge of this robbery, and being sum-
moned to give evidence upon oath relative to the transaction,
which their religious principles precluded, they were fined
thirty-six dollars. Being unable to pay the sum they were
thrown Žnto the fort, October, 1738, and remained as
prisoners until the end of January, 1739. Count Zinzen-
dorf arrived at St. Thomas on a visit to the mission about
this time, and obtained from the governor the immediate
liberation of the missionaries.
The Count found that the mission had succeeded beyond
150 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
his most sanguine expectations. It was this success which
had embittered its enemies, and they were not few. Over
eight hundred slaves were in constant attendance upon the
services of the missionaries. After remaining a short time
in the island, he requested an interview with the baptized
members, that he might deliver to all associated with the
Brethren, a farewell address. This was done; and his inter-
est in the slaves excited their deepest feelings. The result
however, was unfortunate, and showed that the Count was
not aware of the peculiar circumstances by which he was
surrounded. When he left the mission station, a large num-
ber of the slaves followed him towards the town. In the
mean time the strong prejudices of the planters and others
were so greatly aroused that they proceeded to violent
measures, dispersing the procession, flogging severely the
slaves that they found at New Hernhut, and destroying the
furniture of the mission-house. As soon as the facts were
made known to Governor F. Moth, he expressed his strong
disapprobation of the outrage, and promised to Count Zin-
zendorf to protect the missionaries from further outrage.
That the Coutut and the missionaries had been imprudent,
there can be no question. They should have sought to
allay prejudices rather than excite them, especially after
the dreadful scenes which had occurred but a few years
back in St. John’s, and under which the minds of many
families were still inflamed against the slaves. Strenuous
opposition continued against the missionaries, until by a
petition from the negroes, presented to his majesty by
Count Zinzendorf, seconded by a representation from him-
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 151
self, the king ordered, August 7th, 1739, that liberty and
protection should be given to the Brethren. This was re-
newed, and greater privileges granted in 1747, when
Martin, in person, presented a memorial to the king. Thus
supported by his majesty, but more especially continuing in
all meekness, and love, and patient perseverance, to labor
in their self-denying work, for the cause of Christ, their
former enemies were turned into friends. Many proprietors
who had once opposed them, now invited the missionaries
to hold services on their estates, and many new converts
were added to their communion.
In 1755, with the increase of missionaries and members,
it became necessary to form another station on the west end
of the island. A small estate was purchased, and called
. Niesky. From this period the missions greatly prospered,
services were multiplied, and many slaves confessed their
faith in Christ. Worship was now also held in the town
for the convenience of the sick and infirm. Not a few
native assistants were also able co-workers with the mis-
sionaries.
Wé have not space to follow the history of the Brethren,
detailing the various incidents connected with the progress
of their missions up to the present time. The three sta-
tions upon the island have been sustained without any
interruption; those missionaries who have died, being
regularly succeeded by others from Europe and the United
States. In coming out to the island, some of these have, at
times, suffered great trials from shipwreck and capture by
privateers ; but with the exception of two instances, no
152 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
lives have been thus sacrificed. The schools in the country
for the children on the estates, are taught by assistants be
longing to the Mission. As slavery, however, has gradually
died out in St. Thomas, and other denominations extended
their influence, the attendance upon the services of the
Erethren has greatly lessened from what it once was. The
Congregations and communicants number, as follows, at the
present time. The station in town, with a good substantial
building, embracing the church, pastor’s residence, and an
office where religious books are sold, under charge of the
Rev. E. Hartvig and wife, has ninety-two communicants,
with a congregation of two hundred and twenty-seven per-
sons. New Hernhut, with a large commodious dwelling,
church, and out-buildings, under charge of the Rev. A. H.
Ziock and wife, has two hundred and sixty-two communi-
cants, with a congregation of eight hundred and fifty-nine
persons. And Niesky, with buildings similar to those at
New Hernhut, under charge of the Rev. G. A. Weiss and
wife, with an assistant, has four hundred and sixty-nine
communicants, and a congregation of one thousand three
hundred and sixteen persons. Connected with the mission
estates, almost from their first establishment, were a certain
number of slaves belonging to them. These were em-
ployed as house servants, or as field and garden laborers.
TJnder kind treatment, they proved the best slaves in the
island, and were examples to others. So much did this
offend the Anti-Slavery Society of England, that at one
time their delegates, who were sent to the Brethren at
Betheldorps, refused to give them the right hand of fellow-
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 153
ship ! The “Unity Elder Conference,” held at Betheldorps,
early objected to slavery in connexion with their missions
in the West Indies; and in the course of time ordered that no
more slaves should be purchased, and that those who were
held in bondage should not be sold. In 1843 the conference
decided that all the slaves should be set free. The govern-
ment in St. Croix, then presided over by General von
Scholten, raised objections to the measure. It was, how-
ever, carried out and completed by the close of 1844, two
of the slaves, at a time, receiving their free papers.
The good accomplished by the Brethren not only in St.
Thomas, but in St. Croix and St. John’s, in behalf of their
slave population, has been most marked and decided. God
has wonderfully blessed their work; and through their instru-
mentality, thousands have entered into rest, as believers in
Christ, and thousands are yet to enter in. Missionary
societies should turn their attention to the history of these
missions, and learn that the Great Head of the Church is
with his servants to the end of the earth, and that those
who “ sow in tears, shall reap in joy.” -
We cannot close this brief and imperfect account of the
Brethren's mission in this island, without alluding to their
burial ground at New Hernhut—their first station. It lies
back from the mission-houses, a short distance to the south,
and is situated on the side of a gentle declivity. A romantic
ravine runs near, and the whole is nearly inclosed by an
amphitheatre of swelling hills. A shaded avenue of beauti-
ful trees leads to the consecrated, retired spot, which is in
the form of a square, and surrounded by a wall of stone.
154 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
Within, two mango trees wave their branches, and cast
their shade over the graves. Here lie entombed ninety-six
members of the various mission families who have labored
at the station. Each grave is surrounded with a low wall
of stone, which is kept in beautiful repair, and a small
Square slab simply records the name and death of its moul-
dering inmate. Indescribable were our feelings, when we
stood within this sacred inclosure, with one of these meek
and humble men of God by our side. Around us rested
those faithful remnants, natives of almost every part of the
Christian world, who came hither to preach the unsearch-
able riches of Jesus Christ to perishing souls. Their wives
and children rested by their sides. What had they not all
endured 2 Yet, as one after another fell in rapid succession,
from severe trial and exposure, there were always others wil-
ling to supply their places ! With such abounding love, zeal,
and self-sacrifice, can we wonder that success crowned their
labors? God himself had owned and blessed their work! Two
of the graves contained the bodies of two faithful assistants,
formerly slaves, honored to lie by those who had brought
them out of darkness to light, and then to lift their voice
in turn to preach a crucified Saviour. What a goodly band,
awaiting the resurrection' Their bodies sleep in Jesus, to
arise with their already glorified spirits, and meet the Lord
at his coming ! We retired from the holy ground, assured
that there could be none other like it on earth, where so
many of such devoted missionaries lie mouldering together.
It would be a privilege to lie with such “mighty dead.”
The silent voice that reached the heart, over these graves,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 15
was one of encouragement and consolation, saying, “Write,
Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord from henceforth :
yea, saith the Spirit, that they may rest from their labors:
and their works do follow them.”
“We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths;
In feelings, not in figures on a dial.
We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives
Who thinks most; feels the noblest; acts the best.
And he whose heart beats quickest lives the longest:
Lives in one hour more than in years do some
Whose fat blood sleeps as it slips along their veins.
Life is but a means unto an end; that end,
Beginning, mean and end to all things—God.
The dead have all the glory of the world.”
The Roman Catholic Church.—The Roman Catholics,
in 1701, numbered but one single individual upon the
island. By a petition of Nicholas Quits, in 1754, a royal
decree was obtained, permitting the Roman Catholics to
build churches and introduce clergymen (save the Jesuits)
into the island. They were, however, by the same decree
excluded from holding any offices under government. This
permission to build churches was not embraced until 1773.
At that time they were worshipping in a rented building
belonging to the king. This building was afterwards pur-
chased by their priest, J. Sellanolle. As the purchase-sum
was small, he retained it on his own account, which gave
such offence to his congregation, that the Bishop of Porto
Rico ordered him to leave the island, and another priest
was appointed in his place.
156 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
In 1804 their church was destroyed by fire. Another was
erected, which was again burned down in 1825. In conse-
quence of these fires, the records of the church have been
lost, and we regret being unable to give its full history. A
new building was erected by the congregation after the fire
of 1825, which proving too small for its members, was
pulled down in 1844, and the present edifice erected in its
place. The congregation for many years has embraced at
least a fourth of the inhabitants of the island, and is there-
fore very large. The church belongs to the diocese over
which the Bishop of Dominica has charge. Services have
been held principally in French and Spanish, occasionally
in English. A sermon is preached every Sabbath. The
Rev. J. Pratt is the present incumbent of the church,
assisted in its government by two wardens.
Episcopal Church.—Although from time to time indivi-
duals of this denomination formed a part of the inhabitants
of the island, they were not sufficiently numerous to form a
distinct congregation. They therefore joined in worship,
principally, with the Reformed Dutch congregation, with
the families of which some of them had intermarried. The
records of the Lutheran Church note the marriage of the
Rev. William Thomas, an Episcopal clergyman, in 1785 ;
but whether he was a settled pastor in the island, or from
one of the neighboring English colonies, is not known. In
the year 1820, the Rev. Nicholas McLaughlin, formerly
chaplain of the British forces at St. Eustatius and Tortola,
took up his residence in St. Thomas. As the Reformed
Dutch Church was then without a pastor, many of its
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 157
members united with the Episcopalians, and induced Mr.
McLaughlin to hold public worship on the Sabbath in the
Lutheran Church. He readily complied, and otherwise
ministered to the wants of the united congregations. He
died in 1838, having continued to labor as a clergyman
nearly up to the period of his death. He was a man of most
excellent character, and was universally beloved. His
ministry tended to bind the Episcopalians more together,
and form the nucleus of a congregation. In the mean time,
also, their numbers were increased by persons of that de-
nomination arriving in the island from Europe, St. Croix,
and Tortola. After the death of Mr. McLaughlin, the con-
gregation occasionally called in the services of the Episcopal
clergyman residing at Tortola ; and the Bishop of the Eng-
lish Windward Islands, on his way to Tortola and St. Croix,
would stop and hold services for them at seasons of confir-
mation. When destitute of any service of their own,
many of their number still worshipped with the Reformed
Dutch congregation. In the year 1847 the Rev. J. J.
Brandigee arrived out in St. Croix from the United States, for
his health; and having ascertained that the Episcopalians of
St. Thomas, although numbering over one thousand persons,
were without a pastor and a church edifice, entered into an
arrangement with them to hold public worship as their
minister, and, if possible, regularly organize the congrega-
tion. The Lutheran Church was engaged a part of the
Sabbath for this purpose. In a short time, by the most in-
defatigable exertions, accompanied by an ardent piety, cour-
teous, gentlemanly deportment, and great self-denial, Mr.
158 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
Brandigee succeeded in accomplishing the object of his
engagement. Having gained the love and confidence of the
entire community, he not only gathered the scattered con-
gregation together, and instilled into their minds a renewed
and ardent attachment for their church, but succeeded in
raising funds from his own and the members of other
churches, sufficient to purchase a commodious location, and
erect upon it a substantial church edifice. It was conse-
crated November 21st, 1848, by Bishop Davis of Antigua.
He continued his ministerial labors until June, 1850, when,
his health having sensibly suffered under his severe duties,
he was necessitated to resign his charge, and return to the
United States. It was hard for a people to part with one
who had done so much for them, and who had so faithfully
and with so much self-denial toiled in their behalf. Time
can never obliterate his good deeds from their memory, or
from the memory of those in the community who knew
him personally. The Rev. G. D. Gittens, of Barbadoes,
succeeded him as pastor of the church upon his retirement.
His health failing also in the spring of this year (1851), and
having just resigned his charge, the congregation is at pre-
sent destitute of a pastor, with the hope, however, of soon
being supplied again from the United States. The worship
of the Episcopal Church is held at noon on the Sabbath ; a
flourishing Sabbath school is connected with the congrega-
tion; and the communicants number over three hundred
persons. The Bishop of Antigua visits the island once a
year to administer the rite of confirmation, but has no
jurisdiction over the Church,
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 159
French Huguenot Church.-We must not fail to make
mention of certain of those noble spirits against whom such
terrible persecution had been levelled in France, and who
fled into almost all parts of the world, after many of their
number had fallen victims to the hatred and vengeance of
the “man of sin.” Willingly they forsook home and coun-
try for Christ's sake, as beautifully expressed by the poet—
&
“Farewell, and for ever,
The priest and the slave
May rule in the halls
Of the free and the brave :
Our hearths we abandon ;
Our lands we resign;
But, Father, we kneel
To no altar, but thine.”
Prior to or about 1685, some families of those Huguenots
who had fled out of France into Germany, ultimately found
their way to St. Thomas. These were joined by a few
others, who feared the sword of persecution was about to be
unsheathed against them in St. Christopher's, after the revo-
cation of “the edict of Nantes.” The trials of these fugitive
Christians had attached them yet more to the ever blessed
gospel of Salvation, and to those faithful preachers who
had been the greatest sharers in the sufferings which they
themselves had endured. Accordingly we find those who
had fled to St. Thomas from St. Christopher's, either bring-
ing with them their pastor and companion in exile, or
securing the services of one shortly after their arrival in the
island. Père Labat speaks of this congregation when he
160 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
visited St. Thomas in 1701, and of their lament over their
faithful minister, who had just died. Unfortunately, all other
trace of this little exiled band has been lost, save that the
chart of the island published in 1718, places a “French
Protestant Church” on “Frenchman’s Hill;” and the re-
cords of the Lutheran Church, in the same year, give the
name of its pastor as “Rev. Tissot.” It is probable that
“Frenchman’s Hill” may have derived its name from these
French Protestants. A few families in the island at present
are known as their descendants. The blessing of God,
which has rested and still rests upon these families, and
the savor of their sterling piety, show plainly their origin,
and the faithfulness of that covenant God whose mercy
rests upon fathers and their children to the remotest genera-
tion. These families are now connected with the Reformed
Dutch and Lutheran Churches. -
It will be perceived that St. Thomas has always enjoyed the
advantages of the gospel, and in some respects been highly
favored by the Great Head of the Church for the especial
display of his grace. Evangelical religion, however, has
not always prevailed in accordance with the advantages
enjoyed. Formalism was the bane of both the Lutheran
and Dutch Churches for many years. As both Churches
observed the rite of confirmation, and permitted all who
had been confirmed immediately to approach the Lord's
table, many unworthy members thus became professors of
religion. Faith in Christ, as a consequence, became scan-
dalized; and, added to this, the want of a faithful preaching of
the great doctrine of justification by faith in Christ alone, an
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 161
almost total relaxation of Church discipline, and the temp-
tations incident to colonial life and commercial prosperity,
and we can easily perceive why Christianity was far from
being in a flourishing condition, and only existed in its purity
in the hearts of a very few. It is painful to look back and
see what ungodly practices existed in the very bosom of
the church, and how even some pastors disgraced the very.
name of religion. These remarks are made with reference
to the state of some of the churches just named, prior to the
rise of the great commercial prosperity of the island in 1792.
With that rise, and its continuance for many years, these
churches were indeed enlarged, but, if it were possible, -
Christianity died out yet more upon their altars. Riches
flowed in, and were followed by luxury and evils of every
character, to the almost total disregard of the Sabbath and
exclusion of holy things, and to the demoralizing yet more of
the public mind. Intennperance, gambling, profanity, and
formication, prevailed to an alarming extent; and though
fatal diseases often swept through the community, and fires
and hurricanes, as signal judgments from God, consumed their
substance, yet did not the people “learn righteousness,” or
“turn unto the Lord.” In the midst of all, however, God
had still a “faithful few,” who called upon His name, and
kept His testimonies. Ultimately, a better state of things
arose. As the maddened wheels of commerce, which re-
volved so furiously for many years, slackened their velocity,
and much of vice and immorality had burned out, con-
suming itself—(for “bloody and deceitful men shall not
live out half their days”), men once more “considered,” and
162 HISTORY OF THE RELIGIOUS SECTS
the moral atmosphere began to clear up. After 1828, when
all the churches were supplied with a more evangelical
ministry, and the gospel was preached in its purity, Chris-
tianity revived. More care was now taken in the reception
of members, and a more wholesome discipline was exer-
cised over professors. And with the introduction of Sab-
bath schools, the dissemination of the Word of God, and
the establishment of various benevolent institutions, our
blessed religion has ever since continued to make a steady
progress. A good degree of piety now pervades the
churches ; preaching is regularly maintained, and the attend-
ance upon worship largely increased.
Jews.-Of this congregation of God's ancient covenant peo-
ple in St. Thomas, the early records (if any existed) have
been destroyed. By a register of the births of a family in the
possession of A. Wolfe, Esq., it appears that a child was
born of Jewish parentage in 1757. There is no information
of the congregation of an earlier date than this. After the
sacking of St. Eustatius by Rodney, in 1781, the greater
part of the Jews established there came to this island.
They held their private hours of prayer after their arrival,
until 1796, when they formed a congregation, and built a
synagogue under the appellation of “Blessing and Peace.”
In 1801, according to a statement furnished to Mr. Nissen”
by the leader of the congregation, the Jews only numbered
nine families. In 1803 they increased to twenty-two
families, by arrivals from England, St. Eustatius, and Cura-
goa. In 1804 their synagogue was destroyed by fire. It
* “Reminiscences,” p. 138.
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 163
was replaced by another small building erected in 1812.
After this the congregation increased yet more, and it be-
came necessary in 1823 to take down this building and erect
one larger in size. The name given to this synagogue was
“Blessing and Peace and Acts of Piety.” In 1824, the
congregation numbered sixty-four families. Again their
synagogue was laid in washes by a fire which occurred
in 1831. Not disheartened by these repeated calamitous
events, in 1833 the present edifice, in which they worship
as their synagogue, was erected, the congregation being
assisted by the generous contributions of the entire com-
munity of the island, and by donations from abroad. In
1850 his present majesty sanctioned an entire code of laws
for the government of the congregation, which is well
adapted to its wants. The entire body of the Jews now
number between four hundred and fifty and five hundred
persons. They live, as they have always done in the
island, under the same protection as is extended to their
fellow-citizens. Many hold offices of trust and honor, and
the most kindly feelings exist between them and the rest
of the community. The congregation has no minister at
present, the last incumbent having resigned his situation
more than two years ago; services are, however, conducted
by a reader. - -
&
The synagogue is supported by a system of taxation,
which is adjusted yearly. The government of the congre-
gation is vested in five members, who are elected by the
members taxed $12 or above. Only those are eligible to
this government who are taxed $32. Two of their number
retire yearly.
164 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
CHAPTER XI.
Description of the Town and Harbor of St. Thomas—Civil Authorities
—Courts of Justice—Military—Custom-house Duties and Port
Charges—Quarantine—British Post-office Agency—Banks and other
Institutions—Burgher Council—Country Treasury, its Income and
Expenditures—Revenue and Disbursements of the King's Chest—
Proposed Alteration in the Colonial Laws.
THE Island of St. Thomas lies in latitude 18° 20' 42° N.,
and longitude 64° 48' 9"W. Its length is about thirteen
miles east and west, with an average breadth of three
miles. It has St. Croix on the south, distant forty miles,
and Porto Rico on the west, distant thirty-six miles.
The harbor and town lie about midway of the island on
the south side. The harbor is formed by a branch of the
main range of hills reaching round on the east, and a key on
the southwest and west, joined to the shore by a low neck
of land. Its shape is nearly that of a parallelogram, extend-
ing east and west 2,472 yards, or about one and a half miles.
From the fort at the head of the harbor across to the
extreme east point, it is the same distance. The opening
out to sea, or from the east to the west point (on both of
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 1.65
which are erected small batteries), is 1,030 yards
wide. There is thus anchorage ground for a very large
number of vessels. Owing to the trade-winds, the swell
from the ocean seldom enters the harbor with any force.
Vessels there lie easy at anchor, and as there are no wharves
to which they can moor, their cargoes are discharged and
received with safety by lighters.
The town lies around the north side of the harbor, and is
built partly upon the level, and partly upon three hills, which
a but down from the high range nearly to the shore, with
savannahs between. The main street runs parallel with
the shore, at the distance of about one hundred yards. From
the centre of the town towards the west, on this street, are
located all the commercial houses. The stores are substan-
tial fire-proof buildings, generally of but one story, and
often reaching from the street to the wharf, a distance of
from 300 to 400 feet. A few other streets to the north run
parallel with the main street. The rest cross these at right
angles, and reach up into the savannahs. A small public
garden, tastefully arranged, lies between the “ King's
wharf” in the centre of the town and the fort. There is
also a small public square in the East Savannah, crossed
diagonally by a wide street, and partially planted with
cocoa-nut and tamarind trees.
The town contains many stores and dwellings of every
description, with a population, according to the census of
1850, of 12,383 persons. In the country there are on the
estates 1283 persons, making the total population of the
island 13,666.
S*
166 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
The Lutheran, Catholic, Reformed Dutch, and Episcopal
churches, with the synagogue of the Jews, are the only
public buildings. A large hotel is located on the main
street near the fort. The markets are held in a small
Square on the main street, and in a narrow alley leading
from the main street to the sea-shore. At the end of this
street are the butchers’ stalls ; vegetables, fruits, and fish,
are sold from trays on the ground.
The scene presented on entering the harbor is exceed-
ingly picturesque and beautiful. The range of hills in the
background, with their dome summits swelling up to the
height of 700 and 1400 feet ; the town giving the appear-
ance as if built entirely on the sides of the hill; the bright-
colored houses with their red and tiled roofs ; the two old
towers, and the harbor covered with its shipping, and boats
plying in every direction, give an exquisite view, unsur-
passed in all the West India Islands. Travellers have
awarded it this praise, and some have compared it favorably
with the view of Funchal in the island of Madeira.
The seat of the Danish West India Government is in St.
Croix. Until recently, a Governor-General, assisted by a
Royal Council, was at the head of affairs. At present, His
Excellency H. D. F. Feddersen represents his Majesty as .
Governor over the three islands. He acts without a
Council, but is assisted in the administration of his office by
a Secretary, and the first Judge of the Court of Appeal,
whom he may consult. The Governor has supreme control
over civil and military affairs, and all proceedings pass
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 167
under his supervision. He occasionally visits St. Thomas
and St. John’s in the discharge of his official duties.
In St. Croix also is located “ the Court of Appeal” for
the three islands, presided over by a first, second, and third
Judge, the last being also Registrar. There is an appeal
from this court to the High Court in Copenhagen.
St. Thomas, together with St. John's, is under the author-
ity of a Commandant. Col. F. v. Oxholm at present
occupies this post. He is assisted by a Royal Council,
composed of two members. A Secretary, Bookkeeper, and
Treasurer, are connected with this branch of the colonial
government.
For the administration of justice in St. Thomas, are the
following courts :—
An Ordinary Town Court is held every Monday at
10 A.M. It is presided over by a Judge and four assist-
ants. The latter are appointed yearly from among the
citizens. They are not entitled to a voice in decisions.
It tries all civil suits between citizens. All legal documents
are recorded in this Court by a Recorder. The present
Judge, Hon. Counsellor H. H. Berg, holds both offices.
Suits brought before this Court below $128 can be pleaded
by the parties themselves, and the Judge must instruct
them. In suits over this sum the parties are obliged to
employ lawyers.
A Special Court is held on any day, and is presided over
by the Judge of the Ordinary Town Court and two of its
assistants. It tries all civil suits in which bonds are given
168 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
liable to a special court, and when either of the parties is a
foreigner.
A Criminal Court is held at any time necessary. It is
presided over by the Judge and two assistants. In cases of
life or honor he requires the four assistants, and they are
then entitled to a vote in the decision. The same Judge
presides in these three courts, and receives his appointment
from his Majesty.
A Police Court is presided over by the Police Master.
He is assisted by two adjutants and twelve police officers.
Before this court are tried all petty charges of crime, or
violations of law.
The Dealing Court investigates the circumstances of all
deceased persons, sees that wills are properly executed,
administers to the affairs of all those who die intestate, and
takes charge of all assets in cases of bankruptcy in behalf
of creditors. It holds its ordinary sessions on Tuesday and
Friday of each week. It is in charge of a first and second
member.
The Reconciling Court is an admirable institution. It
has two judges annually elected from among the citizens, by
themselves. These sit in session on Friday of each week.
The Judge of the town-court is obliged to sit with them in
person or by deputy, to see that the proceedings are legal,
and to give his advice on points of law, but has no vote. It
is necessary that all civil suits be first brought before this
court, in order, if possible, to reconcile the parties and settle
their cases, preventing further litigation. A party com-
plaining, sends his complaint to one of the judges; upon
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 169
which the complainant and defendant are both cited to
appear at the next ordinary session. Both parties are then
permitted to state their cases. The judges, upon this, give
their opinion, and seek to settle the difficulty by some amicable
proposition. If this be acceded to, the terms of the arrange-
ment are recorded, and signed by both complainant and
defendant, and they must now abide by them without any
appeal. If these terms are not kept, the sheriff at once
proceeds to enforce their execution. If no reconciliation
can be effected, the case goes up at once to the Town-court.
The advantages of this institution are very great ; and it is
surprising, when they are considered, that it has not been
introduced into every civilized country. In the great
majority of instances, complaints of injustice and difficulties
about property and claims are here settled. Out of 383
cases brought before this court in 1849, 226 were amicably
arranged, 10 monsuited, and 147 referred to the Town-
court ; of the latter but 25 were brought to trial. The dis-
interested and dispassionate opinion and advice of the
citizen judges thus produce peace and kindly feeling, when
the vexations of further litigation might have produced the
most violent and deep-seated animosity, and involved the
parties in most ruinous expenses. Lawyers are not permit-
ted to plead before this court, and the only expenses attend-
ing its proceedings vary from 32 cents to $125. The
judges serve without compensation. In the great majority
of difficulties between neighbors, if the parties could be
brought together before a friendly umpire, meeting each
other face to face, to rehearse their grievances, and state
170 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
their claims, a reconciliation would be effected. This, too,
should be the Christian mode of procedure ; for Paul would
have believers know no other than reconciling courts.
Tria! by Jury is still unknown under the Government
of Denmark. It might be supposed by some, who feel that
this institution is the palladium of the public rights and
liberties of their own country, that where it does not exist,
there must be necessarily despotism, oppression, and wrong.
We believe, however, that this charge cannot be brought
against the administration of justice either in civil or crimi-
nal cases in the Danish West India Courts. So mild and
paternal has been the Government of Denmark both at home
and in its colonial possessions (although without even a con-
stitution until very recently), that its citizens have enjoyed
a liberty but little removed from the most highly favored
countries. - \
Connected with the courts of St. Thomas are four barris-
ters-at-law. Their charges are enormous. The expenses
of all the courts, save the Reconciling Court, are also very
high and burdensome. There is one good effect at least
resulting from this; litigation is shunned as far as possible;
and he who has once been involved in the meshes of the
law, takes good care not to be involved a second time.
At Christian's-fort are stationed His Majesty’s troops
numbering (officers and soldiers) 290 men, commanded by
Cbamberlain Major v. Castonier.
The soldiers occupy a large, commodious, and airy build-
ing, to the south of the fort on the shore. This building
was erected in 1829, and has tended greatly to preserve the
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 171
health of the troops. Guard is maintained by the soldiers
at Government House, and during the night at various
places in the town. Up to this year the command of the
infantry and the fort, with the artillery, were under differ-
ent officers. The two are now united under one command.
The Burgher Corps is composed of burghers able to bear
arms. It now numbers 200 men including officers, and is
divided into two companies. The Jager, or Rifle corps,
numbers also, with officers and men, 200, and is divided into
two companies. The Stadthauptman (at present Lieut.
Col. H. W. Precht, K. D.) is commander-in-chief over this
militia. The Burghers complain of their military duty, and
deem it unnecessary, considering the presence of so many
of his Majesty's troops.
Besides this militia there is a Brand, or fire corps, com-
manded by a Brand-major (Major A. I. Holm), also divided
into two companies. They dress in military costume, and
have charge of all the fire apparatus of the place. All the
arrangements of this department are excellent and efficient.
Their engines are superior; two of them being of metal,
and imported at a heavy expense.
The Custom-House is under the charge of an intendant
of the Royal Customs. It receives all manifests, and only
requires the consignees of goods to present an account and
value of their goods, upon which account the one and a
quarter per cent, customs are collected. It has no power
to demand invoices, and therefore has no means of guarding
against fraud, save by comparing the merchants' accounts
with their manifests.
172 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
The harbor is under the charge of “the Captain of the
Port.” The charges paid to his department are, for vessels
discharging or receiving cargo, $640 per 100 tons. There
are also paid into the Custom-house, as additional charges,
between 45 and 50 cents per ton on European vessels, and
between 19 and 22 cents on vessels from this side of the
Atlantic. An effort is now being made by the Intendant of
Customs to equalize these latter charges, and make a differ-
ence in the same according to the amount of cargo dis-
charged or received.
Steamers belonging to the “Royal Mail Steam-packet
Company” are exempt from port charges. Vessels also
bringing coal for their use, are nearly altogether exempt.
No vessel can leave the harbor without a permit from the
fort, for which is paid for a ship, $2 56, a brig, $1 28, a top-
sail schooner, 64 cents—all others 32 cents. Should a ves-
sel attempt to weigh anchor without this permit, or having
left debts unpaid, she is at once “brought to” by the guns
from Christian's-fort, and afterwards if the first prove insuf-
ficient, from the batteries guarding the mouth of the harbor.
The gauntlet is sometimes run, however, to the no small
interest and amusement of the residents upon the hills, but
not for the vessel, should she ever return to St. Thomas.
Captains, on their arrival, must report all passengers at the
police-office. They must see, too, that each passenger they
take away is provided with a passport. The charges for
these are low, and vary according to the place of desti-
nation.
A Quarantine Commission exists connected with the
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. (173
port, consisting of the Police Master, Captain of the Port,
Intendant of Customs, and the King's Physician. Some
port or country is generally under the ban as an infected
district. ~
The British Post-Office has its agent in St. Thomas,
Peter Van Vleirden, Esq., for the mails brought by the
Royal Mail Steam-packet Company. No other post-office
exists ; and letters brought to the island by other vessels, are
distributed either through a private letter-office, or by con-
signees, free of charge. It is deeply to be regretted that no
postal arrangements exist in the United States by which
letters could be regularly mailed for St. Thomas, by the
steamer Merlin. Letters mailed in New York now, only
reach the island by the way of Havana
The Banking institutions of the island are “ the Bank
of St. Thomas,” and a branch of the Colonial Bank of Lon-
don, both established in 1837. There is also a Savings
Bank in a flourishing condition, opened in 1847. It does
not discount. -
The island also enjoys the advantages of an United Insur-
aIn Ce Company, organized in 1848, and a Marine
Railway.
The following nations only are represented at St.
Thomas : Spain by a Consul, France by a Vice-Consul,
the United States by a Commercial Agent, the Republic of
Venezuela by a Commercial Agent, and Sardinia by a
Consul. -
A Burgher Council, composed of five members, elected
by ballot, have hitherto taken charge of the municipal
174 CIVIL INSTATUTIONS
affairs of the island. They discharge their duty without
remuneration. Their proceedings are not made public,
Save in an annual report of all incomes and expenses.
Chosen from among our most worthy citizens, they have
always discharged their duty with great faithfulness, effi-
ciency, and economy. The country treasury being under
their control, the following condensed report for the year
1850, will show its resources and expenditures. ..."
JResources.—House and building tax, $12,617 83; store
and shop tax, $7,985 34; bakers’ tax, $306 25; butchers'
tax, $337 50; cart tax, $81 50; burghers’ briefs, $412 80;
passports, $1200 46 ; tavern and billiard licenses, $760 80;
vendue sales, $672 87; sundries, $1178 34. Total,
$25,553 69.
Earpenditures.—Police, $8,685 28; police connected
with the courts, $691 20 ; militia, $834 28; fire depart-
ment, $755 15; scavenger carts, $1539 96; midwife's
salary, $400 ; hospital, $5,900 09; scrofula patients,
$824 59; schools in the country, $1022 14; quarantine,
$960; prisoners, $1,779 15; sundries, $3,892 54. Total,
$27,284 28. -
The Revénue of the King's Chest, with the disburse-
onents for the three islands, is not known. An approximate
idea may be derived from the following, as extracted from
the Budget of the Home Government for the year from 1st
April, 1850, to 31st March, 1851.
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 175
Revenue. St. Croix. St. gººd
Duties on imported goods, g . . $115,572 . . $85,306
Ground and building tax, sº ſº 23,833 , , 9,124
+ per cent. tax on bonds, e e 3,700 . . 1,468
Stamps, gº sº tº & & 3,615
Auctions, 4 per cent. on sales, g 1,437 . . 6,084
Rum licenses, gº gº e º 345 . . 768
Various taxes on inheritances, & 6,477 . . 7,158
Fees for commissions, . & tº 268 . . 97
Fees, upper court, . * © tº 2,447 . .
Charges on vessels paid at fort, g 1,050 . . 1,582
Various, & e º gº ſº 10,206 . . 6,245
|- $168,950 $117,832
168,950
Total estimate of revenues, & g o ( > $286,782
The one and a quarter per cent. duty, as above estimated
for St. Thomas, is very low, varying from $100,000 to
$140,000.
- Disbursements.
Governor, civil officers, courts, &c., St. Croic, . . $77,853
Commandant, civil officers, and office expenses, 25,028
St. Thomas, }
Civil officers, St. John's, . •. º º * gº 2,292
Churches in St. Croix, & te sº & 197 12
Churches in St. Thomas and St. John's, . g & 1,410 53
Public Schools, St. Croix, tº e g g . 4,288
Court of Appeal, St. Croix, & * e * 11,616
Public buildings and military hospital rent, º . 25,600
Garrison, old troops, & e g e e . 55,000
Ditto troops sent out in 1848, . . . . . 70,000
Man-of-war brig, e te & º tº e . 29,760
Carried forward, 303,044 65
176 $ CIVIL INSTITUTIONS
Brought forward, 303,044 65
Ammunition, arms, uniforms, &c., . c : . 19,500
Extra grant from King, secured in 1834, to General } 6,000
von Scholten, . g g tº g a “ )
Pensioners for service in West Indies, . g e 6,899 60
Total estimated disbursements, •º i. . . $335,444 25
It will be seen that there is a large surplus in the reve-
nues of St. Thomas, which go to the support of the govern-
ment in St. Croix. The estimated disbursements exceed
the revenue, $48,662; but from the economy pursued dur-
ing the year, and certain changes which have been effected,
we presume there has actually been no excess. The King
derives a revenue which does not go into the above esti-
mates, from the large number of estates which he holds in
the islands.
“ The St. Thomas Times” (a small sheet) is the only
paper published in the island. Until recently, it was under
a severe censorship. It is issued twice a week. It is hea-
vily and most unjustly burdened with the publication of all
the government advertisements and notices without charge,
as a consideration for its tolerated existence. This is really
hard, and the editor complains grievously. Good Frederik
V., who dearly loved the sciences and arts, would have
dealt more mercifully by the rising literature of his colonial
possessions.
The St. Thomas Athenaeum was established in 1839. It
is an institution highly creditable to the literary taste of the
citizens. Before its establishment, a “Book Club” had
existed, which enjoyed the advantages of a small select
IN ST. THOMAS, W. I. 177
library. The number of its members, however, was very
limited, and ultimately it was broken up. During the
twelve years of its existence, the Athenaeum has made
rapid progress in enlarging its literary resources. It com-
bines a Library and Reading Room. The library now
numbers 5,000 volumes in various languages. The books
are in constant circulation among the members, under excel-
lent regulations. The tables of the reading-room are well
supplied with periodicals, pamphlets, and newspapers from
Europe and the United States. The institution is controlled
by seven Directors, and numbers about 121 members. It
occupies a building, with a suite of rooms well adapted to
its use. Strangers are admitted to its rooms when intro-
duced by a member.
There are no places of amusement in St. Thomas.
Efforts have been made to build a theatre, but without
success. The pleasures derived from the Athenaeum show-
ing the good taste of the inhabitants, have mainly occa-
sioned this.
His Excellency, Governor Feddersen, has been charged
with the power to draft a body of “Colonial laws,” or con-
stitution, for the Danish West India possessions. This
draft has been made, and very recently presented to the
representatives from the three islands, for their considera-
tion. It is recorded in Appendix E. It may yet be modi-
fied, and will require some time before it can go into effect.
From its contents, it will be seen, that it matters but little
whether it go into effect or not. Representative bodies,
without the power of making laws, do not succeed very
178 CIVIL INSTITUTIONS.
well; and we would be better as we are, every citizen en-
joying the largest liberty, save that of being troublesome in
the affairs of government. With our exceedingly light
taxes, our well-managed municipal affairs, and the peace
and protection which all enjoy, we can see no room for im-
provement, save in a very few instances. These instances
are, a better government provision for the poor, the estab-
lishment of common schools, a holier regard for the Sab.
bath, and the suppression of vagrancy and profanity in the
thoroughfares of the town. The two former are now re.
ceiving every attention. A fund accumulated by the
burgher council has already been appropriated towards the
building of a hospital, and the plan for schools has been
drawn up, and is under consideration.
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 179
CHAPTER, XII.
Climate of St. Thomas—Temperature—Barometer—Rains—Diseases—
Mortality—Doctors—Change of Climate necessary to Residents—
Apothecary—Burials—Sanitary Provisions—Invalids seeking the
Island for health—Advice to such.
THE climate of St. Thomas is remarkably fine and salu-
brious. Although situated within the tropics, the heat of
the tropical sun is greatly modified by the constant and in-
vigorating trade winds. The island, too, being small and
almost a mass of rocks, without forests, or much low
ground, this wind comes fresh from the sea, and is seldom
or never charged with the unhealthy and fever-instilling
miasma. A location on the hills upon which the town is
partly built, whilst it affords the most pleasing prospect of
the bay and ocean, secures at all times a cool and delightful
breeze. The trade wind is a most merciful dispensation ;
for without it the heat of a vertical sun would render the
West Indies almost unfit for the residence of man. With
it, it can hardly be said that the inhabitants suffer under
such extremes of heat as are often felt in higher latitudes.
180 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAs, w. 1.
TO give our readers a correct view of the meteorology of
the island, we lay before them the following paragraphs and
tables on the temperature, movements of the barometer, fall
of rain, and the course of the winds, which have been pre-
pared with the utmost care, and which may be relied upon
for scientific purposes.
We have before us about 11,000 observations made by
ourselves between the years 1843 and 1851. But, as this
little and interesting island is closely connected with the
meteorology of the whole line of islands in which it is
situated, we have availed ourselves of the very extensive
and exact observations made by Alexander Moreau de
Jonnès in his “Histoire Physique des Antilles Françaises,”
in Martinique, Guadaloupe, and St. Domingo, and compared
them with our own. This author is the only one who has
published anything complete with reference to the clima-
tology of these islands. In Sir Robert H. Schomburgk's
“History of Barbadoes,” we do not find anything on me-
teorology that he has not extracted from the work of Mo-
reau de Jonnès.
We would also here mention that the thermometers which
we have used for our observations are superior “caliber-
ated” instruments, manufactured by celebrated artists, and
tested at the Observatory in Copenhagen. This is proper
to be noted, as too many persons amuse themselves by mak-
ing observations with defective instruments.
We shall follow the same course pursued by Moreau de
Jonnès, in dividing his observations of the temperature under
several heads.
CLIMATE of ST. THOMAS, w. I. 1S1
j
I.—THE DAILY WARIATIONs.
These are, at St. Thomas, as throughout the Tropics, very
limited. The daily range—or rising or falling of the ther-
mometer—is very seldom more than 5° Centigrade (9°
Fah.), whilst in more northern latitudes, as at New York or
London, it is often 20° Cen. (36° Fah.) Between the
hours of 3 and 5 in the morning, the thermometer is the
lowest, sometimes keeping down until half past 5. After
this it rises rapidly until 8 o’clock A.M., and then more
slowly until 1, 1], or 2 o'clock P.M. It now remains at
this, its highest point, until 3 o'clock, when it begins to
descend, at first slowly to 7 o'clock, and them faster to 1
o'clock in the night. After this hour the fall is very minute
till 3 A.M. If the weather is clear through the whole of the
24 hours, the lowest and highest points of the temperature are
uniform as thus described. To show this daily range more
distinctly we subjoin Table I. The observations were
made on the 18th and 19th October, 1845. Also Table II.
for the same purpose, the observations having been made on
the 3rd and 4th February, 1848.
Range of Thermometer for 36 Consecutive Hours.
g
:

TABLE I.
1Sth October, 1845. 19th October, 1845.
Centigrade Fahrenheit A. M. | P. M. - A. M. |
Thermometer. Thermometer. | | | | |
6 is, 101112, 1 |2|34 |5|6||7 |s|9||10||1|12|1|2|3|4|5|6||7|8 º
| -
| - wº- H
31O 87. SO -
| Jºº-
| – - i_j^1_
1– - - | | TiVº. -
Li-i- | |-y
300 S60 - - . | ſix /
- | | | | | N /
'—'——º- T.
29O S4.2O -
| ! \{
'--- m-- - - — — — N.
- V N.
2SO S2,4O | `
|-|--|- - | \ i
27C2 S0.6O | - \ ſº
- ––4
/
260 7S.So ! º/
At half past four the breeze increased, and in consequence the evaporation augmented.
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS,
W.
I.
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit,
Range of Thermometer for 22 Consecutive Hours.
TABLE II.

184 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. 1.
We have said that this regular rise and fall only takes
place when the weather is clear during the 24 hours. The
increase or diminution of the wind, the quarter from which
it comes, and the fall of rain, even at considerable distances
from the place of observation, will break up the regularity.
We give Table III. to show how these causes sometimes
affect the thermometer, and hinder its regular rise and fall.
The observations of line 1 in the table were made on the
9th ; line 2 on the 17th ; and line 3 on the 15th September,
1845.
CLIMATE OF ST.
THOMAS,
W. I.
185
Regular Range of Thermometer affected by various causes.
TABLE III.
Centigrade. | Fahrenheit.
9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 1•6 | 7 | 8
9
10 | 11 | 12

1S6 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I.
We Once saw the increase of the wind after a shower cause
the thermometer to fall suddenly 3° Cen. (5.4° Fah.), which
is extraordinary in these latitudes. It had as serious an
effect on the sanitary state of the inhabitants as a fall
of 20° Cen. (26°Fah.) in New York or London has upon
their inhabitants. In general, an influenza and ague or
bowel complaints will succeed such sudden falls. We can
Only account for the influenza which prevailed in July and
August of this year, 1851, (when the physicians of the place
considered that 4,000 of the inhabitants were affected), by a
few hours’ rain having occurred after the prevalence of more
than usual heat and drought.
It is owing to the very minute daily variations that this
climate is healthy, and so happily adapted to individuals
suffering under pulmonary attacks. We have seen its most
extraordinary effect up ºn persons apparently sinking rapidly
inder consumption. In a few months they have completely
recovered their health. Our clear blue sky, uniform tem-
perature, and fresh invigorating breeze, are restoratives of no
ordinary character, and will often benefit when all other
means have failed.
II.—THE MONTHLY WARIATIONs.
Table IV. is given to show the monthly variations. It
embraces the observations made at the same location for
three consecutive years, fifteen feet above the level of the
Sea.
CLIMATE CF
ST. THOMAS, W. I.
187

TABLE IV. \
-- •8-9 .. I ſå
ST. TITOMAS.MEAN TEMPERATURE OF EACII MONTII.Ž{！$ $ | % |ą.|×
- - - ----- ----- - - - - - --~~~~ -.- ** * TT----+------- | £Éſ | ¡ ¿ | 3 |? º ¿
-• | ►# Tā： lī£ | # |#|#| |#|#| ? |#|#ģ
Centigrade | £§„+:-:•65„“†;„C5·?Ź.t} | & & | $ $ | ? || 3 × 2
ç，3p-3Qſ-，Þº,„r`º#£„C){！!Œ■± %%24-423C. Ǻ
ſ-3ſ-4§C4Q35|-()(1)SQ!)Q!):: | ¡ ¿ | 2 ſ.$2 |#| ?
Thermomºr. | 5�Žą<424Ho+55ŽĖ,Š3$'%$ $ | $f;º ſvº
}"> | ĶŁą` | %ž_|_Ř__|_，_| 35 || Hº |_4_
1S4526.10 | 25.30 | 26,90 || 96,30|| 97,60 | 2S. 60 | 9S. SO | 20.00 | 28.70 | 28,40||28.80 | 27,20 || 27,19|| 31.Sº || 21.39 | 10.09 | 8.9°
18462640 | 26.10 | 2650 | 26,60 | 27.00 | 2S,30 | 9S. 50 | 28.60 | 28.90 || 20.00 || 27.50 | 26.SO | 27.69 | 82.59 | 21.09 | 10.69 | 9.8°
184795.00 || 95,30|| 95,70 || 25 so || 2650 | 97,90 || 2S,30 | 2S. SO | 29.00 || 2800 || 27.20 | 20.40 | 27.00 || 31.69 | 10.39 | 12.39 | 10.6°
Medium.2ðſſº25.60 | 2640 || 2640 | 27.00 || 2S, 30 | 2S50 | 2S SO || 2S 90 || 28.50 | 27.70 || 26.SO || 27.29
Fahrenheit. | Jan. | Feb. ||March|April. [ May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sep. || Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | —---------|-
1S4579.00 || 77,50S040 || S02o|s1.To | s3,50|| S8 so ' S4.20 | 88.60 | 88.10 | $2,00||S1.00 || 80,80|| $9,20|| 7019 | 19.19 | 16.0°
18467950 | 79.00 || 79,7o | 79,90 || S0,60 || S2.90 || S3,3o ſ S3,50|| 84.00 || 84,20 i 81 50 || 80.20 || S1 TO | 90,50 | 71,49 i 19.10 | 16.7°
1847| 77.00 | 77.50 | 733C | [S.40 | 79,7o | S.2.2o | S2,9o ſ S3.So | S420 | 82.40 || S1.00 || 79.50 | S0.60 || SS,90 | 66.Sº || 22.19 | 19.1°
Medium, | 7S.40 | 78.10 | 79,50 | 79,50 | S0.6O i S2.90 || S3,30|| 83,80 || 84.00 || S3.89 || S1.89 || S0.20 || S1.00
18S CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
The warmest months are July, August, and September ;
the coldest, December, January, and February. The months
in which the temperature is most variable are May, June,
October, and November, owing to the frequent showers of
rain which then falſ, as a general thing.
III.--THE ANNUAL VARIATIONs.
In remarking upon these, reference will be made to Table
IV. The highest degree of the thermometer observed by
Moreau de Jonnès at Port Royal, Martinique, was 35° Cen.
(95° Fah.) The highest observed by us at St. Thomas was
in September, 1844, 33.1° Cen. (91.6°Fah.), and in Septem-
ber 1851, 33.3° Cen. (91.9° Fah.)
The mean of the highest degree in the year, observed by
our thermometer, which was so placed that it was not
affected by any reflected rays of heat, was 32.1° Cen. (89.7°
Fah.)
The highest degree of heat occurs in August, September
or October.
The lowest temperature we have ever observed in St
Thomas was 18.1° Cen. (64.5° Fah.) The mean temperature
of the lowest yearly degrees is 20.1° Cen. (68.18° Fah.) At
Port Royal it was found to be 20.5° Cen. (68.9° Fah.)
The lowest degree has been in the last days of January or
first days of February, during which period the extreme of
cold occurs in the whole of the Northern Hemisphere.
Chauvalan gives as the lowest at which he observed the
thermometer at St. Pierre, Martinique, 19.44° Cen. (67°
Fah.) Moreau de Jonnès doubts this, but without good
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 189
reason. La Chenai gives as the lowest he observed at St.
Rose Guadaloupe 18.5° Cen. (65.3° Fah.) For a long time
we thought that our lowest point observed, 18.1° Cen.
(64.5° Fah.), must be a mistake, until we saw the observa-
tions of those gentlemen just alluded to ; but we are now
satisfied of its correctness. We shall never forget the
morning after the thermometer stood at this point. The
night had been perfectly clear, so that the radiation of heat
from the earth had existed in the highest measure, and a
uniform but not strong N.N.E. breeze came down over the
hills. Nature, in general, had the appearance which the
first cold night in northern latitudes, in the fall, spreads over
everything, especially vegetation ; and a bluish mist covered
the whole landscape. It was followed by influenza and
catarrhs, which prevailed generally among the inhabitants.
Moreau de Jonnès gives 20.8° Cen. (37.12° Fah.) as the
annual range of the thermometer at Guadaloupe, and 14.40°
Cen. (26.7° Fah.) at Martinique. Our observations at St.
Thomas give it as 12.1° Cen. (21.7° Fah.) Dr. Hunter at
Jamaica approaches nearer to our observations, giving the
annual range on that island at 12.22° Cen. (21.9° Fah.)
It is this minute annual range which occasions that com-
plete and wonderful development of form and color in the
animal and vegetable kingdoms within the Tropics. We add
in confirmation of this remark the annual range between
the coldest and warmest months at several places from the
equator to the northern pole.
9%
190
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
Cumana,
St. Thomas,
Centigrade,
& &
Funchal, Madeira, & &
Rome, Italy,
Stockholm, Sweden, “
Enonthekis, Lapland, “
Capt. Perry’s North
Pole Expedition,
(
2.49
3.19
6.4°
19.4°
22.9°
33.4°
64.2°
Fahrenheit 4.39
( &
5.50
11.59
34.99
41.2°
60.19
115.5°
According to our Table IV. the difference between the
warmest and coldest of the three years is 0.6° Cen. (1.2°
Fah.), whilst Moreau de Jonnès notes 1.5° Cen. (2.7°Fah.)
for Martinique—1.9° Cen. (3.4° Fah.) for Guadaloupe, and
0.2° Cen. (0.36° Fah) for Barbadoes.
Humboldt, in his “Des I_ignes Isothermes,” gives 27.5°
Cen. (S1.5° Fah.) as the mean temperature of all the
Antilles; but this seems according to later observations
to be 0.6° Cen. (1.04° Fah.) too high, as shown by the
following:—
Havanah, by
St. Domingo,
Barbadoes,
Martinique,
Jamaica,
St. Thomas,
Guadaloupe,
Cumana,
Mean,
Eerrara,
M. St. Mery,
25.7° Cen.
26.29
Dr. Walberg, 26.3°
Moreau,
Blagden,
Krebs,
Moreau,
Humboldt,
27.20
27.20
27.29
27.59
27.79
26.99
( {
78.29
79.10
79.30
8().99
80.99
S().99
81.69
81.89
Fah.
& 4
8().30
{ {
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 191
On hills or mountains in the West Indies, the temperature
is of course much lower than near the level of the sea. On
12th March, 1788, Moreau de Jonnès observed the ther-
mometer on the mountain La Selle, St. Domingo, as low as
6.8° Cen. (44.24° Fah.) On the Blue Mountains of Jamaica,
it has been seen at 8.3° Cen. (44.9° Fah.), and at Golden
Spring, at 13.8° Cen. (56.8° Fah.) At St. Thomas we have
observed the following differences between the thermometer
y
at the sea-level, and at “TIOuisenhoi,” which is elevated
778 feet.
Sea-Leve/. Louisenhof.
6 o'clock, A.M. 24.5° C. (76.1°F) 22.28° C. (72.1°F)
2 “ P.M. 28.8° C. (83.8° F.) 26, 2° C. (79.19 F)
8 : : P.M. 26.0° C. (78.8° F.) 23, 2° C. (73.79 F)
T)id our mountains or hills reach an elevation of 14,000
feet, their tops would be covered with perpetual snow.
Tedru says that he has seen snow on the summit of the
Toquillo Mountain on Porto Rico, but this is very doubtful.
During the period over which our observations have ex-
tended, we have known hail to fall but once in the West
Indies. It occurred at St. Croix, 13th April, 1844. The
stones were of “the size of hens' eggs,” showing that they
fell from a great height. On 13th May, 1828, Mr. Nissen
records that hail fell at St. Thomas.
We have now only to mention the temperature observed
ºn the sº. Our observations were made from a thermo-
meter suspended near a stone wall colored light grey. The
highest degree noticed was 51° Cen. (123.8° Fah.) The
192 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
mean of many observations was 40° Cen. (105.8° Fah.)
This heat is not oppressive with a breeze which generally
prevails ; but when there is a calm it is hardly to be
endured.
We cannot close this article on the temperature without
giving an extract from Moreau de Jonnès. It will show
how Creoles, or those who have long resided within the
tropics from other countries, feel under different states of the
atmosphere. “When the temperature is 25° Cen. (77°Fah.)
the cold is remarkable, but when at 23.7° Cen. (73.5° Fah.)
the cold is very sharp (tres wif). In the year 1799 the
Creoles suffered as much from cold as when the thermometer
in the south of France is below the freezing point. When
the temperature is from 28° Cen. (82.4° Fah.) to 30° Cen.
(86°Fah.) the heat is mild and pleasant, the perspiration
light, and the digestion regular. Over 30° Cen. (86°Fah.)
the heat begins to be oppressive ; at 33.75° Cen. (92.75°
Fah.) without a breeze, suffocating; and at 35° Cen.
(95° Fah.) we feel indisposed and feverish.”
Foreigners are less sensible to the cold of the West Indies
than the Creoles, but feel the heat more.
Barometer—The barometrical movements are still more
minute and regular than those of the thermometer in the
West Indies. Owing to the atmospheric tides, our nume-
rous observations, taken at the same time with those already
mentioned of the thermometer, show in the most conclusive
manner, regular diurnal variations. Whatever may be
the cause of these daily and nightly changes in the barometric
pressure of the atmosphere—whether to the attraction of the
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 193
sun and moon, as is the case with the tides of the ocean—or
*=
to the elevation and depression of these tides, and the
expansion caused by the heat of the sum—the fact within
the Tropics is incontestable. When the weather is uniform
at St. Thomas, the barometer, during each day and night,
begins to rise at 4 o’clock in the morning, at first slowly,
but after 8 o’clock more rapidly, until 10 A.M., when it
reaches its highest point, indicating a flood atmospheric tide.
It now begins to sink until 3 P.M., indicating the ebb atmo-
spheric tide. From this hour it begins to rise again until 11
P.M. ; and then sinks till 4 A.M.–thus showing two flood
and two ebb tides in 24 hours. The range of the mercury
from these atmospheric oscillations is very limited, seldom
over .05 of an inch, and the range during the day is nearly
double that of the night. This greater range during the
day tends to confirm the idea that much of these diurnal
variations is owing to the eaſpansion caused by the heat of
the sun. We might give tables to show the above state
ments more clearly, but they are unnecessary.
When it is observed that these regular diurnal variations
are interrupted, the barometer then indicates a change of
weather, and it is mainly thus within the Tropics that such
changes can be indicated by this instrument. For its
general annual range is only about 2 of an inch, from
29.8 to 30 inches.
During the months of August, September, and October,
the diurnal rise and fall, as a general thing, are interrupted.
The wind and weather during this period are always most
unsettled.
194 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
With north-east winds the baroneter almost invariably
rises, and generally falls when the wind is south-east or
south. We have observed it to rise to 30.15 inches with
a fresh north-east breeze, but this great rise seldom takes
place. Hurricanes, of course, affect barometers very sensi-
bly. They fall at such times according to the force of
the wind, 1, 1}, and 2 inches. No reliance can be placed
upon the barometer to foretell certainly, and for any time
previous, the coming up of a hurricane. Many families,
however, in St. Thomas are provided with them. They are
often of great use when the weather looks threatening, to
give ease to the mind, by the mercury remaining stationary
or rising, showing that no severe wind at least may be
apprehended. º
Passing showers seldom or never cause the mercury to
fall, and the barometer has never been observed to be
affected by earthquakes.
IRain.—As 24 hours’ rain in St. Thomas seldom occurs
more than twice or three times in a year, the rain generally
falls in showers, and will often descend more copiously
in from two to ten minutes than it does in so many hours
in northern latitudes. Drizzling rains therefore seldom or
never occur, and mists are unknown. The showers are
often very local in their descent. One estate is thus fre-
quently well watered, whilst another in its immediate neigh-
borhood is suffering from drought.
The annual fall of rain as observed by Dr. Hornbeck,
from 1828 to 1839, we give in the following table. He
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 195
has given the mean fall for each month during the eleven
years, and then calculated the mean annual fall.
Mean Monthly Fall of Rain at St. Thomas, from 1828
to 1839.
January, * gº 2.6 English inches
February, gº e- 2.8 & C
March, * --> tºº 2.7 { {
April, sº * 2.8 & &
May, - * sº 5.0 & &
June, - * * 3.1 { {
July, - s se 3.5 C &
August, - s 5.1 & &
September, º e- 5.6 C &
October, sº tº- 5.1 & (
November, tº- º 5.7 & &
December, & - 2.8 & C
Annual mean for 11 years, 46.S English inches.
. In St. Croix and St. John’s, the mean annual fall is very
nearly the same as in St. Thomas.
It is the equal distribution of the rains throughout the
whole year that secures good sugar crops.
Sometimes a drought will prevail for six and nine months,
to be followed, however, by deluges of rain.
Fourteen inches have been known to fall in one month.
Showers and heavy rains come up almost exclusively from
the East, E.N.E., E.S.E., and S.E., since it is from these
quarters that the winds prevail over nine tenths of the year.
Clouds seldom or never exclude the sun's rays for a
196 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
Whole day during the year. They often present the most
beautiful appearance, and give a magnificence to the rising
and setting of the sun known only to a tropical climate.
Long lines of clouds drifting parallel with the trade winds
are frequently seen streaking the heavens from east to west.
These beſts of clouds, we believe, are peculiar to the Torrid
Zone. -*.
The diseases incident to the climate are somewhat marked
and various. In the winter and spring months fever and
agºe is apt to prevail in the more densely populated
savannahs, on low grounds lying in the town between the
hills. This is no doubt mainly owing to the want of proper
ventilation, damp floors from the moisture suffered to accumu-
late beneath them, and a disregard to cleanliness. It is
often difficult to subdue these agues; and sometimes a voyage
to a neighboring island is necessary to break their spell, and
restore the greatly enfeebled constitution. Bilious fevers
make their attacks more generally in the fall of the year,
induced generally by exposure to the rains and the hot sun,
Or intemperance. In most cases, these attacks (if proper
remedies are at once applied) are slight and transient. But
they are liable to become virulent. Unacclimated foreigners
are more frequently subject to these fevers than natives.
Ye//ow Fever has seldom or never prevailed in the town.
It has, in years past, been very destructive among the ship-
ping in the harbor, but cases even there are now rare.
Consumption carries off many of the inhabitants of St.
Thomas, as it does in all parts of the world. Its victims,
however, are generally among the laboring classes, especially
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 197
those who are much exposed. Street selling at night,
“wakes,” and dances, often induce severe attacks of in-
flamation in the chest, which terminate fatally. Rheuma-
tism also numbers its victims, and from the causes just
specified. Its attacks are painful and often long continued.
Neuralgia is not uncommon. The disease called the
“ Thrush” occasionally attacks children, but is more per-
nicious in its effects upon adults. Some constitutions are
more liable to it than others, induced by a too long continued
residence within the Tropics. When it fastems upon the
system, a sea voyage seems the only remedy. Dysentery
is also incident to the climate. It is occasionally sudden in
its attacks, severe, and dangerous. Influenza will some-
times appear as an epidemic in the most extraordinary
manner, without any apparent cause. That was the case
in the early part of the summer of this year (1851), when
eighty per cent of the inhabitants were attacked. It is
generally very slight and transient. The Small-Poa, visited
the island in 1843, commencing on the 27th September, and
terminated 9th Feb. 1844. It was very fatal. The follow-
ing extract from the authorized journal for the three
public burial-places in the town may serve some useful
purpose.
198 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
GROwn PERSONs. CHilor EN.
Males. Females. Boys. Girls. Total.
1843, Sept, 1 I m- tº- 2
Oct. 11 11 5 3 30
Nov. 20 29. 25 21 95
T)ec. 27 24. 24 33 108
1844, Jan. 13 7 1 () 1() 40
Feb. --- -- 3 2 5
72 72 67 69 280
This table does not include those of the Moravians and
the Jews. But the mortality was limited among them,
and was chiefly confined to they town. Few of those com-
fortable in life were thus removed, as proved by the fact that
of the 280 who died, 199 were buried at the public expense.
While it prevailed in St. Thomas, there was but one case
in St. Croix, and none in St. John’s, Tortola, or Porto Rico.
The number of prescriptions given for small-pox and made
up by the sole licensed apothecary, was in
Nov 1843, 300 and his charges amounted to $77 13
Dec. “ 1248 do 306 36
Jan. 1844, 200 do 60 47
Feb. “ 38 do 1 () 59
The charges for the three last named months $377 42
were paid by the public.
Since the prevalence of the small-pox our physicians think
the climate has undergone a change for the better. Hooping-
cough, Scarlet fever, and measles are scarcely known. No
climate could apparently be better adapted to the rearing
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 199
of children. After they are twelve years of age, however,
it seems necessary to send them to colder countries to pre-
verſt serious inroads upon their constitution. The children
of the poor, however—better than one half being illegitimate
—frequently die from neglect, or the dissolute habits of their
mothers.
The average of deaths, notwithstanding this gloomy array
of diseases, among the better classes is below the general
average of mortality, whilst with the lower classes it is
much greater. The following table has been prepared from
the Government record of deaths in St. Thomas for the last
sixteen years from 1835 to 1850 inclusive.
Year. Deaths. Population. Extra Phenomena.
1835, 360 11,071 -
1836, 324 - -
1837, 503 - Hurricane. .
1838, 436 -sº -*
1839, 316 - -
1840, 405 - -
1841, 379 10,076 -
1842, 384 - - -
1843, 695 -* Small-Pox.
1844, 398 - -*.
1845, 337 - -*
1846, . 434 10,560 - -*.
1847, 385 - -
1848, 374 - Partial Drought.
1849, 450 t- do do
1850, A 83 11,383 Dry ... Wet .
200 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAs, w. I.
Taking the average of the population at 11,000, this
gives the average numbers of deaths per year at 416, or 1 in
about 26.
It should be noted that the population of the town varies
exceedingly, owing to the presence of strangers and
sojourners from Europe and other West India Islands.
Besides, the records of death include all sailors and emi-
grants who may die in the town, or on board merchant and
emigrant ships lying in the harbor.
Whilst foreigners who have taken up their residence in
St. Thomas enjoy a good degree of health as a general
thing, and some have remained perfectly well during a pro-
tracted abode, yet the great majority find an occasional
change to more northern latitudes absolutely necessary to
restore the tone and vigor of their constitutions. The con-
tinued heat of summer and winter, even with the most
careful and temperate, ultimately debilitates the system and
induces disease—either intermittent fever or more especially,
bowel complaints. There are very few exceptions to this,
and we believe the remarks apply to all the West India
Islands. Hence European and American residents are con-
tinually leaving the island for a short sojourn of a few
months during the summer or winter, in their native coun-
tries. They almost invariably return with improved health
to remain a few years, and then repeat the change. Those
who depart from this rule may endure a more protracted
residence with impunity, but they incur a great risk; and
the chances are against them, that they will seriously injure
their health or be cut down by death. Six years’ observa-
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 201
tion in the island has fully confirmed us in the opinion, and
a four years' residence without a change has already warned
us that another summer cannot be passed with entire safety.
If this change of climate can be enjoyed every three or four
years, we believe there is no place of residence in any
country more delightful and healthy than St. Thomas, pro-
vided, however, temperance be observed, and care taken to
avoid unnecessary exposure.
Burials generally take place within twelve hours after
death, the funerals being ordered at five o’clock P.M.
Government derives a small revenue from all graves opened,
having possession of the common burying-ground to the
west of the town. The Jews and Moraviaris have grounds
of their own. The poor (and there are many such) are
buried at the expense of the country treasury. Government
has also a burying-ground lying to the north-east of the
town in a romantic spot, for its officers and soldiers; others
than these are sometimes buried there, by special favor.
The keeping of hearses is a monopoly granted by Govern-
ment to a single individual ; and only the rich, or those in
good circumstances, can afford to pay for their use. This
entails a severe burden upon the poor. They are obliged
to convey the dead by “bearers,” who are not even allowed
a hand-bier; which, owing to the distance of the grave-
yards from the main body of the town, proves a serious
inconvenience. In consequence, it is difficult with the very
poor often to procure a sufficient number of bearers.
Five physicians practise in the island. For this privi-
lege they are obliged to pass an examination before the
202 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, w. I.
Medical College in Copenhagen, and receive a certificate of
qualification. Their fees, though large, are regulated by
law. They are generally employed by families and on
estates by the year. Their liberality in serving the poor is
deserving of all praise. -
The compounding and sale of medicines are granted as a
monopoly to a single apothecary. Government, for the
privilege, obliges him to keep constantly on hand all re-
quisite medicines, and a double Supply, in two separate
locations, one of which is to be well protected against fires.
He is also required to be assisted by a chief clerk for pre-
paring prescriptions, who has taken his diploma as a regular
apothecary and chemist in Copenhagen. The Apothecary
Hall is thus most admirably constructed. Many complain
of this monopoly. It certainly bears hard upon the poor, for
whom there is no dispensary ; but the prices of medicines
are regulated by a Committee of Physicians appointed by
Government, and the inhabitants are well assured that they
receive good and fresh articles. The apothecary, too, is
obliged to furnish prescriptions ordered by physicians for the
poor gratuitously, when the name of the person is given;
and he makes a liberal deduction in his charges to relief
societies, several of which are established in the place.
The monopoly may have its evils, but certainly they are not
as great as those under which the inhabitants suffered
before it was established, from prescriptions carelessly com-
pounded, and too often from bad or adulterated medicines.
The establishment of a Dispensary is however greatly
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 203
needed in the town, and under proper regulations would
greatly tend to promote health and save life.
The sanitary provisions made by the Government are
good. Persons afflicted with the leprosy are to be imme-
diately removed to a house out of town provided for that pur-
pose. The inhabitants are under regulations to sweep
before their doors, and place the matter with house refuse
by their dwellings for removal in public carts to the leeward
of the town. Intramural burials are not allowed. It is
forbidden to keep swine within the town. The public wells,
from which the lower classes obtain water, are properly
secured and kept clean ; drains and gutters which carry off
the water from rains to the sea are also under a careful
Supervision.
The West Indies are a favorite resort for invalids suf-
fering under or threatened with pulmonary attacks, in order
s to regain or secure health. St. Croix and St. Thomas have
received a large share of these, some of whom have derived
great benefit by a change from the rigors of a northern
climate, whilst others have failed to obtain the desired
blessing. But the surprise is, that more, especially from the
United States, do not resort to these tropical islands to
enjoy their mild and equable temperature during the winter
months. A change of climate is too often deferred by those
who show symptoms of inflamed lungs, until it is too late.
We have known many resorting hither, who have acted
more wisely—who, well-advised of the first inroads upon
their constitutions, either from hereditary disease or a
severe cold contracted, fled at once on the approach of cold
204. CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAs, w, I.
weather, and soon found themselves either partially or alto-
gether restored to health. Tife has thus at least been
prolonged, if not a permanent cure of chronic inflammation
of the chest effected. Had such invalids continued to expose
themselves to a northern winter, an early death must have
ensued. -
The dryness of the climate of St. Croix and St. Thomas,
generally speaking, during the winter months; the uniform,
mild temperature of the atmosphere day and night, (the
thermometer seldom rising higher than 82° during the day,
or falling lower than 72° during the night), the agreeable
change of scenery, and the remarkably fine roads of St.
Croix, affording the most pleasant exercise on horseback or
in carriages—these, together with comfortable boarding-
houses, the purest water in the world, fine tropical fruits,
and last, but not least, to one absent from home, a direct
communication by steam either with Europe or America,
offer inducements to invalids or persons of delicate constitu-
tions which should be embraced. Visitors should divide
their time between the two islands, and thus break up the
monotony of sojourning too long in one place. In St. Croix
all is quiet and retired ; in St. Thomas there is the variety
and novelty incident to a commercial place. The charge
for board, in both islands, is about $8 or $10 per week, or
$40 per month for a single person. Married couples and
families are received at rates somewhat reduced from this.
Mrs. Cunningham's private boarding-house in St. Thomas
has always been, and is still, a great favorite with invalids.
Accommodations can also always be had at the large hotel
CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I. 205
in the centre of the town. Horses and carriages may be
hired in either island, at rates about equal to the city prices
in the United States.
We give this information for the benefit of any invalids
into whose hands this book may fall ; assuring them, that
the trial of a residence in these islands, if their disease
has not already made too great progress, will, in all
probability, greatly restore their health. That some do
wrong in coming out when they are rapidly sinking under
consumption, there can be no doubt. Physicians should
give better advice. It is melancholy at times to see such
enfeebled by a sea voyage, sinking gradually to their graves,
away from the comforts of home, and often only surrounded
by strangers in their last moments. But this should not
discourage those who are yet comparatively free from the
virulence of inflammation ; for such there will be at least,
humanly speaking, some relief, if not an entire cure.
Persons from a northern climate visiting these islands
should be careful not to lay off flannel, but on the contrary,
to put it on if they have not been accustomed to its use.
This we believe to be indispensable to a stranger. It is
unwise, also, to dress too thinly over flannel. Woollen
garments to gentlemen do not render the heat oppressive,
and they are a safe protection. The heat of the sun during
mid-day, violent exercise, and wet clothes should be carefully
avoided. A good supply of under-clothes is requisite, as
laundresses will often keep their employers waiting for a
fortnight.
We may add that the steamer Merlin leaves New York on
10
206 CLIMATE OF ST. THOMAS, W. I.
the 8th of every month, making the passage in nine days to
St. Thomas. She returns from St. Thomas on the 20th of
every month. The price of passage by her, either way, is $70.
The packet Van Oxholm, Capt. Davis, and other com-
modious vessels, are also constantly leaving New York,
Bhiladelphia, and Baltimore for St. Thomas, making the
passage in mine or fifteen days. Those who have sailed
with the able and agreeable commander, Capt. Davis of the
Oxholm, will always prefer his noble bark to any other
sailing vessel. The steamer Merlin is a propeller, soon to
be replaced by a like steamer of larger size and more ex-
tensive accommodations.
Strangers have every opportunity during the winter of
visiting any or all of the West India Islands by means of
the English steamers and sailing vessels. The routes and
charges of the steamers will be found in Appendix F.
Some invalids return to the north (where they should not
arrive before the 10th of June) by the way of Havana and
the Southern States, which gives an agreeable variety to
the tour.
PHYSICAL OUTLINE. - 207
CHAPTER, XIII.
Physical Outline of St. Thomas—Its Geology—Earthquakes—Hurri-
canes—Zoology—Botany—Conchology.
THE Island of St. Thomas may be considered the top or
ridge of a small chain of submerged mountains. A range
of high, dome-shaped hills, runs from the west, through its
entire length, towards the east. About midway Of the
island, on the south side, another range rises up, and runs
parallel with the great range, also towards the east. The
two ranges are joined in the middle of the island, where
the short one commences, by a spur or branch, across from
north to south. There are also many short branches
reaching off, on both sides, towards the north and south.
The great range rises highest near the west end, where it
reaches an elevation of 1,515 English feet. It then gradu-
ally sinks to 1470 and 778 feet, until where the two ranges
begin to run parallel. Rising now to 971, it again gradu-
ally tapers down successively to 661 and 307 feet. The
short range is also highest towards the west, being there
962 feet high. It then sinks to 858 feet, and also gradually
runs off into lower hills towards the east. The neck, or
20S - GEOILOGY.
Cl’OSS branch, which joins the ranges, is about 350 feet high.
Crossing this neck, the descent into the valley, between the
ranges, commences. The land is here much broken up by
spurs from the ranges on the right and left. The only
small stream of running water is found in this valley. It
wends its course towards the south-east ; and according to
T}r. Hornbeck, loses itself near the shore, and enters the sea
beneath the surface.
Geology.—The hills are a mass of trappean rocks. Dr.
Hornbeck designates them generally as a mass of “bluish,
hard, greenstone porphryy.” The rocks, however, are of
various colors—bluish, leaden grey, and greenish—and of
various textures; coarse, and sometimes fine, owing to the
minerals augite, hornblende, felspar, iron, and olivine, as
they predominate in various proportions. There are thus
various kinds of trap rocks in the island, but we do not feel
ourselves competent to specify the varieties, where there is
often a distinction made, without any or with a very slight
difference. Crystallization predominates. The rocks are
not stratified. They contain numerous veins, especially of
quartz, which are seen running in every direction, and of
various thickness.
.The surfaces of the rocks for a long period have under-
gone, and are still undergoing, decomposition. In some
places it moulders away into a stiff reddish or yellowish
clay; in others, into a greenish or white earth, having
very much the appearance of marl. The white earth is often
found in pockets on the sides of the hills, having land
shells, some of which are no longer to be found alive in the
GEOILOGY. - 209.
island, imbedded in it. The yellow clay is sometimes seen
traversed by a vein of quartz. This decomposition has left
large masses of pointed rocks, of a texture more enduring
than those which have decomposed around them, lying On
the surface. -
In some masses of the decomposing rocks, is seen a most
singular globular structure. This is very conspicuous on
the face of a bare hill, situated on the north side towards the
west. It has the appearance as if a number of cannon balls
of all sizes had been fired into the hill, leaving a part of
their surfaces exposed. These balls scale off into numerous
concentric coats. On the key opposite the town, the rocks
are very fine-grained, and look like indurated clay. At
some points on the key, in layers compressed perpendicu-
larly, a blue slate is found on the north side, towards the
east; the rocks sounding hollow beneath the feet. It has
not been examined, to see whether it contains petrifactions,
Lava can evidently be traced at “Red Point” and “Coco-
lus bay,” both on the south side. Three quarters of a mile
south-west from Red Point is the small island, or key,
“ Little Saba.” On the 1 orth side of this little island are
two lagoons, and the declivity of the hill can be ascended.
The hill is 200 feet high, with its south side very abrupt,
and without vegetation. It is composed of pure lava, with
alum stone imbedded, in large masses. Dr. Hornbeck
thinks the Southern steep declivity is the side of an extinct
volcano.
The valleys on St. Thomas, lying near the seashore, and
between the spurs from the main ranges of hills, have been
210 - GEOLOGY.
formed or levelled through the alluvial matter washed
down by the heavy tropical rains from the decomposing
hills. This alluvium varies from ten to fifty feet in depth.
There are but few valleys, or rather savannas, of any size.
Sandstone is forming all around the island, by the action of
the sea.
On the north-east point of the island, called “ Coki.
point,” a singular formation, or juxtaposition of rocks, pre-
sents itself. The point is narrow, and runs out into the
sea towards the east, reaching like an arm out from the
shore, and forming a bay. It is composed of various trap
rocks. At the extreme end, which is abrupt, about two
hundred feet wide and fifty feet high, masses of augite
porphyry are found. Around the face of the point im-
bedded “in situ” in the trap as a matrix, are seen larger
or smaller masses of limestone. This limestone is variously
of a greyish, blue, or white color, and richly interspersed
with fossil shells. It is at times very compact, and almost
crystalline as marble ; at others, soft, and containing
pyrites. When white, crystalline, or soft, but very faint
traces of the fossils can be de ected. When of a bluish
color, and compact, the fossils are well preserved. These
limestone masses, or fragments, when white, appear as if
they had fallen into the trap when it was in a molten
or soft state. Their position, imbedded in the trap, some-
times buried below its surface and almost closed over, and
at others projecting from the surface, can be accounted for
in no other way. Dr. Hornbeck, in alluding to this lime-
stone, says “it is not adherent to the island,” but in this he
GEOILOGY. 211
is evidently mistaken. His observations appear to have
been confined to some masses which had fallen from the
face of the cliff, and not to the cliff itself, on the east and
north sides, to which access is somewhat difficult. Among
the fossils are a conus, numerous cerithia, nerinea, and seve-
ral bivalves. There is also a multitude of certain fossils
which have the appearance of truncated bulbous roots, as
they are composed of laminae encircling each other, and
forming a varied half-ball-like mass. They may be coral,
but their form and appearance are certainly singular. A
specimen of this limestone, containing fossils, was recently
forwarded to the British Museum. The following remarks
upon it have just been received in a letter written by the
Secretary of the Geological Society, London. “It is a
block of limestone, full of merina. This genus is confined
to the lower chalk and oolite. Your specimens most
resemble some from the Portland rock. It is to be expected
that if that limestone were well searched for organic
remains, the age of it might be put beyond question. At
all events, this is, I believe, the first time that the existence
of oolite has been suspected in the West Indies.”
On a hill directly to the south of “Cokipoint,” and
which rises sharp up, as the termination of a spur, from the
main range, limestone, with fossils, is found on the surface.
Whether it forms the basis of the hill we cannot say, but
think it does not.
The soil of the island is necessarily thin, and from the
steepness of the sides of the hills, liable to be washed away.
£12 GEOLOGY.
Cultivation is, therefore, limited, and confined to the more
entle slopes and small valleys.
Some salt ponds are found, of very limited size, around
the shores of the island. They are separated from the
Ocean by a barrier of what appears to be coral reefs. They
have not, however, been sufficiently examined to decide
whether they are coral formation, or dykes of trap. The
atter is more probable. •
Whether the island is rising or sinking, has not been
determined. There are some few facts which lead us to
suppose that the former is the case.
It can easily be conceived, from the description of the
island, that St. Thomas affords from its hills some of the
finest views that can possibly exist. If we mount in any
direction, and look down, and around; on the map spread
before the eye, the mind is charmed and filled with ideas of
the beautiful and sublime. The swelling hills and ravines
clothed with verdure,
“Vines with climbing branches growing,
Plants with goodly burdens bowing.”
the placid harbor with its now diminutive ships, the town
lying at our feet, the numerous small keys dotting the coast,
the white surf breaking over sunken rocks, the broad ex-
panse of the ocean, and St. Croix and Porto Rico rising up
in the hazy distance, present views that are truly magnifi-
cent. Roads wind over these hills; and excursions made on
horseback early in the morning, will richly reward the visitor,
whatever direction he may take. The views never tire
EARTHQUAKES. 213
upon the eye, but seem to grow more lovely and Sublime,
the oftener they are beheld.
Earthquakes.—These occur occasionally in the island,
and are most frequent in the months of January, February,
and March. The wave comes up almost invariably from
the south, and passes off to the north. Sometimes, only a
rumbling sound is heard, without any apparent trembling of
the earth; at others, the shock or motion is more or less
severe, but never to cause any damage. Plaster, and loose
stones or bricks from old walls, have occasionally been
known to fall, but walls have never been thrown down. It
has been supposed that earthquakes are preceded by calms.
This is sometimes the case, but we have known them to
occur during different states of the weather. During their
prevalence in the island, the sea gives no apparent indica-
tion of a rise or fall. We once stood on the sea-shore, dur-
ing a calm evening, and heard the approach of an earth-
quake. Our attention was instantly directed to the sea, but
there was no receding or rolling up of the waves, although
the earth was considerably shaken. The rumbling sound
sometimes precedes the shock, sometimes the sound and
shock are simultaneous, but we have never known the
shock to precede the Sound. Their duration is seldom
more than from two to twenty seconds.
The consternation which earthquakes invariably produce
with the greater part of the inhabitants is unaccountable,
when it is so well known that they have occasioned no
damage on the island. The ready ear of those who have
resided for some time in the place, seems watching ever for
10%
2 14 IHURRICANES,
the dreaded rumbling sound, so quickly does it catch its
distant approach. Then how painfully anxious and wild
is the expression of every countenance; and with the cry of
“earthquake,” uttered with an almost suspended breath,
many will rush for the streets or the seashore, in a perfect
agony of fright ! These phenomena are indeed awful.
That mighty rumbling sound, coming on with great and
yet greater volume, rolling with its irresistible might
through the earth, and the sudden shock, or trembling, or
violent jerking to and fro, Overwhelm the mind, render it
conscious of the presence and power of the Almighty, and
arouse its uncontrolled alarm. -
Hurricanes.—These have been very destructive in St.
Thomas. They are justly dreaded as the most awful visi-
tations which can befal the island. August, September,
and October, are the months in which they occur. They
are almost if not entirely unknown in the other months.
To foretell their approach is exceedingly difficult, although
much has been written to the contrary. As they seem to be
closely connected with the electrical state of the atmosphere,
all other instruments save an electrometer (yet, I believe, to
be invented, to test this) will be of no avail. The barome-
ter will, indeed, begin to fall as the wind rises, but then the
hurricane has set in, and given evidence of its presence in
many ways. That they are preceded by a calm, and this
calm followed by a gentle breeze coming in puffs, and
shifting to all points of the compass, there is no doubt. But
this state of the atmosphere often occurs when a hurricane
does not follow. The theory advanced by Mr. Redfield
HURRICANES. 215
and Col. Reid, that hurricanes have a rotary motion from
the right to the left, or round by the north, west, and south,
when they occur north of the Equator, will no doubt be
found to be correct. In this island, so far as can be traced,
all hurricanes whose centres have passed over it, have
commenced with the wind at north-east, changed to north-
west, followed by a calm of fifteen minutes, or longer ; and
then suddenly burst forth from the south-west with still
greater fury, from whence the wind shifted to the south and
south-east, as it subsided. Theories are being advanced to
account for the whirlpool revolving from the right towards
the left, in consequence of the revolution of the earth on its
axis. Why may not this revolution account for the same
peculiar and uniform gyratory motion of hurricanes?
The barometer ranges in its fall, during hurricanes, from
half an inch to two inches, according to their fury. It
infallibly tells when they have reached their height, as
immediately after the mercury begins to rise.
The force of the wind during their continuance almost
exceeds belief. Only the strongest buildings can resist it, if
the hurricane is severe. It is a merciful providence that
those which are so very destructive Only occur at intervals
of fifteen or twenty-five years in the same island. They
occur, indeed, more frequently than this throughout the
Caribbean Sea; but as their width is often very limited, Only
certain islands suffer, whilst others are spared. St. Thomas
has been visited (and each time almost desolated) by hurri-
canes, in 1713, 1738, 1742, 1772, 1793, 1819, and 1837.
2 i 6 HURRICANES.
Others have passed over the island during the intervals of
these years, but of a mitigated character.*
To guard against their destructive effects as much as
possible, houses are provided with strong bars for the doors
and windows. These are brought out and placed in readi-
ness when the “ hurricane season” has commenced.
Should the weather give alarming symptoms, at Once every-
thing is made fast. Doors and window-shutters are closed,
barred, and doubly hooked, and the town looks as if it were
deserted. This precaution is often found unnecessary, but
at times it has been wisely taken. Whilst the hurricane
rages, the state of suspense is awful. It is not known
when the house may give way and bury all beneath its
ruin. This suspense, added to the deafening howling of the
blasts, the crash of uprooted trees, and the often piercing
cry of help, overwhelm the mind with terror. To venture
out is almost certain death, as tiles, and boards, and other
missiles, are flying in every direction, with an irresistible
force. We give the following extract from Mr. Nissen's
Reminiscences, and the log of H. M. packet “ Spey,”
in order to afford some idea of the severe hurricane of
1837. -
“About 5 o'clock in the afternoon of August 2d, every
one could see that we were going to have a hurricane, and
* Sir R. H. Schombergk has found recorded from the year 1494 to
1846, or in a period of 352 years, 127 hurricanes and severe gales, which
committed more or less injury in the West Indies. Of this number
occurred in March, 1 ; June, 4; July, 11 ; August, 40; September, 28;
December, 2. Of 13 no date of month recorded.
HURRICANES. 217
at 6 o'clock it blew most violently. The wind was north-
east, and blew from half past six to half past seven with .
the greatest violence. In the course of this hour the largest
number of houses must have blown down. It was one of
the most dreadful hours I have ever yet experienced. From
half past seven until eight o'clock the wind became quite
calm, so that one was able to open the door or window.
This calm continued only about half an hour, when the
wind changed to the south, and commenced blowing very
violently again. On 236 lots, almost all the buildings were
destroyed. Fourteen persons were buried beneath them,
and were taken out from under the ruins the next
morning.
“Sunday, August 6th, 1837.-Came to an anchor in St.
Thomas’ harbor, and landed the mails. Here the hurricane
of the second appeared to have concentrated all its force,
power, and fury, for the harbor and town were a scene that
baffles all description. Thirty-six ships and vessels totally
wrecked all round the harbor, among which about a dozen
had sunk or capsized at their anchors; some rode it out by
cutting away their masts, and upwards of 100 seamen
drowned. The harbor is so choked up with wrecks and
sunken vessels, that it is difficult to pick out a berth for a
ship to anchor. The destructive powers of this hurricane
will never be forgotten. The fort, at the entrance of the
harbor, is levelled with the foundation, and the 24-pounders
thrown down; it looks as if it had been battered to pieces
by cannon shot. No place, hitherto, has suffered so much
from a hurricane in all the West Indies as St. Thomas.’’
218 ZOOLOGY.
Earthquakes are often reported as accompanying hurri-
Canes, but we do not think that these phenomena occur
together. The violent shaking of the house from sudden
blasts of extraordinary force, may easily be mistaken for an
earthquake.
The Government of the Danish West India islands many
years back, with reference to hurricanes, appointed July
25th as a day of humiliation and prayer. From this date
the “ hurricane season” commences. The 25th October is
also appointed as a day of thanksgiving, when the season
ends.
Zoology.—On this subject we can only be general, as no
maturalist has yet fully investigated the animated nature of
the island, and we are not competent to the task.
Whilst Insects abound, they are not so numerous in St.
Thomas as in many other tropical islands. Ants of various
species are exceedingly troublesome to housekeepers, espe-
cially the small sugar ant. One species commits great
destruction to the timber in houses. It is called the wood-
ant, white-ant, or wood-louse. A small red ant causes by
its bite a severe pain; and in low, small dwellings, is often
very annoying at night, disturbing sleep.
The orange and lime trees, and other garden shrubs, are
often injured by the female of a gall insect, which covers
itself with a white cotton-like stuff, on the trunk and
branches, in which it deposits its eggs. It is a species of
Dorthesia.
Butterflies and moths are far from being numerous; the
latter, however, are often very troublesome in the evening
INSECTS. 219
at certain seasons, swarming around the lights in the
dwellings.
Furniture is often destroyed by a worm which bores into
the wood, and traverses it by excavations in every direction.
Sometimes its presence is only known by the furniture fall-
ing to pieces.
Noxious insects are plentiful. Mosquitoes of various
species are so troublesome, that foreigners especially are
obliged, the greater part of the year, to sleep beneath nets.
Sandflies, near the sea-shore, are also annoying ; but they
seldom enter houses. The Chigo or Jigger (Pulex pene-
trans) resembles in its appearance a small flea. It nestles
in the flesh beneath the nails and toes of the human body,
and raises great irritation. It is, however, easily removed
with its bag, and seldom or never annoys those of cleanly
habits, or who avoid places where they inhabit.
Fleas, at certain seasons, are also very troublesome.
They are no friends to Hydropathy. Showers and scouring
floors are the main protections against their increase and
existence in houses.
The American scorpion is frequently found in dwellings.
Its sting is painful, but not more so than that of a wasp or
hornet. Centipedes are about as abundant as scorpions,
and their wound about as painful. The horrid accounts
which are often given of these two last insects, especially of
the dreadful and fatal mature of their stings, are greatly
exaggerated. During a six years' residence, but one mem-
ber of my family has been stung by them. It proved a
very trifling affair.
220 BIRDS.
Spiders are numerous, but harmless, especially the large
house spider. Cockroaches (the vile things!) are not only
abundant, but very annoying by their disagreeable smell,
and their depredations upon clothing, books, and various
Other articles.
Reptiles.—The common Guana, or Iguana, is the largest
of the tribe of Saurians met with in the island, and they are
now very scarce. Several species of lizards, as the ground
lizard, the slippery backs, the red-throated moles, the wood-
slave, and others, are very numerous. They are not only
harmless, but companionable and useful.
But one species of snake, we believe, is found. It is not
venomous, and is seldom seen.
Birds.-These are scarce in St. Thomas, owing to the
absence of woods and forests, and the size of the island.
The Ani, or Black Witch, is the most conspicuous. In
size it is equal to a turtle-dove. It lives in flocks, and is
not timid. Many pairs use the same nest, which is large,
where they lay and hatch their young in concert. It is said
that this bird can be tamed, and taught to utter words. Its
flesh is extremely disagreeable.
A species of sparrow, believed to be the (Spermophila
bicolor) Parson Sparrow, is very sociable, and builds its
nests around dwellings. There is also another sparrow, but
its name is unknown.
The Yellow Neck (Matacella pensilis) resembles a little
the linnet. It is destructive to grapes.
The Thrush, one or two species, is without song, but has
a sweet whistle.
BIRDS, 221
A species of parrot, and a little parroquet (Psittacus tui)
are found quite abundant near Havensigt.
Two species of humming-birds visit the gardens. They
are not, however, very numerous.
The Ground Dove (Columba passeris) is plentiful. It
is a beautiful bird, and Wilson says the French planters
honor it with the name of “Ortolan.”
The Green Pigeon (Columba Sancti Thomas), and seve-
ral other varieties from Porto Rico, are often found. They
visit the island at certain seasons, for the berries.
Two species of hawk, the one much more numerous
than the other, are frequently seen. They prey principally
upon lizards.
The quail is very rare. A single species, the owl,
equally rare. -
There are thus not more than fifteen indigenous species
in the island. - ...
The tropical sea birds, especially the pelican, and various
species of gulls, visit the coast and harbor. A small sand-
piper, ducks, plover, kingfisher, and green heron (Ardea
viridus), are occasionally seen.
Of animals, besides those which are domestic, the
Agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) and the rat, are the only species
which are found on the island. The former is scarce, and
but seldom seen ; the latter is very destructive to the canes,
vegetable patches, and various kinds of fruits.
Two or three species of bats also exist, but they are not
I'll] ]]].6 l’OU. S.
Botany.—Before giving the list of plants, we shall spe-
222 BOTANY.
cify, without regard to order, the fruits which are used in
the island.
Those of the West Indies are generally to be had in the
market of St. Thomas, but much the larger quantity is
brought from neighboring islands.
Oranges are abundant during the winter months, princi-
pally from Porto Rico and Santa Cruz. Very few are cul-
tivated in the island. • *
The PZantain (Musa paradisaica), and the Banana (M.
sapientum), are well known. The former is used exclu-
sively as a vegetable, and prepared for the table in various
ways. The banana is generally eaten as a fruit, though
occasionally as a vegetable. Both are considered whole-
Some. The market is supplied with them from the estates
On the island, and from Porto Rico.
The Avocado Pear, Laurus persea) is considered a great
luxury. It is a smooth, fleshy fruit, larger than the north-
ern pear, which it much resembles in its form, with a large
nut in the centre. This fruit has been called vegetable
custard, or marrow, and is certainly very delicious when
eaten with black pepper and salt.
It is commonly called Alligator Pear, and is found
written Avicăto. The Spanish colonial name is Aguacate.
The Sapodi//a (Achras sapota) is generally known as
the moss-apple. It is round in form, and with a rough,
brown skin, being anything but inviting in its appearance.
Strangers are rarely fond of this fruit, comparing its flavor
and appearance to that of a decayed pear. Yet the taste is
BOTANY. - 223
easily acquired ; and being juicy and sweet, it is highly nu-
tritious. The best are brought from Curaçao.
The Belle Apple (Passiflora laurifolia), called in the Eng-
lish islands water lemon, is of a bright yellow color, with a
tough, leathery skin, and of an oval form. It consists
entirely of small flat seeds in a glutinous pulp or juice, all
of which is eaten. Its flavor is very fine. '
The Granadillo (Passiflora quadrangularis), as its name
denotes, is of the same family as the Belle Apple. Both
grow upon vines, and their blossoms are similar to the Pas-
sion-flower cultivated at the north. In form and size,
however, it differs from the former fruit, being much larger,
rather resembling a melon. The skin is of a dull, yellowish
green, and very thick; but contains similar seeds and pulp to
the Belle Apple. It is generally eaten with wine and sugar,
and esteemed by many superior in flavor.
The Pine-apple (Bromelia ananas) is too well known to
need any description. Few are raised in St. Thomas, but
they are often brought in abundance from other islands.
Although supposed that in the West Indies, especially,
“Its luscious fruit Ananas rears,
Amid its coronet of spears.”
yet we seldom meet it in perfection, nor do we consider it a
wholesome fruit.
The Mango (Mangibera indica) is abundant in the
island during the hurricane months. The fruit is kidney-
shaped, with a very large nut in the centre of the same
224 - BOT ANY.
form. It grows on large trees, much resembling the com-
mon chestnut-tree of the United States. There are many
varieties of this fruit, some too strongly flavored with turpen-
time to be palatable; others much resembling a peach, and
hence called the peach mango. Although much sought
after and eaten by all classes, they are denounced by some
physicians as inducing various diseases.
The Guava (Psidium pomiferum) grows wild on a shrub,
in every part of the island. The blossom is much like the
plum or cherry blossom of the north, and the fruit is easily
mistaken at a short distance for the lime. Though very
pleasant in flavor, it is seldom eaten as fruit, owing to the
hard seeds of which it is principally composed. From this
is made the Guava jelly so deservedly popular.
The Pomegranate (Punica mana) is cultivated more as
a flowering shrub than as a fruit tree. It has a thick skin,
often of the most brilliant rose color, which when removed
exposes the amber-like seeds of which it is composed. The
pulp covering these seeds alone is eaten. They are seldom
offered except to children.
The Papaw (Carica papaya) is scarcely used except
when very young; it is then preserved. The milky juice
of the tree possesses the power of rendering meat tender
when washed in it. But it is seldom used for that purpose.
The Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is of a bright yel-
low color, sometimes tipped with red, and much resembles
a large pepper in appearance, although essentially unlike 113
having a kidney-shaped nut growing on the end. The
BOT ANY. 225
flavor of this fruit is very acrid ; and the nut, though con-
sidered poisonous when raw, is readily eaten when roasted.
The Mammee (Mammea americana) is not unlike the
northern russet apple, but much larger. The skin is very
thick, but the flavor is exceedingly agreeable. Its fragrance,
too, is remarkable. Notwithstanding, it is not generally
eaten raw, being highly indigestible.
The Sour Sop (Annona muricata) is very abundant.
The fruit is of a dark green, kidney-shaped, covered with a
thin prickly skin. The flavor is a most agreeable acid; and
when the juice is extracted and frozen, it is considered one
of our finest ices. From its singular appearance and flavor
strangers have compared its pulp to “cotton steeped in
sweetened vinegar.” -
The Sugar Apple (Anona squamosa) resembles in ap-
pearance the burr of the pine tree of the north, and is, of
course, a beautiful fruit. It is, however, very sweet and
insipid.
The Custard Apple (Anoma reticulata) is round, with a
smooth, yellow skin, beneath which is a soft substance
thought to resemble custard, and hence its name.
The Star Apple (Chrysophyllum cainito) is about the
size of a large plum, of a pale green color, and when cut
Open, the seeds lie around the centre in the form of a star.
Another species, called the Palmete, is of a purple color.
Both have a milky juice. They are rare and but little
eaten.
The Cocoa Witt (Cocos nucifera), so frequently met with
at the north, is abundant in all the islands; while the tree
226 BOTANY.
is one of the most important and ornamental of our palms;
the fruit is much sought after for its delicious water or
milk. In the tropics the hard cocoa nuts are little used
except for cakes, etc., but all classes eagerly seek the young
and soft nut, which contains little except water; and is not
only used by persons in health, but given by physicians as a
refreshing beverage, in cases of fever.
The Genip (Melecocca bijuga), Sea-side Grape (Cocco-
loba urifera), Chereise (Malpighea glabra), Jamaica Plum
(Spondias lutea), Guava Berry (Eugenia floribunda),
Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus), Cocoa Plum (Chrysoba-
lamis icaco), Limes and Shaddock, with the Forbidden
Fruit, are also found in the island, but generally preserved,
few being palatable when eaten as fruit.
There is also a species of the Bread Fruit, which is a
collection of nuts under one skin or covering. But this is
seldom found, and but little used.
BOTANY. 227
B O TA NY.
THE following Catalogue of Plants, wild and cultivated in
the Island, has been prepared after nine years' careful study
and observation. Few or none of the West India Islands
have been so thoroughly explored in Botanical research as
St Thomas. This has been done by the celebrated botanists
West, Ravn, and Erenreich. We have not hesitated to
avail ourselves of their works. It will be seen that the
catalogue numbers 1,220 plants. When it is remem-
bered that the island contains only 37 square miles, this
wonderful development of vegetable life can only be ac-
counted for by the tropical heat. Greenland, with its 20,000
square miles, according to Mörck and Raben, only contains
407 phanerogamic plants. What a contrast this, showing
the influence of temperature. upon the vegetable kingdom
A brief account of the distribution of the plants through-
out the island according to the particularities of location,
will add to the value of the catalogue. It must be borne in
mind that the island is almost a mass of rocks, with a very
light soil, and but very few springs or streams of running water.
The sand on the sea-shore being exposed to the greatest
228 BOT ANY.
heat, and the salt spray from the ocean, bears but very few
plants. Still the following are here found, Tournefortia
gnaphaloides, Br., Sessuvium portulacastrum, Linn.,
Rumex vesicarius, Iresina crasa-ipomoea pes caprae, Sw.,
Cakile aequalis, L’Herit., Parthenium integrifolium, Atriplex
eristatum, Pilocarpus pauciflorus, Hudsonia tomentosa,
and Tournefortia glabra. The Zagoons yield the Avicennia
tomentosa and nitida, the predominating, and in many
places the sole occupant of the shores, even growing in the
water, and the Canocarpus erecta. This latter is never
close to the water’s edge. Stones in and near the lagoons
are covered with several species of Parmelia.
Where the rocks form cliffs on the shore, and a light
soil is collected in fissures, we find plants of great variety
and particular beauty, especially the many-formed species of
Cactus. Here the Melocactus flourishes often with scarcely
any root, and we have seen the M. communis under these
circumstances so large as to weigh from 20 to 25lbs. This
plant will thrive on a bare stone wall, where it is often
placed as an ornament. Here also are the Cereus lanu-
ginosus, which reaches the height of 20 or 30 feet with a
sinus at the trunk of 12 inches, Mamelania nimosa, and
Opuntia picus, and pusilla. The Cereus strictus is found in
these places but is rare. With the exceptions of Opuntia
curassavica and Cereus triangularis, which have been found
at a considerable height, the Cacti rarely ascend higher
than 300 feet above the level of the sea. It is also in this
division the species of Agave must be included, which when
flowering give a particular tone to the whole tract by their
BOT ANY. 229
flower stock rising to the height often of 30 feet. On these
barren rocks which form the cliffs are found Pitcairnia
angustiflora and latifolia, Jacquemontia violacea, Cassia
prostrata flourishing well. Plumieria alba is the largest
shrub on these cliffs; and notwithstanding the barrenness of
the soil, will at certain seasons, when broken, yield an
astonishing abundance of milky juice. This shrub is often
found at the height of 600 feet. In this division must also be
included Heliopsis buphthalmoides, Argothamnia candicans,
Croton betulinus, Hudsonia tomentosa, Epidendrum elon-
gatum, and Anthacanthus squamosa. These reach up from
100 to 200 feet.
Erom the level of the sea to a height of 300 feet, the
2000ds or thickets are formed by the Bucida buceras, Thura
crepitans, Eriodendrum infractuosum, the three largest
trees—Tamarindus indicus, Crescentia cupieta, Ficus
lavigata, Guazuma ulmifolia, Bursera gummifera and
many other trees. Here are also the trees belonging to the
2d order, among which are the Acacia, Pictetia, Tecoma,
Plumieria, Anona, and others.
The plants of this division which are remarkable for their
fine flowers, are Antherylium, Citharoxylon, Jacquinea,
Juga, Agati, Cassia, Caparis. The largest number of
climbing plants belong to this division, among which are
Bignoniaceae, Convolvulaceae, and Passifloreae, remarkable for
the size and color of their flowers. Here, too, are all the
Palms, with one exception.
From 300 to 800 feet are found the Croton, Euphorbia,
11
230 CATALOGUE.
Cestrum, Cordia, and many others. Some of these are pre-
dominating.
Above 800 feet are found the species of Piper, Filices
(Ferns,) Pothos, Caseraria, Epidendrums.
The plants thus specified as belonging to certain divisions,
are also at times intermixed with others.
In the flora of the island are also included foreign plants;
but they properly belong to it, as they have become ac-
climated.
CATALOG UE OF PIANTS FOUND ON TIIL ISL AND OF
ST. THOMAS, W. I.
A Acalypha corchorifolia, W.
Abrus praecatorius, Linn. Wild Liquo- {{ Teptans, Sw.
7°ice. Acanthophora thierii, Lam.
Acacia acantholaba, H. and B. Acetabularia crenulata, Limz.
“ acicularis, II, and B. Achynanthes aspera, Linn.
“ catechu, W. Acnistus cauliflorus, Schatt.
“ tarnesiana, W. Casha. Acrocomia fusiformis.
“ flexuosa, H. and B. Acrostichum aureum, Linn.
‘‘ glauca, W. Adenanthera pavonina, Linn. Circassian,
“ latisiliqua, W. JBean.
“ lebbek, W. Thibet Tree. Adenostemma Swartzii, Cass.
“ macracanthoides, Bert. Adhatoda eustachiana, D. C.
“ macrostachya, Reich, “ carthagienensis, D. C.
“ nigricans, R. B. . “ lithospermifolia, Jacq.
“ nudiflora, W. “ periplocifolia, D. C.
“ obtusa, H. and B. {{ Sphaerosperma, D. E.
“ parvifolia, W. Adiantum cuneatum, Lgd. and Fisk.
“ platylaba, Bert, {{ denticulatum, Sw.
“ procera, W. £6 falcatum, Sw.
“ salinarum, D. C. “ intermedium, Sw,
“ sarmentosa, DesV. “ rhomboideum, H. B. and K.
“ westiana, D.C. “ striatum, Sw.
CATALOG (J E.
231
Adiantum tenerum, Sw. Maiden Hair.
AEchmea paniculata, R. and P.
AEgiphila martinicensis, Linn.
{{ trifida, Sw. Spirit Wood.
AEschynomene americana, Linn.
{& sensitiva, Sw.
Agati coccinea, DesV. ^,
“ grandiflora, Desv.
Agave americana, Linn. Carata—Maº-
pole.
“... mexicana, Hav.
“ vivipara, Linn.
Ageratum conyzoides, Linn.
Allamanda cathartica, Linn.
Allium ascalonicum, Linn. Shalot.
cepa, Linn. Onion.
porrum, Linn. Leek.
sativum, Linn. Garlick.
scorodoprasum, Linn. Rocam-
bole.
Allosorus dealbatus, Presl.
Aloe vulgaris, Cand. Semper Vive.
Alpinia nutans, Rafe. Shell Plant.
Alsidium Seaforthii, Ag.
“ triangulare, T. Ag.
Alternanthera richardii, D. C.
6% sessilis, R. B.
Althaea rosea, Cav.
Alysicarpus vaginalis, D. C.
Amarantus paniculatus, D. C. Cater-
pillar.
{{ spinosus, L. Spined Cater-
pillar.
Amaryllis atamasco, Linn.
belladonna.
equestris, Ait.
formosissima, Linn.
pumilio, Ait.
Amblogyna polygonoides, D. C.
Ambrosia artimisiaefolia, Linn.
Amerimnum brownii, Sw.
Ammania sanguinolenta, Sw.
Amomum sylvestre, Sw.
Arachis hypogaea, Linn.
Amyris Sylvatica, Jacq.
Anacardium occidentale, Linn. Cashew.
Andira inermis, H. B. and K.
Andromeda fasciculata, Sw.
Andropogon alopecuroides, Linn.
{{ bicolor, Roxb. Guinea,
Corm.
{ % cernuus, Roxb.
“. . tschaemum, Linn.
{{ saccharatus, Roxb.
{{ schoºnanthus, Linn. Lemon,
Grass.
- {{ sorghum, Brot. Guinea
Corm.
Anethum graveolens, Linn, Dill.
Anguria trilobata, Linn.
Anona cherimolia, Mill.
“ cinerea, Dunal.
glabra, Linn. Wild Sowr Sap.
laurifolia, Drunal.
“ muricata, Linn. Sowr Sop.
“ palustris, Linn. Dog Apple.
“ reticulata, Linn. Custard Apple.
Squamosa, Linn. Sugar Apple.
Anthacanthus armatus, D. C.
{{ spinosus, D. C.
{{ {{
horridus.
Anthephora elegans, Schreb.
Antherylium rohrii, Wahl.
Apium graveolens, Linn. Celery.
Pindals—
Ground Wut.
Areca oleracea, Jacq.
Ardisia coriacea, Sw.
Cabbage Tree.
Argemone mexicana, Linn.
Thºstle,
Argothamnia candicans, Sw.
Aristida capillacea, Lam.
{{ plumosa, Linn.
stricta, Mich.
Aristolochia anguicida, Linn.
{{ trilobata, Linn.
Arrhostoxylum coccineum, N. a. E.
Yellow-
{{
232
CATALOG UE.
Artocarpus incisus, L. Bread Fruit Tree.
Arum hederaceum, Linn,
{{ {{ majus, Decourt.
“ lingulatum, Linn.
“ pictum, Linn.
Arundo donax, Linn. Cultivated Reed.
Asclepias curasavica, Linn. Bastard
Ipecacuanha.
Asparagus officimalis, Linn.
Grass.
Aspidium plumierii, Presl.
4% trifoliatum, Sw.
Asplenium pumilum, Sw.
Averrhoa caramboba, Linn.
Sparrow-
{{ bilimbi, Linn.
Avicennia nitida, Jacq.
{{ tomontosa, Jacq.
B
Bambusa arundinacea, Willd.
Banisteria dichotoma, Linn.
{{ emarginata, Caw.
{{ floribunda, D. C.
eſ. periplocaefolia, Desp.
Batatas edulis, Chais. Sweet Potatoe.
“ littoralis, Chais.
“ pentaphylla, Chais.
“ quinquefolia, Chais.
Batis maritima, R. Br.
Bauhinia pubescens, D. C.
Beloperone nemerosa, D. C.
Beta vulgaris, Moc. Red Beet.
Bidens bipinnata, Linn.
“ heterophyllum, Ort.
“ leucantha, W.
“ pilosa, Linn.
“ portoricensis, Spr.
Bignonia unguis, Linn. Cat-Claw.
Bixa orellana, Linn. Armotto Ramcato.
Blechnum occidentale, L.
{{ angustifolium, R. Br.
{ % brownii, Juss.
Bletia verecunda, R. Br.
Boerhavia decumbens, Wahl. Hog-Weed.
{{ erecta, Linn.
{{ hirsuta, Linn.
“ paniculata, Rich.
( ; scandens, Linn.
Bombax Septematum, Jacq.
Bontia daphnoides, Linn.
Borassus flabelliformis, Linn.
Borrenia densiflora, D. C.
{{ Spinosa, Chamb.
{{ stricta, Meyer.
“ verticillata, Meyer.
Borrichia arborescens, D. C.
Tobacco.
{{ frutescens, D. C.
Drossica napus, Linn.
{ % oleracea capitata, Linn.
Cabbage.
{{ £6
Wºźd.
J/ead-
crispa, Linn. Cab-
bage.
“ rapa, Linn. Turnip.
Bromelia ananas, Linn. Pineapple.
“ pinguin, Linn. Pingwºn.
I3roussonetia plumierii, Sp.
{{ tinctoria, Kunth.
Brunfelsia americana, Sw. Rain Tree,
“ undulata, Sw.
Brya ebenus, D. C.
Bryonia ficifolia, Lam,
IBryophyllum calycinum, Salisb.
Bucida buceras, Linn. Gregeng.
Bumelia reclinata, Went.
£6 retusa, Sw.
Dunchosia media, D. C.
{{ nitida, D. C.
{{ palystachya, D. C.
Bursera gummifera, Jacq.
or Gºwm, Tree.
ByrSannima coriacea, D. C. Locust berry
Tree,
“ laevigata, D. C.
“ lucida, D. C. .
“ spicata, D. C.
Turpentine
CATALOGUE.
233
C
Caesalpina coriaria, W.
{{ glandulosa, Bert.
Sappan, Linn.
Cajanus flavus, D. C.
Cakile aequalis, L'Herit.
“ americana, Nutt.
6%
Caladium arborescens, Went. Dumb-
Came.
{{ esculentum, Went. Tanier.
4% Seguinum, Went. JDwmb
Came.
Calendula officinalis, Linn.
Calliopsis bicolor, Reich.
Callisia repens, Loff.
Calomyctyon speciosum, Chais,
Calophyllum calaba, Jacq.
calotropis aspera, R. Br.
{{ gigantea, D. C.
procera, R. Bro.
Calycephyllum coccineum, D. C.
Calyptranthes chytracula, Sw.
Campyloneurum phyllitidis, Prezl.
Gé repens, Presl.
Canavalia ensiformis, D. C.
Canella alba, Murr. Winter Bark.
Canna coccinea, Ait. Scarlet Indian
AShot.
Gº
{{
glauca, Linn.
indica, Ait.
Shot.
{ %
{ { Com/mon India/m.
occidentalis, Bosc.
Caperonia palustris, Hibar.
Caparis amydalina, Lam.
“ breynia, Linn.
cynophallophora, Linn. Lingwan
(4.
Tree.
“ eustachiana, Jacq.
“ ferruginea, Linn.
intermedia, H. B. and K.
“ pauciflora, II. B. and K.
“ saligna, Wahl,
Spinosa, Linn.
{{
{{
Caparis tenuisiliqua, Jacq.
“ torulosa, Sw.
Capraria biflora, Linn. Goat Weed.
Capsicum annuum, L. Pepper.
{{ baccatum, Linn. Bird's Pep-
per.
4% frutescens, Linn. Small Pep-
per.
Cardiospermum corindum, Linn.
&é halicacabum, Linn. Wild-
Parsley.
Carica papaya, Linn. Pawpaw.
Carolinea alba, Lodd.
Cascaria parviflora, W. Wild Honey-
Tree.
“ ramiflora, Wahl.
Cassia alata, Linn. Ringºcorm Tree.
bicapsularis, Linn. Styver Bush.
chamaecrista, Linn.
{& stricta, Schrank.
frutescens, Mill.
glandulosa, Linn.
hecatophylla, D. C.
macrophylla, Kunth.
nictitans, Linn.
obovata, Call.
obtusifolia, Linn. Senna.
occidentalis, Linn. Stinking-
TWeed.
occ. glabra, D. C.
“ aristata, D. C.
prostrata, EI. and B.
riparia, H. B. and K.
tora, Linn.
Viminea, Linn.
Castela depressa, Turp.
Catasetum tridentatum, Hook.
Cattleya labiata, Lind.
Caulerpa clavifera, Ag.
cupessoides, Ag.
pennata, Lamrx.
plumaris, Ag.
prolifer, Ag,
23.4
CATALOGUE.
Caulerpa Selago, Ag.
“ urifera, Ag.
Caulinia guadalaupensis, Spn.
Cea othus colubrinus, Lam.
ferreus, D. C.
lavigatus, L'Herit.
reclinatus, L'Herit.
Sarcomphalus, D. C.
Cecropia peltata, Linn. Trumpet Wood.
Celosia argentea, Linn.
“ cristata, D. C. Cock's-Comb.
paniculata, Linn.
Celtis aculeata, Sw.
“ australis, L.
Cenchrus echinatus, Linn. Burgrass.
“ laevigatus, Trin.
tribuloides, Linn.
Ceramium diaphanum, Roth.
{{ Tubrum, Ag.
{{ nitens, Ag.
Cereus lanuginosus, Haw.
“ peruvianus, Tabern.
strictus, D. C.
triangularis, Haw. Strawberry-
ſpear. *
Cestrum citrifolium, Retz.
4%
{{
{ %
{{
{{
{{
diurnum, Linn.
laurifolium, L'Her.
nocturnum, Linn. Lady of the
{{
6%
7vight,
“ vespertinum, Linn.
Chamissoa altissima, Humb.
Chenopodium anthelminthicum, Linn.
Wor'77. Seed-weed.
{{ Spatulatum, Lieb.
Chiococca racemosa, Jacq. Candle-weed.
{{ {{ laxiflora, D. C.
Chloris cruciata, Sw.
{{ radiata, Sw. Plush-grass.
Chomelia fasciculata, Swartz.
Chondria papilosa, Ag.
Chrysobalanus teaco, Linn. Cocoa-p/w/m.
Chrysophyllum cainito, Linn. Star-
Apple.
{{ glabrum, Jacq. Wild
Cadmºt.
& 4 microcarpum, Sw.—
Damson Plum.
4% rugosum, Sw.
Cissampelos pareira, Lam. Velvet-leaf.
Cissus acida, L.
“ obovata, Wahl.
Ovata, Lam.
Sicyoides, Linn.
trifoliata, Jacq.
{{
{{
Gº
Citharoxylon cinereum, Linn. Old
Woman's Bitter.
{{ quadrangulare, Jacq.- .
J'iddle-wood.
{{
villosum, Jacq.
Citrus aurantium, Risso. Sweet Orange.
ASeville Orange.
“ buxifolius,
Jºrºvić.
{{ decumana, Linn. Shaddock.
limonum, Risso. Lime.
medica, Risso. Citron.
Claytonia perfoliata, Donn.
Padr. Forbidden-
{{
{{
Cleome pentaphylla, D. C.
“ pubescens, Sims.
Spinosa, Linn.
triphylla, D. C.
Clibadium asperum, D. C.
7)
({
{{
erosum, D. C.
Clitoria plumieri, Turp.
” ternatea, Linn. Blue-wine,
” virginiana, Linn.
alba, Linn.
rubra, Linn.
Coccocypselum Spicatum, I&unth.
Coccoloba barbadensis, Jacq.
55 excoriata, Ilinn.
latifolia, Lam.
microstachya, W.
Clusia
3)
35
35
CATALOGUE.
Coccoloba nivea, Jacq.
23 obtusifolia Jacq.
punctata, Linn. Red-wood.
uvifera, L. Seaside-grapé.
Cocos nucifera, Linn. Cocoa-nut,
Codium elongatum, Ag.
Coffea arabica, L. Coffee-Tree.
Coix lachryma, Linn. Job's Tears.
Comelina communis, Linn. French-
weed—Pond-grass.
3) elegans, Humb.
gracilis, R. and P.
longicaulis, Jacq.
Comocladium ilicifolia, Sw.
Conferva aenea var. Occ., Martens.
clavata, Ag,
dispansa, Ag.
distans var. Subtilis, Linn.
membranacea, Ag.
trichotoma, Ag.
Conocarpus erecta, H. B. and K. Button-
Tree.
3)
7)
Y?
3)
33
erecta arborea, D. C.
Conostegia procera, Don.
Convolvulus nodiflorus, Desv.
COTchorus acutangulus, Lam.
7) hirsutus, Linn.
hirtus, Linn.
Siliquosus, Linn. Broom-weed.
Cordia elliptica, Sw.
geraScanthus, Jacq.
myxa, Linn. Africa?, plwm.
macrophylla, Mill.
Sulcata, D. C.
ulmifolia, Juss.
77 ovata, D. C.
Corypha umbraculifera, Linn.
Crataeva gynandra, Linn.
ſpear.
Y}
37
$ )
Garlick:-
tapia, Linn.
Crescentia acuminata, IH. B. and K.
33 cucurbitina, Linn.
Cupeta, Linn, Calabash Tree,
57
Cribraria purpurea, Alt. and SW.
Crinum erubescenS, Ait.
Crassandra infundibuliformis, N. ab E.
Crotalaria incana, Linn. Rattle-bush–
Shake-Shake.
latifolia, Linn.
mucronata, DeSV.
retusa, Linn. Yellow Lupin.
verrucosa, Linn.
obtusa, D. C.
Croton astroites, Ait.
balsamifer, Linn.
betulinus, Wabl.
busioides, Wahl.
chamaedryfolius, Lam,
corylifolius, Lam.
diffusus, Rich.
discolor, Rich.
flaveus, Linn.
trilobatus, Willd.
Cucumis anguria, Linn.
3) citrullus, Ser.
flexuosus, Linn.
melo maltensis, Linn. Musk-
Water-melon.
3%
39
” sativus, Linn. Cucumber.
Cucurbita melopepo, Linn. Pumpkin.
pepo, Linn. Squash.
CuScuta americana, Linn.
33
**
corymbosa, R. and P.
racemosa minuta, Chods.
Cycas revoluta, Thunb. Sago-palm.
Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Creeping-
Dogstooth-grass. Devil’s-grass.
Cyperus brunneus, Sw.
distans, Linn.
ehrenbergii, Kunth.
elegans, Linn.
terax, Rich.
haspan, Linn.
ligularis, Linn.
odoratus, L.
rotundus, L. Nut-grass.
**
236
CATALOGUE.
Cyperus tenuus, Sw.
“ viscosus, Ait.
D
Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Willd.
Dahlia variabilis, Desf.
X)alechampia Scandens, Linn.
Latura arborea, L.
“ fastuosa, L. Thorn Apple.
metel, L.
Stramonium, Linn. Thorn Apple
Carrot.
{{
46
Daucus carota, Linn.
Davallia aculeata, Sw,
Desmanthus depressus, H. and B.
“ punctatus, Willd.
“ virgatus, D. C.
Desmodium axillare, D. C.
{{ incanum, D. C. .
&% molle, D. C.
oblongifolium, D. C.
reptans, D. C.
Scorpiurus, DesV.
spirale, D. C.
supinum, D. C.
tortuosum, D. C.
triflorum, D. C.
Dianthus chinensis, Linn.
4% caryophyllus, Linn. Carma-
tion.
Dicromena ciliata, Wahl.
G6 leucocephala, Midr.
Dictyota atomaria, Greville.
“ dichotoma, Lamrx,
“ linearia, Grew.
Digenia simplex, Ag.
Dioscorea alata, Linn. Red-Yam.
4% bulbifera, Linn.
{{ sagittata, Pair.
4% sativa, Linn.
Distictis lactiflora, D. C.
Distreptus spicatus, Cass and LeSS.
Ditaxis fasciculata, Juss.
Dodecatheon meadia, Linn.
Yaſm.
Dodonaea viscosa, Linn
Dolichos luteas, Swartz. Eatable mild-
pé0.
“ sesquipedalis, Linn. Halifaa:-
J’ea.
{{ sphaerospermus, D. C. Black-
eye Pea.
Dolichos vexillatus, H. B. and K.
Dracaena ferrea, Linn. Dragon's-blood.
Dracontium lanceaefolia, Jacq.
Drepanocarpus lunatus, Meyer.
Drymaria cordata, W.
Duranta plumierii, Linn.
E
Ecastaphyllum brownii, Pers.
Echites agglutinata, Jacq.
biflora, L.
circinales, Sw.
thomasiana, D. C.
nitida, Wahl.
Suberecta, Jacq.
Fgletes domingensis.
4% glabrata, CaSS.
Ehretia bourneria, Linn.
{{ tinifolia, Linn.
Eleocharis capitata, Brown.
{{ geniculata, Br. Kneejointed-
Club-Rush.
{{ interstincta, Brown.
{{ mutata, Brown. Common-
Rush.
Elephantopus mollis, H. B. and K.
IEleusine mucronata, Muehl.
{{ indica, Gaertu. Devil’s-Tail-
Grass.
Emilia sonchifolia, D. C.
Epidendrum bicornutum, Sw.
{{ bifidum, Aubl.
{ % ciliate, Linn.
Epidendrum elongatum, Jacq.
Franthenium acanthoides, Spr.
{{ bicolor, Schranck.
CATALOGUE.
237
Erechtites hieracifolia, Raf.
Erigeron canadens, Linn.
“ jamaicense, L.
“ lavigatum, Rich.
“ spathulatum, West.
Eriodendrum infractuosum, D. C.
4% V. caribaeum. Silk-cotton-
Th’ee.
Erithalis fruticosa, Linn.
Trythrina corallodendron, Linn.
Tree.
{{ glauca, W.
“ crista galli, Linn.
” Spinosa, Andr. Cock's-spur,
Erythroxylum areolatum, Linn.
Eugenia axillaris, Poir.
” buxifolia, W.
” cordata, D. C.
” disticha, D. C.
” floribunda, West.
” foetida, Pets.
” fragrans, W.
” lancea, Poir.
” ligustrina, W.
” lineata, D. C.
” michelii, Lam.
” pimenta, D. C.
” procera, Pair.
” pseudo-psidium, Jacq.
Eugenia Sessiliflora, D.C.
” virgultosa, D. C.
Eupatorium atriplicipolium, Wahl.
Coral-
$3 sinescens, Wahl.
73 macranthum, Sw.
35 Odoratum, Linn.
3? repandum, W.
Euphorbia antiquorum, Linn.
}} articulata, Lam.
}} 35 rotundifolia, Kr.
77 cotonifolia, Linn.
3? geniculata, Ortg.
39 glabrata, Wahl.
heterophylla, Linn.
1.1%
Euphorbia hypericifolia, Linn.
35 linarifolia, Willd.
neriifolia, Linn.
35 obliterata, Jacq.
33 petiolaris, Linn.
37 pilulifera, Linn.
3) prostrata, Ait.
3% punicea, Sw.
Eustachys petraea, DeSv.
Euxolus oleraceus, D. C. Lu/mboo.
” viridis, D. C.
Evolvulus linifolius, Linn.
“ numularius, Linn.
Excoccaria lucida, Sw.
Exogonium filiforme, Chois.
Exostemma caribaeum, R. and Sch,
F
Faramea odoratissima, D. C.
Ficus laevigata, Wahl.
“ pedunculata, Ait.
“ carica, Linn.
“ serratus, Linn.
Fimbristylus ferruginea, Wahl.
$5 Spadicea, Wahl.
Fischeria scandens, D. C.
Faeniculum Vulgare, Gaertu. Fennel.
Furcellaria acanthophora, Ag.
G
Galatia pendula, Pers.
Gardenia florida, Linn.
{{ “ fl. pleno. Cape Jasmin.
{{ latifolia, Ait.
Gaertnera Vaginata, Lam,
Genipa americana, Linn.
Geophila reniformis, Ch, and Schl.
Gloxinia Speeiosa, Lodd.
Glycine striata, L. fil.
Gamphrena globosa, Linn.
Autto”.
Goniopteris crenata, Presl.
Ç megalodes, Schk.
JBachelor-
238
CATALOG.U.E.
Goniopteris tetragona, Presl.
Gonzalea panamensis, Pers.
{{ spicata, D C.
Gordonia haematoxylon, Sw.
Gossypium barbadense, Linn.
22 herbaceum, Linn.
Gouania domingensis, Linn.
” tomentosa, Jacq.
Graptophyllum hortense, N. ab. E.
Guaiacum officinale, Linn. Lignum-
Wºłóp.
Guazuma ulmifolia, Linn.
Guettarda elliptica, Sw.
3) parviflora, Wahl.
73 Scabra, Lam.
Guillandia bonduc, Ait. Yellow Wicker.
33 bonduc minus.
Gymnogramma calomelanos, Kaulf.
3) peruviana, DesV.
33 tartarea, Desv.
Gunandropsis pentaphylla, L.
H
Haematoxylon campechiannm, Linn.
Halopteris scolopendrina, Presl.
Halyseris delicatula, Ag.
3) polypodioides, Ag.
Hamelia patens, Jacq.
Hebeclinium macrophyllum, D. C.
Helianthus annuus, Linn.
25 multiflorus, Linn.
Helicteres jamaicensis, Jacq.
73 isora, Linn.
3% verbascifolia, Link.
Heliophytum indicum, D. C.
3) parviflorum, D. C.
Heliopsis buphthalmoides, Dunal.
Heliotropium curasavicum, L.
3) fruticosum, L.
Heliotropium peruvianum, L.
Herpestis monnieria, H. B. and K.
77 stricta, Schrad.
Heteropteris purpurea, H, B, and K.
Hibiscus abelmoschus, Linn.
37 bifurcatus, Cav.
3} canabinus, Linn.
” domingensis, Jacq.
” esculentus, Linn. Ochro, Ochra,
JCºm/camboo.
“ maculatus, DesV.
{{ micans, Cav.
“ mutabilis, Linn. Changeable
“ phoeniceus, W. Dwarf Hibis-
“ rosa sinensis, Linn. Chinese
“ sabdariff, Linn. Red-Sorrel.
40. tiliaceus, L.
Hippocratea ovata, Lam.
Hippomane mancinella, Linn. Manchi-
aneel, Mangemeel.
Holosteum diandrum, Sw.
Hudsonia tomentosa, Nutt.
Hura crepitans, L. Sandboat-Tree.
Hutchinsia pericladus, Ag:
Hydrangia horteria, D. C.
Hymenaea coarbaril, Linn. Locust-Tree.
Hypnea musciformis, Lnrx.
Hyptis brevipes, Poit.
“ capitata, Jacq. Wild Hops.
“ ebracteata, Poit. Wild Spike-
7va/ra. -
“ pectinata, R. Br.
“ verticillata, Jacq.
J
Jacquemotia violacea, Chois.
Jacquinia arborea, Wahl.
{{ armillaris, Jacq.
Jambosa vulgaris, D. C. Poſne Rose-
Tree.
Isachne dubia, Kunth.
Jasminum arborescens, Roxb.
{{ aZOricum, Linn.
CATALOGUE.
23.9
Jasminum hirsutum, Linn. Hairy
Jasmin.
{{ officinale, Linn. White Jas-
7m/in.
4% pubescens, Wild.
{{ revolutum, Linn. Nepaul
Jasmin.
Jatropha cureas, Linn. Physic-Nut.
“ gossypifolium, Linn.
“ manihot, Kunth. Casava.
“ multifida, L. -
Icaca altissima, Aubl.
Illecebrum achyranthe, W.
Impatiens balsamima, Linn.
Indigofera anil, Linn.
Juga cinerea, H. and B.
“ heterophylla, W.
“ laurina, W.
“ purpurea, W. Soldier-wood.
“ unguis cati, W.
Jonidium strictum, Went.
Ipomoea dumetorum, Willd.
“ fastigiata, Sw.
“, incarnata, Chois.
4& pes caprae, Sw.
{{ setifera, Pair.
“ Sagittata, Desf.
“. . sinuata, Ort.
“ triloba, Linn.
( & tuberosa, Linn.
“ umbellata, Meyen.
{{ ventricosa, D. C.
Iresina aggregata, D. C.
“ crassifolia, D. C.
“ elatior, Richt.
“ vermicularis, D. C.
Isolepis articulata, N. ab. Es.
“ palidiflora, D. C.
Isotoma longiflora, D.C.
Jussia’a acuminata, S.W.
“ erecta, Linn.
{{ Gº plumeriana.
“ dodecandra, D. C.
Isotoma hirta, Wahl.
Ixora stricta, Roxb.
* --
K
Ralstroemeria maxima, W. and Au.
Kieseria Sericea, Reinu.
Kyllingia pumila, Mx.
L
Lablab vulgaris, Sav.
albiflorus, D. C.
Lactuca canadensis, Linn.
“ sativa, Linn.
Lagerstroemia regina, Roxb.
Flowers.
Lagetta lintearia, JusS.
Laguncularia racemosa, Gaert.
Lantana polyacantha, D. C.
“ crocea, Jacq.
“ involucrata, Linn. Button Sage.
Laurencia papillosa, Grenvill.
Lappago racemosa, Schreb.
Laurus coriacea, Sw.
Lawsonia alba, Lam.
Leonotis nepetaefolia, R. Br.
Leonurus sibericus, Linn. Motherwort.
Lipidium virginiacum, L. Wild Pepper-
graSS.
Liria albicans, D. C.
“ nutans, D. D.
Leucas martinieensis, R. Br.
{{ {{
Queen of
Liagora pulverulenta, Ag.
“ viscida, Ag.
Linociera compacta, R. Br.
Liparis labiata, Linn.
Lithobrochia pedata, Presl.
Loasa triloba, Juss.
Lomentaria ovalis, Endl.
Lonchitis aurita, Linn.
Lonicera flava, Sims.
Loranthus occidentalis, Linn.
“ pauciflorus, Sw.
Lorentea humifusa, Less.
.*
240
CATALOGUE.
Lourea vespertilionis, Desv.
Lycopersicum esculentum, Dun. Tomato,
M
Malachra capitata, Linn.
Ochro.
46
JBC.Stard-
radiata, Linn.
Malpighia coccifera, Linn.
{{ fucata, Ker.
glabra, Linn.
punicifolia, Linn.
Chereeze, Cherris.
{{ Setosa, Bert.
urens, Linn. Cowhage Cherry.
Malva americana, Linn.
“ capitata, Linn.
“ spicata, Linn.
Mammea americana, Linn. Mammey.
Mangifera indica, Linn. Mango,
Mappa tanaria, Spr.
Marantha arundinacea, Linn.
Marginaria angustifolia, Presl.
&Q
{{
{{ Chereese,
&ć
incana, Presl.
piloselloides, Presl.
serpens, Presl.
Melastoma nodosa, Desv.
Melia azedarach, L. Lilac.
{{
{{
G6
sempervirens, Sw.
Melicocca bijuga, Linn. Kanappy.
Melocactus communis, Link and Otto.
40 oblongus, L. & O.
macrocephalus, L.
{{
{{
and O.
Melochia pyramidata, Linn.
“ tomentosa, Linn. Broom-wood.
Melothria pendula, Linn.
Menais topiaria, Linn.
Mentha crispa, Linn.
“ piperita, Linn. Peppermint.
viridis, Linn. Spearmint.
Metastelma parviflorum, R. Br.
Miconia pyramidalis, D. C.
Microrynchus nudicaulis, Less.
{{
4%
Mikania conoclada, D. C.
Milium lanatum, R. and Sch.
Mimosa ceratonia, Linn.
“ pudica glabrata, D. C. Sensitive
Plant.
Mirabilis dichotoma, Linn. Fow" o'clock.
“ jalappa, Linn.
Mollugo bellifolia, Ser.
Momordica charantia, Linn.
{{ abreviata, Sw.
Morinda citrifolia, Linn.
Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn.
Morisonia americana, Linn.
Mourinia gujanensis, Aull.
Morus tinctoria, Linn. Fustic-wood.
Mucuna pruriens, D. C. Cow-Itch.
“ urens, D. C. Oa:-eye beam.
Muehlenbergia tenuissima, Kunth.
Muntingia calabura, Linn.
Musa paradisiaca, Linn.
{{
{{
Platºntain.
rosea, Jacq.
Sapientum, Linn. Bandºva.
Myginda latifolia, Sw.
{{
(£
rhacoma, Sw.
Myrica acris, D. C. Bayberry Tree.
Myrospermum frutescens, Jacq.
Myrtus communis,
{{
Linn.
salutaris, H. B. and K.
N
Namajamaicensis, Linn.
Nasturtium officinale, R. Br.
Necotiana tabago, L. Tobacco.
Nerium oleander, Linn.
Neurolaena lobata, R. Br.
Nyctanthes sambac, L.
O
Obione cristata, D. C.
“ portulacoides, D. C.
Ocymum basilicum, L.
{{ {{
thyrsiſlorum, D. C.
Alea europaea, Linn.
CATALOGUE.
241
Oncidium altissimum, Sw.
{{ ceboletta, Sw.
papilio, Lindl. Butterfly.
pulchellum. Hook.
Suckers.
{{
{{
Opuntia curassavica, Mill.
ficus indica, Haw.
monacantha, D. C.
polyantha, Haw.
pusilla salm, Duck.
spinosissima, Mill.
vulgaris, Mill. Prickly Pear.
Oplismenus colonus, HI. and K. Purple
Panic Grass.
Origanum majorana, Linn.
Ormosia dasycarpa. Jacks.
Oxalis corniculata, Linn.
“ lyoni, Pursh.
“ pilosiuscula, H. B. and K.
P
Padina pavonia, Lamrx.
Paederia erecta, Roxb. •
Pachystachus coccinea, D. C.
Palicourea pavetta, D. C. Wild Cappel.
Pancratium caribaeum, Linn.
{{ undulatum, Kunth.
Pandanus odoratissimus, L. fil.
Panicum anceps, Mich.
aquaticum, Pair.
carthagenensis, Sw.
divaricatum, Linn.
distachyum, Linn. Short Grass.
jumentorum, Pers. Guinea
Grass.
molle, Sw.
maculatum, Aubl.
oryzoides, Sw.
pilosum, Sw.
repens, Sw.
sulcatum, Aubl.
Parkinsonia aculeata, Linn. Horse-beam,
Jerusalem-thorm.
Parmelia rocella, Ag.
Parthenium hysterophorus, Linn. Fever-
, few.
Paspalum caespitosum, Fluegg.
{{ conjugata, Berg.
glabrum, Pair.
gracile, Rudge.
laxum, Lam.
notatum, Fluegg. Savanna-
Grass.
{{ virgatum, Linn.
Passiflora angustifolia, Sw.
“ foetida, Caw. Love in the mist.
hibiscifolia, Lam.
laurifolia, Linn. Bel-apple.
maliformis, Linn.
minima, Jacq.
multiflora, Linn.
pallida, Linn.
pubescens, H. B. and K.
quadrangularis, Linn. Grana-
rubra, Linn.
suberosa, Linn. Tºnk. Wine.
tuberosa, Jacq.
Paulinia carthagenensis, Jacq. Basket-
wood.
{{
{{
pinnata, Linn.
Pavonia spinifex, W.
{{ ovalifolia, D. C.
Pectidium punctatum, Less.
Pectis ciliaris, Linn.
Pedilanthus padifolius, Poit.
{{ tithymaloides, Poit,
Pelargonium fisifolium, Pers.
{{ peltatum, Ait.
zanale, Willd.
Pelexia adnata, Spr.
Pereskia aculeata, Mill. Gooseberry
Shrub. e
Persea gratissima, Guertn. Avigata-
Pear. Alligator Pear.
“ leucoxylon, Spr.
Petiveria alliacea, Linn.
{{
{{
Gully-root.
242
CATALOGUE.
Petraea volubilis, Linn.
Petroselinum sativum, Haffen. Parsley.
Phaseolus lathyroides, Linn.
{{ Cumatus, Linn.
multiflorus, W. French beam.
Pharbitis violaceus, Boj. .
Pharus glaber, H. and K.
“ latifolius, Linn.
Phloxorata, Ilinn.
Phoenix dactylifera, Linn.
Phyilanthus falcatus, Sw.
{ % niruri, Linn.
Physalis angulata, Linn. Popps.
“ barbadensis.
Picramnia pentandra, Sw.
Pictetia squamata, D. C.
Pilocarpus pauciflorus, St. Hil.
{{ racemosa, Wahl.
Piper acuminatum, Linn. Rock, Balsam.
“ aequale, Wahl.
“ amalago, Linn.
amplexicaule, Sw.
asperifolium, R. and P.
discolor, Sw.
glabelbum, Sw.
obtusifolium, Linn.
pellucidum, Linn.
peltatum, Linn. Monkey's Hand.
scandens, Wahl.
Pisum Sativum, Linn.
Piscidia carthagenensis, Jacq.
“ erythrina, Linn.
Pisonia aculeata, Linn.
“ discolor, Sp.
nigricans, Sw.
subcordata, Sw.
Pitcarnia angustifolie, Ait.
“ bromelifolia, Ait.
latifolfa, Ait.
Pleopeltis aurea, Presl.
Plocaria dura, Nees. .
“ multipartitus, Nees.
purpurascens, Nees.
{{
I)ate Tree.
JBoa:-wood.
{{
{{
{{
{{
Plumbago capensis, Thunb. Blister-leaf
{{ rosea, Linn.
Scandens, Linn.
Plumeria alba, Linn. White Pawcipan.
{{ Tubra, Linn. Red {{
Poa ciliaris, Linn.
{{
Poinciana pulcherrima, Linn. Barba-
does Pride, Dudledwe.
Polyanthes tuberosa, Linn. Tuberose,
Polypodium alatum, Linn.
“ auriculatum, Presl.
flaveo-punctatum, Kaulp.
Polystachya luteola, Haak.
Polysticum, auriculatum, Presl.
Portlandia grandiflora, Linn.
Portulaca oleracea, Linn. Gardem pººr&-
Zame.
{{
{{
pilosa, Linn.
“ subglabra, Linn.
rubicaulis, H. B. & K.
Pothos acaulis, Linn.
“ cordatus, Linn.
crassinervius, Jacq.
macrophyllus, Sw.
Priva echinata, Jusf.
“ mexicana, Pers.
Psidium aromaticum, Aabl.
“ pomiferum, Linn,
pumilum, Wahl.
Psychotria laxa, Sw.
{{ brownii, Spr.
Pteris plumerii, W.
Pterocaulon virgatum, D. C.
Pteropsis angustifolia, Dev.
Panicum granatum, Limm, Pomegram-
ate tree. -
“ nana, Linn. Dwarf Pomegra:
700te-tree.
Pyrethrum sinense, D. C.
{{
{{
{{
{{.
{{
Quamoclit hederifolia, Chois,
{{ coccinea, Moench.
CATALOGUE.
243
Quamoclit vulgaris, Chois. Sweet-Wil-
lia/m. .*
Quassia amara, Linn fil. Real Bitteowood. Russelia juncea, Zec.
R”
Rajania cordata, Linn.
Bandia latifolia, Lam. Dogwood.
“ mussaendae, D. C.
Raphanus sativus, Linn. Radish.
Raumalfia nitida, Linn.
Redoutea heterophylla, Went.
Reseda odorata, Linn. Mignonette.
Rhaphis flabelliformis, Ait. Grown'd Ra-
ta70. .
Rhipsalis cassytha, Gaertn.
“. . parasitica, D. C.
Rhizophora mangle, Linn. Mangrove-
tree.
Rhynchosia cariboea, D. C.
“ minima, D. C.
reticulata, D. C.
Rhytoglossa pectoralis, N. ab. E. Gar-
den Balsam.
{{ reptans, D. C.
Secunda, D. C.
Sessilis, D. C.
Ricinus communis, Linn.
Tree.
Rivea tilioefolia, Chois.
Rivina humilis, Linn.
“ laevis, Linn.
octandra, Linn.
purpurescens, Schrod.
Rondeletia pilosa, Sw.
Rosa damaScena, Linn.
“ Semperflorens, Curt.
Sempervirens, Linn.
thea War.
Ruellia clandestina, Linn.
pride.
{{
{{
{{
{{
Castor Oi!,
Cats-blood.
{{
{{
{{
{{
Christmas
Serpens, Linn.
tuberosa, Linn Many-roots.
{{
Rumex vesicarius, Linn.
Ruppia maritima, Linn.
Madeira Plant.
S
Sabinea florida, D. C.
Saccharum officinarum, Linn.
CO/72,63
Salvia calaminthaefolia, Wahl.
coccinea, Linn.
fulgens, Cav.
occidentalis, Linn. Hap-weed.
serotina, Linn.
tenella, Sw.
Sambucus canadensis, Linn.
Samyda Serrulata, Linn.
Sapindus frutescens, Aubl.
“ Saponaria, Linn. Soap-tree.
• { Steunopterus, D. C.
Saponaria officinalis, Linn.
Sapota achras, Mill. Sapadilla-tree
Sarcostemma Swartzianum, D. C.
Sargassum bacciferum, Ag.
piluliferum, Kunth.
vulgare, Ag.
Scaevola plumerii, Wahl.
Schaepperia frutescens, Jacq.
Schoepfia arborescens, R. & S.
Schwenkia spec.
Scleria communis, Kunth.
“ hirtella, Sw.
filiformis, Sw.
flagellum, Sw.
lotifolia, Sw.
Scolosanthus versicolor, Wahl.
Scoparia dulcis, Linn.
Sechium edule, Sw. Choco.
Securidaea virgata, Sw.
Serjana lucida, Schum.
Sesamum indicum, D. C.
Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn.
Setaria gracilis, H. & K.
Sugar-
{{
£&
{{
{{
{{
244 CATALOGUE.
Sectaria inberbis, Roem. Solanum nigrum. Linn. Pop-bush,
Sida abutiloides, Jacq. Aranched Calabaſe.
“ althaeifolia, Sw. {{ Ovigerum, Dunn. Egg Plant.
“ americana, Linn. “ polycanthum, Lam.
“ angustifolia, Lam. “ polyganum, Wahl.
“ arborea, Linn. fil. “ richardii, Dunn.
“ arguta, Sw. “ racemosum, Linn. Canker-
“ asiatica, Linn. Berry.
“ bivalvis, Cav. “ Scandens, Linn.
“ carpinifolia, Linn. fil. “ torvum, Linn.
“ ciliaris, Linn. “ verbascifolium, Linn. Turkey
“. . crassifolia, L'Herit. Berry.
“ foetida, Cav. Sonchus ciliatus, Lan. Common Sow
“ glutinosa, Cav. Thistle.
“ graveolens, Roxb. Sparganophorus Vaillantii, Gaertn.
“ hederaefolia, Cav. Spermacoce articularis, Lin. fil.
“ hernandioides; H. B. and K. {{ prostrata, Aubl.
“ jamaicensis, Cav. & & radicans, Aubl.
“ paniculata, Linn. {{ tenuior, Linn. Iron Grass.
“ permollis, W. Sphaerococcus acicularis, Ag.
“ pubescens, Cav. {{ corneus sterinalis, Ag.
“ pyramidata, Cav. {{ Crispus, v. Ag.
“ repanda, Rath. &% rigidus, Ag.
“ retrofracta, D. C. {{ SpinescenS, Ag.
“ rhombifolia, Linn. Spigelia anthelmia, Linn. Water-weed,
“ sessei, Lag. Worm-grass.
“ spinosa, Linn. Spondias dulcis, Forst. Golden Apple.
“ umbellata, Linn. “ lutea, Linn. Iſogplwm.
“ viscosa, Linn. “ purpurea, Linn. Spanish plwm.
Sinapis alba, Linn. Sporobolus pungens, Kunth.
“ lanceolata, Cav. {{ tremulus, Kunth.
“ nigra, Linn. Mustard. {{ virginicus, Kunth.
Sisyrinchium palmifolium, Linn. Spyridia clavulata, T. Ag.
{{ plicatum, Sp. Stachytorpheta capennensis, Wahl.
Solanum ambiguum, Dunn. Stapelia marmorata, Jacq.
“ balbisii, Dunn. Stemodia maritima, Linn.
{{ conocarpon, Richt. Stenotaphrum americanum, Schrank.
“ diphyllum, Linn. Stillingia sebifera, Mx. -
“ esculentum, Dunn. Stipa tortilis, Desp.
{{ incanum, Linn. Stylosanthes procumbens, Sw.
{{ maccai, Richt. {{ viscosa, Sw.
“ mammoSam, Linn. Surirana maritima, Linn.
“ micracanthum, Lam. Synedrella nodiflora, Gaertn.
CATALOGUE.
Symplocos martinicensis, Jacq.
T
Tabernaemontana macrophylla, Pair.
Tagetes erecta, Linn. African, Marigold.
tº patula, Linn.
Talinum crassifolium, W.
{ % patens, W.
Tamarindus indicus, Linn. Tamarind.
{{ occidentalis, Gaertn.
Tecoma leucophyllum, Linn. White
Cedar.
{{ pentaphyla, Juss. TWhite
Cedar.
Tecoma radicans, Linn.
“ stans, Jusf. Yellow Cedar.
Tephrasia littoralis, Pers.
Terminalia catappa, Linn. Almond tree.
{{ latifolia, Linn.
Tetrapteris citrifolia, Pers.
Tetrazygia angustifolia, D. C.
{{ elaegnoides, D. C.
Tevetia neriifolia, D. C.
Thespecia populnea, Corr. Otaheite tree.
Thunbergia alatá, Hook.
{{ capensis, Retz.
Thymus vulgaris, Linn.
Thypha angustifolia, Linn.
Thyrsacanthus nitidus, D. C.
Tillandsia angustifolia, Sw.
{ % canescens, Sw.
fasciculata, Sw.
flexuosa, Sw.
Tournefortia bicolor, Sw.
canescens, H. B. and K.
cymosa, Linn.
foetidissima, D. C.
gnaphaloides, Br.
{{
{{
Crab-
bush.
{{ hirsutissima, Linn. Chigery
Grapes.
( & laevigata, Lam.
{{ microphylla, DeSv.
Tournofortia scabra, Lam.
“. . volubilis, Linn.
Toxocarpus wightianus, D. C.
Trachodes intybacea, Schw.
Tradescantia discolor, Ait.
Tragia angustifolia, Linn.
infesta, Mart.
mercurialis, Linn.
urens, Linn.
volubilis, Linn. Oreeping cow-
hage.
Tribulus cistoides, Linn,
{{ maximus, Linn.
Trichilia emarginata, n. Sp.
{{ moschata, Sw.
spondioides, Sw.
Trichosanthes anguina, Jacq.
Gowrd.
Trinax parviflora, Sw. Fan Palm.
Triopteris jamaicensis, Linn.
{{
Snake-
Triphasia monophylla, D. C.
trifoliata, D. C. Sweet Lime.
Triumfetta lappula, Linn.
{{ procumbens, Forst.
semitriloba, Linn. Bºtr Bark.
{{
{{
Tropaeolum majus, Linn.
Turbinaria denudata, Borg.
Turnera ulmifolia, Linn.
{{ angustifolia, D. C.
{{
U
Ulva compressa, Linn.
“ lactuca, Ag.
latissima. Ag.
reticulata, Forrk.
Urena reticulata, Caw.
“ sinuata, Linn.
swartii, D. C.
|Urochloa fasciculata, Kunth.
Urtica betulifolia, Sw.
“ ciliata, Sw.
latifolia, Rich. Nettle.
macrophylla, Thunb.
{{
{{
{{
{{
Gé
246
CATALOGUE.
Urtica numularifolia, Sw.
“ portulacina, Linn.
Serpyllacea, Kunth.
{{
{{
V
Valonia intricata, Ag.
Varronia, abyssinica, D. C.
{{
calyptrata, D. C.
Verbena jamaicensis, Linn.
Vernonia arborescens, Sw.
{{ fruticosa, Sw.
trianthemoides, Sw.
Waltheria elliptica, Cav.
Wedelia carnosa, Rich.
X
Xanthium spinosum, Linn.
a macrocarpus, D. C.
{{ {{ glabratum, D. C.
Y
Yucca gloriosa, Linn.
“ acuminata, Sweet.
“ linearis, Spr. Z
“ obtusifolia, Less. Zantoxylum clava herculis, Limn. Yellow
“ rigida, Sw. Wood.
Winca rosea, Linn. Church flower. {{ pterota, H. B. & K. Bastard
Vitex agnus, Linn. Iron wood.
“ negundo, Linn. Wild Black Pep- {{ spinosum, Sw.
ſper.
Vitis vinifera, Linn. Wine Grape.
Wolkameria aculeata, Linn.
W
Waltheria americana, Linn.
“ tragodes, D. C.
Zea mayz, Linn. Indian Corn.
Zingiber officinale, Rose. Ginger.
Zinnia multiflora, Linn.
Zornia reticulata, Smith.
Zostera oceanea, Linn.
A PPEND I X,
A.
NAMEs of Colonists on St. Thomas, 1678, and those who were en-
titled to estates:
1. Jan Cramues. 23. Lars Andersen.
2. Lader Sveins. 24. Nelle Devael.
3. Jesper Jansen. 25. Fransoa Lacroijes.
4. Arian de Wos. 26. J. Warnus.
5. Hans Poulsen. 27. Anthoni Perepau.
6. Mads Hansen. 28. Maria Gauss.
7. Jan Ducken. 29. Barent Rondts.
8. Caril Baggart. 30. Peter Pietersen.
9. Gillis Pad. - 31. Andrias Zygerts.
10. Andrias Saman. 32. Jan. Gauf.
11. Thomas Sveins, Jr. 3. Crambayes.
12. Knud Rasmussen 34. Marcus Cloet.
13. Simon von Ockeron. 35. Jelles Davidts.
14. Lambert Bastiansen. 36. Arn. Nikkels.
15. Piero Turbullies. 37. Cornelius Jansen.
16. Rasmus J. Bladt. 38. Jan Dunker.
17. Han Jorgen Bodker. 39. Anthoni de Woo.
18. Joes van Campenhout. 40. Nicolay and Adolph Esmit.
19. Parsons Estate. 41. Domine Oliandus.
20. Jesper Bashervil. 42. Wilhelm. Just.
21. Philip Grantels. 43. Lorviss Barvil.
22
, Hans Mols. 44. Jacob Thoma.
24S ATPPENDIX.
45. Loduce Bondeuid. 49. Pier de Puy.
46. Christopher Heins. 50. Pietter de Buijk.
47. Lucas Wolkersen. 51. Cornelis Jacobsen.
48. Robben. Brag. 52. Mary Gauf.
The eight other names could not be made out, the original copies of
the deeds being in a mutilated condition.
B
LABOR ACT.
Provisional Act to Regulate the Relations between the Proprietors of Landed
Estates and Rural Population of Free Laborers.
I, Peter Hansen, Knight Commander of the Order of Dannebrog, the
King's Commissioner for, and officiating Governor-General of the Danish
West India Islands, Make known: That, whereas the ordinance dated
29th July, 1848, by which yearly contracts for labor on landed estates
were introduced, has not been duly acted upon : whereas the interest of
the proprietors of estates, as well as of the laborers, requires that their
mutual obligations should be defined: and whereas on inquiry into the
practice of the Island, and into the printed contracts and agreements
hitherto made, it appears expedient to establish uniform rules through-
out the Island, for the guidance of all parties concerned, it is enacted
and ordained:
1st. All engagements of laborers now domiciled on landed estates
and receiving wages in money, or in kind, for cultivating and working
such estates, are to be continued as directed by the ordinance of 29th
July, 1848, until the first day of October of the present year; and all
similar engagements shall, in future, be made, or shall be considered as
having been made, for a term of twelve months, viz: from the first of
October till the first of October, year after year. Engagements made by
heads of families are to include their children between five and fifteen
APPENDIX. - 249
years of age, and other relatives depending on them and staying with
them.
2d. No laborer engaged as aforesaid, in the cultivation of the soil,
shall be discharged or dismissed from, or shall be permitted to dissolve,
his or her engagement before the expiration of the same on the first of
October of the present, or of any following year, except in the in-
stances hereafter enumerated.
A. By mutual agreement of master and laborer, before a magistrate.
B. By order of a magistrate on just and equitable cause being shown
by the parties interested.
Legal marriage, and the natural tie between mothers and their chil-
dren, shall be deemed by the magistrate just and legal cause of removal
from one estate to another. The husband shall have a right to be re-
moved to his wife, the wife to her husband, and children under fifteen
years of age to their mother, provided no objection to employing such
individuals shall be made by the owner of the estate to which the re-
moval is to take place.
3d. No engagement of a laborer shall be lawful in future, unless made
in the presence of witnesses, and entered in the day-book of the estate.
4th. Notice to quit service shall be given by the employer, as well as
by the laborer, at no other period but once a year, in the month of
August, not before the first, nor after the last day of the said month; an
entry thereof shall be made in the day-book, and an acknowledgment
in writing shall be given to the laborer.
The laborer shall have given, or received, legal notice of removal
from the estate where he serves, before any one can engage his services;
otherwise the new contract to be void, and the party engaging in tam-
pering with a laborer employed by others, will be dealt with according
to law.
In case any owner or manager of an estate should dismiss a laborer
during the year without sufficient cause, or should refuse to receive him
at the time stipulated, or refuse to grant him a passport when due
notice of removal has been given, the owner or manager is to pay full
damages to the laborer, and to be sentenced to a fine not exceeding $20
5th. Laborers employed or rated as first, second, or third class la-
borers, shall perform all the work in the field, or about the works, or
otherwise concerning the estate, which it hitherto has been customary
250 APPENDIX.
for such laborers to perform, according to the season. They shall at-
tend faithfully to their work, and willingly obey the directions given by
the employer, or the person appointed by him. No laborer shall pre-
sume to dictate what work he or she is to do, or refuse the work he
may be ordered to perform, unless expressly engaged for some particular
Work only. If a laborer thinks himself aggrieved, he shall not therefore
leave the work, but in due time apply for redress to the owner of the
estate, or to the magistrate. It is the duty of all laborers on all occa-
sions, and at all times, to protect the property of his employer, to pre-
vent mischief to the estate, to apprehend evil-doers, and not to give
countenance to, or conceal, unlawful practices. -
6th. The working days to be as usual only five days in the week, and
the same days as hitherto. The ordinary work of estates is to com-
mence at Sunrise, and to be finished at Sunset, every day, leaving one
hour for breakfast, and two hours at noon from twelve to two o'clock.
Planters who prefer to begin the work at seven o’clock in the morn-
ing, making no separate breakfast time, are at liberty to adopt this plan,
either during the year, or when out of crop.
The laborers shall be present in due time at the place where they are
to work. The list to be called and answered regularly. Whoever does
not answer the list when called, is too late.
7th. No throwing of grass, or of wood, shall be exacted during extra
hours, all former agreements to the contrary notwithstanding; but dur-
ing crop the laborers are expected to bring home a bundle of long tops
from the field where they are at work.
Cartmen and crook-people, when breaking off, shall attend properly
to their stock as hitherto usual.
8th. During crop, the mill gang, crook gang, boilermen, firemen, still
men, and any other person employed about the mill and the boiling
house, shall continue their work during breakfast and noon hours, as
hitherto usual; and the boilermen, firemen, megass carriers, &c., also,
during evening hours after sunset, when required, but all workmen em-
ployed as aforesaid, shall be paid an extra remuneration for the work
done by them in extra hours.
The boiling house is to be cleared, the mill to be washed down, and
the megass to be swept up, before the laborers leave the work as
hitherto usual.
APPENIDIX. 251
The mill is not to turn after six o'clock in the evening, and the boil-
ing not to be continued after ten o’clock, except by special permission
of the Governor-General, who then will determine, if any, what extra
remuneration shall be paid to the laborers.
9th. The laborers are to receive, until otherwise ordered, the follow-
ing remuneration:
A. The use of a house, or dwelling-rooms for themselves and their
children, to be built and repaired by the estate, but to be kept in proper
order by the laborers.
B. The use of a piece of provision ground, thirty feet square, as usual,
for every first and second class laborer, or if it be standing ground, up to
fifty feet in square. Third class laborers are not entitled to, but may be
allowed, some provision ground.
C. Weekly wages at the rate of fifteen cents to every first class la-
borer, of ten cents to every second class laborer, and of five cents to
every third class laborer, for every working day. When the usual al-
lowance of meal and herrings has been agreed on in part of wages, full
weekly allowance shall be taken for five cents a day, or twenty-five
cents a week.
Nurses losing two hours every working day, shall be paid at the rate
of four full working days in the week. The wages of minors to be
paid as usual to their parents, or to the person in charge of them.
Laborers not calling at pay time personally, or by another authorized,
to wait till next pay day, unless they were prevented by working for the
estate. • -
No attachment of wages for private debts to be allowed, nor more
than two thirds to be deducted for debts to the estate, unless otherwise
ordered by the magistrate.
Extra provisions occasionally given during the ordinary working
hours are not to be claimed as a right, nor to be bargained for.
10th. Work in extra hours during crop, is to be paid as follows:
To the mill gang, and to the crook gang, for working through the
breakfast hour, one stiver, and for working through noon, two stivers
per day.
Extra provision is not to be given, except at the option of the la-
borers in place of the money, or in part of it.
The boilermen, firemen, and megass carriers, are to receive for all
252 APPENDIX.
days when the boiling is carried on until late hours, a maximum pay of
twenty (20) cents per day. No bargaining for extra pay by the hour,
is permitted.
Laborers working such extra hours only by turns, are not to have ad-
ditional payment.
11th. Tradesmen on estates are considered as engaged to perform the
Same Work as hitherto usual, assisting in the field, carting, potting
sugar, &c. They shall be rated as first, second, and third class laborers,
according to their proficiency; where no definite terms have been
agreed on previously, the wages of first class tradesmen, having full
Work in their trade, are to be twenty (20) cents per day. Any exist-
ing contract with tradesmen is to continue until October next.
No tradesman is allowed to keep apprentices without the consent of
the owner of the estate, such apprentices to be bound for no less a period
than three years, and not to be removed without the permission of the
magistrate,
12th. No laborer is obliged to work for others on Saturday; but if
they choose to work for hire, it is proper that they should give their
own estate the preference. For a full day’s work on Saturday, there
shall not be asked for nor given more than twenty (20) cents to a first
class laborer, thirteen (13) cents to a second class laborer, seven (7)
cents to a third class laborer.
Work on Saturday may, however, be ordered by the magistrate as a
punishment to the laborer, for having absented himself from work dur-
ing the week for one whole day or more, and for having been idle dur-
ing the week, and then the laborer shall not receive more than his usual
pay for a common day’s work.
13th. All the male laborers, tradesmen included, above eighteen years
of age, working on an estate, are bound to take the usual night watch
by turns, but only once in ten days, notice to be given before noon to
break off from work in the afternoon with the nurses, and to come to
work next day at eight o'clock. The watch to be delivered in the usual
manner by nightfall and by Sunrise.
The above rule shall not be compulsory, except where voluntary
watchmen cannot be obtained at a hire the planters may be willing to
give, to save the time lost by employing their ordinary laborers as
watchmen.
APPENDIX. 253
Likewise the male laborers are bound once a month, on Sundays and
holydays, to take the day watch about the yard, and to act as pasture-
men, on receiving their usual pay for a week day’s work; this rule ap-
plies also to the crook-boys. -
All orders about the watches to be duly entered in the day book of
the estate.
Should a laborer, having been duly warned to take the watch, not
attend, another laborer is to be hired in the place of the absentee, and at
his expense, not, however, to exceed fifteen cents. The person who
wilfully leaves the watch, or neglects it, is to be reported to the magis-
trate and punished as the case merits. -
14th. Laborers wilfully abstaining from work on a working day, are
to forfeit their wages for the day, and will have to pay over and above
the forfeit, a fine which can be lawfully deducted in their wages, of
seven (7) cents for a first class laborer, five (5) cents for a second class
laborer, and two (2) cents for a third class laborer. In crop or grinding
days, when employed about the works, in cutting canes, or in crook, an
additional punishment will be awarded for wilful absence and neglect by
the magistrate, on complaint being made. Laborers abstaining from
work for half a day, or breaking off from work before being dismissed,
to forfeit their wages for one day,
Laborers not coming to work in due time to forfeit half a day’s
Wages.
Parents keeping their children from work, shall be fined instead of
the children. -
No charge of house rent is to be made in future, on account of ab-
sence from work, or for the Saturday.
15th. Laborers wilfully abstaining from work for two or more days
during the week, or habitually absenting themselves, or working badly
and lazily shall be pºi.is lieu as the case merits, on complaint to the
magistrate. -
16th. Laborers assaulting any person in authority on the estate, or
planning and conspiring to retard, or to stop the work of the estate, or
uniting to abstain from work, or to break, their engagements, shall be
punished according to law, on investigation before a magistrate.
17th. Until measures can be adopted for securing medical attendance
11
- -
2.54 A PPENI) RX.
to the laborers, and for regulating the treatment of the sick and the
infirm, it is ordered:
That infirm persons unfit for any work, shall, as hitherto, be main-
tained on the estates where they are domiciled, and to be attended to by
their next relations.
That parents or children of such infirm persons shall not remove from
the estate, leaving them behind, without making provision for them to
the satisfaction of the owner, or of the magistrate.
That laborers unable to attend to work on account of illness, or on
account of having sick children, shall make a report to the manager, or
any other person in authority on the estate, who, if the case appears
dangerous, and the sick person destitute, shall cause medical assistance
to be given.
That all sick laborers willing to remain in the hospital during their
illness, shall there be attended to, at the cost of the estate.
18th. If a laborer reported sick, shall be at any time found absent
from the estate without leave, or is trespassing about the estate, or
found occupied with work requiring health, he shall be considered
skulking and wiłſully absent from work,
When a laborer pretends illness, and is not apparently sick, it shall be
his duty to prove his illness by medical certificate.
19th. Pregnant women shall be at liberty to work with the small
gang as customary, and when confined, not to be called on to work for
seven weeks after their confinement. º
Young children shall be fed and attended to during the hours of work
at some proper place, at the cost of the estate.
Nobody is allowed to stay from work on pretence of attending a sick
person, except the wife and the mother in dangerous cases of illness.
20th. It is the duty of the managers to report to the police any con-
tagious or suspicious cases of illness and death; especially when gross
neglect is believed to have taken place, as when children have been neg-
lected by their mothers, in order that the guilty person may be punished
according to law.
21st. The driver or foreman on the estate, is to receive in wages four
and a half dollars monthly, if no other terms have been agreed upon.
The driver may be dismissed at any time during the year with the con-
sent of the magistrate. It is the duty of the driver to see the work duly
APPEND IX. 255
performed, to maintain order and peace on the estate during the work,
and at other times, and to prevent and report all offences committed.
Should any laborer insult, or use insulting language towards him dur-
ing, or on account of the performance of his duties, such person is to be
punished according to law.
22d. No laborer is allowed, without the especial permission of the
owner or manager, to appropriate wood, grass, vegetables, fruits, and
the like, belonging to the estate, nor to appropriate such produce ſºom
other estates, nor to cut canes, or to burn charcoal. Persons making
themselves guilty of such offences, shall be punished according to law,
with fines or imprisonment with hard labor; and the possession of such
articles not satisfactorily accounted for, shall be sufficient evidence of
unlawful acquisition.
23d. All agreements contrary to the above rules, are to be null and
void, and owners and managers of estates convicted of any practice tend-
ing wilfully to counteract or avoid these rules by direct or indirect
means, shall be subject to a fine not exceeding $200.
(Signed.) P. H. ANSEN.
Government House, St. C, oia, 26th January, 1849.
Č.
PETITION FOR COMPENSATION.
WE, the undersigned, inhabitants of the West India Islands St.
Thomas and St. John, beg leave most respectfully to present to the
Rigsdag of Denmark, this Petition, praying that just and equitable com.
pensation may be granted us for the loss we have sustained in our pro-
perty, in consequence of the ordinance of the Governor General, bearing
date 3d July, 1848, by which he took upon himself to abolish Negro
Slavery in the Danish Colonies, and which act received the Royal sanc-
tion on the 22d September of the same year.
If, notwithstanding the heavy loss thus sustained, we have hitherto
been silent, it should be attributed to the hope we had entertained, that
2.56 APPEND IX.
government, without being called upon to do so, would have taken steps
to obtain compensation for us; and to the sentiments of sym pathy with
which we beheld the struggle of the mother country in the trying situa-
tion in which the revolt of the Duchies, and war with many powerful
enemies had placed her, a struggle which required all her resources, both
intellectual and material, of which she could dispose; and thus it
would have been inopportune had we at that time obtruded ourselves
on the notice of government. But now, that the clouds which obscured
the political horizon have been dissipated, now, that a glorious war is
concluded, and peace sheds its blessings over Denmark, we can no
longer defer our just demand for compensation, lest our silence should be
construed into acquiescence with the act, by which we have been de-
spoiled of our property, or interpreted as an abandonment of our claims.
We had as good a title of property to our negroes, as to our land, houses,
or any other property we possess; this right was established not only
by law, but the government had moreover ever encouraged the subjects
to acquire such property as being advantageous to the state. For this
purpose government granted loans to the colonists upon reduced interest
from the so denominated “negro loan.” Government bought and sold
such property, took it in mortgage, levied duties upon their importation,
and imposed a yearly capitation tax, consequently not a shadow of
doubt could exist of the legality of such property; and if it was a fault
to become possessors of such property, it must be laid to the charge of
the government which had fostered and encouraged it. The highest
thibunal of the land, the King's High Court, acknowledged this right in
its fullest sense, so that a negro slave, even on the free soil of Denmark,
continued to be the property of his master so thoroughly, that the latter
in direct opposition to the slave's will, could oblige him to return to the
West Indies. That the negro's ability to work, and personal qualities,
enhanced his value, is a fact too palpable to stand in need of proof; the
numberless legal appraisements upon oath, the sales which took place
daily between man and man, as well as the normal value, which accord-
ing to the Ordinance of the first of May, 1840, was determined every
year by the government, after a previous hearing of the Burgher Coun-
cil, and the respective authorities, render this matter incontestible.
This ordinance admits the owner's right to full compensation, for only
on condition of paying the full value of the services which the master
A PPEND IX. 2.57
could have from his slave, had the slave the right to demand his free-
dom; but without such remuneration, his master could not be deprived
of him. -->
The forementioned ordinance, the common law, and in particular the
eighty-seventh section of the constitution, lay down as an invariable
rule, that no subject can be compelled to cede his property, unless the
general good of the commonwealth requires it, and then only on receiv- .
ing full compensation.
Those civilized nations in whose colonies slavery has been abolished,
have neither raised any question nor doubt as to the legality of the
principle of compensation. Thus England, France and Sweden have
granted compensation. The first £25 12 2 sterling at an average per
head; the second 490 francs per head, which is, however, considered but
part of the whole sum ; and the third in the following manner: first
class, under fifteen years, $80 per head, second class, from fifteen to
sixty years, $240 per head; third class, over sixty years, $40 per head.
With regard to emancipation without compensation, the following
language was held to the King of Sweden: “Your most gracious Ma-
jesty, in your high wisdom, will never allow such a violation of justice -
as emancipation without compensation would be ; such a thing has
never anywhere occurred.” -
The Dutch government has declared that it will not abolish slavery
without indemnifying the owners, and for this reason it has not given
any formal sanction to the liberty which the Dutch governor of St.
Martin’s (with the consent of the planters) found himself compelled to
concede to the negroes, when emaneipation was proclaimed in the
French part of the same island, but left matters in statu quo. Once,
however, there existed an instance of emancipation without compensa-
tion. The National Convention of France, in the year 1793, did, disre-
garding the sacred rights of property, proclaim the abolition of slavery;
but ten years afterwards, on the 28th of May, 1802, that act was de-
clared by the corps legislatif, to be an act of spoliation, and as such ille-
gal; consequently slavery was re-established by decree of the First
Consul, and continued for half a century, and would in all probability be
still in full vigor, at least for some time, had it not been for the revolu-
tion of February. For us, we have the most implicit reliance on the
honor of the Danish Government, and the Danish people, and we feel
258 A PPEND I X.
persuaded that they will not follow the example of the National Con-
vention. In Denmark, love of justice and respect for the sacredness of
the rights of property are too deeply implanted in the soil to be easily
rooted out. The proverbial honesty of Denmark is as firm as the
courage, loyalty, and gallantry of which her sons have so lately given
such signal proof.
The Rigsdag of Denmark will not on account of the burden, shrink
from the demands of justice; it will not allow it to be said that it reſused
to satisfy a claim, the justness of which has never been doubted by any
civilized nation, nor will it suffer a number of its fellow citizens to be
illegally bereft of their property without compensation. The Rigsdag
of Denmark will not leave it in the power of the world to say, that it
was liberal at the expense of others, or that it denied compensation to
the weak, because they had only the right, but not the power to enforce
it. In reviewing the means that present themselves, the burden will
not be so considerable or so heavy, when we take into consideration that
the state possesses many plantations, in respect of which to their former
complement of slaves, there will of course be no question of compensa-
tion, and that it also holds mortgages on many properties, where the
compensation can be written off, without any real loss in many cases;
on the other hand, the realm, by fulfilling its duty in settling a lawful
claim, will gain by the disbursement of the compensation, which will
as may reasonably be expected, not alone increase the prosperity of the
colonies, but their inhabitants will attach themselves more closely to
Denmark,
We do not entertain any doubt but that the Rigsdag will grant us the
compensation to which we have the most incontestible right, and which
cannot be controverted by such futile arguments, as, that the owners
have lost nothing by the government depriving them of their property,
as the stock of labor is the same, and to be had for an equitable hire.
if it even in reality were the case, that the expenses were not greater,
and the work not less than before the emancipation, while, alas ! the
contrary is the case, it would, nevertheless, be a species of argument in
itself contrary to common sense, in a degree, that it would scarcely re-
quire any refutation at the bar of the enlightened Rigsdag, as it might
with just as much reason be said, that all the rest of the property of
people could be taken away whenever the government managed matters
&
A PPEND IX. 259
in such a way, that the properties could be rented at so moderate a rate,
that the expenses did not exceed, what those of the keeping of the pro-
perty yearly had amounted to. It will be clearly evident that the
owner notwithstanding, loses his essential rights, for the property would
no longer be at his disposal, or under his control, he would be dependent
upon others not only as to renting of that kind of property of which he
had formerly been possessed, but he would not be able to sell, mortgage,
or dispose of it in any manner whatever, either in favor of himself, his
children, or other heirs; in short, property would to him, entirely lose
its money value, and the capital vested in it would be sunk as is now
the case with us. Many a slave owner derived his living from the
yearly income which the hire of his slaves produced, but now the state
has bereſt him of his property, and hurled hirn, widows and orphans
into the most abject poverty and misery, while that act, as yet without
compensation, has more or less generally affected those who possessed
that class of property, and in numberless instances produced pecuniary
embarrassment; while the slave owners who are proprietors of planta-
tions have not alone lost the capital invested in their slaves, by the sub-
version of the ancient normal order in the colonies, but in addition
thereto, they are exposed to the imminent risk of seeing their estates, build-
ings, and fabrics eventually reduced to no value whatever. Most assuredly
the circumstances which preceded the emancipation, cannot be brought
forward in support of the necessity thereof. Such a delusion cannot hold
good. It is notorious that the so called insurrection which was begun .
in the jurisdiction of Fredericksted, at St. Croix on the 3d of July, 1848,
would have been put down, if the forces, although reduced as they had
been, had been called out and made use of by the government of that
island. This is borne out by the sentence of 5th of February, in
this year, rendered against the governor-general by the commission,
which sentence expressly states that the declaration of emancipation
partly originated in a desire-to procure the treasury an exemption from
compensation, or what is the same thing, it was intended to serve as a
means to deprive the proprietors of their lawful rights. Furthermore, it
is quite evident, that even the most trifling commotion would not have
occurred, if the Captain-General of Puerto Rico's offer of assistance on
perceiving the impending dangers had been accepted. Neither is it less
certain that the normal order could have been re-established subse-
260 APPENDIX.
quently. His Majesty's government by presenting to royal assent the
emancipation of the negro slaves, which the governor-general had taken
upon himself to grant, has adopted the act as its own. It has also from
the very beginning been considered that the insurrection could not be
viewed as sufficient foundation for the act. This is clearly to be seen
from the wording of the royal mandate on which the emancipation is
made a concession “to the lively” wishes of the negroes. That his
late Majesty King Christian VIII., of glorious and blessed memory, had
by rescript of 28th July, 1847, given freedom to all children born of
slaves in the Danish West India possessions, and at the same time or-
dained that slavery should finally cease in twelve years, cannot be
pleaded as a reason that proprietors of slaves are to sustain loss and re-
ceive no compensation, for the questiou remained open, and had been
only glanced at by said rescript. It is much to be lamented that the
emancipation in the manner it took place, and with the circumstances
with which it was accompanied, induced the slave population, although
erroneously, to believe that they had overawed the government, and to
receive the emancipation, not as boom, but rather as a trophy. The bad
impression which such a management of matters has caused, will ever
remain, and render the march of administration difficult, for defiance has
taken the place which only should have been ceded to gratitude. It
ought here to be observed, that a succession of ordinances had gradually
loosed the ties which existed between the master and the slave. What
heretofore had been esteemed as a favor on the master’s part, was by law
converted into an an obligation, and the slave was not only rendered
more and more independent of his master, but his sentiments of at
tachment to him were destroyed. Thus the law made it obligatory on
the master to cede a negro for his freedom when he could pay his full
value; a favor which hardly any one had thought of refusing; thus the
law bound the master to give his slaves certain little extras for Christ-
mas, a favor which no one had thought of denying, and thus the law
compelled the planter to give his negroes the Saturday free ; a boon,
which hitherto frequently had been granted as a recompense for diligent
work during the week. But from the moment that the law converted
into an obligation, that which hitherto had been received as a favor,
indifference usurped the place of gratitude. Thus, by consecutive inno-
vations, the state of things became precarious, the relations insecure,
A PPEND X. 26 1
impatience sprung up, and the seeds of the tumultuous scenes which
ensued and served as a pretext for emancipation, were sown. Here we
must observe, that though it were admitted that the pretended insurrec-
tion at St. Croix rendered emancipation an act of necessity, it cannot, at
all events, in any manner be cited with regard to St. Thomas or St.
John, where no kind of disturbance existed among the slave population,
Thus, entertaining the intimate conviction that our right to compensa-
tion is as conformable to reason, as it ought to be sacred and inviolable,
and in solemnly protesting against our being bereſt of our property
without full compensation, we submit this our representation to the
Rigsdag of Denmark, with the most unlimited confidence in its justice.
We have the consoling hope and encouraging persuasion that the repre-
sentatives of a people who, by the bill of indemnity of 30th June, 1850,
have gone ahead of, and set a brilliant example to other nations, by the
acknowledgment of the principle of equity, that “all citizens ought
equally to share the losses which the scourge of war had brought upon
individuals,” will not deny a principle of justice, which every European
nation has hitherto not neglected to comply with towards its colonies,
ST. THOMAS AND St. JoHN, June, 1851.
To The Rigsdag of Denmark.
$3.
NAMEs and date of service of Lutheran clergymen who have been
connected with Lutheran Church in St. Thomas.
Years of service. Names. Remarks.
1688–1695 A. Bastrian.
1695–1696 E. Monrad.
1697–1701 D. Fenrich.
1701–1708 A. Chorne.
1708–1711 A. Samsing.
1711–1714 C. Fischer.
1.1%
262
APPENDIX.
Years of Service.
1717–1717
1718—1720
1721–1722
1724—1732
1732–1733
1735—1736
1737–1737
17:39–
——1740
1741–1747
1747–1750
1750–1750
1750–1754
1754–1759
1759–1765
1765–1765
1766–1768
1769–1775
1775—1779
1780–1785
1785–1788
17S8–1790
1790–1795
1795–1813
1813—1817
1817–1819
1819–1821
1821–1821
1822–1826
1826—1828
1828–1830
1830–1832
1832–1840
1840–1843
1843
1851
C.
C. Brandt.
F. T
Names. Remarks.
Riise.
androp.
A. Dietrichs.
A. Thamsen.
N. Bang.
F. Hoffman.
M. Walberg.
— Heldt.
S. Bjergboe.
R. Frik.
H. CEreboe.
R. Frik.
S. Baar,
J. Borch.
M. Salling.
M. Aalholin.
C. Rordam.
iſ. Ohm.
N. Gloersen.
M. Ohm. Minister in St. Croix, acting.
A. Kreidahl.
T. Lund. Missionary, acting.
Died, and Frik remained.
A. Volkersen.
F. Oxholm. From St. Croix, acting.
A. Volkersen. \
F. Oxholm. Acting.
Karmark.
J. Praetorius.
S. Outwied.
J. Prietorius.
From St. Croix, acting.
J. Bagger.
A. Brondsted.
J. Bagger.
F. Tolderlund.
W. Tidemand. Supply from St. Croix.
A PPEN ID | X. 263
E.
TRANSH, ATION,
Draft of a Colonial Law for the Danish |West India.
Possessions.
I.
§ 1. THERE shall be erected for the West India possessions, in the
manner described below (secs. 8-21) a Colonial Assembly, invested
partly with a legislative authority (secs. 2–3), partly with a deliberative
voice with regard to the exercise of the legislative power. (Secs. 4–5.)
§ 2. It pertains to the Colonial Assembly to cause the revision of all
municipal accounts, and the final decision relative to them rests likewise
with the Assembly. An extract of these accounts shall be published
by printing, and a copy of this extract transmitted to the governor, and
forwarded by him to the minister of finances.
§ 3. Legislative measures relating to municipal affairs (as far as not
treated of in the following paragraph), to the Road Department, the Pub-
lic Health, the Fire Department, and the exercise of the different trades,
may, on the motion of the governor, or of the Assembly, be passed by
the latter; but the Sanction of the governor is required to give such acts
the force of law, and it is incumbent on him, simultaneously with the
promulgation of such local laws to transmit copies of the same to the
ministry of finances, the King reserving to himself the right of repealing
such laws, if necessary.
§ 4. It pertains to the King, aſter having received the report of the
Colonial Assembly, to enact, on the responsibility of the respective minis-
ter, as prescribed by the fundamental law of the realm—
a, Ordinances, by which the general laws for Denmark are extended
to the colonies.
264 APPEN DIX,
.* 5, Special Ordinances, relating to schools and public instruction, the
relations between employers and laborers, masters and servants,
the executive police (as far as not treated of in sec. 3), the sup-
port of the poor and the militia.
The ordinances under letter a, may contain such modifications of the
laws in force in the mother country, as are ſounded in or adapted to the
local peculiarities of the colonies, but such modifications cannot affect the
principles of the laws. Laws thus modified are to be laid on the table
of the Diet at its next meeting. If no objections be made to them, or
those made be rejected, the ordinance remains in force.
§ 5. The legislative power, as far as it is not exercised in a different
manner, according to preceding paragraphs, is placed in the King and Diet
conjointly, but the Colonial Assembly reports on all subjects previously
to their final decision in the Diet. -
§ 6. Whenever the Colonial Assembly may deem a change in the laws
or institutions of the islands desirable, or whenever it may think to have
^ cause of complaint, on account of the manner in which the laws are ad-
ministered or the institutions managed, it is authorized to address the
governor, in writing, on such matters, or to transmit to this functionary
its representations to the King. But the Colonial Assembly ought never
to interfere in the petitions or complaints of private individuals, but these
ought to be referred to the King or the proper authorities.
§ 7. The governor issues in his name the necessary publications in
order to secure the execution of and compliance with the existing laws
and regulations—copies of Such government placards are to be trans-
mitted without delay to the ministry of finances, which is empowered to
repeal them. In cases which do not admit of delay, the governor is
authorized to issue provisional regulations relative to such matters, as
are adapted to proceedings in conformity with secs. 3, 4, and 5. Such
regulations are subsequently in the next meeting of the Colonial Assem-
bly to be proceeded with in the manner prescribed, and as far as they
require, to be laid before the Diet, this must be done in the first meeting
of the same, or in case the Colonial Assembly should not have finished
at that time its deliberations on the subject, in the second meeting of the
Diet after the publication of the regulation in question.
APPENDIX.
2
6
5
II.
§ 8. The Colonial Assembly consists of sixteen members, elected by
the people—viz.: eight for St. Croix, six for St. Thomas, and two for
St. John's, and of a number of members not exceeding four, appointed
by the King.
§ 9. The Island of St. Croix is divided into two elective districts,
formed by the border lines between the jurisdictions of Christiansted and
Fredericksted, and for either district four members are to be elected.
The two other Islands form each one elective district. The members
are elected for the term of six years.
§ 10. The franchise or right of voting is vested in every male of un-
blemished character who is a native of or has resided in the islands for ten
years, when he is twenty-five years old, and either has a yearly income
of $500, or out of his own means pays an annual amount of at least $5
in ground and building tax, or is a burgher, or holds an office in the
colonial service, He must, moreover, have resided a year within the
district in which he sojourns at the time the election takes place.
§ 11. Eligible as a member of the Colonial Assembly, is every person
who possesses the qualifications required for the exercise of the elective
franchise. But a person may be elected who has resided for a shorter
period than a year in the elective district, or whose settled place of
abode is not within the district.
§ 12. It is the duty of the sheriffs in the three towns and of the judge
of St. John’s to superintend—each in his district—the poll as director.
The governor causes a correct alphabetical list to be drawn up of all
persons in the elective district who are entitled to vote, with full infor-
mation with regard to their names, age, vocations and abodes.
§ 13. The list thus made out, is to be exhibited a fortnight in a pro-
per place for public examination, which is to be made publicly known
with at least eight days' notice. -
§ 14. Should the name of any person who does not possess the qualifi-
cations which entitle to vote, be found on the list, or any person unjustly
be omitted in the same, all concerned may give notice in writing of such
objections and claims to the Superintendent of the poll, and produce the
necessary evidence at least three days previous to the election; and the
236 • APPENDIX.
superintendent is obliged to summon not only the persons against
whom such objections have been presented, and to whom they shall hand
a copy of the notice relating to them, but also the persons by whom the
objections have been made.
§ 15. The day as well as the place of election is to be fixed by the
governor, and the elections ought to take place on the same day in all
districts. The superintendents of the poll have then, in the usual man-
ner, to give public notice at least four days previous to the same, of the
place in which the election is to be held, and of the day and hour when
it is to commence.
§ 16. Each superintendent employs two respectable persons, well
known in the district as assistants, and after having called their attention
to the importance of the trust committed them, allots to either his em-
ployment.
§ 17, The superintendent of the poll and his assistants are to meet at
the election on the day and hour appointed, and bring with them the lists
for the whole district, and the objections made to them if any such have
been made. ... •
The superintendent opens the poll and takes care that the elections
are proceeded with in the best possible order.
Previous to the commencement of the poll the superintendent has to
decide the objections made to the lists, and his decisions are to be entered
in the protocol of proceedings.
§ 18. Whereupon the elections are proceeded with in conformity with
the previous arrangements of the superintendent.
Every person who will exercise his right of voting, must meet in per-
son at the place where the election is to be held. When such person
steps forward for the purpose of voting, he names as many persons as
there are to be elected members for his district, (sec. 8) adding also
their full names, rank, vocations and abodes. The votes are to be regis-
tered in two protocols (books) of which either assistant of the superin-
tendent keeps one, so that in the one are entered the name of each voter,
and at the side thereof the names of the persons for whom he has voted,
but in the other the names of the persons elected, and under each name
those of the voters. The entries are to be read to the elector, to be
verified by him and compared with each other.
§ 19. When no more persons wish to partake in the elections, the
APPENDIX. 267
superintendent and their assistants add their own votes. After the close
of the poll the votes for each person elected are to be counted and the
result made known to the persons present. The persons that have re-
ceived the greatest number of votes are declared the representatives of
the district. In case that two or more persons have an equal number of
votes, the event is to be decided by drawing lots.
$ 20. These who have been elected are to receive notice in writing
of their election from the superintendent of the poll, and are at the same
time to be requested to declare if they accept the election. If any per-
son, sojourning at the time in the island, in which the election has taken
place, do not within eight days, or within the term fixed by the super-
intendent of the poll for each individual case, decline the election, such
person shall be cousidered as having accepted the same. If necessary,
a new election must take place, in confortnity with the rules pre-
scribed.
All persons elected receive, after having accepted, a paper (Valgbrev)
signed by the superintendent of the poll, for the purpose of proving their
election. Notice, in writing, is at the same time to be given in St.
Croix to the government, and in St. Thomas and St. John's to the com-
mander, who has to report the result to the government. The latter
will then proclaim the result of all the elections in the islands, and will
communicate to the Ministry of Finances the necessary information. -
§ 21. If any person should neglect to perform his duties, according to
secs, twelve and twenty, he shall be liable to pay a penalty of from $10
to $200, unless laws in force should subject him to a more severe punish-
linent.
§ 22. When the elections by the people are closed, the King deter-
mines if, and to what extent, he will avail himself of his right of appoint-
ment according to sec. eight.
III.
§ 23. The governor calls the Colonial Assembly together once every
year to an ordinary session of four weeks duration. He may also con-
vene the Assembly on special occasions, and the duration of such extra-
dinary sessions is to be determined by him. He is likewise authorised
26S AIPPEND LXI,
to adjourn the sittings of the Assembly for a definite period, not exceed-
ing three months, and has, moreover, power to dissolve the Assembly,
if necessary. In the last case a new Assembly is to be elected, and
called together within a year after the dissolution.
$ 24. The governor opens and closes the deliberations (proceedings)
of the Assembly. He may meet the Assembly either in person or by
proxy (deputed to act for him whenever he is prevented from being
present himself or in some particular business), and speak as often as
it may seem proper to himself or his proxy.
All correspondence between the government and the Assembly, is
carried on through the medium of the governor.
§ 25. The Colonial Assembly elects from among its own members a
chairman, vice-chairman, and secretary. The Assembly decides itself
the validity of the election of its members. All members are to take
the oath of allegiance, according to a form to be prescribed by the
governor. -
The members may, in the debates of the Assembly express them-
selves either in the Danish or English, but all writings must be in
Danish.
The sittings of the Assembly are not public; but an extract of the pro-
ceedings is, as soon as possible, after having been laid before the gover-
nor, to be published in print both in Danish and English.
For the rest the Colonial Assembly determines itself the rules of busi-
I} e SS.
IV.
§ 26. In case of a riot, the military force, unless assaulted, may only
interfere, when the multitude has been thrice summoned in vain, in the
name of the law and the King to disperse.
In cases of emergency, the governor may, on his own responsibility,
declare the islands either entirely or partially in a state of siege, and
exercises then the unlimited power resulting from such state, according
to generally received notions.
$ 27. The governor is appointed for a period not exceeding five
years, but his appointment may be renewed. He cannot without the
permission of the King contract matrimony in the islands, or own
landed property there.
AT2 PEND IX.
* F.
TABLES OF ROUTES FOR THE PACKETS OF THE ROYAL
MAIL STEAM PACKET COMPANY WITH PASSENGER
FARES FOR INTERCOLONIAL VOYAGES.
TABLE NO. 1. THE ATLANTIC AND CHAGRES ROUTE.
TWTIC E A . MONTH.
DATES. Distances
P.I.A.C.E.S. in
- - : Miles.
Arriva!. | Departure.
- 2 & 17, 6 p.m. From Southampton —
19 & 4, moon, 21 & 6, 5 a.m. To St. Thomas . ... 3622
24 & 9, 10 a.m. |24 & 9, 4 p. m. , Santa Martha 690
25 & 10, 4 a.m.;25 & 10, 10 a. m ; Carthagena ... 105
26 & 11, 5 p. m,28 & 13, 6 a. m. * Qhºgºs.ºs. º
29 & 14, 9 a.m. 3 & 18, moon , GREY TOWN. . 240
4 & 19, 3 p.m. || 1 & 26, 1 a.m , Chagres, . 240
12 & 27, 8 a. mº & 27, 4 p. m. » Carthagena . 280
16 & 1, 8 a. m. 18 & 3, 6 a. m. , St. Thomas . ... 793
4 & 19, midt. - s, Southampton. • 3622
|
- **- — 9874
TABLE NO. 2. THE JAMAICA AND MEXICAN ROUTE.
O N C E A MONTEI.
ID ATES. Distances
PLACES. in
- Miles.
Arrival. | Departure. lleS
- 20th, 6 a. m. From St. Thomas -
20th, 1 p.m. 20th, 3 p. m. To Porto Rico 65
23rd, 3 p.m. 24th, 6 a. m. » Jamaica 643
29th, 10 a. m. 29th, 6 p.m. , Vera Cruz . 1118
30th, 5 p. m. 4th, 7 a. m. , TAMPICO . 205
5th, 6 a. m. 8th 6 a. m. , Vera Cruz . 205
13th, 10 a. m. 13, 4 p. m. ,, Jamaica 111S
16th, 4. p. m. 16, 6 p.m. , Porto Rico | 643
17th, 1. a. m mº- ,, St. Thomas 65
- *- *s-, 4062




270
A PPENDIX,
TABLE No. 3. THE JAMAICA AND HAv ANA
ROUTE.
O N C E A NIO N TII.
DATES. T LACES. Diºce
Arrival. Departure. Miles.
— 5, 6 a. m. From St. Thomas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
5, 1 p.m. 5. 3 p. m. To l’orto Rico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
T, 10 a.m. 7, moon. » Jacmel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
8, 5 p. m. 9, 6 a. m. » Jamaica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
12, 4 p. m. 13, S a m ., Havana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15, 4 p. m. 19, 4 p. m. , HON DURAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
22, 4 a m. 2-4, S a. m. 3, 1ſavana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5i)()
27, 6 p. m. 2S, 1 p.m ... Jamaica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74()
29, 6 p. m. 29, 8 p. m ,, Jacmel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
1, 3 p. m. 1, 5 p. m. » Porto Rico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3SS
1, midt. , St. Thomas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ö5
|
- - *- 3S96
TABLE NO. 4. BARBADOES AND DEMERARA ROUTE.
TWICE A MONTH.
IX ATES. | IDistances
- i P}, A-CIES. in
Arrival. | Departure. Miles.
- 19 & 4, 6 p. m. | From St. Thomas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
20 & 5, 11 a.m. ; 29 & 5, 1 p.m. To St. Kitt's. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
20 & 5, 2 p. m. 20 & 5, 3 p. m. ,, Nevis. . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * 11
20 & 5, 7 p. m. 20 & 5, S p. m. , Montserrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
20 & 5, 11 p. m. 21 & 6, 1 a. m. , Antigua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
21 & 6, 9 a. m. 21 & 6, 10 a. m. ,, Guadaloupe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º 70
21 & 6, 3 p. m. 21 & 6, 4 p. m. , Dominique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
21 & 6, S p. m. 21 & 6. 10 p.m. , Martinique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
22 & 7, 3 a. m. 22 & 7, 4 a. m. , St. Lucia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
22 & 7, 3 p. m. 22 & 7, 7 p. m. , Farbadoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
24 & 9, 3 p. m. 27 & 12, 6 p. m). ,, T) is “ERA R.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
29 & 14, 2 p.m. ; 2) & 14, 6 p. m., , Barbadoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
30 & 15, 5 a. m. 30 & 15, 6 a. m. , St. Lucia. . . . . . . . 100
30 & 15, 11 a.m. 30 & 15, 1 p.m. , Martinique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3) & 15, 5 p.m. 3.} & 15, 6 p. In. , T) ominique. . . . . . . - - e º sº - - - e. e. 4.()
3) & 15, 11 p.m.; 30 & 15, niidt , Guadaloupe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1 & 16, 8 a. m. 1 & 16, 1 j a. m. » Antigua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7t)
1 & 16, 1 p. m 1 & 16, 2 p. m , Montserrat: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1 & 16, 6 p. m. 1 & 16, 7 p. In. . Nevis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1 & 16. 8 p.m. || 1 & 10, 10 p.m. St. Kitt's. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 & 17, 3 p. n.) - , St Thomas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151


A PPENDIX.
271
INTERCOLONIAL VOYAGES. WEST INDIES, ETC.
{ FARES IN SILVER DOLLARS.
PLACES.
Grenada. . . . . . . .
Jacmel . . . . . . . . . . .
Jamaica. . . . .
\lartinique. . . . .
Montserrat. .
Nassau. . . . . . .
Novis. .
• • • • • •
St. IKitt's. . . . .
Santa ）;
St. Thomas .
S. Vincent. . . . . . .
Veľa (） ruz. . . .
( atriacou . . . . . . . . . .
{ arthagena. . . . . . . . . . . .
Antigua · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Barbadoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* • • • •
Guadaloupe . . . . . . . .
Grey Town . . . . . . . . . . .
Iſtwana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ll onduras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
St. Juan’s, Porto l’ico...
St. Lucia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
artha. . . . . . . . . . .
Tampicoſ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i obago · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
i rinidad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • •
! httgreS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demmeral'8 . . . . . . . . . .
I)olminica. . . . . . . . . .
trì
º iš
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90|| $5, $5.15 125 1:30
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|...|| 25; 8; Șă 99,95
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s|ſſſſſſ...|| 89į sõ| 90
185|110,100|, , , 140,14ğ
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75! Sí) 711||1||5ķiſ4.()
§| 25' S, $5, 90|| 95
15, 25; 19| 75 Sí)| 85
S{}{ $5， 7}{110' 115.120
20; 301 15| 70, ſõ| S0
40 50| 35|| 70, 6ă| 70
20; 3)||1õ| 70, 75; 80
10| 20| 15| 90; 95.100
| 40′ . . . . .
| (;0, 65; 70
95 100'105
1 Sf) 105 115
100'105'11()
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175 100 110
Jacmel.
Jamaica.
Mart
| 40
| 55
| 55
| 75
| 85
75
| 55
| 45
100
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+}
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£ │% │£4
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3 l,5 l,91-5
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7 ()}}71)} (${j! Tij
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50, 70; 50, 25' 50
65, Sõ 65 40|| 65
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90,... | 60| 95,160|105195
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{{|5'... | 75110,175 120 120
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(3), (55|| 30|| 65; 85
žší ší| 45 ší čí
§ (3) 25, 25 125
15, 50| 15 | 251 15
S0, Sõ| 50, $5 1õŲ
20, 50; 12| 30,11ğ
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20' 50| 12| 3011õ
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30. 35 ... | 35 100
ſă î0|| 3ă!... 135
1õ0 155,120||155, . . .
25 75 4;); 25' 140
25 7õ| 40| 15 140
145 150 11õ150 | 12
85 120, 105 130.130
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Tables, to a d - ten vion of more than four
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THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
GRADUATE LIBRARY
DATE DUE
JAN 1 0 1977
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